^i-^ 


k... 


■Xj^  X 


AN 


INTRODUCTIO]^^ 


\A       

TO    THE  ■ 


CRITICAL   STUDY  AND  KNOWLEDGE 


OF    THE 


HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 


BY 

THOMAS  HARTWELL  HORNE,  B.D. 

OP  SAINT  John's  college,  Cambridge  ; 

RECTOR    of    the    UNITED    PARISHES    OF    SAINT    EDMUND    THE    KING    AND    MARTYR    AND    SAINT    NICHOLAS   ACONS, 

LOMBARD    street;    PREBENDARY    OF    SAINT    PAUL's. 


NEW  EDITION, 


FROM     THE     SEVENTH     LONDON     EDITION,     CORRECTED     AND     ENLARGED. 

ILLUSTRATED    WITH    NUMEKOUS    MAPS    AND    FAC-SIMILE8    OF    BIBLICAL    HANCSCBIFTS. 


VOLUME  II. 


PUBLISHED  BY  DESILVER,  THOMAS  &  CO.,  247  MARKET-ST. 


STEBEOTTFED     BT    L.    JOHZTBOIT. 

18  3  5. 


CONTENTS 


OF 


THE    SECOND   VOLUME. 


SUMMARY  OF  BIBLICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  ANTI- 
QUITIES. 


PART  I. 

A    SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTOniCAL    AND    PHYSICAL    OEOBRAPHY 
OF    THE    HOLY    LAND. 

Chapteu  1.  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land.        page 

I.  Names .        .        .        13, 14 

II.  Boundaries 14 

III.  Inhabitants  before  the  Conquest  of  Canaan  by  the 

Israelites 15 

IV.  Division  by  Joshua. — Allotments  of  the  Twelve 

Tribes  . 16,17 

V.  The  Kingdom  under  David  and  Solomon        .         .  17 

VI.  The  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  .        .  ih. 

VII.  Divisions  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ     ...  17,  18 
VIII.  Account  of  the  City  of  Jerusalem  : — 

1.  Names .  18, 19 

2.  Situation 19 

3.  Fortifications  and  Walls        .        .        .        .  19, 20 

4.  State  of  the  City  before  the  fatal  War  of  the 

Jews  with  the  Romans        ....  20 

5.  Romarkable  Buildings           ....  21 

6.  Notice  of  the  successive  Captures  of  the  City  ih. 

7.  Sketcli  of  its  i)resent  State    .         .         .         .  21,  22 
IX.  Later  Divisions  of  Palestine  : — 

1.  Under  the  Romans 22 

2.  In  the  Time  of  the  Crusades  .         .        .  ib. 

3.  Modern  Divisions  under  the  Turkish  Govern- 

ment      ib. 

Chapter  II.  Physical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land. 

Skction  I.   Climate,  Seasons,  and  Physical  Appear- 
ance of  the  Country. 


I.  Climate 

II.  Seasons 

1.  Seed-time 

2.  Winter  

3.  The  Cold  Season,  or  Winter  Solstice 

4.  Harvest 

.').  Suinmcr  ..... 


0.  The  Hot  Season. — ^Ileavy  Dews 

III.  Hi  vers,  l,akcs.  Wells,  and  Fountains. — Cisterns  and 

Pools  of  Solomon 

IV.  Mountains 
V.  Vallej»s 

VI.  Caverns    . 
VII.  Plains 
VIII.  Deserts      . 

Horrors  and  Dangers  of  Travelling  in  the  Great 
Desert  of  Arabia 

Section  II.   On  the  Fertility  and  Productions  of  the 
Holy  Land. 

I.  Fertility  of  the  Holy  Land 

II.  Its  Productions: — 

1.  Vegetables 

>   2.  Cattle 

3.  Mines 

III.  Testimonies  of  Ancient  and  Modem  Authors  to  its 

Fertility  and  Populousness  .... 

IV.  Calamities  with  which  thia  Country  was  visited  : — 

1.  The  Plague    ....... 

2.  Earthquakes 

3.  Whirlwinds    . 


23 

ib. 

ib. 
23,24 

24 

ib. 

ih. 
24,25 


2.5-29 

29-31 

31,32 

32 

33 

34 

34,35 


35 

35-37 
37 
ib. 

37,38 

38 
ib. 
ib. 


4.  The  Devastations  of  Locusts 

5.  Famine 

6.  The  Simoom,  or  Pestilential  Blast  of  the 

Desert 


PACK 

39 
40 

ib. 


PART  11. 

POLITICAL    ANTiauiTIF.S    OF    THE    JEWS. 

Chapter  I.  Different  Forms  of  Government,  and 
Political  State  of  the  Hebreivn,  or  Jews,  from  the 
Patriarchal  7'imes  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity. 

I.  Patriarchal  Government 40 

II.  Government  under  Moses, — a  Theocracy  ;  its  Na- 
ture and  Design  41 

1.  Heads,  or  Princes  of  Tribes  and  Families  41,  42 

2.  Jethronian  Prefects,  or  Judges  appointed  by 

Moses 42 

3.  The  Senate,  or  Council  of  Seventy  Assessors  ib. 

4.  Scribes  ib. 

III.  Government  of  the  Judges ib 

IV.  Regal  Government  instituted  ....        42, 43 

1.  Functions  and  Privileges  of  the  Kings         .  43,44 

2.  Inangurati(m  of  the  Kings      ....  44 

3.  Chief  Distinctions  of  Majesty       •         •        •  ib. 

4.  Scriptural  Allusions  to  the  Courts  of  Sove- 

reigns and  Princes  explained      .         .         .  45, 46 

V.  Revenues  of  the  Kings  of  Israel      ....  46 

VI.  Magistrates  under  the  Monarchy     .         .         .        .  46,  47 

VII.  Oflicers  of  the  Palace 47 

VIII.  The  Royal  Harem ib. 

IX.  Promulgation  of  Laws 47, 48 

X.  The  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  founded           .  48 
Schism  between  the  Twelve  Tribes  ;  its  latent 

Causes ib. 

XI.  Reasons   why    the   Kingdom  of  Judah   subsisted 

longer  than  that  of  Israel 49 

XII.  State  of  the  Hebrews  during  the  Babylonish  Cap- 
tivity                     .        .  49, 50 

Chapter  IT.  Political  State  of  the  Jews,  from  their 
Return  from  the  Babylonish  Captivity  to  the  Sub- 
version of  their  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  Polity. 

Section  I.  Political  State  of  the  Jews  under  the  Mac- 
cabees, and  the  Sovereigns  of  the  Herodian  Family. 

I.  Brief  Account  of  the  Maccabees      ....  50 

II.  Sovereigns  of  the  Herodian  Faniilv  : — 

1.  Herod  the  Great — St.  Matthew's  Narrative 

of  his  Murder  of  the  Infants  at  Bethlehem 
confirmed 50, 51 

2.  Archelaus 51 

3.  Herod  Antipas 52 

4.  Philip ib. 

5.  Herod  Agrippa ib 

6.  Agrippa,  Junior      ......  ib. 

1.  Bernice  and  Drusilla ib. 

Section  IT.  Political  State  of  the  Jews  under  the 
Roman  Procurators,  to  the  Subversion  of  their 
Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  Polity. 

I.  Powers  and  Functions  of  the  Roman  Procurators  .        52,  53 
II.  Political  and  Civil  State  of  the  Jews  under  their 

Administration 53 

III.  Account  of  Pontius  Pilate ib. 

IV.  And  of  the  Procurators,  Felix,  Festus,  and  Gessius 

Florus ...  ib 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Chapter  111.  Courts  of  Judicature,  Legal  Proceed- 
ings, and  Criminal  Law  of  the  Jews. 

Section  I.  Jewish  Courts  of  Judicature  and  Le^al 
Proceedings. 

I.  Seat  of  Justice 54 

II.  Inferior  Tribunals »*. 

III.  Appeals. — Constitution  of  the  Sanhedrin  or  Great 

Council 54,55 

IV.  Time   of   Trials.  —  Form   of   Legal    Proceedmgs 

among  the  Jews 55 

1.  Citation  of  the  Parties             ....  to. 

2,  3.  Form  of  Pleading  in  Civil  and  Criminal 

Cases 9" 

4.  Witnesses. — Oaths ip- 

5.  The  Lot,  in  what  Cases  used  judicially        .  ih. 

6.  Forms  of  Acquittal *^- 

7.  Summary  Justice  sometimes  clamorously  de- 

manded      .......  56, 57 

V.  Executions  of  Sentences,  by  whom  and  in  what 

manner  performed         .                 ....  57 

Section  IL  Of  the  Roman  Judicature,  Manner  of 
Trial,  Treatment  of  Prisoners,  and  other  Tribu' 
nals  mentioned  in  the  JVeiu  Testament. 

L  Judicial  Proceedings  of  the  Romans        .        .        .  57,58 

II.  Privileges  and  Treatment  of  Roman  Citizens  when 

Prisoners 58, 59 

III.  Appeals  to  the  Imperial  Tribunal    ....  59 

IV.  The   Roman  Method  of  fettering   and    confining 

Prisoners 59, 60 

V.  The  Roman  Tribunals 60 

VI.  Other  Tribunals   mentioned  in   the  New  Testa- 
ment : — 

1.  The  Areopagus  at  Athens     .        .        .        .  60,  61 

2.  The  Assembly  at  Ephesus     ....  61 

Section  TIL   On  the  Criminal  Laiv  of  the  .Tews. 

$  I.  Crimes  against  God  : — 

1.  Idolatry 61 

2.  Blasphemy 62 

3.  Falsely  prophesying ib. 

4.  Divination ib. 

5.  Perjury .         .  ib. 

II.  Crimes  against  Parents  and  Magistrates      •  ib. 

Ill    Crimks  against  Property  : — 

1.  Theft 62 

2.  Manstealing 63 

3.  The  Crime  of  denying  any  Thing  taken  in 

trust  or  found ib. 

4.  Regulations  concerning  Debtors   ...  ib. 
IV.  Crimes  against  the  Person: — 

1.  Murder 63 

2.  Homicide ib. 

3.  Corporeal  Injuries 63,  64 

4.  Crimes  of  Lust 64 

V.  Crimes  of  Malice ib. 

Section  IV.  On  the  Punishments  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures. 

Design  of  Punishments. — Classification  of  Jewish 

Punishments          .......  64 

I.  Punishments,  not  Capital: — 

1.  Scourging 64, 65 

2.  Retaliation .  65, 66 

3.  Restitution. — Pecuniary  Fines       ...  65 

4.  Offerings  in  the  Nature  of  Punishment        .  ib. 
6.  Imprisonment. — Oriental  Mode  of  treating 

Prisoners 65, 66 

6.  Banishment 66 

7.  Depriving  them  of  Sight        ....  ib. 

8.  Cutting  or  plucking  oJT  the  Hair          .        .  ib. 

9.  Excommunication ib. 

II.  Capital  Punishments: — 

1.  Slaying  with  the  Sword        ....  67 
Office  of  the  Goel ib. 

2.  Stoning ib. 

3.  Burning  to  Death 68 

4.  Decapitation ib. 

5.  Precipitation ib. 

6.  Drowning ib. 

7.  Bruising  in  a  Mortar ib. 

8.  Dichotomy,  or  Cutting  asunder     ...  ib. 

9.  Tu/t7Txviu-y.of,  or  Beating  to  Death  ...  ib. 

10.  Exposing  to  Wild  Beasts        ....  ib. 

11.  Crucifuion 69 


(1.)  Prevalence  of  this  Mode  of  Punish- 
ment among  the  Ancients 

(2.)  Ignominy  of  Crucifixion  . 

(3.)  Tlie  Circumstances  of  our  Saviour's 
Crucifixion  considered  and  illustrated 


PAGE 


69 

ib. 


70-72 


Chapter  IV.  On  the  Jewish  and  Roman  Modes  of 
computing  Time,  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures, 

I.  Days 72 

II.  Hours.— Watches  of  the  Night        .        .        .        .  72, 73 

III.  Weeks •  73 

IV.  Months 73,74 

V.  Year,  Civil,  Ecclesiastical,  and  Natural          .        .  74,  75 

Jewish  Calendar 75, 76 

VI.  Parts  of  Time  taken  for  the  Whole        ...  76,  77 

VII.  Remarkable  .^Eras  of  the  Jews        ....  77 

Chapter  V.  On  the  Tributes  and  Taxes  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures. 

I.  Annual  Payments  made  by  the  Jews  for  the  Sup- 
port of  Iheir  Sacred  Worship        ....  78 
II.  Tributes  paid  to  their  own  Sovereigns    ...  ib. 

III.  Tributes  and  Customs   paid   by  them  to  Foreign 

Powers. — Notice  of  the  Money-changers     .        .  ib. 

IV.  Account  of  the  Publicans  or  Tax-gatherers     .        .  78,  79 


Chapter  VI.   On  the  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  He- 
brews, and  Public  Memorials  of  E-uents. 

I.  On  the  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  Hebrews 
II.  Public  Memorials  of  Events   .  .        .        . 


79 
79,80 


Chapter  VII.  On  the  Treaties  or  Covenants,  Con- 
tracts, and  Oaths  of  the  Jews, 

I.  Whether  the  Jews  were  prohibited  from  conclud- 
ing Treaties  with  Heathen  Nations      ...  80 
II.  Treaties,  how  made  and  ratified      .        .        .         .        80,  81 
Covenant  of  Salt 81 

III.  Contracts  for  the  Sale  and  Cession  of  alienable 

Property,  how  made ib. 

IV.  OfOalhs 81,82 

Chapter  VIII.  Laws  respecting   Strangers,  Aged, 
Blind,  Deaf,  and  Poor  Persons. 

I.  Of  Strangers 82 

II.  Of  the  Aged,  Blind,  and  Deaf         ....  ib. 

111.  Of  the  Poor 83 


Chapter  IX.  Of  the  Military  .Affairs  of  the  Jews, 
and  other  Nations  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. 

Section  I.  On  the  Military  Discipline  of  the  Jews. 

I.  The  earliest  Wars,  predatory  Excursions 
IL  Character  of  the  Wars  of  the  Israelites  . 

Their  Levies,  how  raised 

Mosaic  Statutes  concerning  the  Israelitish  Soldiers 

III.  Divisions  and  Officers  of  the  Jewish  Army    . 

IV.  Encampments  ......'.. 

V.  Military  Schools  and  Training        .... 

VI.  Defensive  Arms 

VII.  Offensive  Arms 

VIII.  Fortifications 

IX.  Mode  of  declaring  War 

X.  Military  Tactics. — Order  of  Battle 

Treatment  of  the  Slain,  of  captured  Cities,  and  of 

Captives 90,91 

XI.  Triumphant  Reception  of  the  Conquerors       .        .  91 

XII.  Distribution  of  the  Spoil ib. 

'    Military  Honours  conferred  on  eminent  Warriors. — 

A  Military  Order  established  by  David       .       '.  92 

XIII.  Trophies ib. 

Section  II.  Allusions  in  the  JVew  Testament  to  the       , 
Military  Discipline  and  Triumphs  of  the  Romans. 

$  I.  Divisions  of  the  Roman  Army,  and  Roman  Mili- 
tary OfEcers,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament        92,  93 
II.  Allusions  to  the  Armour  of  the  Romans  .        .  93 

III.  Allusions  to  their  Military  Discipline. — Strict  Sub- 

ordination.-^—Rewards  of  the  Soldiers  who  dis- 
tinguished themselves 93, 94 

IV.  Allusions  to  the  Roman  Triumphs  .       .        .       94, 95 


CONTENTS. 


PART  III. 

SACREn    ANTiaUITIT.S    OF    TIIK    JEWS,  AND    OF    OTHER    NATION'S 
INCIDENTALLI    MENTIOXED    IN    THE    SCRIPTURES. 

PARK 

Chapter  I.  Of  Sacred  Places         ....  95 

Section  I,   Of  the  Tabernacle. 

I.  Diffpront  Tnhcninrles  in  use  among  the  Tsrnolilos 
II.  The  T:il)(>rriaclp  so  ciiUed  by  vviiy  of  eminence,  not 
of  Kfjj'piiiin  Ori(.^in. — iLs  Mnlerials 

III.  Form  and    Consiriiclion  of  tlie  Tabernacle. — Its 

Conlenis 

IV.  Its  Migrations ,        . 


9G 

ib. 

9G,97 
97 


Section  II.   Of  the  Temple. 

I.  Tlie  Temple  of  Solomon 

II.  Tlie  Si'coikI  Temple 

Its  various  Couris      ....... 

Reverence  of  the  Jews  for  it 

III.  Notice  of  the  Temples  at  Heliopolis  and  Gerizim 

Section  III.   On  the  I/ig-h  Places,  and Proseuchx  or 
Oratories  of  the  Jews. 

I.  On  the  Iliph  Places 

II.  On  the  Proseuchaj  or  Oratories  . 


Sf.ction  IV.   On  the  Synagogues. 

I.  Nature  and  Origin  of  Synagogues    . 

The  Synacogiie  of  the  Libertines  explained 
II.  Form  of  the  Synagogues  .... 

III.  The  Oiru'crs  or  Ministers 

IV.  The  Service  performed  in  the  Synagogues 
V.  Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Synagogues 

VI.  The  Sheinoneli  Ezreh,  or  Nineteen  Prayers  used 
in  the  Synagogue  Service    ..... 


98 

98,  99 

99, 100 

100,  101 

101 


101,  102 

102,  103 


103 

ih. 

104 

ih. 

104-106 

107 

106, 107 


Chapter  II.  Sacred  Persons, 

Section  I.  On  the  Jewish  Church  and  its  Members. 

I.  The  whole  Nation  accounted  holy          .        .        .  108 
II.  Members  of  the  Jewish  Church. — Hebrews  of  the 

Hebrews ih. 

III.  Proselytes 108,109 

IV.  Jews  of  the  Dispersion 109 

V.  Hellenists 110 

VI.  Libertines ih. 

VIl.  Devout  Men ib. 

VIII.  Circumcision 110,  111 

Section  II.    On  the  Ministers  of  the  Temple  and 
other  Ecclesiastical  or  Sacred  Persons. 

I.  Of  the  Levites 111,112 

II.  The    Priests,   their  Functions,  Maintenance,  and 

Privileges 112,  113 

III.  The  High-priest,  his  Functions,  Dress,  and  Pri- 

vileges   113,114 

Succession  to  the  Pontifical  Dignity        .        .        .  114,115 

IV.  Officers  of  the  Synagogue 115 

V.  The  Nazarites;  Nature  of  their  Vows     .        .        .  116 

VI.  The  Rochabites ih. 

VII.  The  Prophets ih. 


Chapter  III.  Sacred  Things, — On  the  Sacrifices  and 
other  Offerings  of  the  Jews, 


General  Classification  of  Sacrifices  and  Offerings  . 


Ori; 


I.  Bloodv   Offerings,   and    the   Divine 
Sacrifices 

1.  Different  Kinds  of  Victims     . 

2.  Selection  of  Victims 

3.  Manner  of  presenting  them 

4.  Immolation  of  the  Sacrifice  . 

5.  The  Place  and  Time  appointed  for 
>  filing 

6.  Different  Kinds  of  Fire  Sacrifices 

i.  Burnt-Offerings 
ii.  Peace-Offerings     .        .        . 
iii.  Sin-Offerings 
iv.  Trespass-Oiferings 


in  of 


Sacri 


ir 


116 

117 

ih. 

ih. 

ih. 

,118 

118 
ih. 
ib. 
ib. 
ih. 
ib. 


PAGE 

II.  National,  regular,  Weekly,  Monthly,  and  Annual 

Sacrifices 119 

III.  U.vnt.oooY  Offerings ib. 

IV.  Drink-Offcrings ib. 

V.  Other  Oblations  made  by  the  Jews. 

1.  Ordinary  Oblations: — 

(1.)  The  Show-Bread ih. 

(2.)  Incense t6. 

2.  Voluntary  Oblations — Korban         .        .  ib. 

3.  Prescrideo  Oblations  : — 

(1.)  First-Fruits 119,120 

(2.)  Tithes 120 

VI.  Fitness  and  Utility  of  the  Jewish  Sacrifices   .        .  120, 121 


Chapter  IV.  Sacred  Times  and  Seasons,  observed  by 
the  Jews. 


I.  The  Sabbath. 

1.  How  observed        ...... 

2.  Jewish  Worship  on  that  Day;  particularly 

their  Manner  of  worshipping  in  the  Temple 
II.  New  Moons     .... 


III.  Annual  Festivals. — Their  important  Design 

IV.  The  Passover  ;  when  celebrated,  and  with  what 

Ceremonies 
Its  Mystical  or  Typical  Reference 
V.  The  Day  of  Pentecost  . 
VI.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles    . 
Vll.  Other  Annual  Festivals,  viz. 

1.  The  Feast  of  Trumfets 

2.  The  Day  of  Expiation 
VIII.  Annual  Festivals  instituted  by  the  Jews  in  later 

times : — 

1.  The  Feast  of  Purim 

2.  The  Feast  of  Dedication     .... 
IX.  Other  Festivals  observed  at  stated  intervals : — 

1.  The  Sabbatical  Year         .... 

2.  The  Year  of  Jubilee    .  •        . 

Chapter  V.  Sacred  Obligations  and  Duties, 

Section  1.   Of  Vows. 

I.  Nature  of  Vows 

II.  Requisites  essential  to  the  Validity  of  a  Vow 
III.  Different  Sorts  of  Vows: — 

1.  The  Cherem  or  irremissible  Vow 

2.  Other  Vows  that  might  be  redeemed  :- 

i.  Vows  of  Dedication     . 
ii.  Vows  of  Self-Interdiction,  or  Absti 
nence. — Of  the  Nazareate 

Section  II.   On  the  Prayers  and  Fasts  of  the  Jews, 

I.  Various  Appellations  given  to  Prayers 
II.  Public  Prayers  .... 

III.  Private  Prayers. — Attitudes  of  the  Jews  during 

Prayer 

IV.  Forms  of  Prayer  in  use  among  the  Jews 
V.  Fasts  of  the  Jews  : — 

1.  Public  Fasts 

2.  Private  Fasts  .... 

3.  Solemnities  of  the  Jewish  Fasts    . 


121 

122 

ih. 

122, 123 

123-125 

125. 126 
126 

126. 127 

127 
ib. 


128 
ib. 

ib. 
128, 129 


129 
129, 130 

130 

ih. 

&. 


131 
td. 

131, 132 
132 

ib. 
ih. 
ih. 


Section  m.   On  the  Purijicationa  of  the  Jews, 

I.  Materials  with  which  the  Purifications  of  the  Jews 

were  performed 133 

II.  Ceremonies  of  Purification ib. 

III.  Of  the  Persons  lustrated ih, 

IV.  Account  of  the  different  Kinds  of  legal  Impurities, 

particularly 

1.  The  Leprosy  of  the  Person   ....  133,134 

2.  The  Leprosy  of  Clothes          ....  134 

3.  The  House-Leprosy ib. 

V.  Minor  legal  Impurities  and  their  Lustrations          .  ib. 

Chapter  VI.  On  the  Corruptions  of  Religion  by  the 
Jews, 

Section  I.  Ore  the  Idolatry  of  the  .Tews. 

I.  Origin  and  Progress  of  Pagan  Idolatry    .        .        .  135 
Sketch   of  its   History   and   Progress  among   the 

Israelites  and  Jews 135, 136 

II.  Idols  worshipped  by  the  Israelites  alone        .        .  136, 137 

III.  Idols  of  the  Ammonites,  worshipped  by  the  Israel- 

ites           137 


CONTENTS, 


IV.  Idols  of  the  Canaanites  or  Syrians  ... 

V.  Phoenician  Idols 

V[.  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Idols        .         .        .        . 

VII.  Idols  worshipped   in  Samaria  during  the  Captivity 

Hieroglyphic  Stones,  why  prohibited  to  the  Jews  . 

VIII.  Idols  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  mentioned  in  the 

New  Testament 

IX.  Allusions  in  the  Scriptures  to  the  Idolatrous  Wor- 
ship of  the  Heathen  Nations      .         .         .         . 
X.  Different  Kinds  of  Divination  .... 

Prevalence  of  Sorcery  and  Magic  .... 


PAGE 

137, 138 
138 
139 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

139-142 

142,  143 

143 


Section  II.  On  the  Slate  of  Religion  among  the 
Jews  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ. 

§  1.  Accowit  of  the  Jewish  Sects  metitioned  in  the 
J\rew  Testameiit. 

I.  The  Pharisees 144, 145 

II.  The  Sadducees 145, 146 

III.  The  Essenes 146 

IV.  The  Scribes ih. 

V.  The  Lawyers ih- 

VI.  The  Samaritans 147,  148 

VII.  The  Herodians 148 

VIII.  The  Galilseans ib. 

IX.  The  Zealots ib. 

X.  The  Sicarli ib. 

§  2.  On  the  extreme  Coi-ruption  of  the  Jewish  Peo- 
ple, both  in  Jieligio7i  and  Morals,  at  the  Time  of 
Christ's  Birth. 


General  Corruption  of  the  Leaders  of  the  Jewish 
Nation.— Of  their  Chief  Priests  and  other  Minis- 
ters of  Religion. — Its  deplorable  EHects  on  the 
People. — State  of  the  Jews  not  resident  in  Pales- 
tine          


148-150 


PART  IV. 

DOMESTIC  ANTiauiTIES  OF  THE  JEWS,  AND  OF  OTHEH  KATIONS 
INCIDENTALLY    MENTIONED    IN    THE    SCRIPTUKES. 

Chapter  1.  On  the  Dwellings  of  the  Jews. 


I.  Caves 

II.  Tents 

JH.  Houses — their  Arrangement — Materials  and  Con- 
veniences       

JV.  Furniture 

V.  Cities,  Markets,  and  Gates 


Chapter  II.  On  ihe  Dress  of  the  Jews, 


I.  Dress  in  the  early  Ages   .        .        .       '. 
II.  Tunic        . 

III.  Upper  Garment — Other  Articles  of  Apparel 

IV.  Coverings  for  the  Head. — Mode  of  dressing  the 

Hair 

V.  Sandals 

VI.  Seals,  or  Signets,  and  Rings     . 
VII.  Some  Articles  of  Female  Apparel  elucidated 

Complexion  of  the  Women       .         .         . 
VIII.  Rending  of  Garments,  a  Sign  of  Mourning 
JX.  Numerous  Changes  of  Apjiarel  deemed  a  neces 
sary  Part  of  their  Treasure   . 


150 
150,  151 

151-154 

154, 155 

155 


155. 156 
156 

ib. 

156. 157 
157 

ib. 

158, 159 

150 

ib. 

ib. 


Chapter  III.  Jewish  Customs  rekding  to  Marriage, 

I.  Marriage  accounted  a  Sacred  Obligation  by  the 

Jews 160 

II.  Polygamy  tolerated.— Condition  of  Concubines      .  ib. 

III.  Nuptial  Contract  and  Espousals      ....  160,  161 

IV.  Nuptial  Ceremonies 161,  162 

V.  Divorce 162, 163 


Chapter  IV.  Birth,  Nurture,  isfc.  of  Children, 

I.  Child-birth. — Circumcision. — Naming  of  the  Child 
if    Privileges  of  the  First-born 


163 

ib. 


PAGE 

IH.  Nurture  of  Children 163,164 

IV.  Power  of  the  Father  over  his  Children. — Disposi- 
tion of  his  Property       ....                 .  164 
V.  Adoption 164, 165 

Chapter  V.  On  the  Condition  of  Slaves  and  of  Ser' 
van/s,  and  the  Customs  relating  to  them,  mmtioned 
or  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament, 

I.  Slaves,  how  acquired 165 

II.  Their  Condition  among  the  Hebrews      .         .        .     165,  166 

HI.  And  among  other  Nations 166,  167 

IV.  Of  hired  Servants. — Customs  relating  to  them, 
and  to  Slaves,  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment        167 

V.  Different  Kinds  of  Slaves  or  Servants  mentioned 

in  the  Scriptures 167, 168 


Chapter  VI.  Domestic  Customs  a?id  Usages  of  the 
Jews, 

I.  Forms  of  Salutation  and  Politeness. — Reverence  to 

Superiors 168,  169 

II.  Mode  of  receiving  Guests  or  Visitors      .         .        .  169,  170 

HI.  Conversation  and  Bathing 170 

IV.  Food  and  Entertainments 171-173 

V.  Mode  of  Travelling          .......  173 

VI.  Hospitality,  a  Sacred  Duty  among  the  Jews  .        .  ib. 
Account  of  the  Tesserse  Hospi tales  of  the  Greeks 

and  Romans  ....                ...  173, 174 


Chapter  VII.   On  the  Occupations,  Literature,  Stu- 
dies, and  Sciences  of  the  Hebrews. 

Section  I.  Sural   and   Domestic   Economy    of  the 
Jews. 

I.  Management  of  Cattle  by  the  Jews. — Various 

Animals  reared  by  them 174-176 

II.  Laws  of  Moses  respecting  Agriculture       .        .  176 

III.  Manures  known  and  used  by  the  Jews  .         .         .     176, 177 

IV.  Their   Mode    of  Ploughing,    Sowing,   and    Reap- 

ing            177 

V.  Different  Ways  of  threshing  out  Corn      .         .         .  178 
VI.  Vineyards,  and  the  Culture  of  the  Vine  and  Olive- 
Gardens          178-180 

VII.  Allusions  in  the  Scriptures  to  the  Rural  and  Domes- 
tic Economy  of  the  Jews 180 


Section  II. 
or  Jews. 


On  tlie  Arts  cultivated  by  the  Hebrews 


I.  Origin  of  the  Arts. — State  of  them  from  the  Deluge 

to  the  Time  of  Moses 180,  181 

II.  State  of  the  Arts  from  the  Time  of  Moses  until  the 

Captivity 

HI.  State  of  the  Arts  after  the  Captivity 
IV.  Account  of  some    of  the   Arts   practised    by   the 
Jews: — 

1.  Writing:  Materials  used  for  this  Purpose 
Letters:  Form  of  Boobs      »'. 

2.  Engraving       .        .         . 

3.  Painting 
V.  Music  and  Musical  Instruments 

VI.  Dancing 


181 
ib. 


181-183 

183 

ib. 

ib. 

163, 184 

184 


Section  HI.    0?i  the  Literature  and  Sciences  of  the 
Hebrews. 

I.  Schools 

On  the  Schools  of  the  Prophets  in  particular  . 


II.  Appellations    given    to    the   Jewis 
Teachers        .         .        . 

III.  Their  Method  of  Teachin 

IV.  Studies  of  the  Jews: — 
1.  History    . 


2.  Poetry     . 

3.  Oratory  . 

4.  Ethics     . 

5.  Physics  . 

6.  Arithmetic 

7.  Mathematics  . 

8.  Astronomy 

9.  Astrology  , 

10.  Surveying 

11.  Mechanic  Arts 

12.  Geography 


ii    Doctors    or 


184 

184. 185 

•      185 

ib. 

185. 186 
196 

ib. 
ih. 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 
187 
ib 
ib 


CONTENTS. 


Section  IV.   On  the  Commerce  ami  JVaviffution  of 
the  Jlfbvews. 

I.  Commerce  of  the  Midianites,  Egyptians,  and  Pho; 
iiiciaiis 


187 
ib. 

187, 188 

188,  18'J 

18'J 


II.  Mode  of  transporting  Goods      .... 

III.  Conmiorce  of  the  Hebrews,  particularly  under  Solo 

mon  and  his  Successors         .... 

IV.  Notice  of  Ancient  Shipping      .... 
V.  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures 

C  H  A  PTE  R  V 1 11 .  J  mil  semen  ts  of  the  Jews. — Jlllusions 
tu  the  Theatres,  to  Theutricut  Perfdrmunces,  and  to 
the  Grecian  Games,  in  the  New  Testament. 


I.  Recreations  of  the  Jews  in  Domestic  Life       .        .  189 

II.  Military  Sports 190 

II.  Introduccion  of  Gymnastic  and  Theatrical  Exhibi- 
tions among  the  Jews ib. 

IV.  Allusions  to  the  Theatres  and  to  Theatrical  Per- 
formances in  the  New  Tcslament        .         .         .     190,  191 
V.  Allui-ioiis  to  the  (Jrecian  Games,  particularly  the 
Olympic  Games  : — 

1.  Qualilications  of  the  Candidates    .        .         .  192 
Preparatory  Discipline  to  which  they  were 

subjected ib. 

2.  Foot-Race ib. 

3.  Rewards  of  the  Victors  ....  ib. 

4.  Beautiful  Allusions  to  these  Games,  in  the 

New  Testament,  explained  .        .    192-194 

Chapter  IX.  Oii  the  Diseases  mentionedin  the  Scrip- 
tures, Treatment  of  the  Bead,  and  Funeral  Rites. 

Section  I.  On  the  Diseases  mentioned  in  the  Scrip' 
tures. 

I.  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Art  of  Medicine  in  the 

East 194,195 

II.  Notice  of  Remedies  in  use  among  the  Jews   .        .  195 
III.  Account  of  some  particular  Diseases  mentioned  in 
he  Scriptures,  viz. 

1.  The  Leprosy 195, 196 

2.  Elephantiasis,  the  Disease  of  Job          .        .  19G 

3.  Disease  of  the  Philistines       ....  ib. 

4.  Disease  of  King  Saul ib. 

5.  Disease  of  King  Jehoram      ....  ib. 

6.  Disease  of  King  Hezekiah     ....  ih. 

7.  Disease  of  Nebuchadnezzar          .        .         .  196,  197 

8.  Palsy 197 

9.  Issue  of  Blood ib. 

10.  Blindness ib. 

11.  Reality  of  Demoniacal  Possessions  proved  .  ib. 


Section  IL   Treatment  of  the  Dead. — Funeral  Rites. 

I.  Jewish  Notions  of  Death 

II.  Mosaic  Laws  relating  to  the  Dead  .         .         .         . 

III.  Preparations  for  Interment 

JV.  Riles  of  Sepulture. — Lamentations  for  the  Dead    . 

V.  Notice  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Jews     .... 

Monumental  Inscriptions 

VI.  Funeral  Feasts — Duration  of  Mourning 


198 

ib. 

198, 199 

199,  200 

200,  201 
202 

ib. 


ON    THE    ANALYSIS    OF    SCRIPTURE. 

PART  V. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

Chapter  I.   On   the  Pentateuch,  or  Five  Books   of 
Moses. 

Section  I.  General  Observations  on  the  Pentateuch. 

I.  Title. — II.  Argument  of  the  Pentateuch. — III.  No- 
tice of  other  Writings  ascribed  to  Moses    .        .        .  203 

Section  IL   On  the  Book  of  Genesis. 

I.  Title.— II.  Author  and  Date.— III.  GeneraL  Argu- 
ment.— IV.  Scope. — V.  Types  of  the  Messiah.— 
VI.  Synopsis. — VII.  Literal  Sense  of  the  first  three 
Chapters  of  Genesis  vindicated 203-206 


Section  III.   On  the  Book  of  Exodus. 

I.  Title. — II.  Author  and  Date. — III.  Occasion  and 
Subject-matter. — IV.  Scope. — V.  Types  of  the  Mes- 
siah.— VI.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VII.  Remarks 
on  the  Plagues  indicted  u|)on  the  Egyptians      .         .     206,  207 

Sectio.v  IV.   On  the  Book  of  Leviticus. 

I.  Title,  Author,  and  Date. — II.  Scope. — 111.  Synopsis 
of  its  Contents .        .    207, 208 

Section  V.  On  the  Book  of  J^umbers. 

I.  Title,  Author,  Date,  and  Argument. — II.  Scope. — 
III.  Types  of  the  Messiah. — IV.  Prediction  of  the 
Messiah. — V.  Chronology. — VI.  Synofisis  of  its  Con- 
tents.— VII.  Observations  on  the  Book  of  the  Wars 
of  the  Lord,  mentioned  in  Numbers  xxi.  14.      .        .    208-210 

Sectioit  VI.  071  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy. 

1.  Title,  Date,  and  Chronology.— II.  Scope.— III.  Pre- 
diction of  the  Messiah. — Iv.  Synopsis  of  its  Con- 
tents.—V.  Observations 210-212 

Table  or  Harmony  of  the  entire  Jewish  Law       .        .     212,  213 

Chapter  IL  On  the  Historical  Books. 

Section  I.  General  Observations  on  the  Historical 

Books 213,214 

Section  II,   Ore  the  Book  of  Joshua. 

I.  Author  and  Genuineness  of  this  Book. — H.  Argu- 
ment.— III.  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — 
V.  Observations  on  the  Book  of  Jasher,  mentioned  in 
Josh.  X.  13 214-216 

Section  III.   Ore  the  Book  of  Judges. 

I.  Title. — II.  Date  and  Author. — III.  Scope,  Chrono- 
logy, and  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — IV.  Observations 
on  some  difficult  Passages  in  this  Book      .        .        .    216,  217 

Section  IV.  On  the  Book  of  Rtcth. 

I.  Title  and  Argument. — ^11.  Chronology. — III.  Author. 
— IV.  Scope. — V.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents        .        .  218 

Section  V.   On  the  Two  Books  of  Samuel. 

I.  Title. — II.  Authors. — III.  Argument,  Scope,  and  Ana- 
lysis of  the  First  Book  of  Samuel. — IV.  Argument, 
Scope,  and  Analysis  of  the  Second  Book  of  Samuel. 
— V.  General  Observations  on  these  two  Books        .     218-220 

Sectiox  VI.   Ore  the  Two  Books  of  Kings. 

I.  Order  and  Title  of  these  Books. — II.  Author. — 
III.  Argument  and  Synopsis  of  the  First  Book  of 
Kings. — IV.  Argument  and  Synopsis  of  the  Second 
Book  of  Kings. — V.  General  Observations  on  these 
Boolis 220-222 

Section  VII.  On  the  Books  of  Chronicles. 

I.  Title. — ^11.  Author  and  Date. — III.  Scope  and  Analy- 
sis of  the  two  Books  of  Chronicles. — IV.  Observations 
on  them        .  . 222-224 

Section  VIII.   Ore  the  Book  of  Ezra. 

I.  Title  and  Author. — II.  Argument,  Scope,  and  Sjmop- 
sis  of  its  Contents. — III.  Observations  on  a  spurious 

ascribed  to  Ezra 224, 225 


Section  IX.   Ore  the  Book  ofJ\'ehemiah. 

I.  Title  and  Author. — II.  Argument  and  Synopsis  of 
its  Contents 225 

Section  X.   On  the  Book  of  Esther. 

I.  Title.    II.  Author. — III.  Argument. — IV.  Synopsis 
of  its  ('ontents 225, 226 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  III.  On  the  Poetical  Books. 

Section  I.   On  the  Book  of  Job. 

I.  Title  of  the  Book. — II.  Reality  of  Job's  Person. — 
III.  Age  in  which  he  lived. — IV.  Scene  of  the 
Poem  of  Job. — V.  Author  and  Canonical  Authority. 
— VI.  Structure  of  the  Poem. — VII.  Argument  and 
Scope. — VIII.  Spurious  Addition  to  this  Book  in  the 
Septuagint  Version. — IX.  Rules  for  studying  this 
Book  lo  advantage. — X.  Synopsis. — XI.  Idea  of  the 
Patriarchal  Theology,  as  contained  in  the  Book  of 
Job       .        . 227-237 

Section  II.  On  the  Book  of  Psalms. 

I.  General  Title  of  this  Book.— II.  Structure  of  the 
Psalms.— III.  Their  Canonical  Authority.— IV.  Au- 
thors to  whom  they  are  ascribed  : — 1.  Moses. — 
2.  David.— 3.  Asaph. — 4.  The  Sons  of  Korah.— 5.  Je- 
duthun.  — 6.  Heman  and  Ethan.  — 7.  Solomon.— 
8.  Anonymous  Psalms. — V.  Chronological  Arrange- 
ment of  the  Psalms  by  Calmet. — VI.  Collection  of 
of  the  Psalms  into  a  Volume. — VII.  The  Inscriptions 
or  Titles  prefixed  to  the  different  Psalms. — VIII.  Pro- 
bable meaning  of  the  Word  Selah. — IX.  Scope  of  the 
Book  of  Psalms. — X.  Rules  ibr  better  understanding 
them. — XI.  A  Table  of  the  Psalms,  classed  according 
to  their  several  Subjects 237-245 

Sectiou  ni.  On  the  Book  of  Proverbs. 

I.  Title,  Author,  and  Canonical  Authority. — II.  Scope. 
— III.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — IV.  Observations  on 
its  Style 245-247 

Section  IV.   On  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes. 

I.  Title,  Author,  and  Canonical  Authority. — II.  Scope 

and  Synopsis. — III.  Observations        ....    247-249 

Section  V.  On  the  Song  of  Solomon. 

I.  Author. — II.  Canonical  Authority. — III.  Structure  of 
the  Poem — its  Subject  and  Scope — the  Song  of  Solo- 
mon, a  sublime  mystical  Allegory      ....    249-253 

Chapter  IV.  On  the  Prophets, 

Section  I.   General  Observations   on  the  Prophets 
and  their  Writings. 

I.  The  Prophetical  Books,  why  so  called. — II.  Different 
Kinds  of  Prophets  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. — 
III.  Situation  of  the  Prophets,  and  their  Manner  of 
Living. — IV.  Mosaic  Statutes  concerning  Prophets. — 
Evidences  of  a  Divine  Mission. — V.  Qualifications 
of  the  Prophets. — VI.  Nature  of  the  Prophetic  Inspi- 
ration.— VII.  Antiquity  and  Succession  of  the  Pro- 
phets.— VIII.  Collection  of  their  Writings,  and  Mode 
of  announcing  their  Predictions. — IX.  Number  and 
Order  of  the  Prophetic  Books 253-259 

Section  II.   Of  the  Prophets  -who  flourished  before 
the  Babylonian  Captivity. 

§  1.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jonah, 

I.  Title  and  Author. — II.  Occasion  of  the  Prophecy  of 
Jonah. — III.  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents  259 

§  2.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jlmos. 

'  I.  Author. — II.  Occasion  of  his  Prophecy. — III.  Its 
Scope. — IV.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents.— V.  Observa- 
tions on  its  Style         .        .        ^       .  '     .        .        ,    259, 260 

§  3.   071  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Hosea. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Occasion  and  Scope  of  the 
Propliecy. — III.  Synopsis  of  its  Conlenis. — IV.  Ob- 
servation on  its  Style      ' 260-2G2 

§  4.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah. 

1.  Author  and  Date.— II.  Genuineness  of  his  Predic- 
tions.—III.  Scope.— IV.  Analysis  of  the  Contents  of 
this  Book — V.  Observations  on  its  Style  .        .        .    262-269 


§  5.   071  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Joel. 

I.  Author  and  Date.  —  II.  Occasion  and  Scope. — 
III.  Analysis  of  the  Book. — IV.  Observations  on  its 
Style 270 

§  6.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  JMicah. 

1.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Occasion  and  Scope. — III.  Sy- 
nopsis of  its  Contents. — IV.  Prophecies  concerning 
the  Messiah. — V.  Observations  on  its  Style       .        .    270, 271 

§  7.    On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  JVahtim. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Scope  and  Synopsis  of  its 

Contents. — III.  Observations  on  its  Style  .        .        .  271 

§  8.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Zephaniah. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Scope  and  Analysis  of  this 
Book     ....  272 


Section  HI.   Of  the  Prophets  loho  flourished  near  to 
and  during  the  Babylonian  Captivity. 

§  1.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Occasion  of  his  Prophecies. — 
Different  Collections  of  them. — III.  Synopsis  of  their 
Contents. — IV.  Prophecies  concerning  the  Messiah. 
—V.  Observations  on  their  Style 272-276 

§  2.  On  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah. 

I.  Author,  Date,  and  Argument  of  the  Book. — II.  Sy- 
nopsis of  its  Contents. — III.  Observations  on  its  Style 
and  Structure 276, 277 

§  3.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Habakkuk. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Analysis  of  his  Prophecy. — 
III.  Observations  on  his  Style 


277 


§  4.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Daniel. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Analysis  of  its  Contents. — 
III.  Observations  on  its  Canonical  Authority  and 
Style. — IV.  Account  of  the  spurious  Additions  made 
toit      .        .        .  277-282 

§  5.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Obadiah. 
I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents        .    282,  283 

§  6.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Canonical  Authority  of  the 
Prophecies  of  Ezekiel. — III.  Their  Scope. — IV.  Ana- 
lysis of  them. — V.  Observations  on  the  Style  of  Eze- 
kiel               283-287 

Section  IV.   Of  the  Prophets  -who  fourished  after 
the  Return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon. 

§  I.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Haggai. 

I.  Author  and  Date.  —  II.  Argument  and  Scope. — 
III.  Analysis  of  its  Contents. — IV.  Observations  on 
its  Style 287 

§  2.   Ore  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Zechariah. 

I.  Author  and   Date. — II.  Analysis  of  its  Contents. — 

III.  Observations   on   its   Style. — IV.  The   last  six 
Chapters  proved  to  be  genuine 287, 288 

§  3.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Malachi.  \ 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Occasion  and  Scope  of  this 

Prophecy.— III.  Analysis  of  its  Contents.— IV.  Style     288,289 

Chapter  V.  Un  the  Apocrypha. 

■  I.  Account  of  the  "First  Book  of  Esdras. — II.  Of  the 
Second  Book  of  Esdras.— III.  Of  the  Book  of  Tobit.— 

IV.  Of  the  Book  of  Judith.— V.  Of  the  rest  of  the 


CONTENTS. 


9 


Chapters  of  Esther. — VI.  Of  the  Book  of  Wisdom. — 
VII.  0(ilicBo<)kofKf(lesiasti(-iis.— VIII.  Of  Uiirufh. 
—IX.  Of  lii.'Soiigof  tlioTlirccCliildron.— X.  Ofllio 
Jlistory  of  .Susanna. — XI.  Of  Bel  and  the  Dragon. — 
XII.  Of  the  Prayer  of  Manasscs. — XIII.  Of  the  Books 
of  Maccabees .        . 


28i»-2'J3 


PART  VI. 


AN.VLYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


(1!haptiou  I.  On  the  Clussification  of  the  Books  of  the 


^tu)  Teslumcat 


.  293, 29 1 


Chaptkr  II.  On  the  Historical  Boohs  of  the  New 
tuintnl. 

Sectiox  I.   On  the  JVame  and  JVnmber  of  the  Cano- 
iiical  Gospels, 

I.  01)servations  on  the  General  Appellation  of  Gospkl, 
as  applied  to  the  Histories  of  Jesus  Christ. — II.  (Gene- 
ral Scope  of  the  Gospels. — III.  Their  Number. — 
IV.  Importance  of  the  Gospels 294,295 

Section  II.   On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Matthew. 

I.  Author. — II.  Date. — III.  In  what  Language  written. 
— IV.  Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  Saint  Mat- 
thew's Gospel  ia  general. — V.  The  Authenticity  of 
the  first  two  Chapters  examined  and  substantiated. — 

VI.  Scope  of  this  Gospel. — VII.  Synopsis  of  its  Con- 
tents— VIII.  Observations  on  its  Style       .        .        ,    295-304 

Section  III.   On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Mark. 

I.  Title. — II.  Author. — III.  Genuineness  and  Authenti- 
city of  this  Gospel. — IV^  Probable  Date.^-V.  Occa- 
sion and  Scope. — VI.  In  what  Language  written. — 

VII.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VIII.  Examination 
of  the  Question,  whether  Mark  transcribed  or  abridg- 
ed tiie  Gospel  of  Matthew. — IX.  Observations  on  his 

Style 304-307 

Section  IV.   On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Lnke, 

I.  Title.— II.  Author.— IIL  General  Proofs  of  the  Genu- 
ineness  and  Authenticity  of  this  Gospel. — I.  Vindica- 
tion of  its  Genuineness  from  the  Objections  of  Mi- 
chaelis  in  particular. — 2.  Getiuinencss  of  llie  first  two 
Chapters,  and  of  Chapters  viii.  27 — 39.  and  xxii.  43, 
44. — \\.  Dale,  and  where  written. — V^  For  whom 
vvriilen. — ;VI.  Occa.sion  and  Scope  of  this  Gospel. — 
VII.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — \'III.  Observations 
on  this  Gospel 307-313 

Skctiox  V.   On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  John. 

I.  Title. — II.  .\uihor. — III.  Dale. — IV.  Genuineness  and 
Aullicnticily  of"  this  Gospel,  parlicnlarly  of  Chapter 
XXI.  and  Chapter  VII.  53.  and  VIII.  1— II.— V.  Its 
Occasion  and  Design. — Account  of  the  Tenets  of 
Cerinlhiis. — .\ualysis  of  its  Contents. — VI.  The  Gos- 
pel of  Joiin  a  Supplement  to  the  other  Three. — 
VII.  Observations  on  its  Style 313-318 

Skctiox  VI.    On  the  ^icts  of  the  .ipostles, 

I.  Title. — II.  .Author. — III.  Genuineness  and  Atilhen- 
ticity — IV.  Scope. — V.  Chronology. — VI.  Analysis 
of  ttie  Contents  of  this  Book. — VII.  Observations  on 
its  Style. — V'lII.  On  the  Importance  of  this  Book,  as 
an  Evidence  for  the  Truth  of  Christianity         .         .     318-321 


Chapter  III.  On  the  Epistolary  or  Doctrinal  IVrit- 
inij^.i  if  the  New  Testament,  particularly  those  of 
Saint  Paul. 

Section  I.  .Account  of  the  .apostle  Paul. 

I.  The  Birih  and  Education  of  Paul — his  persecution 
of"  the  Disciples  of  Christ — and  his  Conversion. — Ob- 
servations ujjon  il. — II.  His  subsequent  Travels  and 
Labours,  to  his  second  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — III.  Ilis 

Vol.  II.  B 


third  Visit  to  Jerusalem,  and  subsequent  Labours,  to 
his  fourth  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — IV.  His  Journeys  and 
Lalxnirs,  to  his  fifth  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — V.  To  his 
first  Imprisonment  at  Rome. — VI.  His  subsequent 
Journeys,  second  Imprisonment,  and  Martyrdom. — 
VII.  Character  of  Paul. — VIIL  Observations  on  the 
Style  of  liis  Writings 321-329 

Section  II.   Observatiotis  on  the  Apostolical  Epistles 
in  general,  and  those  of  Saint  Paul  in  particular. 

I.  Importance  of  the  Epistles. — Nature  of  these  Writ- 
ings.— II.  Numl)orand  Order  of  the  Epistles,  particu- 
larly those  of  Paul. — III.  Of  the  Catholic  Epistles, 
and  their  Order. — IV.  General  Plan  of  the  Afxjstolic 
Epistles. — V.  Causes  of  their  obscurity  considered 
and  exi)lained. — Observations  on  the  Phraseology  of 
Paul  in  particular 329-331 

Section  III.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

I.  Date,  and  where  written. — II.  Genuineness  and  Au- 
thenticity of  this  Epistle. — III.  The  Church  at  liome, 
when  and  by  whom  founded. — IV.  Occasion  and 
Scope. — V.  Internal  State  of  the  Church  at  Rome. — 
VI.  Scope. — VII.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VIII.  Ob- 
servations on  tliis  Epistle 331-334 

Section  IV.  On  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 

I.  State  of  the  Corinthian  Church. — II.  Occasion  of  this 
Epistle. — III.  Its  Scope  and  Analysis. — IV.  Date  and 
Genuineness. — V.  Examination  of  the  Question,  how 
many  Epistles  Paul  wrote  to  the  Corinthians    .        .    334, 335 

Section  V.   On  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 

I.  Date,  and  where  written. — II.  Occasion  of  this  Epis- 
tle.— III.  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis. — V.  Observations  on 
this  Epistle. — VI.  A  supposed  Chronological  Diffi- 
culty elucidated 335-337 

Section  VI.   On  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 

I.  Noticeof  the  Christian  Church  in  Galatia. — II.  Date. 
— III.  Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  this  Epistle. 
— IV.  Its  Occasion  and  Scope. — V.  Synopsis  of  its 
Contents. — VI.  Observations  on  this  Epistle      .        .     337   338 

Section   VII.   On  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians. 

I.  Account  of  the  Church  at  Ephesus. — II.  Genuine- 
ness and  Authenticity  of  this  Epistle,  which  was  ad- 
dressed to  the  Ephesians,  and  not  lo  the  Church  at 
Laodicea. — HI.  Date. — IV.  Occasion  and  Scope. — 
V.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VI.  Observations  on  its 
Style 338.339 

Section   VIIL   On  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians. 

I.  Account  of  the  Church  at  Philippi. — II.  Date.— 
HI.  Occasion. — IV.  Scope  and  Synopsis  of  its  Con- 
tents      


Section  IX.   On  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians, 

I.  Account   of  the   Church   at   Colossae. — II.  Date. — 
HI.  Occasion  of  this  Epistle. — IV.  Scope  and  Analy- 


340 


340,  341 


Section  X.   On  the  First  Epistle   to  the  Thessalo- 
7iians. 

I.  Account  of  the  Christian  Church  there. — II.  Genu- 
ineness of  this  Epistle. — HI.  Its  Occasion  and  Scope. 
— IV.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents   .  ...    341,  342 

Section  XL    On  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessa- 
lo nians. 

I.  Date,  Occasion,  and  Scope  of  this  Epistle. — II.  Ana- 
lysis of  its  Contents. —  HI.  Observations  on  this 
Lpistle 342 

Section  XII.   On  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy. 

I.  Account  of  Timothy. — H.  Date  of  this  Epistle. — 
HI.  Genuinene-ss  ana  Authenticity  of  the  Two  Epis- 
tles to  Timothy. — IV.  Scope  and  Synopsis  of  the  First 


10 


CONTENTS. 


343-345 


345, 34G 


346.  347 


347-349 


Epistle. — V.  Observations  on  the  Use  which  the 
Churc;h  is  to  make,  in  every  Age,  of  Paul's  Epistles 
to  Timothy  and  Tilus 

Section  XIII.    On  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy. 

I.  Dale.— II.  Of  the  Place  where  Timothy  was,  wlien 
Saini  Paul  wrote  tliis  Kpistle  to  iiim.— III.  Its  Scope. 
— IV.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — V.  Observations  on 
this  Epistle • 

Section  XIV.  On  the  Epistle  to  Tims. 

Account  of  Titus.— 11.  Christianity,  when  planted 
in  Crete.— III.  Dale.— IV.  Scope  and  Analysis  of  this 
Epistle. — V.  Observations  on  it 

Section  XV.   On  the  Epistle  to  Philemon. 

I.  Account  of  Piiilcmon.— 11.  Dale.— III.  Genuineness 
and  Authenticity. — IV.  Occasion  and  Scope  of  this 
Epistle. — V.  Observations  on  it 

Section  XVI.   On  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

I.  To  whom  written. — II.  In  what  Language. — III.  Its 
Genuineness  and  Authenticity. — Proofs  that  it  was 
written  by  Saint  Paul.—IV.  Its  Dale.— V.  Occasion 
and  Scope  of  (his  Epistle. — VI.  Synopsis  of  its  Con- 
tents      •    349-357 

Ch,\.pter  IV.  On  the  Catholic  Epistles. 

Section  I.   On  the  Geniiineiiess  and  AiUhenticity  of 
the  Catholic  Epistles. 

1.  Origin  of  the  Appellation,  Catholic  Epistles. — II.  Its 
Antiquity. — Observation.s  on  their  Authenticity. — 
III.  On  the  Order  in  which  they  are  usually  placed  358 

Section  II.   On  the  General  Epistle  of  James. 

I.  Accountof  the -Author  of  this  Epislle. — II.  lis  Genu- 
ineness and  Aulhenlicity. — III.  To  whom  addressed. 
— IV.  Its  Scope. — V.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — 
VI.  Observalioiis  on  this  Epistle         ....     358-360 

Section  III.   On  the  First  General  Epistle  of  Peter. 

I.  Account  of  the  Apostle  Peter. — II.  Genuineness  and 
Canonical  Authority  of  this  Epistle. — III.  To  whom 
written. — IV.  Of  the  Place  whence  it  was  sent. — 
Date. — V.  Its  Design  and  Conienls. — VI.  Observa- 
tions on  the  Style  of  Saint  Peter's  two  Epistles        .    360-362 

Section  IV.  On  the  Second-General  Epistle  of  Peter. 

I.  Its  Genuineness  and  Canonical  Authority. — II.  Date. 
— III.  Scope  and  Synopsis  of  its  Contents  .         .     302-364 

Section  V.   On  the  First  General  Epistle  of  John. 

I.  Genuineness  and  Canonical  Authority. — II.  Date. — 
III.  Of  tlie  Persons  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  written. 
— IV.  Its  Occasion  and  Scope. — .\ccount  of  the  false 
Teacher  whose  Principles  are  refuted  by  the  Apostle. 
— V.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VI.  The  Question 
coneerniug  the  Aulhenlicily  of  the  disputed  Clause 
in,l  John  v.  7, 8.  considered        .        .  364-376 


Section  VI.   On  the  Second  and  Third  Epistles  of 
John, 

I.  Genuineness,  Aulhenlicily,  and  Dale  of  these  F^pis- 
tles. — II.  The  Second  Epistle,  to  whom  addressed. — 
III.  Its  Scope. — IV.  The  Third  E|)isile,  to  wliom  ad- 
dressed.— V.  Its  Scope. — VI.  Observations  on  this 
Epistle 376,377 

Section  VII.   On  the  General  Epistle  of  Jnde, 

I.  Account  of  the  Author. — II.  Genuineness  and  Au- 
thenticity.— III.  Dale. — IV.  Of  the  Persons  to  whom 
this  Epistle  was  addressed. — V.  Its  Occasion  and 
Scope. — VI.  Observations  on  its  Style        .        .        .    377,  378 

Chapter  V.  On  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John  the 
Divine. 

I.  The  Genuineness  of  this  Book  shown,  1.  From  Ex- 
ternal Evidence;  2.  From  Internal  Characters. — 
II.  Its  Date. — III.  Occasion  and  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis 
of  its  Contents. — V.  Observations  on  this  Book         .    378-383 


APPENDIXES. 

1.  On  the  Sources  of  the  first  three  Gos- 
pels. 

I.  Different  Hypotheses  stated. — II.  Examination  of  the 
Hypothesis,  that  the  Evangelists  abridged  or  copied 
from  each  other. — III.  Examination  of  the  Hypothe- 
sis, that  the  Evangelists  derived  their  Information 
from  a  primary  Greek  or  Hebrew  Document. — 
IV.  Examination  of  the  Hypothesis,  that  they  con- 
sulted several  Documents. — V.  And  of  the  Hypothe- 
sis, that  Oral  Tradition  was  the  Source  of  the  first 
three  Gospels. — VI.  That  the  only  Document  con- 
sulted by  the  first  th;ee  Evangelists  was  the  Preach- 
ing of  our  Saviour  himself 


385-393 


II.  Tables  of  Weights,  Measures,  and  Money, 

]MENTIO,NED    IN    THE    BlBLE  ....  394 

III.  A  Chronological  Table  of  the  Principal 

Events  recorded  in  the  Bible  .         .         .  395-399 


IV. 


Bibliographical  Appendix,  containing  a 
Concise  Account  of  the  Principal  Editions 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  of  the  Princi- 
pal Philologers,  Critics,  and  Commenta- 
tors who  have  elucidated  the  Te.kt,  His- 
tory, and  Antiquities  of  the  Bibl.e  .         .      1-165 


INDEXES. 

I.  An  Historical,  Biographical,  and  Geogra- 
phical Index  of  the  Principal  Nations, 
Persons,  and  Places,  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures -         .  401-456 

II.  Index  of  the  Symbolical  Language  of  Scrip- 
ture  457-4G6 

III.  General  Index  of  Matters         .         .         .  4G7-476 

IV.  Index  of  the  Principal  Texts  Illustrated  477-489 
V.  Index  to  the  Bibliographical  Appendix    •  167-179 


A  TABLE 


TllI^]  ORDER  AND  DATES 


BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT- 


OF    THE    PLACES    WHERE    THEY    ARE    SUPPOSED    TO    HAVE    BEEl5^    WRITTEN  ;    AS 
ESTABLISHED    IN    THE    SIXTH    PART    OP   THIS    VOLUME. 


I.  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 


Matthew  f  Hebrew) 

(Greek) 

Mark 
Luke 

Juhn 


Acts  of  the  Apostles) . 


PLACES.  A.D 

X    .  ^  37  or  38 

Judaea     ........<  g- 

Rome between  GO  and  G3 

Greece 63  or  64 

Ephesus 97  or  98 


U.  THE  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL. 


EPISTLES. 

1  Thessalonians 

2  Thessalonians 

Galatians  .        . 
1  Corinthians 
Romans 


2  Corinthians 

Ephesians 

Philippians 

Colossians 

Philemon 


Hebrews    , 

1  Timothy 
Titus 

2  Timothy 


(perhaps 


PLACES. 

Corinth 
Corinth 

Corinth  . 

Ephesus 

Corinth 

Macedonia  ? 

s  from  Philippi)  5 


Rome     . 

Rome    . 

Rome     . 

Italy 
(perhaps  from  Rome) 
Macedonia 
Macedonia 
Rome     . 


A.D. 

52 

....         62 

C  At  the  close  of  52 

tor  early  in  53 

56 

C  About   the   end   of  57 

i  or  the  beginning  of  58 

58 

61 

C  Before  the   end  of  62 

(_  or  the  beginning  of  63 

62 

5^  About   the   end  of  62 

f_  or  early  in        .         63 

C  About  the  end  of  62 

(_  or  early  in        .         63 

64 

64 

65 


IIL  THE  CATHOLIC  OR  GENERAL  EPISTLES. 


EPISTLES. 

James 

1  Peter 

2  Peter 

1  John 


2  and  3  John 
Jude  . 


PLACES  A.D. 

Judsea 61 

Rome  .........         64 

Rome  .....     About  the  beginning  of  66 


C  Unknown 

(.(perhaps  Ephesus 


)} 


Ephesus 
Unknown 


C  68 

C  or  early  in  69 
S  68 

i  or  early  in  69 
64  or  65 


The  Revelation  of  Saint  John    . 


Ephesus 


96  or  97 


U 


INTRODUCTION 

TO  THE 

CRITICAL    STUDY  AND  KNOWLEDGE 

OF 

THE   HOLY    SCRIPTURES. 


SUMMARY  OF  BIBLICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  ANTIQUITIES. 


PART  I. 

A   SKETCH   OF   THE   HISTORICAL   AND   PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY   OF   THE    HOLY   LAND-* 

CHAPTER  I. 

HISTORICAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF    THE    HOLY    LAND. 

1.  JVames. — II.  Boundaries. — III.  Inhabitants  before  the  Conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites. — IV.  Division  by  Joshua. — 
Allotments  of  the  Thvelve  Tribes. — V.  The  Kingdom  under  David  and  Solomon. — VI.  The  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 
— VII.  Divisions  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ. — VIII.  Account  of  the  City  of  Jerusalem  : — 1.  Its  Situation  ; — 2.  J\i''atnes  ; 
— 3.  Fortifications  and  Walls  ; — 4.  State  of  the  City  before  the  fatal  War  of  the  Jexus  -with  the  Romans; — 5.  Remarkable 
Buildings  ; — 6.  JS'otice  of  the  successive  Captures  of  the  City  ; — 7.  Sketch  of  its  Present  State. — IX.  Later  Divisions  of 
Palestine: — 1,  Under  the  Romans  ; — 3.  In  the  Time  of  the  Crusades; — 3.  Modern  Divisions  under  the  Turkish 
Government. 


I.  This  country  has  in  different  ages  been  called  by  various 
Names,  which  have  been  derived  either  from  its  inhabitants, 
or  from  the  extraordinary  circumstances  attached  to  it.  Thus, 
in  Ruth  i.  1.  and  Jer.  iv.  20.  it  is  termed  generally  the  land: 
and  hence,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  the  word 
r«,  which  is  sometimes  rendered  earth,  is  bv  the  context  in 
many  places  determined  to  mean  the  promised  land  of  Israel ; 
as  in  Josh.  ii.  3.  They  be  come  to  search  out  all  the  country 
f  Sept.  Tuv  ym'\ ;  Matt.  v.  5.  The  meek  shall  inherit  the  earth 
(j.j)v,  the  land)  ;  and  in  Luke  iv.  25.  where  a  great  famine  is 
said  to  have  prevailed  throughout  all  the  land  {vrt  7ra.(ra.i  txv 
ym).  In  like  manner,  cw.v/AivH,  which  primarily  means  the  in- 
habited world,  and  is  often  so  rendered,  is  by  the  connection 
of  tire  discourse  restrained  to  a  particular  country,  as  in  Isa. 
xiii.  5.  (Sept.) ;  and  to  the  land  of  Judsea,  as  in  Luke  ii.  1. 
xxi.  2G.  Acts  xi.  28.  and  James  v.  17.  But  the  country  occu- 
pied by  the  Hebrews,  Israelites,  and  Jews,  is  in  the  sacred 
volume  more  particularly  called, 

1.  The  Land  of  Canaan,  from  Canaan,  the  youngest  son 
of  Ham,  and  grandson  of  Noah,  who  settled  here  after  the 
confusion  of  ifabel,  and  divided  the  country  among  his  eleven 
children,  each  of  whom  became  the  head  of  a  numerous 
tribe,  that  ultimately  became  a  distinct  nation.  (Gen.  x.  15. 
et  seg.) 

2.  The  Land  of  Israel,  from  the  Israelites,  or  posterity  of 
Jacob,  having  settled  themselves  there.  This  name  is  of 
most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Old  Testament :  it  is  also  to 
be  found  in  the  New  Testament  (as  in  Matt.  ii.  20,  21.)  ;  and 
in  its  larger  acceptation  comprehended  all  that  tract  of  ground 
on  each  side  the  river  Jordan,  which  God  gave  for  an  inherit- 
ance to  the  children  of  Israel.  Within  this  extent  lay  all 
the  provinces  or  countries  visited  by  Jesus  Christ,  except 
EgJ'pt,  and,  consequently,  almost  all  the  places  mentioned  or 
referred  to  in  the  four  Gospels. 

3.  The  Land  of  Jehovah,  or,  the  Lord's  Land  (Hos.  ix. 
3.);  that  is,  the  land  which  the  Lord  sware to  Abra- 
ham, to  Isaac,  and  to  Jacob,  to  give  them  (Deut.  xxx.  20.);  and 
which  h^  did  accordingly  give  to  the  Israelites,  their  descend- 
ants, still  reserving  the  ownership  of  it  unto  himself.    (See 

»  As  this  portion  of  the  present  work  is  designed  to  exhibit  only  an  out- 
line of  the  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  not  a  complete  system  of  Bib- 
Ucal  Geography  ;  the  reader  will  find,  in  the  Historical,  Biographical,  and 
Geographical  Index,  annexed  to  this  volume,  a  concise  notice  of  the  princi- 
pal countries  and  places,  both  in  and  out  of  Palestine,  which  are  mentioned 
m  the  Scriptures. 


Lev.  XXV.  23. )2  With  reference  to  this  circumstance,  we 
meet  with  the  appellation  of  the  land  of  God,  in  various 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

4.  The  Land  of  Promise  (Heb.  xi.  9.),  from  the  promise 
made  by  Jehovah  to  Abraham,  that  his  posterity  should  pos- 
sess it  (Gen.  xii.  7.  and  xiii.  15.);  who  being  termed  Hebrews, 
this  region  was  thence  called  the  Land  of  the  Hebrews.^  (Gen. 
xl.  150 

5.  The  Holy  Land  ;  which  appellation  is  to  this  day  con- 
ferred on  it  by  all  Christians,  because  it  was  chosen  by  God 
to  be  the  immediate  seat  of  his  worship,  and  was  consecrated 
by  the  presence,  actions,  miracles,  discourses,  and  sufferings 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  also  because  it  was  the  resi- 
dence of  the  holy  patriarchs,  prophets,  and  apostles.  This 
name  does  not  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the  Hebrews 
themselves,  until  after  the  Babylonish  Captivity,  when  we 
find  the  prophet  Zechariah  applying  it  to  his  country,  (ii.  12.) 
After  this  period  it  seems  to  nave  become  a  common  appella- 
tion :  we  meet  with  it  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  W  isdom 
(xii.  3.),  and  also  in  the  second  book  of  Maccabees,  (i.  7.) 
The  whole  world  was  divided  by  the  ancient  Jews  into  two 
general  parts,  the  land  of  Israel,  and  the  land  out  of  Israel, 
mat  is,  all  the  countries  inhabited  by  the  nations  of  the 
world,  or  the  Gentiles :  to  this  distinction  there  seems  to  be 
an  allusion  in  Matt.  vi.  32.  All  the  rest  of  the  world,  to- 
gether with  its  inhabitants  (Judtea  excepted),  was  accounted 
as  profane,  jDo//«/erf  and  unclean  (see  Isa.  xxxv.  8.  lii.  1.  with 
Joel  iii.  17.  Amos  vii.  17.  and  Acts  x.  14.) ;  but  though  the 
whole  land  of  Israel  was  regarded  as  holy,  as  being  the  place 
consecrated  to  the  worship  of  God,  and  the  inheritance  of  his 
people,  whence  they  are  collectively  styled  saints,  and  a  holy 
nation  or  people  in  Exod.  xix.  6.  Deut.  vii.  6.  xiv.  2.  xxvi.  19. 
xxxiii.  3.  2  Chron.  vi.  41.  Psal.  xxxiv.  9.  1.  5.  7.  and  Ixxix. 
2. ;  yet  the  Jews  imagined  particular  parts  to  be  vested  with 
more  than  ordinary  sanctity  according  to  their  respective  situ- 
ations. Thus  the  parts  situated  beyond  Jordan  were  con- 
sidered to  be  less  holy  than  those  on  this  side  :  walled  towns 
were  supposed  to  be  more  clean  and  holy  than  other  places, 
because  no  lepers  were  admissible  into  them,  and  the  dead 

»  Dr.  Pocock,  on  Hos.  ix.  3. 

3  This  appellation  (the  Land  of  the  Hebrews)  is  recognised  by  Pausanias 
(lib.  vi.  c.  24.  in  fine).  By  heathen  writers  the  Holy  Land  is  variously 
termed,  Syrian  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Phoenicia ;  but  as  these  appeUationa 
are  not  apphed  generally  in  the  Scriptures  to  that  country,  any  further  no- 
tice of  them  is  designedly  omitted. 


14 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  I, 


were  not  allowed  to  be  buried  there.     Even  the  very  dust  of 
the  land  of  Israel  was  reputed  to  possess  such  a  peculiar  de- 

Kree  of  sanctity,  that  when  the  Jews  returned  from  any 
eathen  country,  they  stopped  at  its  borders,  and  wiped  the 
dust  of  it  from  their  shoes,  lest  the  sacred  inheritance  should 
be  polluted  with  it :  nor  would  they  suffer  even  herbs  to  be 
broutjht  to  them  from  the  ground  of  their  Gentile  neighbours, 
lest  they  should  bring  any  of  the  mould  with  them,  and  thus 
defile  their  pure  land.  To  this  notion  our  Lord  unquestion- 
ably alluded  when  he  commanded  his  disciples  to  shake  off 
the  dust  of  their  feet  (Matt.  x.  14.)  on  returning  from  any 
house  or  city  that  would  neither  receive  nor  hear  them ; 
thereby  intimating  to  them,  that  when  the  Jews  had  rejected 
the  Gospel  they  were  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  the  people 
of  God,  but  were  on  a  level  with  heathens  and  idolaters.> 

6.  The  Land  of  Judah.  Under  this  appellation  was  at 
first  comprised  only  that  part  of  the  region  which  was  al- 
lotted to  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  though  the  whole  land  of  Is- 
rael appears  to  have  been  occasionally  thus  called  in  subse- 
quent times,  when  that  tribe  excelled  all  the  others  in  dignity. 
After  the  separation  of  the  ten  tribes,  that  portion  of  the  land 
which  belonged  to  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  who 
formed  a  seifarate  kingdom,  was  distinguished  by  the  appel- 
lation of  the  lund  of  Judah  (Psal.  Ixxvi.  1.)  or  of  Judaea; 
which  last  name  the  whole  country  retained  during  the  exist- 
ence of  the  second  temple,  and  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Romans. 

7.  The  appellation  of  Palestine,  by  which  the  whole  land 
appears  to  have  been  called  in  the  days  of  Moses  (Exod.  xv. 
14.),  is  derived  from  the  Philistines,  a  people  who  ini- 
grated  from  Egypt,  and  having  expelled  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants, settled  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean ;  where 
they  became  so  considerable  as  to  give  their  name  to  the 
whole  country,  though  they,  in  fact,  possessed  only  a  small 

gart  of  it.  Herodotus'  called  the  whole  tract  of  country  from 
yria  to  Egypt,  by  the  name  of  Palestine  ;  and  Philo,  in  his 
book  concerning  Abraham,  expressly  says,  that  the  region  in- 
habited by  the  iDanaanites  was,  by  the  Syrians,  termed  Pa- 
lestine. The  same  region  is  also  called  the  Syrian  Palestine 
{Syria  Pulxdina)  by  Tacitus^  and  other  ancient  geogra- 
phers.^ 

II.  The  ancient  geographers  placed  the  Holy  Land  in  the 
centre  of  the  then  known  world.  Its  extent  has  been  va- 
riously estimated  ;  some  geographers  making  it  not  to  exceed 
one  hundred  and  seventy  or  eighty  miles  in  length,  from 
north  to  south,  and  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  from  east 
to  west  in  its  broadest  parts  (or  towards  the  south),  and 
about  seventy  miles  in  breadth,  where  narrowest,  towards  the 
north.  From  the  latest  and  most  accurate  maps,  however,  it 
appears  to  have  extended  nearly  two  hundred  miles  in  length, 
and  to  have  been  about  eighty  miles  in  breadth  about  the 
middle,  and  ten  or  fifteen  more  or  less,  where  it  widens  or 
contracts. 

By  the  Abrahamic  covenant  recorded  in  Gen.  xv.  18.  the 
original  grant  of  the  Promised  Land  to  the  Israelites,  was 
from  the  river  of  Egypt  unto  the  river  Euphrates,  The  boun- 
daries of  it  are  thus  accurately  described  by  Moses  (Num. 
xxxiv.  1 — 16.),  before  the  Israelites  entered  into  it :  "  When 
ye  come  into  the  land  of  Canaan  {this  is  the  land  that  shall  full 
unto  you  for  an  inheritance,  even  the  land  of  Canaan,  with  the 
coasts  thereof),  your  south  quarter  shall  be  from  the  wilder- 
ness of  Zin,  along  by  the  coast  of  Edom,"  or  Idumaja.  This 
was  its  general  description.  The  boundary  itself  is  next 
traced  :  "  And  your  south  border  shall  be  the  utmost  coast  of  the 
Salt  Sea  eastward, -^^  or,  as  explained  by  Joshua's  description 
afterwards  (xv.  2 — 4.),  "  the  south  border  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
began  from  the  bay  of  the  Salt  Sea  that  looketh  southward ;" 
or,  by  combining  both,  from  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Salt 
Sea,  or  Asphaltite  Lake.  "  From  thence,  your  border  shall  turn 
southwards  to  the  ascent  of  Jkrabbini,"  or  the  mountains  of 
Accaba  (signifying  "  ascent"  in  Arabic),  which  run  towards 
the  head  of  the  Alanitic,  or  Eastern  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea; 
passing  (we  may  presume)  through  the  sea-ports  of  Elath 
and  Eziongeber,  on  the  Red  Sea,  which  belonged  to  Solomon 

»  Lightfoot,  Hor.  Heb.  in  Matt.  x.  14. ;  Reland,  Antiquitates  Hebraicae,  pp. 
1.  17.  Beausobre's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament.  (Up.  Watson's  col- 
lection of  Theological  Tracts,  vol',  iii.  p.  141-)  This  distinction  of  holy  and 
unholy  places  and  persons  throws  considerable  light  on  1  Cor.  i.  28.  where 
the  Apostle,  speaking  of  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  and  the  rejection  of  the 
Jews,  says,  that  God  hath  chosen  base  things  of  the  world,  and  things  that 
are  despised,  yea,  and  things  which  are  nut  (that  is,  the  Gentiles),  to 
bring  to  nought  (Or.  to  abolish)  things  that  are  ;  in  other  words,  to  become 
God's  church  and  people,  and  so  to  cause  the  Jewish  church  and  economy 
to  cease.    See  Whitby  in  loc. 

^  Hist.  lib.  viii.  c.  89.  .  s  Annal.  lib.  ii.  c.  42. 

*  Alber,  Hermeneutica  Vet.  Test.  torn.  i.  p.  60. 


(1  Kings  ix.  Sfi.),  though  they  are  not  noticed  in  this  place. 
"  Thence  it  shall  puss  on  to  [the  wilderness  of]  Zin,''''  on  the 
east  side  of  Mount  Hor,  including  that  whole  mountainous 
region  within  the  boundary ;  "  and.  the  going  fwth  thereof 
shall  be  to  Kadesh  Barnea  southivards ,-  and  it  shall  go  on  to 
Ilazar  Mdar,^  and  pass  on  to  Jlzmon.''''  "  And  the  border  shall 
fetch  a  compass,"  or  fonn  an  angle,  "  from  Azmon,"  or  turn 
westwards  "  towards  the  river  of  Egypt,"  or  Pelusiac  branch 
of  the  Nile  ;  "  and  its  outgoings  shall  be  at  the  sea,"  the 
Mediterranean.^ 

"  Jlnd  as  f(jr  the  western  border,  ye  shall  have  the  Great 
Sea  for  a  border.  This  shall  be  your  west  bm-der.''''  The  Great 
Sea  is  the  Mediterranean,  as  contrasted  with  the  smaller  seas 
or  lakes,  the  Red  Sea,  the  Salt  Sea,  and  the  Sea  of  Tiberias, 
or  Galilee. 

And  this  shall  be  your  north  border  :  from  the  Great  Sea 
you  shall  point  out  Hor  ha-hor,  (not  "  Mount  Hor,"  as  ren- 
dered in  our  English  Bible,  confounding  it  with  that  on  the 
southern  border,  but)  "  the  mountain  of  the  mountain,^''''  or 
"  the  double  mountain,''''  or  Mount  Leljanon,  which  formed 
the  northern  frontier  of  Palestine,  dividing  it  from  S)nria ; 
consisting  of  two  gTeat  parallel  ranges,  called  Libanus  and 
Antilibanus,  and  running  eastwards  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  Sidon  to  that  of  Damascus. 

"  From  Hor  ha-hor  ye  shall  point  your  border  to  the  entrance 
of  Hamath,"  which  Joshua,  speaking  of  the  yet  unconquered 
land,  describes,  "  All  Lebanon,  toioards  the  sun-rising,  from 
(the  valley  of)  Baal  Gad,  under  Mount  Hermon,  unto  the  en- 
trance of  Hamath.'''  (Josh.  xiii.  5.)  This  demonstrates,  that 
Hor  ha-hor  corresponded  to  all  Lebanon,  including  Mount 
Hermon,  as  judiciously  remarked  by  Wells,^  who  ooserves, 
that  it  is  not  decided  which  of  the  two  ridges,  the  northern  or 
the  southern,  was  properly  Libanus ;  the  natives  at  present 
call  the  southern  so,  but  the  Septuagint  and  Ptolemy  called 
it  Antilibanus. — "  From  Hamath  it  s/iallgo  on  to  Zedad,  and 
from  thence  to  Ziphron,  and  the  goings  out  of  it  shall  be  at  Ha^ 
zar  Enan"  (near  Damascus,  Ezek.  xlviii.  1).  This  shall  be 
your  north  border. 

^'' And  ye  shall  point  out  your  east  border  from  Hazar 
Enan  to  Shephan,  and  the  coast  shall  go  down  to  Riblah  on  the 
east  side  of  Ain  ("  the  fountain"  or  springs  of  the  river 
Jordan),  and  the  border  shall  descend,  andshaU  reach  unto  thjt 
[east]  s'lde  of  the  sea  of  Chinnereth.  And  the  border  shall  go 
down  to  Jordan  on  the  east  side,  and  the  goings  out  of  it  shall  be  at 
the  Salt  Seay  There  it  met  the  southern  border,  at  the  south- 
east corner  of  that  sea,  or  the  Asphaltite  Lake. 

"  This  shall  be  your  land  with  the  coasts  thereof  round 
about"  in  circuit.^ 

Such  was  the  admirable  geographical  chart  of  the  Land  of 
Promise,  dictated  to  Moses  by  the  God  of  Israel,  and  de- 
scribed with  all  "the  accuracy  of  an  eye-witness.  Of  this 
region,  however,  the  Israelites  were  not  put  into  immediate 
possession.  In  his  first  expedition,  Joshua  subdued  all  the 
southern  department  of  the  Promised  Land,  and  in  his  second 
the  northern,  having  spent  five  years  in  both  (Josh.  xi.  18.): 
what  Joshua  left  unfinished  of  the  conquest  of  the  whole, 
was  afterwards  completed  by  David  and  Solomon.  (2  Sam. 
viii.  3 — 14.  2  Chron.  ix.  26.)  In  the  reign  of  the  latter  was 
realized  the  Abrahamic  covenant  in  its  full  extent.  And  Solo- 
mon reigned  over  all  the  kingdoms  from  the  river  (Euphrates) 
unto  the  land  of  the  Fhilistines,  and  the  border  of  Egypt : — 
for  he  had  dominion  over  all  the  region  on  this  side  the  river 
(Euphrates)  from  Tipsah  (or  Thapsacus  situated  thereon) 
even  to  Azzah  (or  Gaza  with  her  towns  and  villages),  "  unto 
the  river"  of  Egypt,  southward,  "  and  the  Great  Sea,"  west- 
ward (Josh.  XV.  47.),  even  over  all  the  kings  on  this  side  the 
river  (Euphrates).     1  Kings  iv.  21.  24.'" 

But  the  Israelites  did  not  always  retain  possession  of  this 
tract,  as  is  shown  in  the  succeeding  pages.  It  lies  far  within 
the  temperate  zone,  and  between  31  and  33  degrees  of  north 
latitude,  and  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean 
or  Great  Sea,  as  it  is  often  called  in  the  Scriptures ;  on  the 
east  by  Arabia;  on  the  south  by  the  river  of  E^ypt  (or  the 
river  Nile,  whose  eastern  branch  was  reckoned  me  boundary 

»  Joshua  (xv.  3.)  interposes  two  additional  stations,  Hezron  and  Karkaa, 
before  and  after  Addar,  or  Hazar  Addar,  which  are  not  noticed  by  Moses. 

»  Tliis  termination  of  the  southern  border  westwards,  is  exactly  con- 
formabln  to  the  accounts  of  Herodotus  and  Pliny  :  the  former  represents 
Mount  Casius  lying  between  Pelusium  and  the  Sirbonic  lake,  as  the  boun- 
dary between  Egypt  and  Palestine  Syria  (iii.  5.);  tlie  latter  reckoned  the 
Sirbonic  lake  itself  as  the  boundary.  (Nat.  Hist.  v.  13.) 
.  1  The  Septuagint  Version  has  judiciously  rendered  it,  w«fK  to  Jfo;  to 
ofig,  "the  mountain  beside  the  mountain." 

'  Sacred  Geography,  vol.  ii.  p.  271. 

»  Dr.  Hale's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  pp.  414—416. 

«»  Ibid.  pp.  410,417. 


Chap.  I.] 


ANCIENT  INHABITANTS  OF  CANAAN. 


15 


of  Eirypt,  towards  the  nrroat  Dosort  of  8hnr,  which  lies 
betwePii  Kffypt  and  Falestiiio,)'  and  by  thf?  dosfrt  of  Niii,  or 
Beersheba,°lhe  soulliern  shore  of  the  Doad  Sea,  and  the 
river  Anion  ;  and  on  th<!  north  by  the  chain  ol'  mountains 
termed  Antilihaniis,  near  which  stood  the  city  of  Dan  :  hence 
in  the  Sacred  Writinos  we   frecjiieMtly   meet  with  the  ex- 

{>ression,/n;w  Ihin  to  lieershebu,  in  order  to  denote  the  whole 
ennfth  of  tlic  land  of  Israel.^ 

III.  Tiie  Land  of  Canaan,  previously  to  its  conquest  by 
the  Israelites,  was  possessed  by  the  d(>scendants  of  C'anaan, 
the  younjrest  son  of  Ham,  and  jirandson  of  Noah ;  who 
divided  tiie  country  anionp;  his  eleven  sons,  each  of  whom 
was  the  head  of  a  numerous  clan  or  trii)C.  (CJen.  x.  15 — I!).) 
Here  they  resided  upwards  of  seven  centuries,  and  founded 
numerous  republics  and  kin<r(loms.  In  the  days  of  Almdiam, 
this  recrion  was  occupied  l)y  ten  nations ;  .the  Kenites,  the 
Kenizzites,  and  the  Kadmonites,  to  the  east  of  Jordan ;  and 
westward,  the  Hittites,  Perizzites,  Kephaims,  Airiorites, 
Canaanites,  Girprashites,  and  the  Jebusites.  ((ren.  xv.  IH — 
21.)  These  latter  in  the  days  of  Moses  were  called  the 
Hittites,  Girjashites,  Amorites,  Canaanites,  Perizzites, 
Hivites,  and  Jebusites  (Deut.  vii.  1.  Josh.  iii.  10.  xxiv.  11.) ; 
the  Hivites  he\\\^  substituted  for  the  liephaims.  These  seven 
nations  were  thus  distributed  : — 

The  Hittites  or  sons  of  Heth,  the  Perizzites,  the  Jebusites, 
and  the  ^inoriten,  dwelt  in  the  mountains,  or  hill  country  of 
Judsea,  southward ;  the  Canaanites  dwelt  in  the  midland 
by  the  sea,  westward,  and  bi/  the  coast  of  Jordan  eastward  ; 
and  the  Girgashites,  or  Geroresenes,  aloiijPf  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee ;  and  the  Hivites  in  Mount  Lebanon, 
under  Hermon,  in  the  land  of  Mizpeh  or  Gilead,  northward. 
(Compare  Num.  xiii.  2i).  Josh.  xi.  3.  Judges  iii.  3.  and 
Matt.  viii.  28.)  Of  all  these  nations  the  Amorites  became 
th(!  most  powerful,  so  as  to  extend  their  conquests  beyond 
the  river  Jordan  over  the  Kadmonites;  whence  they  are 
sometimes  put  for  the  whole  seven  nations,  as  in  Gen.  xv.  16. 
Josh.  xxiv.  15.  and  2  Sam.  xxi.  2. 

These  nations  were  the  people  whom  the  children  of  Israel 
were  commanded  to  exterminate.  Within  the  period  of 
seven  years  Moses  conrpiered  two  powerful  kingdoms  on  the 
east,  and  Joshua  thirty-one  smaller  kingdoms  on  the  west 
of  Jordan,  and  gave  their  land  to  the  Israelites;  though  it 
appears  that  some  of  the  old  inhabitants  were  permitted  by 
Jehovah  to  remain  there,  to  prove  their  conquerors,  ichether 
they  would  hearken  to  the  conimandrnents  of  the  Lord,  which 
he  commanded  their  fathers  by  the  hand  of  Moses ;  and  the 
nations  thus  spared  were  afterwards  sutfered  to  oppress  the 
Israelites  with  great  severity.  (Num.  xxi.  21 — 35.  xxxii. 
and  xxxiv.  Deut.  ii.  2G — 37.  iii.  1 — 20.  Josh.  vi.  21.  Judges 
i.  4.)  Nor  were  they  finally  subdued  until  the  reigns  of 
David  and  Solomon,  who  reduced  them  to  the  condition  of 
slaves  :  the  latter  employed  153, GOO  of  them  in  the  most 
servile  parts  of  his  work,  in  building  his  temple,  palace,  &c. 
(2  Sarn.  v.  6 — 8.  1  Chron.  xi.  4 — 8.  1  Kings  ix.  20. 
2  Chron.  ii.  17,  18.  and  viii.  7,  8.) 

Besides  these  devoted  nations  there  were  others,  either 
settled  in  the  land  at  the  arrival  of  the  Israelites,  or  in  its 
immediate  environs,  with  whom  the  latter  had  to  maintain 
many  severe  conflicts :  they  were  six  in  number.       * 

1.  The  Philistines  were  the  descendants  of  Mizraim,  the 
second  son  of  Ham ;  who,  migrating  from  Caphtor  or  the 
north-eastern  part  of  Egypt,  very  early  settled  in  a  small 
strip  of  territory  alon^  the  sea-shore,  in  the  south-west  of 
Canaan,  having  exptUled  the  Avites,  who  had  before  pos- 
sessed it.  (Deut.  ii.  23.  Amos  ix.  7.  Jer.  xlvii.  4.)  The 
district  occupied  by  the  Philistines  was  in  the  time  of  Joshua 
distinguished  into  five  lordships,  denominated,  from  the 
chief  towns,  Gaza,  Ashdod,  Askelon,  Gath,  and  Ekron. 
They  were  the  most  formidable  enemies  perhaps  whom  the 
children  of  Israel  had  to  encounter:  and  of  the  inveteracy 
of  their  enmity  ag-ainst  the  latter,  we  have  abundant  evi- 
dence in  the  Sacred  Writings.  Though  they  were  subdued 
by  David,  and  kept  in  subjection  by  some  succeeding 
monarchs,  yet  they  afterwards  became  so  considerable,  tha't 
from  them  the  Holy  Land  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
Palestine,  which  appellation  it  retains  to  this  day.  T\\e 
country  was  finally  subdued  about  the  year  of  the  world 


«  It  is  a  point,  much  in  dispute  amonj 
Bible,  wheUier  the  "  river  of  Ejrypt"  •means  the  Nile,  or  the  Siclibr  men- 


;  writers  on  the  geography  of  the 


jioned  in  Josh.  xiii.  3.  and  Jer.  ii."  18.  I)r.  Hales,  however,  has  shown  at 
lenith  that  the  Nile  is  the  river  intended  ;  and  upon  his  authority  wo  have 
con^ildt>Ie(l  "  the  river  of  Egypt,"  and  tlio  Nile,  as  the  same  river.  Pne  his 
Analysis  of  CluonoKisy,  vol.  i.  pp.  .113,  HI. 

;•  Hor  a  full  invest  ligation  of  the  liouiidaries  of  the  promised  land,  see 
Miclmelis's  C'ouuiienlaries  on  the  Law  ol  Moses,  vol.  i.  pp.  55— 67. 


3811  (n.  c.  159)  by  the  illustrious  general  Judas  Maccabreus ; 
and  about  sixty -five  years  afterwards  Janna?us  burnt  their 
city  Gaza,  and  incorporated  the  remnant  of  the  Philistines 
with  such  Jews  as  he  placed  in  their  country. 

2.  The  MiDiANiTES  were  the  descendants  of  Midian,  the 
fourth  son  of  Abraiiam  by  Keturah.  ((Jen.  xxv.  2.)  In  the 
Scriptures  two  different  places  are  assigned  as  the  territory 
of  the  Midianites:  the  one  almost  the  north-east  point  of  the 
Red  Sea,  where  Jethro,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  was  a 
prince  or  nriest.  These  western  or  southern  Midianites  were 
also  called  Cushites,  because  they  occupied  the  country  that 
originally  belonged  to  Cush.  They  retained  the  knowledge 
of  the  true  God,  which  appears  to  have  been  lost  among  the 
eastern  or  nortiiem  Midianites  who  dwelt  on  the  east  o?  tlie 
Dead  Sea.  (Gen.  xxv.  2 — 6.  xxxvii.  28.  Exod.  ii.  iii.  xviii.) 
These  northern  Midianites  were  either  subject  to  or  allied 
with  the  Moabites ;  and  their  women  were  particularly  in- 
strumental in  seducing  the  Israelites  to  idolatry  and  other 
crimes ;  which  wickedness  was  punished  by  Jehovah  with 

the  almost  total  destruction  of  their  nation  (Num.  xxii.  4 

7.  xxv.  xxxi.  Josh.  xiii.  21.);  although  they  afterwards  re- 
covered so  much  of  their  former  strength  as  to  render  the  Is- 
raelites their  tributaries,  and  for  seven  years  greatly  oppressed 
them.  From  this  bondage,  Gideon  delivered  his  countrymen 
with  a  very  inferior  force,  and  almost  annihilated  the  Midian- 
ites, whose  surviving  remnants  are  supposed  to  have  been  in- 
corporated with  the  Moabites  or  Ammonites. 

3,  4.  The  Moabites  and  Ammonites  were  the  descendants 
of  the  incestuous  offspring  of  Lot.  (Gen.  xix.  30 — 38.)  The 
Moabites  dwelt  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  in  a  tract  whence 
they  had  expelled  the  Emims,  a  gigantic  aboriginal  race. — 
The  Ammonites  had  their  residence  north-east  of  the  Moab- 
ites, which  territory  they  had  wrested  from  the  Zamzummim, 
another  gigantic  tribe.  The  country  occupied  by  these  two 
tribes  was  exceedingly  pleasant  and  fertile;  they  were  vio- 
lently hostile  to  the  Israelites,  whom  they  at  different  times 
terribly  oppressed.  They  were  conquerecfby  David,  and  for 
about  150  years  continued  in  subjection  to  the  Israelites.  On 
the  division  of  the  kingdom  they  fell  to  the  share  of  the  ten 
tribes ;  and  after  several  attempts  to  regain  their  liberty  under 
succeeding  kings  of  Israel  (some  of  whom  severely  chas- 
tised them,  and  imposed  heavy  tributes  upon  them),  they  are 
supposed  to  have  effected  their  complete  liberation  during  the 
unhappy  reign  of  Ahaz. 

5.  The  Amalekites  were  descended  from  Amalek  the  son 
of  Ham,  and  grandson  of  Noah,  and  were  very  formidable 
enemies  to  the  Israelites.  They  were  settled  on  the  south 
coast  westward  of  Jordan,  and  first  opposed  the  Israelites 
after  their  departure   from   Egypt,  but  were  defeated   and 

doomed  to  destruction  (Exod.  xvii.  8 — 16.  Deut.  xxv.  17 

19.);  which  was  commenced  by  Saul,  and  finished  by  David. 

6.  The  Edomites  were  the  descendants  of  Esau  or  Edom  : 
they  possessed  themselves  of  the  country  southward  of  Ju- 
dffia  and  the  Red  Sea,  which  was  originally  occupied  by  the 
Horites,  who  are  supposed  to  have  been  finally  blended  with 
their  conquerors.  It  was  a  mountainous  tract,  including  the 
mountains  of  Seir  and  Hor,  and  the  provinces  of  Dedan, 
Teman,  &c.  They  were  governed  by  dukes  or  princes,  and 
afterwards  by  their  own  kings.  (Gen.  xxxvi.  31.)  Inveterate 
foes  to  Israel,  they  continued  independent  until  the  time  of 
David,  by  whom  they  were  subdued  and  rendered  tributary, 
in  comnletion  of  Isaac's  prophecy,  that  Jacob  should  rule 
Esau.  (Gen.  xxvii.29.)  The  Edomites  bore  their  subjection 
with  great  impatience ;  and  at  the  end  of  Solomon's  reign, 
Hadad  the  Edomite,  who  had  been  carried  into  Egypt  during 
his  childhood,  returned  into  his  own  country,  where  he  pro- 
cured himself  to  be  acknowledged  king.  (1  Kings  xi.  21, 
22.)  It  is  probable,  however,  that  he  reigned  only  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Edom ;  for  that  part,  which  lay  directly  to 
the  south  of  Judaea,  continued  subject  to  the  kinofs  of  Judah 
until  the  reiorn  of  Jehoram,  against  whom  the  Edomites  re- 
belled. (2  Chron.  xxi.  8 — 10.)  They  were  also  discomfited 
by  Amaziah  king  of  Judah,  who  slew  one  thousand  men, 
and  cast  ten  thousand  more  from  a  precipice.  But  their  con- 
quests were  not  permanent.  When  Nebuchadnezzar  besieged 
Jerusalem,  the  Edomites  joined  him,  and  encouraged  hinTto 
raze  the  very  foundations  of  the  city  (Ezek.  xxv.  12 — 14. 
XXXV.  .3—5.  Obad.  10 — 16.  Psal.  cxxxvi.  7.  Lam.  iv.  21.): 
but  their  cruelty  did  not  continue  long  unpunished.  Five 
years  after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  Nebuchadnezzar  hum- 
bled all  the  states  around  Juda;a,  and  particularly  the  territory 
of  the  Edomites.' 

3  See  an  interesiinfr  and  accuraiily  compiled  history  of  the  Edomites  in 
the  Biblical  Repository,  vol  iii.  pp.  250—266.    Andover,  Slassachusetts,  1833. 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


16 

IV.  On  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  children  of  Israel, 
Joshua  pivided  it  into  twelve  parts,  which  the  twelve 
tribes  drew  by  lot,  according  to  their  families  :  so  that,  in 
this  division,  every  tribe  and  every  family  received  their  lot 
and  share  by  themselves,  distinct  from  all  the  other  tribes. 
Thus,  each  tribe  remained  a  distinct  province,  in  which  all 
the  freeholders  were  not  only  Israelites,  but  of  the  same 
tribe,  or  descendants  from  the  same  patriarch :  and  the  seve- 
ral families  were  placed  together  in  the  same  nei<^hbourhood, 
receiving  their  inheritance  in  the  same  part  or  subdivision  of 
the  tribe.  Or,  each  tribe  may  be  said  to  live  together  in  one 
and  the  same  county,  and  each  family  in  one  and  the  same 
hundred  :  so  that  the  inhabitants  of  every  neighbourhood 
were  relations  to  each  other,  and  of  the  same  family.  Nor 
was  it  permitted  that  an  estate  in  one  tribe  should  become 
the  property  of  any  person  belonging  to  another  tribe. 

In  order  to  preserve  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  balance, 
not  only  between  the  tribes,  but  between  the  heads  of  families 
and  the  families  of  the  same  tribes,  it  was  further  provided 
that  every  man's  possession  should  be  unalienable. 

The  wisdom  ofthis  constitution  had  provided  for  a  release 
of  all  debts  and  servitudes  every  seventh  year  (Deut.  xv.  1, 
2.  12.),  that  the  Hebrew  nation  might  not  moulder  away 
from  so  great  a  number  of  free  subjects,  and  be  lost  to  the 
public  in  the  condition  of  slaves.  It  was  moreover  provided, 
by  the  law  of  jubilee,  which  was  every  fiftieth  year,  that  then 
all  lands  should  be  restored,  and  the  estate  of  every  family, 
being  discharged  from  all  incumbrances,  should  return  to  the 
family  again.  For  this  there  was  an  express  law.  (Lev.  xxv. 
10.)  le  shall  halloio  the  fiftieth  year,  and  proclaim  liberty 
throughout  all  the  land,  unto  all  the  inhabitants  thereof:  it  shall 
be  a  jubilee  unto  you,  and  ye  shall  return  every  man  to  his  pos- 
session, and  ye  shall  return  every  man  unto  his  family.  It  is 
further  enacted,  Jlnd  the  land  shall  not  be  sold  for  ever  (or,  as 
in  the  margin,  be  quite  cut  ojff,  or  alienated  from  the  family)  ; 
fwr  the  land  is  mine,  fin  ye  are  strangers  and  sojourners  with  me. 

By  this  agrarian  law  of  the  Hebrews,  all  estates  were  to  be 
kept  in  the  same  families,  as  well  as  the  same  tribes  to  which 
they  originally  belonged  at  the  first  division  of  the  land  by 
.Toshua ;°so  that  how  often  soever  a  man's  estate  had  been 
sold  or  alienated  from  one  jubilee  to  another,  or  through  how 
many  hands  soever  it  had  passed,  yet  in  fifty  years  every 
estate  must  return  to  the  heirs  of  the  persons  who  were 
originally  possessed  of  it. 

It  was  at  first  an  excellent  constitution,  considering  the  de- 
sign of  this  government,  to  make  so  equal  a  division  of  the 
land  among  the  whole  Hebrew  nation,  according  to  the  poll ; 
it  made  provision  for  settling  and  maintaining  a  numerous 
and  a  brave  militia  of  six  hundred  thousand  men,  which,  if 
their  force  was  rightly  directed  and  used,  would  be  a  sufli- 
cient  defence  not  only  against  any  attempts  of  their  less 
powerful  neighbours,  to  deprive  them  of  their  liberty  or  re- 
ligion ;  but  considering  moreover  the  natural  security  of  their 
country,  into  which  no  inroads  could  be  made,  but  through 
very  difficult  passes,  it  was  a  force  sufficient  to  defend  them 
against  the  more  powerful  empires  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  or 
Babylon. 

Tire  wisdom  of  this  constitution  is  yet  further  observable, 
as  it  provided  against  all  ambitious  designs  of  private  persons, 
or  persons  in  authority,  against  the  public  liberty  ;  for  no  per- 
son in  any  of  the  tribes,  or  throughout  the  whole  Hebrew  na- 
tion, had  such  estates  and  possessions,  or  were  allowed  by 
the  constitution  to  procure  them,  that  could  give  any  hopes 
of  success  in  oppressing  their  brethren  and  fellow-subjects. 
They  had  no  riches  to  bribe  indigent  persons  to  assist  them, 
nor  could  there  at  any  time  be  any  considerable  number  of 
indigent  persons  to  be  corrupted.  They  could  have  no  power 
to  force  their  fellow-subjects  into  a  tame  submission  to  any  of 
their  ambitious  views.  The  power  in  the  hands  of  so  many 
freeholders  in  each  tribe,  was  so  unspeakably  superior  to  any 
power  in  the  hands  of  one  or  of  a  few  men,  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  conceive  how  any  such  ambitious  designs  should 
succeed,  if  any  person  should  have  been  found  so  weak  as  to 
attempt  them.  Besides,  this  equal  and  moderate  provision  for 
every  person  wisely  cut  off  the  means  of  luxury,  with  the 
temptations  to  it  from  example.  It  almost  necessarily  induced 
the  whole  Hebrew  nation  to  be  both  industrious  and  frugal, 
and  yet  gave  to  every  one  such  a  property,  with  such  an  easy 
state  of  liberty,  that  they  had  sutficient  reason  to  esteem  and 
value  them,  and  endeavour  to  preserve  and  maintain  them.' 

In  this  division  of  the  land  into  twelve  portions,  the  pos- 
terity of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (the  two  sons  of  Joseph), 

1  Lowraan  on  the  Civil  Government  of  the  Hebrews,  pp.  46—49. 


[Part  I 


had  their  portions,  as  distinct  tribes,  in  consequence  of  Jacob 
having  adopted  them.  The  northern  parts  of  the  country 
were  allotted  to  the  tribes  of  Asher,  Naphtali,  Zebulon,  and 
Issachar;  the  middle  parts  to  that  of  Ephraim  and  one  half 
of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  ;  the  southern  parts  to  those  of  Ju- 
dah,  Benjamin,  Dan,  and  Simeon  ;  and  the  country  bei/ona 
Jordan,  (which  was  first  conquered  by  the  Israelites,  before 
the  subjugation  of  the  whole  land  of  Canaan),  was  allotted  to 
the  tribes  of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  other  half  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh. The  tribe  of  Levi,  indeed  (which  formed  in  effect  a 
thirteenth  tribe),  possessed  no  lands.  By  divine  command 
there  were  assigned  to  the  Levites,  who  were  appointed  to 
minister  in  holy  things,  without  any  secular  incumbrance,  the 
tenths  and  first-fruits  of  the  estates  of  their  brethren.  Forty- 
eight  cities  were  appropriated  to  their  residence,  thence  called 
Levitical  cities  :  these  were  dispersed  among  the  twelve 
tribes,  and  had  their  respective  suburbs,  with  land  surround- 
ing them.  Of  these  cities  the  Kohathites  received  twenty- 
three,  the  Gershonites  thirteen,  and  the  Merarites  twelve ; 
and  six  of  them,  three  on  each  side  of  Jordan, ^  were  appoint- 
ed to  be  Cities  of  Refuge,  whither  the  inadvertent  man- 
slayer  might  flee,  and  find  an  asylum  from  his  pursuers,  and 
be  secured  from  the  effects  of  private  revenge,  until  cleared 
by  a  legal  process.  (Num.  xxxv.  6 — 15.  Deut.  xix.  4 — 10. 
Josh.  XX.  7,  8.)^  The  way  to  these  cities  the  Israelites  were 
commanded  to  make  good,  so  that  the  man-slayer  might  flee 
thither  without  impediment,  and  with  all  imaginable  expedi- 
tion :  and  according  to  the  Rabbins,  there  was  an  inscription 
set  up  at  every  cross  road — "  Asylum,  Asylum."  It  has  been 
thought  that  there  is  an  allusion  to  this  practice  in  Luke  iii. 
4 — 6.,  where  John  the  Baptist  is  described  as  the  voice  of  one 
crying  in  the  wilderness.  Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  Lord,  make 
his  paths  straight.  He  was  the  IVIessiah's  forerunner,  and  in 
that  character  was  to  remove  the  obstacles  to  men  fleeing  to 
him  as  their  asylum,  and  obtaining  the  salvation  of  God.^ 

It  is  remarkable  that  all  the  sacerdotal  cities  lay  within  the 
southern  tribes,  eight  belonging  to  Judah  and  four  to  Benja- 
min, and  only  one  to  Simeon,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
been  situated  on  the  frontier  of  Judah,  and  to  have  remained 
under  the  control  of  the  latter  tribe.  This  was  wisely  and 
providentially  designed  to  guard  against  the  evils  of  schism 
between  the  southern  and  northern  tribes.  For,  by  this  ar- 
rangement all  the  sacerdotal  cities  (except  one)  lay  in  the 
faithful  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  to  maintain  the  nation- 
al worshij)  in  them,  in  opposition  to  the  apostacy  of  the  other 
tribes.  Otherwise  the  kingdom  of  Judah  might  have  expe- 
rienced a  scarcity  of  priests,  or  have  been  burtliened  with  the 
maintenance  of  those  who  fled  from  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (3 
Chron.  xi.  13,  14.),  when  the  base  and  wicked  policy  of 
Jeroboam  made  priests  of  the  lowest  of  the  people  to  officiate 
in  their  room. 

Of  the  country  beyond  Jordan,  w^hich  was  given  by  Mo- 
ses to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  to  the  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh  (Deut.  iii.  12 — 17.  Josh.  xii.  1 — G.  xiii.),the  tribe 
of  Reuben  obtained  the  southern  part,  which  was  bounded 
on  the  south  from  Midian  by  the  river  Arnon;  on  the  north, 
by  another  small  river  ;  on  the  east,  by  the  Ammonites  and 
Moabites;  and  on  the  west  by  the  river  Jordan.  Its  principal 
cities  were  Ashdod-Pizgah,  Bethabara,  Beth-peor,  Bezer, 
Heshbon,  Jahaz,  Kedemoth,  Medeba,  Mephaath,  and  Midian. 
The  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  was  bounded  by  the  river 
Jordan  on  the  west,  by  the  canton  of  the  half  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh on  the  north,  by  the  Ammonites  on  the  east,  and  by  the 
tribe  of  Reuben  on  the  south.  Its  chief  cities  were  Betharan 
(afterwards  called  Julias),  Debir,  Jazer,  Mahanaim,  Mizpeh, 
Penuel,  Rabbah,  or  Rabboth  (afterwards  called  Philadelphia), 
Succoth,  and  Tishbeth.  The  region  allotted  to  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  on  th  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan,  was 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  ;  by 
the  sea  of  Cinnereth  (afterwards  called  the  lake  of  Gennesa- 
reth'and  the  sea  of  Galilee),  and  the  course  of  the  river  Jor- 
dan from  its  source  towards  that  sea,  on  the  west ;  by  Mount 
Lebanon,  or  more  properly  Mount  Hermon,  on  the  north  and 
north-east ;  and  by  Mount  Gilead  on  the  east.  Its  principal 
cities  were  Ashtaroth-Carnaim,  Auran,   Beeshterah,  Betli- 

■»  The  cities  of  refuge  on  the  eastern  side  of  Jordan  were  Bezer,  in  the 
liihc  cif  Kr-uben;  Raiiiolh  Gilead,  in  that  of  Gad ;  and  Golan,  in  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh.  Those  on  the  western  side  of  Jordan  were,  Hebron, 
in  the  tribe  of  Judah  ;  Shcchein,  in  that  of  Ephraim  ;  and  Kedesh-Naphtali, 
in  that  of  Naphtali. 

3  Most  of  tlic  North  American  nations  had  similar  places  of  refuge 
(cither  a  house  or  a  to*n),  which  afforded  a  safe  asylum  to  a  man-slayer^ 
who  fled  to  it  from  the  revenger  of  blood.  Adair's  History  of  the  American 
Indians,  pp.  1.5S,  159.  416.  ...  ' 

*  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron,  p.  78.  Jenning's  Jewish  Antiquities,  booK 
ii.  ch.  5.  p.  295.    Ediiib.  1S08. 


/ 


(Icr  a  peculiar  officer.     These  districts,  togethet  with  the\'ii^j\]^e,"Myi^d,l"had"apicturef  which  itieys 
Vol.  II.      -  C 


Loiujitude    East    3 


([C5o  6pcl  IH^tOtl)  j) ) 


0    irom    liivfiiuich. 


3 '6 


Lowman  on  the  Civil  Government  of  the  Hebrews,  pp.  46—49.  I  ii.  ch.  5.  p.  295.    Edinb.  1508. 


J 


Chap.  I.] 


KINGDOMS  OF  JUDAH  AND  OF  ISRAEL. 


17 


snida,  Gadnra,  derasa,  Coslnir,  and  .Tnljosli-C.'ilcad.  This 
tribo  was  grfially  indebtiul  to  tlio  bravery  of  .lair,  who  took 
threexntrc  cilic.%  bnsi(los  si'VtTal  small  towns  or  villa<rcs,  which 
he  callcMl  Hivoth-.lair,  or  the  J)wi//iii<rs  i/fJuir.  (1  Chron.  ii. 
2:i.  Ninii.  xxxii.  H.)      . 

The  nMuainino-  nine  trihos  and  a  half  were  settled  on  the 
western  side,  of  thi!  .lordan. 

'l'!i('  eanton  of  tlic;  tribe  of  .TunAH  was  hounded  on  the  east 
by  the  Dead  Sea ;  on  the  west,  l)y  the  tribes  of  Dan  and 
Simeon,  both  of  whicli  lay  between  it  and  th(!  Mediterranean 
8ea;  on  the  north,  by  th<!  eanton  of  the  tribe  of  IJenjamin  ; 
and  on  the  sonth,  by  Kadrsli-lJariu  a,  and  the  Desert  of  Paran 
t>r  Zin.  .iiidali  was  rcckdiicd  to  be  tlir'  larirest  and  most  popu- 
lous of  all  th(^  twelve  Irilies;  and  its  inhabitants  were  the 
most  valiant;  it  was  also  tlie  chief  and  royal  tribe,  from 
wliich,  in  subse<incnt  times,  tin;  whole  kinjrdom  was  denomi- 
nated. 'J'he  most  HMnarkable  places  or  cities  in  tliis  tribe 
were  Adnllam,  A/.ekah,  Hethlchem,  Heth'/.or,  Debir  or  Kiri- 
ath-se])ber,  Knnnaus,  Kniredi,  Kiriatiiari)a  or  1  lebron,  Lib- 
nah,  Makkedah,  Maoii,  Massada,  Tekoah,  and  Zijih. 

'I*ln!  iidieritance  of  the  tribes  of  Dan  and  of  ISimeon  was 
within  the  inheritance  of  the  tribe  of  .Indah,  or  was  taken  out 
of  tlie  portion  at  first  allotted  to  the  latter.  The  i)Oundaries 
of  these  two  tribes  are  not  precistdy  aserrtained  ;  tiiough 
they  are  placed  by  treograpln^rs  to  the  north  and  south-west 
of  the  eanton  of  .Indah,  and  consec^nently  bordered  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  The  prineii)al  citiis  in  the  tribe  of  Dan, 
were  Ajalon,  Dan  or  Ijcshiun,  Eltekiih,  Kshtaol,  Gath-rim- 
mon,  Giblxniion,  Hirsheniesh,  .lojipa,  Modin,  Timnath,  and 
Zorah.  The  chief  cities  in  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  were  Ain, 
Beersheba,  Hormah,  and  Ziklair. 

'J'he  canton  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  lay  between 
the  tribes  of  .Indah  and  .loscph,  contijruous  to  Samaria  on  the 
north,  to  Jndah  on  the  south,  and  to  Dan  on  the  west,  which 
last  parted  it  from  the  IMediterranean.  It  did  not  contain 
many  cities  and  towns,  but  this  deft-ct  was  abundantly  sup- 
plied by  its  possessing  the  most  considerai)le,  and  the  metro- 
polis of  all — the  city  of  Jerusalem.  The  otlier  places  of 
note  in  this  tribe  were  Anathoth,  Beth-el,  Gibcah,  Gibeon, 
GilX'ili  Hai,  Mizneh,  Ophrah,  and  .Tericho. 

To  the  north  ot  the  canton  of  Benjamin  lay  that  allotted  to 
the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  and  that  of  the  other  half  tribe  of 
Manassf.h.  'J'he  boundaries  of  these  two  districts  cannot  be 
ascertained  with  precision.  The  chief  places  in  Ephraim, 
were  Bothoron  the  Nether  and  Upper,  Gexer,  Lydda,  Mich- 
mash,  Naioth,  Samaria,  Shechem,  Shiloh,  and  'I"'iuinath- 
Serah.  After  the  schism  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  seat  of  the 
kinirdom  of  Israel  being  in  Ephraim,  this  tribe  is  frequently 
used  to  signify  the  whole  kingdom.  'J'he  chief  places  in  the 
half  tribe  of  Manassch,  were  Abel-meholath,  Bcthabara, 
Jiethshain  (afterwards  called  Scythopolis),  Bezek,  Endor, 
Enon,  (iath-rimmon,  Megiddo,  Salim,  Ophrah,  and  'l""irzah. 
'J'o  the  north,  and  more  particularly  to  the  north-east  of  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  lay  the  canton  of  Issachar,  which 
was  bordered  by  the  celebrated  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  its 
northern  boundary  was  INIount  'l\d)or.  'I'he  chief  cities  of 
Issachar,  were  Aphek,  Bethshemesh,  Dothan,  Kishon,  Jez- 
reel,  Nairn  or  Nain,  Bamoth,  and  Shunem. 

On  the  north  and  west  of  Issachar  resided  the  tribe  of 
Zebulun.  Its  chief  places  were  Bethlehem,  Cinnereth  or 
Chinnereth,  Gath-hepher,  Jokneam,  Kemmon-Methoar,  and 
Shimroneheron. 

'I^he  tribe  of  Asiier  was  stationed  in  the  district  to  the 
north  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  and  west  of  Zebulun ; 
consetjuently  it  was  a  maritime  country.  Hence  it  was  said 
f  Judg.  V.  17.)  that  Jlx/ier  continued  on  the  seashore,  and  abode 
in  hts  creeks.  Its  northern  boundary  w'as  Mount  Libanus  or 
Lebanon ;  and  on  the  south  it  was  bounded  by  Mount  Car- 
mel,  and  the  canton  of  Issachar.  Its  principal  cities  were 
Abdon,  Achshaph,  Hellcath,  iVIishal,  and  Rehob.  This  tribe 
never  possessed  the  whole  extent  of  district  assigned  to  it, 
which  was  to  reach  to  Libanus,  to  Syria,  and  Phoenicia,  and 
included  the  celebrated  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

Lastly,  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  or  Nephtali  occupied  that 
district  in  the  northern  part  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  which  lay 
between  Mount  Lebanon  to  the  north,  and  the  sea  of  Cinner- 
eth (or  Gennesareth)  to  the  south,  and  between  Asher  to  the 
west,  and  the  river  .Irrdan  to  the  east.  Its  chief  places  were 
Abel  or  Abel-Ueth-Maachah,  Hammoth-dor,  Ilarosheth  of  the 
Gentiles,  Kedesh,  and  Kiriathaim. 

V.  The  next  remarkable  division  was  made  by  king  Solo- 
mon, who  divided  the  kingdom,  which  he  had  received  from 
his  father  David,  into  twelve  provinces  or  districts,  each  un- 
der a  peculiar  officer.    These  districts,  together  with  the 
Vol.  II.      -  C 


names  of  their  respective  presidents,  are  enumerated  in  1 
Kings  iv.  7 — 19.  From  the  produce  of  these  districts  every 
one  of  these  officers  was  to  siipplj'  the  king  with  provisions 
for  his  household,  in  his  turn,  that  is,  each  for  one  month  in 
the  year.  'J'he  dominions  of  Solomon  extended  from  (he 
river  unio  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  un/o  the  tmrdtr  of 
Ki^}ipl,  tlieij  t/rnuirltt  j)re>ccnts,  and  served  iSohinam  all  the  days 
of  his  life.  (1  Kings  iv.  21.)  Hence  it  appears  that  the 
Tlebrew  monarch  reigned  over  all  the  provinces  from  the 
rivi^r  Eii])hrates  to  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  even  to  the 
frontiers  of  10gj'j)t.  'J'he  Euphrates  was  the  eastern  boun- 
dary of  his  dominions ;  the  Philistines  were  westward.,  on 
th(!  Meditlerraiu'an  Sea;  and  JOgypt  was  oij  the  south.  Solo- 
mon therefore  had,  as  his  tributaries,  the  kingdoms  of  Syria, 
Damascus,  Moab,  and  Ammon  ;  and  thus  he  appears  to  have 
possessed  all  the  land  which  God  had  covenanted  with  Abra- 
Ir.im  to  give  to  his  posterity. 

VL  Under  this  division  the  Holy  Land  continued  till  after 
the  death  of  Solomon,  when  ten  tribes  revolted  from  his  son 
Rchoboam,  and  erected  themselves  into  a  separate  kingdom 
under  Jer(jboam,  called  the  JviNODOiM  of  Israel.  'J'he  two 
other  tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Judah,  continuing  faithful  to 
Behoboam,  formed  the  Kingdom  of  Juuah.  'J'his  kingdom 
comprised  all  the  southern  parts  of  the  land,  consisting  of 
the  allotments  of  those  two  tribes,  together  with  so  much  of 
the  territories  of  Dan  and  Simeon  as  were  intermixed  with 
that  of  Judah  :  its  royal  city  or  metropolis  was  Jerusalem,  in 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  'J'he  kingdom  of  Israel  included  all 
the  northern  and  middle  parts  of  the  land,  occupied  by  the 
other  ten  tribes  ;  and  its  capital  was  Samaria,  in  the  trine  of 
Ephraim,  situated  about  thirtj^  miles  north-east  of  Jerusalem. 
But  this  division  ceased,  on  the  subversion  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  by  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  after  it  had  sub- 
sisted two  Hundred  and  fifty-four  years. 

VII.  The  Holy  Land  ftul  successively  into  the  hands  of 
the  Syrian  kings,  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  In  the  time  of 
Jesus  Christ  it  was  divided  into  five  separate  provinces,  viz. 
Galilee,  Samaria,  Judaja,  Peraja,  and  Idumaea. 

1.  Galilee. — This  portion  of  the  Holy  Land  is  very  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  New  Testament :  its  limits  seem 
to  have  varied  at  different  times.  It  comprised  the  country 
formerly  occupied  by  the  tribes  of  Issachar,  Naphtali,  and 
Asher,  and  by  part  of  the  tribe  of  Dan ;  and  is  divided  by 
Josephus  into  Upper  and  Lower  Galilee. 

Upper  Galilee  abounded  in  mountains  ;  and  from  its  vicinity 
to  the  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  it  is  called  the  Coasts  of  Tyre 
and  iSidon.  (Mark  vii.  31.)  The  principal  city  in  this  region 
was  Cajsarea  Philippi ;  through  which  the  main  road  lay  to 
Damascus,  Tyre,  and  Sidon. 

Lower  Galilee  was  situated  in  a  rich  and  fertile  plain,  be- 
tween the  Mediteranean  Sea  and  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth : 
according  to  Josephus,  this  district  was  very  populous,  con- 
taining upwards  of  two  hundred  cities  and  towns.  The 
principal  cities  of  Lower  Galilee,  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  are  'J'iberias,  Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  Nazareth, 
Cana,  Capernaum,  Nain,  Caesarea  of  Palestine,  and  Ptole- 
mais. 

Galilee  was  most  honoured  by  our  Saviour's  presence. 
"  Hither  Joseph  and  Mary  returned  with  him  out  of  Egypt, 
and  here  he  resided  until  his  baptism  by  John.  (Matt.  ii.  22, 
23.  Luke  ii.  39 — 51.  Matt.  iii.  13.  Luke  iii.  21.)  Hither  he  re- 
turned after  his  baptism  and  temptation  (Luke  iv.  14.):  and, 
after  his  entrance  on  his  public  ministry,  though  he  often 
went  into  other  provinces,  yet  so  frequent  were  his  visits  to 
this  country,  that  he  was  called  a  Galilean.  (Matt.  xxvi.  69.) 
The  population  of  Galilee  being  very  great,  our  Lord  had 
many  opportunities  of  doing  good  ;  and  being  out  of  the 
power  ot  the  priests  at  Jerusalem,  he  seems  to  have  preferred 
It  as  his  abode.  To  this  province  our  Lord  commanded  his 
apostles  to  come  and  converse  with  him  after  his  resurrection 
(Matt,  xxviii.  7.  16.):  and  of  this  country  most,  if  not  the 
whole,  of  his  apostles  were  natives,  whence  they  are  all  styled 
by  the  angels  men  of  Galilee.''''^  (Acts  i.  11.) 

The  Galileans  spoke  an  unpolished  and  cornipt  dialect  of 
the  Syriac,  confounding  and  using  y  {ain)  or  n  {aleph),  a 
(caph)  for  3  (beth),  p  (tou)  for  t  {dcileth);  and  also  frequent- 
ly changed  the  gutturals.2  This  probably  proceeded  from 
their  great  communication  and  intennixture  with  the  neigh- 
bouring nations.     It  was  this  corrupt  dialect  that  led  to  the 

t  Well's  Geography  of  Ihe  Old  and  New  Testament,  vol.  ii.  p.  137. 

«  Dr.  Li'flilfoot,  10  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  above  remark,  haB 
"■iven  several  instances  in  Hebrew  and  Enslish,  which  are  s\ifficiently  amus- 
fng.  One  of  these  is  as  follows  :  A  ceriain  woman  intended  to  say  before 
the  judge.  My  Lord,  I  had  a  iiiclure,  tc/iich  llitij  slult ;  and  it  was  so  great 


18 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Paht  L 


detection  of  Peter  as  one  of  Christ's  disciples.  (Mark  xiv. 
70.)  The  Galileans  are  repeatedly  mentioned  by  Josephns 
as  a  turbulent  and  rebellious  people,  and  upon  all  occasions 
ready  to  disturb  the  Roman  authority.  They  were  particu- 
larly forward  in  an  insurrection  against  Pilate  himself,  who 
proceeded  to  a  summary  mode  of  punishment,  causing  a 
party  of  them  to  be  treacherously  slain,  during  one  of  the 

freat  festivals,  when  they  came  to  sacrifice  at  Jerusalem.' 
'his  character  of  the  Galileans  explains  the  expression  in 
St.  Luke's  Gospel  (xiii.  1.),  whose  blood  Pilate  ininglecl  with 
their  sacrifices ;  and  also  accounts  for  his  abrupt  question, 
when  he  heard  of  Galilee,  and  asked  if  Jesus  were  a  Crulilean  ? 
(Luke  xxiii.  6.)  Our  Redeemer  was  accused  before  him  of 
seditious  practices,  and  of  exciting  the  people  to  revolt ; 
when,  therefore,  it  was  stated,  among  other  things,  that  he 
had  been  in  Galilee,  Pilate  caught  at  the  observation,  and  in- 
quired if  he  were  a  Galilean;  having  been  prejudiced  against 
the  inhabitants  of  that  district  by  their  frequent  commotions, 
and  beino-  on  this  account  the  more  ready  to  receive  any 
charge  wTiich  might  be  brought  against  any  one  of  that  ob- 
noxious community. 2 

Galilee  of  the  Nations,  or  of  the  Gentiles,  mentioned  in  Isa. 
ix.  \.  and  Matt.  iv.  15.,  is  by  some  commentators  supposed 
to  be  Upper  Galilee,  either  because  it  bordered  on  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  or  because  the  Phoenicians,  Syrians,  Arabs,  &c.  were 
to  be  found  among  its  inhabitants.  Others,  however,  with 
better  reason,  suppose  that  the  whole  of  Galilee  is  intended, 
and  is  so  called,  because  it  lay  adjacent  to  idolatrous  na- 
tions. ^ 

2.  Samaria. — ^The  division  of  the  Holy  Land  thus  denomi- 
nated, derives  its  name  from  the  city  of  Samaria,  and  comprises 
the  tract  of  country  which  was  originally  occupied  by  the 
two  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  within  Jordan,  lying 
exactly  in  the  middle  between  JudoBa  and  Galilee ;  so  that  it 
was  absolutelj"^  necessary  for  persons  who  were  desirous  of 
going  expeditiously  from  Galilee  to  Jerusalem,  to  pass 
through  this  country.  This  sufficiently  explains  the  remark 
of  St.  John  (iv.  4.),  which  is  strikingly  confirmed  by  Jose- 
phns.'^ The  three  chief  places  of  this  district,  noticed  in  the 
Scriptures,  are  Samaria,  Sichem,  or  Schechem,  and  Anti- 
patris. 

3.  JuD^A. — Of  the  various  districts,  into  which  Palestine 
was  divided,  Judaea  was  the  most  distinguished.  It  com- 
prised the  territories  which  had  formerly  belonged  to  the 
tiibes  of  Judah,  Benjamin,  Simeon,  and  to  part  of  the  tribe 
of  Uan  ;  being  nearly  coextensive  with  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Judah.  Its  metropolis  was  Jerusalem  :  and  of  the  other 
towns  or  villages  of  note  contained  in  this  region,  the  most 
remarkable  were  Arimathea,  Azotus  or  Ashdod,  Bethany, 
Bethlehem,  Bethphage,  Emmaus,  Ephraim,  Gaza,  Jericho, 
Joppa,  Lydda,  and  Rama. 

4.  The  district  of  Per^a  comprised  the  six  cantons  of 
Abilene,  Trachonitis,  Itursea,  Gaulonitis,  Batansea,  and  Peraja, 
strictly  so  called,  to  which  some  geographers  have  added 
Decapolis. 

( I .)  Abilene  was  the  most  northern  of  these  provinces, 
being  situated  between  the  mountains  of  Libanus  and  Anti- 
Libanus,  and  deriving  its  name  from  the  city  Abila,  or  Abela. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  within  the  boruers  of  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali,  although  it  was  never  subdued  by  them.  This  can- 
ton or  territory  had  formerly  been  governed  as  a  kingdom 
{li-ji<n\uA)  by  a  certain  Lysanias,  the  son  of  Ptolemy  and 
grandson  of  Mennasus ;  but  he  being  put  to  death  b.  c.  36, 
through  the  intrigues  of  Cleopatra,  Augustus  placed  over  it 
another  Lysanias,  a  descendant  (as  it  appears)  of  the  former, 
with  the  title  of  tetrarch.  (Luke  iii.  1.)  The  emperor  Clau- 
dius afterwards  made  a  present  of  this  district  to  king  Agrip- 
pa,  or  at  least  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  it.* 

.  (2.)  Trachonitis  was  bounded  by  the  Desert  Arabia  on 
the  east,  Batana;a  on  the  west,  Ituraja  on  the  south,  and  the 

that  if  you  had  beenplaced  in  it,  yvur  feet  would  not  have  touched  the 
ground,  iiul  she  so  spoiled  the  business  with  her  pronunciation,  that,  as 
Hie  glnsser  interprets  it,  her  words  had  this  sense; — Sir,  slave,  I  had  a 
beam,  and  lliey  stole  thee  away  ;  and  it  was  so  greai-,  that  if  they  had 
himg  thee  on  it,  thy  feet  would  not  have  touched  the  ground.  Lightfoot's 
Chorogruphical  Century  of  the  Land  of  Israel,  ch.  Ixxxvii.  (Works,  vol.  ii. 
p.  79.)  See  ailditional  examples  in  Buxtorfs  Lexicon  Chaldaicum,  Talmu- 
diculn  et  Rabbinicum,  p.  434. 

>  .loseplius,  Antif).  book  xvlii.  c.  3.  §  2.  and  Mr.  Whiston's  note  there.  In 
another  place,  (bonk  x\'ii.  c.  10  §2.),  after  describing  a  popular  tumult,  lie 
says,  A  great  numbpr  of  these  were  Galileans  and  Iduiiwans. 

»  Gilly's  Spirit  of  the  Oospel,  or  the  Four  Evangelists  ehicidaled,  p.  328. 

»  Kiiinoel  in  loe.  Robinson's  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  Nevf 
TfStariient,  voce  rxXi>,Kia. 

*  Aini(|.  book  .\x.  c.  5.  §  1.    De  Bell.  Jud.  oook  ii.  c.  12.  §  3. 

'  .losephus.  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiv.  c,  13.  xv.  c.  4.  xix.  c.  5.  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i 
c.  13. 


country  of  Damascus  on  the  north.  It  abounded  with  rocks, 
which  afforded  shelter  to  numerous  thieves  and  robbers. 

(3.)  Itur^a  anciently  belonged  to  the  half  trilie  of  Ma- 
nasseh, who  settled  on  the  east  of  Jordan  :  it  stood  to  the  east 
of  Batana;a  and  to  the  south  of  Trachonitis.  Of  these  two 
cantons  Philij)  the  son  of  Herod  the  Great  was  tetrarch  at 
the  time  John  the  Baptist  comiuenced  his  ministry.  (Luke 
iii.  1.)  It  derived  its  name  fom  Jetur  the  son  of  Ishmael 
(1  Chron.  i.  31.),  and  was  also  called  Auianitis  from  the  city 
of  Hauran.  (Ezek.  xlvii.  1(5.  18.)  This  region  exhibits  ves- 
tiges of  its  former  fertility,  and  is  most  beautifully  wooded 
and  picturesque. 5  The  Iturseans  are  said  to  have  been  skil- 
ful archers  and  dexterous  robbers. 

(4.)  Gaulonitis  was  a  tract  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake  of 
Gennesareth  and  the  river  Jordan,  which  derived  its  name 
from  Gaulan  or  Golan  the  city  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan. 
(Josh.  XX.  8.)  This  canton  is  not  mentionea  in  the  New 
Testament. 

(5.)  Batan^a,  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Bashan,  was  situat- 
ed to  the  north-east  of  Gaulonitis,  and  was  celebrated  for  its 
excellent  breed  of  cattle,  its  rich  pastures,  and  for  its  stately 
oaks  :  the  precise  limits  of  this  district  are  not  easy  to  be  de- 
fined. A  part  of  it  is  now  called  the  Eelka,  and  affords  the 
finest  pasturage,  being  every  where  shaded  with  groves  of 
noble  oaks  and  pistachio  trees.  It  was  part  of  the  territory 
given  to  Herod  Antipas,  and  is  not  noticed  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

(6.)  Per^a,  in  its  restricted  sense,  includes  the  southern 
part  of  the  country  beyond  Jordan,  lying  south  of  Ituraea, 
east  of  Judaea  and  Samaria  ;  and  was  anciently  possessed  by 
the  two  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad.  Its  principal  place  was 
the  strong  fortress  of  Machcerus,  erected  for  the  purpose  of 
checking  the  predatory  incursions  of  the  Arabs.  This  fort- 
ress, though  not  specified  by  name  in  the  New  Testament,  is 
memorable  as  the  place  where  John  the  Baptist  was  put  to 
death.  (Matt.  xiv.  3 — 12.) 

(7.)  The  canton  of  Decapolis  (Matt.  iv.  25.  Mark  v.  20. 
and  vii.  31.),  which  derives  its  name  from  the  ten  cities  it 
contained,  is  considered  by  Reland  and  other  eminent  author- 
ities as  part  of  the  region  of  Peraea.  Concerning  its  limits, 
and  the  names  of  its  ten  cities,  geographers  are  by  no  means 
agreed;  bu't,  according  to  Josephus  (whose  intimate  know- 
ledge of  the  country  constitutes  him  an  unexceptionable  au- 
thority), it  contained  the  cities  of  Damascus,  Otopos,  Phila- 
delphia, Raphana,  Scythopolis  (the  capital  of  the  district), 
Gadara,  Hippos,  Dies,  Pella,  and  Gerasa. 

5.  IdumjEa. — This  province  was  added  by  the  Romans,  on 
their  conquest  of  Palestine.  It  comprised  the  extreme  south- 
ern part  of  Judaja,  together  with  some  small  part  of  Arabia.^ 
During  the  Babylonish  captivity,  being  left  destitute  of  in- 
habitants, or  not  sufficiently  inhabited  by  its  natives,  it  seems 
to  have  been  seized  by  the  neighbouring  Idumseans ;  and 
though  they  were  afterwards  subjugated  by  the  powerful 
arms  of  the  Maccabees  and  Asmonasan  princes,  and  embraced 
Judaism,  yet  the  tract  of  country,  of  which  they  had  thus 

fossessed  themselves,  continued  to  retain  the  appellation  of 
dumaea  in  the  time  of  Christ,  and,  indeed,  for  a  considerable 
subsequent  period.  Ultimately  the  Idumseans  became  min- 
gled with  the  Ishmaelites,  and.  they  were  jointly  called  Na- 
batha^ans,  from  Nebaioth,  a  son  of  Ishmael.^ 

Vlll.  Of  the  whole  country  thus  described,  Jerusalem 
was  the  metropolis  during  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon  : 
after  the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes,  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  but  during  the  time  of  Christ  and 
until  the  subversion  of  the  Jewish  polity,  it  was  the  me- 
tropolis of  Palestine. 

1.  Jerusalem  is  frequently  styled  in  the  Scriptures  the 
Holif  City  (Isa.  xlviii.  2.  Dan.  ix.  24.  Neh.xi.  1.  Matt.  iv. 
5.  Rev.  xi.  2.),  because  tlie  Lwd  chose  it  out  of  all  the  tribes 
of  Israel  to  place  his  name  t?ie)-e,  his  temple  and  his  worship 

«  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Palestine,  pp.  408,  409.  London,  1891. 4to.  Mr. 
Burckluirdt,  who  visited  this  region  in  the  years  ISIO  and  1812,  has  de- 
scribed its  present  state,  together  with  the  various  antiquities  which  still 
remain.  See  his  Travels  in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  51—119.  211— .310. 
London,  1822. 4to. 

■"  For  a  copious  and  interesting  illustration  of  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy 
concerning  tdumica,  from  the  statements  of  itiodern  travellers,  see  Mr 
keith's  Evidence  of  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion  from  Prophecy,  pp. 
172—220. 

«  Besides  the  authorities  incidentally  cited  in  the  preceding  pages,  the 
following  works  have  been  consulted  for  this  chapler,  viz.  Relandi  Pala^sti- 
na,  torn.  i.  pp.  1—204.  (Traj.  ad  Rhen.  1714);  Ancient  Universal  HistoiT-; 
vol.  ii.  pp.  4.')2— 46:').  476 — 48fi.  (Lond.  1748) ;  Pritii  Introciuctio  ad  Lectioiiem 
Novi  Testamenti,  pp.  497 — 518. ;  Beausobre's  and  L'Enfant'sIniroduction  to 
the  New  Testament  (IJp.  Watson's  Collection  of  Theolosical  Tracts,  vol. 
iii.  pp.  2ti2 — 278.)  ;  Pareaii,  Anliquitas  Hebraica  breviter  descripta,  pp.  44— 
52. ;  Spanheuiii  Introductio  sd  Geographiaw  Sacram,  pp.  1-81. 


Chap.  I.] 


ACCOUNT  OF  JERUSALEM. 


19 


(Deut.  xii.  5.  xiv.  23.  xvi.  2.  xxvi.  2.J ;  and  to  be  the  coiitre 
of  union  in  reliirion  and  frovernnu^nt  tor  all  the  tribes  of  the 
commonwealth  of  Israel.  It  is  hehi  in  the  hijihost  veneration 
by  ('hristian.s  for  llie  miraculous  and  imuorlant  transactions 
which  hajjpeiu^d  there,  and  also  l)y  the  iNiohammcdans,  who 
to  this  day  never  call  it  by  any  other  ap))ellation  than  E/- 
A'ods,'  or  AV  K.'.oiKkf!,  that  is,  'Phe  Holy,  sometimes  adding 
the  epithet  Jl-Slicr!j\  or  The  Nol)ie.  Tiie  most  ancient  iianu: 
of  the  city  was  Sdlcni,  or  P("dee  ((Jen.  xiv.  18.):  tlie  import 
of  .lernsalem  is,  the  vision  or  inlierltunce  of  jteact  ;'^  and  to 
this  it  is  not  imj)robaljle  tliat  our  Saviour  alluded  in  his  beau- 
tiful and  pathetic  lamentation  over  the  city.  (Luke  xix.  41.) 
It  was  also  lormerly  called  Jdmn  from  one  of  the  sons  ol' 
Canaan,  (.losh.  xviii.  2rt.)  After  its  capture  l)y  .loshua 
(.losh.  X.')  it  was  jointly  iidialiilcul  both  by  .fcnvs  and  .lebus- 
ites  (.losh.  XV.  (J.'J.)  for  about  live  hundred  years,  until  the 
time  of  David;  who  having  exi)elled  the  .Icbusites,  made;  it 
his  residence  (2  Sam.  v.  (> — 9.),  and  erected  a  noble  palace 
there,  tojjrether  with  several  other  matruifieeut  buildinfrs, 
whence  it  is  sometimes  styled  the  (V/y  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xi.  5.)'  By  the  pro])liet  Isaiah  (xxix.  1.)  .lerusalem  is  termed 
Jirid.,  or  tln^  Lion  of  («od  ;  but  the  reason  of  this  name,  and 
its  meanin<r,  as  applied  to  Jerusalem,  is  very  obscure  and 
doubtful.  It  may  possibly  sigfuify  the  strentrtn  of  the  place, 
by  which  the  inhat)itants  were  en;ibled  to  resist  and  overcome 
their  enemies;'  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Persians  term 
one  of  their  cities  Shirdz,  or  the  Devouring  Lion.  Beinof 
situated  on  the  confines  of  the  two  tribes  of  Benjamin  and 
•ludah,  .lerusalem  sometimes  formed  a  part  of  the  one,  and 
sometimes  of  the  other ;  but,  after  Jehovah  had  appointtid  it 
to  be  the  place  of  his  habitation  and  temple,  it  was  consi- 
dered as  tlie  metropolis  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  the  common 
propirlii  of  the  children  of  Israel.  On  this  account  it  was, 
that  the  houses  were  not  let,  and  all  strangers  of  the  Jewish 
nation  had  the  liberty  of  lodging  there  gratis,  by  right  of 
hospitality.  To  this  custom  our  Lord  probably  alludes  in 
Matt.  xxvi.  18.  and  the  ])arallel  passages.* 

2.  The  name  of  the  whole  mountain,  on  the  several  hills 
and  hollows  of  which  the  city  stood,  was  called  Moriah,  or 
viaion ,-  because  it  was  high  land,  and  could  be  seen  afar  off, 
especially  from  the  south  (Gen.  xxii.  2 — 4.)  ;  but  afterwards 
that  name  was  appropriated  to  the  most  elevated  part  on 
which  the  temple  was  erected,  and  where  Jehovah  appeared 
to  David.  (2  Chron.  iii.  1.  2  Sam.  xxiv.  16,  17.)  This 
mountain  is  a  rocky  limestone  hill,  steep  of  ascent  on  every 
side,  except  the  north  ;  and  is  surrounded  on  the  other  sides 
by  a  group  of  hills,  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre  (Psal. 
cxxv.  2.),  which  situation  rendered  it  secure  from  the  earth- 
quakes that  appear  to  have  been  frequent  in  the  Holy  Land 
(Psal.  xlvi.  2,  3.),  and  have  furnished  the  prophets  with 
many  elegant  allusions.  On  the  east,  stands  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  fronting  the  temple,  of  which  it  commanded  a  noble 
^prospect  (Matt.  xxiv.  2,  3.  Luke  xix.  37 — 41.),  as  it  does  to 
this  day  of  the  whole  city,  over  whose  streets  and  walls  the 
eye  roves  as  if  in  the  survey  of  a  model.  This  mountain, 
which  is  frequently  noticed  in  the  evangelical  history,  stretches 
from  north  to  south,  and  is  about  a  mile  in  length.  The 
olive  is  still  found  growing  in  patches  at  the  foot  of  this 
mountain,  to  which  it  o;ives  its  name.  Its  summit  commands 
a  view  as  far  as  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  mountains  beyond 
Jordan.  On  the  descent  of  this  mountain  our  Saviour  stood 
when  he  beheld  the  city  and  wept  over  it ;  on  this  mountain 
it  was  that  he  delivered  his  prediction  concerning  the  down- 
fall of  Jerusalem  (Luke  xix.  41 — ^^14.);  and  the  army  of  Ti- 
tus encamped  upon  the  very  spot  where  its  destruction  had 
been  foretold.^     Dr.  Clarke  discovered  some  Pagan  remains 

«  This  is  a  contraction  from  MfMinet-el-K adess,  that  is,  the  Sacred  Cily. 
Capt.  Light's  Travels  in  Egypt,  Nubia,  &c.  p.  177.  Burckliardt  in  his  map 
terms  Jerusalem  Khodess. 

»  Relandi  Palsestina,  tom.  ii.  p.  833.    Schulzii  Archneologia  Giblica,  p.  20. 

»  Beausobre  ami  Llinfant,  in  Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  112. 

*  Bp.  I,owth,  on  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  206. 

»  Schulzii  Arch»oloeia  Biblica,  p.  21.  Beausobre  and  L'Enfant,  in  Bp. 
Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  Iii.  p.  143. 

«  Josephus,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.  5.  "It  is  not  difficult  to  conceive," 
says  the  Rev.  W.  Jovvett,  who,  in  December,  1823,sun'eyed  Jerusalem  from 
this  mountain,  "  observing  from  this  spot  the  various  undulations  and  slopes 
of  the  ground,  that  when  Mount  Zion,  Acra,  and  Mount  Moriah,  constituted 
the  bulk  of  the  city,  with  a  deep  and  steep  valley  surrounding  the  greater 
part  of  it,  it  must  have  been  considered  by  the  people  of  that  age  as  nearly 
impregnable.  It  stands  beautiful  for  situation  !  It  is,  indeed,  builded  as  a 
cily  that  is  compact  together.  (Ps.  cxxii.  3.)  The  kings  of  the  earth,  and 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  icorld  troutd  not  have  believed,  that  the  adversary 
and  the  enemy  should  have  entered  into  the  gates  of  Jerusalem.  (Lam.  iv. 
12.  B.  c.  5S8.)  This  was  said  nearly  two  thousand  four  hundred  years  ago. 
And  when,  650  years  afler,  Titus  besieged  and  took  this  devoted  city,  he  ex- 
claimed on  viewing  the  vast  strength  of  the  place,  '  We  have  certainly  had 
God  for  our  assistant  in  this  war :  and  it  was  no  other  than  God  who  ejected 
the  Jews  out  of  these  fortificatious :  for  what  could  the  hands  'of  men,  or 


on  this  mountain ;  and  at  its  foot  he  visited  an  olive  ground, 
always  noticed  as  the  garden  of  Cethsemane.  "  This  place," 
says  he,  "  is,  not  without  reason,  shown  as  the  scene  of  our 
Saviour's  atrony  the  night  before  his  crucifixion  (Matt.  xxvi. 
Mark  xiv.  Luke  xxii.  John  xviii.),  both  from  the  circum- 
stance of  the  name  it  still  retains,  and  its  situation  with  re- 
gard to  the  city."  Here  he  found  a  g.-ove  of  olives  of  im- 
mense size  covered  with  fruit,  almost  in  a  mature  state.' 
lletween  Olivet  and  the  city  lies  the  deep  valley  of  Kedron, 
through  which  flows  the  brook  of  that  name  which  is  noticed 
in  a  subsequent  page. 

On  the  south  side  stood  the  Mount  of  Corhuption,  where 
Solomon,  in  his  declining  years,  built  temples  to  Moloch, 
Chemosh,  and  Ashtaroth  (1  Kings  xi.  7.  2  Kings  xxiii.  13.): 
it  was  separated  from  the  city  by  the  narrow  valley  cf  Ilin- 
nom  (Josh,  xviii.  Ki.  Jer.  xix.  2.),  where  the  Israelites  burnt 
their  children  in  the  fire  to  Moloch  (Jer.  vii.  31.  and  xxxii. 
35.):  thence  made  the  emblem  of  hell,  Gf.henna,  or  the 
place  of  the  damned.     (Matt.  v.  22.  xxiii.  33.  Mark  ix.  43.) 

Towards  the  north,  according  to  Euse})ius  and  Jerome,  and 
without  the  walls  of  the  city,  agreeably  to  the  law  of  Mos(S« 
(Lev.  iv.),  lay  Calvary  or  Golgotha,  that  is,  the  place  of 
a  skull  (Matt,  xxvii.  33.),  so  called  by  some  from  its  fancied 
resemblance  to  a  skull,  but  more  probably  because  criminals 
were  executed  there.^  Calvary,  which  noW  groans  beneath 
the  weight  of  monastic  piles,  was  probably  open  ground, 
cultivated  for  gardens  (John  xix.  41.),  at  the  time  when  He, 
iv/io  suffered  without  t fie  gate  (Heb.  xiii.  12.),  there  poured  out 
his  soul  unto  death.^o 

The  southern  quarter,' originally  "the  city  of  David," 
hu'ih  on  Mount  Zion,^i  Josephus  calls  the  upper  city,-  and 
the  house  of  Millo  was  what  he  calls  the  upper  rnarket.^^ 

3.  We  have  no  particulars  recorded  concerning  the  nature 
of  the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem,  previously  to  the  time  of 
the  pious  and  patriotic  governor,  Nehemiah;  though  such 
there  undoubtedly  must  have  been,  from  the  importance  and 
sanctity  of  the  city,  as  the  metropolis  of  the  countr}^,  and  the 
seat  of  the  Jewish  worship.  After  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  they  rebuilt  Jerusalem,  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  the  Chaldsans;  and  in  the  account  of 
the  rebuilding  of  the  wall,  under  the  direction  of  Nehemiah, 
ten  gates  are  distinctly  enumerated,  viz.  three  on  the  south, 
four  on  the  east,  and  three  on  the  western  side  of  the  wall. 

The  three  gates  on  the  south  side  were,  1 .  The  Sheep  Gate 
(Neh.  iii.  1.),  which  was  probabl)'  so  called  from  the  vic- 
tims, intended  for  sacrifice,  oeing  conducted  through  it  to  the 
second  temple.  Near  this  gate  stood  the  towers  of  Mesh 
and  Hananeel.  The  pool  of  Bethesda  was  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  this  gate,  which  was  also  called  the  Gate  of  Ben- 
jamin.— 2.  The  Fish  Gate  (Neh.  iii.  3.  xii.  39.),  which  was 
also  called  the  First  Gate. — 3.  The  Old  Gate,  also  called  the 
Corner  Gate.  (Neh.  iii.  6.  xii.  39.  2  Kings  xiv.  13.  Jer.  xxxL 
380 

The  gates  on  the  eastern  side  were,  1.  The  Water  Gate 

any  machines  do,  towards  overthrowing  these  towers'!'"  Josephus,  de 
Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.  9.  <Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  p.  256. 
London,  1825.  8vo.) 

'  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  365,  366.  8vo.  edit.  In  1818,  however, 
the  gardens  of  Gethseoiane  were  of  a  miserable  de^scriplion,  surrounded 
with  a  dry  stone  fence,  and  provided  with  a  few  olive  trees,  without  either 
pot-herbs  or  vegetables  of  any  kind.  Ilichardson's  Travels  along  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Parts  adjacent,  in  1816-17-16.  vol.  ii.  p.  .366.  London,  1822. 
8vo.  Mr.  Carne,  who  visited  Palestine  a  few  years  later,  describes  this  spot 
as  being  "  of  all  gardens  the  most  interesting  and  hallowed,  but  how  neglected 
and  decayed  !  It  is  surrounded  by  a  kind  of  low  hedge,  but  the  soil  is  bare  ; 
no  verdure  grows  on  it,  save  six  fine  venerable  olive  trees,  which  have  stood 
here  for  many  centuries."    Letters  from  the  East,  p.  290. 

»  To  this  St.  Paul  delicately  alludes  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xiii. 
12,  13.),  where  he  says  that  Christ,  as  a  sacrifice  for  sin,  suffered  trilhout 
the  gate  ;  and  when  he  exhorts  the  Hebrew  Christians  to  go  forth  unto  him 
trithoui  the  camp,  that  ia  out  of  Jerusalem,  this  city  being  regarded  by  the 
Jews  as  the  camp  of  Israel.    (Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  156.) 

»  r^clmlzii  Archteologia  Biblica,  p.  23.     Relandi  Palaestina,  tom.  ii.  p.  866, 

io  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  p.  255. 

»«  When  Dr.  Richardson  visited  this  sacred  spot  in  1818,  he  found  /)ne 
part  of  Mount  Zion  supporting  a  crop  of  barley,  another  was  undergoing 
the  labour  of  the  plough;  and  the  .soil  turned  up  consisted  of  stone  and  lime 
mixed  with  earth,  such  as  is  usually  met  with  in  the  foundation  of  ruined 
cities.  "  It  is  nearly  a  mile  in  circumference,  is  highest  on  the  west  side, 
and  towards  the  east  falls  down  in  broad  terraces  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
mountain,  and  narrow  ones  on  the  side,  as  it  slopes  cfown  towards  the  brook 
Kedron.  Each  terrace  is  divided  from  the  one  above  it  by  a  low  wall  of 
dry  stone,  built  of  the  ruins  of  this  celebrate<:l  spot.  The  terraces  near  the 
bottom  of  the  hill  are  stiU  used  as  gardens,  and  are  watered  from  the  pool 
of  Siloam.  They  belong  chielly  to  the  small  village  of  Siloa,  immediately 
opposite.  W^e  have  here  another  remarkable  instance  of  the  special  fulfil- 
ment of  prophecy  -.—Therefore  shall  Zion  for  your  sokes  be  ploued  as  a 
field,  and  Jerusalem  shall  become  heaps.  (Micah  iii.  12.)"  Dr.  Richardson's 
Travels  along  the  Mediterranean,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  348.  "The  sides  of  the  Hill 
of  Zion  have  a  pleasing  aspect,  as  they  possess  a  few  oUve  trees  and  rude 
gardens  ;  and  a  crop  of  corn  was  growing  there."    Carne's  Letters,  p.  265. 

■»  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  pp.  425—429.  Josephus,  de 
Bell.  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  4. 


20 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Paht  L 


(Neh.  iii.  26.),  near  which  the  waters  of  Etam  passed,  after 
having  been  used  in  the  temple  service,  in  their  way  to  the 
brook  Kedron,  into  which  tney  discharged  themselves. — 2. 
The  Horse  Gate  (Neh.  iii.  28.  Jer.  xxxi.  40.),  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  so  called,  because  horses  went  through  it 
in  order  to  be  watered. — 3.  The  Prison  Gate  (xii.  39.),  pro- 
bably so  called  from  its  vicinity  to  the  prison. — 1.  The  Gate 
Miphkud.  (Neh.  iii.  31.) 

The  gates  on  the  western  side  were,  1.  The  Valley  Gate 
(Neh.  iii.  13.),  also  termed  the  Gate  of  Ephraim,  above 
which  stood  the  Tower  of  Furnaces  (Neh.  iii.  11.  xii.  38.) ; 
an4  near  it  Mas  the  Dragon  Well  (Neh.  ii.  13.),  which  may 
have  derived  its  name  from  the  representation  of  a  dragon, 
out  of  whose  mouth  the  stream  flowed  that  issued  from  the 
well. — 2.  The  Dun<r  Qute  (Neh.  iii.  13.),  which  is  supposed 
to  have  received  its  name  from  the  filth  of  the  beasts  that 
were  sacrificed,  being  carried  from  the  temple  through  this 
gate. — 3.  The  Gate  of  the  Foimtain  (Neh.  iii.  15.),  had  its 
name  either  from  its  proximity  to  the  fountain  of  Gihon,  or 


to  the  spot  where  the  fountain  of  Siloam  took  its  rise.  We 
have  no  account  of  any  gates  being  erected  on  the  northern 
side.' 

4.  Previously  to  the  fatal  war  of  the  Jews  with  the  Ro- 
mans, we  learn  from  Josephus,^  that  the  city  of  .Jerusalem 
was  erected  on  two  hills,  opposite  to  one  another,  with  a  val- 
ley between  them,  which  he  subsequently  calls  the  Valley  of 
the  Cheesemongers.  The  loftiest  of  these  hills  contained  the 
Upper  City  («  ava  ttIxk')  ;  and  the  other  called  Acru,  contained 
the  Lower  City  («  kutoi  tto^/c),  which  seems  to  have  been  the 
most  considerable  part  of  the  whole  city.  Over  against  this 
was  a  third  hill,  lower  than  Acra,  and  formerly  divided  from 
the  other  by  a  broad  valley  ;^  which  was  hlled  up  with  earth 
during  the  reign  of  the  Asmona;ans  or  Maccabsean  princes,  in 
order  to  join  the  city  to  the  temple.  As  population  increahied, 
and  the  city  crept  beyond  its  old  limits,  Agrippa  joined 
to  it  a  fourth  hill  (which  was  situated  to  the  north  -/f  the 
temple),  called  Bezetha,  and  thus  still  further  enlarged 
Jerusalem. 


Pond[yJ 


Plan  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  time  of  tlie  Romans,  from  D'Anville. 


At  this  time  the  city  was  surrounded  by  three  walls  on 
such  parts  as  were  not  encompassed  with  impassable  valleys, 
where  there  was  only  one  wall.  The  first  wall  began  on 
the  north  side,  at  the  tower  called  Hippicus,  whence  it  ex- 
tended to  the  place  called  the  Xistus,  and  to  the  council- 
house,  and  it  terminated  at  the  western  cloister  of  the  temple. 
But,  proceeding  westward,  in  a  contrary  direction,  the  histo- 
rian says,  that  it  began  at  the  same  place,  and  extended 
through  a  place  called  Bethso,  to  the  gate  of  the  Essenes, 
then  taking  a  turn  towards  the  south,  it  reached  to  the  place 
called  Opnias,  where  it  was  joined  to  the  eastern  cloister  of 
the  temple.  The  second  wall  commenced  at  the  gate  Gen- 
nath,  and  encompassed  only  the  northern  quarter  of  the  city, 
as  far  as  the  tower  Antonia.  The  //«></  wall  began  at  the 
tower  Hippicus,  whence  it  reached  as  far  as  the  north  quarter 
of  the  city,  passed  by  the  tower  -Psephinus,  till  it  came  to 
the  monument  of  Helena,  queen  of  Adiabene.  Thence  it 
passed  by  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings ;  and,  taking  a  direc- 
tion round  the  south-west  corner,  passed  the  Fuller's  Monu- 
ment, and  joined  the  old  wall  at  the  valley  of  Kedron.  This 
third  wall  was  commenced  by  Agrippa,  to  defend  the  newly 
erected  part  of  the  city  called  Bezetha ;  but  he  did  not  finish 

«  Observationes  Philologicee  ac  Geographicse.  Amstelzedami,  1747.  8vo. 
pp.  21—29. 

a  De  BellJud.  lib.  vi.  c.  6. 

B  ii>^«T6i«  (papayyi  Jiepyojusvoj  aWtf  VpsTtpov,  are  the  words  of  Jose- 
phus ;  which  Pritius  renders  alia  lata  valle  ante  diviszts  (Introd.  ad  Nov. 
Test.  p.  582.),  "  formerly  divided  ty  anoiher  broad  valley."  The  rendering 
above  given  is  tliat  of  Mr.  Whiston. 


it,  from  apprehension  of  incurring  the  displeasure  of  the  em- 
peror Claudius.  His  intention  was  to  have  erected  it  with 
stones,  twenty  cubits  in  length  by  ten  cubits  in  breadth ;  so 
that  no  iron  tools  or  engines  could  make  any  impression  on 
them.  What  Agrippa  could  not  accomplish,' the  Jews  subse- 
quently attempted :  and,  when  Jerusalem  was  besieged  by 
the  Romans,  this  wall  was  twenty  cubits  high,  above  which 
were  battlements  of  two  cubits,  and  turrets  of  three  cubits, 
making  in  all  an  altitude  of  twenty-five  cubits.  Numerous 
towers,  constructed  of  solid  masonry,  were  erected  atcei';ain 
distances  :  in  the  third  wall,  there  were  ninety ;  in  the  middle 
wall,  there  were  forty ;  and  in  the  old  wall,  sixty.  The 
towers  of  Hippicus,  Phasaelus,  and  Mariamne,  erected  by 
Herod  the  Great,  and  dedicated  to  the  memories  of  his  friend, 
his  bEother,  and  his  wife,  were  pre-eminent  for  their  height, 
their  massive  architecture,  their  beauty,  and  the  conveniences 
with  which  they  were  furnished.  According  to  Josephus  the 
circumference  of  Jerusalem,  previously  to  its  siege  and  de- 
struction by  the  Romans,  was  thirty-three  furlongs,  or  nearly 
four  miles  and  a  half:  and  the  wall  of  circumvallation,  con- 
structed by  order  of  Titus,  he  states  to  have  been  thirty-nine 
furlongs,  or  four  miles  eight  hundred  and  seventy-five  paces."" 


*  M.  D'Anville  has  elaborately  investigated  the  extent  of  Jerusalem,  as 
described  by  Josephus,  hi  his  learned  "Dissertation  surl'Etendue  de  I'an- 
cienne  Jerusalem  ct  de  son  Temple,"  the  accuracy  of  whose  details  Vis-  ' 
count  Chateaubriand  has  attested  in  his  Itinerary  to  and  from  Jerusalem. 
This  very  rare  dissertation  of  l>'Auville  is  reprinted  in  the  Bible  de  Vence, 
torn.  vi.  pp.  43—84.  5th  edition. 


Chap.  I.] 


At  present,  a  late  traveller  states  that  the  circumference  of 
JerusiilfMii  cannot  exceed  lliree  miles.' 

y.  l^uiinij  the  time  of  Jesns  Christ,  Jerusalem  was  aflorned 
Willi  numerous  edifiees,  both  sacred  and  civil,  some  of  which 
are  nwulioned  or  alludtid  to  in  the-  New  'I'estameut.  But  its 
chief  irlory  was  the  temple,  desciilx-d  in  a  subserpu'iit  |)art 
of  tliis  volume  ;  which  m;i}rni(icent  structun;  oceui)i((i  the 
northern  and  lower  loj)  of  Sion,  as  w(!  learn  i'rom  the  Psalm- 
ist (xlviii.  ii.) ;  BittuliJ'itl  for  si/uation,  llie  joi/  (or  i/clii^/i/) 
of  the.  whole  earth,  l.s  J\iiniiit  Sinn.  On  her  mirth  siae  in  ihe  citij 
of  the  !(reat  Itini^.  Next  to  th(^  temph;  iti  |)oint  of  splendour, 
was  the  very  siip(>rl)  palace  of  Herod,  which  is  lar<rely  de- 
scribed by  .los('j)hus  ;■'  it  ai'terwards  becanu;  the  rcsidenci!  of 
the  Ifom.ui  procurators,  who  for  this  |)urpos(!  trcnerally 
claimed  thi;  royal  palaces  in  tbosi^  provinces  which  were  sub- 
ject to  kin<is.'  'J  hese  dwellinirs  of  the  iioman  ])rocurators 
in  the  pr-jvinces  were  called  Fm-tin-ia:^  Herod's  palace 
therefore  was  Pilate's  pra-torium  (Matt,  xxvii.  27.  John 
xviii.  2H.):  aiul  in  some  ])art  of  this  edihce  was  tin;  armoury 
or  barracks  of  the  Roman  soldi(>rs  that  ji^arrisontd  .lerusalem,-^ 
whither  Jesus  was  conducted  and  mocked  l)y  them.  (Matt. 
xxvii.  27.  Mark  xv.  10.)  In  the  front  of  this  ])alace  was  the 
tribunal,  where  Pilate  satin  a  judicial  capacity  to  hear  and 
determine  weijrhty  causes  ;  beinj^  a  raised  pavement  of  mo- 
saic work  (x/S-ir/iaiTcv),  the  evangelist  informs  us  that  in  the 
Hebrew  lanijuage  it  was  on  this  account  termed  Galjbatha 
(John  xix.  13.),  i,  e.  an  elevated  place.  In  this  tribunal  the 
procurator  Floras  sat,  a.  d.  (JG  ;  and,  in  order  to  punish  the 
Jews  for  their  seditious  behaviour,  issued  orders  for  his 
soldiers  to  plunder  the  upper  market-place  in  Jerusalem,  and 
to  put  to  death  such  Jews  as  they  met  with  ;  which  com- 
mands were  executed  with  savage  barbarity.^ 

On  a  steep  rock  adjoining  the  north-west  corner  of  the 
temple  stood  the  Tower  of  Antnniu,  on  the  site  of  a  citadel 
that  had  l)een  erected  by  Antiochus  Kpiphanes'  in  order  to 
annoy  the;  Jews  ;  and  which,  after  being  destroyed  by  them,'' 
was  rebuilt  by  the  Maccaba;an  prince  John  Hyrcanus,  b.  c. 
135.9  llerod  the  Great  repaired  it  with  great  splendour,  uniting 
in  its  interior  all  the  conveniences  of  a  magnificent  palace,  with 
ample  accommodations  for  soldiers.  Tliis  citadel  (in  which 
a  Roman  legion  was  always  quartered)  overlooked  the  two 
outer  courts  of  the  temple,  and  communicated  with  its  clois- 
ters by  means  of  secret  ijassages,  throujrh  which  the  military 
could  descend  and  (piell  any  tumult  that  might  arise  during 
the  great  festivals.  This  was  the  guard  to  which  Pilate  al- 
luded, as  already  noticed.  (Matt,  xxvii.  05.)  The  tower  of 
Antonia  was  thus  named  by  Herod,  in  honour  of  his  friend 
Mark  Antony :  and  this  citadel  is  "  the  castle"  into  which 
St.  Paul  was  conducted  (Acts  xxi.  31,  35.),  and  of  which 
mention  is  made  in  Acts  xxii.  24.  As  the  temple  was  a  fort- 
ress that  guarded  the  whole  city  of  Jerusalem,  so  the  tower 
of  Antonia  was  a  fortress  that  entirely  commanded  the 
temple.'" 

Besides  the  preceding  edifices,  Josephns  mentions  a  house 
or  palace  at  the  extremity  of  the  upper  city,  which  had  been 
erected  by  the  princes  of  the  Asmonajan  family,  from  whom 
it  was  subsequently  called  the  Asmonajan  Palace.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  residence  of  the  princes  of  the  Hero- 
dian  family  (after  the  Romans  had  reduced  Juda;a  into  a  pro- 
vince of  the  empire),  whenever  they  went  up  to  Jerusalem. 
In  this  palace,  Josephns  mentions  Berenice  and  Agrippa  as 
residing,"  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  was  the  residence 
of  Herod  the  tetrarch  of  Galilee  when  he  went  to  keep  the 
solemn  festivals  at  that  citj' ;  and  that  it  was  here  that  our 
Saviour  was  exposed  to  the  wanton  mockery  of  the  soldiers, 
who  had  accompanied  Herod  thither,  either  as  a  guard  to  his 
person,  or  from  ostentation.  (Luke  xxiii.  7 — 11.)''^ 

There  were  several  pools  at  Jerusalem  (jtixy^yS-iS^pa/),  two 
of  which  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  viz. 

(1.)  'V\\e  Pmd  if  Bcthesdti,  which  was  situated  near  the 
sheep-gate  or  sheep-market  (John  v.  2.),  not  far  from  the 
temple.  It  had  five  porticoes,  for  the  reception  of  the  sick ; 
and  it  was  most  pronably  called  Bethesda,  or  the  house  of 
mercy,  from  the  miraculous  cures  there  mercifully  vouchsaied 


ACCOUNT  OF  JERUSALEM.    -  2I 

by  God  to  persons  labouring  under  the  most  desperate  dis- 


12.  (op.  torn.  iv.  p.  96.  ed. 


«  jDlliffe's  Letters  from  Palestine,  p.  103. 

»  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  xv.  c.  9.  §  3.    De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c  21.  1 1.  et  lib. 
4.  $  3. 

»  Cicero  contra  Verrem,  action,  ii.  lib. 
Bipont.) 

•  Ibid.  lib.  V.  c.  35.  et  41,  (torn.  iv.  pp.  135.  142.) 

'  Compare  Joseplius,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  15.  §  5.  c.  17.  §  8. 

«  .losephus,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  14.  S3. 

'  Ibid.  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xii.  c.  5.  14.  «  Ibid.  lib.  xiii.  c.  6.  §  6. 

•  Ibid.  lib.  XV.  c.  11.  §4.  '<>  He  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  5.  §  8. 
««  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  15.  §  1 .  and  c.  16.  §  3. 

»»  Schulzii  Archxologia  Biblica,  pp.  27—30. 


(2.)  The  Fool  of  Siloaiu  (John  ix.  7.)  was  two-fold,  viz. 
(//jper  ;ind  I^iwer.  The  f^pper  R.-st  rvoir  or  Pool  (Isa.  vii. 
3.),  called  the  King's  Pool  in  Neb.  ii.  1-1.,  prr.bably  watered 
the  kinjr's  franhns  (Neb.  iii.  15.^,  while  the  I^iwer  PocjI 
seems  to  have  been  desjirned  for  lh(>  use  of  the  inhabitants. 
Both  these  reservoirs  were  supplied  from  the  fountnin  of  Si- 
loam  :  but  which  of  them  is  to  be  understood  in  John  ix.  7. 
it  is  now  impossible  to  detcTmine.'-" 

0.  Duri  fr  the  reiirns  of  David  and  Solomon,  Jerusalem 
\yas  the  metropolis  of  tlu!  land  of  Israel ;  but  afUsr  the  defec- 
tion of  the  ten  tribes  under  Jeroboam,  it  was  the  capital  ot 
the  kings  of  Judab,  during  whose  government  it  underwent 
various  revolutions.  It  was  captured  four  tinu-s  without 
being  deinolished,  viz.  by  Siiishak,  sovereign  of  Kirj-pt,  (2 
Ghron.  xii.),  from  whose  ravages  it  never  recovered  its  tonner 
splendour;  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  treated  the  Jews 
with  singular  barbarity ;  by  Pomney  the  Great,  who  rendered 
the  Jews  tributary  to  Ronu; ;  and  by  Herod,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  a  Roman  force  under  Sosius.  It  was  first  entirely 
destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  ajrnin  by  the  Emperor 
Titus,  the  repeated  insurrections  of  the  turbulent  Jews  having 
filled  up  the  measure  of  their  iniquities,  and  drawn  down 
upon  them  the  implacable  vengeance  of  the  Romans.  Titus 
inelTectually  endeavoured  to  save  the  temple  :  it  was  involved 
in  the  san.-j  ruin  with  the  rest  of  the  city,  and,  after  it  had 
been  reduced  to  ashes,  the  foundations  of  that  sacred  edifice 
were  ploughed  up  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  Thus  literally 
was  fulfilled  the  prediction  of  our  Lord,  that  not  one  stone 
should  be  left  upon  another  that  should  not  be  thrown  down. 
(Matt.  xxiv.  2.)'^  On  his  return  to  Rome,  Titus  was  honoured 
with  a  triumph,  and  to  commemorate  his  conquest  of  Juda-a, 
a  triumphal  arcli  was  erected,  which  is  still  in  existence.  Nu- 
merous medals  of  Juda;a  vanquished  were  struck  in  honour 
of  the  same  event.  The  Emperor  Adrain  erected  a  city  on 
])art  of  the  former  site  of  Jerusalem,  which  he  called  yl-^lia 
Capitolina  :  it  was  afterwards  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified 
by  Constantino  the  Great,  who  restored  its  ancient  name. 
During  that  emperor's  reign  the  Jews  made  various  efforts  to 
rebuild  their  temple ;  which,  however,  were  always  frustrat- 
ed :  nor  did  better  success  attend  the  attempt  made,  a.  d.  363, 
by  the  apostate  emperor  Julian.  An  earthquake,  a  whirlwind, 
and  a  fiery  eruption,  compelled  the  workmen  to  abandon 
their  design. 

From  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans  to  the 
present  tirne,  that  city  has  remained,  for  the  most  part,  in  a 
state  of  ruin  and  desolation  ;  "  and  has  never  been  under  the 
government  of  the  Jews  themselves,  but  oppressed  and 
broken  down  by  a  succession  of  foreign  masters — the  Ro- 
mans, the  Saracens,  the  Franks,  the  Mamelukes,  and  last  by 
the  Turks,  to  whom  it  is  still  subject.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
only  in  the  history  of  Josephns,  and  in  other  ancient  writers, 
that  we  are  to  look  for  the  accomplishment  of  our  Lord's 
predictions  :  we  see  them  verified  at  this  moment  before  our 
eyes,  in  the  desolate  state  of  the  once  celebrated  city  and 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  the  present  condition  of  the 
Jewish  people,  not  collected  together  into  any  one  country, 
into  one  political  society,  and  under  one  form  of  government, 
but  dispersed  over  every  region  of  the  globe,  and  every  where 
treated  with  contumely  and  scorn. "'6 

7.  The  modern  city  of  Jerusalem  contains  within  its  walls 
several  of  the  hills,  on  which  the  ancient  city  is  supposed  to 
have  stood ;  but  these  are  only  perceptible  by  the  ascent  and 
descent  of  the  streets.  When  seen  from  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  it  presents  an 
inclined  plane,  descending  from  west  to  east.  An  embattled 
wall,  fortified  with  towers  and  a  Gothic  castle,  encompasses 
the  city  all  round,  excluding,  however,  part  of  Mount  Sion, 
which  it  formerly  enclosed.  Notwithstanding  its  seemingly 
strong  position,  it  is  incapable  of  sustaining  a  severe  assault, 
because,  on  account  of  the  topography  of  the  land,  it  has  no 
means  of  preventing  the  approaches  of  an  enemy ;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  commanded,  at  the  distance  of  a  gun- 
shot, by  the  Djebel  Tor,  or  the  Mount  of  Olives,  from  which 

>'  Parkhurst's  Lexicon  voce.  Bp.  Pearce  (and  after  him,  Dr.  Booth- 
royd),  Jahn,  KosenmUller,  Kuinoel,  and  other  modem  commentators,  have 
supposed  the  pool  of  Bethesda  to  have  been  a  medicinal  bath.  The  reader 
will  tind  a  brief  statement,  and  satisfactory  refutation  of  this  notion  in  Dr. 
Bloomlicld's  Annotations  on  the  New  Testament,  vol.  iii.  pp.  148 — 156. 

1*  Robinson's  Gr.  Lexicon  to  the  New  Test,  voce  Xikjiu/x. 

»*  For  a  full  \ie\v  of  the  predictions  of  Jesus  Christ  concerning  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  and  their  literal  fulfilment,  see  vol.  i.  Appendix, 
No.  VI.  chap.  ii.  sect.  iii. 

ii*'  Bp.  Porteus's  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  vol.  ii.  p.  215. 


22 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Pabt  L 


it  is  seen  to  the  best  advantage.'  Imposing,  however,  as  the 
appevirance  of"  .Terusalem  is,  when  viewed  from  that  moun- 
tain,— and  exhibiting  a  compactness  of  structure  like  that 
alluded  to  l>y  the  Psalmist  (cxxii.  3.)  the  illusion  vanishes 
on  entering  tlie  town.  No  "  streets  of  palaces  and  walks  of 
state" — no  high-raised  arches  of  triumph — no  fountains  to 
cool  the  air,  or  porticoes — not  a  single  vestige  meets  the 
traveller,  to  announce  its  former  military  greatness  or  com- 
mercial opulence:  but  in  the  place  of  these,  he  finds  himself 
encompassed  by  walls  of  rude  masonry,  the  dull  uniformily 
of  which  is  only  broken  by  the  occasional  protrusion  of  a 
small  grated  window.  All  the  streets  are  wretchedness,  and 
the  houses  of  the  Jews,  more  especially,  are  as  dunnjhills. 
From  the  daughter  of  '/Aon  all  her  beauty  is  departed.  (Lam. 
i.  6.)  The  finest  section  of  the  city  is  that  inhabited  hy  the 
Armenians ;  in  the  other  quarters,  the  streets  are  much  nar- 
rower, being  scarcely  wide  enough  to  admit  three  camels  to 
stand  abreast.  In  the  western  quarter  and  in  the  centre  of 
Jerusalem,  towards  Calvary,  the  low  and  ill-built  houses 
(which  have  flat  terraces  or  domes  on  tht  top,  but  no  chim- 
neys or  windows)  stand  very  close  together  ;  but  in  the  east- 
ern part,  along  the  brook  Kedron,  the  eye  perceives  vacant 
spaces,  and  amongst  the  rest  that  which  surrounds  the 
mosque^  erected  by  the  Khalif  Omar,  a.  d.  637,  on  the  site 
of  the  temple,  and  the  nearly  deserted  spot  where  once  stood 
the  tower  of  Antonia  and  the  second  palace  of  Herod. 

The  modern  population  of  Jerusalem  is  variously  estimated 
by  diiferent  travellers.  The  late  Professor  Carlyle,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century,  computed  it  at  about 
15,000;  and  Capt.  Li^ht,  who  visited  Jerusalem  in  1814, 
estimated  it  at  twelve  thousand.  Mr.  Buckingham,  Avho  was 
there  in  1816,  from  the  best  information  he  could  procure, 
states,  that  the  fixed  residents  (more  than  one  half  oi  whom 
are  Mohammedans)  are  about  eight  thousand  :  but  the  con- 
tinual arrival  and  departure  of  strangers  make  the  total  num- 
ber of  persons  present  in  the  city  from  ten  to  fifteen  thousand 
generally,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  The  propor- 
tions which  the  numbers  of  persons  of  different  sects  bear 
to  each  other  in  this  estimate,  he  found  it  difficult  to  ascer- 
tain. The  Mohammedans  are  unquestionably  the  most  nu- 
merous. Next,  in  point  of  numbers,  are  the  Greek  Christians, 
who  are  chieiiy  composed  of  the  clergy,  and  of  devotees. 
The  Armenians  follow  next  in  order  as  to  numbers,  but  their 
body  is  thought  to  exceed  that  of  the  Greeks  in  influence  and 
in  wealth.  Of  Europeans  there  are  only  the  few  monks  of 
the  Convento  delta  Terra  Santa,  and  the  Latin  pilgrims  who 
occasionally  visit-them.  The  Copts,  Abyssinians,  Nestorians, 
&c.  are  scarcely  perceptible  in  the  crowd ;  and  even  the  Jews 
are  more  remarkable  from  the  striking  peculiarity  of  their 
features  and  dress,  than  from  their  numbers  as  contrasted 
with  other  bodies.  Mr.  JolUffe,  who  visited  Jerusalem  in 
1817,  states  that  the  highest  estimate  makes  the  total  number 
amount  to  twenty-five  thousand.  Dr.  Richardson,  who  was 
at  Jerusalem  in  1818,  computed  the  population  at  20,000 
persons;  Dr.  Scholz,  in  1821,  at  18,000;  and  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Fisk,3  an  Anglo-American  Missionary  in  Palestine,  in  1823, 
at  20,000.  The  Rev.  William  Jowett,  who  was  at  Jerusalem 
in  December,  1823,  is  of  opinion  that  15,000  are  the  utmost 
which  the  city  would  contain  in  ordinary  circumstances,  that 
is,  exclusive  of  the  pilgrims,  who  are  crowded  into  the  con- 
vents, and  fill  up  many  spaces  in  the  convents  which  are  va- 
cant nine  months  in  the  year,  thus  augmenting  the  popula- 
tion by  some  few  thousands ;  and  he  is  disposed  to  estimate 
the  resident  population  at  12,000. 

Upon  the  whole,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  number  of  the 
ordinary  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  can  be  rated  higher  than 

»  Travels  of  All  Bey,  in  Morocco,  Egypt,  Arabia,  Syria,  &c.  between  1803 
antt  1807,  vol.  ii.  p.  345. 

»  In  the  travels  of  All  Bey  (vol.  ii.  pp.  214—227.)  there  is  a  minute 
description,  illustrated  with  three  large  plates,  of  this  mosque,  or  rather 
group  of  mosques,  erected  at  different  periods  of  IsJamism,  and  exhibiting 
the  prevailing  taste  of  the  various  ages  when  they  were  severally  construct- 
ed. This  traveller  states  that  they  form  a  very  harmonious  whole  ;  the 
edifice  is  collectively  termed,  in  Arabic,  AlHaram,  or  the  Temple. 

3  Missionary  Register  for  1824,  p.  503. 


from  12  to  14,000.  This  is,  indeed,  a  very  slender  aggregate, 
compared  with  the  flourishing  population  which  the  city  once 
supported ;  but  the  numerous  sieges  it  has  imdergone,  and 
their  consequent  si)oliations,  have  left  no  vestige  of^its  origi- 
nal power.  "Jerusalem,  under  the  government  of  a  Turkish 
aga,  is  still  more  unlike  Jerusalem,  as  it  existed  in  the  reign 
of  Solomon,  than  Athens  during  the  administration  of  Peri- 
cles, and  Athens  under  the  dominion  of  the  chief  of  the  black 
eunuchs.  We  have  it  upon  judgment's  record,  that  before  a 
marching  army,  a  land  has  been  as  the  garden  of  Eden,  behind 
it  a  desolate  loildemess.  (Joel  ii.  3.)  Tlie  present  appearance 
of  Judaja  has  embodied  the  awful  warnings  of  the  prophet  in 
all  their  terrible  reality."'* 

IX.  Later  Divisions  of  Palestine. 

1.  Under  the  Romans,  Palestine  was  dependent  on  the 
government  of  Syria  ;  and  about  the  commencement  of  the 
fifth  century,  was  divided  into  three  parts  ;  viz. 

(1.)  Palasstina  Prima  comprised  the  ancient  regions  of  Ju- 
daja  and  Samaria.  It  contained  thirty-five  episcopal  cities, 
and  its  metropolis  was  Cajsarea-Pala^stina.  In  this  division 
were  Jerusalem  and  Sychar  or  Neapolis. 

(2.)  Pulsestina  Secunda  included  the  ancient  districts  of 
Galilee  and  Trachonilis.  Scythopolis  or  Bethshan  was  its 
capital ;  and  it  contained  twenty-one  episcopal  cities. 

(3.)  Palsestina  Tertia,  or  Salutaris,  comprised  the  ancient 
PeraBa  and  Idumaja,  strictly  so  called :  its  metropolis  was 
Petra,  and  it  contained  eighteen  episcopal  cities.*  Most  of 
these  bishoprics  were  destroyed  in  the  seventh  century,  when 
the  Saracens  or  Arabs  conquered  Palestine  or  Syria. 

2.  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  after  the  Latins  had  con- 
quered Jerusalem  from  the  Saracens,  they  established  a  patri- 
arch of  their  own  communion  in  that  city,  and  gave  him  three 
suffragan  bishops,  whose  sees  were  at  Bethlehem,  Hebron, 
and  Lydda.  They  also  re-established  the  ancient  capitals, 
viz.  Cffisarea,  with  a  suffragan  bishop  atSebaste  or  Samaria; 
Scythopolis,  and  afterwards  Nazareth,  with  a  suflfragan 
bishop  at  Tiberias  ;  Petra,  with  a  suffragan  bishop  at  Mount 
Sinai ;  and  for  Bostra,  the  suffragan-episcopal  sees  were 
established  at  Ptolemais  or  Acre,  Seyde  or  Sidon,  and 
Beyroot  or  Berytus  in  the  northern  part  of  Phcenicia.^ 

3.  Modern  Divisions  of  Palestine  under  the  Turkish 
government. . 

At  present,  Palestine  does  not  form  a  distinct  country. 
The  Turks  include  it  in  Sham  or  Syria,  and  have  divided  it 
into  pachaliks  or  governments.  "  That  of  Acre  or  Akka 
extends  from  Djebail  nearly  to  Jaffa ;  that  of  Gaza  compre- 
hends Jaffa  and  the  adjacent  plains ;  and,  these  two  being 
now  united,  all  the  coast  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
pacha  of  Acre.  Jerusalem,  Hebron,  Nablous,  Tiberias,  and, 
in  fact,  the  greater  part  of  Palestine,  are  included  in  the 
pachalik  of  Damascus,  now  held  in  conjunction  with  that  of 
Aleppo,  which  renders  the  present  pacha,  in  effect,  the  vice- 
roy of  Syria.  Though  both  pachas  continue  to  be  dutiful 
subjects  of  the  grand  seignior  in  appearance,  they  are  to  be 
considered  as  tributaries  rather  than  as  subjects  of  the  Porte  ; 
and  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  religious  supremacy  of  the  sul- 
tan, as  caliph  and  vicar  of  Mohammed,  more  than  any  appre- 
hension of  his  power,  which  prevents  them  from  declaring 
themselves  independent."' 

«  JoUiffe's  Letters  from  Palestine,  written  in  1817,  Lend'.  1820,  8vo.  p.  102. 
The  sketch  of  the  modern  state  of  Jerusalem,  above  given,  has  been  drawn 
up,  from  a  careful  comparison  of  this  intelligent  writer's  remarks,  with  the 
observations  of  Professor  Carlyle  (Walpole's  Memoirs,  p.  187.)  ;  of  M.  Cha- 
teaubriand, made  in  1806  (Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  53.  83,  84.  179,  180.),  of  Ali 
Bey,  made  in  1803— 1807  (Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  240—245.),  of  Capt.  Light, 
made  in  1814  (Travels  in  Esypt,  &c.  pp.  178—187.);  and  of  Mr.  Bucking- 
ham, made  in  1816.  (Travels  in  Palestine,  pp.  260—262.)  See  also  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson's Travels  along  the  Mediterranean,  <tc.  vol.  ii.  pp.  238—368. ; 
.Towett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  pp.  238.  290.,  and  Mr.  Carne's 
Letters  from  the  East,  p.  62. 

'  Relandi  Palsestina,  torn.  i.  pp.  204 — 214. 

«  Abrege  dela  Geographie  Sacree,  p.  41.  (Paris,  1827.  12mo.) 

'  Modern  Traveller:— Palestine,  p.  6.  In  the  Abrtg6  de  la  Geographie 
Sacrfee  (pp.  42 — 44.)  there  is  an  account  of  the  Turkish  Divisions  of  Pales- 
tine, professing  to  be  drawn  from  a  Turkish  treatise  printed  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  somewhat  different  from  the  divisions  above  noticed ;  which 
have  been  preferably  adopted,  because  they  exhibit  the  actual  government 
of  Palestine,  as  described  by  the  most  recent  travellers.  ' 


Sect.  I.] 


CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


23 


Mount  Tabor,  as  eeen  from  the  Plain  of  lii^ilrauloa. 


CHAPTER  II. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF    THE    HOLY   LAND. 


SECTION  I. 


CLIMATE,    SEASONS,    AND    PHYSICAL   APPEARANCE    OF    THE    COUNTRY. 

L  Climate. — IL  Sfasons. — 1.  Seed-lime. — 2.  Winter. — 3.  The  Cold  Season,  or  Winter  Solstice. — 4.  Harvest. — 5.  Summer. 
6.  The  Hot  Season. — Heavy  Dews. — III.  Jiivers,  Lakes,  Jf'ells,  and  Fountains. —  Cisterns,  and  Pools  of  Solomon. — IV. 
JMountuins. — V.  Valleys. — VI.  Caves. — VII.  Plains. — VIII.  Deserts. — Horrors  and  Dangers  of  travelling  in  the  Great 
Desert  of  Arabia.^ 


I.  The  surface  of  the  Holy  Land  being  diversified  with 
mountains  and  plains,  its  Climate  varies  in  diiferont  places; 
though  in  General  it  is  more  settled  than  in  our  westerly 
countries.  From  Tripoli  to  Sidon,  the  country  is  much  colder 
than  the  rest  of  the  coast  further  to  the  north  and  to  the 
south,  and  its  seasons  are  less  regular.  The  same  remark 
applies  to  the  mountainous  parts  of  Judsea,  where  the  vege- 
table productions  are  much  later  than  on  the  sea-coast,  or  in 
the  vicinity  of  Gaza.  From  its  lofty  situation,  the  air  of 
Saphet  in  Galilee  is  so  fresh  and  cool,  that  the  heats  are 
scarcely  felt  there  during  the  summer;  though  in  the  neigh- 
bouring country,  particularly  at  the  foot  of  INfount  Tabor  and 
in  the  plain  of  Jericho,  the  heat  is  intense.^  Generally  speak- 
ing, however,  the  atmosphere  is  mild  ;  the  summers  are 
coimnonly  dry,  and  extremely  hot  -.^  intensely  hot  da)'s, 
however,  are  frenuently  succeeded  by  intensely  cold  nights ; 
and  these  sudden  vicissitudes,  which  an  Arab  constitution 
alone  can  endure,  together  with  their  consequent  effects  on 
the  human  frame,  verify  the  words  of  the  patriarch  Jacob  to 
his  father-in-law,  that  in  the  day  the  drought  consumed  him, 
and  the  frost  by  night.  (Gen.  xxxi.  40.)^ 

II.  Six  several  Seasons  of  the  natural  year  are  indicated 
in  Gen.  viii.  22.  viz.  seed-time  and  harvest,  cold  and  heat,  sum- 
mer and  ivinter ,-  and  as  agriculture  constituted  the  principal 
emploj'ment  of  the  Jews,  we  are  informed  by  the  rabbinical 
writers,  that  they  adopted  the  same  division  of  seasons,  with 
reference  to  their  rural  work.''  These  divisions  also  exist 
among  the  Arabs  to  this  day.''     A  brief  statement  of  the 

«  npsiilcs  the  researches  of  nioilem  travellers  and  the  other  authorities, 
cited  for  particular  facts,  the  following  treatises  have  been  consulted  for  the 
present  soclioii,  viz.  Kelandi  PaUeslina,  loui.  i.  pp.  '^31 — 370.;  Jahn,  et  Ack- 
ernian,  Archaiologia  Bihlica,  55  11 — 21.  ;  Schulzii  Archa^ologia  Jlebraica,  pp. 
4 — 9. ;  Pareau,  Aniif(uilas  llebraica,  pp.  57 — 64. ;  and  Alber,  Ileruieucutica 
Sacra,  torn.  i.  pp.  64— 72. 

»  Uaruier's  (Jbservalions,  vol.  i.  pp.  2 — 4.  London,  180S. 

'  Of  the  intensity  of  the  heat  in  P.Uestine,  during  the  summer,  some  idea 
may  be  formed,  wlicn  it  is  known  that  the  mercury  of  Ur.  K.  D.  Clarke's 
lUeniwiueter,  in  a  subterraneous  recess  perfeclly  shaded  (the  scale  being 
placed  so  as  not  to  touch  the  rock),  remained  at  owe  AuMt/red  degrees  of 
Fahrc'idieit.    Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  100.  Svo.  edit. 

*  The  same  vici.ssitudes  of  temperature  e-vistto  thisday  at  Smyrna  (Emer- 
son's Letters  from  the  -E^ean,  vol.  i.  p.  94.),  also  in  the  Desert  of  Arabia 
(Capt.  Kepp^l's  Narrative  of  a  Journey  froir.  India  to  England,  vol.  i.  p.  140. 
London,  1S27.  Svo.),  in  the  Desert  between  Damascus  and  the  ruins  of  Pal- 
myra (Canie's  Letters  from  Ihc  East,  p.  585.),  in  Persia  (Morier's  Second 
Journey,  p.  97.  London,  1818.  4to.),  and  in  Esypt.  (Cant.  Light's  Travels, 

f.  -M.;  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels  along  the  Mt'ditterranean,  &;c.  vol.  i.  pp. 
SI,  182.  London,  1822.  Svo.)  Harmerlias  collected  several  testimonies  to 
the  same  effect,  from  the  earlier  travellers  in  the  East.  Observations  on 
Scripture,  vol.  i.  pp.  61—65.  London,  1S03. 

'  Bava  Melsia,  fol.  1(X>.  cited  by  Dr.  Lightfont,  in  his  Hebrew  andTalmu- 
dical  E.xercitations  on  .lohn  iv.  3j.  (Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  &13.) 

•  See  Golius's  Lexicon  Arabicum,  col.  934. 


natural  phenomena  occurring  in  these  several  seasons,  Avill 
enable  us  to  form  a  tolerably  correct  idea  of  the  climate  and 
weather  of  the  Holy  Land. 

1.  Seed-tl^vie,  by  the  rabbins  termed  y-\i  (zeR6),  comprised 
the  latter  half  of  the  Jewish  month  Tisri,  the  whole  oi  Mar- 
chesvan,  and  the  former  half  of  Kisleu  or  Chisleu,  that  is, 
from  the  beginning  of  October  to  the  beginning  of  December. 
During  this  season  the  weather  is  various,  very  often  misty, 
cloudy,  with  mizzling  or  pouring  rain.  Towards  the  close 
of  October  or  early  in  November,  the  former  or  early  au- 
tumnal rains  begin  to  fall ;  when  they  usually  ploughed  their 
land,  and  sowed  their  wheat  and  barley,  and  gathered  the 
latter  grapes.  The  rains  last  for  three  or  four  days;  they  do 
not  fall  without  intermission,  but  in  frequent  showers.  ITie 
air  at  this  season  is  frequently  warm,  sometimes  even  hot; 
but  is  much  refreshed  by  cold  in  the  night,  which  is  so  in- 
tense as  to  freeze  the  very  heavj'  dews  that  fall.  Towards 
the  close  it  becomes  cooler,  and  at  the  end  of  it  snow  begins 
to  fall  upon  the  mountains.  The  channels  of  the  rivulets  are 
sometimes  dry,  and  even  the  large  rivers  do  not  contain  much 
water.  In  the  latter  part  of  November  the  leaves  lose  their 
foliage.  Towards  the  end  of  that  month  the  more  delicate 
light  their  fires  (Jer.  xxxvi.  22.),  which  they  contiiuic,  almost 
to  the  month  of  April ;  while  others  pass  the  whole  winter 
without  fire. 

2.  Winter,  bj^  the  rabbins  termed  ty^m  (chorpp),  included 
the  latter  half  of  Chisleu,  the  whole  of  Tebeth,  and  the 
former  part  of  Sebat,  that  is  from  the  beginning  of  Decem- 
ber to  the  beginning  of  February.  In  the  commencement  of 
this  season,  snows  rarely  fall,  except  on  the  mountains,  but 
they  seldom  continue  a  whole  day  ;  the  ice  is  thin,  and  melts 
as  soon  as  the  sun  ascends  above  the  horizon.  As  the  season 
advances,  the  north  wind  and  the  cold,  especially  on  the  lofty 
mountains,  which  are  now  covered  with  snow,  is  intensely 
severe,  and  sometimes  even  f^ital :  the  cold  is  fretjuently  so 
piercing,  that  persons  born  in  our  climate  can  scarcely  endure 
It.  The  roads  become  slippery,  and  travelling  becomes  both 
laborious  and  dangerous,  especially  in  the  steep  mountain- 

Eaths  (Jer.  xiii.  1(5.  xxiii.  12.)  ;  and  on  this  account  our 
lOrd,  when  predicting  tlie  calamities  that  were  to  attend 
the  siege  at  Jerusalem^  told  his  disciples  to  pray  that  their 
flight  might  not  be  in  the  winter.  (Matt.  xxiv.  20.)  The  cold 
however  varies  in  severity  according  to  the  local  situation  of 
the  country.  On  hi"h  mountains  (as  we  have  just  remarked) 
it  is  extreme ;  but  in  the  plain  oi  Jericho  it  is  scarcely  felt, 
the  winter  there  resembling  spring ;  yet,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Jenisalem,  the  vicissitudes  of  a  winter  in  Palestine  were 
experienced  by  the  crusaders  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  cen- 

23 


?4 


SEASONS  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Chap.  U. 


tury,  in  all  its  horrors.  Many  persons  of  both  sexes  perished 
in  consequence  of  want  of  food,  the  intenseness  of  the  cold, 
and  the  heaviness  of  the  rains,  which  kept  thinn  wet  for  four 
successive  days.  The  ground  was  alternately  deluged  with 
rain,  or  encrusted  with  ice,  or  loaded  with  snow ;  the  beasts 
of  burthen  were  carried  away  by  the  sudden  torrents,  tlmt 
descended  (as  they  still  do)  from  the  mountains,  and  filled 
the  rivers,  or  sank  into  the  boggy  ground.  JSo  vehement 
were  the  rains,  storms  of  hail,  and  winds,  as  to  tear  up  the 
stakes  of  the  tents,  and  carry  them  to  a  distance.  The 
extremity  of  the  cold  and  wet  killed  the  horses,  and  spoiled 
their  provisions.' 

The  hail-stones  which  fall  during  the  severity  of  the  win- 
ter season  are  very  large,  and  sometimes  fatal  to  man  and 
beast.  Such  was  the  storm  of  hail  that  discomfited  the 
Amorites  (Josh.  x.  10.) ;  and  such  also  the  very  grievous  hail 
that  destroyed  the  cattle  of  the  Egyptians.  (Exod.  ix.  18. 
23,  21.)  A  similar  hail-storm  fell  upon  the  British  fleet  in 
Marmorice  bay,  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  year  1801,2  which 
affords  a  fine  comment  on  that  expression  of  the  psalmist, 
He  castefh  forth  his  ice  like  morsels ;  who  can  stand  before  his 
cold?  (Psal.  cxlvii.  17.)  The  snow  which  falls  in  Judosa 
is  by  the  same  elegant  inspired  writer  compared  to  wool 
(Psal.  cxlvii.  16.);  and  we  are  informed  that  in  countries  which 
are  at  no  great  distance  from  Palestine,  the  snow  falls  in 
flakes  as  large  as  walnuts  :  but  not  being  very  hard  or  very 
compact,  it  does  no  injury  to  the  traveller  whom  it  covers. ^ 

But,  however  severe  the  cold  weather  sometimes  is  in 
these  countries,  there  are  intervals  even  in  the  depth  of  win- 
ter when  the  sun  shines  and  there  is  no  wind,  and  when  it  is 
perfectly  warm — sometimes  almost  hot — in  the  open  air.  At 
such  seasons  the  poorer  classes  in  the  East  enjoy  the  conver- 
sation of  their  friends,  sauntering  about  in  the  air,  and  sitting 
under  the  walls  of  their  dwellings ;  while  the  houses  of  the 
more  opulent  inhabitants,  having  porches  or  gateways,  with 
benches  on  each  side,  the  master  of  the  family  receives 
visitors  there,  and  despatches  his  business — few  persons  (not 
even  the  nearest  relations)  having  further  admission  except 
on  extraordinary  occasions.^  These  circumstances  materially 
illustrate  a  difficult  passage  in  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxxiii. 
30.) — also,  thou  son  of  man,  the  children  of  thy  people  are  still 
talking  concerning  thee,^  by  the  walls  and  in  the  doors  of  the 
houses,  and  speak  one  to  another,  every  one  to  his  brother,  saying 
Come,  I  pray  you,  and  hear  what  is  the  word  that  cometh  forth 
from  the  Lord.  It  appears  from  Ezek.  xxxiii.  21.  that  these 
things  were  transacted  in  the  tenth  month,  corresponding  with 
the  close  of  our  December  or  the  commencement  of  January. 
The  poorer  people,  therefore,  sat  under  their  walls  for  the 
benefit  of  the  sun,  while  those  in  better  circumstances  sat  in 
their  porchways  or  gateways  to  enjoy  its  genial  rays.s 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  one  part  of  the  winter  is,  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  East,  distinguished  from  the  rest  by  the 
severity  of  the  cold,  which  may  be  denominated  the  depth  of 
their  winter. 

3.  The  Cold  Season  or  Winter  Solstice,  by  the  rabbins 
termed  mp  (kor),  comprises  the  latter  half  of  Sebat,  the 
whole  of  Adar,  and  the  former  half  of  Nisan,  from  the  be- 
ginning of  February  to  the  beginning  of  April.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  this  season,  the  ground,  is  irecjuently  covered 
with  a  tiiick  hoar-frost,  and  the  weather  is  cold ;  but  it 
gradually  becomes  warm  and  even  hot,  particularly  in  the 
plain  of  Jericho.  Thunder,  lightning,  and  hail  are  frequent. 
Vegetable  nature  now  revives;  the  almond  tree  blossoms, 
and  the  gardens  assume  a  delightful  a])pearance.  Barley  is 
ripe  at  Jericho,  though  but  little  wheat  is  in  the  ear.  The 
latter  rains  sometimes  begin  to  fall  in  the  end  of  this  season, 
swelling  the  rising  crops,  with  which  the  valleys  are  covered. 

«  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  i.  pp.  36 — 42. 

»  "On  the  8th  ofFebruary  coininenced  the  most  violent  thunder  and  hail- 
storm ever  reuiemliercd,  and  which  continued  two  days  and  nights  inter- 
iinitingly.  The  hail,  or  rather  the  ice-stones,  were  as  Ijig  as  large  walnuts. 
The  camps  were  deluged  with  a  torrent  of  them  two  feet  deep,  which, 
pourlna;  from  the  mountains,  swept  every  thing  before  it.  The  scene  of 
confusion  on  shore,  by  the  horses  breaking  loose,  and  tlie  men  being 
unable  to  face  the  storm,  or  remain  still  in  the  freezing  deluge,  surpasses 
description.  It  is  not  in  the  power  of  language  to  convey  an  adequate  idea 
of  such  a  tempest."  Sir  Robert  Wilson's  History  of  the  British  Expedition 
to  Egypt,  vol.  i.  p.  S.  8vo.  edit.  Hail  storms  are  so  violent  in  some  parts  of 
Persia,  as  freipienlly  to  destroy  the  cattle  in  the  fields.  Kinneir's  Geo- 
grapliical  Memoir,  p.  158. 

3  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  i.  p.  45.  note. 

•  Tlie  same  usage  still  obtains  at  Smyrna.  Emerson's  Letters  from  the 
.fflgean,  vol.  i.  pp.  96,  97. 

s  In  our  authorized  version,  the  preposition  ia(BaK)is  rendered  against 
thee,  which  is  erroneous,  as  the  context  sliows  that  the  Jews  were  talking 
of  or  concerning  the  prophet,  and  so  it  is  properly  rendered  in  Psal. 
Ixxxvii.  3.  Glorious  l/iings  are  spoken  op  thee,  Ocity  of  God. 

•  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  i.  pp.  50—53. 


4.  The  Harvest,  by  the  rabbins  denominated  n^xp  (Kersm), 
includes  the  latter  half  of  Nisan,  the  whole  of  Jyar  (or  Zif), 
and  the  former  half  of  Sivan,  that  is,  from  the  beginning  ol 
April  to  the  beginning  of  June.  In  the  first  fortniglit  of  this 
season,  the  latter  rains  are  frequent,  but  cease  towards  the 
end  of  April,  when  the  sky  is  generally  fair  and  serene.  In 
the  plain  of  Jericho  the*  heat  of  the  sun  is  excessive,  though 
in  other  parts  of  Palestine  the  weather  is  most  delightful ; 
and  on  the  sea-coast  the  heat  is  tempered  by  morning  and 
evening  breezes  from  the  sea.  As  the  harvest  depends  on  the 
duration  of  the  rainy  season,  the  early  or  autumnal  rains,  and 
the  latter  or  spring  rains  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the  sup- 
port of  vegetation,  and  were  consequently  objects  greatly 
desired  by  the  Israelites  and  Jews.'  These  rains,  however, 
were  always  chilly  (Ezra  x.  9.  and  Sol.  Song  ii.  11.),  and 
often  preceded  by  whirlwinds  (2  Kings  iii.  16,  17.)  that 
raised  such  quantities  of  sand  as  to  darken  the  sk)'^,  or,  in 
the  words  of  the  sacred  historian,  to  make  the  heavens  black 
loith  clouds  and  ivind,  (1  Kings  xviii.  45.)  In  Egypt  the 
barley  harvest  precedes  the  summer.  This  may  explain  Jer. 
viii.  20.  where  the  harvest  is  put  first  in  the  description, — 
The  harvest  is  past,  the  summer  is  ended,  and  we  are  not  saved.^ 

The  rains  descend  in  Palestine  with  great  violence ;  and 
as  whole  villages  in  the  East  are  constructed  only  with  palm 
branches,  mud,  and  tiles  baked  in  the  sun  (perhaps  corres- 
ponding to  and  explanatory  of  the  untempered  mortar  noticed 
in  Ezek.  xiii.  11.),  these  rains  not  unfrequently  dissolve  the 
cement,  such  as  it  is,  and  the  houses  fall  to  the  ground.  To 
these  effects  our  Lord  probably  alludes  in  Matt.  vii.  25 — 27. 
Very  small  clouds  are  likewise  the  forerunners  of  violent 
storms  and  hurricanes  in  the  east  as  well  as  in  the  west : 
they  rise  like  a  man''s  hand  (1  Kings  xviii.  44.),  until  the 
whole  sky  becomes  black  with  rain,  which  descends  in  tor- 
rents, that  rush  down  the  steep  hills,  and  sweep  every  thing 
before  them.9  In  our  Lord's  time,  this  phenomenon  seems 
to  have  become  a  certain  prognostic  of  wet  weather.  He  said 
to  the  jjeople.  When  ye  see  the  cloud  (THN  N6<j>ya)v)'»  rise  out 
of  the  west,  straightway  ye  say,  There  cometh  a  shower ;  and 
so  IT  IS.  (Luke  xii.  54.) 

5.  The  Summer,  by  the  rabbins  termed  xpp  (kyits),  com- 
prehends the  latter  half  of  Sivan,  the  whole  of  Thammuz, 
and  the  former  half  of  Ab,  that  is,  from  the  beginning  of 
June  to  the  beginning  of  August.  The  heat  of  the  weather 
increases,  and  the  nights  are  so  warm  that  the  inhabitants 
sleep  on  their  house-tops  in  the  open  air. 

6.  The  Hot  Season,  by  the  rabbins  called  oin  (chum),  or 
the  great  heat,  includes  the  latter  half  of  Ab,  the  whole  of 
Elul,  and  the  former  half  of  Tisri,  that  is,  from  the  begin- 
ning of-  August  to  the  beginning  of  October.  During  the 
chief  part  of  this  season  the  heat  is  intense,  though  less  so 
at  Jerusalem  than  in  the  plain  of  Jericho  :  there  is  no  cold, 
not  even  in  the  night,  so  that  travellers  pass  whole  niglits  iu 
the  open  air  without  inconvenience.  Lebanon  is  for  the  most 
part  tree  from  snow,  except  in  the  caverns  and  defiles  where 
the  sun  cannot  penetrate.  During  the  hot  season,  it  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  East  Indies  for  persons  to  die  suddenly,  in 
consequence  of  the  extreme  heat  of  the  solar  rays  (whence 
the  necessity  of  being  carried  in  a  palanquin).  Tliis  is  now 
commonly  termed  a  coup-de-soleil,^or  stroke  of  the  sun.  The 
son  of  the  woman  of  Shunem  appears  to  have  died  in  conse- 
quence of  a  coup-de-soleil  (2  Kings  iv.   19,  20.);-'  and  to 

I  The  following  are  a  few  among  the  many  allusions  in  the  Scripture  to 
the  importance  of  the  early  and  latter  rains,  and  the  earnestness  wiih 
which  they  were  desired.  Ueut.  xi.  14.  .Job  xxix.  23.  Prov.  xvi.  15.  .ler. 
iii.  3.  V.  24.  Hos.  vi.  3.  Joel  ii.  23.  Zech.  x.  1.  "  From  these  bountilid 
showers  of  heaven,  indeed,  the  fertility  of  every  land  springs:  but  how 
dreadful  in  this  country  would  be  such  a  three  years'  drought,  as  was  in- 
llicted  upon  Israel  in  the  days  of  Ahab,  may  easily  be  conceived,  when  it  is 
remembered  that  in  sunurier  the  richest  soil  is  burnt  to  dust ;  so  that  a 
traveller,  riding  through  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  in  July  or  August,  would 
imagine  himself  to  be  crossing  a  desert."  (Jowett's  Christian  Researxhes 
in  Syf ia,  p.  300.  London,  1825.  8vo.) 

8  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  <fcc.  p.  114.  Lon- 
don, 1822.  8vo. 

9  A  similar  phenomenon  is  noticed  by  Homer  (Iliad,  lib.  iv.  275 — 278 ), 
and  also  takes  place  in  Abyssinia.  Mr.  Bruce,  speaking  of  the  phenomena 
attending  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  says, — Every  morning,  "about  >nine, 
a  small  cloud,  not  above  four  feet  broad,  appears  in  the  east,  wliirling  vio- 
lently round,  as  if  upon  an  axis;  but,  arrived  near  the  zenith,  it  first  abates 
its  motion,  then  loses  its  Ibrm,  and  extends  itself  greatly,  and  seems  to  call 
up  vapours  from  all  opposite  quarters.  These  clouds,having  attained  nearly 
the  same  height,  rush  against  each  other  with  great  violence,  and  put  me 
always  in  mind  of  Elijah  foretelling  rain  on  Mount  Carmel."  Travels,  vol. 
v.  p.  3.36.  8vo. 

■  0  The  article  here  is  vmquestionably  demonstrative.  See  Bp.  Middle- 
ton's  Doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article,  p.  327.  (first  edit.) 

"  Egmont  and  Heyman  (who  travelled  in  Palestine  in  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century)  found  the  air  about  Jericho  extremely  hot,  and  ' 
say  that  it  destroyed  several  persons  the  year  before  they  were  there. 
The  arjny  of  King  Baldwin  IV.  suffered  considerably  froui  this  circuin- 


Sect.  I.] 


RIVERS,  LAKES,  WELLS,  AND  FOUNTAINS. 


25 


this  fatal  effect  of  the  solar  heat  the  psalmist  alludos  (Psal. 
cxxi.  G.),  as  he  also  does  to  the  etl'cct  of  the  lunar  rays,  which 
in  Arabia  (as  well  as  in  Efjypt)  are  singularly  injurious  to 
tlie  eyes  of  those  who  sleep  in  the  open  air.  "  The  moon 
here  really  strikes  and  affects  tin;  si<>lit  when  you  sleep  ex- 
posed to  It  much  more  than  the  sun  :  indeed,  the  si<rht  of  a 
pers(jn,  who  should  sleep  with  his  face  exposed  at  night, 
would  soon  1)0  utterly  impaired  or  destroyed."' 

From  the  tinu'  of  harvest,  that  is,  from  tiic  middle  of  April 
to  the  middle  of  lSeplemi)er,  it  neither  rains  nor  thunders. 
(Prov.  xxvi.  1.  1  Sam.  xii.  17.)  During  the  latter  part  of 
April,  or  about  the  middle  of  tln^  harvest,  the  iiiuntiiifr  clvud 
is  seen  early  in  tlu;  morninir,  which  disap])ears  as  the  sun 
ascends  above  the  horizon.  (Hos,  vi.  '1.  xiii.  .'{.)  'I'hese  li<;ht 
fleecy  clouds  are  without  wal<!r  {vt^iKctt  uvi/Jpu) ;  and  to  them 
lli(!  apostle  Jude  (verse  12.)  compares  the  false  teachers,  who 
even  then  began  to  contaminate  the  church  of  (Jhrist.  In 
Deut.  xxxii.  2.  the  doctrine  of  Jehovah  is  compared  to  the 
rain,  and  cloiuls  are  the  instruments  by  which  rain  is  dis- 
tilled upon  the  earth.  In  arid  or  |)arched  countries,  the  very 
api)earance  of  a  cloud  is  delightful,  because;  it  is  a  token  of 
relreshing  showers ;  but  when  suddtMi  winds  arise,  atul  dis- 
perse these  clouds,  the  hope  of  the  husbandman  and  shepherd 
IS  cut  oif.  Th(!  false  teachers  alluded  to,  are  represented  as 
cluuih ;  they  have  tin;  Jw-m  and  ojjice  of  teachers  of  right- 
eousness, and  from  such  ap])earaiices  pure  doctrine  may 
naturally  be  expectetl.  But  these  are  clouds  wilhoul  water,- 
they  distil  no  refreshing  showers,  because  they  contain  none; 
and  they  are  carried  about  by  their  ])assion,  as  those  light  and 
fleecy  clouds  in  tjuestion  are  carried  by  the  winds.^ 

From  the  Jewish  month  Sivan,  through  the  entire  months 
of  Tammuz,  Ab,  and  the  former  part  of  Elul,  corresponding 
with  our  months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  not  a 
single  cloud  is  to  be  seen  ;  but  during  the  night,  the  earth  is 
moistened  by  a  copious  dew,  which  in  the  sacred  volume  is 
frequently  made  a  symbol  of  the  divine  goodness.  (Compare 
Gen.  xxvii.  2H.  and  xlix.  '25.  where  the  blessing  front  above  is 
equivalent  with  dew,  Deut.  xxxii.  2.  xxxiii.  13.  Job  xxix. 
IS).  Mic.  v.  7.)  In  Arabia  Petrcea  the  dews  are  so  heavy,  as 
to  wet  to  the  skin  those  who  are  exposed  to  them  :  but  as 
soon  as  the  sun  arises,  and  the  atmosphere  becomes  a  little 
wanned,  the  mists  are  quickly  dispersed,  and  the  abundant 
moisture,  which  the  dews  had  communicated  to  the  sands,  is 
entirely  evaporated.  What  a  forcible  description  is  this  of 
the  transiently  good  impressions,  felt  by  many,  to  which  the 
prophet  Hosea  alludes!  (vi.  1.)  Other  rehrcnces  to  the 
refreshing  nature  of  the  dews  of  Palestine  occur  in  Psal. 
cxxxiii.  3.  and  Hos.  xiv.  5.^  These  dews  fall,  as  in  other 
countries,  very  fast  as  well  as  very  suddenly,  upon  every 
blade  of  grass  and  every  spot  of  earth  :  whence  an  active 
and  expeditious  soldiery  is  in  2  Sam.xvii.  12.  by  a  beautiful 
figure  compared  to  dew.  But,  however  copious  the  dews 
are,  they  nourish  only  the  more  robust  or  hardy  plants ;  and 
-  as  the  season  of  heat  advances,  the  grass  withers,  the  flowers 
fade,  every  green  herb  is  dried  up  by  the  roots  and  dies, 
unless  watered  by  the  rivulets  or  by  the  labour  of  man.^  To 
this  appearance  of  the  fields,  during  an  eastern  summer,  the 

stance  near  Tiberias.  The  licat  at  tlie  lime  was  so  unnsally  great,  that  as 
many  died  by  lliat  as  by  (tie  sword.  After  the  battle,  in  their  return  to 
their  Ibrnier  encanipiiient,  a  certain  ecclesiastic,  of  some  distinction  in  the 
church  and  in  the  army,  not  being  able  to  boar  the  vehemence  of  the  heat, 
-was  carried  in  a  litter,  but  expired  under  Mount  Tabor. — llarmer's  Obser- 
vations, vol.  i.  p.  4. 

>  Carne's  Letters  from  the  East,  p.  77.  A  nearly  similar  account  is 
given  by  Mr.  R.  II.  Madden,  who  travelled  in  the  liast,  between  the  vears 
1824  and  1827.  Travels  in  Turkey,  ic.  vol.  ii.  pp.  197,  198.  The  deadly 
inlluence  of  the  moon  is  equally  felt  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  Thus, 
in  Ben;;al,  moat  hum;  up,  if  e.xposed  to  moonlight,  will  not  take  the  salt,  but 
taints  and  spoils  spocdily  :  whereas  tlie  same  kind  of  meat,  if  kept  l"rom 
the  iniionlifilil,  will  take  salt,  and  keep  good  lor  some  time.  (Ii.\tract  of  a 
letter  IVdih  India,  in  tlie  Christian  Observer  for  IS08,  p.  754.)  And  at  Dc- 
liierara  the  moon  strikes  (similarly  to  the  sun)  with  a  coupde-lune  ;  so  that 
people  walk  out  at  nislil  with  umbrellas  or  parulunes.  Sucli  indeed  are 
the  etfects  of  the  lunar  rays  upon  fish,  as  to  make  it  part  from  the  bones. 
(From  information  communicated  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Elliott,  missionary  at 
Demerara.) 

4  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  .Tude  12. 
Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  325.  The  very  heavy  dews  which  fall  in  the 
Holy  Land,  are  noticed  by  almost  every  one  who  has  travelled  in  that  coun- 
try. We  shall  adduce  the  testimonies  of  two  or  three.  Maundrell,  travel- 
ling near  Mount  Ilermon,  in  the  year  1697,  says,  "  We  were  instructed  by 
experience,  what  the  Psalmist  means  by  the  clew  of  Herman  (Psal.  cxxxiii. 
3.),  our  Iciils  being  as  itet  icil/i  it,  as  if  it  had  rained  all  night."  (Travels 
from  Alenpo  to  Jerusalem,  p.  77.)  Dr.  E.  I).  Clarke,  when  on  his  journey 
from  AbJukir  to  Rosetta,  in  1801,  says,  "We  had  a  tent  allotted  to  us  for 
the  niglit ;  it  was  double  lined  ;  yet  so  copious  are  the  dews  of  Egypt"  (the 
climate  of  which  country  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Holy  Land),  ''ujler  sun- 
set that  the  icatcr  ran  copiousl;/  down  the  tent-pole."  (Travels,  vol.  iii.  p. 
365.  8vo.)  Mr.  Carne  says,  "The  dews  had  fallen  heavily  for  some  niglits, 
and  the  clothes  that  covered  us  were  quite  wet  in  the  morning."  Letters 
from  the  East,  p.  178. 

«  Haruier's  Observations,  vol.  i.  p.  6. 

Vol,  II.  D 


royal  p.salmist  alludes.  (Psal.  xxxii.  4.)  If,  at  this  season, 
a  single  spark  falls  upon  the  grass,  a  conflagration  immediate- 
ly ensues,  especially  if  tlicre  should  be  any  briers  or  thorns, 
low  shrubs  or  woods  contiguous.  (Psal.  Ixxxiii.  14.  Isa. 
ix.  18.  x.  17,  18.  Jer.  xxi.  14.  Compare  also  Kxod.  xxii.  6. 
and  Joel  i.  19,  20.)  The  face  of  the  country  becomes  en- 
tirely changed  ;  the  fielils,  so  lately  clothed  \vith  the  ricliest 
verdure  and  adorned  with  the  loveli(>st  flowers,  are  converted 
into  a  brown  and  arid  wilderness;  tlie  grass  witltereth,  the 
Jlower  J'aditk  (Isa.  xl.  G,  7.);^  the  fountains  and  rivulets  are 
dried  up  ;  and  the  soil  becomes  so  hard  as  to  exhibit  large 
fissures  or  clefts.  These  ellccts  are  accelerated  if  the  east 
wind  blow  for  a  few  days;  which,  being  usually  dry  and 
producing  a  blight,  becomes  fatal  to  the  corn  and  vines  (Job 
XV.  2.  Gen.  xli.  G.23.  Kzek.  xvii,  10.  xix.  12.  Hos.  xiii.  15. 
Jonah  iv.  8.  Psal.  ciii.  15,  l(i.)  ;  and  is  particularly  dan- 
gerous to  navigators  in  the  Mediterranean  .Sea.  'litis  is 
alluded  to  in  Psla.  xlviii.  7.  and  E'/ek.  xxvii.  20.  The  people 
of  the  East  generally  term  every  wind  an  east  wind,  lliat 
blows  between  tin;  east  and  north  and  the  east  and  south. 
'I'lu!  Euroclydon,  which  caused  the  wreck  of  the  vessel  in 
which  Paul  was  sailing  to  Home,  was  one  of  these  tempes- 
tuous east  winds,  a«//oc  Tt/?iv/x'.c,  that  drove  every  thing  before 
it.  (Acts  xxvii.  14.)  Such  winds  are  common  in  the  Medi- 
terranean to  this  day,  where  they  are  called  Lcvaitlers,  the 
term  Levant  meaning  that  country  which  Ucs  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  that  sea.'' 

III.  In  consequence  of  the  paucity  of  showers  in  the  East, 
water  is  an  article  of  great  importance  to  the  inhabitants. 
Hence,  in  Lot's  estimation,  it  was  a  principal  recommenda- 
tion of  the  plain  of  Jordan  that  it  was  ii:ell  watered  every 
luliere  (Gen.  xiii.  10.) ;  and  the  same  advantage  continued  in 
later  ages  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  Israelites,  whose  country  was 
intersected  by  numerous  brooks  and  streams ;  whence  it  is 
not  more  emphatically  than  beautifully  described  as  a  land 
of  broolis  <f  water,  <f  fountains  and  depths,  that  spring  out  of 
valleys  anil  hilh.  And  the  same  preference  is  given  to  this 
day  by  the  Eelauts  (a  Tartar  tribe  occupying  a  district  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  Persian  empire),  who  carry  their 
flocks  to  the  highest  parts  of  the  mountains,  where  the  bless- 
ings of  pasturage  and  of  good  water  are  to  be  found  in 
abundance.  The  knowledge  of  this  circumstance  will,  per- 
haps, impart  new  force  to  the  promises  made  to  the  Gentiles 
by  the  evangelical  prophet.  Their  pastures  shall  be  in  all  high 
places,  they  shall  not  hunger  nor  thirst ,-  neither  shall  the  sun  or 
heat  smite  them  ,-  for  he  lliat  hath  mercy  on  them  shall  lead  them, 
even  by  the  springs  of  water  shall  he  guide  them.  (Isa.  xlix.  9 — 
11.)'     See  also  Rev.  vii.  IG,  17. 

Although  Rivers  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Sacred 
W^ritings,  yet,  strictly  speaking,  the  only  river  in  the  Holy 
Land  is  the  Jordan,  which  is  sometimes  designated  in  the 
Scripture  as  the  river  without  any  addition ;  as  also  is  the 
Nile  (Gen.  xli.  1.  Exod.  i.  22.  ii.  5.  iv.  9.  vii.  18.  and  viii. 
3.9.  11.),  and,  occasionally,  the  Euphrates  (as  in  Jer.  ii. 
18.);  in  these  cases,  the  tenor  of  the  discourse  must  deter- 
mine which  is  the  river  actuall}'  intended  by  the  sacred  wri- 
ters. The  name  of  river  is  also  given  to  inconsiderable 
streams  and  rivulets,  as  to  the  Kishon  (Judges  iv.  7.  and  v. 
21.)  and  the  Anion.  (Deut.  iii.  IG.)^ 

1.  The  principal  river  which  waters  Palestine  is  the  Jor- 
dan or  Yar-JJan,  i.  e.  the  river  of  Dan,  so  called  because  it 
takes  its  rise  in  the  vicinity  of  the  little  city  of  Dan.  Its 
true  source  is  in  two  fountains  at  Paneas  (a  city  better  known 
by  its  subsequent  name  of  Cajsarea  Philippi),  at  the  foot  of 
Anti-Libanus  ;  its  apparent  source  flows  trom  beneath  a  cave 
at  the  foot  of  a  precipice,  in  the  sides  of  which  are  several 
niches  with  Greek  inscriptions.*  During  several  hours  of 
its  course,   it  continues   to   be   a   small  and   insignificant 

»  "The  very  aflfecting  images  of  Scripture,  which  compare  the  short- 
living  existence  of  man  to  tlic  decay  of  tlie  vegetable  creation,  are  scarcely 
understood  in  tliis  country.  The  verdure  is  perpetual  in  England.  It  is 
difficult  to  discover  a  time  when  it  can  be  said,  'the  grass  wiihereth.' 
But,  let  the  traveller  visit  the  beautiful  plain  of  Smyrna,  or  any  other  part 
of  the  East,  in  the  montli  of  May,  and  revisit  it  towards  the  end  of  June, 
and  he  will  perceive  the  force  and  beauty  of  these  allusions.  In  May,  aa 
appearance  of  fresh  verdure  and  of  rich  luxuriance  every  where  lueets 
the  eye  ;  the  face  of  nature  is  adorned  with  a  carpel  of  tlowers  and  herb- 
age, of  the  most  elegant  kind.  But  a  month  or  six  weeks  subsequently, 
hiiw  changed  is  the  entire  scene  !  The  beauty  is  gone  ;  the  gi-ass  is  with- 
ered ;  the  llower  is  faded  ;  a  brown  and  dusty  desert  has  taken  place  of  a 
delicious  garden.  It  is  doubtless  to  this  rapid  transformation  of  nature 
that  the  Scriptures  compare  the  fate  of  inau."  Hartley's  Researches  in 
Greece,  p.  "237. 

c  Shaw's  Travels  in  Barbary,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  127—133. 

■"  Morier's  Second  Journey  through  Persia,  p.  121. 

»  In  a  few  instances,  the  sea  is  called  a  river,  as  iuHab.  iii.  8.  where  the 
Red  Sea  is  intended. 

9  C?.pt  frby's  and  Mangle's  Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  pp.  287— 2S9. 


26 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  L  Chap.  H. 


rivulet.'  It  flows  due  south  throuorh  the  centre  of  the  coun- 
try, intersecting  the  lake  Merom  and  the  sea  or  lake  of  Gali- 
lee, and  (it  is  said)  without  min^^linar  with  its  waters  ;  and 
it  loses  itself  in  the  lake  Asphaltites  or  the  Dead  Sea,  into 
which  it  rolls  a  considerable  volume  of  deej)  water,  with  such 
rapidity  as  to  prevent  a  strong,  active,  and  export  swimmer 
from  swimminir  across  it.  The  course  of  the  Jordan  is  about 
one  hundred  miles  ;  its  breadth  and  depth  are  various.  Dr. 
Shaw  computed  it  to  be  about  thirty  yards  broad,  and  three 
yards  or  nine  feet  in  depth  ;  and  states  that  it  discharges 
daily  into  the  Dead  Sea  about  6,090,000  tuns  of  water.- 
Viscount  Chateaubriand  (who  travelled  nearly  a  century  after 
him)  found  the  Jordan  to  be  six  or  seven  feet  deep  close  to 
the  shore,  and  about  fifty  paces  in  breadth.  The  late  count 
Volney  asserts  it  to  be  scarcely  sixty  paces  wide  at  its  em- 
bouchure. Messrs.  Banks  and  Buckingham,  wiio  crossed  it 
in  January,  1816,  pretty  nearly  at  the  same  ford  over  which 
the  Israelites  passed  on  their  first  entering  the  promised  land, 
found  the  stream  extremely  rapid  ;  and  as  it  flowed  at  that 
part  over  a  bed  of  pebbles,  its  otherwise  turbid  waters  Avere 
tolerably  clear,  as  well  as  pure  and  sweet  to  the  taste.^  It  is 
here  fordable,  being  not  more  than  four  feet  deep,  with  a 
rapid  current.'' 

Anciently  the  Jordan  overfloAved  its  banks  about  the  time 
of  barley  harvest  (Josh.  iii.  15.  iv.  18.  1  Chron.  xii.  15. 
Jer.  xlix.  19.),  or  the  feast  of  the  passover;  when,  the  snows 
being  dissolved  on  the  mountains,  the  torrents  discharged 
themselves  into  its  channel  with  great  impetuosity.  When 
visited  by  Mr.  Maundrell,  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, he  could  discern  no  sign  or  prohability  of  such  inunda- 
tions, though  so  late  as  the  30th  of  March ;  and  so  far  was 
the  river  from  overflowing,  that  it  ran  almost  two  yards 
below  the  brink  of  its  channel.  It  may  be  said  to  have  two 
banks, — the  first,  that  of  the  river  in  its  natural  state ;  the 
second,  that  of  its  overflowings.  After  descending  the  outer- 
most bank,  the  traveller  proceeds  about  a  furlong  upon  a  level 
strand,  before  he  comes  to  the  immediate  bank  of^  the  river. 
This  second  bank  is  now  (as  it  anciently  was)  so  beset  with 
Dushes,  reeds,  tamarisks,  willows,  oleanders,  and  other 
shrubs  and  trees,  which  form  an  asylum  for  various  wild 
animals,  that  no  water  is  perceptible  until  the  traveller  has 
made  his  way  through  them.*  In  this  thicket  several  kinds 
of  wild  beasts  used  formerly  to  conceal  themselves,  until  the 
swelling  of  the  river  drove  them  from  their  coverts.  To  this 
fact  the  prophet  Jeremiah  alludes,  when  he  compares  the 
impatience  of  Edom  and  Babylon  under  the  divine  judg- 
ments, to  the  coming  up  of  a  lion  from  the  swdlings  of  Jordan , 
(Jer.  xlix.  19.)  On  the  level  strand  above  noticed,  it  proba- 
bly was,  that  John  the  Baptist  stood,  and  pointed  to  the 
stones  of  which  it  was  composed,  when  he  exclaimed,  I  foy 
unto  you,  thai  God  is  able  of  these  stones  to  raise  up  child- 
ren unto  Abraham  :  and  turning  to  th6  second  bank,  which 
was  overgrown  with  various  shrubs  and  trees  that  had  been 
suffered  to  grow  wild  for  ages,  he  added,  and  now  also  the 
axe  is  laid  unto  the  root  of  the  trees  :  therefore  every  tree, 
which  bringeth  not  forth  'good  fruit,  is  hewn  down  and  cast 
into  the  fire.  (Matt.  i'ii.  9,  10.)  The  passage  of  this  deep  and 
rapid  river  by  the  Israelites,  at  the  most  unfavourable  season, 
when  augmented  by  the  dissolution  of  the  winter  snows,  was 
more  manifestly  miraculous,  if  possible,  than  that  of  the  Red 
Sea ;  because  here  was  no  natural  agency  whatever  employed  ; 
no  mighty  winds  to  sweep  a  passage  as  in  the  former  case ; 
no  reflux  in  the  tide  on  which  minute  philosophers  might 
fasten  to  depreciate  the  miracle.  It  seems,  therefore,  to  have 
been  providentially  designed,  to  silence  cavils. respecting  the 
former:  it  was  done  at  noonda}%  in  the  presence  of  the  neigh- 
bouring inhabitants :  and  it  struck  terror  into  the  kings  of 
the  Amorites  and  Canaanites  westward  of  the  river,  whose 
hearts  nuitcd,  neither  was  there  any  spirit  in  them  any  more, 
because  of  the  children  of  Israel.  (Josh.  v.  1.)  The  place 
where  the  Israelites  thus  miraculously  passed  this  river, 
is  supposed  to  be  the  fords  of  Jordan  mentioned  in  Judo-, 
iii.  a6.  ° 

The  other  remarkable  streams  or  rivulets  of  Palestine  are 
the  following : — 

1  Carne's  Recollections  of  Travels  in  the  East,  p.  38.  London,  1830.  8vo. 

'  Shaw's  Travcl.s,  vol.  ii.  pp.  1.5B,  157. 

3  Buckingham's  Travels,  p.  315.  «  Three  Weeks  in  I'alestine,  p.  90. 

<•  MaiindrcU's  Journey,  p.  110.  Dr.  Maeinichael'.s  Travel.^  from  Moscow 
to  Constantinople,  in  the  years  1817,  1818,  p.  191.  (Lond.  1819.  4to.)  The 
.Ionian  is  annually  frequented  by  many  thousand  pilgrini.s,  chielly  of  the 
Greek  church,  "under  the  protection  of  the  Moosillim,  or  Turkish  governor 
of  Jerusalem,  and  a  strong  military  escort.  Ibid.  pp.  191,  192.  Richardson's 
Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  387.    Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  pp.  329,  330. 


2.  The  Arnon,  which  descends  from  the  mountains  of  the 
same  name,  and  discharges  itself  into  the  Dead  Sea. 

3.  The  SiHOR  (the  Bclus  of  ancient  geographers,  at  pre- 
sent called  the  Kardanah),  has  its  source  about  four  miles  to 
the  east  of  the  head  of  the  river  Kishon.  It  waters  the  plains 
of  Acre  and  Esdraelon,  and  falls  into  the  sea  at  the  gulph  of 
Keilah.'5 

d.  The  brook  Jabbok  takes  its  rise  in  the  same  mountains, 
and  falls  into  the  river  Jordan.  It  is  a  rapid  stream,  flowing 
over  a  rocky  bed  ;  its  waters  are  clear,  and  agreeable  to  the 
taste,  and  its  banks  are  very  thickly  wooded  with  oleander 
and  plane  trees,  wild  olives,  wild  almonds,  and  numerous 
other  trees.  By  the  Arabs  it  is  now  termed  Nuhr-el-Zerkah, 
or  the  river  of  Kerkah,  from  a  neighbouring  station  or  vil- 
lage of  that  name.'^ 

5.  The  Kanah,  or  Brook  of  Reeds,  springs  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Judah,  but  only  flows  during  the  winter,  and  it  falls 
into  the  Mediterranean  Sea  near  Ca3sarea:  it  formerly  sepa- 
rated the  tribe  of  Ephraim  from  that  of  Manasseh.  (Josh, 
xvii.  8,  9.) 

6.  The  brook  Besor  (1  Sam.  xxx.  9.)  falls  into  the  same 
sea  between  Gaza  and  Khinocorura. 

7.  The  KisHON,  now  called  the  Moukattoua,  issues  from 
the  mountains  of  Carmel,  at  the  foot  of  which  it  forms  two 
streams ;  one  flows  eastward  into  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  the 
other,  taking  a  westerly  course  through  the  plain  of  Jezreel 
or  Esdraelon,  discharges  itself  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
at  a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  Aero  or  Acre.  This  is  the 
stream  noticed  in  1  Kings  xviii.  40. :  when  swollen  by  heavy 
rains  it  is  impassable. » 

8.  The  Kedron,  Kidron,  or  Cedron,  as  it  is  variously 
termed  ('2  Sam.  xv.  23.  1  Kings  xv.  13.  2  Kings  xxiii.  C. 
12.  2  Chron.  xxix.  16.  Jer.  xxxi.  40.  John  xviii.  1.),  runs 
in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  eastward  of  Jerusalem,  between 
that  city  and  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Except  during  the  win- 
ter, or  after  heavy  rains,  its  channel  is  generally  dry,  but, 
when  swollen  by  torrents,  it  flows  with  great  impetuosity ;» 
its  waters  are  said  to  become  dark  and  turbid,  probably  he- 
cause  it  collects  the  waste  of  the  adjacent  hills;  and,  like 
other  brooks  in  cities,  it  is  contaminated  with  the  filth,  of 
which  it  is  the  receptacle  and  common  sewer.  The  blood 
and  offal  o.f  the  victims  sacrificed  in  the  temple  are  said,  in 
later  times,  to  have  been  carried  off  by  a  drain  into  the  Ke- 
dron.'" As  no  mention  is  made  of  bridges  in  Palestine,  it  is 
probable  that  the  inhabitants  forded  the  rivers  and  brooks 
wherever  it  was  practicable,  (in  the  same  ninnner  as  persons 
of  both  sexes  do  to  this  day  in  Bengal),  which  is  alluded  to 
in  Isa.  xlvii.  2. 

Of  the  Lakes  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  three  are  paiticu- 
larly  worthy  of  notice ;  that  of  Galilee  or  Gennesareth,  the 
Lake  llerom,  and  the  Luke  of  Sodom,  both  of  which  are 
termed  seas,\i  agreeably  to  the  HebreM'  phraseology,  which 
gives  the  name  of  sea  to  any  large  body  of  water. 

1.  The  Sea  of  Galilee  (so  called  from  its  situation  on  the 
eastern  borders  of  that  division  of  Palestine),  through  which 
the  Jordan  flows,  was  anciently  called  the  oca  of  Chinncreth 
(Num.  xxxiv.  11.)  or  Chinneroth  (Josh,  xii,  3.),  from  its 
vicinity  to  the  town  of  that  name;  afterwards  Gennesar  (1 
Mace.  xi.  67.),  and  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Ch.rist  Genesareth  or 
Gennesareth  (Luke  v,  1.),  from  tire  noighhouving  land  of  the 
same  name  (Matt.  xiv.  34.  Mark  vi.  53.) ; 'and  also  the  Sea 
of  Tiberias  ( John  vi.  1.  xxi.  1.),  from  the  contiguous  city  of 
Tiberias.  This  capacious  lake,  almost  equal  in  the  grandeur 
of  its  appearance  to  that  of  Geneva,  spreads  its  transparent 
waters  over  all  the  lower  territory,  extending  from  the  north- 
east to  the  south-west.  The  waters  of  the  northern  part  of 
this  lake  abound  with  fish :  this  circumstance  marlcs  the 
propriety  of  our  Lord's  parable  of  the  net  cast  into  the  sea 
(Matt.  xiii.  47,  48.),  which  was  delivered  by  him  from  a 
vessel  near  the  shore.  The  fish  are  said  to  be  most  delicious. 
Thepe  is  not  much  variety,  but  the  best  sort  is  the  most  com- 
mon ;  it  is  a  species  of  bream,  equal  to  the  finest  perch.  It  is 
remarkable,  that  there  is  not  a  single  boat  of  any  description 

6  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  33. 

I  Buckingham's  Travels,  p.  3'25.  ' 

8  Carne's  Letters,  p.  2.50.  Uichter's  Pilgrimages  in  the  East,  in  1815— 
1816.  (Cabinet  of  Foreign  Voyages,  vol.  i.  pp.  159,  ItJO.  London,  1825.) 

9  In  like  manner  the  riversof  Cyprus  (wliich  island  lies  to  the  north-west 
of  the  Holy  I,and)  are  dry  during  the  sunmier  niontlis,  and  are  swollen 
into  torrents  by  sudden  rains.     Ur.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  75. 

'0  Lightfoot's  Chorographical  Century,  on  Matthew,  chap.  38.  fine. 
(Works,  vol.  i.p.  80.) 

.    "  This  appellation  is  retained  by  the  modern  inhabitants,  who  resid«.in 
its  vicinity,  "  who,  like  the  earliest  ones,  call  their  w,ater  a  sea,  and  reckon  - 
it  and  the"  Dead  Sea  to  the  south  of  them  to  be  the  two  largest  known  except 
the  great  ocean."    Buckingham's  Travels,  p.  471. 


Sect.  I.] 

on  the  lake  at  present;  and  the  fish  are  rannrht,  partly  by  the 
fishermen  froiii<r  into  the  water,  up  to  their  waist,  and  throw- 
ing in  a  hand ''net,  and  partly  with  casting  nets  from  the 
beach  :  a  iwihod  which  must  yield  a  very  small  (juuntity, 
compared  to  what  tluiy  woidd  ^I'X  with  boats.' 

Pliny  stites  tliis  hike  to  be  sixtc^en  miles  in  lenjJth  by  six 
mih^s  ill  l)r.!adth.  .losephus,  whose  intimate  knowh'dfre  of 
his  country  (>ives  his  descriptions  a  hi'^h  claim  to  attention, 
says  that  "  its  breadth  is  forty  fwrlon<rs,  and  its  lenjrtii  on(> 
lunidr(^<l  and  forty.  Its  waters  are  sweet  and  very  atjreeable 
for  drinkiiiir,  for  they  are  fincir  than  the  thick  waters  of  other 
fens.  TIk!  lake  is  also  puce,  and  on  evi^ry  side  ends  directly 
at  the  sliores,  and  at  tlu;  sand  :  it  is  also  of  a  temperate  na- 
ture, when  drawn  ui),and  softer  tlian  river orfnuntain  water  : 
and  it  is  so  cold,  tliat  the  people  of  liie  place  cannot  warm  it 
by  settinir  it  in  the  sun,  in  the  iiottest  season  of  the  year. 
There  are  sev(M-al  kinds  of  fish  iu  it,  dilferent  both  to  the 
taste  and  siirht  iVom  those  elsewhere.  It  is  divided  into  two 
parts  by  the  river  Jordan."^ 

Tiie  fidelity  of  Josephus's  description  is  attested  by  two 
learned  and  acute;  modern  travellers.  Mr.  Huckinjrham,  who 
beheld  it  in  IHIO.  observes  that  "  all  these  features  are  drawn 
with  an  accnricy  that  could  only  have  been  attained  by  one 
resident  in  tiie  "country,  'J'he  size  is  still  nearly  the  same, 
the  bonh^rs  of  the  lake  still  end  at  the  beach  or  the  sands, 
at  the  feet  of  the  mountains  which  environ  it.  Its  waters  are 
still  as  sweet  and  teiniK^rate  as  ever,  and  the  lake  aboimds 
with  great  numl)ers  of  lish  of  various  sizes  and  kinds.  'J'he 
appcvarance  of  the  lake  as  seen  from  Capernaum,"  Mr. 
JiuckinirJuim  states,  "is  still  errand  ;  its  c;Teatest  lenirth  runs 
nearly  north  and  south  from  twelve  to  fifti-en  miles;  and  its 
breadth  seems  to  be,  in  <reneral,  from  six  to  nine  miles.  The 
barren  aspect  of  the  mountains  on  each  side,  and  the  total 
absence  of  wood,  ^'ive,  however,  a  cast  of  dulness  to  the  pic- 
ture ;  and  this  is  increased  to  melancholy  by  the  dead  calm 
of  its  waters  and  the  silence  which  reirrns  tlirou<ihout  its 
whole  extent,  where  not  a  boat  or  vessel  of  any  kind  is  to  be 
found.  "3 

Dr.  Clarke,  by  whom  this  lake  was  visited  a  few  years 
before  Mr.  Buckingham's  arrival,  describes  it  as  longer  and 
finer  than  our  Cumberland  and  Westmorland  lakes,  although 
it  yields  in  majesty  to  the  stupendous  features  of  Loch  Lo- 
mond in  Scotland :  like  our  Windermere,  the  lake  of  Gen- 
nesaretli  is  often  greatly  agitated  by  winds.  (Matt.  viii.  23 — 
27.)  A  strong  current  marks  the  passage  of  the  Jordan 
through  the  middle  of  this  lake ;  and  when  this  is  opposed  by 
contrary  winds,  which  blow  here  with  the  force  ol  a  hurri- 
cane from  the  south-east,  sweeping  into  the  lake  from  the 
mountains,  a  boisterous  sea  is  instantly  raised  :  this  the  small 
vessels  of  the  country  are  ill  qualified  to  resist.  "  The 
wind,"  says  he,  "rendered  its  surface  rough,  and  called  to 
mind  the  sitnation  of  our  Saviour's  disciples ;  when,  in  one 
of  the  small  vessels,  which  traversed  these  waters,  the}'  were 
tossed  in  a  storm,  and  saw  Jesus  in  the  fourth  watch  of  the 
night  walking  to  them  upon  the  waves."  (Matt.  xiv.  21 — 
2().)  These  agitations,  however,  do  not  last  f.>r  any  length 
of  time. — Its  broad  and  extended  surface,  covering  the  bot- 
tom of  a  profound  vallej',  environed  by  lofty  and  precipitous 
eminences  (excepting  only  the  narrow  entrance  and  outlets 
at  the  Jordan  at  each  extremity),  added  to  the  impression  of 
a  certain  reverential  awe  under  which  every  Christian  pil- 
grim approaches  it,  give  it  a  character  of  dignity  unparal- 
leled by  any  similar  scenery.''  When  not  agitated  by  tem- 
pests, the  water  is  stated  to  be  as  clear  as  the  purest  crystal, 
sweet,  cool,  and  most  refreshing  to  the  taste. 

2.  The  Waters  of  Merom,  mentioned  in  Josh.  xi.  5.  7., 
are  generally  supposed  to  be  the  lake,  afterwards  called  Sa^ 
mochonitis,  which  lies  between  the  head  of  the  river  Jordan 
and  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  Its  modern  name  is  Iloule.  Ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  it  is  thirty  furlongs  broad,  and  sixty 
furlongs  in  length  ;  and  its  marshes  extend  to  the  place  called 
Daphne,'  where  the   Jordan   issues  from   it.     Though   its 

«  Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  by  Captains  Irby  and  Manjles,  p.  295.  Maddon's 
Travels  in  Turkey,  Arc.  vol.  ii.  p.  312.  See  also  Carne's  I.ett'TS  IVom  the  East, 
pp.  25'1 — 31)3.  Kic liter's  Pilgrimages  in  the  East.  (Cabinet  of  Foreign 
Voyaffes,  vol.  i.  p.  157.) 

»  Josephus  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  10.  §  7.  Prilii  Introd.  in  Nov. 
Test.  p.  503. 

»  BucWnaham's  Travels,  pp.  470,  471.  IMr.  .Towett's  estimate  nearly 
coincide.s  with  that  of  Mr.  Buckingham  (Christian  Researches^-  in  fSyria, 
p.  175.),  as  also  does  that  of  Mr.  Rae  Wilson.  (Travels  in  the  Holy  Land, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  13,  H,  3d  edition.) 

«  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  209,  210.  225.  Buckingham's  Travels, 
pp.  468.  471. 

>  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  1.  §  1.  Reland  conjectures  that,  for  Daphne, 
in  this  passage  of  Josephus,  we  ought  to  read  Dan,  as  there  is  no  mention 


THE  DEAD  SEA.  ^  27 

waters  are  no  longer  bitter,  this  lake  derives  no  small  interest 
from  the  illustrations  and  allusions  so  often  made  to  it  by  the 
prophets.'' 

3.  The  L.\KE  or  Sea  of  Sodom,  or  the  Dead  Sea,  hag 
been  celebrated  not  oidy  by  the  sacred  writers,  but  also  by 
Jose|)hus,  and  several  j)rofane  authors.''  It  was  anciently 
called  in  the  Scri])tures  the  Sea  of  thf.  Plain  (Dent.  iii.  17. 
iv.  4!).),  being  situated  in  a  valley,  with  a  plain  lying  to  the 
south  of  it,  whert;  once  flourished  the  cities  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,  with  the  other  cities  of  the  plain  ; — the  Salt  Sta 
(I)cut.  iii.  17.  Josh.  xv.  5.)  from  the  extremely  saline,  and 
bitter,  taste  of  its  waters; — the  Salt  Sea  eastmard  (Num. 
xxxiv.  3.) — and  the  /-V/.s7  Sea  (Ezek.  xlvii.  18.  Joel  ii.  20.), 
from  its  situation  relatively  to  Judaea.  By  Josephus  and 
other  writers  it  was  called  the  Lake  Jsphal/iiefi,  from  the 
abundance  of  bitumen  found  in  it ;  and  by  Jerome,  the  Dead 
Slu,  that  is,  the  Bituminous  Lake,  from  ancient  traditions, 
erroneously  though  ginierally  received,  that  no  living  crea- 
ture can  exist  in  its  stagnant  and  hydro-sulphuretted  waters, 
which,  though  they  look  remarkably  clear  and  pure,  are  in 
the  highest  degree  salt,  bitter,  and  nauseous  in  the  extreme, 
and  of  such  a  degree  of  specific  gravity  as  will  enable  a  man 
to  float  on  their  surface  without  motion.^  The  acrid  saltness 
of  its  waters  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the  sea ;  and  the 
land,  which  surrounds  this  lake,  being  equally  impregnated 
with  that  saltness,  refuses  to  produce  any  plants  except  a 
irw  stunted  thorns,  which  wear  the  brown  garb  of  the  desert. 
To  this  circumstance  Moses  alludes  in  Deut.  xxix.  23. — I'lie 
whole  land  thereof  is  brimstone  and  salt."''  The  air  itself, 
which  is  by  evaporation  loaded  with  it,  and  which  is  im- 
pregnated with  tlie  sulphureous  and  bituminous  vapours,  is 
fatal  to  vegetation :  hence  arises  the  deadly  aspect  which 
reigns  around  the  lake."^  Here  formerly  stood  the  cities  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  which,  with  three  other  cities  of  the 
plain,  were  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven ;  to  this  destruc- 
tion there  are  numerous  allusions  in  the  Scriptures,  as  dis- 
playing most  signally  the  certainty  and  sudcfenness  of  the 
divine  anger  which  sooner  or  later  overtakes  the  impenitently 
wicked.  Viewing  this  sea  (which  has  never  been  navigated 
since  those  cities  were  engulphed)  from  the  spot  where  the 
Jordan  discharges  its  waters  into  it,  this  body  of  water  takes 

of  any  place  called  Daphne  in  this  vicinity,  and  Dapline  near  Anlioch  was 
far  distant  from  the  waters  of  Merom.     Palestina,  tom.  i.  p.  2t)3. 
«  Carne's  Recollections  of  the  Fast,  p.  39. 

■"  Josephus  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.8.  §  4. ;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  v.  c.  16. ; 
Tacitus,  Hist.  lib.  v.  c.  6. ;  Justin,  lib.  xxxvi.  c.  3. ;  Strabo,  lib.  xvi.  pp.  10S7, 
1038.  edit.  Oxon. 

8  Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  330.  Quarterly  Journal  of  Science, 
Literature,  and  the  Arts,  vol.  viii.  p.  164.  An  analysis  of  the  water  of  the 
Dead  Sea  (a  phial  of  which  had  been  brought  to  England  by  Mr.  Gordon 
of  Cluiiie,  at  tlie  rerpiest  of  the  late  Sir  Joseph  Banks),  conducted  by  Dr. 
Marcet,  gave  the  following  results :— This  water  is  perfectly  transparent, 
and  docs  not  deposit  any  crystals  on  standing  in  close  vessels. — lis  taste 
is  peculiarly  bitter,  saline,  and  pungent. — ^The  application  of  tests  or  re- 
agents proves  that  it  contains  the  muriatic  and  sulphuric  acids.._  There  ia 
no  alumina  in  it,  nor  does  it  appear  to  be  saturated  with  marine  salt  or 
muriate  of  soda. — On  summing  up  the  contents  of  150  grains  of  the  water, 
they  were  found  to  hold  in  solution  the  following  substances,  and  in  the 
under-mentioned  proportions  : — 

Salts.  Acid. 

Muriate  of  lime 5,8S  grains       3.89  grains. 

Muriate  of  magnesia 15.37      "  8,61 

Muriate  of  soda 15,.t4      "  7,15 

Selenite 0,08      "  

36,a'  18,65 

And,  consequently,  the  proportions  of  these  salts  in  100  grains  of  the 
water  would  be  : — 

Grains. 

Muriate  of  lime 3,9'.M 

Muriate  of  magnesia 10,246 

Muriate  of  soda 10.360 

tjulphate  of  lime 0,054 

ai,580 

Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  for  1807, 
part  ii.  pp.  298—312.  Another  analysis,  made  by  the  eniment  French 
chemist,  M.  Oav-Lussac  in  1819,  ga^  e  nearly  similar  results.  (?ee  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Science,  &c.  vol.  viii.  p.  165.)  "Hence  it  appear.s  that  the  Dead 
Sea  water  noir  contains  about  onefourik  of  its  weight  of  salt  supposed  in 
a  Slate  of  perfect  desiccation  ;  or,  if  they  be  de.siccated.at  tlie  temperature 
of  ISO  degrees  on  Fahrenheit's  scale,  they  will  amount  lo  forty-one  per 
cent,  of  the  water.  If  any  person  wish  for  a  stronger  confirmaiion  of  the 
Scripture  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Dead  Sea  than  this  furnishes,  we 
can  only  pity  the  miserable  slate  of  incredulity  to  which  he  is  reduced, 
and  commit  him  to  the  influences  of  that  Power  which  can  cause  the  'wil- 
derness to  blossom  as  the  rose,'  and  from  '  stones  raise  up  children  unto 
Abraham.'  "     Eclectic  Review  for  1809,  vol.  v.  part  i.  p.  134. 

s  In  the  \-icinity  of  this  sea  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  collected  lumps 
of  nitre  and  fine  sulphur,  from  the  size  of  a  nutmeg  to  that  of  a  small  hen's 
egg,  which  had  been  broucht  down  from  the  surrounding  cliffs  by  the  rain. 
Travels  in  Egvpt,  &c.  p.  453. 

10  Volney 'sTravels  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  vol.  i.  p.  288.  Svo.  3d  edit. ;  Tur- 
ner's  Tour  in  the  Levant,  vol.  ii.  p.  227. 


28 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  IL 


a  south-easterly  direction  visible  for  ten  or  fifteen  miles, 
when  it  disappears  in  a  curve  towards  the  east.  Its  sur- 
face is  crenerall)'  unruffled,  from  the  hollow  of  the  basin  in 
which  it  lies,  scarcely  admitting  the  free  passage  neces- 
sary for  a  strong  breeze  ;  it  is,  however,  for  tlie  same  reason, 
subject  to  whirlwinds  or  squalls  of  short  duration.'  The  ex- 
panse of  water  at  this  point  has  been  supposed  not  to  exceed 
five  or  six  miles ;  though  the  mountains,  which  skirt  each 
side  of  the  valley  of  the  Dead  Sea,  are  apparently  separated 
by  a  distance  of  eight  miles.^  These  mountains  present  to 
the  eye  of  the  specfator  granite,  and  those  other  rocks,  which 
(according  to  the  Wernerian  system  of  geology)  characterize 
the  oldest  or  primitive  formation.  It  is  probable  that  this 
region,  at  a  remote  period,  was  the  tlieatre  of  immense  vol- 
canoes, the  effects  of  which  may  still  be  traced  along  the 
banks  of  the  Lower  Jordan,  and  more  especially  on  the  lake 
itself,  on  the  shores  of  wliich  bitumen,  lava,  and  pumice 
stones  continue  to  be  thrown  by  the  waves.^  As  the  Dead 
Sea  advances  towards  the  south,  it  evidently  increases  in 
breadth.-'  Pliny  states  the  total  length  to  be  one  hundred 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  twenty-five.  But  Dr.  Shaw 
and  other  modern  travellers,  who  appear  to  have  ascertained 
its  dimensions  with  accuracy,  have  estimated  its  length  to  be 
about  seventy-two  English  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  to 
be  nearly  nineteen. ^  A  profound  silence,  awful  as  death, 
hangs  over  the  lake  :  not  a  ripple  is  to  be  seen  on  its  surface  ; 
and  "  its  desolate  though  majestic  features  arc  well  suited  to 
the  tales  related  concerning  it  b)^  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try, who  all  speak  of  it  with  terror."" 

4.  The  Great  Sea,  mentioned  in  Num.  xxxiv.  6.  and 
elsewhere  in  the  Sacred  Volume,  is  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
so  called  by  way  of  eminence :  in  Exod.  xxii.  31.  it  is  called 
the  i)ca  of  the  Philistines,  because  their  country  bordered  on 
its  shores. 

5.  The  Red  Sea,  so  often  noticed,  is  now  known  by  the 
appellation  of  the  Arabian  Gulph.' 

Besides  the  preceding  rivers  and  lakes,  the  Scriptures 
mention  several  Fountains  and  Wells.  In  a  country  where 
these  are  of  rare  occurrence,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  should 
anciently  have  given  rise  to  strife  and  contention.s  (Gen. 
xxi.  25.  xxvi.  20.)  The  most  remarkable  of  these  fountains 
and  wells  are  the  Fountain  ox  Pool  of  Siloam,  and  JacoVs  Well. 

1.  SiLOAM  was  a  fountain  under  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
east,  between  the  city  and  the  brook  Kedron  :  it  is  supposed 
to  be  the  same  as  the  fountain  En-Rogel,  or  the  Fuller's 
Fountain  (Josh.  xv.  7.  and  xviii.  16.  2  Sam.  xvii.  17.  and 
1  Kings  i.  9.),  and  also  the  Gihon.  (1  Kings  i.  33.)  The 
spring  issues  from  a  rock,  and  runs  in  a  silent  stream,  ac- 
cording to  the  testimony  of  Isaiah,   (viii.  6.)     The  modern 

»  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Palestine,  p.  293. 

"^  ■'  The  mountains  on  the  .ludKan  side  are  lower  than  those  of  the  Ara- 
bian, and  ;lso  of  a  hghter  colour;  the  latter  chain,  at  its  southern  e.xtre- 
niify,  is  said  to  consist  of  dark  granite,  and  of  various  colours.  The  hills, 
which  branch  off  from  the  western  end,  are  composed  entirely  of  white 
chalk  :  bitumen  abounds  most  on  the  opposite  shore.  Tliere  is  no  outlet 
to  this  lake,  though  the  Jordan  Hows  into  it,  as  did  formerly  the  Kedron, 
and  the  Arnon  to  the  south.  It  is  not  known  that  there  has  been  any 
visible  increase  or  decrease  of  its  waters.  Some  have  supposed  tliat  it 
finds  a  subterraneous  passage  to  the  Mediterranean,  or  that  there  is  a  con- 
Biileralile  suction  in  the  plain  which  forms  its  western  boundary."  (Game's 
Letters,  pp.  317,  318.)  Cut  the  uniform  level  of  its  waters  is  sufficiently 
accounted  for  by  the  quantity  which  is  evapbrated.  (See  Dr.  Shaw's 
Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  157,  158.) 

e  Voluey's  Travels  in  Syria,  vol.  i.  pp.  2S1,  282.  Travels  of  Ali  Bey  (M. 
Badliia),  vol.  ii.  p.  263.  Buckingham's  Travels,  pp.  443.  448.  Russell's 
Palestine,  p.  412. 

■«  .lollltre's  Letters  from  Palestine,  p.  118. 

5  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  157.  Mr.  Carne,  however,  who  visited  the 
Dead  Sea  in  1825,  estimates  its  length  to  be  about  si.xty  niilcs,  and  its  gene- 
ral hreadth  eight.  On  his  arrival  at  its  shore,  where  the  waters  lay  like 
lead,  there  was  not  a  breath  of  wind.  "  Whoever,"  says  this  intelligent 
traveller,  "  has  seen  the  Dead  Sea,  will  ever  after  have  its  aspect  impressed 
upon  his  memory  ;  it  is,  in  truth,  a  gloomy  and  fearful  spectacle.  The  pre- 
cipices, in  general,  descend  abruptly  into  the  lake,  and  on  account  of  their 
'height  it  is  seldom  agitated  by  the  winds.  Its  shores  are  not  visited  by  any 
footstep,  save  that  of  the  wild  Arab,  and  he  holds  it  in  superstitious  dread. 
No  unpleasant  effluvia  are  perceptible  round  it,  and  birds  are  seen  occa- 
sionally Hying  across A  few  inches  breath  the  surface  of  the  mud  are 

found  tlKJse  black  sulphureous  stones,  out  of  which  crosses  are  made, 
and  told  to  the  pilgrims.  The  water  has  an  abominable  taste,  in  which 
that  of  salt  predominates;  and  we  observed  incrustations  of  salt  on  the 
surface  of  some  of  the  rocks."    Letters  from  the  East,  pp.  310,  317. 

*  For  ail  account  and  refutation  of  the  ancient  traditions  concerning  the 
Dead  Sea,  see  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  400— 400.  Svo.  A  compre- 
hensive digest  of  nearly  all  that 'has  been  written  concerning  this  sea  will 
be  foimil  in  the  Modern  Traveller,  Palestine,  pp.  201 — 224. 

■■  See  the  article  Red  Sea,  in  the  Historical  and  Geographical  Index, 
infra. 

e  When  Capt.  Light  descended  in  1814,  into  the  beautiful  plain  of  Sephora, 
or  Se]ihoury,  at  a  short  distance  from  Nazareth,  he  saw  in  the  centre, a 
banl  of  herdsmen,  armed  mlh  muskets,  watering  their  cattle  in  a  large 
Blon-^  reservoir.  With  them  he  was  obliged  to  have  an  altercation  before 
thev  would  permit  him  to  water  his  horse,  without  paying  for  the  privilege. 
Travels,  p.  196.    Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  68. 


descent  to  this  fountain  is  by  fifteen  or  sixteen  steps.  Being 
defended  from  the  sun,  it  is  deliciously  cool,  anti  clear  as 
crystal :  it  has  a  kind  of  ebb  and  flood,  sometimes  discharg- 
ing its  current  like  the  fountain  of  Vaucluse ;  at  others,  re- 
taining and  scarcely  sufljering  it  to  run  at  all.  The  pool  or 
rather  the  two  pools  of  the  same  name  are  quite  close  to  the 
spriiig.  They  are  still  used  for  washing  liil'en  as  formerly.9 
Anciently,  its  waters  were  conducted  into  the  two  large  reser- 
voirs or  pools,  already  noticed  in  page  21.  Modern  travel- 
lers relate  that  people  still  bathe  their  eyes  with  the  waters 
of  this  fountain,  in  memory  of  the  miracle  performed  on  the 
man  who  had  been  born  blind.  At  this  fountain,  the  ancient 
Jews  were  wont  to  draw  water  with  great  solemnity  on  the 
last  day  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  :  an  account  of  this  cere- 
mony will  be  found  in  Part  III.  chap.  iv.  §  vii.  of  this 
volume. 

2.  Jacob's  Well  or  fountain  is  situated  at  a  small  distance 
from  Sichem  or  Sechem,  also  called  Sychar,  and  at  present 
Napolose  :  it  was  the  residence  of  Jacob  before  his  sons  slew 
the  Shechemites.  It  has  been  visited  by  pilgrims  of  all  ages, 
but  especially  by  Christians,  to  whom  it  has  become  an  ob- 
ject 01^  veneration  from  the  memorable  discourse  of  our  Sa- 
viour with  the  woman  of  Samaria.'"     (John  iv.  5 — 30.) 

In  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  water  in  the  East,  travel- 
lers are  careful  to  stop  as  often  as  possible  near  some  river, 
fountain,  or  well :  this  will  probably  account  for  Jacob's  halt- 
ing with  his  family  at  the  ford  Jabbok  (Gen.  xxxii.  22.) ;  for 
the  Israelites  assembling  their  forces  near  the  fountains  of 
Jezreel  (1  Sam.  xxix.  1.),  as  the  celebrated  Moslem  warrior 
Saladin  afterwards  did;"  and  for  David's  men  that  were  un- 
able to  march  with  him,  waiting  for  him  by  the  brook  Besor. 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  21.)  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  ancient  wells, 
mentioned  in  Gen.  xvi.  14.  xxiv.  20.  and  Exod.  ii.  15.,  were 
furnished  with  some  conveniences  for  drawing  water  to  re- 
fresh the  fainting  traveller,  and  with  troughs  or  other  contri- 
vances for  supplying  cattle  with  water,  similar  to  those  which 
are  to  this  day  found  in  Persia,  Arabia,  and  other  countries  in 
the  East.'2  In  Eccl.  xii.  6.  Solomon  alludes  to  a  w'heel  as 
being  einployed  for  the  purpose  of  raising  water.''  Great  pre- 
cautions were  taken,  anciently  as  well  as  in  modern  times,  to 
prevent  the  moving  sands  from  choking  up  their  wells,  by 
placing  a  stone  over  the  mouth  (Gen.  xxix.  2 — 8.)  after  the 
requisite  supply  had  been  drawn  up;  or  by  locking  them  up, 
which  Sir  Jolin  Chardin  thinks  was  done  at  Laban's  well, 
of  which  Rachel,  perhaps,  kept  the  key.  (Gen.  xxix.  6.  9.) 
The  stopping  up  of  wells  is  to  this  day  an  act  of  hostility  in 
the  East,  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  (Gen. 
xxvi.  15 — 18.),  and  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  3,  4.),  anti 
also  long  after  among  several  ancient  nations.  Thus,  the 
Scythians,  in  their  retreat  before  the  Persians,  under  Darius, 
filled  up  the  wells  and  fountains  which  lay  in  their  way  -J* 
and  Arsaces  ordered  the  wells  to  be  broken  and  filled  up, 
upon  the  advance  of  Antiochus  from  Ecbatana;  while  the 
latter,  who  was  fully  aware  of  their  consequence  to  himself 
and  his  army,  sent  a  detachment  of  a  thousand  horse,  to  drive 
away  the  Persian  cavalry  who  were  employed  upon  this  ser- 

9  Chateaubriand's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  34. 36.  Mr.  Buckingham,  who  visited 
the  fountain  of  Siloara  in  1816,  describes  it  as  a  dirty,  little  brook  ;  which 
even  in  the  rainy  season  is  said  to  be  ^n  insignificant  muddy  stream. 
Travels  in  Palestine,  p.  188.    See  also  Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  3.57. 

10  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  278 — 280.  Some  learned  men  have 
conjectured  that  .Jacob's  well  was  only  a  cistern  or  reservoir  for  rain 
water ;  but  the  whole  of  the  surrounding  scenery  confirms  the  evange- 
list's narrative,  and  the  antiquity  of  the  well.  Such  cisterns,  indeed,  are 
common  in  the  oriental  deserts  to  this  day ;  and  it  is  perhaps  to  conve- 
niences of  this  kind,  made  or  renewed  by  the  devout  Israelites,  in  the 
valley  of  Baca,  to  facilitate  their  going  up  to  Jerusalem,  that  the  Psalmist 
refers  (Ixxxiv.  6,  7.)  where  he  speaks  of  going  from  strength  to  strength 
till  they  appeared  in  Zion.  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  ii.  p.  184.  To 
prevent  accidents  by  the  owners  of  such  cisterns  leaving  them  uncovered, 
Moses  enacted  various  regulations.     See  Exod.  xxi.  33,  34. 

11  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  p.  401.  The  Christian  kings  of  Jerusa- 
lem, in  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  also  assembled  their  forces  at  a 
fountain  between  Nazareth  and  Sephoris.    Ibid. 

1^  In  the  villages  of  Ethiopia,  Messrs.  Waddington  and  Hanbury  frequently 
inetwith  huts  Ijy  the  road-side,  containing  large  jars  of  water  for  travellers. 
When  there  is  no  hut,  the  jar  is  generally  placed  under  a  pine  tree. 
Journal  of  a  Visit  to  Ethiopia,  p.  35. 

'3  In  Smyrna  and  many  other  places  in  the  East,  a  large  wheel  is  fixed 
over  the  mouth  of  a  well  in  a  vertical  position  :  to  this  wheel  a  number  of 
pitchers  is  attached  in  such  a  manner,  that  by  means  of  its  revolution, 
which  is  effected  by  a  horse,  they  are  continually  descending  and  filling, 
and  ascending  and  discharging  themselves.  (Hartley's  Researches  in 
Greece,  pp.  235,  236.)  In  the  Russian  Government  of  Iver,  Dr.  Henderson 
was  struck  with  the  number  of  wells  which  he  saw,  over  each  of  which  is 
built  a  large  wooden  apparatus,  consisting  chiefly  of  a  windlass,  with  a  wheel 
about  six  feet  in  diameter,  which  is  turned  round  by  the  hand,  and  thus 
tile  water  is  drawn  up  in  a  bucket.  He  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  obviously  to 
a  machine  of  this  kind  that  Solomon  refers  in  his  highly  figurative  picture 
of  old  age.     Biblical  Researches,  p.  32. 

'«  Herodotus,  lib.  iv.  c.  120.  torn.  i.  p.  292.    Oxon.  1809. 


Sect.  I.] 


MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


2d 


vice.'  Wells  and  fountains  were  also  lurking  places  of  rob- 
bers and  assassins,  and  enemies  were  accustomed  to  lie  in 
anil)iish  at  them  as  tliey  are  nnw.  To  this  l)(;l)()rali  alludes 
in  her  son<r.  (.ludir.  v.  11.)  The  Crusaders  sufl'cred  much 
from  the  Sar;ic('ns,"who  lay  in  amhush  lor  them  in  like  man- 
ner; and  Dr.  Shaw  mentions  a  beautiful  well  in  IJarhary,  the 
water  of  wliieh  is  received  into  a  hirfre  hasin  for  tiie  accom- 
modation of  travellers ;  and  which  is  called  Shntli  irc  knih, 
that  is,  Ih-bih  and  aian/,  from  the  danger  which  they  incur 
of  meetin<r  with  assassins  there.^ 

In  our  own  time  it  is  the  custom  for  the  oriental  women, 
particularly  those  who  are  unmarried,  to  fr-tch  water  from  the 
wells,  in  llie  morninirs  and  eveninirs;  at  which  times  they 
g-o  f  .rlh  adorned  with  their  trinkets.  This  will  aeeount  for 
IJehecca's  fetchintr  water  (Clen.  xxiv.  15.),  and  will  fnrther 
prove  that  there  was  no  inipronriety  in  Abraham's  servant 

tresentinij  her  with  mf>re  valuable  jewels  than  those  she  had 
cfore  onluT  hands.  ((Jen.  xxiv.  2-2 — 17.)'' 
3.  As  the  cities  were  mostly  en-cted  on  eminences,  and  (as 
we  have  already  seen)  the  rains  fall  only  in  the  sprinj;  and 
autumn,  the  iidiabitants  of  Palestine  constructed  CisxrcHNS, 
or  reservoirs  for  water,  both  in  cities  and  in  ])rivalc  houses. 
Allusions  to  the  latter  occur  in  2  Kin<TS  xvii.  31.  Prov.  v.  15. 
and  Isa.  xxxvi.  IG.  Uzziah  kiu<r  of  .ludah  cut  out  many  cis- 
terns (2  Chron.  xxvi.  10.)  for  the  supply  of  his  cattle.  Cis- 
terns of  very  larj^e  dimensions  exist,  at  this  day,  in  Palestine. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Bethlehem,  in  particular,  there  are  three 
capacious  pools,  known  by  the  name  of  Solomon's  Pools. 
They  are  in  the  shape  of  a  lontr  sfjuare,  covered  with  a  thick 
coat  of  plaster  in  the  inside,  and  supported  by  abutments : 
the  worliinanship  throughout,  like  every  thing  Jewish,  is 
more  remarkable  for  strength  than  beauty.  They  are  situated 
at  the  south  end  of  a  small  valley ;  and,  from  the  slope  of  the 
ground,  the  one  falls  considerably  below  the  level  of  the 
other.  That  on  the  west  is  nearest  the  source  of  the  spring, 
and  is  the  smallest,  being  about  four  hundred  and  eighty  feet 
long ;  the  second  is  about  six  hundred  feet,  and  the  third, 
about  six  hundred  and  sixty  feet  long.  The  breadth  of  them 
all  is  nearly  the  same,  about  two  hundred  and  seventy  feet. 
The  fountains  communicate  freely  with  each  other,  and  are 
capable  of  holding  a  great  quantity  of  water ;  whicli  they 
discharge  into  a  small  arpieduct,  that  conveys  it  to  Jerusalem. 
Both  fountains  and  acpieduct  are  said  to  have  been  made  by 
Solomon  the  son  and  successor  of  David,  and  the  antiquity 
of  their  appearance  bears  testimony  to  the  truth  of  the  state- 
ment.'' 

IV.  Palestine  is  a  mountainous  country,  especially  that 
part  of  it  which  is  situated  between  the  Mediterranean  or 
(ireat  Sea  and  the  river  .lordan.  The  principal  Mountains 
are  those  of  Lebanon,  Carmel,  Tabor,  the  mountains  of  Israel, 
and  of  Gilead:  those  which  are  either  within  the  limits,  or 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  have  been  noticed  in 
,p.  19.  supra. 

1.  Lebanon,  by  the  Greeks  and  Latins  termed  Libanus,  is 
a  long  chain  of  limestone  mountains,  on  the  summits  of  which 
fossilized  antediluvian  fishes  were  formerly  discovered;*  ex- 
tending from  the  neighbourhood  of  Sidon  on  the  west  to  the 

«  Polybius,  lib.  x.  c.29.  torn.  iii.  p.  253.  edit.  Schwcifihaeuser. 

»  lliiriiier's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  p.  400.  Sliaw's  TraveLs,  vol.  i.  p.  G3. 
Bvo.  Kurcliliarill's  Travels  in  Syria,  &c.  p.  627.  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles 
eloppeil  at  some  wells  of  fresh  water,  where  they  found  a  great  assein- 
blajie  of  camels  and  many  Arabs,  who  appeared  to  stop  all  passengers. 
They  entered  into  a  violent  dispute  .with  the  conductors  of  those  gentle- 
men :  and  presently  levied  a  contribution  on  the  Arabs  who  accompanied 
them.  A  siinilar  fate  would  certainly  have  awaited  them,  had  it  not  been 
for  the  appearance  of  their  arms;  as  the  chief  followed  them  all  the  way 
to  El  Ari.sh,  surveyini;  their  baggage  "with  the  most  thieving  inquisitive- 
ness."    Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  pp.  173,  174. 

»  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  i.  pp.  193,  199.  vol.  ii.  pp.  125.  ISl.  193.  vol.  iii. 
p.  401.  "  In  the  valley  of  Nazareth,"  says  Dr.  Clarke,"  appeared  one  of  those 
fountains,  which,  from  time  immemorial,  have  been  the  hailing  place  ofcara- 
van.s,  and  sometimes  the  scene  of  contention  and  bloodshed.  The  women  of 
Nazareth  were  passing  to  and  from  the  town, with  pitchers  upon  their  heads. 
We  stopped  to  view  the  group  of  camels  with  tlioir  drivers,  who  were 
there  reposing;  and  calling  to  mind  the  manners  of  the  most  remote  ages, 
we  renewed  tlie  solicitations  of  Abraham's  sen'ant  unto  Rebecca,  by  tlie 
well  of  Nahor.  Gen.  xxiv.  17."  (Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  105.)  A  similar 
custom  was  observed  by  the  same  traveller  in  the  Isle  of  Syros.  (vol.  vi. 
pp.  l.">2,  l-')3.)  And  by  Mr.  Emerson.  (Lctlors  from  the  .'Rgean,  vol.  ii.  p.  4.x) 
At  Cana  Mr.  Kae  Wilson,  (Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  vol.  ii.  pp.  3, 4.),  and  also 
Mr.  Carne,  observed  several  of  the  women  bearing  stone  \vaterin«;-pots  on 
their  heads  as  they  returned  from  the  well.  (Letters  from  the  East,  p.  2.53.) 
In  Hengal  it  is  the  universal  practice  for  the  women  to  go  to  pools  and 
rivers  to  (fetch  water.  Companies  of  four,  six,  ten,  or  inorc,  may  be  seen  in 
every  town,  daily,  going  to  fetch  water,  with  the  pitchers  resting  on  their 
Bides.  (Ward's  View  of  the  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  316.) 
In  the  island  of  Goza,  which  is  eighteen  iniles  from  Malta,  Mr.  Jowett  says, 
that  the  women,  as  they  go  to  the  wells  for  water,  carry  their  empty 
pitchers  horizontally  on  their  heads,  with  the  mouth  looking  backwards. 
(Missionarv  Kegister  for  1S18,  p.  297.)    Mav  not  this  illustrate  Jer.  xiv.  3.f 

«  Dr.  Uichanison's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  3^9,  3S0. 

'  •  Sec  the  authorities  in  Reland's  Falaestina,  torn.  i.  p.  321. 


vicinity  of  Damascus  eastward,  and  forming  the  extreme 
northern  boundary  of  the  Holy  Land.  Anciently,  it  abounded 
with  odoriferous  trees  of  various  descriptions,  from  which  the 
most  ciirions  gums  and  balsams  were  extracted.^ 

It  is  dividcid  into  two  principal  ridges  or  ranges  parallel  to 
each  other,  the  most  westerly  of  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  Libam's,  and  the  opposite  or  eastern  ridge  by  the 
ajipellation  of  Anti-liibanns :  hut  tlu;  Hebrews  do  not  make 
this  distinction  oi'  names,  denominating  both  summits  by  the 
common  name;  of  lichanon.  These  mountains  may  he  seen 
from  a  very  considerablt!  distance,  and  some  part  or  other  of 
them  is  covered  with  snow  throughout  the  year.  On  the 
loftiest  summit  of  all.  Dr.  Clarke  observed  the  snow  lying, 
not  in  pat(dies,  as  he  had  seen  it  during  the  summer  upon  the 
tops  of  very  elevated  moimtains,  but  investing  all  the  higher 
j);irt  with  that  perfect  white  and  smooth  velvet-like  appear- 
ance which  snow  only  exhibits  when  it  is  very  deep — a  strik- 
ing spectacle  in  such  a  climate,  where  the  bc^holder,  seeking 
protection  from  a  hunting  sun,  almost  considers  the  firma- 
ment to  be  on  fire.'  These  mountains  are  by  no  means  bar- 
ren, but  are  almost  all  well  cultivated,  and  well  peopled: 
their  summits  are,  in  many  parts,  level,  and  form  extensive 
plains,  in  which  are  sown  corn,  and  all  kinds  of  pulse.  They 
are  watered  by  numerous  cold  flowing  springs,  rivulets,  and 
streams  of  excellent  water,  which  diffuse  on  all  sides  a  fresh- 
ness and  fertility  even  in  the  most  elevated  regions.  To 
these  Solomon  has  a  beautiful  allusion.  (Song  iv.  15.)  Vine- 
yards, and  plantations  of  mulberry,  olive,  and  fig  trees  are 
also  cultivated  on  terraces  formed  by  walls,  which  support 
the  earth  I'rom  being  washed  away  by  the  rains  from  the 
sides  of  the  acclivities.s  The  soil  of  the  declivities  and  of 
the  hollows  that  occur  between  them  is  most  excellent,  and 
produces  abundance  of  corn,  oil,  and  wine  ;  which  is  as  much 
celebrated  in  the  East  in  the  present  day  as  it  was  in  the  time 
of  the  prophet  Hosea,  who  particularly  alludes  to  it.  (Hos. 
xiv.  7.)  Lebanon  was  anciently  celebrated  for  its  stately 
cedars,  which  are  now  less  numerous  than  in  former  times  ;9 
they  grow  among  the  snow  near  the  highest  part  of  the  moun- 
tain, and  are  remarkable,  as  well  for  their  age  and  size,  as 
for  the  frequent  allusions  made  to  them  in  the  Scriptures. 
(See  1  Kings  iv.  33.  Psal.  Ixxx.  10.  and  xcii.  12,  &c.  &c.) 
These  trees  form  a  little  grove  by  themselves,  as  if  plantea 
by  art,  and  are  seated  in  a  hollow  amid  rocky  eminences  all 
around  them,  and  foriTi  a  small  wood,  at  the  toot  of  the  ridge, 
which  forms  the  highest  peak  of  Lebanon.  The  number  of 
the  largest  trees  has  varied  at  different  times.  To  omit  the 
varying  numbers  stated  by  the  earlier  travellers  : — the  Rev. 
Henry  Maundrell,  who  travelled  in  this  region  in  1696, 
reckoned  sixteen  of  the  largest  size,  one  of  which  he  mea- 
sured, and  found  it  to  be  twelve  yards  and  six  inches  in  girth, 
and  yet  sound ;  and  thirty-seven  yards  in  the  spread  of  the 
boughs.  The  celebratea  oriental  traveller,  Mr.  Burckhardt, 
who  traversed  Mount  Libanus  in  1810,  counted  eleven  or 
twelve  of  the  oldest  and  best  looking  trees,  twenty-five  very 
large  ones,  about  fifty  of  middling  size,  and  more  than  three 
hundred  smaller  and  young  ones.  Mr.  Buckingham,  in 
1816,  computed  them  to  be  about  two  hundred  in  number, 
twenty  of  which  were  very  large."*  In  1817—18  Captains 
Irby  and  Mangles  stated  that  there  might  be  about  fifty  of 
them,  not  one  of  which  had  much  merit  either  for  dimensions 
or  beauty;  the  largest  among  them  appearing  to  be  the  junc- 
tion of  four  or  five  trunks  into  one  tree."  Dr.  Richardson,  in 
1818,  stated  the  oldest  trees  to  be  no  more  than  seven. '^  The 
oldest  trees  were  distinguished  by  having  the  foliage  and 
small  branches  at  the  top  only,  and  by  four,  five,  or  even 
seven  trunks  springing  from  one  base ;  the  branches  and 
trunks  of  the  others  were  lower:  the  trunks  of  the  old  trees 
were  covered  with  the  names  of  travellers  and  other  persons 
who  have  visited  them,  some  of  which  are  dated  as  far  back 
as  1610.  The  trunks  of  the  oldest  trees  (the  wood  of  which 
is  of  a  gray  tint)  seemed  to  be  quite  dead.'^  These  cedars 
were  the  resort  of  eagles  (Ezek.  xvii.  3.) ;  as  the  lofty  sum- 

6  The  heights  of  ODonovs  Lebanon  are  eulogized  by  Musaeus  : — Ai/8»vou 
.JussvTo;  ivi  ^Tipuyim.    Good's  Sacred  Idyls,  p.  122. 
1  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  201,  202. 

8  Light's  Travels,  p.  219. 

9  Mr.  Kinneir,  who  visited  this  country  at  the  close  of  the  year  1S13,  says, 
that  the  once  celebrated  cedars  are  now  only  to  be  found  in  one  particular 
spot  of  the  great  inountainous  range  which  bears  the  name  of  Libanus,  and 
that  in  so  scanty  a  number  as  not  to  exceed  four  or  five  hundred.  Journey 
through  Asia  Minor,  &c.  p.  172.  8vo.  1S15. 

10  Buckingham's  Travels  among  the  Arab  Tribes,  pp.  475,  476. 
»'  Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  pp.  209,  210. 

'»  Maundrell's  Journey,  p.  191.  La  Roque,  Voyage  de  Syrie  et  du  Mont 
Liban,  p.  83.    See  also  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  512,  513. 

"  Burckhardt's  Travels  in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Laud,  pp.  20,  21.  LondoDi 
1822. 4(0. 


30 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Paht  L  Chap.  U. 


mits  of  the  mountains  were  the  haunts  of  lions  and  other 
beasts  of  prey  (Sol.  Sonor  iv.  8.),  which  used  to  descend  and 
sur])rise  the  unwary  traveller.  But  instead  of  these,  the  tra- 
veller may  now  frequently  see  the  hart  or  the  deer  issue  from 
his  covert  to  slake  h^s  thirst  in  the  streams  that  issue  from 
the  mountains.  To  this  circumstance  David  beautifully  al- 
ludes in  Psal.  xlii.  1.,  whicli  was  composed  when  he  was 
driven  from  Jerusalem  by  the  rebellion  of  Absalom,  and  was 
wandering  among  these  mountains.  Finally,  Mr.  Carne,  in 
1825,  states  that  the  forests,  the  cedar  trees,  the  glory  of 
Lebanon,  have  in  a  great  measure  disappeared,  to  make  way 
for  innumerable  plantations  of  vines.' 

Anti-Libanus  or  Anti-Lebanon  is  the  more  lofty  ridge  of 
the  two,  and  its  summit  is  clad  with  almost  perpetual  snow, 
which  was  carried  to  the  neighbouring  towns  for  the  purpose 
of  cooling  liquors  (Prov.  xxv.  13.  and  perhaps  .Ter.  xviii.  14.); 
a  practice^  whicli  has  obtained  in  the  east  to  the  present  day. 
Its  rock  is  primitive  calcareous,  of  a  fine  grain,  with  a  sandy 
slate  upon  the  higher  -parts :  it  affords  good  pasturage  in 
many  spots  where"  the  Turkmans  feed  their  cattle,  but  the 
western  declivity  towards  the  district  of  Baalbec  is  quite 
barren.^  The  most  elevated  summit  of  this  ridge  was  by  the 
Hebrews  called  Hermon;  by  the  Sidonians,  Sirion;  and  by 
the  Amorites,  SnENm  (Deut.  iii.  9.)  :  it  formed  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  country  beyond  Jordan.  Very  copious  dews 
fall  here, '  as  they  also  did  in  the  days  of  the  Psalmist.  (See 
Psal.  cxxxiii.  3.)  In  Deut.  iv.  48.  this  mountain  is  called 
Sion,  whicir  has  been  supposed  to  be  either  a  contraction,  or 
a  faulty  reading  for  Sirion :  but  Bishop  Pococke  thinks  it 
probable  that  IJermon  was  the  name  of  the  highest  summit 
of  this  mountain,  and  that  a  lower  part  of  it  had  the  name  of 
Sion.  This  obviates  the  geographical  difficulty  which  some 
interpreters  have  imagined  to  exist  in  Psal.  cxxxiii.  3.,  where 
Mount  Sion  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  Hermon,  and 
is  generally  understood  to  be  Mount  Sion  in  Jerusalem, 
which  was  more  than  thirty  miles  distant.  According  to  the 
bishop's  supposition,  the  dew  falling  from  the  top  of  Hermon 
down  to  the  lower  parts,  might  well  be  compared  in  every 
respect  to  the  precious  oiniinent  upon  the  head  that  ran  down 
unto  the  beard,  even  Aaron''s  beard,  and  went  down  to  the  skirts 
of  his  garments  (Psal.  cxxxiii.  2.),  and  that  both  of  them, 
in  this  sense,  are  very  proper  emblems  of  the  blessings  of 
unity  and  friendship,  which  diffuse  themselves  throughout 
the  whole  society.^ 

Both  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  are  computed  to  be  about 
fifteen  or  sixteen  hundred  fathoms  in  height,  and  offer  a 
grand  and  magnificent  prospect  to  the  beholder;  from  which 
many  elegant  metaphors  are  derived  by  the  sacred  writers. 
(See  Isa.  x.  34.  xxix.  17.  and  xxxv.  2.)  Lebanon  was  justly 
considered  as  a  very  strong  barrier  to  the  Land  of  Promise, 
and  opposing  an  almost  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  move- 
ments of  cavalry  and  to  chariots  of  war.  "  When,  therefore, 
Sennacherib,  in  the  arrogance  of  his  heart,  and  the  pride  of 
his  strength,  wished  to  express  the  ease  with  which  he  had 
subdued  the  greatest  difficulties,  and  how  vain  was  the  re- 
sistance of  Hezekiah  and  his  people,  he  says.  By  the  multi- 
tude of  my  chariots  have  I  come  to  the  height  of  the  'mountains, 
to  the  sides  of  Lebanon  !  and  1  will  cut  down  the  tall  cedars 
thereof,  and  the  choice  fir  trees  thereof;  and  I  will  enter  into 
the  height  of  his  border,  and  the  forest' of  his  Carmel.  (Isa. 
xxxviir  24.)  What  others  accomplish  on  foot,  with  much 
labour  and  the  greatest  difficulty,  by  a  winding  path  cut  into 
steps,  which  no  beast  of  burden,  except  the  cautious  and 
sure-footed  mule  can  tread,  that  haughty  monarch  vaunted 
he  could  perform  with  horses  and  a  multitude  of  chariots.""^ 
During  the  latter  period  of  the  Roman  empire,  Lebanon  af- 
forded an  asylum  to  numerous  robbers,  who  infested  the 
neiorhbouring  regions,  so  that  the  eastern  emperors  found  it 
necessary  to  establish  garrisons  there.'' 

2.  Mount  Carmel  is  situated  about  ten  miles  to  the  south 
of  Acre  or  Ptolemais,  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  sea : 
it  is  a  range  of  hills  extending  si:!^  or  eight  miles  nearly  north 
and  south,  coming  from  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  ending 
in  the  promontory  or  cape  which  forms  the  bay  of  Accho  or 
Acre.  It  is  very  rocky,  and  is  composed  of  a  whitish  stone, 
with  flmts  imbedded  in  it.  On  the  east  is  a  fine  plain  watered 

»  Letters  from  the  East,  p.  411. 

s  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  ii.  pp.  156,  157. 

»  Burclchardt's  Travels  iu  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  20,  21. 

*  Maundrell,  p.  77. 

5  Pococke's  Description  of  the  East,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  74,  75.  Bp.  Po- 
cocke's  explanation  is  approved  by  Mr.  Buckingham.  Travels  among  the 
Arab  Tribes,  p.  395. 

0  Paxton's  Illustrations  of  Scripture,  vol.  i.  p.  134.    First  edition. 

'  Glycae  Annal.  lib.  xiv.  p.  91.     Procopius  de  Bell.  Pers.  lib  13. 

lib.  ii.  c.  16.  19.  cited  in  Reland's  Palsestina,  torn.  i.  p.  322. 


by  the  river  Kishon ;  and  on  the  west  a  narrower  plain  de- 
scending to  the  sea.  Its  greatest  height  does  not  exceed 
fifteen  hundred  feet.?  The  summits  of  this  mountain  are 
said  to  abound  with  oaks,  pines,  and  other  trees;  and.am.oiig 
brambles,  wild  vines  and  olive  trees  are  still  to  he  found, 
proving  that  indu.stry  had  formerly  been  cnmloyed  on  this 
ungrateful  soil :  nor  is  Ihere  any  deficiency  of  fountains  and 
rivulets,  so  grateful  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  east.  There 
are  many  caves  in  this  mountainous  range,  particularly  on 
the  western  side,  the  largest  of  wliich,  called  the  school  of 
Elijah,  is  much  venerated  both  hy  Mohammedans  and  Jews. 
On  the  summit,  facing  the  sea,  tradition  says,  that  the  pro- 
phet stood  when  he  prayed  for  rain,  and  beheld  the  cloud 
arise  out  of  the  sea:^  and  on  the  side  next  the  sea  is  a  cave, 
to  which  some  commentators  have  supposed  that  the  prophet 
Elijah  desired  Ahab  to  bring  Baal's  prophets,  when  celestial 
fire  descended  on  his  sacrifice.  (1  Kings  xviii.  If) — 40.) 
Carmel  appears  to  have  been  the  name,  not  of  the  hill  only 
distinguished  as  Mount  Carmel,  on  the  top  of  which  the 
faithful  prophet  Elijah  offered  sacrifice,  but  also  of  the  whole 
district,  which  afforded  the  richest  pasture :  and  shepherds 
with  their  flocks  are  to  be  seen  on  its  long  grassy  slopes, 
which  at  present  afford  as  rich  a  pasture  ground,  as  in  the 
days  when  Nabal  fed  his  numerous  herds  on  Carmel.'"  This 
was  the  excellencu  uf  Carmel  which  Isaiah  (xxxv.  2.)  opposes 
to  the  barren  desert.  It  is  mentioned  by  Amos  (i.  2.)  as  the 
habitations  of  the  shepherds.  The  expression  forest  of  his 
Carmel  (2  Kings  xix.  23.  Isa.  xxxvii.  24.),  implies  that  it 
abounded  at  one  time  with  wood  :  but  its  remoteness,  as  the 
border  country  of  Palestine,  and  the  wilderness  characteristic 
of  pastoral  highlands,  rather  than  its  loftiness  or  its  inacces- 
sibility, must  be  alluded  to  by  the  prophet  Amos.  (ix.  2,  3.) 
There  was  another  Mount  Carmel,  with  a  city  of  the  same 
name,  situated  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  mentioned  in 
Joshua  XV.  55.  1  Sam.  xxv.  2.  and  2  Sam.  iii.  3. 

3.  Tabor  or  Thabor  is  a  calcareous  mountain  of  a  conical 
form,  entirely  detached  from  any  neighbouring  mountain,  and 
stands  on  one  side  of  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon :  the  sides 
are  rugged  and  precipitous,  but  clothed  with  luxuriant  trees 
and  brushwood,  except  on  the  southern  side  of  the  mountain. 
Here  Barak  was  encamped,  when,  at  the  suggestion  of  Debo- 
rah, he  descended  with  ten  thousand  men,  and  discomfited 
the  host  of  Sisera.  (Jud^.  iv.)  The  mountain  is  computed 
to  be  nearly  one  mile  in  neiglit ;  to  a  person  standing  at  its 
foot,  it  appears  to  terminate  in  a  point;  but  when  arrived  at 
the'  top,  he  is  agreeably  surprised  to  find  an  oval  plain  of 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  its  greatest  length,  covered  with 
a  bed  of  fertile  soil  on  the  west,  and  having  on  its  eastern 
side  a  mass  of  ruins,  seemingly  the  vestiges  of  churches, 
grottoes,  and  strong  walls,  all  decidedly  of  some  antiquity, 
and  a  few  appearing  to  be  the  works  of  a  very  remote  age.'i 
The  prospects  from  this  mountain  are  singularly  delightful 
and  extensive.  To  the  south  lie  the  Mountains  of  Engedda 
AND  Samaria  ;  to  the  north-east,  about  six  miles  off,  appears 
Mount  Hermon,  beneath  which  were  Nain  and  Endor.  To 
the  north  lie  the  Mount  of  the  Beatitudes, '^  where  Christ 
delivered  his  divine  sermon  to  the  multitude  (who  were  mi-  . 
raculously  fed  in  its  vicinity),  and  the  Mountains  of  Gilboa 
so  fatal  to  Saul.  The  latter  are  still  called  by  the  natives 
Djebel  Gilbo,  or  Mount  Gilbo.  Tlffey  are  a  lengthened  ridge, 
rising  up  in  peaks  about  eight  hundred  fedl  above  the  level 
of  the  road,  probably  about  one  thousand  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  Jordan,  and  about  twelve  hundred  above  that  of  the 
sea;  and  bounding  the  plain  of  the  Jordan  on  the  west.  Utter 
solitude  is  on  every  side  of  these  mountains,  which  afford  no 
dwelling  places  for  men,  except  for  the  wandering  shepherd, 
whose  search  for  pasturage  must  often  be  in  vain ;  as  a  little 
withered  grass  and  a  few  scanty  shrubs,  dispersed  in  different 
places,  constitute  the  whole  produce  of  the  mountains  of 
Gilboa.'3    The  sea  of  Tiberias  is  clearly  discovered  towards 

8  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Palestine,  pp.  119,  120.  Mr.  Rae  Wilson, 
however,  estimates  its  height  at  two  thousand  feel.  Travels  in  the  Iloly 
Land,  vol.  ii.  p.  51.    Third  edition. 

9  Scholz's  Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  cited  in  the  Brit.  Crit.  and  Theol.  Re- 
view, vol.  i.  p.  372.     Game's  Letters,  p.  249.  ' 

10  Game's  Recollections  of  the  East,  p.  43. 

»i  JiiUiffe's  Letters  from  Palestine,  p.  140.  Buckingham's  Travels  in 
Palestine,  p.  104.  Burckhardt's  Travels  in  Syria,  &:c.  p.  334.  The  vignette 
of  tliis  iiiuuntain  in  p.  23.  is  copied  from  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv. 
p.  2^34.  It  represents  tlic  mountain  as  seen  in  crossing  the  plain  of  Jezreel 
or  Esdraelon. 

12  This  hill  may  have  an  elevation  of  from  two  to  three  hundred  feet. 
The  prospect  from  its  s.ummit,  which  is  an  area  of  many  acres  containing 
scattered  ruins,   is  both   extensive  and  beautiful.    Wilson's  Travels  in  ■ 
Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land,  p.  343.    (London,  1822,  8vo.) 

'3  Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  425.  Game's  Recollections  of  tha 
East,  p.  19.    (London,  1830,  8vo.) 


Skct.  I.] 


VALLEYS  IN  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


31 


the  north-east,  terminatod  by  the  snow-canped  Hermon.'  On 
the  eastern  si<le  of  'I'abor  there  is  a  small  heicrht,  wliich  by 
ancient  tradition  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  scene  of  our 
Lord's  translicruration.-  (Matt.  xvii.  1 — 8.  Mark  ix.  2 — 9.) 
Diiriiiir  tlie  trreater  part  of  the  summer,  tlie  mountain  is  co- 
vered in  th(;  morniiijr  with  thicii  cUjuds,  wiiich  disperse 
towards  mid-day.  Mount  Car.mki,  is  to  tlie  south-west,  and 
conceals  the  Mediterranean  from  view :  and  at  the  fijot  of 
this  moimtaiii  the  spacious  and  cultivated  plain  of  Esdraelon 
spreads  itself. 

4.  'I'lie  Mountains  of  Israel,  also  called  the  Mountains 
OF  Ki'HFtAiM,  were  situated  in  the  very  centre  of  the  Holy 
Ijand,  and  opposite  to  the  Mountains  of  .Iudaii.  The  soil 
of  both  ridsres  is  fertile,  exeeptin<r  those  parts  of  the  moun- 
tains of  Israel  which  approach  the  rejrion  of  the  Jordan,  and 
which  are  both  ruijjjed  and  ditlicult  of  asciMit,  and  also  with 
the  exception  of  the  chain  exteiulin<r  from  the  Mount  of  Olives 
near  Jerusalem  to  the  plain  of  Jericho,  which  has  always 
alforded  lurkin<r  places  to  robbers.  (Luke  x.  30.)  The  most 
elevated  summit  of  this  ridpfe,  which  appears  to  be  the  same 
that  was  anciently  called  the  Rock  of  Ilunmwi  (Jud^.  xx.  45. 
47.),  is  at  j)resent  known  by  the  name  of  Qiiardnfiniifi,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's  tempta- 
tion. (Matt.  iv.  8.)  It  is  descril)ed  l)y  Maundrell,^  as  situ- 
ated in  a  mountainous  desert,  and  beinir  a  most  miserably 
dry  and  barren  place,  consistinjr  of  hi;>h  rocky  mountains, 
torn  and  disordered,  as  if  the  earth  had  here  suffered  some 
f][reat  convulsion.  The  celebrated  Mountains  of  Ebal  (some- 
times written  Oebal)  and  Gekizim  (Deut.  xi.  2!).  xxvii.  4.  12. 
Josh.  viii.  30 — 35.)  are  separated  from  each  other  merely  by 
an  interveiiinrr  valley :  they  are  situate,  the  former  to  the 
north,  and  the  latter  to  the  south  of  Sichem  or  Napolose, 
whose  streets  run  parallel  to  the  latter  mountain,*  which 
overlooks  the  town.  In  the  Mountains  of  Judah  there  are 
numerous  caves,  some  of  a  considerable  size :  the  most  re- 
markable of  these  1-=  the  cave  of  Adullam,  mentioned  in 
1  Sam.  xxii.  1,2. — "There  is  a  kind  of  sublime  horror  in  the 
lofty,  cragnry,  and  barren  aspect  of  these  two  mountains, 
which  seem  to  face  each  other  with  an  air  of  defiance ;  espe- 
cially as  they  stand  contrasted  with  the  rich  valley  beneath, 
where  the  city  [of  Shechem  or  Napolose]  appears  to  be  em- 
bedded on  either  side  in  green  gardens  and  extensive  olive 
grounds, — rendered  more  verdant  by  the  lengthened  periods 
of  shade  which  they  enjoy  from  the  mountains  on  each  side. 
Of  the  two,  Gerizim  is  not  wholly  without  cultivation."-' 

5.  The  Mountains  of  GiLEAoare  situated  beyond  the  Jor- 
dan, and  extend  from  Anti-Libanus  or  Mount  Mermon  south- 
ward into  Arabia  Petr^a.  The  northern  part  of  them,  known 
by  the  name  of  Bashan,  was  celebrated  for  its  stately  oaks,^ 
and  numerous  herds  of  cattle  pastured  on  its  fertile  soil,  to 
wliir.il  th(>re  are  many  allusions  in  the  Scriptures.  (See, 
among  other  passages,  Deut.  xxxii.  14.  Psal.  xxii.  12.  and 
Ixviii.  15.  Isa.  ii.  13.    Ezek.  xxxix.  18.  Amos  iv.  1.)     The 

-  hair  of  the  goats  that  browsed  about  Mount  Gilead,  appears 
from  Cant.  iv.  1.  to  have  been  as  fine  as  that  of  the  oriental 
goat,  which  is  well  known  to  be  possessed  of  the  fineness  of 
tlie  most  didicate  silk,  and  is  often  employed  in  modern  times 
for  the  manufacture  of  muffs.  The  middtc  part  of  this  moun- 
tainous range,  in  a  stricter  sense,  was  termed  G.lend,-  and  in 
all  probability  is  the  mountain  now  called  Djebel  Djcluad  or 
Djthfl  Djilaoitd,  on  which  is  the  ruined  town  of  Djelaad, 
which  may  be  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  Gilead  (Hos.  vi. 
8.),  elsewliere  called  Ramoth  Gilead.  In  the  southern  part 
of  the  same  range,  beyond  the  Jordan,  were, — 

6.  The  Mountains  of  Abariai,''  a  range  of  rugged  hills, 
forming  the  northern  limits  of  the  territory  of  JNIoab,  which 

»  I.iahfs  Travels,  p.  200. 

'  From  the  silence  of  the  evangelists  as  to  ftie  mountain  of  transficura. 
tion,  and  from  the  circumstance  of  Jesus  Clirist  bring  Jiisl  belore  at 
Ca.'sarea  Pliihppi,  some  learned  men  have  contended  that  i'abor  could  not 
have  been  the  scene  of  that  great  event.  No  niouniain,  it  is  true,  is  speci- 
fied by  the  evangelist,  nor  is  the  fact  of  Tabor  being  a  mountain  apart  by 
itself  any  argument  in  point ;  but,  as  the  sacred  writers  expressly  state  it 
to  have  happened  six  days  after  our  Saviour's  discourse  at  Cffisarea  Plil- 
lippi,  lir  liii.l  time  enough  to  return  into  Galilee,  which  was  not  above 
twenty-five  leagues'  distance  from  Tabor.  It  is,  therefore,  not  improbable 
that  this  inoiintiiin  was  the  scene  of  his  transfiguration.  Beausobre  and 
L'Enlanl's  Introduction.     (Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  271,  272.) 

»  Maundrell,  pp.  100,  107.  A  later  traveller,  however,  (Mr.  JoilifTe)  is 
c»f  opiniim  that  the  view  from  this  mountain  is  not  sufficiently  extensive. 
Letters  Iroiii  Palestine,  p.  129. 

*  .IdwoIi's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  p.  102.  (I.ondon,  1S25.  8vo.) 

»  The  oak,  which  in  ancient  times  supplied  IheTyrians  with  oars  (Ezek. 
x.wii.  0.)  is  still  frequently  to  be  found  liere ;  the  soil  is  most  luxuriantly 
fertile  ;  and  llie  nomadic  Arab  mhabitanls  are  as  robust  and  comely  as  we 
may  conceive  its  ancient  possessors  to  have  been,  according  to  the'notices 
which  incidentally  occur  in  the  Sacred  Volume.  See  Mr.  Buckingham's 
Interesting  description  of  this  region.    Travels,  pp.  325 — 329 

«  Abariin  denotes  passes  or  passages. 


are  conjectured  to  have  derived  their  name  from  the  passes 
between  the  hills,  of  which  they  were  formed,  or  ))erhaps, 
from  the  Israelites  having  passed  the  river  Jordan  into  the 
promised  land,  opposite  to  these  mountains. '  According  to 
Dr.  Shaw,  they  are  a  long  ridge  of  frightful,  rocky,  and  pre- 
cipitous hills,  which  are  continued  all  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  Near  these 
mountains  the  Israelites  had  several  encampments.  The 
most  eminent  among  them  are  Pisgah  and  Nebo,  which  form 
a  contimied  chain,  and  command  a  view  of  the  whole  land  of 
Canaan.  (Deut.  iii.  27.  xxxii.  48 — 50.  xxxiv.  1,  2,  3.) 
From  Mount  Nebo  Moses  surveyed  the  promised  land,  before 
he  was  u;iilhered  to  his  people.  (Num.  xxvii.  12,  13.)  The 
Htibrews  fr((iuently  give  the  epithet  of  evcrlo.stiufr  to  their 
mountains,  because  they  are  as  old  as  the  earth  itself.  See, 
among  other  instances,  Gen.  xlix.  20.  and  Deut.  xxxiii.  15. 

The  moimtains  of  Palestine  were  anciently  places  of  refuge 
to  the  inhabitants  when  defeated  in  war  (Gen.  xiv.  10.);  and 
modern  travellers  assure  us  that  they  are  still  resorted  to  for 
the  same  purpose.'  The  rocky  summits  found  on  many  of 
them  a|)pear  to  have  been  not  unfrcquently  employed  as 
altars,  on  which  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Jehovah  (Judg.  vi. 
I'J — 21.  and  xiii.  15 — 20.);  although  they  were  afterwards 
converted  into  ])laces  for  idol  worship,  for  which  the  prophets 
Isaiah  (Ivii.  7.)  and  Ezekiel  (xviii.  ti.)  severely  reprove  their 
degenerate  countrymen.  And  as  many  of  the  mountains  of 
Palestine  were  situated  in  desert  places,  the  shadow  they 
project  has  furnished  the  prophet  Isaiah  with  a  pleasing 
image  of  the  security  that  shall  be  enjoyed  under  the  kingdom 
of  Messiah.8  (xxxii.  2.) 

From  the  mountains,  the  transition  to  the  Valleys  is 
natural  and  easy.  Of  those  w'hich  are  mentioned  in  the 
Sacred  Writings,  the  following  are  the  most  celebrated  ;  viz. 

1.  The  Valley  of  Blessing  (in  Hebrew,  the  Valley  of 
Berachab),  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  on  the  west  side  of  the  lake 
of  Sodom,  and  in  the  wilderness  of  Tekoah.  It  derived  its 
name  from  a  signal  victory  which  God  granted  to  the  pious 
king  Jehosliaphat  over  the  combined  forces  of  the  Moabitcs, 
Edomites,  and  Ammonites.  (2Chron.  xx.  22 — 26.) 

2.  The  Vale  of  Siddi.m,  memorable  for  the  overthrow  of 
Chedf)rlaomer  and  his  confederate  emirs  or  kings.  (Gen. 
xiv.  2 — 10.)  In  this  vale  stood  the  cities  of  Sodom  and  Go- 
morrah, which  were  afterwards  destroyed  by  fire  from 
heaven,  on  which  account  this  vale  is  also  termed  the  Halt 
Sea.  (Gen.  xiv.  3.) 

3.  The  Valley  of  Shateh,  also  called  the  King's  Dak 
(Gen.  xiv.  17.  2  Sam.  xviii.  18.),  derived  its  name  from  a 
city  of  the  same  name  that  stood  in  it.  Here  Melchisedek, 
king  of  Salem,  met  the  victorious  Abraham  after  the  defeat 
of  the  confederate  kings.     (Gen.  xiv.  18.) 

4.  The  Vale  op  Salt  is  supposed  to  have  been  in  the  land 
of  Edom,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  between  Tadmor  and  Bozrah. 
Here  both  David  and  Amaziah  discomfited  the  Edomites. 
(2  Sam.  viii.  13.  2  Kings  xiv.  7.) 

5.  The  Valley  of  Mamre  received  its  name  from  Mamre 
an  Amorite,  who  was  in  alliance  with  Abraham  :  it  was  cele- 
brated for  the  oak  (or  as  some  critics  render  it  terebinth)  tree, 
under  which  the  patriarch  dwelt  (Gen.  xiii.  18.),  in  the 
vicinity  of  Hebron. 

6.  The  Valley  of  Ajalon  is  contiguous  to  the  city  of  the 
same  name,  in  the  canton  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Dan :  it  is 
memorable  as  the  scene  of  the  miracle  related  in  Josh.  x.  12. 
It  is  said  to  be  of  sufficient  lireadth  and  compass  to  allow  a 
numerous  host  to  engage  thereon.  "  This  valley  is  better 
inhabited  and  cultivated  than  most  other  places  in  the  terri- 
tory, and  seems  to  enjoy  a  more  equal  and  nealtliful  tempera- 
ture."!" 

■  7.  The  Valley  of  the  Rephaim  (or  the  Giant's  Valley) 
was  so  called  from  its  gigantic  inhabitants  :  it  was  situated 
on  the  confines  of  the  territories  allotted  to  the  tribes  of  Judah 
and  Benjamin.  It  was  memorable,  as  oftentimes  being  the 
field  of  battle  between  the  Philistines  and  the  Jews  under 
David  and  his  successors.     (2  Sam.  v.  13.  22.  xxiii.    13. 

'  Harnier's observations,  vol.  iii.  pp.429,  430. 

»  "  Asceinling  a  sand  hill  that  overlooked  the  plain,  we  saw  Jericho,  con- 
trary to  our  hopes,  at  a  great  distance  ;  and  the  level  tract  we  must  pass  to 
arrive  at  it  was  exposed  to  a  sultry  sun,  without  a  single  tree  to  afford  us  a 
temporary  shade.  The  simile  of 'the  shadow  of  a  great  rock  in  aweary 
lanil'  was  never  more  forcibly  felt."  (Carne's  Letters,  p.  320.) — "The 
shadow  of  a  great  projecting  rock  is  the  most  refreshing  thai  is  possible  in 
a  hot  country,  not  only  as  most  perfectly  excluding  the  rays  of  the  sun,  but 
also  having  in  itself  a  natural  coolness,  which  it  reflects  and  communicates 
to  every  thing  about  it."  Bishop  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  'HI.  See  also 
Dr.  Henderson's  Travels  in  Iceland,  vol.  i.  p.  206.,  and  Dr.  Richardson's 
Travels  along  the  Mediterranean,  <fcc.  vol.  ii.  p.  1S6. 

»  Carne's  Recollections  of  tlie  East,  pp.  137.  liO. 


32 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  L  Chap.  H. 


IChron.  xi.  15.  and  xiv.  9.)  This  valley  also  appears  anciently 
to  have  been  distinguished  for  its  abundant  harvests.  (Isa. 
xvii.  5.)  Like  all  the  country  about  Jerusalem,  it  is  now 
stony,  and  scantily  furnished  with  patches  of  liglit  red  soil.' 

8.  The  Valley  of  Bociiim  (or  of  IVeepini^)  was  thus 
denominated  from  the  nnivorsal  mourning  of  the  Israelites, 
on  account  of  the  denunciations  there  made  against  them, 
for  their  disobedience  to  the  divine  commands  respecting  the 
nations  vi^hom  they  had  invaded.  (Judg.  ii.  5.) 

9.  Three  miles  from  Bethlehem,  on  the  road  to  Jaffa,  lies 
the  celebrated  Tercbbrthine  Vide,  or  Valley  of  Elah,  not 
above  half  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  memorable  as  the  field  of 
the  victory  gained  by  the  youthful  David  over  the  uncircum- 
cised  champion  of  the  Philistines,  who  had  defied  the  armies 
of  the  UviniT  God.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  2,  3.)  "  It  is  a  pretty  and 
interesting  looking  spot ;  the  bottom  covered  with  olive  trees. 
Its  present  appearance  answers  exactly  to  the  description 
given  in  Scripture  :  for  nothing  has  ever  occurred  to  alter  the 
appearance  of  the  country.  The  two  hills,  on  which  the 
armies  of  the  Israelites  and  Philistines  stood,  entirely  confine 
it  on  the  right  and  left.  Tlie  very  brook,  whence  David  cliose 
him  five  smooth  stones  (which  has  been  noticed  by  many  a 
thirsty  pilgrim,  journeying  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem),  still 
flows  through  the  vale,  which  is  varied  with  banks  and  undu- 
lations. The  ruins  of  goodly  edifices  attest  the  religious 
veneration  entertained  in  later  periods  for  the  hallowed  spot : 
but  even  these  are  now  become  so  insignificant,  that  they  are 
scarcely  discernible ;  and  nothino'  can  be  said  to  interrupt 
the  native  dignity  of  this  memorable  scene. "^ 

10.  The  narrow  Valley  of  Hinnom  lies  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Zion,  just  south  of  Jerusalem  :  it  was  well  watered, 
and  in  ancient  times  was  most  verdant  and  delightfully 
shaded  with  trees.  This  valley  is  celebrated  for  the  inhuman 
and  barbarous,  as  well  as  idolatrous  worship,  here  paid  to 
Moloch ;  to  which  deity  parents  sacrificed  their  smiling  off- 
spring by  making  them  pass  through  the  fire.  (2  Kings  xxiii. 
10.  2  Chron.  xxviii.  3.)  To  drown  the  lamentable  shrieks 
of  the  children  thus  immolated,  musical  instruments  (in  He- 
brew termed  Tuph)  were  played ;  whence  the  spot,  where 
the  victims  were  burnt,  was  called  Tophet.  After  the  cap- 
tivity, the  Jews  regarded  this  spot  with  abhorrence  on  account 
of  the  abominations  which  had  been  practised  there :  and, 
following  the  example  of  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxiii.  10.),  they 
threw  into  it  every  species  of  filth,  as  well  as  the  carcasses 
of  animals,  and  the  dead  bodies  of  malefactors,  &c.     To 

firevent  the  pestilence  which  such  a  mass  would  occasion,  if 
eft  to  putrefy,  constant  fires  were  maintained  in  the  valley, 
in  order  to  consume  the  whole  :  hence  the  place  received  the 
appellation  of  Xim*.  tcu  ttudoc  (Matt.  v.  26.)  By  an  easy 
metaphor,  the  Jews,  who  could  imagine  no  severer  torment 
than  that  of  fire,  transferred  this  name  to  the  infernal  fire, — 
to  that  part  of  "aSh;  or  the  Invisible  World,  in  which  they 
supposed  that  demons  and  the  souls  of  wicked  men  were 

fiunished  in  eternal  fire.  The  place  now  shown  as  the  Val- 
ey  of  Hinnom  "  is  a  deep  ravine,  closed  in  on  the  right  by 
the  steep  acclivity  of  Mount  Zion,  and  on  the  left  by  a  line 
of  cliffs  more  or  less  elevated.  From  some  point  in  these  cliffs 
tradition  relates  that  the  apostate  betrayer  of  our  Lord  sought 
his  desperate  end :  and  the  position  of  the  trees,  which  in 
various  parts  overhang  the  brow  of  the  cliff,  accords  with 
the  manner  of  his  death."^ 

11.  The  Vale  of  Sharon  (Song  of  Sol.  ii.  1.  Isa.  Ixv. 
10.)  was,  as  it  is  to  this  day,  a  spacious  and  fertile  plain  of 
arable  land,  extending  from  Csesarea  to  Joppa.  How  valu- 
able this  land  must  have  been  to  Solomon  when  he  made  his 
engagement  with  Hiram  king  of  Tyre, — and  to  Herod  when 
he  marked  his  displeasure  against  them  of  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
may  be  inferred  from  1  Kings  v.  7 — 11.  and  Acts  xii.  20.^ 
At  present,  this  plain  is  only  partially  cultivated  :  the  grind- 
ing exactions  of  the  Turk,  and  the  predatory  incursions  of 
the  Arab,  prevent  the  wretched  inhabitants  from  tilling  more 
than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  their  support.^ 

12.  The  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  mentioned  in  Joel  iii. 
2 — 12.,  is  situated  a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  Jerusalem  ; 
it  has  also  been  called  the  Valley  of  the  Kedron,  because  the 
brook  Kedron  flows  through  it.  Aben  Ezra,  however, 
imagines  it  to  be  the  Valley  of  Blessing  above  noticed  :  and 
some  commentators  consider  the  word  to  be  symbolical,  sig- 

>  Buckingham's  Travels,  p.  216. 

'  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  422.    Game's  Letters,  pp.  299,  300. 
'  Robinson's  Gr.  Lex.  to  New  Testament,  voce.  Viivvx.    Jovyett's  Chris- 
tian Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  p.  262. 
■•  Jowett's  Researches,  p.  305. 
»  Three  Weeks'  Residence  in  Palestine,  p.  11. 


nifying  the  judgment  of  God  ;  or,  Jehovah  judgeth.  They 
are  of  opinion,  that  it  may  mean  some  place  where  Nebu- 
chadnezzar should  gain  a  great  battle,  wliich  would  utterly 
discomfit  the  ancient  enemies  of  the  Jews,  and  resemble  the 
victory  obtained  by  Jehoshaphat  over  tlie  Ammonites,  Moa- 
bites,  and  Edomites.'*  This  narrow  valley  has,  from  a  very 
early  period,  served  as  a  burial  place  for  the  inhabitants  of 
Jerusalem  ;  as  we  may  infer  from  tlie  account  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  idolatry  in  Judah  and  of  the  vessels  made  for  Baal, 
when  tlie  bones  of  the  priests  were  burned  to  ashes  at  the 
brook  Kedron,  and  were  cast  upon  the  graves  of  the  children 
of  the  people.  (1  Kings  xiii.  2.  2  Kings  xxiii.  6.  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  4.)  The  Hebrew  population  of  Jerusalem  still  inter 
their  dead  in  this  valley,  in  which  there  are  numerous  tomb- 
stones :  and  as  a  strong  inclination  still  exists  among  the 
Jews  to  have  their  remains  entombed  in  the  country  of  their 
ancestors,  many  of  them  arrive  here  with  tliis  view,  in  the 
course  of  the  year,  from  the  most  distant  lands.^  One  day 
in  the  year  the  Jews  purchase  from  their  oppressors  the  per- 
mission to  assemble  in  this  place,  which  they  pass  in  weep- 
ing and  mourning  over  the  desolation  of  Jerusalem,  and  their 
lengthened  captivit}'.^  It  was  on  this  side,  that  the  city  was 
carried. by  assault  by  the  besiegers  in  the  first  crusade. 

VI.  The  country  of  Juda?a, being  mountainous  and  rocky, 
is  full  of  Caverns  ;  to  which  the  inhabitants  were  accus- 
tomed to  flee  for  shelter  from  the  incursions  of  their  enemies. 
(Josh.  x.  16.  Judg.  vi.  2.  1  Sam.  xiii.  6.  xiv.  11.)  Some 
of  these  appear  to  have  been  on  low  grounds,  and  liable  to 
inundations,  when  the  rivers,  swollen  by  torrents  or  dissolv- 
ing snows,  overflowed  their  banks,  and  carried  all  before 
them  with  resistless  fury.  To  the  sudden  destruction  thus 
produced  Isaiah  probably  alludes,  (xxxviii.  17.)  There- 
fore, to  enter  into  the  holes  of  the  rocks,  and  into  the  caves  of 
the  earth,  for  fear  of  the  Lord  (Isa.  ii.  19.),  was  to  the  Jews 
a  very  proper  image  to  express  terror  and  consternation.  The 
prophet  Hosea  has  carried  the  same  image  further,  and  added 
great  strength  and  spirit  to  it  (x.  8.)  ;  wiiich  image,  together 
with  these  of  Isaiah,  is  adopted  by  the  sublime  author  of  the 
Revelation  (vi.  15,  16.),  who  frequently  borrows  his  imagery 
from  the  prophet  Isaiah.^ 

Some  of  these  caves  were  very  capacious  :  that  of  Adul- 
LAM  afforded  an  asylum  to  David  and  four  hundred  men, 
including*  his  family,  who  resorted  thither  to  him.  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  1,  2.)  The  cave  of  Engedi  was  so  large,  that  David 
and  six  hundred  men  concealed  themselves  in  its  sides  ;  and 
Saul  entered  the  mouth  of  the  cave  without  perceiving  that 
any  one  was  there.  "  At  first,  it  appears  neither  lofty  nor 
spacious,  but  a  low  passage  on  the  leti  leads  into  apartments, 
where  a  party  could  easily  remain  concealed  from  those 
without.  The  face  of  the  hill  around  it  corresponds  to  the 
description, — he  came  to  the  rocks  of  the  wild  goats.^^  (1  Sam. 
xxiv.  2.)'o  Bishop  Pococke  has  described  a  cave,  which  he 
thinks  maybe  this  of  Engedi;  concerning  which  there  is  a 
tradition,  that  thirty  thousand  people  retired  into  it  to  avoid 
a  bad  air."  Josephus'^  has  taken  particular  notice  of  similar 
caverns,  which  in  his  time  were  the  abode  of  robbers. 
Maundrell's  has  described  a  large  cavern  under  a  high  rocky 
mountain  in  the  vicinity  of  Sidon,  containing  two  hundred 
smaller  caverns,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been. the  resi- 
dence of  the  ori™al  inhabitants^.  Numerous  caves  were 
noticed  by  Mr.  Buckingham^''  in  the  rock  to  the  south  of 
Nazareth  ;  several  of  which  now,  as  anciently,  serve  as 
dwellings  to  the  Nazarenes.  Mr.  Hartley  has  described  a 
similar  cavern,  capable  of  holding  one  thousand  men  by 
actual  enumeration,  whither  the  Greeks  fled,  and  found  a 
secure  asylum  from  their  Mohammedan  enemies.'*  Captain 
Lyon  has  described  similar  residences  occupied  by  a  tribe 
of  Troglodytes  in  northern  Africa.is  It  was  probably  in  some 

«  Arclibp.  Newcome,  and  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Joel  iii.  2. 

■>  Mr.  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  vol.  i.  p.  220.  The  same 
intelligent  traveller  continues: — "Observing  many  .lews,  whom  I  could 
easily  recognise  by  their  yellow  turbans,  black  eyebrows,  and  bushy 
beards,  walking  about  the  place,  and  reposing  along  the  brook  Kedron 
in  a  pensive  mood,  the  pathetic  language  of  the  Psalmist  occurrart  to  me, 
as  expressing  the  subject  of  their  meditation, — Bij  the  rivers  ipe  sat  down 
and  wept,  when  we  remembered  Zion.  Upon  JVequcntly  inquirirjg  the 
motive  that  prompted  them  in  attempting  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  the  answer 
was,  '  To  die  in  the  land  of  our  fathers.'  "    Ibid. 

«  Three  Weeks'  Residence  in  Palestine,  p.  39, 

»  Bishop  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  37. 

10  Caine's  Letters,  p.  307. 

'1  Pococke's  TraveLs,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  p.  41. 

'»  Antiq.  lib.  xiv.  c.  15.  §5. 

«3  Travels,  pp.  158,  159. 

'<  Travels  in  Palestine,  p.  113. 

«5  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Greece,  1823.  (Mission.  Register,  May,1830,  p.  231.)- 

'8  "As  the  natives  hve  under  ground,  a  person  unacquainted  with  the- 
circumstance  might  cross  the  mountain  without  once  suspecting  that  it 


biiCT.  I.] 


PLAINS  AND  DESERTS, 


33 


such  cave  thnt  Lot  and  his  two  daughters  dvvolt  after  the  de- 
struction of  Sodom  (ficii.  xix.  .'50.);  and  in  similar  caverns, 
excavated  hy  primeval  shc|)her(ls  as  a  shcdtcr  from  ihn  scorcli- 
in<r  hcams  of  the  sun,  Dr.  ('larivc  ami  his  f.  How-travellers 
f'lund  a  gratrfid  protection  fruin  the  iiit('iis(>  heat  fif  the  solar 
lys  ;'  as  (/a|)taiiis  Irhy  and  Maiifjlcs  suliseqnently  ilid,  from 
.1  violent  storm.'-'  These  caves  were  sometimes  the  haunts 
or  stiontrholds  of  rohhers  fas  the  excavations  in  the  rocks 
near   Ijcaiilehern  are  to   this  day),'   and   to   them  our   Lord 

iirohahly  alludes  in  Malt.  xxi.  l.'J.,  where  he  reproaches  the 
lews  with  having,-  profaned  the  temple  of  (Jod,  and  made  it 
a  (I'll  of  thieves. 

XU.  Numerous  fertile  and  level  tracts  arc  mentioned  in 
the  .Sacred  Volume,  mider  the  title  of  Plains.  Three  of 
these  arc  particularly  worthy  of  notice;  viz. 

1.  The  Plain  oi'TiiE  Meditiouranean  Ska,  which  reached 
from  the  river  of  Kj^ypt  to  Mount  Carmel.  The  tract  he- 
tween  CJaza  and  .Top|)a  was  simplv  called  the  Plain;  in  this 
slooil  the  five  jirincipal  citic^s  of  the  Philistine  satrapies, 
Ascalon,  (iath,  (iaza,  Kkron  or  Accaron,  and  Azotiis  or 
Ashdod.  The  tract  iVom  .loppa  to  Mount  Carmel  was  called 
Saron  or  »V/!«rwt  ,■  which  however  is  a  difierent  place  from 
the  Sharon  that  lies  hetween  Mount  Tahor  and  the  sea  of 
Tiherias,  and  from  aniMher  jjlace  of  the  same  namc^,  which 
was  ceU^hrated  for  its  pastures,  and  was  situated  in  the  tribe 
of  Gad  bcytmd  Jordan. 

2.  The  Plain  ok  Jezreel,  or  of  Esdraelon,  also  called 
the  Great  Plain  (the  Armageddon  of  the  Apocalypse), 
extends  from  Mount  C'armel  and  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
place  where  the  .Tordan  issues  from  the  sea  of  Tiberias, 
through  the  middle  of  the  Holy  Land.  Here,  in  the  most 
fertile  part  of  the  land  of  ('anaan,  the  tribe  of  Issachar 
rqoiced  in  their  fenls.  (Ueut.  xxxiii.  18.)  In  the  first  ages 
ot  Jewish  history,  as  well  as  during  the  Roman  empire  and 
the  crusades,  ana  even  in  later  times,  it  has  been  the  scene 
of  many  a  memorable  contest.  "  Here  it  was  that  Barak, 
descending  with  his  ten  thousand  men  from  Mount  Tabor, 
discomfited  Sisera  and  all  his  chariots,  even  nine  hundred 
chariots  of  iron,  and  all  the  people  that  were  with  him,  gathered 
from  Hurosheth  of  the  Gentiles  unto  the  river  of  Kishon  ,-  when 
all  the  host  of  S.'serafll  upon  the  sword,  and  there  was  not  a  man 
lift ;  when  the  kin<^s  cunte  and  fou<rht,  the  kings  of  Canaan  in 
Taanach  hi/  the  waters  of  Alcgidd^/.  (Judg.  iv.  13. 15,  16.  v. 
19.)  Here  also  it  was  that  Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  fought  in 
disguise  against  Necho  king  of  Egypt,  and  fell  by  the 
arrows. of  his  antagonist.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29.)  So  great 
were  the  lamentations  for  his  death,  that  the  mourning  of 
Josiah  became  an  ordinance  in  Israel  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  24, 
25.)  :  nnd  the  great  mourning  in  Jerusalem,  foretold  by  Zecha- 
riah  (xii.  11.),  is  said  to  be  as  the  lamentations  in  the  plain 

iguage,  as 
iddon.  Jo- 
sephus  often  mentions  this  very  remarkable  part  of  the  Holy 
'  Land,  and  always  under  the  appellation  of  the  Great  Plain: 
and  und(!r  the  same  name  it  is  also  mentioned  by  Eusebius 
and  by  Jerome.  It  has  been  a  chosen  place  for  encampment 
in  every  contest  carried  on  in  this  country,  from  the  days  of 
Nabucnadonosor  king  of  the  Assyrians,  in  the  history  of 
whose  war  with  Arphaxad  it  is  mentioned  as  the  Great  Plain 
of  Esdrelom,*  until  the  disastrous  march  of  the  late  Napo- 

was  intiabited.  All  tlie  dwoUing  plarrs  boint;  formed  in  the  same  manner, 
a  (lescriplion  of  the  scheik's  may  siilTice  for  llie  rest.  The  upper  soil  is 
sandy  earth  of  about  four  feet  in  d'pth  ;  under  this  sand,  and  in  some 
places  lime-stone,  a  lar).'e  hole  is  dui;  to  the  depth  of  twenty-five  or  tliirly 
feet,  and  its  breadtli  in  every  direction  Is  about  the  same,  being  as  nearly 
as  can  be  made,  a  perfect  square.  The  rock  is  then  smoothed,  so  as  to 
form  perpendicular  sides  to  this  space,  in  which  doors  are  cut  through, 
and  arclu'd  chambers  excavated,  so  as  to  receive  their  light  from  the  doors  : 
these  rooms  are  sometimes  three  or  four  of  a«ide,  in  others,  a  whole  side 
composes  one  :  the  arrangements  depehdinsr  on  the  number  of  the  inhabi- 
tants In  the  open  court  is  generally  a  well,  water  being  found  at  al)out 
ten  or  twelve  feet  below  the  base  of  the  square.  The  entrance  to  the 
house  is  about  thirty-si.x  yards  from  the  pit,  and  opens  above  ground.  It  is 
arched  overhead  ;  is  generally  cut  in  a  winding  direction,  and  Is  perfectly 
dark.  Some  of  these  passages  are  sulliciently  large  to  admit  a  loaded 
camel.  The  entrance  has  a  strong  wall  built  over  it,  something  resem- 
bling an  ice-house.  This  is  covered  overhead,  and  has  a  very  strong  heavy 
door,  which  Is  shut  at  night,  or  in  cases  of  danger.  At  about  ten  yards 
from  tlie  bottom  is  another  door  equally  strons.  so  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  enter  these  houses,  should  the  inhabitants  determine  to  resist. 
Few  Arab  attacks  last  long  enough  to  end  in  a  siege.     All  their  sheep  and 

fioultry  b^ing  confined   in  the  house  at  night,  the  bashaw's  army,  when 
lere,  haj  recourse  to  suftiicating  the  inmates,  being  unable  to  starve  them 
out." — See  Capr.  Lyon's  Travels  in  Norlheni  Africa,  p.  ^5. 
'  Travels  in  Greece,  *c.  vol.  iv.  pp.  ISO,  190.  ■>  Travels,  p.  217. 

»  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  421.     See  also  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels 
in  Georgia,  Persia,  «tc.  vol.  ii.  pp.  540—554.  for  a  description  of  the  caves 
In  the  mountain  of  Kerefto  (in  the  province  of  eastern  Courdi.stan),  which 
tradition  st.ates  to  have  been  anciently  used  for  the  same  pui-pose. 
«  .ludith  i.  a  '     '  \ 

Vol.  II.  E 


atltll      1,-VIl.       M.XaJj     li5     OCJIVI.      Hy      "V.-      tlO      Vli^^      ICllIl^  il  Ltl  IH  'll.-^      Ill        LJ 

of  Esdraelon,  or,  according  to  the  prophet's  !;mgi 
the  mourn 'ng  of  Iladudrimmon  in  the  valhi/  of  Megidi 


Icon  Bonaparte  from  Egypt  into  Syria,  Jews,  Gentiles, 
Saracens,  Christian  crusaders,  and  anti-christian  Frenchmen' 
^'^8'yP.'^''^"^'  Persians,  Druses,  Turks,  and  Arabs,  warriors 
oul  of  every  nation  vhich  is  under  hecven,  have  pitched  their 
tents  in  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  have  beheld  the  various 
banners  of  th'ir  nation  wet  with  the  dews  of  Tabor  and  of 
Herinon."^  This  plain  is  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  mountains: 
the  hills  of  Nazareth  to  the  north, — thost;  of  Siunaria  to  the 
south, — to  the  east,  the  mountains  of  Tabor  and  Ilermon, 
and  Carmel  to  the  south-west.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett,  in 
November,  1R2.3,  counted  in  his  road  across  this  ])lain  only 
five  very  small  villages,  consisting  of  wretched  mud  hovels, 
chiefly  in  ruins,  and  only  a  very  few  persons  moving  on  the 
road  ;  so  that  to  this  scene  the  words  of  Deborah  might  again 
be  truly  ajMilied  : — The  highwai/s  tvere  unoccupied  ,■  the  in- 
habitants of  the  vilhiges  ceaf-cd ,- — they  ceased  in  Israel.  (JndT. 
V.  6,  7.)  The  Sfjil  is  stat(  d  to  be  extremely  rich  ;  and  in 
every  direction  are  the  most  picturesque  views. ^  The  plain 
of  Pisdraelon  now  bears  the  name  of  Foal',  and  has  been 
celebrated  in  morlern  times  by  the  victory  which  Murat 
gained  over  the  Mamelukes  and  Arabs,  in  their  attempt  to 
relieve  Acri  or  Acre,  in  April,  1799.'  Mr.  Jowett  computes 
this  plain  to  be  at  least  fifteen  miles  square,  making  allow- 
ances for  some  apparent  irregularities.  Though  it  bears  the 
title  of  "Plain,  yet  it  abounds  with  hills,  which  in  the 
view  of  it  from  the  adjacent  mountains  shrink  into  nothing.s 

3.  The  Ri^nioN  ROUND  AHOUT  Jordan  (Matt.  iii.  5.)  com- 
prised the  level  country  on  both  sides  of  that  river,  from  the 
lake  of  Genncsareth  to  the  Dead  Sea.  Of  this  district  the 
Plain  of  .Jericho,  celebrated  for  its  fertility  and  the  intense 
heat  that  prevails  there  during  the  hot  season,  forms  a  part; 
as  also  do  the  Valley  of  Nalt  near  the  Salt  or  Dead  Sea 
(where  David  defeated  the  Syrians  (1  Chron.  xviii.  3 — 8.) 
and  Amaziah  discoinfited  the  Ldomites),'-'  and  the  Plains  of 
Moah  where  the  Israelites  encamped,"'  and  which  are  also 
called  Shittim  in  Num.  xxv.  1.  .Tosh.  ii.  1.  and  iii.  1.,  the 
Plains  of  Shiitim,  in  Num.  xxxiii.  49.  (marginal  rendering), 
and  the  Valley  ef  Shittim,  in  Joel  iii.  18. 

VIII.  Frequent  mention  is  made  in  the  Scriptures  of 
Wildernesses  or  Deserts,  by  which  we  usually  understand 
desolate  places,  equally  devoid  of  cities  and  inhitbitants. 
The  deserts  noticed  in  the  Bible,  however,  are  of  a  different 
description  ;  as  the  Hebrews  were  accustomed  to  give  the 
name  of  desert  or  wilderness  to  all  places  that  were  not  cul- 
tivated," but  which  were  chiefly  appropriated  to  the  feeding 
of  cattle,  and  in  many  of  them  trees  and  shrubs  grew  wilcC 
Hence  this  term  is  frequently  applied  to  the  commons  (as 
they  would  be  called  in  England)  which  were  contiguous  to 
cities  or  villages,  and  on  which  the  plough  never  came.  The 
wildernesses  or  deserts  of  Palestine,  therefore,  are  two-fold  : 
some  are  mountainous  and  well  watered,  while  others  are 
sterile  sandy  plains,  either  destitute  of  water,  or  aflbrding  a 
very  scanty  supply  from  the  few  brackish  springs  that  are 
occasionally  to  be  found  in  them ;  3'et  even  these  afford  a 
gratefixl  though  meagie  pasturage  to  camels,  goats,  and 
sheep. 

The  Deserts  of  the  Hebrews  frequently  derive  their  appel- 
lations from  the  places  to  which  they  were  contiguous. 
Thus, 

1.  The  Desert  or  Wilderness  of  Shur  lay  towards  the 
northeastern  point  of  the  Red  Sea.  In  this  wilderness, 
Hagar  wandered,  when  unjustly  driven  from  Abraham's 
house  by  the  jealousy  of  Sarah  (Gen.  xvi.  7.):  and  the 
Israelites  marc^ied  through  this  wilderness  after  they  had 
miraculously  crossed  the  Red  Sea  (Exod.  xv.  22.),  as  they 
also  did  subsequently  through, 

2.  The  Wilderness  or  Desert  of  Paran,  which  lay  con- 
siderably more  to  the  south.  (^Num.  x.  12.)  In  this  desert 
(which  was  situated  in  Arabia  Petra?a,  near  a  city  of  the 
same  name),  Ishmael  resided  :  and  hence  IMoses  sent  out 
spies  to  bring  intelligence  concerning  the  promised  land. 
(Nuin.  xiii.  3.)  The  Desert  of  Paran  "is  in  many  parts 
intersected  by  numerous  ravines  and  glens,  and  broken  by 
loftj'  barriers.  Among  these,  the  noble  mountain  of  Paran, 
with  its  enormous  precipices,  is  only  a  long  day's  journey 

»  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pji.  SS.") — 253. 

c  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  pp.  191,  192.  A  later  traveller 
estimates  the  length  of  the  valley  of  Esdraelon  at  twenty-four  mile.s,  and 
its  breadth  from  ten  to  twelve  uiiles.  Madden's  Travels  in  Turkey,  &c. 
vol.  ii   p.  WTi. 

■<  Licht's  Travels,  p  201. 

»  .lowelt's  Researcnes  in  Syria,  pp.  301,  30-2. 

»  2  Kings  xiv.  7.    2  Chron.  .xx-\-.  11.  '»  Num.  xxii.  1.  xxvi.3. 

'1  The  Arabs  to  this  day  give  the  appellation  of  Desfrt  to  any  solitude, 
whether  barren  or  fertile.    Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  422. 


34 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  L  Chap,  II. 


distant,  and  always  in  sight  from  the  neighbourhood  :  it  is 
capable  of  ascent  only  on  the  farthest  side,  and  that  not 
without  difficulty.  Around  its  base  are  flat  plains  of  sand, 
well  adapted  to  large  encampments  :  here  and  there,  at  long 
intervals,  a  clump  of  palm  trees  is  seen,  and  in  their  vicinity 
water  is  generally  found."! 

3.  The  Desert  of  Sinai  was  that  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount 
Sinai  in  Arabia :  here  the  Israelites  were  for  a  long  time  en- 
camped, and  received  the  chief  part  of  the  laws  delivered  to 
them  by  Jehovah  through  the  ministry  of  Moses. 

4.  The  Wilderness  of  Ziph  was  contiguous  to  a  town 
or  village  of  the  same  name,  and  here  David  concealed  him- 
self for  some  time.  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  14,  15.)  But  the  most 
celebrated  of  all  is, 

5.  The  Wilderness  or  Desert  of  .Tudah.  (Psal.  Ixiii. 
title.)  The  Desert  of  Jndtea  in  which  John  the  Baptist 
abode  till  the  day  of  his  showing  unto  Israel  (Luke  i.  80.), 
and  where  he  first  taught  his  countrymen  (Matt.  iii.  1.  Mark 
1.  4.  John  X.  39.),  was  a  mountainous,  wooded,  and  thinly 
iiihabited  tract  of  country,  but  abounding  in  pastures  ;  it  was 
situated  adjacent  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  river  Jordan.  In 
the  time  of  Joshua  it  had  six  cities,  with  their  villages. 
(Josh.  XV.  61,  63.)  It  is  now  one  of  the  most  dreary  and 
desolate  regions  of  the  whole  country. 

6.  The  vast  Desert  of  Arabia,  reaching  from  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  confines  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  in 
which  the  children  of  Israel  sojourned  after  their  departure 
from  Egypt,  is  in  the  Sacred  Writings  particularly  called 
The  Desert  ;  very  numerous  are  the  allusions  made  to  it, 
and  to  the  divine  protection  and  support  which  were  extended 
to  them  during  their  migration.  Moses,  when  recapitulating 
their  various  deliverances,  terms  this  desert  a  desert  land  and 
waste  howling  wilderness  (Deut.  xxxii.  10.) — and  that  great 
and  terrible  wilderness,  wherein  werejiery  serpents,  scorpioivs,^ 
and  drought,  wha-e  there  was  no  water.  (Deut.  viii.  15.) 
The  prophet  Hosea  describes  it  as  a  land  of  great  drought 
(Hos.  xiii.  5.)  ;  but  the  most  minute  description  is  that  in 
Jer.  ii.  6. — a  land  of  deserts  and  of  pits,  a  land  of  drought, 
and  of  the  shadow  of  deaih,^  a  land  that  iw  man  passed  through, 
and  where  no  man  dwelt.  These  characteristics  of  the  desert, 
particularly  the  want  of  water,  will  account  for  the  repeated 
murmurings  of  the  Israelites  both  for  food  and  water  (espe- 
cially the  latter)  :'  and  the  extremity  of  their  sufferings  is 
thus  concisely,  but  most  emphatically  portrayed  by  the 
Psalmist,  (cvii.  5.)* 

Hungry  and  thirsty,  their  souls  fainted  in  them. 

In  this  our  temperate  climate,  surrounded  as  we  are  with 
perpetual  verdure  and  with  every  object  that  can  delight  the 
eye,  we  can  scarcely  conceive  the  horrors  encountered  by  the 
hapless  traveller  when  crossing  the  trackless  sands,  and  ex- 
posed to  all  the  ardours  of  a  vertical  sun.  The  most  recent 
as  well  as  the  most  graphic  description  of  a  desert  (which 
admirably  illustrates  the  passaws  above  cited)  is  that  given 
by  the  enterprising  traveller,  M.  Belzoni,  whose  researches 
have  contributed  so  much  to  the  elucidation  of  the  Sacred 
Writings.  Speaking  of  a  desert  crossed  by  him  in  Upper 
Egypt,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  which  is 
parallel  with  the  great  desert  traversed  by  the  Israelites  on 
the  eastern  side  of  that  sea,  he  says,  "It  is  difficult  to  form 
a  correct  idea  of  a  desert,  without  having  been  in  one  :  it  is 
an  endless  plain  of  sand  and  stones,  sometimes  intermixed 

<  Game's  Recollections  of  the  Kast,  p.  278. 

'^  Scorpions  are  numerous  in  the  desert  as  well  as  In  all  the  adjacent 
parts  of  Palestine  :  the  malignity  of  their  venom  is  in  proportion  to  their 
size  ;  atui  serpents  of  fiery  biles  (as  the  Arabic  version  renders  Deut.  viii. 
15.)  are  not  unfrequent.     Burckliardt's  Travels  in  Syria,  &c.  pp.  499,  5(X). 

'  This  expression  has  exercised  the  ingenuily  of  commentators,  whose 
opinions  are  reciled  hy  Mr.  Harmer  (Observations,  vol.  iv.  pp.  115,  116.); 
but  the  correctness  of  Ihe  prophetic  description  is  confirmed  by  the  exist 
ence  of  a  similar  desert  in  Persia.  It  is  a  tract  of  land  broken  into  rffep 
ravines,  destitute  of  water,  and  of  dreariness  icithout  example.  The 
Persians  have  given  to  it  the  extraordinary  but  emphatic  a|>pellalion  of 
Malek-cl-Muatderch,  or  the  Valley  of  the  Angel  uf  Death.  (Morier's  Second 
Journey,  p.  168)  At  four  hours'  distance  from  the  promontory  of  Carmcl, 
keeping  along  the  coast,  Mr.  Buckingham  entered  a  dreary  pa.ss  cut  out  of 
the  rock,  called  Waad-el-Ajal,  literally,  the  Valley  of  the  Shadow  of  Death. 
Here  were  the  appearances  of  a  gate  havmg  once  closed  it,  as  places  for 
hinges  were  still  visible  ;  and  while  the  centre  was  just  broad  enough  to 
admit  a  wheeled  carriage  or  loaded  camel,  there  were  on  each  side  raised 
causeways  hewn  out  of  the  rock',  as  if  for  benches  of  repose,  or  for  foot 
passengers.  (Buckingham's  Travels,  p.  12-2.)  It  was,  inall  ])robability,  from 
some  similar  jiass  that  the  son  of  Jesse  borrowed  the  figure  of  which  he 
makes  so  sublijne  a  use  in  the  twenty-third  psalm. 

■•  See  particularly  Num.  xx.  2— .5.  and  x.xi.  5. 
^--^4n  the  Christian  Observer  for  1810,  pp.  1—9.  there  is  a  new  and  elegant 
\in  of  the  hundred  and  seventh  psahn,  accompanied  with  critical  and 
latory  notes,  from  the  pen  of  Bishop  Jebb. 


with  mountains  of  all  sizes  and  heights,  without  roads  or 
shelter,  without  any  sort  of  produce  for  food.  The  few  scat- 
tered trees  and  shrubs  of  thorns,  that  only  appear  when  the 
rainy  season  leaves  some  moisture,  barely  serve  to  feed  wild 
animals,  and  a  few  birds.  Everything  is  left  to  nature;  the 
wandering  inhabitants  do  not  care  to  cultivate  even  these 
few  plants,  and  when  tliere  is  no  more  of  them  in  one  place 
they  go  to  another.  When  these  trees  become  old  and  lose 
their  vegetation,  the  sun,  which  constantly  beams  upon  them, 
burns  and  reduces  them  to  ashes.  I  have  seen  many  of  them 
entirely  burnt.  The  other  smaller  plants  have  no  sooner 
risen  out  of  the  earlli  than  they  are  dried  up,  and  all  take  the 
colour  of  straw,  with  the  exception  of  the  plant  harrack ,-  this 
falls  oif  before  it  is  dry. 

"  Generally  speaking,  in  a  desert,  there  are  few  springs  of 
water,  some  of  them  at  the  distance  of  f  ur,  six,  and  eight 
days'  journey  from  one  another,  and  not  all  of  sweet  water  : 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  generally  salt  or  bitter  ;  so  that  if  the 
thirsty  traveller  drinks  of  it,  it  increases  his  thirst,  and  he 
suffers  more  than  before.  But,  when  the  calamity  happens, 
that  the  next  well,  which  is  so  anxiously  souglit  for,  is  found 
dry,  the  misery  of  such  a  situation  cannot  be  Avell  described. 
The  camels,  which  afford  the  otily  means  of  escape,  are  so 
thirsty,  that  they  cannot  proceed  lo  another  well :  and,  if  the 
travellers  kill  them,  to  extract  the  little  liquid  which  remains 
in  their  stomachs,  they  theinselves  cannot  advance  any  far- 
ther. The  situation  must  be  dreadful,  and  admits  of  no  re- 
source. Many  perish  victims  of  the  most  horriltle  thirst.  It 
is  then  that  the  value  of  a  cup  of  water  is  really  felt.  He  that 
has  a  zenzahia  of  it  is  the  richest  of  all.  In  such  a  case  there 
is  no  distinction.  If  the  master  has  none,  the  servant  will 
not  give  it  to  him ;  for  very  few  are  the  instances  where  a 
man  will  voluntarily  lose  his  life  to  save  that  of  another,  par- 
ticularly in  a  caravan  in  the  desert,  where  people  are  stran- 
gers to  each  other.  JVhat  a  stuation  fur  a  man,  though  a  rick 
one,  perhaps  the  owner  of  all  the  caravans  !  He  is  dying  for  a 
cup  of  water — no  one  gives  it  to  him — he  offers  all  he  possesses 
— no  one  hears  him — they  are  all  dying — though  by  walking 
a  few  hours  farther  they  might  be  saved. — If  the  camels  are 
lying  down,  and  cannot  be  made  to  rise— «o  one  has  sti-engtk 
to  ivalk — only  he  that  has  a  glass  of  that  precious  liquor  lives 
to  walk  a  mile  farther,  and,  perhaps,  dies  too.  If  the  voyages 
on  seas  are  dangerous,  so  are  those  in  the  deserts.  At  sea, 
the  provisions  very  often  fail ;  in  the  desert  it  is  worse  :  at 
sea,  storms  are  met  with  ;  in  the  desert  there  cannot  be  a 
greater  storm  than  to  find  a  dry  well :  at  sea,  one  meets  with 
pirates — we  escape — we  surrender — we  die  ;  in  the  desert 
they  rob  the  traveller  of  all  his  property  and  water ;  they 
let  him  live  perhaps,  but  what  a  life  !  to  die  the  most  barba- 
rous and  agonizing  death.  In  short,  to  be  thirsty  in  a  desert^ 
without  water,  exposed  to  the  burning  sun  without  shelter,  and 
no  hopes  of  finding  either,  is  the  most  to-rible  situation  that  a 
man  can  be  placed  in,  and  one  of  the  greatest  sufferings  that  a 
human  being  can  sustain  :  the  eyes  grow  inflamed ,-  the  tongue 
and  lips  swell  ,■  a  hollow  sound  is  heard  in  the  ears,  ivhich  brings 
cm  deafness,  and  the  brains  appear  to  grow  thick  and  iriftamed  : 
all  these  feelings  arise  from  the  want  of  a  little  water.  In 
the  midst  of  all  this  misery  the  deceitful  morasses  appear  be- 
fore the  traveller  at  no  great  distance,  something  like  a  lake 
or  river  of  clear  fresh  water.^  If,*  perchance,  a  traveller  is 
not  undeceived,  he  hastens  his  pace  to  reach  it  sooner;  the 
more  he  advances  towards  it,  the  more  it  recedes  from  him, 
till  at  last  it  vanishes  entirely,  and  the  deluded  passenger 
often  asks,  where  is  the  water  he  saw  at  no  great  distance? 
He  can  scarcely  believe  that  he  was  so  deceived;  he  protests 
that  he  saw  the  waves  running  before  the  wind,  and  the  re- 
flection of  the  high  rocks  in  the  water. 

"  If  unfortunately  any  one  falls  sick  on  the  road,  there  is 
no  alternative ;  he  must  endure  the  fatigue  of  travelling  on  a 
camel,  which  is  troublesome  even  to  healthy  people,  or  he 
must.be  left  behind  on  the  sand,  without  any  assistance,  and 
remain  so  till  a  slow  death  come  to  relieve  liim.  What  hor- 
ror !     What  a  brutal  proceeding  to  an  unfortunate  sick  man ! 

«  Terrific  as  the  above  description  is,  it  is  coniirmed'in  most  of  its  detail?  by 
Quint.  Curlius;  who,  describing  the  passage  of  Ale-vander  the  Great  and  his 
army  across  the  deserts  of  Sogdiana,  thus  graphically  delineates  its  horrors : 
"Amidst  a  dearth  of  water,  despair  of  obtaining  any  kindled  thirst  before 
nature  excited  it.  Throughout  four  hundred  stadia  not  a  drop  of  moLsture 
springs.  As  soon  as  the  fire  of  summer  pervades  the  sands,  every  thing 
is  dried  up,  as  in  a  kiln  always  burning.  Slea7ning  from  the  fervid 
expanse,  which  appears  like  a  surface  of  sea,  a  clotidy  vapour  darkena 

the  day The  heat,  which  commences  at  dawn,  e.rhausts  Ihe  animal 

juices,  blisters  the  skin,  and  causes  intertial  iiifiammation.  The  soldiers 
sunk  under  depression  of  spirits  caused  by  bodily  debility."  Quint.  Cvirt. 
lib.  vii.  c.  5. 


Sect.  II.] 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE   HOLY  LAND. 


35 


No  one  remains  with  him,  not  even  his  old  and  faithful  ser- 
vant; no  f)ne  will  stay  and  die  with  him;  all  pity  his  fate, 
but  no  0M.°  will  l)C  his  comnaninn."' 

The  phenomenon,  here  dcscrihed,  is  produced  by  a  dimi- 
nutifin  of  tlu!  drnsity  of  the  lower  stratum  of  the  atmosphere, 
which  is  caused  hy  the  increase  of  heat,  arisinir  I'rom  that 
comniuiiicated  hy  the  rays  of  tlie  sun  to  the  sand  with  which 
this  stratum  is  in  ijn mediate  contact.  This  phenomenon  ex- 
isted in  the  great  desiTlof  .ludffia,  and  is  exjjressly  alluded  to 
by  the  suhliine  and  elegant  Isaiah,^  who,  when  predicting 
the  blessings  of  the  Messiah's  spiritual  kingdom,  says, — 
The  i;lo-ivinff  sund^  slutU  become  a  ftoul, 
Jinil  the  thirxtj/  soil  biibblinff  s[>riugs. 

And  it  is  not  improhahle  that  .leremiaii  riders  to  the  serah 
or  mira<j(!  when,  in  pouring  forth  his  complaint  to  G(jd  for 
mercies  del"err<!d,  he  says,  tVtll  thou  be  ullni^tllicr  utiio  me  «.s 
waters  lliat  he  iiid  sure y  (marginal  renderin<f  of  Jer.  xv.  18.) 
that  is,  ivfiicfi  have  no  realiii/,  as  the  Septuagint  translators  have 
rendered  it,  iSaf  -^iuSt;  cvit  i-xj^i  ttitiv, 

Friy;l>tful  as  the  horrors  of  the  deserts  are,  they  are  aug- 
mented beyond  description,  should  the  traveller  he  overtaken 
by  one  of  ihosi*  sand-slonns,  which  |)revail  during  the  dry 
seasons.  .Sometimes  tlie  hii>b  winds  raise  into  the  air  thick 
clouds  of  dust  and  sand,  which,  descending  like  a  shower  of 
rain,  most  grievously  annoj'  all  among  whom  they  fall,  and 

f)enetrate  tlie  eyes,  nostrils,  ears,  in  short,  every  part  of  the 
mman  frame  that  is  exposed  to  it.  At  other  times  the  sands 
are  drifted  into  such  hea})S,  so  that,  if  any  storm  of  wind 
should  arise,  the  track  is  lost,  and  whole  caravans  perish  in 
tJie  inhospitable  wil(h>rness.  ISuch  are  the  showers  of  powder 
and  du.st,  with  which  Moses  denounced  that  God  would 
scourge  the  disobedient  Israelites,  in  Dout.  xxviii.  24.'' 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE   FERTILITY  AND  PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

L  Fertility  of  the  Holy  Jjanit. — IL  Its  productions  ; — 1.  Vege- 
tables ; — 2.  Cattle; — 3.  Jilines. — IIL  Testimonies  of  ancient 
and  modern  authors  to  its  fertility  and  populousness. — IV. 
Calamities  with 'which  this  country  -was  visited; — 1.  The 
Plague; — 2.  Karth(/uakes  ; — 3.  JVhirhvinds  ; — 4.  The  de- 
vastations of  locusts  ; — 5.  Famine  ; — G.  The  Himoom,  or 
pestilential  blast  of  the  desert.^ 

I.  MosEs,  addressing  the  Israelites  a  short  time  before  his 
death,  characterized  the  country  whither  they  were  going  to 

«  Belzoni's  Narrative  of  his  Operations  and  Researches  in  Egypt,  &c. 
<4to.  London,  ISA)),  pp.  :j41 — M'i.  In  anotlier  part  of  his  volume,  Mr.  B. 
more  particularly  describes  the  mirage  (for  such  is  the  appellation  by 
which  this  plieiiouiCMon  is  now  commonly  known),  in  the  following  terni.s  : 
— "It  generally  appears  like  a  still  lake,  so  unmoved  by  the  wind,  thai 
every  thing  above  is  lo  be  seen  most  distinctly  rellected  by  it.  If  the  wind 
agitate  any  of  the  plants  that  rise  above  the  hoiizon  of  the  mii'age, 
the  motion  is  seen  perfectly  at  a  great  distance.  If  the  traveller  stand 
elevated  much  above  the  mirage,  the  apparent  water  seems  less  united 
and  less  deep  ;  for,  as  the  eyes  look  down  upon  it,  there  is  not  thick- 
ness enough  in  the  vapour  on  the  surface  of  ibe  ground  to  conceal 
th'!  earth  from  the  sight  ;  hut,  if  the  traveller  be  on  a  level  with  the  hori- 
zon of  the  mirage,  he  cannot  sec  through  it,  so  that  it  appears  to  him  clear 
water.  Hy  pulling  my  head  first  to  the  ground,  and  then  mountinga  camel, 
the  height  of  which  from  the  ground  might  have  been  about  ten  feet  at 
the  most,  I  found  a  great  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  mirage.  On 
approaching  it,  it  becomes  thinner,  and  appears  as  if  agilaled  by  the  wind, 
like  a  field  of  ripe  corn.  It  gradually  vanishes,  as  the  traveller  ajiproaches, 
and  at  last  entirely  di.sapj)ears,  when  he  is  on  the  .spol."  (p.  lOti.)  Ur. 
Clarke  has  described  the  mirage,  as  ii  appeared  to  him  on  his  journey  to 
Rosetta,  in  1801.  (Travels,  vol.  iii.  p.  371.)  Similar  descriptions,  bul  none 
so  full  as  that  of  Mr.  Belzoni,  may  be  seen  in  Sir  J.  Malcolm's  Hist,  of 
Persia,  vol.  ii.  p.  512.  ;  in  Elphinstone's  Account  of  the  Kingdom  of  Caiibul 
(p.  16.  4to.  London,  1SI5);  Kinneir's  Geogr-iphical  Memoir  of  the  Persian 
Empire  (p.  '22.3.  4to.  London,  ISl.'J)  ;  Lieut.  Pollinger's  Travels  in  Beloochis- 
tan  and  Siiide  (p.  13.").  -llo.  London,  ISlt'O  ;  in  IJr.  Uella  Cella's  Narralive  of 
the  Bey  of  Tripoli's  E.vpedilion,  in  1>-I7,  lo  the  Western  Frontier  of  Egypt, 
(p.  53.  "l.onilmi,  18iJ.  8vo,);  in  Mr.  Madden's  Travels  in  Turkey,  &cT  vol. 
ii.  pp.  199, '200.  London,  1S29 ;  and  Mr.  Uae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy 
Land,  Egypt,  ic.  vol.  i.  p.  G7.  Ur.  Henderson  has  described  the  Serab  as 
it  appeared  on  his  journey  towards  Kherson  in  the  Crimea,  Biblical  Re- 
searches, pp.  278,  279.    (I>indon,  18-2t;.  Svo.) 

»  Isa.  XXXV.  7.    Bp.  Lowth's  translation. 

»  The  phenomenon  referred  to  by  Isaiah,  is  termed  by  the  Arabs,  as 
well  as  by  the  Hebrews  aiC  (Senas) ;  and  to  this  day  the  Persians  and 
Arabs  uiake  use  of  it,  by  an  elegant  metaphor,  to  express  disappointed 
hope. 

«  Fragments  supplementary  to  Calmet's  Dictionary,  No.  172.  In  the 
LondonM'ei'kly  Review,  No.  1.  (.lune  9ili,  1827),  there  is  an  animated  and 
graphic  ilelineaiion  of  one  of  these  terrific  sandstorms  in  the  desert,  ex- 
tracted from  tbe  manuscript  Journal  of  the  intelligent  traveller  Mr.  Buck- 
ingham, who  was  exposed  to  its  fury  for  several  hours,  and,  with  his 
companions,  was  providentially  presen-ed  from  destruction. 

»  Besides  the  aulhorities  cited  in  the  course  of  this  section,  the  follow- 
ing works  have  been  consulted  for  it ;  viz.  Rclandi  Palfeslina,  torn.  i.  pp. 
373—391. ;  Schulzii  Archsologia  Hebraica,  pp.  9—16. ;  Pareau,  Antiquitas 


reside,  as  a  good  land — a  land  of  brooks  of  water,  of  foun- 
tains and  depths  that  spring  out  of  valleys  and:  hills.  How 
justly  this  corresponded  with  the  actual  state  of  the  country, 
the  preceding  jjages  have  shown  : — Moses  further  added,  that 
it  was  u  lima  of  wheat  and  barley,  and  vines  and  Jig  trees,  and 
pomegranates,  a  land  of  oil,  (dive,  and.  honey,  whose  stones  ivere 
iron,  and  out  (f  idIuisc  hills  they  might  dig  Irrass.  The  enemies 
of  Revelation,  forming  their  notions  of  its  former  exuberant 
fertility  from  the  present  state  of  the  Holy  Land  under  the 
Turkish  rrovernment,  have  insinuated  that  it  never  cr)iil(l  have 
l)(cn  the  lovely  and  fertile  spot  which  the  Sacred  Writings 
allinu  it  to  have  been  :  but  a  concise  statement  of  its  produc- 
tions, as  we  may  collect  them  from  the  Scrijjttires,  togctiier 
with  the  attestations  of  ancient  profane  writers,  as  well  as  of 
modern  voyajrers  and  travellers,  will  all  concur  to  establish 
the  unimpeachable  veracity  of  the  inspired  writers. 

II.  The  Holy  Land  is  said  to  have  exceeded  even  the  very 
celebrated  land  of  Ef^ypt,  in  the  abundance  of  its  Produc- 
tions. To  this  wonderful  fertility  many  circumstances  are 
supposed  to  have  contributed;  such  as  the  generally  excel- 
lent temperature  of  the  air,  which  was  never  subject  to  ex- 
cessive heats  (except  in  the  plain  of  .Tericho^  or  colds;  the 
rejrularity  of  its  seasons,  especially  of  the  tormer  and  the 
latter  raiu:  and  the  natural  richness  of  the  soil,  which  is  a 
fine  mould  without  stones,  and  almost  without  a  pebble. 

1.  A  plenty  of  Wheat  was  promised  to  the  Israelites  on 
their  obedience  (Psal.  Ixxxi.  1(5.  andcxlvii.  11.);  and  so  abun- 
dant was  the  produce  of  the  wheat  and  barley,  that  sixty  and 
a  hundred  folct Tcwaxdcd  the  toil  of  the  cultivator.  (Gen.  xxvi. 
12.  and  Matt.  xiii.  8.)  This  was  sometimes  stored  in  sub- 
terraneous granaries,  which  in  1  Chron.  xxvii.  25.  are  termed 
storehouses  in  the  fields.  Such  {jranaries  are  still  in  use 
anion nr  the  Moors.*'  The  wheat  of  Minnith  and  Pannag  was 
particularly  celebrated,  and  so  plentiful  that  it  was  exported 
to  Tyre.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  17.)  In  the  treaty  concluded  between 
Solomon  and  Hiram  king  of  Tyre,  for  the  building  of  the 
temple,  the  Hebrew  monarch  was  to  supply  the  latter  annu- 
ally with  twenty  thousand  measures  of  iv/ieat  for  food  to  his 
household  (1  Kings  v.  11.),  and  the  sairie  quantity  for  the  hew- 
ers that  cut  timber  (2  Chron.  ii.  10.),  together  with  an  equal 
number  of  measures  of  barley.  More  than  a  thousand  years 
after  this  time,  the  coasts  ot  T3Te  and  Sidon  were  supplied 
with  corn  from  Palestine.  (Acts  xii.  20.) 

This  country  also  abounded  with  Honey,  not  only  that  made 
by  the  domesticated  or  hived  bees,  but  also  with  honey  made 
by  bees  in  a  wild  state,  and  deposited  on  rocks  and  in  the  hol- 
lows of  trees  (1  Sam.  xiv.  25.  Deut.  xxxii.  13.  Psal.  Ixxxi. 
16.),  which  formed  a  part  of  the  food  of  John  the  Baptist  in 
the  wilderness.  (Matt.  iii.  4.")  The  Mount  of  Olives  and 
other  districts  in  Judaea  and  Galilee  produced  the  finest  Olives  ; 
and  the  red  wines  of  Lebanon  were  particularly  celebrated  for 
their  fragrance.  (Hos.  xiv.  7.)  The  wines  of  Ilelbon  fur- 
nished a  profitable  article  of  export  to  Damascus  (Ezek.  xxvii. 
18.) :  and  modern  travellers  attest  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
clusters  of  Grapes  still  produced  in  Palestine,  which  will 
account  for  the  spies  carrying  the  cluster  of  grapes  cut  down 
in  the  valley  of  Eshcol  (Num.  xiii.  23.)  between  two  upon 
a  staft'. 

Various  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees  imparted  beauty  and  fra- 
grance to  this  highly-favoured  land.  Among  the  nerbs  and 
shrubs,  the  aloe  (Psal.  xiv.  8.  Prov.  vii.  17.  Sol.  Song  iv. 
14.),  the  hyssop"  (1  Kings  iv.  33.  INlatt.  xxvii.  48.  Mark  xv. 
30.),  the  rose,  especially  the  rose  of  Sharon  (Sol.  Song  ii.  1.), 
the  lily  (Ibid.  ii.  16.  iv.  5.  v.  13.  Matt.  vi.  28.),8  the  spike- 

Hebraica,  pp.  63— 60. ;  Jahn  et  Ackermann,  Archaeologia  Biblica,  §§  16.  22, 
23. ;  HasseUiuist's  Travels  ;  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  13S— 153. ;  and 
Volney's  Travels  in  Ejlypt  and  Syria,  vol.  i.  pp.  290 — 297.  The  testimony 
of  V'olney  is  the  more  valuable,  as  he  was  through  life  an  inveterate  enemy 
of  the  Bible,  and  directed  his  great  talents  to  the  fruiiless  task  of  destroy- 
ing its  credibility.  To  these  are  to  be  added  the  "Economical  Calendar  of 
Palestine,"  translated  from  the  Latin  of  John  Gottlieb  Buhle  by  the  editor 
of  Calmet's  Dictionary,  and  in.seited  in  the  Fragnients  supplemenlai-y  to 
that  work.  See  also  an  elaborate  and  pleasing  Disquisiiion  on  the  Agricul- 
ture of  the  Israelites,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Plumptre,  in  Nos.  I.  U.  and  IV.  of  the 
Investigator. 

«  ('henier,  Recherches  Historiques  surles  Maures,  torn.  iii.  p.  219. 

■>  The  hyssop  is  a  low  shrubby  plant,  growing  in  the  east,  and  also  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  the  stem  of  which  usually  rises  to  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in 
height.  In  Palestine,  its  altitude  sometimes  exceeds  two  feet.  This  plant 
was  much  used  in  the  ancient  Hebrew  ritual  for  ceremonial  sprinklings, 
ic.  (Hcb.  ix.  16.  compared  wiih  Exod.  xii.  22.  and  Num.  xix.  18.)  The 
sponge  filled  with  vinrgar,  which  was  presented  to  Jesus  Christ  upon  the 
cross  (John  xix.  29.),  was  most  probably  fastened  around  a  rod  of  hyssop, 
two  or  more  feet  in  length,  which  was  sulficiently  long  to  enable  a  person 
to  reach  the  mouth  of  a  man  upon  tlie  cross.    Robinson's  Lexicon,  voce 

»  In  this  passage  Jesus  Christ  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  referred  to 
the  white  lily  or  to  the  tulip  ;  but  neither  of  these  grows  wild  in  Palestine. 
It  is  natural  to  presume  that,  according  to  his  usual  custom,  he  called  the 


36 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  TL 


nard  (Mark  xiv.  3.  5.  SoL  Song  i.  12.)  the  carob  tree  {mpxTtov, 
Luke  XV.  6.),'  the  spina  Chrisii  or  thorn  of  ('hrist,^  the  man- 
srakefaspeciesof  melon),  (Gen.  XXX.  IJ.  Sol.  Song  vii.  13.), 
the  myrtle  (Isa.  xli.  lf>.  and  Iv.  13.  Zedi.  i.  8.),'  and  the 
mustard  tree  (.Matt.  xiii.  31,  32.),  may  be  distinctly  no- 
ticed.^ 

Although  modern  travellers  do  not  mention  the  existence 
of  any  woods  or  forests,  or,  indeed,  any  considerable  number 
of  trees,  yet  it  appears  that,  anciently,  the  Holy  Land  was 
well  covered  with  wood.  We  read  o"f  several  Forests  and 
Woods  in  the  Sacred  Writings,  particularly, — 

(1.)  The  Forest  of  Cedars  on  Mount  Lebanon.  See 
llvingsvii.  2.  2  Kingsxix.  23.  Hos.  xiv.  5,  0.  Tliese  noble 
and  beautiful  trees,  which  are  unrivalled  in  orandeur  and 
beauty  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  have  furnished  the  inspired 
writers  with  numerous  exquisite  similitudes.  "  To  break  the 
cedars,  and  shake  the  enormous  mass  in  which  they  grow, 
occur  among  the  figures  which  David  selects  to  express  the 
power  and  majesty  of  .Tehovah  (Psal.  xxix.  4,  5.),  to  the  full 
understanding  of  which  their  countless  number  at  one  period, 
and  vast  bulk,  ought  to  be  kept  in  view.  By  the  planting  of 
a  cedar  the  prophet  (Ezek.  xvii.  22.  24.)  has  described  the 
kingdom  of  Christ :  the  growth  and  extent  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament church,  and  the  prodio-ious  increase  of  her  converts, 
are  also  beautifully  set  lorth  by  the  Psalmist  under  this  em- 
blem. (Psal.  xcii.  12.)     Of  this  particular  wood,  we  find 

that  Solomon  made  himself  a  chariot.     (Song  iv.  11.) 

The  prosperity  of  the  righteous  is  compared  to  the  cedar ;  and 
it  is  further  employed  to  denounce  the  judgments  of  God  on 
men  of  proud  and  high  minds.  (Psal.  xxix.  4.)  The  conver- 
sion of  the  Gentiles  also  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God  is  ex- 
pressed in  terms  highly  beautiful  (Isa.  xxix.  17.  xxxii.  15.), 
as  also  the  prosperity  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  (Isa.  ii.  2.) 
Those  who  encompassed  the  priests  at  the  altar  are  also  com- 
pared to  them,  as  also  the  glory  of  wisdom.  (Ecclus.  xxiv. 
15.)  It  may  be  further  added,  that  cedar  trees,  uniting  so 
many  qualities  well  adapted  for  building,  afforded  ample  ma- 
terials for  the  structure  of  the  temple,  and  were  sent  by  king- 
Hiram  to  Solomon  for  that  purpose.  (1  Kings  v.  10 — 15.)"^ 
Every  thing  about  the  cedar  tree  has  a  strong  balsamic  odour : 
this  probably  is  the  smell  of  Lebanon,  mentioned  in  Sol.  Song 
iv.  11.  and  Hos.  iv.  16. 

(2.)  The  Forest  of  Oaks  on  the  mountains  of  Bashan 
(Zech.  xi.  2.)  :  we  may  judge  of  the  high  estimation  in  which 
these  oaks  were  held,  from  an  incidental  expression  of  the 
prophet  Ezekiel;  who,  speaking  of  the  power  and  wealth  of 
ancient  Tyre,  says, — Of  the  oaks  (f  Bashan  they  have  made 
thine  oars.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  6.)  Groves  of  oaks,  it  is  well  known, 
were  the  scenes  of  idolatrj^  in  those  remote  times,  on  account 
of  the  grateful  shelter  which  they  afforded  to  the  deluded 
worshippers.  The  prophet  Ezekiel  expressly  alludes  to  this 
practice.  (Ezek.  vi.  13.) 

(3.)  The  Forest  or  Wood  of  Ephraim,  which  the  children 
of  Ephraim  began  to  cut  down  (Josh.  xvii.  15.),  was  still 
standing  in  the  time  of  David :  here  Absalom  was  suspended 
from  an  oak,  and  was  slain.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  6.  8.  17.)  The 
wood  in  the  vicinity  of  Bethel  mentioned  in  2  Kings  ii.  24. 
appears  to  have  been  part  of  the  wood  of  Ephraim. 

(4.)  The  spacious  Forest  of  Hartth  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 

aftenlion  of  his  hearers  to  some  object  at  hand;  and  as  the  fields  of  the 
Levant  are  overrun  with  the  amaryllis  lulea,  wiiose  golden  liliaceous 
flowers,  in  autumn,  afford  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  gorgeous  objects  in 
nature,  the  expression  of  Solomun  in  all  his  glory  not  being  arrayed  like 
one  of  these,  is  peculiarly  appropriate.  Should  this  conjecture  prove  cor- 
rect, we  learn  a  chronological  fact,  respecting  the  season  of  the  year  when 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  was  delivered. 

»  "Tlie  modern  Greeks  still  call  this  fruit  by  the  same  name,  nspxria,  and 
sell  them  in  the  niarliets.  Tliey  are  given  to  swine,  biU  hot  rejected  as  food 
even  by  man."    (JIarlley's  Researches  in  Greece,  p.  211.) 

»  This  shrub  is  supposed,  and  not  without  reason,  to  be  the  plant  which 
supplied  the  crown  of  thorns,  with  which  moclcery  decked  the  Saviour's 
brow  before  his  crucifixion.  For  tliis  purpose  it  must  have  been  very  fit; 
as  its  thorns,  which  are  an  inch  in  length,  are  very  strong  and  sharp.  It  is 
not  unlike  a  willow  in  growth  and  Ilexibility;  and  as  the  leaves  greatly  re- 
semble those  of  the  ivy,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  enemies  of  Christ 
chose  it,  on  account  of  its  similarity  to  the  plant  with  which  it  was  usual  to 
crown  emperors  and  generals  :  so  that  calumny,  insult,  and  derision  might 
be  meditated  in  tlie  very  act  of  punislnnent.  Hasselquist's  Voyages  in  the 
Levant,  p.  2SS.    Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  83. 

=  From  the  pa-^siige  above  referred  to,  it  should  seem  that  the  myrtle  tree 
attained  a  considerable  size.  In  the  Morea,  an  intelligent  traveller  (Mr. 
Emerson)  sta'es  that  he  travelled'for  hours  through  an  uncultivated  track, 
while  the  groves  of  myrtle  formed  an  almost  continuous  arbour  overhead, 
"coveted  here  and  there  with  its  delicate  white  (lowers,  and  exhaling  at 
every  motion  the  most  delicious  perfume,  whilst  its  dark  polished  leaves 
combined  coolness  with  beauty."     Letters  from  the  iEgean,  vol.  i.  p.  113. 

*  For  copious  accoutits  of  these  and  other  vegetables,  as  well  as  of  the  anir 
mal  and  mineral  productions  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  (many  of  which 
it  falls  not  within  the  limits  of  this  work  to  notice),  the  reader  is  referred 
to  Dr.  Harris's  Natural  History  of  the  Bible. 

»  ilae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  105.  3d  edition. 


to  which  David  withdrew  to  avoid  the  fury  of  Saul.  (1  Sam, 
xxii.  5.)     To  these,  perhaps,  may  be  added, — 

(5.)  The  Thickets  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  in  Zech. 
xi.  3.  termed  the  pride  of  J<f)dun,  which  anciently  were  the 
coverts  of  wild  beasts,  and  are  to  this  day  composed  of  olean- 
ders, tamarisks,  and  other  shrubs. 

Among  the  trees,  which  adorn  Palestine,  the  Palm  tree 
claims  the  precedence  of  notice,  on  account  of  its  singular 
utility ;  it  affords  a  grateful  shelter,  an  agreeable  fruit,  and  a 
most  delicious  wine's  Xhe  finest  palm  trees  grew  in  the 
vicinity  of  Jordan  and  Engeddi;  and  they  still  flourish  in  the 
plain  of  Jericho,  which  city  was  anciently  termed  by  way  of 
distinction  the  City  of  Palm  Trees.  In  1818,  however,  its 
plantation  of  palm  trees  were  reduced  to  about  one  dozen  ;^ 
and,  in  1825,  the  "  City  of  Palms"  could  not  boast  of  one  ol 
these  beautiful  trees  around  it.s  The  palm  trees  of  Judaa 
are  celebrated  by  Strabo,^  and  by  Josephus,'"  who  has  parti- 
cularly noticed  the  palm  trees  of  Jericho.  The  palm  tree 
was  the  common  symbol  of  Palestine,  many  coins  of  Vespa- 
sian and  other  emperors"  being  extant,  in  which  Judaea  is 
personified  by  a  disconsolate  woman  sitting  under  a  palm 
tree.  A  vignette  of  one  of  these  is  given  in  p.  91.  supra. 
As  the  momentary  prosperity  of  the  wicked  is  frequently 
compared  to  the  transient  verdure  of  grass ;  so  the  durable 
felicity  of  the  righteous  is  in  Psalm  xcii.  12.  likened  to  the 
lasting  strength  and  beauty  of  the  palm  tree.  "  But  chiefly 
is  the  comparison  applicable  to  that  Just  One,  the  King  of 
Righteousness  and  Tree  of  Life ;  eminent  and  upright ;  ever 
verdant  and  fragrant ;  under  the  greatest  pressure  and  weight 
of  sufferings,  still  ascending  towards  Heaven ;  affording  both 
fruit  and  protection;  incorruptible  and  immortal. "'^ 

Besides  the  palm  trees,  Jericho  was  celebrated  for  its  fra- 
grant balsam,  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  under  the  name  of 
the  Balm  of  Gilead.  (Jer.  viii.  22.  xlvi.  11.  Ii.  8.)  This 
balsam,  which  exudes  from  the  opobalsamum  or  balsam 
tree,  was  mentioned  by  Strabo;'-''  and  two  plantations  of  it 
existed  during  the  last  war  of  the  Jews  with  the  Romans,  for 
which  both  parties  fought  desperately, — the  Jews,  that  they 
might  destroy  them  ; — the  Romans,  that  they  might  prevent 
them  from  destruction.  Since  the  country  has  been  under  the 
government  of  tlie  Turks,  the  balm  of  Gilead  has  ceased  to 
be  cultivated  in  Palestine,  though  it  is  found  in  different  parts 
of  Arabia  and  Egypt.  At  present,  it  is  collected  chiefly  in 
Arabia,  betvv'een  Mecca  and  Medina,  and  is  therefore  some- 
times called  the  balm  of  Mecca.  Its  odour  is  exquisitely  fra- 
grant and  pungent.  It  is  very  costly,  and  is  still  in  the  highest 
esteem  among  the  Turks  and  other  oriental  nations,  both  as  a 
cosmetic  and  as  a  medicine  for  the  cure  of  external  wounds. 

Olive  trees  are  now,  as  anciently,  abundant  and  fruitful ; 
and  the  culture  of  them  continues  to  form  a  particular  object 
of  attention.  The  expression — Oil  out  of  the  flinty  rock 
(Deut.  xxxii.  13.)  plainly  denotes,  that  it  was  not  in  rich 
land  only  that  this  most  valuable  tree  should  grow ;  but  that 
even  the  tops  of  the  rocks  would  afford  sufficient  support  for 
olive  trees,  from  which  they  should  extract  abundance  of  oil. 
Accordingly  we  are  informed  that,  although  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Jerusalem  is  rugged  and  uncompromising,  j'eteven 
there  the  olive  and  vine  might  flourish  uncler  proper  culture.''' 
Various  similitudes  are  derived  from  the  olive  tree  by  the 
inspired  writers  ;  as  well  as  from4he  vine,  which  affords  a 
triple  produce  in  each  year. 

PojiEGRANATE  and  AppLE  TREES  wcre  likewise  cultivated 
to  a  considerable  extent  (Num.  xiii.  23.  Deut.  viii.  8.  Joel, 
i.  12.),  as  also  was  the  almond  tree,  whose  fruit  is  ripe  and 
fit  to  gather  about  the  middle  of  April.  The  citron  tree  was 
in  great  request  for  its  fragrant  and  refreshing  shade,  as  well 
as  for  its  delicious  fruit.  (Sol.  Song  ii.  3.  where  it  is  mis- 
translated apple  tree.) 

Fig  trees  are  very  common  in  Palestine,  and  flourish  in  a 
dry  and  sandy  soil :  although  in  our  climate  they  are  little 
more  than  shrubs,  yet  in  the  East  they  attain  a  considerable 
height,  and  some  of  them  are  capable  of  affording  shelter  to 
a  large  number  of  horsemen.  The  shade  of  the  fig  tree  is  very 
pleasant ;  and  to  sii  under  it  is  an  emblem  of  security  and 
peace.  (Mic.  iv.  4.)  Fiff  trees  begin  to  sprout  at  tiie  time 
of  the  vernal  equinox.  (Luke  xxi.  29,  30.   Matt.  xxiv.  32.) 

e  On  the  various  products  of  the  palm  tree,  see  Kcempfer's  Amcenitatea 
Exotica',  p.  CGo. 
1  Dr.  Macmichael's  Travels  from  Moscow  to  Constantinople,  p.  205.  fwte. 
8  Carne's  Letters,  p.  323. 
3  Lib.  xvi.vol.  ii.  p.  1085.  O.xon.  1807.  folio. 
.  "0  De  Bell.  .lud.  lib.  i.  c^  6.  §  6.  lib.  iv.  c.  8.  §  3. 
>■  Dr.  Shaw  has  enumerated  them.    Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  151. 
12  Up.  Home's  Conrmentary  on  Psal.  xcii.  12.    (Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  145.) 
"  Lib.  xvi.  vol.  ii.  p.  1085. 
»*  Jowett's  Kesearches  in  Syria,  p.  305.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Deut.  xxxii.  13. 


Skct.  II.] 

The  fruit  makes  its  appearance  before  the  leaves  and  flowers, 
and  the  foli.itre  expands  about  the  end  of  Mareb.  Tlie  fig 
trees  of  Palestine  are  of  three  kinds  : — 1.  Tiie  (lii/imelj/  fu;, 
which  puts  fortli  at  the  vernal  equinox,  and  before  it  is  ripe 
is  called  the  i,'/*;/;/  fijr,  but  when  it  is  ripe  the  ui/linitli/  t\<r. 
(8ol.  Soncr  ii.  1."?.  Jrr.  xxiv.  2.  llos.  ix. .'}.)  it  comes  to  ma- 
turity towards  the  end  of  June  (Malt.  xxi.  11).  Mark  xi.  13.), 
and  in  ilavoiir  surpasses  the  other  kinds. — 2.  The  Sumutcr  or 
dry  fig:  it  api)ears  about  the  middle  of  June,  and  is  ripe  in 
August. — 3.  The  IVin/er  fig,  which  germiiiaU'S  in  August, 
ana  does  not  ripen  until  about  the  end  of  November :  it  is 
longer  and  of  a  browner  colour  tiian  the  others.  All  li^s, 
when  ripe,  but  esiiccially  the  untimely,  fall  spontaneously. 
(Nalium  iii.  I'i.)  The  early  figs  are  eaten,  but  some  aredried 
in  the  sun,  and  preserved  in  masses,  which  are  called  ca/ctfi  of 
Ji^s  in  I  Sam.  xxv.  18.  xxx.  12.  1  Clhron.  xii.  40.  it  is  well 
known  that  the  fruit  of  these;  prolific  trees  always  precedes 
the  leaves  :  consequently,  when  Jesus  ('brist  saw  one  of  them 
in  full  vigour  /larinu;  Ituvcs  (Mark  xi.  13.),  he  might,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  course  of  nature,  very  justly  loukji/rfnii/, 
and  /lapli/  find  some  boccores  or  early  tigs,  if  not  some  winter 
figs  likewise  upon  it.  'I'he  parable  in  Luke  xiii.  (j — 9.  is 
founded  on  the  oriental  mode  of  gardening  :  and  the  method 
of  improving  the  palm  (whose  bareness  may  be  remedied  in 
the  way  there  mentioned)  is  transferred  to  the  fig  trei\ 

The  Sycamore  thee  flourished  in  Palestine  as  well  as  in 
Egypt:  its  leaves  are  like  those  of  the  mulberry  tree;  and  its 
sweetish,  watery,  but  somewhat  aromatic  and  not  disagree- 
able fruit,  comes  to  maturity  several  times  in  the  year,  with- 
out observing  any  certain  seasons.  It  resembles  that  of  the 
fig  tree  in  appearance,  but  difiers  from  it  in  having  no  seeds 
within.  This  tree  does  not  grow  from  the  seed,  but  is  pro- 
pagated by  the  branch  :  it  produces  abundance  of  fruit,  which 
grows  in  a  peculiar  manner, — not  on  the  extremities  of  the 
oughs  as  in  other  trees,  but  near  the  trunk.  It  is  a  large 
tree,  attaining  a  considerable  height,  which  circumstance  will 
account  for  Zaccha;us's  climbing  up  into  a  sycamore  tree  in 
order  that  he  might  see  Jesus.  Its  timber  appears  to  have 
been  anciently  used  in  building.  ^Isa.  ix.  10.)  It  affords  a 
very  grateful  shade.  From  its  fruit  the  Arabs  extract  an  oil, 
which  they  sell  to  travellers,  who  keep  it  among  their  other 
holy  things,  and  pretend  that  it  possesses  a  singular  virtue  in 
curing  wounds,  for  which  reason  they  call  it  the  oil  of  Zac- 
chanis,  attributing  its  virtue  to  the  stay  which  Zacchaeus 
made  upon  the  tree  !    (Luke  xix.  1.) 

The  PuicKLV  PEAR,  which  most  probably  is  the  tliorns 
mentioned  in  Hos.  ii.  G.,  is  a  cumbrous  shrub,  which  grows 
to  a  prodigious  size,  and  affords  one  of  the  firmest  and  most 
secure  fences  imaginable.' 

2.  Hut  the  Holy  Land  was  eminently  distinguished  for  its 
abundance  of  Cattle,  to  the  management  and  rearing  of 
which  the  inhabitants  chiefly  applied  themselves.^  The  hilly 
country  not  only  afforded  them  variety  and  plenty  of  pasture, 
-but  also  of  water,  which,  descending  thence,  carried  fertility 
into  the  low  lands  and  valleys.  The  most  celebrated  pasture 
grounds  were  on  each  side  of  the  river  Jordan,  besides  those 
of  Sharon,  the  plains  of  Lydda,  Jamnia,  and  some  others  of 
less  note.  The  breed  of  cattle  reared  in  Baslian,  and  on  the 
mountains  of  Ciilead  and  Carmel,  were  remarkable  for  their 
size,  their  strength,  and  fatness,  to  which  there  are  frequent 
allusions  in  the  Scriptures.  The  cattle  of  the  Israelites  com- 
prised every  sort  of  animal  that  afforded  either  food  or  cloth- 
ing, or  was  applicable  to  other  useful  jiurposes,  as  sheep, 
oxen,  goats,  camels,  and  asses.  The  last-mentioned  animals 
were  of  a  more  handsome  form  than  are  seen  in  our  colder 
climate  ;  hence  they  were  chiefly  used  in  travelling  in  this 
hilly  country,  even  by  persons  of  rank.  Horses  do  not  appear 
to  nave  been  in  use,  until  after  the  establishment  of  the 
monarchy.  The  various  rivers,  especially  the  Jordan,  the 
Lake  of  Tiberias,  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  afforded  great 
variety  and  plenty  of  Fish,  vast  quantities  of  which  were 

«  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  Ihe  Holy  Lanil,  &.C.  vol.  i.  p.  177.  oil  edition.  For 
a  particular  account  of  the  vegetable  productions  of  the  Holy  Land,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  llierD-Uolanicon  of  Celsius  (lipsal*,  17 15 — 1747,  in 
two  pans  or  vols.  Svo.) ;  and  for  its  zoology  to  Ihe  Ulerozoicon  of  Bochait 
(folio,  Lug.  Bat.  1714,  or  in  three  vols.  4to.  Lipsia;,  1703,  and  foUowini; 
years.)  Tlie  reader  who  may  not  be  able  to  consult  these  elaborate  xsorks, 
will  fiiul  much  useful  information  concerning  the  plants  and  animals  of  the 
Holy  Land,Jn  Professor  Paxton's  Illuslraiions  of  Scripture,  part  ii.  vol.  i. 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


37 


fi! 


297 — otff.  vol.  ii.  pp.  1 — 359. ;  and  particularly  in  Ur.  Uarris's  Natural 

istory  of  the  Bible,  already  referred  to. 

»  "The  whole  of  the  scenery  (says  Dr.  Richardson),  since  we  entered 
Palestine,  amply  confirms  the  language  of  Scripture,  that  this  is  aland  flow- 
ing with  milk  and  honey, — a  land  for  Hocks,  and  herds,  and  bees,  and  fitted 
for  the  residence  of  men,  whosie  trade,  Uke  the  patriarchs  of  old,  was  in 
cattle."    Travels  along  the  Mediterranean,  &c.  voL  ii.  p.  374. 


carried  to  Jerusalem,  and,  according  to  Jerome,  one  of  the 
gates  of  that  city  was  freni  this  circumstance  denominated 
tlie  Fi.-/i-^filr,  Tlie  Dead  Sea  furnished  i;bund:  nee  of  salt  fer 
curing  theii  fish,  f<;r  which  purpose  it  was  said  to  be  superior 
to  everv  other  kind  of  salt. 

3.  Ahhouoh  w(!  have  no  evidence  that  the  Jews  wrought 
any  Mines  of  iron  or  copper;  yet  the  researches  of  modern 
travellers  have  ascertained  that  the  mountains  of  Palestine 
contain  iron,  particularly  those  whose  summits  and  sides  are 
occupied  by  the  industrious  Druses.  A  vein  of  coal  has  also 
been  discovered  :  but  there  is  no  one  to  sink  a  mine.  Peport 
says,  that  there  was  anciently  a  co|)per-mine  at  Ale|)po, 
which  (M.  Volney  is  of  opini(jn)  must  nave  long  since  been 
abandoned.  These  facts,  however,  substantiate  the  accuracy 
of  Moses  in  his  description  of  the  Promised  Land, — as  a 
land  tv/io.se  clones  are  iron,  and  out  of  wlione  moun/ains  lliou 
iiiitycst  dlis;  copper  (l)eut.  viii.  f).),  as  tlu;  Hebrew  ought  to  be 
rendered,  there  being  no  such  thing  in  nature  as  a  />/«*« mine. 

HI.  In  |)erusing  the  Serii)ture  accounts  of  this  highly- 
favoured  ccnintry  it  ought  to  oe  considered  that  it  was  then 
inhabited  by  an  industrious  people,  who  knew  how  to  improve 
every  inch  of  their  land,  and  ny  their  good  husbandry  had 
made  even  the  most  desert  and  barren  places  to  yield  some 
kind  of  production  ;  so  that  the  very  rocks,  w  hich  now  appear 
quite  naked,  then  yielded  either  corn,  pulse,  or  pasture. 
Every  man  had  his  own  land  to  improve  ;  and  w'hen,  in  ad- 
dition to  these  facts,  it  is  considered  that  a  warm  country  will 
support  more  peo])lc  than  a  cold  one,  the  people  in  southern 
climates  being  satisfied  with  less  food  than  in  northern;  and 
that  the  dominions  of  David  and  Solomon  comprised  a  greater 
extent  of  territory  than  many  apprehend ;  we  can  be  at  no 
loss  to  account  for  the  vast  multitude  of  inhabitants,'  which 
the  Scriptures  assert  that  Palestine  anciently  supported,  espe- 
cially when  their  statements  of  its  fertility  and  |)opulation  are 
confirmed  by  the  testimonies  of  profane  historians. 

Thus,  Tacitus  describes  the  climate  as  dry  and  sultry;  the 
natives  as  strong  and  patient  of  labour  ;  the  soil  as  fruitful, 
exuberant  in  its  produce,  like  that  of  Italy,  and  yielding  the 
palm  and  balm  tree.  Libanus  or  Lebanon  is  stated  to  be  ihe 
loftiest  mountain  in  the  country,  and  to  rise  to  a  great  height, 
atlording  a  grateful  shade  under  its  verdant  groves,  and  even 
in  the  ardent  heat  of  that  sultry  region  as  being  covered  at 
the  top  with  perpetual  snow.^  Justin  confirms  the  account 
of  Tacitus,  respecting  the  exuberant  produce  of  Palestine,  its 
beautiful  climate,  its  palm  and  fragrant  balsam  trees. ^  The 
palms  of  Juda;a  are  celebrated  by  the  elder  Pliny  ; '  and  Am- 
mianus  IMarcellinus  commends  the  beauty  of  the  country,  and 
its  large  and  handsome  cities.^  But  the  most  memorable 
testimony  is  that  of  Josephus  the  Jewish  historian,  which 
appears  in  various  parts  of  his  writings.  Not  to  multiply 
unnecessary  examples,  we  may  state  briefly,  that  after  describ- 
ing the  boundaries  of  the  regions  of  Upper  and  Lower  Gali- 
lee, of  Peraea  and  Samaria,  he  speaks  of  their  fertility  and 
produce  in  the  following  terms  : — 

The  two  Galilees  have  always  been  able  to  make  a  strong 
resistance  on  all  occasions  of  war  :  for  the  Galileans  are 
inured  to  war  from  their  infancy,  and  have  always  been  very 
numerous.  Their  soil  is  universally  rich,  and  fruitful,  and 
full  of  plantations  of  all  sorts  of  trees;  so  that  its  fi'rtilit}' in- 
vites the  most  slothful  to  take  pains  in  its  cultivation.  Ac- 
cordingly the  whole  of  it  is  cultivated  by  its  inhabitants,  and 
no  part  of  it  lies  idle.  Although  the  greater  part  of  Peraea, 
he  continues,  is  desert  and  rough,  and  much  less  disposed  for 
Uic  production  of  the  milder  sorts  of  fruits,  yet  in  otiier  parts 
it  has  a  moist  soil,  and  produces  all  kinds  of  fruits.  Its  plains 
are  planted  with  trees  of  all  sorts  ;  the  olive  tree,  the  vine, 
and  the  palm  trees  are  principally  cultivated  there.  It  is  also 
sufliciently  watered  with  torrents,  that  issue  from  the  moun- 
tains, and  with  springs  which  never  fail  to  run,  even  when 
the  torrents  fail  them,  as  they  do  in  the  dog-days.  Samaria 
is  entirely  of  the  same  nature  with  Judaea.  Both  countries 
are  composed  of  hills  and  valleys  ;  they  are  moist  enough  for 
agriculture,  and  are  very  fertile.  They  have  abundance  of 
trees,  and  are  full  of  autumnal  fruit,  both  of  that  which  grows 
wild,  and  also  of  that  which  is  the  effect  of  cultivation. 
They  are  not  naturally  watered  by  many  rivers,  but  derive 
their  chief  moisture  from  rain  water,  of  which  they  have  no 
want.     The  waters  of  such  rivers  as  they  have,  are  exceed- 

»  On  the  population  of  the  Holy  Land,  see  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on 
the  Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  i.  pp.  98 — 110. 
<  Tacili  Historia,  lib.  y.  c.  6. 

»  Justin.  Hist.  Philipp.  lib.  xirri.  c.  3.  «  Hist.  Nat  lib.  xiii.  c.  6, 

1  Lib.  xiv.  c.  8.  vol  i.  p.  29.  edit.  BiponL 


38 

injrly  sweet ;  and  in  consequence  of  the  excellence  of  their 
grass,  the  cattle  reared  in  these  countries  yield  more  milk 
than  do  those  of  other  places.' 

On  the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  we  are  informed 
(Josh.  XV.  20 — ()2.)  ihAt  not  fewer  th:m  one /nindred and  (wr/i'e 
wulkd  cities  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Many  cen- 
tiTries  afterwards,  Josephus  states  that  the  rej^ions  of  Samaria 
and  Judcea  were  very  full  of  people,  which  he  notices  as  the 
greatest  sijrn  of  their  excellency  ;-  that  in  the  two  Galilces 
the  villages  were  extremely  numerous  and  tliickly  inhabited  ; 
and  that  there  also  were  great  mmibers  of  the  htro^er  cities, 
the  smallest  of  which  contained  a  population  of  fifteen  thou- 
sand souls.''  From  the  two  small  provinces  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Galilee  alone,  Josephus  collected  an  army  of  more 
than  one  hundred  thousand  men.'  These  statements  abun- 
dantly confirm  the  narratives  of  the  sacred  historian  relative 
to  the  fertility  and  vast  population  of  the  Holy  Land.  Com- 
pare Num.  xi.  21.  Judg.  xx.  17.  1  Sam.  xv.  4.  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  4 — 15.  2  Sam.  xxiv.  9.  and  2  Chron.  xvii.  14 — 19. 
Nor  are  the  testimonies  less  satisfactory,  which  have  been 
given  by  Maundrell,  Shaw,  Hasselquist,  and  other  modern 
travellers,*  who  have  visited  this  country,  and  especially  by 
Dr.  Clarke,''  who  thus  describes  its  appearance  between  Na- 
polose  or  Sichem  and  Jerusalem  : — "  The  road,"  says  he, 
"  was  mountainous,  rocky,  and  full  of  loose  stones  ;  yet  the 
cultivation  was  every  wliere  marvellous  :  it  aiforded  one  of 
the  most  striking  pictures  of  human  industry  which  it  is  pos- 
sible to  behold.  The  limestone  rocks  and  valleys  of  Judaea 
were  entirely  covered  with  plantations  of  figs,  vines,  and  olive 
trees ;  not  a  single  spot  seemed  to  be  neglected.  The  hills, 
from  their  bases  to  their  upmost  summits,  were  entirely 
covered  with  gardens:  all  of  these  were  free  from  weeds,  and 
in  the  highest  state  of  agricultural  perfection.  Even  the  sides 
of  the  most  barren  mountains  had  been  rendered  fertile  by 
being  divided  into  terraces,  like  steps  rising  one  above  an- 
other, whereon  soil  had  been  accumulated  with  astonishing 
labour.  Under  a  wise  and  beneficial  government,  the  produce 
of  the  Holy  Land  would  exceed  all  calculation.  Its  perennial 
harvest ;  the  salubrity  of  its  air ;  its  limpid  springs  ;  its  rivers, 
lakes,  and  matcliless  plains  ;  its  hills  and  vales :  all  these, 
added  to  the  serenity  of  its  climate,  prove  this  land  to  be  in- 
deed a  field  which  (he  Lord  hath  blessed  (Gen.  xxvii.  27.)  : 
God  hath  given  it  of  the  dew  tf  heaven,  ana  the  fatness  of  the 
earth,  and  plenty  of  corn  and  wine.'''''' 

Such  being  the  state  of  the  Holy  Land,  at  least  of  that 
part  of  it  which  is  properly  cultivateo,  we  can  readily  account 
for  tlie  vast  population  it  anciently  supported  :  and  although 
this  country,  generally  speaking,  by  no  means  corresponds 
with  the  statements  we  have  of  its  former  exuberant  fertility 
and  population,  yet  this  is  no  contradiction  to  the  narrative 
of  the  sacred  writers.  The  devastations  of  the  Holy  Land 
by  the  Assyrians,  Chaldees,  Syrians,  Romans,  Saracens,  the 
European  crusaders,  and  Turks, — together  with  the  oppres- 
sions of  the  inhabitants  by  the  Turks  in  our  own  time  (who 
not  only  do  not  encourage  agricultural  industry,  but  also  ex- 
tort to  the  uttermost  from  the  husbandmen),^ — to  which  are 
to  be  added  the  depredations  of  robbers,  and  the  predatory  in- 
cursions of  the  Arabs, — all  concur  satisfactorily  to  account 
for  the  present  state  of  this  country ;  and,  so  far  is  it  from 
contradicting  the  assertions  of  the  Sacred  Writings,  that  it 
confirms  their  authority  ;  for,  in  the  event  of  the  Israelites 
proving  unfaithful  to  their  covenant  engagements  with  Jeho- 
vah, all  these  judgments  were  predicted  and  denounced 
against  them  (Lev.  xxvi.  32.  Deut.  xxix.  22.  et  seq.) ;  and 
the  exact  accomplishment  of  these  prophecies  affords  a  per- 
manent comment  on  the  declaration  of  the  royal  Psalmist, 
that  a  righteous  God  iurneth  a  fruitful  land  into  barrenness, 

»  Josephus  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  3.  §§2,  3,  4. 

»  Ibid.  lib.  iii.  c.  3.  §  4.  =  Ibid.  lib.  iii.  c.  3.  §  2. 

«  Ibid.  lib.  ii.  c.  20.  §6. 

»  The  most  important  facts  relative  to  the  fertility  of  Palestine,  recorded 
by  Maundrell  and  Ur.  Shaw,  aru  coUecfed  by  T)r.  Macknight  in  discourses 
vi.  and  vii.  prefixed  to  tlie  fir.st  volume  of  liis  Harmony,  and  tlie  testimonies 
of  Hasselquist  and  others  are  collected  by  Mr.  Harmer.  (Observations,  vol. 
i.  pp.  243—250.)  Their  accounts  are  corroborated  by  Mr.  Buckingham,  in 
his  Travels  among  the  Arab  Tribes,  p.  141. 

6  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  283—285. 

■>  "In  the  north  o(^ Palestine,"  says  a  recent  traveller,  "there  are  many 
beautiful  and  fertile  spots,  bul'not  so  in  Judaea.  The  breath  of  Jehovah's 
wrath  seems  in  a  peculiar  manner  to  have  blasted  and  withered  the  terri- 
tory of  the  daughter  of  Ziori.  What  a  change  has  been  wrought  in  the  land, 
once  flowing  with  milk  and  honey !"— See  the  Journal  of  the  Rev.  J.  Con- 
nor (who  was  in  Palestine  in  the  spring  of  the  year  1820),  in  tlie  Appendix 
to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  p.  441. 
(London,  1822.   8vo.) 

«  Volney  has  given  some  painfully  interesting  details  on  the  oppression 
of  the  agricultural  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  by  their  barbarous  masters,  the 
Turks.    Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  341—317 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  I.  CnAr.  II. 


for  the  loichedness  of  them  that  dicell  therein.  (Psal.  cvii.  34.) 
"  But  it  has  been  through  the  instrumentality  of  this  very 
wirkediH  ss, — the  iucrt-asing  wickedness  of  the  irhabitants, 
— that  tlie  awful  change  has  been  effected.  Were  good 
government,  good  faith,  and  good  manners  to  flourish  in  this 
land  for  half  a  century,  it  would  literally  become  again  a 
hmd  flowing  with  milk  -and  honey :  the  proper  fruits  of  the 
mountains,  honey  and  wax,  would  be  collected  by  the  indus- 
trious bee  from  myriads  of  fragrant  i)1ants :  the  plains,  the 
valleys,  and  the  ujilr.nd  slopes,  would  yield  corn  for  man, 
and  pasturage  for  inmmierable  flocks  and  herds.  Such  a 
stupendous  and  delightful  change  miglit  well  gladden  not 
only  every  child  of  Israel,  but  the  heart  ol' every  Christian. "^ 
IV.  Yet  lovely  as  Palestine  confessedly  was,  its  beauty 
and  the  comforts  it  afforded  were  not  unalloyed  :  among  the 
CALAMITIES  of  various  kinds,  which  at  different  times  visited 
the  inhabitants,  the  pestilence,  earthquakes,  whirlwinds,  the 
devastations  of  locusts,  famines,  and  tne  pestilential  Simoom, 
demand  to  be  distinctly  noticed. 

1.  Palestine  is  now,  as  it  anciently  was,  often  efllicted 
with  the  Plague  ;  which  makes  its  entrance  from  Egypt 
and  the  neighbouring  countries.  This  tremendous  scourge 
is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Writings.  From  the 
insidious  manner  in  which  it  is  first  introduced  into  a  coun- 
try, it  is,  perhaps,  termed  Xhe  pestilence  that  walkeih  in  dark- 
ness. (Psal.  xci.  6.) 

2.  This  region,  being  mountainous  and  near  the  sea,  is 
often  shaken  by  Earthquakes,'"  from  which,  however,  Jeru- 
salem seems  to  have  suffered  little  if  at  all.  (Psal.  xlvi.  2 — 
5.)  Sometimes  these  earthquakes  were  accompanied  by 
land-slips,  in  which  pieces  of  ground,  lying  on  a  declivity, 
are  removed  from  their  place.  To  these  (which  occasionally 
happen  in  the  present  day,"  and  which  are  not  uncommon  in 
Baroary)'-  the  Psalmist  alludes  when  he  speaks  of  the  moun- 
tains being  carried  into  the  midst  of  the  sea  (Psal.  xlvi.  2.), 
of  their  skipping  like  rams,  and  the  little  hills  like  young  sheep 
(Ps.  cxiv.  4.  G^)  ;  and  also  the  prophet  Isaiah  (xxiv.  20.) 
when  he  says  that  the  earth  shall  reel  to  and  fro  like  a  drunk- 
ard, and  shall  be  removed  like  a  cottage.  These  terrible  con- 
cussions have  supplied  the  sacred  prophets  and  poets  with 
numerous  figures,  by  which  they  have  represented  the  con- 
cussions gnd  subversions  of  states  and  empires.  See  par- 
ticularly Isa.  xxix.  6.  liv.  10.  Jer.  iv.  24.  Hag.  ii.  6,  7.  S2. 
Matt.  xxiv.  7. 

3.  Tornadoes  or  Whirlwinds,  followed  by  thunder,  light- 
ning, and  rains,  were  also  very  frequent  during  the  win- 
ter and  cold  seasons.  Whirlwinds  often  preceded  rain.  In 
the  figurative  language  of  the  Scriptures,  these  are  termed 
the  commandment  and  the  word  of  God  (Psal.  cxlvii.  15, 
18.)  ;'3  and,  as  they  are  sometimes  fatal  to  travellers  who  are 
overwhelmed  in  the  deserts,  the  rapidity  of  their  advance  is 
elegantly  employed  by  Solomon  to  show  the  certainty  as  well 
as  the  suddenness  of  that  destruction  which  will  befall  the 
impenitently  wicked.  (Prov.  i.  27.)  They  are  alluded  to  by 
Isaiah,  as  occurring  in  the  deserts  which  border  on  the  south 
of  Judffia  (Isa.  xxi.  1.)  ;  and  they  appear  to  blow  from  vari- 
ous points  of  the  compass.  The  prophet  Ezekiel  speaks  of 
one, that  came  from  the  north  (Ezek.  i.  4.);  but  more  fre- 
quently it  blows  from  the  south  (Job  xxxvii.  9.),  in  which 
case  it  is  generally  attended  with  tlie  most  fatal  consequences 
to  the  hapless  traveller.  Mr.  Morier,  deseribing  the  whirl- 
winds of  Persia,  says,  that  they  swept  along  the  country  in 
different  directions,  in  a  manner  truly  terrific.  "  Tliey  carried 
away  in  their  vortex  sand,  branches,  and  the  stubble  of  the 
fields,  and  really  appeared  to  make  a  communication  between 
the  earth  and  the  clouds.  The  correctness  of  the  imagery 
used  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  when  he  alludes  to  this  pheno- 
menon, is  very  striking.  The  whirlwind  shall  take  theni  away 
us  stubble,  (Isa.  xl.  24.)  Chased  as  the  chuff  of  the  mountains 
b'.fore  the  ivind,  and  like  a  i-olling  thing  before  the  ivhirlwind. 
(Isa.  xvii.  13.)  In  the  Psalms  (Ixxxiii.  13.)  we  read,  T^Iake 
them  like  a  wheel,-  as  the  stubble  before/he  wind.  This  is  hap- 
pily illustrated  by  the  rotatory  action  of  the  whirlwind,  which 

9  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  309. ' 

»o  The  coast  in  general,  and  indeed  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  is  still  sub- 
ject to  earthquakes.  In  1759  there  happened  one,  which  caused  the  greatest 
ravages,  destroying  upwards  of  20,000  pei'sons  in  the  valley  of  Balbec.  For 
three  months  the  shocks  of  it  terrified  the  inhabitants  of  Lebanon  so  much, 
that  they  abandoned  their  houses  and  dwelt  under  tenls.  (Volney's  Tra- 
vels, vol.  i.  p.  283.)  In  the  autumn  of  1822  another  tremendous  earthquake, 
or  rather  a  succession  of  earthquakes,  desolated  this  region. 

'1  See  a  description  of  one  in  the  same  work.  vol.  i.  p.  278. 

»a  Shaw's  Travels  in'Barbary,  <fce.  vol.  i.  pp.  277,  278. 

"  The  Arabs,  to  this  day,  call  them  good  neics  or  messengers :  and  in  the- 
Koran  they  are  termed  the  sent  of  God,  c.  77.  p.  477.  of  Sale's  translation, , 
4to.  edit. 


Sect.  II.] 


WHIRLWINDS,  AND  LOCUSTS. 


39 


frequently  impels  a  bit  of  stubble  over  a  waste,  just  like  a 
wheel  set  in  a  rapid  motion."'  From  these  plienomeiia,  the 
sacred  writers  have  borrowed  many  very  ex|)ressive  fitrures 
and  allusions.  Compare  Psal.  xviii.  8 — 15.  xxix.  I — 10. 
Iv.  8.  Ixxxiii.  15.  Isa.  v.  .'50.  viii.  7,  8.  xi.  15.  xxviii.  2.  xxix. 
C.  .Irr.  xxiii.  11).   Matt.  vii.  23. 

What  toniadoi's  are  on  land  water-f:pouts  are  at  sea,  the 
vacumn  heintr  (illcd  with  a  column  of  water,  instead  of  earth, 
s:\ii(l,&c. — To  this  phenomenon  tlu-  Psalmist  refers,  (xlii.  7.) 

4.  Fre<iuentiy  the  country  was  laid  waste  by  vast  bodies 
of  mi<rratiu<r  Locusts,  whose  depredaticnis  are  one  of  the  most 
terrible  scouri^es  with  which  maiddnd  can  be  afTlicted.  Uy 
the  prophet  .loei  (ii.  11.)  they  arc^  termed  tlu;  arnii/  nf  //i'e 
Lora,  frcm  the  military  order  which  they  appear  to  observe: 
disbandiuir  themselves  anil  eticampinnf  in  the  eveninsj,  and  in 
the  moriiinjr  resuminjj  their  flifjht  in  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
unless  they  meet  with  food.  (Nab.  iii.  17.  Prov.  xxx.  27.) 
They  fly  in  countless  hosts  (Jer.  xlvi.  '23.  .]ui\ir.  vi.  5.),  so 
as  to  obscure  the  sun,  and  brin<r  a  temporary  darkness  upon 
the  land.  (Joel  ii.  2.  10.  Exod.  x.  15.)  The  noise  made  by 
them  is  compared  to  tlu^  noise  of  chariots  (.loel  ii.  5.)  :  and 
wherever  thi>y  settle,  they  darken  the  laud.  (Exod.  x.  15.) 
If  the  weatiier  be  cold,  they  enrunip  in  the  hidii^ea,  until  the 
sun  rises,  when  they  resume  their  progress  (Nab.  iii.  17.), 
climbiuiT  or  creepinjr  in  |)erti^ct  order.  Uejrardless  of  every 
obstacle,  they  mount  the  walls  of  cities  and  nouses,  and  enter 
the  very  apartments,  (.loel  *i.  7 — '.).)-  They  devour  every 
green  herb,  and  strij)  the  bark  olT  every  tree  (Exod.  x.  12. 
15.  Joel  i.  4.  7. 10.  12.  IG.  18.  20.),  so  as  to  render  the  land, 
which  before  was  as  the  i^arden  of  Eden,  a  desolate  wilder- 
ness, as  if  it  had  been  laid  waste  by  fire.  (.loel  ii.  3.)  The 
noise  made  by  them,  when  committinir  their  ravaj^es,  is  com- 
pared to  the  cracklin<r  noise  of  fire  among  the  dry  stubble,  or 
a  mighty  host  set  in  battle  array.  (Ibid.  5.)  So  fearful  are 
the  elfects  of  their  devastations,  that  every  one  was  filled 
with  dismay  (Ibid.  G.),  and  vainly  attempted  to  prevent 
them  from  settling  on  their  grounds  by  making  loud  shouts 
(Jer.  Ii.  14.),  as  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt,'  and  the  Nogai 
Tartars'  do  to  this  day.  What  aggravates  this  tremendous 
calamity  is,  that  when  one  host  is  departed,  it  is  succeeded 
by  a  second,  and  sometimes  even  by  a  third  or  a  fourth,  by 
which  every  thing  that  has  escaped  the  ravages  of  the  pre- 
ceding is  inevitably  consumed  by  the  last  company.  As 
Arabia  is  generally  considered  as  the  native  country  of  these 
depredators,  they  were  carried  thence  into  Egypt  by  an  cast 
wind  (Exod.  x.  13.),  and  were  removed  by  a  westerly  wind 
(19.)  which  blew  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  (that  lay  to 
the  north-west  of  that  country),  and  wafted  them  into  the  lied 
Sea,  where  they  perished.  On  their  departure  from  a  coun- 
try, they  leave  their  fetid  excrements  behind  them,  which 
pollute  the  air,  and  myriads  of  their  eggs  deposited  in  the 
ground,  whence  issues  in  the  following  year  a  new  and  more 
numerous  army.  They  are  generally  carried  otT  by  the  wind 
-into  the  sea,  where  they  perish  ;  and  their  dead  bodies,  putre- 
fying on  the  shore,  emit  a  most  offensive,  and  (it  is  said) 
sometimes  even  fatal  smell.  The  plajnie  of  locusts,  pre- 
dicted by  Joel,  entered  Palestine  from  llamath,  one  of  the 
northern  boundaries,  whence  they  are  called  the  northern 
army,  and  were  carried  away  by  the  wind,  some  into  the 

1  Morier's  Second  .lourney,  p.  202.  Mr.  Bruce,  in  bis  Travels  to  discover 
the  sonrce  of  tlie  Nile,  w.-is  s-iirprised  by  a  vvlilrhvind  In  a  plain  near  tliat 
river,  wtiich  lifted  iiii  a  camel  ;>.nd  threw  it  to  a  contiideral>le  distance,  with 
such  violence  as  to  break  severalof  its  ribs  ;  whirled  himself  and  two  of  his 
ser\'anls  olTrheir  feet,  and  itirew  them  violently  to  the  ground  ;  and  partly 
demolished  a  hut,  the  materials  of  which  were  dispersed  all  over  the  plain, 
leaving  the  other  half  standing.  Mr.  B.  and  his  attendants  were  literally 
plastered  with  mud;  if  dust  and  sand  had  risen  with  the  whirlwind  in  the 
same  proportion,  instead  of  mud,  they  would  inevitably  have  been  sutfo- 
caled  (Travels,  vol.  vi.  p.  :34G.); — a  disaster  which  the  late  enterprising  tra- 
veller Mr.  Park  with  (hfficully  escaped,  when  ciossing  the  great  desert  of 
Sahara  in  his  way  to  explore  the  sources  of  the  Ni*er.  Destitute  of  provi- 
sions and  water,  his  throat  pained  with  thirst,  and  his  strength  nearly  ex- 
.  hausted,  he  heanl  a  wind  sounding  from  the  east,  and  instinctively  opened 
his  parched  mouth  to  receive  the  drops  of  rain  which  he  confi<lenlly  ex- 
pected, but  it  was  instantly  tilled  with  sand  drifted  from  the  desert.  So  im- 
mense was  the  iiuanlity  raised  into  the  air  and  wafted  upon  the  wings  of 
the  wind,  and  so  gr'^at  the  velocity  with  which  it  Hew,  that  he  was  compelled 
to  turn  his  face  to  the  west  to  prevent  suffocation,  and  continued  motion- 
less till  it  had  passed.     Park's  Travels,  p.  178. 

»  The  Rev.  Mr.  Hartley,  an  English  clergyman,  who  visited  Thyatira  in 
June,  1820,  thus  describes  the  ravages  of  these  destructive  insects: — "lam 
perfectly  astonished  at  their  multitudes.  They  are,  indeed,  as  a  strong 
people,  set  in  hatlle  array  :  they  run  like  mightij  men  ;  Ihcy  climh  the  tcalls 
b'/ce  men  of  tear.  I  actually  saw  them  run  to  anil  fro  In  the  city  of  Thyatira ; 
they  ran  upon  the  icall ;  they  climbed  up  upon  the  houses  ;  they  entered  into 
the  trindotrs  liAe  a  thief,  (.loel  ii.  5.  7.  9.)  This  Is,  however,  by  no  means 
one  of  the  most  formidable  armies  of  locusts  which  are  known  in  these 
countries."    Missionary  Register,  July,  1S27.  p.  328. 

»  Light's  Travels,  p.  5C.     Beb.oni's  Is'arrative,  p.  197. 

■*  Baron  De  Tott's  Memoirs,  extracted  in  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii. 
p.  319. 


dreary  plain  on  the  coast  of  the  East  (or  Dead)  Sen,  and 
others  into  the  utniDKt  (or  Mediterranean)  Sra.  (Joel  ii.  20.) 
These  predatory  locusts  are  larger  than  those  which  some- 
times visit  the  southern  parts  of  Eurnpe,  being  five  or  six 
inches  long,  and  as  thick  as  a  man's  linger.  Frem  flieir 
heads  being  shaped  like  that  of  a  horse,  the  prophet  Joel 
says,  that  they  have  the  appeurunce  af  httne" ;  and  rn  account 
of  their  celerity  they  are  compared  to  horsemen  on  full  gal- 
lop (ii.  4.^,  and  also  to  horses  prepared  for  battle.  (Hev.  ix. 
7.)  The  locust  has  a  large  ojw'ii  mouth  ;  and  in  its  two  jaws 
it  has  four  incisive  teeth,  which  traverse  each  other  like  scis- 
sors, and  from  their  mechanism  are  calculated  to  grasp  and 
cut  every  thing  of  w  bich  they  lay  hold.  These  teeth  are  so 
sharp  and  strong,  that  the  prophet,  by  a  bold  figure,  terms 
tliem  the  teeth  of  a  i^rtut  limi.  (Joel  i.  G.)  In  order  to  mark 
the  certainty,  variety,  and  extent  of  the  depredations  of  the 
locusts,  not  lower  than  eight  online  difl'erent  appellations,  ex- 
pressive of  their  nature,  are  given  to  them  in  the  Sacred 
VVritin'rs. 

Such  are  the  Scripture  accounts  of  this  tremendous  scourge, 
which  are  corroborated  by  every  traveller  who  has  visited  the 
East.  The  (juantity  of  these  insects  (to  whose  devastations 
Syria,  F>gyi)t,  and  Persia,  together  with  the  whole  middle 
part  of  Asia,  are  subject)  is  incrtdible  to  any  person  who 
has  not  himself  witnessed  their  astonishing  numbers.  Their 
numerous  swarms,  like  a  succession  of  clouds,  sometimes 
extend  a  mile  in  length,  and  half  as  much  in  breadth,  darken 
the  horizon,  aiid  intercept  the  light  of  the  sun.  Should  the 
wind  blow  briskly,  so  that  the"  swarms  are  succeeded  by 
others,  they  afford  a  lively  idea  of  that  similitude  of  the 
Psalmist  (cix.  23.^  of  being /w-wrf  up  ut-.d  doirn  as  the  lucunts. 
Wherever  they  alight,  the  land  is  covered  with  them  lor  the 
space  of  several  leagues,  and  sometimes  they  form  a  bed  six 
or  seven  inches  thick.  The  noise  which  they  make  in 
browsing  on  the  trees  and  herbage  may  be  heard  at  a  great 
distance,  and  resembles  that  of  an  army  foraging  in  secret, 
or  the  rattling  of  hail-stones:  and,  whilst  employecl  in 
devouring  the  produce  of  the  land,  it  has  been  observed,  that 
they  uniformly  proceed  one  way,  as  regularly  as  a  disciplined 
army  upon  its  march.  The  Tartars  themselves  are  a  less 
destructive  enemy  than  these  little  animals ;  one  would 
imagine  that  fire  had  followed  their  progress.  Fire  itself, 
indeed,  consumes  not  so  rapidly.  Wherever  their  myriads 
spread,  the  verdure  of  the  country  disappears  as  if  a  coverino- 
had  been  removed  ;  trees  and  plants,  stripped  of  their  leaves 
and  reduced  to  their  naked  bouwhs  and  stems,  cause  the 
dreary  image  of  winter  to  succeed,  in  an  ii;stant,  to  the  rich 
scenery  of  the  spring.  They  have  a  government  among 
them,  similar  to  that  of  the  bees  and  ants  ;  and,  when  their 
king  or  leader  rises,  the  whole  body  follow  him,  not  one 
solitary  straggler  being  left  behind  to  witness  the  devastation. 
W'hen  these  clouds  of  locusts  take  their  flight,  to  surmount 
any  obstacle,  or  to  traverse  more  rapidly  a  desert  soil,  the 
heavens  may  literally  be  said  to  be  obscured  by  them.  In 
Persia,  as  soon  as  they  appear,  the  gardeners  and  husband- 
men make  loud  shouts,  to  prevent  them  from  settling  on  their 
grounds.  To  this  custom  the  prophet  Jeremiah,"perhaps, 
alludes,  when  he  says, — Surely  I  will  fill  t/iee  ivith  .men  as 
with  locusts,  and  they  shall  lift  rp  their  voice  against 
THEE.  (Jer.  Ii.  14.)  Should  the  inhabitants  dig  pits  and 
trenches,  and  fill  them  with  water,  or  kindle  fires  of  stubble 
therein,  to  destroy  them,  rank  presses  on  rank,  fills  up  the 
trenches,  and  extinguishes  the  fires.  Where  these  swarms 
are  extremely  numerous,  they  climb  over  every  thing  in  their 
way,  entering  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  hous'os,  adhering  to 
the  very  clothes  of  the  inhabitants,  and  infesting  their  food.* 
Pliny  relates  that,  in  some  parts  of  Ethiopia,  the  inhabitants 
liVed  upon  nothing  but  locusts  salted,  and  dried  in  the  smoke  ; 
and  that  the  Parthians  also  accounted  them  a  pleasant  article 
of  food."  The  modern  Arabs  catch  great  cpiantities  of  locusts, 
of  which  they  prepare  a  dish  by  boiling  them  with  salt,  and 
mixing  a  little  oil,  butter,  or  fat ;  sometimes  they  toast  them 
before  a  fire,  or  soak  them  in  warm  water,  and  without  any 
other  culinary  process,  devour  almost  every  part  except  the 
wings.'     They  are  also  said  to  be  sometimes  pickled   in 

»  Volney's Travels  in  Egvpt  and  Syria,  vol.  i.  p.  2SG.  Harmer's  Obsen-a- 
tions,  vol.  iii.  p.  319.  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  340—343.  Morier's  Second 
Journey,  p.  100.  SirWm.  Ouseley's  Travels  in  Persia  from  1810  to  1812; 
vol.  I.  pp.  195 — 2(X).  (4to.  London,  1819.)  Mr.  Undwell  has  given  an  interest- 
ing account  of  the  ravages  of  the  locusts  in  Greece;  where,  however,  they 
are  smaller  than  those  of  the  Levant.  See  his  Classical  and  Topographical 
Tour.  vol.  i.  pp.  214,  215. 

e  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  vi.  c.  30.  and  lib.  x.  c.28. 

•>  At  Busheher  [or  Busliire]  in  Persia,  Mr.  Price  saw  "  many  Arab  women 
employed  in  filling  bags  with  locusts,  to  be  preserved  and  eaten  like 
ehrimps."  Journal  of  the  British  Embassy  to  Persia,  p.  6.  London,  1825.  foL 


40 


GOVERNMENT  FROM  THE  PATRIARCHAL  TIMES 


[Paet  it. 


vinporar.  Tlie  locusts  which  formed  part  of  John  the  Baptist's 
food"(.Mark  i.  0.)  were  these  insects,  and  not  the  fruit  of  the 
locust  tree.' 

5.  The  devastations  caused  by  the  locusts,  together  with 
the  absence  of  the  former  and  latter  rains,  were  generally 
followed  by  a  scarcity  of  provisions,  and  not  unfrequently  by 
absolute  Famine,  which  also  often  prevailed  in  besieged 
cities  to  such  a  degree,  that  the  starving  inhabitants  have 
been  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  devouring  not  only  unclean 
animals,  but  also  human  flesh.  Compare  Dent,  xxviii.  22 — 
42.  56,  57.  2  .Sam.  xxi.  1.  2  Kings  vi.  25 — 28.  xxv.  3.  Jer. 
xiv.  15.  xix.  9.  xlii.  17.  Lam.  ii.  20.  iv.  10.  Ezek.  v.  10 — 
12.  IG.  vi.  12.    vii.  15. 

6.  But  the  greatest  of  all  the  calamities  that  ever  visited 
this  highly  favoured  country  is  the  pestilential  blast,  by  the 
Arabs  termed  the  Sam  wind,  by  the  Persians,  Samoun,  by 
tlie  Turks,  Simoom  or  Samiel,  and  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah, 
a  dni  wind  af  ihe  hli^h  places  in  the  ivilderncss.  (Jer.  iv.  11.) 
It  blows  in  Persia,  Arabia,  and  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  during 
the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August;  in  Nubia  during 
March  and  April,  and  also  in  September,  October,  and 
November.  It  rarely  lasts  more  than  seven  or  eight  minutes, 
but  so  poisonous  are  its  effects,  that  it  instantly  suffocates 
those  who  are  uiifortunate  enough  to  inhale  it,  particularly  if 
it  overtake  them  when  standing  upright.  Thevenot  mentions 
such  a  wind,  which  in  1658  suffocated  twenty  tJiousund  men 
in  one  night;  and  another,  which  in  1655  suffocated  foui- 
thousand  persons.  As  the  principal  stream  of  this  pestilen- 
tial blast  always  moves  in  a  line,  about  twenty  yards  in 


breadth,  and  twelve  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
travellers  in  the  desert,  when  they  perceive  its  approach, 
throw  themselves  on  the  ground,  with  their  faces  close  to 
the  burning  sands,  and  wrap  their  heads  in  their  robes,  or  in 
a  piece  of  carpet,  till  the  wind  has  passed  over  them.  The 
least  mischief  which  it  produces  is  the  drying  up  their  skins 
of  water,  and  thus  exposing  them  to  perish  with  thirst  in  the 
deserts.  When  this  destructive  wind  advances,  which  it 
does  with  great  rapidity,  its  approach  is  indicated  by  a  red- 
ness in  the  air;  ana,  when  sufficiently  near  to  admit  of  being 
observed,  it  appears  like  a  haze,  in  colour  resembling  the 
purple  part  oi  the  rainbow,  but  not  so  compressed  cr  thick. 
When  travellers  are  exposed  to  a  second  or  third  attack  of 
this  terrible  blast  it  produces  a  desperate  kind  of  indifference 
for  life,  and  an  almost  total  prostration  of  strength.  Camels 
and  other  animals  instinctively  perceive  its  approach,  and 
bury  their  mouths  and  nostrils  in  the  ground.  The  effects 
of  this  blast  on  the  bodies  of  those  whom  it  destroys  are 
peculiar.  At  first  view,  its  victims  appear  to  be  asleep  :  but 
if  an  arm  or  leg  be  smartly  shaken  or  lifted  up,  it  separates 
from  the  body,  which  soon  after  becomes  black.^  In  Per- 
sia, in  the  district  of  Dashtistan  a  sain  or  simoom  blew 
during  the  summer  months,  which  so  totally  burnt  up  all  the 
corn  (then  near  its  maturity),  that  no  animal  would  eat  a 
blade  of  it,  or  touch  any  of  its  grain. ^  The  image  of  corn 
blasted  heft/re  it  be  grown  up,  used  by  the  sacred  historian  in 
2  Kings  xix.  26.,  was  most  probably  taken  from  this  or  some 
similar  cause.  The  Psalmist  evidently  alludes  (Psal.  ciii. 
15,  16.)  to  the  desolating  influence  of  the  simoom. 


PART  II. 

POLITICAL    ANTIQUITIES    OF    THE    JEWS. 
CHAPTER  I.    . 

DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  GOVERNMENT,  AND  POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE   HEBREWS,  OR  JEWS,  FROM  THE 
PATRIARCHAL  TIMES  TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


I.  Patriarchal  Government. — II.  Government  under  Moses — a  Theocracy  ; — its  J\''ature  and  Design. — 1.  JVotices  of  the  Heads 
or  Princes  of  Tribes  and  Families. — 2.  Of  the  Jethronian  Prefects  or  Judges  appointed  by  .Moses. — 3.  Of  the  Senate  or 
Council  of  Seventy  Assessors. — 4.  Scribes. — III.  Government  of  the  Judges. — IV.  Regal  Government  instituted ; — 1.  The 
Functions  and  Privileges  of  the  Kings  ; — 2.  Inavgnrution  of  the  Kings  ; — 3.  Chief  Distinctions  of  JMajesty ; — 4.  Scriptural 
Allusions  to  the  Courts  of  Sovereigns  and  Princes  explained. — V.  Revemies  of  the  Kings  of  Israel. — VI.  JVTagistrates 
under  the  Monarchy. — VII.  Officers  of  the  Palace. — VIII.  The  royal  Harem. — IX.  Promidgation  of  Laws. — X.  Schism 
betiveen  the  twelve  Tribes  ; — its  latent  Causes  ; — the  Kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  founded  ; — their  Duration  and  End. 
— XI.  Reasons  why  the  Kingdom  of  Judah  subsisted  longer  than  that  of  Israel. — XII.  State  of  the  Hebrews  dtiring  the 
Sabylonish  Captivity. 


I.  Of  the  forms  of  government  which  obtained  among 
mankind  from  the  earliest  ages  to  the  time  of  Moses,  we 
have  but  little  information  communicated  in  the  Scriptures. 
The  simplicity  of  manners  which  then  prevailed  would  ren- 
der any  complicated  form  of  government  unnecessary;  and 
accordingly  we  find  that  the  Patriarchs,  that  is,  the  Heads 
or  Founders  of  Families,  exercised  the  chief  power  and  com- 
mand over  their  families,  children,  and  domestics,  without 
being  responsible  to  any  superior  authority.  Such  was  the 
government  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  So  long  as  they 
resided  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  they  were  subject  to  no  foreign 
power,  but  tended  their  flacks  and  herds  wherever  they  chose 
to  go  (Gen.  xiii.  6 — 12.),  and  vindicated  their  wrongs  by 
arms  whensoever  they  had  sustained  any  injury.  (Gen.  xiv.) 
They  treated  with  the  petty  kings  who  reigned  in  different 
parts  of  Palestine  as  their  equals  in  dignity,  and  concluded 
treaties  with  them  in  their  own  right.  (Gen.  "xiv.  13.  18 — 24. 
xxi.  22—32.  xxvi.  16.  27—33.  xxxi.  44—54.) 

The  patriarchal  power  was  a  sovereign  dominion :  so  that 
parentis  may  be  considered  as  the  first  kings,  and  children 
the  first  subjects.  They  had  the  power  of  disinheriting  their 
children  (Gen.  xlix.  3,  4.  1  Chron.  v.  1.),  and  also  of 
punishing  them  with  death  (Gen.  xxxviii.  24.),  or  of  dis- 
missing  them   from   home  without  assigning   any  reason. 

'  Sir  Win.  Ouseley's  Travels,  vol.  1.  p.  197  Dodwell's  Tour,  vol.  i.  p.  215. 
Dr.  Delia  Cella's  Travels  from  Barbary  to  the  Western  Frontier  of  Egypt, 
p.  78.    Jackson's  Account  of  the  Empire  of  Marocco,  pp.  51—54. 


(Gen.  xxi.  14.)  Further,  the  patriarchs  could  pronounce  a  so- 
lemn blessing  or  curse  upon  their  children,  which  at  that  time 
was  regarded  as  a  high  privilege^  and  of  great  consequence. 
Thus  Noah  cursed  his  son  Canaan  (Gen.  ix.  25.);  Isaac 
blessed  Jacob  (Gen.  xxvii.  28,  29.  33.) ;  and  Jacob  blessed 
his  sons.  (Gen.  xlix.)  On  the  decease  of  the  father,  the 
eldest  son,  by  a  natural  right  of  succession,  inherited  the 
paternal  power  and  dominion,  which  in  those  days  was  one 
of  the  rights  of  primogeniture.  To  this  right  the  sacerdotal 
dignity,  in  the  first  ages,  seems  to  have  been  annexed  ;  so 
that  the  heads  of  families  hot  only  possessed  a  secular 
power,  but  also  officiated  as  priests  in  tne  families  to  which 
they  belonged.    (Gen.  viii.  20.  xii.  7,  8.  xxxv.  1 — 3.) 

Although  the  sons  of  Jacob  exercised,  each,  the  supreme 
power  in  his  own  family,  during  their  father's  life  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  24.),  yet  the  latter  appears  to  have  retained  some 
authority  over  them.  (Gen.  xlii.  1 — 4.  37,  38.  xliii.  1 — 13. 
1.  15 — 17.)  Afterwards,  however,  as  the  posterity  of  Jacob 
increased,  in  Egypt,  it  became  necessary  to  have  magistrates 
or  governors,  invested  with  more  extensive  authority;  these 
are  termed  Elders  (Exod.  iii.  16.),  being  probably  chosen  on 
account  of  their  age  and  wisdom.  The  Slioierim  or  "  oflticers 
of  the  children  of  Israel"  (Exod.  v.  14,  15.  19.)  have  been 

•*  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  vi.  pp.  463,  46.3.  484.  Harmer's  Observations,  vol. 
i.  pp.  94—96.  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Georgia,  Persia,  <fco.  vol,  ii."^ 
p.  230. 

»  iMorier's  Second  Journey,  p.  43. 


Chap.  I.] 


TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


41 


conjectured  to  be  a  kind  of  majjistratos  elected  by  them ;  but, 
from  the  conU-.xt  of  tlic  sacred  historian,  they  rather  appear 
to  have  been  appointed  by  the  Kjryjjlians,  and  placed  over 
the  Israeliti's  in  order  to  oversee  tlu;ir  labour.' 

II.  On  the  (h^|)arture  of  th(i  Israelites  from  the  land  of 
their  opjjres-iors,  under  the  <ruidauec  of  Mosus,  .Icliovali  was 
pleased  to  institute  a  new  form  of  (roverinuent,  wliieh  has 
been  ri<rhtly  t(>rnu'd  a  Theocracy;  tiie  supreuu;  leerjsiative 
power  l)einy;  exclusively  vested  in  (ioil  or  in  iiis  okacm.;,  who 
alone  could  enact  or  repeal  laws.  The  IIcl)rcw  {rovernment 
appears  not  only  dt  si<i[ncd  to  sui)serve  the  eonuiion  and  <rene- 
nil  ends  of  all  fjood  (vnverniuents; — viz.  tiu;  protection  of  tlie 
pro[)erty,  liiierty,  salety,  and  jieiice  of  the  several  nieinljers 
of  the  conuuunity  (in  wliieli  tiie  true  happiness  and  prospe- 
rity of  states  will  always  consist),  but  also  to  set  apart  tiie 
Hebrews  or  Israelites  as  «  Unhi  pmpk  loJeluwuli,  una  a  kn)<r- 
diim  of  priest  ■.  I'or  thus  Moses  is  directed  to  tell  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel,  Yv  liave  seen  what  I  did  unto  the  Ei:;i/plianf:, 
and  hint)  I  hure  y»u  on  ea;j;lcs''  wingn,  and  brmiirht  t/ou  iinlo 
vn/svlf.  Now,  Ihertfore,  if  ijc  will  hear  my  voice  indeed,  and 
keep  niif  covenant,  thin  i/e  shall  Ije  a  pecalior  treasure  unto  nie 
al)()ve  all piiiple ;  for  all  the  earth  is  nunc,  and  ye  shall  lie  unto 
hie  a  kinixdoin  of  priests  and  an  holy  nation.  (Exod.  xix.  3,  4, 
5,  ().)  We  learn  what  this  coviMiant  was  in  a  further  account 
of  it.  Ye  stand  this  day  all  of  you  hifne  the  Lord  your  God, 
your  captains  if  your  triljes,  your  eldirs  and  your  ojjicers,  and 
all  the  men  of  Israel;  that  you  should  enter  into  covenant  with 
the  Ijord  thy  God,  and  into  his  oath  ivhich  the  Lord  thy  God 
iiialieth  with  thee  this  day ;  that  he  may  establish  thee  to-day  for 
a  people  unto  himself,  and  that  he  may  be  unto  thee  a  God,  as 
he  hath  said  unto  thee,  and  as  he  hath  sworn  unto  thy  fathers, 
to  .ibraham,  Isaac,  and  to  Jacob :  for  ye  know,  adds  Moses, 
how  we  hare  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  how  we  came 
through  the  nations  which  ye  passed  by ,-  and  ye  have  seen  their 
abominations  and  their  idols,  wood  and  stwie,  silver  and  geld, 
ivhieh  were  among  them,  lest  there  should  be  among  you,  man, 
or  ivoman,  or  family,  or  tribe,  whose  heart  turncth  away  this 
day  from  the  Lord  our  God  to  go  and  scitc  the  gods  of  these 
na'ti(ms.   (D(-ut.  xxix.  10 — 18.) 

From  these  passages  it  is  evident  that  the  fundamental 
principle  of  the  Mosaic  Law  was  the  maintenance  of  the 
doctrine  and  worship  of  one  true  God,  and  the  prevention,  or 
rather  the  proscription  of  polytheism  and  idolatry.  The  cove- 
nant of  .lehovah  with  the  Heincw  people,  and  their  oath  b}'^ 
which  they  bound  their  alletviance  to  .lehovah,  their  God  and 
Kinor,  was,  that  they  should  receive  and  obey  the  laws  which 
he  should  ajjpoint  as  their  supreme  g^overnor,  with  a  particu- 
lar en<vagement  to  keep  themselves  from  the  idolatry  of  the 
nUions  round  about  them,  whether  the  idolatry  they  had  seen 
while  they  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Eorypt,  or  that  which  they 
had  observed  in  the  nations  by  which  they  passed  into  the 
promised  land.  In  keeping  this  allegiance  to  .lehovah,  as 
their  immediate  and  supreme  Lord,  th(>y  were  to  expect  the 
'blessings  of  God's  inunediate  and  particular  protection  in  the 
security  of  their  lil)erty,  peace,  and  prosperity,  against  all 
attempts  of  their  idolatrous  neighbours;  but  if  they  should 
break  their  allegiance  to  Jehovah,  or  forsake  the  covenant 
of  Jehovah,  by  gning  and  serving  other  gods,  and  worship- 
ping them,  then  they  should  forfeit  these  blessings  of  God  s 
protection,  and  the  anger  of  Jehovah  should  be  kindled 
against  the  land,  to  bring  upon  it  all  the  curses  that  are  writ- 
ten in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  (xxix.  25 — 27.)  The  sub- 
stance, then,  ef  this  solemn  transaction  between  God  and  the 
Israelites  (wiiich  may  be  called  the  original  contract  of  the 
Hebrew  government)  was  tiiis: — If  the  Hebrews  would  vo- 
luntarily consent  to  receive  Jehovah  as  their  Lord  and  King, 
to  keep  his  covenant  and  laws,  to  honour  and  worshiji  him 
as  the  one  true  God,  in  opposition  to  all  idolatry;  then, 
though  God  as  sovereign  of  the  world  rules  over  all  the  na- 
tions of  the  earth,  and  all  nations  are  under  the  general  care 
of  his  providence,  he  would  govern  the  Hebrew  nation  b}- 
peculiar  laws  of  his  particular  appointment,  and  bless  it  with 
a  more  immediate  aiul  particular  protection;  he  would  secure 
to  them  the  invaluable  privileges  of  the  true  religion,  together 
with  liberty,  peace,  and  prosperity,  as  a  favoured  people 
above  all  other  nations.  Tiiis  constitution,  it  will  be  ob- 
served, is  enforced  chiefly  by  temporal  sanctions,  and  with 
singular^ wisdom;  for  temporal  blessings  and  evils  were  at 
that  time  the  common  and  prevailing  incitements  to  idolatry: 
but  b)'  thus  taking  them  into  the  Hebrew  constitution,  as 
rewards  to  obedience  and  punishments  for  disobedience,  they 


Vol.  II. 


'  Pareau  Antiquitas  Hebraica,  pp.  231- 
F 


became  motives  to  continuance  in  the  true  religion,  instead 
of  encouragements  to  idolatry .2 

In  the  theocracy  of  the  Hebrews,  the  laws  were  given  to 
them  b}^  God,  through  the  mediation  of  Moses,  and  they 
were  to  be  of  perpetual  force  and  obligation  so  long  as  their 
politj  subsisted.  The  judges  by  whom  these  laws  were 
administered  were  represented  as  holy  persons,  and  as  sitting 
in  the  place  of  God  (Deut.  i.  17.  xix.  17.) :  they  were  usually 
taken  from  the  tribe  of  Levi;  and  the  chief  expounder  of  the 
law  was  the  high-priest.  In  this  there  was  a  singular  pro- 
priety; for  the  Levites,  being  devoted  to  the  study  of  the 
law,  were  (as  will  be  shown  in  a  subsequent  page)  the  literati 
among  the  Israelites.  In  diflicult  cases  ol  law,  however, 
relating  both  to  government  and  war,  God  was  to  be  con- 
sulted by  Urim  and  Thuinmim;  and  in  matters,  which  con- 
cerned the  welfare  of  the  state,  God  frefpiently  made  known 
his  will  by  prophets  whose  mission  was  duly  attested,  and 
the  pef)r)le  were  bound  to  hearken  to  their  voice.  In  all  these 
cases,  Jehovah  appears  as  sovereign  king,  ruling  his  people 
by  his  ajjpointed  ministers. ^ 

A  subordinate  design  of  this  constitution  of  the  Hebrew 
government  was,  the  prevention  of  intercourse  between  the 
Israelites  and  foreign  nations.  The  prevalence  of  the  most 
abominable  idolatry  among  those  nations,  and  the  facility 
with  which  the  Israelites  had,  on  more  than  one  occasion, 
adopted  their  idolatrous  rites,  during  their  sojourning  in  the 
wilderness,  rendered  this  seclusion  necessary,  in  order  to 
secure  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Mosaic  law  above 
mentioned  :  and  many  of  the  peculiar  laws  will,  on  this  prin- 
ciple, be  found  both  wisely  and  admirably  adapted  to  secure 
this  design.^ 

The  form  of  the  Hebrew  republic  was  unquestionably  de- 
mocratical ;  its  head  admitted  of  change  as  to  the  name  and 
nature  of  his  office,  and  at  certain  times  it  could  even  subsist 
without  a  general  head.  When  Moses  promulgated  his  laws, 
he  convened  the  whole  congregation  01  Israel,  to  whom  he  is 
repeatedl)^  said  to  have  spoken  ,■  but  as  he  could  not  possibly 
be  heard  by  six  hundred  thousand  men,  we  must  conclude 
that  he  only  addressed  a  certain  number  of  persons  who  were 
deputed  to  represent  the  rest  of  the  Israelites.  Accordingly 
in  Num.  i.  16.  these  delegates  or  representatives  are  leimeS 
mi'n  ^Nnp  (kcruay  iioiDUH),  that  is,  those  want  to  be  called 
the  convention,-  in  our  version  called  the  renowned  of  the  con- 
gregation,- and  in  Num.  xvi.  2.  they  are  denominated  i;;id 
'Nnp  mj;  ikvj-j  (wsiay  ed«h  k^ruay  uvoev),  that  is,  chiefs 
of  the  community,  or  congregation,  that  are  called  to  the  con- 
vention, in  our  version  termed,  famous  in  the  congregation^ 
men  of  renown.  By  comparing  Deut.  xxix.  10.  w  ith  Josh, 
xxiii.  2.  it  appears  tnat  these  representatives  were  the  heads 
ot  tribes  or  families,  znd  judges  and  officers,-  and  Michaelis  is 
of  opinion  that,  like  the  members  of  our  British  House  of 
Commons,  they  acted  in  the  plenitude  of  their  own  power, 
without  taking  instruction  from  their  constituents.* 

1.  Heads  or  Princes  of  Tribes  and  Families. — All  the 
various  branches  of  Abraham's  descendants,  like  the  ancient 
Germans  or  the  Scottish  clans,  kept  together  in  a  body  ac- 
cording to  their  tribes  and  families;  each  tribe  forming  a 
lesser  commonwealth,  with  its  own  peculiar  interests,  and 
all  of  them  at  last  uniting  into  one  great  republic.^  The 
same  arrangement,  it  is  well  known,  obtained  among  the 
Israelites,  who  appear  to  have  been  divided  into  twelve  great 
tribes,  previously  to  their  departure  from  Kijypt.  By  Moses, 
however,  they  were  subdivided  into  certain  greater  families, 
which  are  called  ninciT'D  (M/snpffCiioTH)  or  families,  by  w'ay 
of  distinction,  and  riUN  ^ri3  (Bf/Tfv  aboth)  ot  houses  of  fathers 
(Num.  i.  2.  Josh.  vii.  14.);  each  of  whom,  again,  h'ad  their 
heads,  which  are  sometimes  called  heads  of  houses  of  fat  hers  ^ 
and  sometimes  simply  heads.  These  are  likewise  the  same 
persons  who  in  Josh,  xxiii.  2.  and  xxiv.  1.  are  called  Elders. 
(Compare  also  Deut.  xix.  12.  and  xxi.  1 — 9.)     It  does  not 

«  I,owman  on  the  Civil  Government  of  the  Ilebrews,  pp.  8—10.  See  also 
Dr.  Graves's  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch,  vol.  li.  pp.  141 — 185.  for  some 
rnastorly  observations  on  the  introduction  of  temporal  sanctions  into  the 
Mosaic  law. 

»  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  i  pp.  190—196. 

«  Ibid.  vol.  i.  pp.  20-2— 2i5.  Bruning's  Aniiq.  Heb.  pp.  91—93.  Mr.  Low- 
nian(Civil  Government  oftlje  Hebrews,  pp.  17— 31.)lias  illustrated  the  wis- 
dom of  this  second  design  of  the  Jewish  theocracy  by  several  pertinent  ex- 
amples. 

'  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  ofMoses,  vol.  i.  p.  231. 

•i  In  this  manner  were  the  Ishmaeliles  governed  by  twelve  princes  accorrl- 
ing  to  the  number  of  Ishmael's  sons  (Gen.  xjcv.  IG.);  and  the  Bedouins  their 
descendants  have  always  presen'edsonie  traces  of  this  patriarchal  govern- 
ment. Their  families  continue  loj^elher;  and  under  the  name  of  £»«!;-,  one 
is  prince  among  people,  who  are  all  his  kindred  within  a  certain  degree  of 
atfinity.    Michaelis's  Cou^.mentanes,  vol.  i.  p.  232. 


42 


GOVERNMENT  FROM  THE  PATRIARCHAL  TIMES 


[Part  II. 


appear  in  what  manner  these  heads  or  elders  of  families  were 
cnosen,  when  any  of  them  died.  The  princes  of  tribes  do 
not  seem  to  have  ceased  with  the  commencement,  at  least, 
of  the  monarchy:  from  I  Chron.  xxvii.  16 — 22.  it  is  evident 
that  they  subsisted  in  the  time  of  David  ;  and  tliry  must  have 
proved  a  powerful  restraint  upon  the  power  of  the  king. 

It  will  now  be  readily  conceived  how  the  Israelitish  state 
might  have  subsisted  not  only  without  a  king,  but  even  occa- 
sionally without  that  magistrate  who  was  called  a  Judge, 
although  we  read  of  no  supreme  council  of  the  nation.  Every 
tribe  had  always  its  own  independent  chief  magistrate,  who 
may  not  inaptly  be  compared  to  the  lords-lieutenants  of  our 
British  counties;  subordinate  to  them,  again,  were  the  heads 
of  families,  who  may  be  represented  as  their  deputy-lieute- 
nants: and,  if  there  were  no  ,^f?;ew/ ruler  of  the  whole  people, 
yet  there  were  twelve  smaller  commonwealths,  who  in  cer- 
tain cases  united  together,  and  whose  general  convention 
would  take  measures  for  their  common  interest.  In  many 
cases  particular  tribes  acted  as  distinct  and  independent  re- 
publics, not  only  when  there  was  neither  king  nor  judge,  but 
even  during  the  times  of  the  kings.  Instances  of  wars  being 
carried  on  by  one  or  more  particular  tribes,  both  before  and 
after  the  establishment  of  the  regal  government,  may  be  seen 
in  Josh.  xvii.  15 — 17.  Judg.  iv.  10.  and  xviii — xx.  1  Chron. 
V.  18—23.  41 — 43.  It  appears  from  1  Chron.  xxiii.  11.  that 
a  certain  number  of  persons  was  necessary  to  constitute  a 
family,  and  to  empower  such  a  family  to  have  a  representa- 
tive head;  for  it  is  there  said  that  the  fcur  sons  of  vShimei 
had  not  a  numerous  progeny,  and  were  therefore  reckoned 
only  as  one  family.  Hence  we  may  explain  why,  according 
to  Micah  v.  2.,  Bethlehem  may  have  been  too  small  to  be 
reckoned  among  the  families  oif  Judah.  It  is  impossible  to 
ascertain,  at  this  distance  of  time,  what  number  of  individuals 
was  requisite  to  constitute  a  house  or  family;  but  probably 
the  number  was  not  always  uniform. ' 

2.  The  Judges,  who  were  appointed  by  Moses,  had  also 
a  right,  by  virtue  of  their  office,  to  be  present  in  the  congre- 
gation, or  convention  of  the  state.  After  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt,  Moses,  for  some  time,  was  their  sole 
judge.  Jethro,  his  father-in-law,  observing  that  the  daily 
duties  of  this  office  were  too  heavy  for  him,  suggested  to  him 
(subject  to  the  approbation  of  Jehovah)  the  institution  of 
Judges  or  rulers,  of  tens,  of  ff ties,  of  hundreds,  and  of  tkoii- 
satiek,  who  determined  evei^y  aifair  of  little  importance  among 
themselves,  but  brought  the  hard  causes  to  Moses.  (Exod. 
xviii.  14 — 26.)  Of  the  judges  o{ten,s,  therefore,  there  must 
have  been  sixty  thousand;  of  the  judges  oi  fifties,  twelve 
thousand ;  of  the  judges  of  hundreds,  six  thousand,-  and  of 
the  judges  of  thousands,  six  hundred.  These  judges,  or 
Jethronian  prefects  (as  they  have  been  called),  seem  to  have 
been  a  sort  of  justice  of  the  peace  in  several  divisions,  pro- 
bably taken  from  the  military  division  of  an  host  into  thou- 
sands, hundreds,  fifties,  and  tens ;  this  was  a  model  proper 
for  them  as  an  army  marching,  and  not  unsuitable  to  their 
settlement  as  tribes  or  families,  in  a  sort  of  counties,  hun- 
dreds, and  tithings.  Perhaps  our  old  Saxon  constitution  of 
sheriffs  in  counties,  hundredors  or  centgraves  in  hmidreds,  and 
decincrs  in  decennaries,  may  give  some  light  to  this  constitu- 
tion of  Moses.  Some  of  our  legal  antiquaries  have  thought 
that  those  constitutions  of  the  Saxons  were  taken  from  these 
laws  of  Moses,  introduced  by  Alfred,  or  by  his  direction.^ 
It  is  not  probable,  that  in  the  public  deliberative  assemblies 
the  whole  sixty  thousand  judges  of  tens  had  seats  and  voices. 
Michaelis  conjectures  that  only  those  of  hundreds,  or  even 
those  only  of  thousands,  are  to  be  understood,  when  mention 
is  made  of  judges  in  the  Israelitish  conventions.^ 

But,  after  the  establishment  of  the  Hebrews  in  the  land  of 
Canaan,  as  they  no  longer  dwelt  together  in  round  numbers, 
Moses  ordained  that  judges  should  be  appointed  in  every 
city  (Deut.  xvi.  18.),  and  it  should  seem  that  they  were  chosen 
by  the  people.  In  succeeding  ages  these  judicial  offices  were 
filled  by  tlie  Levites,  most  probably  because  they  were  the 
persons  best  skilled  in  the  law  of  the  Hebrews.  (See  1  Chron, 
xxiii.  4.  xxvi.  29—32.  2  Chron.  xix.  8—11.  xxxiv.  I3.y 

3.  During  the  sojourning  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness, Moses  established  a  council  or  senate  of  seventy,  to 
assist  him  in  the  government  of  the  people.  The  Jewish 
rabbinical  writers,  who  have  exercised  their  ingenuity  in 
conjecturing  why  the  number  was  limited  to  seventy,  have 

»  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  pp.  231—234.  244. 
*  Bacon  on  English  Government,  parti,  p.  70.    Lowman's  Civil  Govern- 
ment of  the  Hebrews,  p.  162. 
=■  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  p.  245. 
«  Ibid.  p.  216. 


pretended  that  this  was  a  permanent  and  supreme  court  of 
judicature;  but  as  the  sacred  writers  are  totally  silent  con- 
cerning such  a  tril)unal,  we  are  authorized  to  conclude  that 
it  was  only  a  temporary  institution.  Jfter  their  return  from 
the  Babylonish  captivity,  it  is  well  known  that  the  Jews  did 
appoint  a  saidiedrin  or  council  of  seventy  at  Jerusalem,  in 
imitation  of  that  which  Moses  had  instituted.-'  In  the  New 
Testament,  very  frequent  mention  is  made  of  this  supreme 
tribunal,  of  which  an  account  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent 
chapter  of  this  volume. 

4.  Among  the  persons  who  appear  in  the  Israelitish  con- 
gregation or  diet  (as  Michaelis  terms  it),  in  addition  to  those 
already  mentioned,  we  find  the  Di^ai::'  (sHOTfRiM)  or  Scribes, 
It  is  evident  that  they  were  difl'erent  from  the  Jethronian  pre- 
fects or  judges ;  for  Moses  expressly  ordained  that  they  should 
not  only  appoint  judges  in  every  city,  but  also  shuterim  or 
scribes.  What  their  functions  were,  it  is  now  difficult  to 
ascertain.  Michaelis  conjectures,  with  great  probability,  that 
they  kept  the  genealogical  tables  of  the  Israelites,  with  a 
faithful  record  of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths;  and  that  to 
them  was  assigned  the  duty  of  apportioning  the  ptdjlic  bur- 
thens and  services  on  the  peo])le  individually.  Under  the 
regal  government,  these  scribes  were  generally  taken  from 
the  tribe  of  Levi.  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  4.  2  Chron.  xix.  8 — 11. 
and  xxxiv.  13.)  In  Deut.  xxix.  10.  xxxi.  28.  Josh.  viii.  33. 
and  xxiii.  2.  we  find  them  as  representatives  of  the  people  in 
the  diets,  or  when  they  entered  into  covenant  with  God.  In 
time  of  war  they  were  charged  with  the  duty  of  conveying 
orders  to  the  army  (Deut.  xx.  5.)  ;  and  in  2  Chron.  xxvi.  11. 
we  meet  with  a  scribe,  who  appears  to  have  been  what  is  now 
termed  the  muster-7naster-general.^ 

III.  On  the  death  of  Moses,  the  command  of  the  children 
of  Israel  was  confided  to  Joshua,  who  had  been  his  minister 
(Exod.  xxiv.  13.  Josh.  i.  1.  )  ;  and  under  whom  the  land  of 
Canaan  was  subdued,  and  divided  agreeably  to  the  divine  in- 
junctions. On  the  death  of  Joshua  and  of  the  elders  of  his 
council,  it  appears  that  the  people  did  not  choose  any  chief 
magistrate  or  counsellors  in  their  place.  The  consequence 
(as  might  naturally  be  expected)  was  a  temporary  anarchy, 
in  which  we  are  told  that  every  man  did  what  was  right  in 
his  own  eyes.  (Judg.  xxi.  25.)  This  state  of  things  occa- 
sioned the^  government  of  Israel  to  be  committed  to  certain 
supreme  nnagistrates,  termed  Judges.  Their  dignity  was,  in 
some  cases,  for  life,  but  not  always  :  and  their  office  was  not 
hereditary,  neither  was  their  succession  constant.  There  also 
were  anarchies,  or  intervals  of  several  years'  continuance, 
during  which  the  Israelites  groaned  under  the  tyranny  of 
their  oppressors,  and  had  no  governors.  But  though  God 
himself  did  regularly  appoint  the  judges  of  the  Israelites,  the 
people  nevertheless,  on  some  occasions,  elected  him  who  ap- 
peared to  them  most  proper  to  deliver  them  from  their  imme- 
diate oppression  :  thus  Jephthah  was  chosen  by  the  Israelites 
beyond  Jordan.  As,  however,  it  frequently  happened  that 
the  oppression  wiiich  rendered  the  assistance  of  judges  neces- 
sary were  not  fell  equally  over  all  Israel,  so  the  power  of 
those  judges,  who  were  elected  in  order  to  procure  their  deli- 
verance from  such  servitudes,  did  not  extend  over  all  the 
people,  but  only  over  that  district  which  they  had  delivered. 
Thus  Jephthah  did  not  exercise  his  authority  on  tJiis  side 
Jordan,  neither  did  Barak  exercise»his  judicial  power  beyond 
that  river.  The  authority  of  the  judges  was  not  inferior  to 
that  which  was  afterwards  exercised  by  the  kiuf^s :  it  ex- 
tended to  peace  and  war.  They  decided  causes  without  ap- 
peal ;  but  they  had  no  power  to  enact  new  laws,  or  to  impose 
new  burthens  upon  the  people.  They  w^ere  protectors  of  the 
laws,  defenders  of  religion,  and  avengers  of  crimes,  particu- 
larly of  idolatry,  which  was  high-treason  against  Jehovah  their 
Sovereign.  Further,  these  judges  were  without  pomp  or 
splendour,  and  destitute  of  guards,  train,  or  ecjuipage  :  unless 
indeed  their  own  wealth  might  enable  them  to  make  an  ap- 
pearance suitable  to  their  dignity.  Their  income  or  revenue 
arose  solely  from  presents.  This  form  of  administration 
subsisted  from  Joshua  to  Saul,  during  a  period  of  about  339 
years.'' 

IV.  At  length  the  Israelites,  weary  of  having  God  for  their 
sovereign,  and  provoked  by  the  misconduct  of  the  sons  of 
the  judge  and  prophet  Samuel,  who  in  his  old  age  had  asso- 
ciated them  with  himself  for  the  administration  of  affairs,  de- 
sired a  King  to  be  set  over  them,  to  judge  them  like  all  the 

»  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  pp.  247—249. 
■   6  Ibid.  pp.  319— 2.''il.     ' 

1  Tappau's  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities,  p.  77.  Michaelis's  Commen- 
taries, vol.  i.  pp.  262—264.  Dr.  Graves's  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch,  voL 
ii.  pp.  95-lM. 


TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


Chap.  I.] 

nations  (1  Sam.  viii.  5.),  thus  undesicrnedly  fulfillintr  the  de- 
signs of  the  Almighty,  who  had  ordained  that  in  the  fulness 
01  time  the  Messiah  sliniild  t)e  born  of  a  royal  lioiise. 

1.  Such  a  chanire  in  their  jrovernrinMit  INloses  foresaw,  and 
accordinjjly,  by  divine  command,  he  prescribed  the  followiiiir 
laws,  botii  eoncerninjj  their  election  of  a  king,  and  also  for 
the  direction  of  their  future  sovereigns,  which  are  recorded  in 
Deut.  xvii.  1 1—20. 

(1.)  Tiie  ri^hf  of  choice  was  left  to  the  people,  but  with 
this  limitation,  that  they  must  always  elect  a  native  Israelite, 
and  not  a  fonu'mer.  (.hmfrom  iimon'j;  tlitf  Imllircn  x/uill  tluni 
set  king  over  Uiee:  thou  juaijst  not  set  a  stranger  over  thee, 
which  is  not  th}j  brother. 

This  was  a  wise  and  patriotic  law,  well  adapted  to  inspire 
a  just  dread  of  foreijrii  intriguers  and  invaders,  and  an  united 
vigilance  in  repulsinir  such  persons  from  the  {rovernmeut. 
"One  who  is  born  and  educated  in  a  community,  is  its  natu- 
ral brother:  his  habits,  attachments,  and  interests  strong-ly 
link  him  to  it;  while  the  sentiments,  feelings,  and  interests 
of  a  stranger  do  often  as  naturally  coimect  him  witii  a  foreign 
covmlry,  and  alienate  him  from  that  in  which  he  resides."  But 
this  statute  did  not  ap|)lv  to  the  case  of  the  nation  being  at 
any  lime  subjected,  by  force  of  arms,  to  a  foreign  prince; 
though  the  Piiarisees  afterwards  so  explained  it.' 

(2.)  The  Israelites  were  on  no  account  to  appoint  any  one 
to  be  their  king,  who  was  not  chosen  by  God.  Thou  shalt  in 
any  wise  set  him  king  over  thee  ivhom  the  Lord  thi/  God  shall 
choose. 

Accordingly,  he  appointed  Saul,  by  lot,  to  be  their  first 
king ;  David,  by  name,  to  be  their  second  ;  Solomon,  his  son, 
to  be  his  successor;  and  then  made  the  regal  government 
hereditary  in  David's  fiimily.  But  this  law  did  not  extend 
to  their  subsequently  electing  every  individual  king  :  for,  so 
long  as  the  reigning  family  did  not  violate  the  fundamental 
laws  of  the  theocracy,  they  would  continue  to  possess  the 
throne ;  but  if  they  tyrannized,  they  would  forfeit  it. 

With  regard  to  the  external  qualifications  which  the  Jews 
appear  to  have  demanded  in  their  kings : — comeliness  of  per- 
son and  tallness  of  stature  seem  to  have  been  the  principal 
requisites.  Thus,  although  Saul  was  constituted  King  of 
Israel  by  the  special  appointment  of  God,  yet  it  appears  to 
have  been  no  inconsiderable  circumstance  in  the  eyes  of  the 
people  that  he  was  a  choice  young  man  and  goodli/,  and  that 
there  was  not  among  the  children  of  Israel  a  gooctl'cr  person 
than  he :  from  the  shoulders  and  upwards  he  was  higher  than 
any  of  the  people.  (1  Sam.  ix.  2.)  And  therefore  Samuel 
said  to  the  people,  when  he  presented  Saul  to  them :  See  ye 
him  whom  the  Lord  hath  chosen,  that  there  is  none  like  him 
among  all  the  people.  (1  Sam.  x.  24.)  Hence,  also,  David  is 
said  to  have  been  ruddy,  withal  of  a  beautiful  countenance, 
and  goodly  to  look  to.  (1  Sam.  xvi.  12.)  The  people  of  the 
East  seem  to  have  had  a  regard  to  these  personal  q^ualitics  in 
the  election  of  their  kings,  in  addition  to  those  ot  strength, 
'courage,  and  fortitude  of  mind ;  and  it  was  such  a  king  as 
their  neighbours  had,  whom  the  Israelites  desired. 

(3.)  The  king  was  not  to  mull i ply  h/jrses  to  himself,  nor 
cause  the  people  to  return  to  Egypt  to  the  end  that  he  should 
multiply  horses.^ 

This  prohibition  was  intended  to  prevent  all  commercial 
intercourse  with  Egypt,  and,  consequently,  to  preserve  them 
from  being  contaminated  with  idolatry  ;  and  also,  by  restrain- 
ing the  Jews  from  the  use  of  cavalry  in  war,  to  lead  thorn  to 
trust  implicitly  in  the  special  protection  of  the  Almighty, 
from  whose  pure  worship  they  might  be  seduced  by  extending 
their  dominions  among  the  neighbouring  idolatrous  nations 
by  means  of  cavalry. 

(4.)  The  king  was,  further,  prohibited  from  multiplying 
wives  to  himself,  that  his  heart  turn  not  away  from  the  law  and 
worship  of  the  God  of  Israel,  by  his  being  seduced  into  idol- 
atry in  consequence  of  foreign  alliances.  How  grossly  this 
law  was  violated  by  Solomon  and  other  monarchs  the  history 
of  the  Jews  and  Israelites  abundantly  records,  together  with 
the  fatal  consequences  of  such  disobedience. 

»  It  was  on  the  ground  of  this  law  that  the  Pharisees  and  Herodians  pro- 
posed that  insidious  question  to  .Icsus  Christ, — Is  it  latrftil  to  gire  tribute 
to  Cesar,  or  no!  (Matt.  xxii.  17.)  for,  at  that  time,  tliev  were  under  the 
authority  of  a  foreisn  power  which  Miey  detested.  Had  Christ  replied.  Yes, 
then  they  would  have  comlernned  him  hy  this  law.  Had  he  answered,  No, 
then  ihi-y  would  have  accused  him  to  C.Tsar.  (Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Deut.  xvii. 
-  15.  In  his  Commentary  on  Matt.  xxii.  16—22.  he  has  discussed  this  import- 
ant subject  in  great  detail  and  witli  equal  ability.) 

»  Tbis  law  was  to  be  a  standing  trial  of  prince  and  people,  whether  they 
had  trust  and  confi<lence  in  God  their  deliverer.  See  Bp.  Sherlock's  Dis- 
courses on  Prophecy,  Disc.  iv. ;  where  he  has  excellently  explained  the 
reason  and  elTect  of  the  law,  and  the  influence  which  the  observance,  or 
neglect  of  it  had  in  the  affairs  of  the  Israelites. 


43 


(5.)  In  order  to  prevent  or  restrain  that  royal  avarice  or 
luxury,  for  which  oriental  monarchs  have  always  been  dis- 
tinguished, the  king  was  forbidden  gr'ulli/  to  multiply  to  hi)ii- 
self  silver  and  gold ,-  lest  the  circulation  of  money  should  be 
obstructed,  industry  discouraged,  or  his  subjects  be  impove- 
rished. 

(().)  In  order  that  they  might  not  be  ignorant  of  true  reli- 
gion, and  of  the  laws  of  the  Israelites,  the  king  was  enjoined 
to  write  out,  for  his  own  use,  a  correct  copy  of  tiie  divine 
law;  which  injunction  was  intended  to  rivet  this  law  more 
firmly  in  his  memory,  and  to  hold  him  in  constant  subjection 
to  its  authority.  1'  or  the  same  purpose  he  was  required  to 
read  in  tliis  copy  all  the  days  of  his  life,  that  he  may  learn  to 
far  the  Lord  his  God,  to  keep  all  the  words  of  this  law,  ana 
these  statutes,  to  do  them. 

Thus  the  power  of  the  Israelitish  kings  was  circumscribed 
by  a  code  oi  fundamental  and  efjual  laws,  provided  by  infi- 
nite wisdom  and  rectitude.  With  regard  to  actual  facts,  it  ap- 
pears from  1  Sam.  x.  25.  compared  witii  2  Sam.  v.  .3.  1  Kings 
xii.  22 — 21.  and  2  Kings  xi.  17.  that  tiie  lsraeliti.~b  kings 
were  by  no  means  possessed  of  unlimited  power,  but  were 
restricted  by  a  solemn  stipulation ;  although  tiiey  on  some 
occasions  evinced  a  disposition  leaning  towards  despotism. 
(I  Sam.  xi.  5 — 7.  and  xxii.  17,  IH.y  They  had,  however, 
the  rigiit  of  making  war  and  peace,  as  well  as  tiie  power  of 
life  and  death  ;  and  could  on  particular  occasions  put  criminals 
to  death,  without  the  formalities  of  justice  (2  Sam.  i.  5 — 15. 
iv.  9 — 12.);  but,  in  general  they  administered  justice;  some- 
times in  a  summary  way  by  themselves  where  the  case  ap- 
peared clear,  as  David  did  (see  2  Sam.  xii.  1 — 5.  xiv.  4 — 11. 
and  1  Kings  ii.  5 — 9. ),  or  by  judgesduly  constituted  to  hear  and 
determine  causes  in  the  king's  name.  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  4.  xxvi. 
29 — 32.)  Michaelis  thinks  it  probable  that  there  were  supe- 
rior courts  established  at  Jerusalem,  in  which  David's  sons 
presided,  and  that  in  Psal.  cxxii.  5.  there  is  an  allusion  to 
them ;  but  no  mention  is  made  of  a  supreme  tribunal  in  that 
city  earlier  than  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat.  (2  Chron.  xix.  8 
— 11.)  Although  the  kings  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  grant- 
ing pardons  to  olfenders  at  their  pleasure,  without  consulting 
any  person ;  and  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  exercised  great  power, 
sometimes  deposing  or  condemning  to  death  even  the  high- 
priest  himself  (1  Sam.  xxii.  17,  18.  1  Kings  ii.  26,  27.),  and 
at  other  times  reforming  gross  abuses  in  religion,  of  which 
we  have  examples  in  the  zealous  conduct  of  Hezekiah  and 
Josiah ;  yet  this  power  was  enjoyed  by  them  not  as  absolute 
sovereigns  in  their  own  right.  They  were  merely  the  vice- 
roys of  Jehovah,  who  was  the  sole  legislator  of  Israel :  and, 
therefore,  as  the  kings  could  on  no  occasion,  either  enact  a 
new  law  or  alter  or  repeal  an  old  one,  the  government  conti- 
nued to  be  a  theocracy,  as  well  under  their  permanent  admin- 
istration, as  we  have  seen  that  it  was  under  the  occasional 
administration  of  the  judges.  The  only  difference  that  can 
be  discovered  between  the  two  species  of  government  is,  that 
the  conduct  of  the  judges  was  generally  directed  by  urim^ 
and  that  of  the  kings,  either  by  the  inspiration  of  God  vouch- 
safed to  themselves,  or  by  prophets  raised  up  from  time  to 
time  to  reclaim  them  when  deviating  from  their  duty,  as  laid 
down  bv  the  law. 

(7.)  Lastl)',  the  monarch  was  charged,  that  his  heart  he  not 
lifted  up  above  his  brethren ,-  in  other  words,  to  govern  his 
subjects  with  mildness  and  beneficence,  not  as  slaves,  but  as 
brothers.  So,  David  styled  his  subjects  his  brethren  in 
1  Chron.  xxviii.  2.;  and  this  amiable  model  was,  subse- 
quently, imitated  by  the  first  Christian  emperors,  particularly 
by  Constautine  the  Great.^ 

Thus  the  regal  government,  though  originating  in  the  per- 
verse impiety  and  folly  of  the  Israelites,  was  so  regulated 
and  guarded  by  the  divine  law,  as  to  promise  the  greatest 
public  benefits.  It  is  to  be  observea  that  the  preceding 
enactments  relate  to  the  election  of  a  king,  not  of  a  queen. 
Athaliah,  indeed,  reigned,  but  she  was  an  usurper;  and,  long 
afterwards,  Alexandra,  the  daughter  of  Jannasus,  also 
reigned.  She,  however,  reigned  as  a  queen  only  in  name, 
being  under  the  influence  of  the  Pharisees. 

It  was  customary  for  the  Jewish  kings  sometimes  tonomi- 

'  That  the  Israelitish  monarch.s,  even  in  the  worst  times,  were  considered 
not  as  above  law,  but  as  restrained  by  it,  is  e\ident  from  the  history  of  Ahab, 
a  most  abandoned  prince.  Though  he  earnestly  coveted  the  vineyard  of 
Naboth,  one  of  hissulijects,  and  offered  to  purchase  it,  yet  because  the  law 
prohibited  the  alienation  of  lands  from  one  tribe  or  family  to  another,  he 
could  not  obtain  it,  until,  by  bribing  false  witnes.ses,  ho  had  procured  the 
legal  condemnation  and  death  of  Naboth,  as  a  traitor  and  blasphemer.  (See 
1  Kings  xxi.  1 — 14.)  Tappan's  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities,  pp.  81,  82. 
The  preceding  regulations  concerning  the  Hebrew  monarchs  are  also  fuHy 
considered  and  illustrated  by  Michaelis,  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  pp.  266— 2^. 

*  Tappan's  Lectures,  p.  93. 


44 


GOVERNMENT  FROM  THE  PATRIARCHAL  TIMES 


[Paiit  ir. 


nate  their  successors,  and  sometimes  to  assume  them  as 
partners  with  them  in  the  government  during  their  own  life- 
time.    Thus  David  caused  Solomon  to  be  anointed  (1  Kings 

i.  32 40.) ;  so  that  Solomon  reigned  conjointly  with  his 

father  during  the  short  remainder  of  David's  lih;,  for  it  does 
not  appear  that  the  latter  resigned  his  sceptre  till  he  resigned 
his  breath.  In  like  manner  Rehoboam,  though  a  prince  of 
no  great  merit,  appointed  his  youngest  son  Alnjah  to  be  ruler 
among  his  brethren  (2  Chrou.  xi.  22.),  designing  that  he 
should  reign  after  him ;  and  accordingly  Abijah  succeeded 
him  on  the" throne.  (2  Chrou.  xiii.  1.)  So,  among  the  sons 
of  Josiah,  Jehoahaz,  the  younger,  was  preferred  to  .lehoia- 
kim  the  elder.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  31—36.)  This  practice  of  the 
Jewish  sovereio-ns  serves  to  elucidate  some  supposed  chrono- 
logical difficulties  in  Sacred  History. 

2,  The  Inauguration  of  the  Kings  wasperformed  with 
various  ceremonies  and  with  great  pomp.  The  principal  of 
these  was  anointing  with  holy  oil  (Psal.  Ixxxix.  20.),  which 
was  sometimes  privately  performed  by  a  prophet  (1  Sam.  x. 
1.  xvi.  1 — 13.  1  Kings  xix.  16.  2  Kings  ix.  1 — 6.),  and  was 
a  symbolical  prediction  that  tire  person  so  anointed  would 
ascend  the  throne  ;  but  after  the  monarchy  was  established, 
this  unction  was  performed  by  a  priest  (1  Kings  i.  39,),  at 
first  in  some  public  place  (1  Kings  i.  32 — 34.),  and  after- 
wards in  the  temple,  the  monarch  elect  being  surrounded  by 
his  guards.  (2  Kin^s  xi.  11,  12.  2  Chron.  xxiii.)'  Jt  is 
probable,  also,  that  he  was  at  the  same  time  girded  with  a 
sword.  (Psalm  xlv.  3.)  After  the  king  was  anointed  he 
was  proclaimed  by  the  sound  of  the  trumpet.  In  this  man- 
ner was  Solomon  proclaimed  (1  Kings  i.  34.  39.),  and  (it 
should  seem)  also  the  rebel  Absalom.  (2  Sam.  xv.  10.) 
When  Jehovah  proclaimed  his  law,  and  himself  to  be  the 
King  of  Israel,  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  preceded  with  great 
vehemence.  (Exbd.  xix.  16.)  The  knowledge  of  this  cir- 
cumstance will  explain  the  many  passages  in  the  Psalms,  in 
which  God  is  said  to  have  gone  up  with  a  shout,-  the  Lord, 
with  the  sound  of  a  trumpet  ,■  and  the  Israelites  are  called 
upon,  with  trumpets  to  make  a  joyful  noise  before  the  Lord  the 
King.  (See  Psal.  xlvii.  5.  xcviii.  6,  &c.)  From  this  cere- 
mony of  anointing,  kings  are  in  the  Scriptures  frequently 
termed  the  anointed  of  the  Lord  and  of  the  God  of  Jacob. 
(ISam.  xxiv.  6.  10.  xxvi.  9.  11.  16.  23.  2  Sam.  xxiii.  1. 
Psal.  ii.  2.  Ixxxix.  38.  Habak.  iii.  13.)  A  diadem  or  crown 
was  also  placed  upon  the  sovereign's  head  and  a  sceptre  put 
into  his  hand  (Ezek.  xxi.  26.  Psal.  xlv.  6.  2  Kings  xi.  12.), 
after  which  he  entered  into  a  solemn  covenant  with  his  sub- 
jects that  he  would  govern  according  to  its  conditions  and 
to  the  law  of  Moses.  (2  Sam.  v.  3.  1  Chron.  xi.  3.  2  Kings 
xi.  12.  2  Chron.  xxiii.  11.  compare  Deut.  xvii.  18.)  The 
nobles  in  their  turn  promised  obedience,  and  appear  to  have 
confirmed  this  pledge  with  a  kiss,  either  of  the  knees  or 
feet.  (Psal.  ii.  12.)  Loud  acclamations  accompanied  with 
music  then  followed,  after  which  the  king  entered  the  city. 
n  Kings  i.  39,  40.  2  Kings  xi.  12.  19.  2  Chron.  xxiii.  11.) 
To  this  practice  there  are  .numerous  allusions  both  in  the  Old 
Testament  (Psal.  xlvii.  1 — 9.  xcvii.  1.  xcix.  1,  &c.)  as 
well  as  in  the  New  (Matt.  xxi.  9,  10.  Markxi.  9,  10.  Luke 
xix.  35 — 38.);  in  which  last-cited  passages  the  Jews,  by 
welcoming  our  Saviour  in  the  same  manner  as  their  kings 
were  formerly  inaugurated,  manifestly' acknowledged  him  to 
be  the  Messiah  whom  they  expected.  Lastly,  after  entering 
the  city,  the  kings  seated,  themselves  upon  the  throne,  and 
received  the  congratulations  of  their  subjects.    (1  Kings  i. 

«  Where  the  kingdom  was  hereditary,  as  that  of  Judah  was,  every  king 
was  not  anointed,  tiul  only  the  first  of  the  family  ;  who  being  anointed  for 
himself  and  all  his  successors  of  the  same  family,  they  required  no  other 
unction.  If,  however,  any  difficulty  arose  concerning  the  successinn, 
then  the  person  who  obtained  tlie  throne,  though  of  the  same  family,  was 
anointed  in  order  to  terminate  the  dispute  ;  after  which  the  title  v^^as  not 
to  be  questioned.  This  was  tlie  case  with  Solomon,  Joash,  Jelioahaz,  and 
otliers.  The  kingdom  was  not  made  hereditary  in  the  family  of  SSaul ;  and, 
therefore,  Ishbosheth's  seizing  on  the  crown  was  only  an  usurpation.   The 

Eower  of  nominating  a  successor  to  Saul  was  reserved  by  God  to  himself, 
y  whom  David  (who  was  no  relation  to  Baul  by  blood,  1  Sam.  xvi.  12.)  was 
appointed  king.  David,  therefore,  had  no  other  title  but  by  divine  appoint- 
ment, first  signified  by  the  prophet  Samuel's  anointing  him,  and  afterwards 
by  the  voluntary  ratification  of  this  appointment  on  tlie  part  of  the  people  : 
so  that  the  anointing  of  David  was  necessary  for  the  confirmation  of  his 
title.  Uut  the  kingdom  being  made  hereditary  in  David's  family,  his  being 
anointed  served  for  him  and  all  his  successors,  except  when  the  right  to 
the  throne  was  disputed.  Thus,  when  Solomon's  right  to  the  throne  was 
contested  by  his  elder  brother  Adonijah,  it  was  necessary  that  he  should 
be  crowned,  in  order  to  quash  that  claim.  In  like  manner,  Joash,  the 
seventh  king  of  .Judah,  was  anointed,  because  Athaliah  had  usurped  and 
possessed  the  throne  for  six  years.  (2  Kings  xi.  12.)  So,  Jehoahaz,  the 
younger  son  of  Josiah,  was  anointed  king  (2  Icings  xxiii.  30.),  and  reigned 
lliree  months ;  after  which,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  elder  brother  Jehoia- 
Uim,  who  ought  first  to  have  ascended  the  throne  of  Judah.  Thus  it  ap- 
pears, that  in  all  cases  of  disputed  succession,  anointing  was  deemed  to 
ijive  a  preference.    Home's  Scripture  History  of  the  Jews,  vol.  i.  p.  343. 


35.  47,  48.  2  Kings  xi.  19,  20.)  On  the  inauguration  of 
Saul,  however,  when  there  was  neither  sceptre,  diadem,  nor 
throne,  these  ceremonies  were  not  observed.  After  the 
establishment  of  royalty  among  the  Jews,  it  appears  to  have 
been  a  maxim  in  their  law,  that  the  king^s  person  was  inviola- 
ble, even  though  he  might  be  tyrannical  and  unjust  (1  Sam. 
xxiv.  5 — 8.) ;  a  maxim  which  is  necessary  not  only  to  the 
security  of  the  king,  but  also  to  the  welfare  of  the  subject. 
On  this  principle,  the  Amalekite,  who  told  David  the  im- 
probable and  untrue  story  of  his  having  put  the  mortally 
wounded  Saul  to  death,  that  he  might  not  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  Philistines,  was  merely  on  this  his  own  statement 
ordered  by  David  to  be  instantly  despatched,  because  he  had 
laid  his  hand  on  the  Lord^s  Anointed.    (2  Sam.  i.  14.) 

3.  The  CHIEF  Distinctions  of  Majesty  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  were  the  royal  apparel,  the  crown,  the  throne,  and 
the  sceptre.  The  royal  apparel  was  splendid  (Matt.  vi.  29.), 
and  the  retinue  of  the  sovereigns  was  both  numerous  and 
magiuficent.  (1  Kings  iv.  1 — 24.)  That  the  apparel  of  the 
Jewish  monarchs  was  different  from  that  of  all  other  persons, 
is  evident  from  Ahab's  changing  his  apparel  before  he  en- 
gaged inbattle,  and  from  Jehoshaphat's  retaining  his.  (livings 
xxii.  30.)  It  is  most  probable,  after  the  example  of  other 
oriental  sovereigns,  that  their  garments  were  made  of  purple 
and  fine  white  linen  (Esth.  viii.  15.) :  in  after-times,  it  ap- 
pears from  Luke  xvi.  19.  that  the  rich  and  great  were  clad 
lu  purple  and  fine  linen  :  and  this  circumstance  may  account 
for  Pilate's  soldiers  clothing  Christ  with  purple  (Mark  xv. 
17.),  and  for  Herod  the  tetrarch,  with  his  men  of  war,  array- 
ing him  in  a  gorgeous,  most  probably  a  white  robe  (Luke 
xxiii.  11.),  thereby  in  derision  clothing  him  as  a  king. 
Further,  their  Crowns  or  diadems  glittered  with  gold,  silver, 
and  precious  stones.  (2  Sam.  xii.  30.  Zech.  vi.  11.)  Their 
arms  were  decorated  with  bracelets  (2  Sam.  i.  10.)  as  those 
of  the  Persian  sovereigns  are  to  this  day  •,^  and  their  thrones 
were  equally  magnificent.  The  throne  of  Solomon  is  par- 
ticularly described  in  1  Kings  x.  18 — 20.  .Similar  to  this 
was  the  throne  on  which  the  sovereign  of  Persia  was  seated 
to  receive  his  late  Majesty's  ambassador,  Sir  Gore  Ousele)% 
Bart.  It  was  ascended  by  steps,  on  which  were  painted 
dragons  (that  of  Solomon  was  decorated  with  carved  lions ; 
and  was  also  overlaid  with  fine  gold).^  The  royal  Sceptre 
seems  to  have  been  various  at  different  times.  That  of  Saul 
was  a  javelin  or  spear  (1  Sam.  xviii.  10.  xxii.  6.),  as  Justin 
informs  us  was  anciently  the  practice  among  the  early  Greek 
sovereigns.''  Sometimes  the  sceptre  was  a  walking-stick, 
cut  from  the  branches  of  trees,  decorated  with  gold  or  studded 
with  golden  nails.  Such  sceptres  were  carried  by  judges, 
and  by  such  a  sceptre  Homer  introduces  Achilles  as  swear- 
ing,^ and  to  a  sceptre  of  this  description  the  prophet  Ezekiel 
unquestionably  alludes,  (xix.  11.)  The  sceptres  of  the 
ancient  Persian  monarchs  were  of  solid  gold.  (Esth.  v.  2.)'^ 

In  time  of  peace,  as  well  as  of  war,  it  was  customary  to 
have  watchmen  set  on  high  places,  wherever  the  king  was, 
in  order  to  prevent  him  from  being  surprised.  Thus  David, 
at  Jerusalem,  was  informed  by  the  watchmen  of  the  approach 
of  the  messengers,  who  brought  him  tidings  of  Absalom's 
defeat.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  24 — 27.)  And  Jehoram  kino-  of 
Israel,  who  had  an  army  lying  before  Ramoth-Gilead,  Icept 
a  watchman  on  the  tower  of  Je^reel  where  he  was,  w^ho 
spied  the  company  of  Jehu  as  he  came,  and  accordingly  an- 
nounced it  to  the  king.    (2  Kings  ix.  17.  20. )' 

It  is  well  known  that  the  tables  of  the  modern  oriental 
sovereigns  are  characterized  by  luxurious  profusion ;  and 
vast  numbers  are  fed  from  the  royal  kitchen. ^  This  fact 
serves  to  account  for  the  apparently  immense  quantity  of 
provisions  stated  in  1  Kings. iv.  22,  23.  28.  to  have  "Ijeen 
consumed  by  the  household  of  Solomon,  whose  vessels  were 
for  the  most  part  of  massive  gold  (1  Kings  x.  21),  and  which 
were  furnished  throughout  the  year  from  the  twelve  pro- 
vincfes  into  which  he  divided  his  dominions.  A  similar  cus- 
tom obtains  in  Persia  to  this  day.s     Splendid  banquets  were 

2  Morier's  Second  .Journey,  p.  173.  =  Ibid  p.  174. 

<  Hist.  lib.  xliii.  c.  .3.  '  »•  Iliad,  lib.  i.  v.  231—239. 

«  Pareau,  Antiqnitas  Hebraica,  pp.  277—279.  Schiilzii  ArclK-eblogia 
Hebraica,  pp.  4.''i,  46.  Jahn,  ArchKologia  Biblica,  §§223—227.  Ackermann, 
ArchKologiaBlblica,  §§217—220. 

1  Home's  Scripture  History,  vol.  i.  p.  352. 

»  Not  fewer  than  two  t/iousandare  said  to  be  employed  about  the  palace 
of  the  reigning  Emir  of  the  Druses.  "We  saw,"  says  Mr.  Jowett,  "many 
professions  and  trades  going  on  in  it, — soldiers,  horse-breakers,  carpen- 
ters, blacksmiths,  scribes,  cooks,  tobacconists,  &c.  There  was,  in  the 
air  of  this  mingled  assemblage,  something  which  forcibly  brought  to  jiiy 
recollection  the  description  of  an  eastern  royal  household,  as  given  to  the- 
Israelites  by  Samuel.  1  Sam.  viii.  11—17."  Jowetl's  Christian  Researches, 
in  Syria,  p.  84. 

9  Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  274. 


Chap.  I.] 


TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


fiven  by  tho  Idnqrs  (Dan.  v.  1.  Matt.  xxii.  1.  Mark  vi.  21.); 
ut  it  (Iocs  not  a|)|)ear  tliat  woiuon  wero  adinittfd  to  them, 
rxcopt  in  i'cTsia,  wiion  tlie  queen  was  present,  until  the  men 
<rrew  warm  with  wine.  (Dan.  v.  2,  3.  23.  Kslh.  i.  11.  v.  4. 
H.  vii.  I.)' 

4.  N\niierous  are  the  Allusions  in  thk  SAmED  Writings 
TOTHK  ('ouitTS  OF  Princes,  and  to  the  rejral  state  which  tliey 
anciently  enjoyed.  " Tlie  eastern  monarehs  were  ever  dis- 
tintrnislicd  lor  studiously  kee|)in<r  u]>  tlie  majesty  of  royalty, 
and  thus  inspirinu;  thi-ir  suhjects  witli  the  most  n^verenlial 
awe.  Thi  y  were  difficult  of  access,2  ycry  rarely  showinjr 
themselves  to  their  i)eople,  and  lived  in  tht!  depth  of  their 
vast  palaces,  surrotinded  with  every  possible  luxurj',  and 
(TralifyinfT  every  desire  as  it  arose.  In  these  kiufjdoms 
of  slaves  it  was  accounted  the  summit  of  human  jrrandeur 
and  felicity  to  be  admit  ed  into  that  si)leiidid  circle  which 
surrounded  the  person  of  their  soverei<;n  ;"3  whence  lh(> 
c  xpressioii  of  seeiiu^-  (Jod  (Matt.  v.  H.)  is  to  be  explained 
of  th(!  enjoyment  of  ihe  hij>hest  |)ossible  hai)])iness,  namely. 
Ills  favour  and  protection,  especially  in  tlie  life  to  come. 
Aiul  as  only  a  seli^ct  few  in  the  oriental  courts  were  per- 
mitted to  behold  the  face  of  the  monarch,  it  is  in  reference 
to  this  custom  that  the  anirel  (Jabriel  rejilicd  to  Zechariah 
(who  hesitated  to  believe  his  annunciation  of  the.  Baptist's 
birth),  that  he  was  (Jabriel  that  stood  in  the  presence  of 
(iod  ;  thus  inlimatiny;  that  he  stood  in  a  state  of  hiirh  favour 
and  trust  with  Jehovah.  (Luke  i.  19.)  To  dwell,  or  to  kfand 
in  the  presence  of  a  mveretixn  is  an  oriental  idiom,  importing 
the  most  eminent  and  di<rnificd  station  at  court.' 

This  allusive  phraseoToiry  beautifully  illustrates  another 
very  striking-  passage  of  Scripture.  Wiien  the  disciples,  from 
their  very  low  conceptions  of  the  nature  of  ('hrist's  kingdom, 
were  contending  among  themselves  who  should  be  the  great- 
est, our  Saviour,  in  order  to  dispel  these  animosities,  t6ok  a 
child  ;  aiul,  phicing  him  before  them,  in  the  most  solemn 
manner  assured  them  that,  unless  tlieij  were  converted,  and  pu- 
rified their  minds  from  all  ambition  and  worldly  thoughts, 
//icy  uluiuhl  nut  enter  the  /kingdom  of  Jieaven,  should  not  be 
deemed  proper  subjects  of  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  the  Mes- 
siah. Init,  continued  Jesus  Christ,  whosoever  therefore  shall 
hundilc  hiinsilf  us  this  little  child,  the  same  is  greatest  in  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  ,■  and,  after  urging  various  cautions  against 
harshly  treating  sincere  and  humble  Christians,  he  added, 
7 (//re  /teed  that  i/e  despise  not  one  of  these  little  ones ,-  for  J  say 
unto  I/O  I,  Titat  in  heaven  their  angels  do  alwai/s  BEHor.D  the 

FACE  OF  MY  FaTIIER  WHICH  IS  IN    HEAVEN.     (Matt.  Xviii.  1 

10.) ;  referring  to  the  custom  of  oriental  courts,  where  the 
great  men,  those  who  are  highest  in  office  or  favour,  are 
most  fremipntly  in  the  prince's  palace  and  presence.  (Esth. 
i.  14.  1  Kinos  x.  8.  xii.  6.  2  Kings  xxv.  19.)-'^  On  another 
occasion,  after  our  Lord  had  promised  the  apostles  that  they 
should  sit  on  twelve  thrones  to  judge  the  tribes  of  Israel,  still 
mistaking  the  spiritual  nature  of  his  kingdom,  tlie  mother  of 
-  James  and  John  came  to  Jesus  with  her  sons,  and  rer|uested 
that  he  would  grant  that  they  might  sit,  the  one  on  his  right 
hand,  and  the  other  on  his  left  hand,  in  his  kinodom.  (Matt.  xx. 
20 — 23.)  This  alludes  to  the  custom  whicli  in  those  times 
obtained  in  the  courts  of  princes;  where  two  of  the  noblest 
and  most  dignified  personages  were  respectively  seated,  one 
on  each  side,  next  tlie  sovereign  liimself,  thus  enjoying  the 
most  eminent  places  of  dimuty.  (Compare  1  Kings  ii.  19. 
Psal.  xlv.  9.  and  Ileb.  i.  3.)  In  reply  to  the  request  of  Sa- 
lome, our  Saviour  stated  that  seats  of  uistingniisbed  eminence 
in  his  kingdom  were  not  to  be  given  through  favour  or  par- 
tiality, but  to  those  only  whom  God  should  deem  to  be  pro- 
perly prepared  for  them. 

Tne  eastern  monarchs  were  never  approached  but  with 
presents  of  some  kind  or  other,  accordinor  to  the  ability  of  the 
individual,  who  accompanied  them  with  expressions  of  the 
profoundest  reverence,  prostrating  themselves  to  the  ground  ;s 

•  This  is  confirmed  by  Herodotus,  lib.  v.  c.  18.  Jahn,  ArcliKologia 
Biblica,  §227.    Ackermann,  Arob;colo!;ia  Biblica,  §221. 

1  Anions  tlie  Persians  it  was  doalh  lo  enter  llie  royal  presence  without 
bcins  called  for,  Ivsth.  iv.  11.  Herodotus  (book  i.  c.  99.)  stales  Deioces 
tlio  JVIedo  to  liavp  boon  the  first  who  instituted  this  ordinance. 

a  Harwood's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  ii.  pp.  322,  323. 

*  Ibid.  p.  -.m. 

>  Ibid.  p.  324,  325.  Among  the  ancient  Persians,  to  sit  next  the  person 
of  tho  kins  was  the  higliest  possible  honour.  See  1  Esdras  in.  7.  iv.  12. 
Joseplum,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xi.  c.3.  §2. 

«  It  was  (says  ..Elian)  the  law  of  Persia,  that,  whenever  the  king  went 
abroad,  tlie  people  should,  according  to  their  abilities  and  occupations, 
present  him,  as  he  passed  alons,  with  some  gift, — as  an  ox,  a  sheep,  a 
quantity  of  corn,  or  wine,  or  witli  some  fruit.  It  tiappened  one  day,  when 
Artaxerxcs  was  taking  the  air,  that  he  was  met  by  one  SiuMtes.  The  man, 
being  at  a  great  distance  from  home,  was  in  the  greatest  distress,  having 
Dothing  to  o£fer,  and  observing  others  crowding  with  tlieir  presenta.    At 


45 

Thus  .Jacob  in- 


and  the  same  practice  continues  to  this  day. 
structed  his  sons  to  carry  a  present  to  Joseph,  when  they 
went  to  buy  food  of  him  as  governor  of  Egyjit.  ((i<  n.  xliii. 
11.  2G.)  In  like  manner  the  magi,  who  came  fioni  the  East 
to  adore  Jesus  Christ,  as  king  of  the  Jews,  brought  him  pre- 
sents of  gold,  frankincense,  and  myrrh.  (Matt.  ii.  11.)  Allu- 
sions to  this  practice  occur  in  Gen.  xxxii.  13.  1  Kings  x.  2. 
10.  25.  2  Kings  v.  5. ;  see  also  1  Sam.  ix.  7.  and  2  Kings 
viii.  8.  The  prostrations  were  made,  with  every  demonstra- 
tion of  reverence,  to  the  ground.  Thus  David  .'looped  w.th 
his  face  to  the  earth,  and  ijoii-ed  himsilf  before  Saul.  (1  S;irn. 
xxiv.  8.)  The  niode  of  doing  reverence  to  the  sovert  ign, 
among  the  ancient  Persians,  was  little  short  of  absolute  ithd- 
atry;^  and  similar  prostrations  are  made  by  their  descendants 
in  the  nresent  day."  On  these  occasions,  it  Wiis  usual  toad- 
dress  tliem  with  some  comiiliment,  or  with  wisiies  for  their 
long  life.  Thus  the  widow  of  Tekoah,  after  prostrating  her- 
self before  David,  addressed  him  with — .'///  lord  is  wise  ac- 
cording to  the  u'ifdoni  of  an  angilif  God'-  (2  Sam.  xiv.  20.); 
and  the  Chaldccan  magi  accosted  Nebuchadnezzar  with — 0 
king,  lire  forever  /  (Dan.  ii.  4.)"'  The  all  but  idolatrous  ho- 
mage thus  rendered  to  their  monarchs,  was  exactr  d  by  their 
chief  courtiers  and  favourites  of  all  who  approached  them  ; 
and  such  was  their  jiride,  that  the  refusal  of  this  homage 
never  failed  to  involve  the  refractory  individual  in  ruin. 
Thus  Orsinus,  a  descendant  of  Cyrus,  who  had  refused  to 
worship  thecunuch  Bagoas  (who  had  enslaved  Alexander  by 
his  abominable  obsequiousness),  fell  a  victim  to  the  revenge- 
ful minion's  wounded  pride."  In  like  manner,  Mordecai's 
refusal  to  prostrate  himself  before  Hainan  (Esth.  iii.  2.) 
would  have  proved  fatal  not  only  to  himself  but  also  to  the 
Jewish  nation,  had  not  the  malignant  design  of  the  crafty 
but  mortified  Agagite  (Esth.  iii.  3 — G.  v.  13.)  been  provi- 
dentially frustrated. 

Those  who  rendered  personal  services  to  the  sovereign  had 
their  names  in.scribed  in  the  public  registers  (Esth.  vi.  1.)  ;'2 
and  were  rewarded  by  distinguished  marks  of  the  royal 
favour.  Thus  Mordecai  was  arrayed  with  the  royal  vest- 
ments, and  led  in  state  on  horseback  throu<rh  the  streets  of 
the  city,  with  the  royal  diadem  on  his  head.  (Esth.  vi.  8 — 
11.)  On  such  occasions  the  person  raised  to  dignity  was 
invested  with  a  new  name  or  title  expressive  of  his  deserts. 
This  was  the  case  with  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  45.),  Solomon 
(2  Sam.  xii.  25.),  Daniel  and  his  companions  (^Dan.  i.  7.)  ; 
and  to  this  there  is  an  evident  allusion  in  Kev.  ii.  17. 


rally  appoint  for  the  reception  of  ambassadors  such  an  hour 
as.  according  to  the  season,  or  the  intended  room  of  audience, 
will  best  enable  them  to  display  the  brilliancy  of  their  jewels 
in  full  sunshine.  The  title  oH  bright  ox  resplendent  was  added 
to  the  name  of  one  sovereign,  who  lived  upwards  of  eight 
centuries  ago ;  because  his  regal  ornaments,  glittering  in  the 
solar  rays  on  a  solemn  festival,  so  dazzled  the  eyes  of  all 
beholders  that  they  could  scarcely  bear  the  effulgence :  and 
some  knew  not  which  was  the  monarch,  or  which  the  great 
luminary  of  the  day.  Thus,  Theophylact  Simocatta'^  (a 
Greek  historian  who  flourished  in  the  seventh  century  of  the 
Christian  a;ra)  relates  that  the  Persian  king,  Ilormisdas, 
sitting  on  his  throne,  astonished  all  spectators  oy  the  blazino- 

length  he  ran  to  the  river  Cyrus,  and  taking  up  some  water  in  both  his 
hands,  he  approached  the  monarch,  and  tlius  accosted  him  : — "  O  king, 
Te'vzn  for  ever!  Ijiow  pay  my  respects  in  tlie  best  manner  I  am  able.  I 
present  to  thee  some  of  the  waters  of  the  river  Cyrus :  should  your 
majesty  ever  pass  by,  or  near,  my  house,  I  hope  to  vie  with  the  best  of 
these  in  my  donatives."  The  monarch  was  highly  pleased  with  the  man, 
commanded  his  present  to  be  received  into  a  golden  vial,  and  afterwards 
liand-somcly  rewarded  him.    jElian,  Var..Hist.  hb.  i.  cc.  31,  32. 

1  (iuintus  Curtius,  lib.  vi.  c.  6.  torn.  ii.  p.  23.  (edit.  Bipont) :  lib.  viii.  c.  5. 
p.  lis. 

«  Morier's  Second  .Tourney,  p.  172. ;  where  an  engraving  is  given,  illus- 
trative of  the  oriental  prostrations. 

3  This  is  very  similar  to  the  hyperbolical  language,  which  is  addressed 
by  the  Hindoos  loan  European,  wlien  they  are  desirous  of  obtaining  some- 
tliing  from  him.  "  Sa/ieh,  say  they,  can  do  every  thing.  No  one  can  pre- 
vent the  execution  of  SahfJ>'s  commands.  Saheb  is  God-"  (Wjird's  View 
of  the  History,  <fcc.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  3230 

10  A  similar  salutation  is  to  this  day  given  in  India.  When  a  poor  man 
goes  into  the  presence  of  a  king,  to  solicit  a  favour,  he  says,  "  O  Father  ! 
ihou  art  the  support  of  the  destitute — Mayest  thou,  live  to  old  age!" 
Ibid.  p.  333. 

»»  Uuintus  Curtius,  lib.  x.  c.  1.  vol.  ii.  pp.  199—201.  (edit.  Bipont.) 

i»  Herodotus,  lib.  viii.  c.  85.  Thucydides,  lib.  i.  c.  129.  Josephus,  Ant. 
•Tud.  lib.  xi.  c.  6.  The  same  practice  continues  to  obtain  at  Ihe  Ottoman 
Porte  (Baron  de  Toll's  Mem.  vol.  li.  p.  15.),  and  also  in  Abyssinia,  and  other 
parts  of  the  East.    Burder's  Oriental  Customs,  vol.  i.  p.  311.  5th  edit. 

13  Theophylact,  lib.  iv.  c.  3.  cited  by  Sir  Wm.  Ouseley,  to  whom  we  are 
indebted  for  the  above  remark,  in  his  Travels  in  various  Countries  of  the 
East,  more  particularly  Persia,  voL  ii.  o.  36.  (London,  1821.  4to. 


46 


GOVERNMENT  FROM  THE  PATRIARCHAL  TIMES 


[Paut  II. 


glories  of  his  jewels.  Thus  also  king  Agrippa  was  almost 
regarded  as  a  god,  so  powerfully  did  his  ornamented  dress 
reflect  tlie  morning  sunbeams  ;'  and  it  was  probably  the 
splendour  of  Solomon  "  in  all  his  i^Iory,''''  when  seated  on 
the  throne,  in  addition  to  the  magnificence  of  his  establish- 
ment, which  so  struck  the  queen  of  Sheba  on  beholding 
them,  that  '■^ there  was  no  mort  spirit  in  her.''''  (I  Kings 
X.  4,  5.) 

J'urther,  whenever  the  oriental  sovereigns  go  abroad,  they 
are  uniformly  attended  by  a  numerous  and  splendid  retinue  : 
tlie  Hebrew  kings  and  their  sons  either  rode  on  asses  or 
mules  (2  Sam.  xiii.  2!).  1  Kings  i.  33.  38.),  or  in  chariots 
(1  KinCTS  i.  5.  2  Kinoes  ix.  21.  x.  15.),  preceded  or  accom- 
panied oy  their  royal  guards  (who,  in  2  Sam.  viii.  18.  and 
XV.  18.,  are  termed  Cherethites  and  Pelethites) ;  as  the 
oriental  sovereigns  do  to  this  day.  For  greater  state  they 
liad  footmen  to  run  before  them.  Thus,  the  rebel  Absalom 
Jiad  fipy  tnen  to  run  before  him.  (2  Sam.  xv.  1.)  And  in 
this  manner,  the  prophet  Elijah,  though  he  detested  the 
crimes  of  Ahab,  was  desirous  of  paying  him  all  that  respect 
which  was  due  to  his  exalted  station ;  girded  up  his  loins, 
and  ran  before  Aliab  to  the  entrance  of  Jezreel.  (1  Kings  xviii. 
46.)  In  India,  when  a  person  wishes  to  do  honour  to  an 
European,  he  will  run  before  his  palanquin  for  miles,^  Fur- 
ther, the  approach  of  a  king  was  often  announced  by  the 
sound  of  trumpets.  (1  Kings  i.  31.  39.)  Hence  the  presence 
of  God  is  described  in  the  same  manner  (Heb.  xii.  19.  com- 
pared with  Exod.  xix.  13.),  and  also  the  final  advent  of  the 
Messiah.  (Matt.  xxiv.  31.  1  Cor.  xv.  52.   1  Thess.  iv.  15.)^ 

Whenever  the  Asiatic  monarchs  entered  upon  an  expedi- 
tion, or  took  a  journey  through  desert  and  untravelled  coun- 
tries, they  sent  harbingers  before  them  to  prepare  all  things 
for  their  passage,  and  pioneers  to  open  the  passes,  level  the 
ways,  and  remove  all  impediments.  The  ancient  sovereigns 
of  Hindoostan  used  to  send  persons  to  precede  them  in  their 
journeys,  and  command  the  inhabitants  to  clear  the  roads  ;  a 
very  necessary  step  in  a  country,  where  there  are  scarcely 
any  public  roads.''  To  this  practice  the  prophet  Isaiah  mani- 
festly alludes  (Isa.  xl.  3.  compared  with  Mai.  iii.  1.  and 
Matt.  iii.  3.)  ;  and  we  shall  obtain  a  clear  notion  of  the 
preparation  of  the  way  for  a  royal  expedition,  and  the  force 
and  beauty  of  the  prophetic  declaration  will  fully  appear,  if 
we  attend  to  the  following  narrative  of  the  marches  of  Semi- 
ramis  in  Media,  recorded  by  Diodorus  Siculus.*  "  In  her 
march  to  Ecbatane,  she  came  to  the  Zarcean  mountain, 
which,  extending  many  furlongs,  and  being  full  of  craggy 
precipices  and  deep  hollows,  could  not  be  passed  without 
making  a  long  circuit.  Being  desirous,  therefore,  of  leaving 
an  everlasting  memorial  of  herself,  as  well  as  to  make  a 
shorter  way,  she  ordered  the  precipices  to  be  digged  down,  and 
the  hollow  places  to  be  filled  up  ,■  and  at  a  great  expense  she 
made  a  shorter  and  more  expeditious  road,  which  to  this  day 
is  called  the  road  of  Semiramis.  Afterwards  she  made  a 
progress  through  Persia,  and  all  her  other  dominions  in 
Asia  ;  and  wherever  she  came,  she  commanded  the  moun- 
tains and  craggy  precipices'  to  be  cut  down,  and,  at  a  vast 
expense,  made  the  ways  level  and  plain.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  low  places  she  raised  mounds,  on  which  she  erected  monu- 
ments in  honour  of  her  deceased  generals,  and  sometimes 
whole  cities."  The  writer  of  the  apocryphal  book  of  Baruch 
(v.  7.)  expresses  the  same  subject  by  the  same  images, 
either  taking  them  from  Isa.  xl.  3.  (or  perhaps  from  Ixii.  10 
— 12.),  or  from  the  common  notions  of  his  countrymen  : 
"  For  God,"  says  he,  "  hath  appointed  that  every  high  hill, 
and  banks  of  long  continuance,  should  be  cast  down  and  val- 
leys filled  up,  to  make  even  the  ground,  that  Israel  may  go 
safely  in  the  glory  of  God."  The  "  Jewish  church  was  that 
desert  country  to  which  John  the  Baptist  was  sent  (Matt. 
iii.  1 — 4.),  to  announce  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  It  was 
at  that  time  destitute  of  all  religious  cultivation,  and  of  the 
spirit  and  practice  of  piety;  and  John  was  sent  to  prepare 
the  way  of  the  Lord  by  preaching  the  doctrine  of  repentance. 
The  desert  is  therefore  to  be  considered  as  a  proper  emblem 
of  the  rude  state  of  the  Jewish  church,  which  was  the  true 
wilderness  meant  by  the  prophet,  and  in  which  John  was  to 
prepare  the  way  of  the  promised  Messiah."^ 

»  Acts  xii.  21,  22.  See  p.  79.  supra,  where  Josephus's  account  of  Agrip- 
pa's  gorgeous  array  is  given  in  illustration  of  the  sacred  historian. 

a  Statham's  Indian  Recollections,  pp.  116,  117. 

»  Robinson's  Lexicon  to  the  Greek  Testament,  p.  674. 

■«  Ward's  View  of  the  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  iii.  p.  339. 

»  BibliothecaHistorica,  lib.  ii.  cc.  13,  14.  (vol.  ii.  pp.  44^6.  edit.  Bipont.) 

«  Bishop  Lovsrth  on  Isaiah  xl.  vol.  ii.  pp.  252—254.  Dr.  Clarke's  Com- 
inentary  on  MaU.  iii  3.    A  practice,  similar  to  that  above  described,  is 


V.  With  regard  to  the  Revenues  of  the  Kings  of  Israel, 
as  none  were  appointed  by  Moses,  so  he  left  no  ordinances 
concerning  them  :  we  may,  however,  collect  from  the  Sacred 
Writings,  that  they  were  derived  from  the  following  sources : 

1.  Voluntary  offerings,  or  presents,  which  were  made  to 
them  conformably  to  the  oriental  custom.  (1  Sam.  x.  27. 
xvi.  20.)  Michaelis  is  of  opinion  that  they  were  confined 
to  Saul  only,  as  no  trace  of  them  is  to  be  found  after  his 
time. 

2.  The  produce  of  the  royal  flocks  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7.  2  Sam. 
xiii.  23.  2  Chron.  xxxii.  28,29.)  ;  and  as  both  king  and  sub- 
jects had  a  common  of  pasture  in  the  Arabian  deserts, 
Michaelis  thinks  that  David  kept  numerous  herds  there 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  29 — 31.),  which  were  partly  under  the  care 
of  Arabian  herdsmen. 

3.  The  produce  of  the  royal  demesnes,  consisting  of  arable 
lands,  vineyards,  olive  and  sycamore  grounds,  &c.  which 
had  originally  been  unenclosed  and  uncultivated,  or  were 
the  property  of  state  criminals  confiscated  to  the  sovereign  : 
these  demesnes  were  cultivated  by  bondsmen,  and,  perhaps, 
also  by  the  people  of  conquered  countries  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
26 — 31.  2  Chron.  xxvi.  10.);  and  it  appears  from  1  Sam. 
viii.  14.  xxii.  7.  and  Ezek.  xlvi.  17.  that  the  kings  assigned 
part  of  their  domains  to  their  servants  in  lieu  of  salary. 

4.  Another  source  of  the  royal  revenue  was  the  tenth  part 
of  all  the  produce  of  the  fields  and  vineyards,  the  collection 
and  management  of  which  seem  to  have  been  confided  to 
the  officers  mentioned  in  1  Kings  iv.  7.  and  1  Chron.  xxvii. 
25.  It  is  also  probable  from  1  Kings  x.  14.  that  the  Israelites 
likewise  paid  a  tax  in  money.  These  imposts  Solomon  appears 
to  have  increased  ;  and  Rehoboam's  refusal  to  lessen  them  is 
stated  by  the  sacred  historian  as  the  cause  of  the  rebellion 
of  the  ten  tribes  against  him.  (1  Kings  xii.  14.  18.)  There 
is  an  allusion  in  Mai.  i.  8.  and  Neh.  v.  18.  to  the  custom  of 
paying  dues  in  kind  to  governors,  which  obtains  to  this  day 
in  Abyssinia.' 

5.  Not  only  did  the  most  precious  part  of  the  plunder  of 
the  conquered  nations  flow  into  the  royal  treasury  (2  Sam. 
viii.),  but  the  latter  also  had  tributes  imposed  on  them,  which 
were  termed  Mincha,  or  presents,  and  were  paid  partly  in 
money,  and  partly  in  agricultural  produce.  (1  Kings  iv.  21. 
Psal.  lxxii.,10.  compared  with  1  Chron.  xxvii.  25 — 31.) 

6.  Lastly,  the  customs  paid  to  Solomon  by  the  foreign 
merchants  who  passed  through  his  dominions  (1  Kings  x. 
15.)  aflTorded  a  considerable  revenue  to  that  monarch  ;  who, 
as  the  Mosaic  laws  did  not  encourage  foreign  commerce, 
carried  on  a  very  extensive  and  lucrative  trade  (1  Kings  x. 
22.),  particularly  in  Egyptian  horses  and  the  byssus  or  fine 
linen  of  Egypt.   (1  Kings  x.  28,  29.)8 

VI.  On  the  introduction  of  the  regal  government  among 
the  Israelites,  the  princes  of  the  tribes,  heads  of  families, 
scribes  or  genealogists,  and  judges,  retained  the  authority 
which  they  had  previously  exercised,  and  constituted  a 
senate  or  legislative  assembly  for  the  cities,  in  or  near  which 
they  respectively  resided.  (1  Kings  xii.  1 — 24.  1  Chron. 
xxiii.  4.  xxvi.  29,  30.  xxviii.  and  xxix.  6.)  The  judges 
and  scribes  or  genealogists  were  appointed  by  the  sovereign, 
together  with  other  officers,  of  whom  the  following  were 
the  principal : — 

1.  The  most  important  officer  W^s  the  Prime  Minister, 
or  Second  to  the  King,  as  he  is  termed  in  Scripture.  Such 
was  Elkanah,  who  in  our  version  of  2  Chron.  xxviii.  7.  is 
said  to  have  been  next  (literally  seconrf) /o  Me  A-/??^  A liaz; 
Joseph  was  prime  minister  to  Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt  (Gen. 
xii.  40 — 43.) ;  and  Haman,  to  Ahasuerus.  (Esth.  iii.  1.) 
Jonathan,  speaking  to  David,  says, — Thou  shall  be  king  over 
Israel,  and  1  shall  be  next  unto  thee.  (1  Sam.  xviii.  17.)  From 
1  Chron.  xviii.  17.,  it  should  seem  that  this  office  was  some- 
times held  by  one  or  more  of  the  king's  sons. 

2.  The  Royal  Counsellors,  or  Privy  Council,  as  we 
perhaps  should  term  them.   (Isa.  iii.  3.  xix.  11,  12.  Jer.  xxvi. 

recorded  by  the  chaplain  to  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  ambassador  to  the  Mogul 
court  in  the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I. ;  who  says  (p.  128.)  that, 
making  a  progress  with  the  ambassador  and  emperor,  Ihey  came  to  a 
wilderness,  "where  (by  a  very  great  company  sent  before  us,  to  mhke 
those  passages  a?id  places  fit  for  us)  a  way  was  cut  out  and  made  even, 
broad  enough  for  our  convenient  passage.  And  in  the  place  where  we 
pitched  our  tents,  a  great  compass  of  ground  was  rid  and  made  plain  for 
them  by  grubbing  a  number  of  trees  and  bushes  :  yet  there  we  went  as 
readily  to  our  tents,  as  we  did  when  they  were  set  up  in  the  plains." 
Fragments  supplemental  to  Calmet's  Dictionary,  No.  171  See  similar  in- 
stances in  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  viii.  p.  277.  8vo.  Mr.  Forbes's  Oriental 
Memoirs,  vol.  ii.  p.  450,  and  Mr.  Ward's  View  of  the  History,  &c.  of  the 
Hindoos,  vol.  iii.  p.  132. 

1  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  353.  8vo. 

>  Jahn,  Archaeologia  Biblica,  §234.  Ackermann,  Archseologia  Biblica, 
§  228.    Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  pp.  299—307. 


Chap.  I.] 


TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


47 


11,)  Such  were  the  old  men  thai  stood  Ixfare  Solomon  while 
he  lived,  and  wliom  the  ho.ulstronir  llfhoboain  consulted 
( I  Kinirs  xii.  G.)  ;  and  such  also  was  Jonathan,  Duvid''s  uncle. 
(I  Cliroii.  xxvii.  32.) 

.3.  'I'lio  Pkoi'Hets,  thoujrh  holding;  a  divine  commission  as 
prii])li('ts,  nray,  ncvcrlliclcss,  he  iioliccd  •anioiiji;'  thi^  royal 
oilict^s  ;  as  tlicy  were  coiisultiul  l)y  tlie  pious  nionarchs  ot" 
Israel  and  Judah.  Thus  Nathan  was  consulted  by  David 
('i  Sam.  vii.  2.) ;  Micaiah,  hy  .lclioshaj)hat  (1  Kintrs  xxii.  7, 
8.);  Isaiah,  hy  Hczekiah  (2  Kiujjs  x;x.  2.) ;  and  tlus  pro- 
ph(>tess  lluldali,  hy  .Tosiaii.  (2  Kiiios  xxii.  11 — 20.)  13ut  the 
idolatrous  and  prouifratckinirs  imitated  tiic  iicathcn  nionarchs, 
and  sununoned  to  tiu'ir  council  soothsayers  ami  false  pro- 
j)liets.  Ahah,  for  instance,  consult(!d  the  pseudo-prophets 
of  Haal  n  Kings  xviii.  22.  and  xxii.  G.)  ;  as  Pharaoh  had 
before  called  in  the  wise  men  and  the  sorcerers  or  nuigicians 
(Kxod.  vii.  11.  and  viii.  18.);  and  Nebuchadnezzar  after- 
wards consulted  the  magicians  and  astrologers  in  his  realm. 
(Uan.  i.  20.) 

•1.  The  -\'3tD  (iMffZKiR)  or  IIepordi^r  (2  Sam.  viii.  16.), 
who  in  the  marj^in  of  our  larirer  Knglisli  liil)les  is  termed  a 
rente  in  lira  n  cer  OT  writer  of  chronicha,  ]lis  office  was  of  no 
mean  estimation  in  the  eastern  world,  where  it  was  customary 
with  kinjrs  to  keep  daily  re<risters  of  vdl  the  transactions  of 
their  reitrns.  Whoever  discharged  this  trust  with  effect,  it 
was  necessary  that  he  should  be  acquainted  with  the  true 
springs  and  secrets  of  action,  and  consequently  he  received 
into  tlie  greatest  confidence.  Ahilud  was  David's  recorder 
or  historiographer  (2  Sam.  viii.  IC),  and  appears  to  have 
been  succeeded  in  this  office  by  his  son  Jchoshaphat  (2  Sam. 
XX.  24.),  who  was  retained  hy  Solomon.  (1  Kings  iv.  3.) 
Joah,  the  son  of  Asaph,  was  the  recorder  of  the  pious  king 
Hezekiah.  (2  Kings  xviii.  18.  37.  Isa.  xxxvi.  3.)  In  Esther 
vi.  1.  and  x.  2.  mention  is  made  of  the  records  of  the  chroni- 
cles, written  by  this  officer. 

5.  The  1D1D  (soPHea)  or  Scribe  (Sept.  Tpi/ujunnJ^)  seems 
to  have  been  the  king's  secretary  of  state,  who  issued  all  the 
royal  commands :  he  also  registered  all  acts  and  decrees. 
Seraiah  (2  Sam.  viii.  17.)  and  Shcva  (2  Sam.  xx.  25.)  were 
David's  secretaries.  Ibis  officer  is  also  mentioned  in 
1  Kino's  iv.  3.  2  Kings  xviii.  18.  and  Isa.  xxxvi.  3. 

G.  The  High-Priest,  as  one  would  naturally  expect  in  a 
theocracy,  is  likewise  to  be  reckoned  among  the  royal  coun- 
sellors. Zadok  the  son  of  Ahitub,  and  Ahimelech  the  son 
of  Abiathar,  are  particularly  mentioned  among  the  principal 
officers  of  David.  (2  Sam.  viii.  17.   1  Chron.  xviii.  16.) 

VII.  Mention  has  already  been  incidentally  made  of  the 
numerous  retinue  that  attended  the  oriental  nionarchs :  the 
principal  officers,  who  thus  composed  the  domestic  establish- 
ment of  the  Israolitish  and  Jewish  kings,  were  as  follow: — 

1.  The  Governor  of  the  Palace,  who  was  over  the 
household,  seems  to  have  answered,  as  to  his  employment 
and  rank,  to  the  stewards  whom  the  rich  men  engaged  to 

'superintend  their  affairs.  To  him  was  committed  the  charge 
of  tiie  servants,  and  indeed  of  every  thing  which  belonged 
to  the  palace.  Ahishar  held  this  office  under  David  (1  Kin^s 
iv.  G.) ;  Obadiah,  under  Ahah  (1  Kings  xviii.  3.)  ;  and  Eli- 
akiin,  under  Ilezckiah.  (2  Kings  xviii.  18.)  From  Isa. 
xxii.  22.  it  appears  that  this  officer  wore,  as  a  mark  of  his 
office,  a  robe  of  a  peculiar  make,  bound  with  a  precious  gir- 
dle, and  carried  on  his  shoulder  a  richly  ornamented  key. 

2.  The  Officers,  mentioned  in  1  Kings  iv.  5.  7 — 10.  and 
1  Chron.  xxvii.  25 — 31.,  are  in  1  Kings  xx.  15.  called  the 
Pri.nces  of  the  Provinces.  They  supjjlied  the  royal  table, 
and  must  not  be  confounded  with  those  who  collected  the 
tribute.  In  2  Sam.  xx.  21.  and  1  Kings  iv.  6.  Adoram,  who 
is  enumerated  among  David's  and  Solomon's  officers  of  state, 
is  said  to  be  over  the  tribute  .-  he  was  probably  what  we  call 
chancellor  of  (he  exchequer.  He  received  and  brought  into  the 
royal  treasury  all  the  proceeds  of  taxes  and  tributes. 

3.  The  King's  Friend,  or  Companion,  was  the  person 
with  whom  the  sovereign  conversed  most  familiarly  and  con- 
fidentially. Thus,  Hushai  was  the  friend  of  David  (2  Sam. 
XV.  37.  xvi.  16.);  and  Zabud  the  son  of  Nathan,  of  Solo- 
mon. (1  Kings  IV.  5.)  In  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  this 
appellation  admitted  of  a  broader  meaning,  and  was  applied 
to  any  one  who  was  employed  to  execute  the  royal  com- 
mands, ^or  who  held  a  high  office  in  the  government.  See 
1  .Maoc.  X.  65.  xi.  26,  27. 

4.  The  King's  Life-Guard,  whose  commander  was  termed 
the  Captain  of  the  Guard.  This  office  existed  in  the  court 
of  the  Pharaohs  (Gen.  xxxvii.  36.  xxxix.  1.),  as  well  as  in 
that  of  the  Israelitish  and  Jewish  monarchs.  The  captain 
of  the  guard  appears  to  have  been  employed  in  executing 


summary  justice  on  state  criminals.  See  1  Kings  ii.  25.  34. 
In  the  time  of  David  the  royal  life-guards  were  called  Che- 
rethites  and  Pelethites,  concerning  the  origin  of  whose  names 
commentators  and  critics  are  by  no  means  agreed.  The 
Chaldee  Targuin,  on  the  second  book  of  Samuel,  tenns  them 
the  archers  and  stingers  .-  and  as  the  Hebrews  were  expert  in 
the  use  of  the  bow  and  the  sling,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  royal  guards  were  armed  with  them.' 

The  life-o-uards  of  the  Maccaboean  sovereigns,  and  subse- 
quently of  Herod  and  his  sons,  were  foreigners :  they  bore 
a  lance  or  long  spear,  whence  they  were  denominated  in 
Greek  ^TrsjtouxaToftc.  Among  the  other  duties  of  these  guards 
was  that  of  putting  to  death  condemned  persons  (Mark  vi. 
27.),  in  the  same  manner  as  the  capidgis  among  the  'I'urks 
and  other  Orientals  are  the  bearers  of  the  sovereign's  com- 
mands for  punishing  any  one,  whether  by  decapitation  or 
otherwise  ;  an  office  which  is  very  honourable  in  the  East, 
though  considered  degrading  among  us. 

Vlll.  The  women  of  the  king's  Harem  are  to  be  consi- 
dered as  forming  part  of  the  royal  equipage;  as,  generally 
speaking,  they  were  principally  destined  to  augment  the 
pomp,  which  was  usually  attached  to  his  office.  Notwith- 
standing Moses  had  prohibited  the  multiplication  of  women 
in  the  character  of  wives  and  concubines  (Deut.  xvii.  17.) ; 
yet  the  Hebrew  monarchs,  especially  Solomon,  and  his  son 
Kehoboam,  paid  but  little  regard  to  nis  admonitions,  and  too 
readily  as  well  as  wickedly  exposed  themselves  to  the  perils 
which  Moses  had  anticipated  as  the  result  of  forming  such 
improper  connections.  (1  Kings  xi.  1 — 3.  2  Chron.  xi.  21. 
xiii.  21.)  The  Israelitish  ana  Jewish  monarchs  spared  no 
expense  in  decorating  the  persons  of  their  women,  and  of 
the  eunuchs  who  guarded  them :  and  who,  as  the  Mosaic  law 
prohibited  castration  (Lev.  xxii.  24.  Deut.  xxii.  1.),  were 
procured  from  foreign  countries  at  a  great  expense.  In  proof 
of  the  employment  of  eunuchs  in  the  Hebrew  court  see 
1  Kings  xxii.  9.  (Heb.)  2  Kings  viii.  6.  (Heb.)  ix.  32,  .3.3. 
XX.  18.  xxiii.  11.  (Heb.)  xxxix.  16.  and  xli.  16.  Black 
eunuchs  appear  to  have  been  preferred,  as  they  still  are  in  the 
East ;  at  least,  we  find  one  in  the  court  of  Zedekiah.  (Jer. 
xxxviii.  l.y  The  maids  of  the  harem,  at  the  king's  pleasure, 
became  his  concubines ;  but  the  successor  to  the  throne, 
though  he  came  into  possession  of  the  harem,  was  not  at 
liberty  to  have  any  intercourse  with  tlie  inmates  of  it.  Hence 
Adonijah,  who  in  his  zeal  to  obtain  Abishag,  a  concubine  of 
David  s,  for  his  wife,  had  dropt  some  intimations  of  his  right 
to  the  kingdom,  was  punisheo  with  death,  as  a  seditious  per- 
son. (1  Kings  ii.  13 — 25.)  But  though  the  king  had  un- 
limited power  over  the  harem,  yet  the  queen,  or  wife  who 
was  chiefly  in  favour,  and  especially  the  mother  of  the  king, 
enjoyed  great  political  influence.  (1  Kings  xi.  3.  2  Chron. 
xxi.  6.  and  xxii.  3.)  Hence  it  is  that  we  find  the  mother  of 
the  king  so  frequently  and  particularly  mentioned  in  the 
books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles.  The  similar  influence  of  the 
reigning  sultana,  as  well  as  of  the  mother  of  the  sovereign, 
in  modern  oriental  courts,  is  attested  by  almost  every  travel- 
ler in  the  East.^ 

IX.  The  Promulgation  of  the  Laws  was  variously  made 
at  different  times.  Those  of  Moses,  as  well  as  the  com- 
mands or  temporary  edicts  of  Joshua,  were  announced  to  the 
people  by  the  onaiif  (shotcrim),  who  in  our  authorized  Eng- 
lish version  are  termed  officers.  Afterwards,  when  the  regal 
government  was  established,  the  edicts  and  laws  of  the  kin^s 
were  publicly  proclaimed  by  criers.  (Jer.  xxxiv.  8,  9.  Jo- 
nah iii.  5 — 7.)  But  in  the  distant  provinces,  towns,  and 
cities,  they  were  made  known  by  messengers  or  couriers, 
specially  sent  for  that  purpose  (1  Sam.  xi.  7.),  who  were 
afterwards  termed  posts.  (Esth.  viii.  10.  14.  Jer.  Ii.  31.) 
Cyrus,  or,  according  to  Herodotus,  Xerxes,  was  the  first 
who  established  relays  of  horses  and  couriers  at  certain  dis- 
tances on  all  the  great  roads,  in  order  that  the  royal  messages 
and  letters  might  t)e  transmitted  with  the  greatest  possible 
speed.  These  .ingari,  or  couriers,  had  authority  to  impress 
into  their  service  men,  horses,  and  ships,  or  anj'  thing  that 
came  in  their  way,  and  which  might  serve  to  accelerate  their 
journey.  From  the  Persians  this  custom  passed  to  the  Ro- 
mans (who,  it  may  be  inferred  from  Matt.  v.  41.,  commonly 

1  Calmet,  Dissertations,  torn.  ii.  pp. 'lOB— Sia. ;  .latin,  Arrhajologia  Biblica, 
5§  23J,  236.     Acltermann.  Archsologia  Biblica,  §§  iitt,  230. 

«  As,  tiowever,  in  tlie  East,  eunuchs  often  rose  to  stations  of  great  power 
and  trust,  and  were  even  privy  counsellors  to  kings,  the  term  uliimately 
came  to  signify  a  court-officer  generally.  The  eunuch  mentioned  in  Acts 
viii.  '27.  was  an  oflicer  of  great  power  and  influence  at  the  court  of  C'andace, 
queen  of  Ethiopia.  Bloomfield's  Annotations  on  the  New  Testameut,  vol. 
iv.  p.  294. 

s  Pareau,  Antiquitas  Het)raica,  pp.  279,  290.  Jahn,  Arcbseologia  Biblica, 
§  237.    Ackenuann,  Arcbsologia  biblica,  §  231. 


48 


GOVERNMENT  FROM  THE  PATRIARCHAL  TIMES 


[Pakt  IL 


pressed  men  into  their  service),  and  it  is  still  retained  in  the 
East.'  These  proclamations  were  made  at  the  gates  of  the 
cities,  and  in  .lerusalem  at  the  gate  of  the  temple,  \yhere 
there  was  always  a  great  concourse  of  people.  On  this  ac- 
count it  was  that  the  prophets  frequently  delivered  their  pre- 
dictions in  the  temple  (and  also  in  the  streets  and  at  the  gates) 
of  .Ternsalem,  as  being  the  edicts  of  Jehovah,  the  supreme 
King  of  Israel.  (.Ier.vn.2,  3.  xi.  6.  xvii.  19,20.  xxxvi.  10.) 
In  later  times,  both  Jesus  Clirist  and  his  apostles  taught  in 
and  at  the  gate  of  the  temple.  (Luke  ii.  4G,  Matt.  xxvi.  55. 
Mark  xii.  35.  Acts  iii.  11.  v.  12. )2 

X.  The  kingdom  which  had  been  founded  by  Saul,  and 
carried  to  its  hrghest  pitch  of  grandeur  and  power  by  David 
and  Solomon,  subsisted  entire  for  the  sjiace  of  120  years; 
until  Rehoboam,  the  son  and  successor  of  Solomon,  refused 
to  militrate  the  burthens  of  his  subjects,  when  a  division  of 
the  twelve  tribes  took  ])lace:  ten  of  these  (of  which  Ephraim 
was  the  principal)  adhered  to  Jeroboam,  and  formed  the 
kingdom  of  Isrnel,  while  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
continuing  faithful  in  their  allegiance  to  Rehoboam,  consti- 
tuted thelvingdom  of  Judah.  The  causes  of  this  revolution 
in  the  commencement  of  Rehoboam's  reign,  may,  as  in  all 
similar  commotions,  be  traced  to  anterior  events :  the  impo- 
licy of  that  monarch  was  only  the  immediate  occasion  of  it; 
and  in  the  successive  periods  of  the  history  of  the  Hebrews, 
we  may  discern  vestiges  of  hereditary  jealousy,  which  ter- 
minated only  in  the  division  of  the  posterity  of  Abraham  into 
two  distinct  nations,  one  of  whom  has  since  disappeared. 
Ttie  limits  necessarily  assigned  to  this  portion  of  our  work 
\\  ill  only  allow  us  to  atteinpt  a  rapid  sketch  of  this  long 
serif^s  of  discord  and  hatred. 

From  the  very  beginning  of  the  Israelitish  nation,  the  two 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Ephraim  had  disputed  for  the  pre-eminen- 
cy.  The  former,  whose  glory  had  been  predicted  by  the  dying 
patriarch  Jacob  (Gen.  xlix.  10.),  flourished  in  the  number  of 
Its  families,  as  well  as  by  its  power  and  wealth;  being  allied 
to  the  blood  of  the  Pharaohs  during  the  residence  of  the 
Israelites  in  Egypt,  where  the  two  remarkable  establishments 
of  Er  and  of  Jokim  had  been  formed,  which  this  tribe  car- 
ried into  Palestine.  (1  Chron.  v.  2.  iv.  18.)  Judah  also 
marched  first  duringthe  sojourningin  the  desert  (Num.  x.  14.), 
and  reckoned  upon  a  dominion  which  had  been  promised  by 
so  many  oracles.  The  latter,  or  tribe  of  Ephraim,  depending 
on  the  great  name  of  Joseph,  and  on  the  right  of  primogeni- 
ture which  it  had  acquired  in  consequence  of  being  adopted 
by  Jacob  (1  Chron.  v.  2.  Gen.  xlviii.  5.  19.),  confided  in  that 
numerous  posterity  which  had  been  predicted  to  it;  became 
powerful  during  the  residence  in  Egypt,  as  is  evident  from 
the  buildings  erected  by  Sherah  (1  Chron.  vii.  24.);  and 
afterwards  rapidly  increased  in  strength  and  prosperity. 
(Josh.  xvii.  14.  Judg.  i.  35.)  One  very  remarkable  proof, 
that  Ephraim  and  Judah  were  the  two  preponderating  tribes, 
is,  that  when  the  land  of  Canaan  was  divided  (Josh,  xviii.  2.), 
they  each  received  their  allotments  before  the  western  tribes. 
As  the  southern  part  of  the  Holy  I-and,  which  was  appor- 
tioned to  Judah,  proved  too  large  for  that  tribe,  the  Simeon- 
ites  were  added  to  them.  (Josh.  xix.  1.  9.)  The  Ephraimites, 
on  the  contrary,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  which  were 
sister  and  neighbouring  tribes,  pleaded  that  their  allotment 
was  not  sufliciently  extensive  for  them ;  and  enlarged  it  by 
force  of  arms,  and  by  cutting  down  the  forests  which 
abounded  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  the  land  of  Canaan. 
(Jrsh.  xvii.  14—18.) 

In  this  state  of  things,  with  such  recollections  and  mutual 
pretensions,  it  was  impossible  that  a  spirit  of  rivalry  and 
jealousy  should  not  break  forth.  The  tribe  of  Ephraim  was 
distinguished  for  its  proud,  turbulent,  and  warlike  spirit,  as 
is  evident  not  only  from  the  remonstrances  addressed  by  them 
to  Joshua,  but  also  by  their  discontented  murmuring  against 
Gideon,  u{;twithstanding  he  was  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
(Judg.  viii.  1.),  and  in  the  civil  war  with  Jephthah,  in  which 
their  envy  and  haired  were  so  severely  punished,  (xii.  1 — 4.) 
The  tribe  of  Judah,  on  the  contrary,  more  pacific  in  its  tem- 
per and  more  sedentary  in  its  pursuits,  appears  always  to 
have  cherished  a  coolness  towards  the  northern  tribes.  It 
never  assisted  them  in  their  wars ;  its  name  does  not  occur 

I  Xpnopli.  Cyr.  lib.  viii.  6.  17."  Ilerod.  viii.  98.  Blooinfielii's  Annotations 
on  tlie  New  Tcslamenf,  vol.  i.  p.  IJO.  Robinson'.sl.exicnn,  voce  /^yyxfu'j'. 
Among  the  Tvirks,  Uieso  Angari  or  couriers  are  called  Tatars ;  antl  in 
Per.sia,  Chappurs.  "  When  a  chappar  sets  out,  the  master  of  Ihe  horse 
furnishes  him  wilh  a  single  horse  :  and  when  that  is  weary,  he  dismounts 
the  first  man  he  jneejs,  and  takes  his  horse.  There  is  no  pardon  for  a  tra- 
veller that  should  refuse  to  let  a  chappar  have  his  horse,  nor  for  any  other 
wIlo  should  deny  him  the  best  horse  in  his  stable."  Chardin's  Travels, 
vol.  i.  p.  257. 

»  Jahn,  Archceologia  Biblica,  §  233.  Ackermann,Archoeolo"ia  Biblica,  §  227. 


in  the  triumphal  hymn  of  Deborah,  in  which  so  many  others 
are  mentioned;  and  (what  is  particularly  deserving  of  atten- 
tion) it  took  no  part  in  the  exploits  of  (xideon,  although  the 
enemies  whom  he  was  going  to  fight  had  made  incursions  as 
far  as  Gaza  (Judg.  vi.  4.),  whither  they  could  not  have  pene- 
trated without  entering  on  its  territory.  It  was  the  men  of 
Judah,  also,  Avho  were -desirous  of  delivering  up  Samson,  a 
Danite,  to  the  Philistines,  (xv.  11.)  This  old  grudge  sub- 
sisted in  all  its  force,  when  the  elevation  of  Saul,  a  iJenjam- 
ite,  to  the  throne  of  Israel,  still  further  chagrined  the  proud 
tribe  of  Ephraim:  it  is  not  improl)able  that  the  discontent 
manifested  in  the  assembly  of  the  Israelites  at  Mizpeth, 
which  induced  Samuel  to  renew  the  kingdom  at  Gilgal 
(1  vSam.  X.  27.  xi.  12 — 14.),  was  excited  by  the  Ephraimites; 
and  at  the  very  commencement  of  Saul's  reign  we  observe  a 
census,  in  which  the  troops  of  Judah  are  reckoned  separately 
from  those  of  Israel.  (18.)  At  length,  the  elevation  of  David 
completed  the  mortification  of  the  jealous  and  envious  tribe 
of  Ephraim,  and  of  the  northern  tribes  which  ordinarily  fol- 
lowed the  fortune  of  so  powerful  a  neighbour;  while  Simeon 
and  Benjamin,  from  necessity  as  well  as  choice,  were  more 
disposed  in  favour  of  Judah.  Hence  David,  during  the  whole 
of  his  long-continued  flight  from  Saul,  never  quitted  the  ter- 
ritory of  Judah  and  Eenjamin,  but  when  he  took  refuge  in  a 
foreign  country;  and  he  sent  presents  only  to  the  cities  of 
his  own  tribe.  (1  Sam.  xxx.  26.)  On  the  death  of  Saul,  two 
thrones  arose  in  Israel ;  which  gave  rise  to  a  civil  war,  that 
lasted  seven  years ;  and,  had  it  not  been  for  the  defection  of 
Abner,  and  the  timidity  of  Ishbosheth,  the  tribes  might  never 
have  been  united  under  one  sceptre.  (2  Sam.  ii.  10.  iii.  1. 
9 — 12.  V.  5.)  David  himself  felt  the  weakness  of  his  power, 
(iii.  39.)  The  choice  of  Jerusalem  for  his  capital  and  for  the 
centre  of  worship^  to  the  exclusion  of  Shiloh,  a  town  of 
Ephraim,  where  the  tabernacle  and  ark  had  formerly  been 
kept  (Josh,  xviii.  1.),  could  not  but  displease  the  malecon- 
tents,  whose  pride  was  wounded  by  hearing  that  advantage 
celebrated  in  one  of  the  sacred  hymns.  (Psal.  Ixxviii.  (37,  G8.) 
During  David's  reign,  the  dispute  at  the  passage  of  the  river 
Jordan  showed  how  a  small  spark  kindled  a  flame  (2  Sam. 
xix.  41.),  which  Sheba,  retiring  towards  the  north,  was  at 
hand  to  excite,  (xx.  1.) 

Finally,,  the  erection  of  the  temple,  the  immoveable  sanc- 
tuary, which  secured  the  supremacy  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
the  taxes  levied  and  personal  services  required  by  Solomon, 
who  employed  them  for  the  most  part  in  the  embellishment 
of  Jerusalem, — the  little  commercial  advantage  which 
Ephraim  could  derive  during  his  reign,  in  comparison  of  Ju- 
dah, which  tribe  was  more  coinmodiously  situated  for  profit- 
ing by  the  transit  of  commodities  between  Egypt,  Idumasa, 
and  Arabia, — the  intrigues  of  Jeroboam,  who  had  been  im- 
prudently nominated  to  the  command  of  the  Jtause  of  Joseph 
(2  Kings  xi.  26.  28.)  ; — all  these  circumstances  contributed 
secretly  to  mature  that  revolution,  which  only  awaited  his 
death  to  break  forth,  and  which  the  folly  of  Rehoboam  ren- 
dered inevitable. 

The  Kingdom  of  Israel  subsisted  under  various  sove- 
reigns during  a  period  of  254  years,  according  to  some . 
chronologers  ;  its  metropolis  Samaria  being  captured  by 
Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria,  b.  c.  721,  after  a  siege  of  three 
years.  Of  the  Israelites,  whose  Bumbers  had  been  reduced 
by  immense  and  repeated  slaughters,  some'of  the  lower  sort 
were  suflfered  to  remain  in  their  native  country ;  but  the 
nobles  and  all  the  more  opulent  persons  were  carried  into 
captivity  beyond  the  P^uphrates.^ 

The  Kingdoivi  of  Judah  continued  388  years  ;  Jerusalem 
its  capital  being  taken,  the  temple  burnt,  and  its  sovereign 
Zedekiah  being  carried  captive  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar; the  rest  of  his  subjects  (with  the  exception  of  the  poorer 
classes  who  were  left  in  Judsea)  were  likewise  carried  into 
captivity  beyond  the  Euphrates,  where  they  and  their  pos- 

»  It  was  the  beliefof  someof  the  ancient  fathersof  the  Christian  church, 
that  the  descenilants  of  the  ten  tribes  did  afterwards  return  into  their  own 
country  :  and  the  same  notion  has  obtained  among  some  modern  .lews,  but 
neither  of  these  opinions  is  supported  by  history.  In  the  New  Testament, 
indeed,  we  find  mention  of  the  twelve  tribes  (Matt.  xix.  28.  Luke  xxli.  30. 
Acts  xxvi.  7.) ;  aud  St.  .lames  (i.  I.)  directs  his  epistle  to  them  ;  but  it  cannot 
be  concluded  from  these  passages,  that  they  were  at  that  time  gathered 
together;  all  that  can  be  inferred  from  them  is,  that  they  were  still  in 
being.  Perhaps  the  whole  body  of  the  Jewish  nation  retained  the  name 
of  the  twelve  tribes  according  to  the  ancient  divi.'sion  ;  as  we  find  the  dis- 
ciples called  the  ?2<-e/fe  after  the  death  of  .ludas,  and  before  the  election 
of  Matthias.  This  conjecture  becomes  the  more  probable,  as  it  is  certain 
from  the  testimony  of  ijie  sacred  writers  and  of  .losephus,  that  there  were 
considerable  numbersof  Israelites  mingled  with  the  Jews,  sufficient  indeed  - 
to  authorize  the  former  to  speak  of  Ihe  twelve  tribes  as  constituting  but 
one  body  with  the  Jewish  nation.  Beausobre's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test. 
(Bishop  Watson's  'Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  114—116.) 


Chap.  I.] 


TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


49 


tprity  remained  seventy  years,  a^ecably  to  the  divine  pre- 
dictions. 

XI.  The  kin<idom  of  .ludah  subsistnd  one  hundred  and 
thirty-three  years  aftor  the  subversion  of  the  Israeiitish 
monarchy  ;  and  for  this  lon<f('r  duration  various  reasons  may 
be  adduced. 

1.  Till-  <r''fnrr(iph!cn-pnl'fical  situation  of  Judah  was  more 
ftirourall:  ilinn  thai  ff  hrinl. 

In  point  of  extent,  indeed,  Israel  far  surpassed  .ludah,  the 
latter  Iviinrdom  l)einir  scurcily  ei|ual  to  the  lliird  part  of  Israel, 
whicli  alsfi  exceeded  .Iiiduh"  lioth  in  the  fertility  of  its  soil 
and  the  amount  of  its  population.  IJut  the  kintrdoni  of  .ludah 
was  more  advanta'jroously  situated  for  commerce,  and  furtlier 
possessr'd  (TH^ater  facililies  of  <leferice  from  iiostile  attacks, 
than  the  kiTiudom  of  Israel.  The  Syrians,  l)em<r  senarated 
from  the  .lews  by  the  interveninir  Kinfrdom  of  Israid,  once 
only  laid  waste  the  lower  regions  of  .ludah  ;  vviiiie,  for 
upwards  r  f  a  century,  they  made  incursions  into  and  devas- 
tated the  kinirdom  of'Isracl.  The  Assyrians,  also,  beiny;  more 
remote  from  the  .lews,  could  not  observe  them  so  narrowly 
as  they  watched  the  Is-aelites,  whom  they  in  a  manner  con- 
tinually threatened.  Further,  the  naturally  sti-onjr  situation 
of  .lerusah'tn  (which  city  the  Assyrians  vainly  attempted  to 
reduce  by  famine)  contrii)nted  much  to  the  preservation  of 
the  kinnfdom,  as  it  enabled  llexekiah  to  hold  out  successfully 
aijainst  the  forces  of  Sennacherib,  who  besieged  it  in  the 
eighth  year  after  the  subversion  of  the  kiiimlom  of  Israel. 

'2.  The  people  were  more  united  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
than  in  that  of  larael. 

The  religious  worship,  which  was  solemnized  at  .lerusa- 
lem,  the  metropolis  of  Judah,  not  only  united  the  Jews  and 
Benjaminites  more  closely  tojiether,  but  also  offered  a  very 
powerful  attraction  to  every  pious  person  of  the  other  tribes 
to  emigrate  into  Judah.  Hence  the  priests  and  Levites,  as 
well  as  many  other  devout  Israelites,  enriched  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  witb  piety,  learning,  and  wealth.  In  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  on  the  contrarjs  in  consecpience  of  the  expulsion 
of  the  priests  and  Levites,  by  whom  its  civil  affairs  had  for 
the  most  part  been  administered,  tumults  and  internal  dis- 
cord necessarily  arose,  from  its  very  commencement  und(>r 
Jeroboam  I.;  and,  with  regard  to  the  other  Israelites,  the 
history  of  later  ages  abundantly  attests  the  verj-  great  loss 
sustained  in  states  and  kingdoms  by  the  compulsory  emigra- 
tion of  virtuous  and  industrious  citizens,  in  consequence  of 
changes  made  in  religion.  Thus,  Spain  has  never  recovered 
the  expulsion  of  the  Moors ;  and  the  unprincipled  repeal  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIV.  against  the  faith  of  the 
most  solemn  treaties,  inflicted  a  loss  upon  France,  from  the 
effects  of  which  that  country  has  scarcely  yet  recovered.  In 
like  manner,  in  ancient  times,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  fell  into 
decay,  in  consequence  of  the  oppression  of  the  faithful  wor- 
shippers of  Jehovah  after  the  introduction  of  the  worship  of 
the  calves.  But  this  new  idolatrous  religion  was  of  no 
'advantage  to  the  apostates :  on  the  contrary,  it  was  detri- 
mrntal  to  them,  for  the  worship  of  the  calves  had  the  effect  of 
disuniting  more  and  more  the  provinces  of  Galilee  and  Sama- 
ria, which  naturally  were  too  much  separated ;  and  the  idol- 
atrous worship  of  Baal,  'established  at  Samaria,  was  so 
repugnant  to  the  manners  of  the  Hebrews,  as  to  prove  the 
chief  cause — not  of  concord,  but  of  civil  wars. 

To  this  union  am.ong  the  Jews  is  principally  to  be  ascribed 
the  brilliant  victory  which  in  the  reign  of  Abijah  gave  them 
a  decided  superiority  over  the  Israelites ;  and  the  same  una- 
nimity and  alTection  for  true  religion,  in  the  time  of  Heze- 
kiah,  disposed  them  all  prom])tly  to  shake  olf  the  yoke  of 
the  Assyrians,  and  rendered  them  sufficiently  strong  to  ac- 
complish their  deliverance  without  any  foreign  aid.  The 
Israelites,  on  the  contrary,  being  for  the  most  part  torn  by 
factions,  and  despairing  of  being  able  to  recover  their  affairs, 
were  irresolute  under  almost  every  circumstance. 

3.  The  succession  to  the  throne  (f  Judah  was  more  regular ; 
and  the  character  of  its  sovereigns  was  mure  exemplary  than  in 
the  kingdom  of  Israel. 

Although  the  authority  of  the  kings  of  Judah  was  unques- 
tionably much  lessened  in  point  of  extent  by  the  revolt  of 
the  ten  tribes,  yet,  if  we  consider  its  internal  power  and  sta- 
bility, we  shall  find  that  it  was  rather  increased  than  dimi- 
nished by  that  defection.  From  the  very  commencement  of 
the  separation,  it  is  evident  that  the  prophets,  in  obedience 
to  former  oracies  (see  2  Kings  viii.  19.),  were  so  attached  to 
the  family  of  David,  that  no  wickedness  or  contempt  of  the 
laws  on  the  part  of  individual  kings  could  lessen  their  fidelity 
to  the  royal  lineage.  Hence  no  Jew  ever  thought  of  seizing 
the  throne  of  David,  no  prophet  ever  foretold  the  ruiri  of  the 

Vol.  11,  G 


royal  family.  For,  though  some  of  the  Jewish  monarchs 
more  than  once  followecf  strange  gods;  though  Asa,  disre- 
garding the  counsels  of  Hanani,  called  the  Syrians  to  his 
aifl ;  though  Jehoshaphat,  by  forming  an  alliance  with  the 
wicked  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  was  the  cause  of  the  greatest 
calamities  both  to  his  kingdom  and  to  his  family ;  though 
Athaliah  destroyed  all  the  seed  royal  of  the  house  of  Judali, 
Joash  alone  excepted,  who  afterwards  put  to  death  the  inno- 
cent high-priest  Aechariah,  the  son  of  tlie  very  man  to  whom 
he  was  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  his  life  and  kingdom; 
though,  finally,  Aliaz,  disregarding  the  advice  of  the  prophet 
Isaiah,  volmitarily  called  to  his  aid  the  Assyrians,  and  shut 
up  the  doors  of  the  house  of  tho  Lord;  yet,  notwithstanding 
all  these  circumstances,  the  Jews  never  thought  of  expelling 
the  royal  family  from  the  throne.  Some  of  the  Jewish  mo- 
narchs, indeed,  came  to  violent  deaths  in  various  ways ;'  but 
no  civil  wars  ensued,  no  ambitious  princes  ever  disturbed  the 
state;  on  the  contrary,  that  kingdom,  being  always  restored 
to  the  lawful  heir,  d(>rived  advantage,  rather  than  suffered 
injury,  from  such  changes.  Thus  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
continued  in  peaceable  subjection  to  its  legitimate  sovereigns ; 
and  all  orders  in  the  state  constdted  its  welfare.  Many  of 
the  kings  maintained  the  worship  of  Jehovah  from  motives 
of  sincere  piety,  and  others  from  a  conviction  of  the  utility 
of  religion  to  a  state;  while  the  priests  and  prophets,  who 
vigilantly  watched  over  the  religion  of  their  countrj',  influ- 
enced their  sovereigns  to  the  adoption  of  sage  couns(ds. 

To  this  circumstance  we  may  ascribe  tne  fact  that  the 
characters  of  the  kings  of  Judah  w'.re  more  exemplarij  than 
those  of  the  kings  of  Israel:  for,  although  there  were  not 
wanting  wicked  and  imprudent  Jewish  sovereigns,  yet  their 
errors  and  misconduct  were  for  the  most  part  corrected  or  , 
avoided  by  their  successors,  who  were  instructed  by  the  ad- 
vice and  example  of  wise  and  virtuous  men,  and  thus  were 
enabled  to  repair  the  injuries  which  their  kingdom  had  sus- 
tained. The  reverse  01*311  this  was  the  case  in  the  kingdom 
of  Israel;  in  which  the  royal  dignity,  polluted  by  continual 
murders  and  seditions,  gradually  fell  into  decay,  and  with 
the  regal  power  declined  all  regard  for  the  welfare  of  the 
state.  Distracted  by  civil  wars  and  by  the  contests  of  ambi- 
tious aspirants  to  the  throne,  the  Israelites  became  disunited  ; 
the  provinces,  which  at  the  commencement  of  the  Israeiitish 
monarchy  had  been  tributary  to  it,  revolted  ;  and  almost  all 
the  kings,  who  swayed  the  sceptre  of  Israel,  governed  so  ill, 
as  scarcely  to  deserve  the  name  of  sovereigns.  W  bile  the 
sacred  historians  repeatedly  record  of  various  kings  of  Judah 
that  they  did  that  which  was  right  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord, 
according  to  all  that  their  father  David  had  done,  the  ordi- 
nary character  of  the  kings  of  Israel  is  related  with  this 
stigma, — that  they  departed  not  from  all  the  sins  of  Jeroboam 
the  son  of  Nebat,  who  made  Israel  to  sin. 

4.  Lastly,  and  principally,  pure  and  undejilcd  religion  was 
most  carefulli/ preserved  and  cultivated  in  the  kingdom  ofJudah^ 
while  the  vilest  idolatry  was  practised  in  the  kingdom  ef  Israel. 

This  fact  is  so  clearly  narrated  in  the  histories  of  the  two 
kingdoms,  that  it  is  needless  to  adduce  any  examples.  As 
a  necessary  consequence  of  true  piety,  the  Jews  far  surpassed 
the  Israelites  in  the  purity  of  their  moral  character;  and  in 
the  implicit  confidence  with  which  they  left  all  their  affairs 
to  the  divine  protection ;  for,  at  the  very  time,  when  abomi- 
nations of  every  kind  were  practised  in  Israel,  when  scarcely 
a  crime  was  left  unattemjjted,  and  when  the  Israelites  sought 
all  their  safety  and  protection  from  foreign  aid,  in  Judah,  the 
"Law  of  the  Lord  was  most  diligently  studied;  and  the 
Jews,  strengthened  by  their  unshaken  trust  in  Jehovah,  vo- 
luntarily risked  every  thing  to  promote  the  welfare  of  their 
country. 2  In  short,  the  histories  .of  the  two  kingdoms  of 
Judah  and  Israel  furnish  a  perpetual  illustration  of  the  truth 
of  Solomon's  declaration,  that  righteousness  exolteih  a  nation, 
but  sin  is  a  reproach  to  any  people.  Prov.  xiv.  34. 

XII.  State  of  the  IIebrews  during  the  Babylonish 
Captivity. 

The  condition  of  the  Hebrews,  during  the  captivity,  was 
far  from  being  one  of  abject  wretchedness.  "  This  is  mani- 
fest from  the  circumstance,  that  a  pious  Hebrew  prophet 
held  the  first  office  at  the  court  of  Babylon ;  that  three  devout 
friends  of  this  prophet  occupied  important  political  stations; 
and  that  Jehoiachin,  the  former  king  of  Judah,  in  the  forty- 

<  Thus,  Ahaziah,  kin?  of  Judah,  was  slain  by  Jehu,  king  of  Israel  (2Chron. 
xxii.  7—9.);  Athaliah,  who  succefcled  Ahaziah,  by  the  coiimiandof  Jehoia- 
da  tlie  priest  (iChron.  xxiii.  1 1—10.);  Joa.sh.  by  his  own  servants  (2Chron. 
xxiv.  2;'),  l6.);  and  Ainaziah,  by  some  of  his  subjects  who  conspired  against 
him.  ('2C'hron.  xxv.  27.) 

»  Beruhaidi,  Commentatio  de  Caussis  quibus  effectum  sit,  ut  Regnum 
Judae  diutius  pereisterel  quam  Regnum  Israel,  pp.  96—104.  120—122. 


50 


POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IL 


fourth  j^ear  of  the  captivity,  was  released  from  an  imprison- 
ment which  had  continued  for  thirty-six  years,  and  was  pre- 
ferred in  point  of  rank  to  all  the  kings  who  were  then  at 
Babylon,  either  as  hostages,  or  for  the  purpose  of  paying 
homage  to  tlie  Chaldean  monarch.  He  was  treated  as  the 
first  of  the  kings ;  he  ate  at  tiie  table  of  his  conqueror,  and  re- 
ceived an  annual  allowance,  corresponding  to  his  royal  rank. 
These  circumstances  of  honour  must  have  reflected  a  degree 
of  dignity  on  all  the  exiles,  sufficient  to  prevent  their  being 
ill-treated  or  despised.  They  were  probably  viewed  as 
respectable  colonists,  enjoying  the  peculiar  protection  of  the 
sovereign.  In  the  respect  paid  to  Jehoiachin,  his  son  Sheal- 
tiel  and  his  grandson  Zerubbabel  undoubtedly  partook.  If 
that  story'  of  the  discussion  before  Darius,  in  which  Zerub- 
babel is  said  to  have  won  the  prize,  be  a  mere  fiction,  still  it 
is  at  least  prolrable  that  the  young  prince,  though  he  held  no 
oflice,  had  free  access  to  the  court;  a  privilege  which  must 
have  afforded  him  many  opportunities  of  alleviating  the  un- 
happy circumstances  of  his  countrymen.  It  is  therefore  not 
at  all  surprising,  that,  when  Cyrus  gave  the  Hebrews  per- 
mission to  return  to  their  own  country,  many,  and  perhaps 
even  a  majority  of  the  nation,  chose  to  remain  behind,  be- 
lieving that  they  were  more  pleasantly  situated  where  they 
were,  than  they  would  be  in  Judiea.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  exiles  (as  is  implied  in  the  story  of  Susanna,  and  as 
the  tradition  of  the  Jews  affirms)  had.  magistrates  and  a 


prince  from  their  own  number.  .Tehoiachin,  and  after  him 
JShealtiel  and  Zerubbabel,  might  have  been  regarded  as  their 
princes,  in  the  same  manner  as  Jozadak  and  Jcshna  were  as 
their  high-priests.  At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  their  humiliation,  as  a  people  punished  by  their  God, 
was  always  extremely  painful,  and  frequently  drew  on  them 
expressions  of  contemjH.  The  peculiarities  of  their  religion 
nttbrded  many  opportunities  for  the  ridicule  and  scorn  ot  the 
Babylonians  and  Chaldaeans,  a  striking  example  of  which  is 
given  in  the  profanation  of  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple. 
(Dan.  V.)  By  such  insults  they  were  made  to  feel  so  much 
the  more  sensibly  the  loss  of  their  homes,  their  gardens,  and 
fruitful  fields;  the  burning  of  their  capital  and  temple;  and 
the  cessation  of  the  public  solemnities  of  their  religion. 
Under  such  circumstances,  it  is  not  strange  that  an  inspired 
minstrel  breaks  out  into  severe  imprecations  against  the 
scornful  foes  of  his  nation.  (Psal.  cxxxvii.  8,  9.) 

"  If  the  Israelites  were  ill-treated  in  Assyria  after  the  over- 
throw of  Sennacherib  in  .ludaea,  as  the  book  of  Tobit  inti- 
mates, this  calamity  was  of  short  duration ;  for  Sennacherib 
was  soon  after  assassinated.  The  Israelites  of  Media  appear 
to  have  been  in  a  much  better  condition,  since  Tobit  advised 
his  son  to  remove  thither.  (Tobit  xiv.  4.  12,  13.)  This  is 
the  more  probable,  as  the  religion  of  the  Medes  was  not 
grossly  idolatrous,  and  bore  considerable  resemblzmce  to  that 
of  the  Jews."^ 


CHAPTER  II. 

POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS,  FROM  THEIR  RETURN  FROM  THE  BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY  TO  THE 
SUBVERSION  OP  THEIR  CIVIL  ANB  ECCLESIASTICAL  POLITY. 

SECTION  I. 


POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS  UNDER  THE  MACCABEES,  AND  THE  SOVEREIGNS  OF  THE  HERODIAN  FAMILY. 

I.  Brief  account  of  the  JMaccabees. — II.  Sovereigns  of  the  Herodian  family  : — 1.  Herod  the  Great. — St.  JUatthews  narrative 
of  the  murder  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem  confirmed. — 2.  Archelaiis. — 3.  Herod  Antipas, — 4.  Philip. — 5.  Herod  Agrippa. 
— 6.  Agrippa  junior. — 7.  Bernice  and  Drusilla. 


I.  On  the  subversion  of  the  Babylonian  empire  by  Cyrus 
the  founder  of  the  Persian  monarchy  (b.  c.  543),  he  author- 
ized the  Jews  by  an  edict  to  return  into  their  own  country, 
■with  full  permission  to  enjoy  their  laws  and  religion,  and 
caused  the  cil}^  and  temple  of  Jerusalem  to  be  rebuilt.  In 
the  following  year,  part  of  the  Jews  returned  under  Zerub- 
babel, and  renewed  their  sacrifices :  the  theocratic  government, 
which  had  been  in  abeyance  during  the  captivity,  was  re- 
sumed ;  but  the  re-erection  of  the  city  and  temple  being  in- 
terrupted for  several  years  by  the  treachery  and  hostility  of 
the  Samaritans  or  Cutheans,  the  avowed  enemies  of  the  Jews, 
the  completion  and  dedication  of  the  temple  did  not  take  place 
until  the  year  511  b.  c,  six  years  after  the  accession  of  Cy- 
rus. The  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  was  accomplished,  and 
the  reformation  of  their  ecclesiastical  and  civil  polity  was  ef- 
fected by  the  two  divinely  inspired  and  pious  governors,  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah.  After  their  death  the  Jews  were  governed 
by  their  high  priests,  in  subjection  however,  to  the  Persian 
kings,  to  whom  they  paid  tribute  (Ezra  iv.  13.  vii.  24.),  but 
with  the  full  enjoyment  of  their  other  magistrates,  as  well 
as  their  liberties,  civil  and  religious.  Nearly  three  centuries 
of  uninterrupted  prosperity  ensued,  until  the  reign  of  Anti- 
.ochus  Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria,  when  they  were  most  cruelly 
oppressed,  and  compelled  to  take  up  arms  in  their  own  de- 
fence. 

Under  the  able  conduct  of  Judas,  on  account  of  his  heroic 
exploits  surnamed  Maccabseus,  (>3pD  MaK«Bi  the  Hammerer)^ 
the  son  of  Mattathias,  surnamed  Asmon  (from  whom  is  de- 
rived the  appellation  Asmonaeans,  borne  by  the  princes  de- 
scended from  him),  and  his  valiant  brothers,  the  Jews  main- 

»  1  Esriras  iii.  iv.    Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xi.  c.  3. 

»  He  is,  however,  most  generally  supposed  to  have  derived  this  name 
from  a  cabalistical  word,  formed  of  M.  C.  B.  I.  the  initial  letters  of  the  He- 
brew Text,  Mt  Chamoka  Baelim  Jehovah,  i.  e.  who  among  Ihe  gods  is  like 
unto  thee,  O  Jehovah!  (E.vod.  xv.  11.)  which  letters  mijiht  have  been  dis- 
played on  his  sacred  standard,  as  the  leUers  S.  P.  Q.  R,  (Henalus,  Populus 
Q,ue  RomantisX  were  on  the  Roman  ensigns.  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chro- 
nology, vol.  i.  p  599. 


tained  a  religious  war  for  twenty-six  years  with  five  successive 
kings  of  Syria;  and  after  destroying  upwards  of  200,000  of 
their  best  troops,  the  Maccabees  finally  established  the  inde- 
pendence of  their  own  country  and  the  aggrandizement  of 
their  family.  This  illustrious  house,  whose  princes  united 
the  regal  and  pontifical  dignity  in  their  own  persons,  admi- 
nistered the  affairs  of  the  Jews  during  a  period  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-six  years ;  until,  disputes  arising  between 
Hyrcanus  II.  and  his  brother  Aristobulus,  the  latter  was  de- 
feated by  the  Romans  under  Pompey,  who  captured  Jerusa- 
lem, and  reduced  Judcea  to  a  tributary  province  of  the  republic. 
(b.  c.  59.) 

II.  Sovereigns  of  the  Herodian  Family.  —  1.  Julius 
Caesar,  having  defeated  Pompey,  continued  Hyrcanus  in  the 
high-priesthood,  but  bestowed  the  government  of  Judaja  upon 
Antipater,  an  Idumsan  by  birth,  who  was  a  Jewish  prose- 
lyte, and  the  father  of  Herod  surnamed  the  Great,  who  was 
subsequently  king  of  the  Jews.  Antipater  divided  Judaea 
between  his  two  sons  Phasael  and  Herod,  giving  to  the  for- 
mer the  government  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  the  latter  the  pro- 
vince of  Galilee  ;  which  being  at  that  time  greatly  infested 
with  robbers,  Herod  signalized  his  courage  by  dispersing 
them,  and  shortly  af*er  attacked  Antigonus  the  competitor  of 
Hyrcanus  in  the  priesthood,  who  was  supported  by  the  Ty- 
rians.'  In  the  mean  time,  the  Parthians  having  invaded  Ju- 
da;a,  and  carried  into  captivity  Hyrcanus  the  high-priest  and 
Phasael  the  brother  of  Herod  ;  the  latter  fied  to  Rome,  where 
Mark  Antony,  with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  conferred  on 
him  the  title  of  king  of  Judaia.  By  the  aid  of  the  Roman 
arms  Herod  kept  possession  of  his  dignity ;  and  after  three 
years  of  sanguinary  and  intestine  war  with  the  partisans  of 
Antigonus,  he  was  confirmed  in  his  kingdom  by  Augustus. '' 

Tliis  prince  is  characterized  by  Josephus  as  a  person  of 
singular  courage  and  resolution,  liberal  and  even  extravagant 

3  .Tahn's  History  of  the  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  vol.  i.  pp.  161.  163. 
«  Beausobre,  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  (Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p. 
119.) 


Sect.  I.] 


UNDER  THE  MACCABEES,  AND  THE  HERODIAN  FAMILY. 


51 


in  his  expenditure,  manrnificcnt  in  liis  buildinjrs,  especially  in 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  apparently  disposed  to  promote 
the  h;ii)])iiiess  of  every  one.  But  under  this  specious  exterior 
he  concealed  the  most  consummate  du])licity;  studious  only 
how  to  attain  and  to  secure  iiis  own  di^rnity,  lie  rejifarded  no 
means,  however  unjustifiable,  which  mjiilit  promote  that  object 
of  his  ambition  ;  and  in  order  to  supply  his  lavish  expenditure, 
he  imposed  oppressive  burdens  on  his  sul)jicts.  Inexorably 
cruel,  and  a  slave  to  the  most  furious  passions,  he  imbrued 
his  hands  in  the  blood  of  iiis  wife,  his  children,  and  the 
frreater  part  of  Ids  family;'  such,  indeed,  were  the  restless- 
ness and  jealousy  of  his  temper,  that  In;  spared  neitliiT  his 
people,  nor  the  richest  and  most  powerful  oi  liis  subjects,  not 
even  his  very  friends.  It  is  not  at  ail  surjirisiniif  that  such  a 
conduct  should  ])rocur(!  Herod  the  hatred  of  his  sulijects, 
especially  of  tlm  I'liarisees,  who  en<Taoed  in  various  plots 
against  him  :  and  so  suspicious  did  these  conspiracies  render 
him,  that  he  put  the  innocent  to  the  torture,  lest  the  fruilty 
should  escape.  These  circumstances  sufficiently  account  for 
Herod  and  all  Jerusalem  with  him  being  troubled  at  the  arri- 
val of  the  Mairj,  to  Inrpiire  where  the  Messiah  was  born. 
(Matt.  ii.  1 — 'i.)  'I'he  Jews,  who  anxiously  expected  the 
Messiah  "  the  l)eliven?r,"  were  moved  with  an  anxiety  made 
up  of  hopes  and  fi-ars,  of  uncertainty  and  expectation,  blended 
with  a  dread  of  the  sanguinary  consequences  of  new  tumults ; 
and  Herod,  who  was  a  foreigner  and  usur])er,  was  apprehen- 
sive lest  he  should  lose  his  crown  by  the  birth  of  a  riirhtful 
heir.  Hence  v,c  are  furnished  with  a  satisfactory  solution 
of  the  motive  that  led  him  to  command  all  the  male  children 
to  be  put  to  death,  who  were  under  two  years  of  age,  in 
Bethleiieni  and  its  vicinity.  (Matt.  ii.  16.) 

No  very  long  time  after  the  perpetration  of  this  crime, 
Herod  died,  having  suffered  the  most  excruciating  pains,  in 
the  thirty-seventh  year  of  his  being  declared  king  of  the  Jews 
by  the  Itomans.  The  tidings  of  his  decease  were  received 
by  his  oppressed  subjects  with  universal  joy  and  satisfac- 
tion. 

Herod  had  a  numerous  offspring  by  his  different  wives, 
although  their  number  was  greatly  reduced  by  his  unnatural 
cruelty  in  putting  many  of  them  to  death  :  hut,  as  few  of  his 
descendants  are  mentioned  In  tbe  Sacred  Volume,  we  shall 
notice  only  those  ])ersons  of  whom  it  is  recpiisite  that  some 
account  should  be  given  for  the  better  understanding  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  annexed  table^  will,  perhaps,  be  found 
useful  in  distinguishing  the  particular  persons  of  this  family, 
whose  names  occur  in  the  evangelical  histories. 


t  "When  Herod,"  says  the  accurate  Lardner,  "had  gained  possession 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  assislance  of  tlie  Romans,  and  his  rival  Antigonus  was 
taken  pritsoner,  anil  in  the  liands  of  the  Roman  general  Sosius,  and  by  liini 
carried  to  Mark  Antony,  Herod,  by  a  large  sum  of  money,  persuaded  An- 
tony to  put  him  to  death.  Herod's  great  fear  was,  that  Antigonus  might 
some  time  revive  his  pretensions,  as  being  of  the  Asmonaean  family.  Aris- 
tobulus,  brother  of  his  wife  Mariainne,  was  murdered  by  his  directions  at 
-eighteen  years  of  age,  because  the  people  at  Jerusalem  had  shown  some 
aifection  for  his  person.  In  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign  from  the  death 
of  Antigonus,  he  put  to  death  Hyrcanus,  grandfather  of  Marianme,  then 
eighty  years  of  age,  and  who  had  saved  Herod's  life  when  he  was  prose- 
cuted by  the  Sanhedrin  ;  a  man  who,  in  his  youth  and  in  the  vigour  of  his 
life,  and  in  all  the  revolutions  of  his  fortune,  had  shown  a  mild  and  peaceable 
disposition.  His  beloved  wife,  the  beautiful  and  virtuous  Marianme,  had  a 
public  execution,  and  her  mother  Ale.vandra  followed  soon  after.  Alexan- 
der and  Aristobulus,  his  two  sons  by  Marianme,  were  strangled  in  prison  by 
his  order  upon  groundles.s  suspicions,  as  it  seems,  when  they  were  at  man's 
estate,  were  married,  and  had  children.  I  say  nothing  of  the  death  of  his 
eldest  son  Antipater.  If  Josephus's  character  of  him  be  just,  he  wasa  mis- 
creant, and  deserved  the  worst  death  that  could  be  inllicted  ;  in  his  last  sick- 
ness, a  liule  before  he  died,  he  sent  orders  throughout  Judaea,  requiring 
the  presence  of  all  the  chief  men  of  the  nation  at  Jericho.  His  orders  were 
obeyed,  for  they  were  enforced  with  no  less  penally  than  that  of  death. 
When  these  men  were  come  to  Jericho,  he  had  them  all  shut  up  in  the 
•circus,  and  calling  for  his  sister  Salome,  and  her  husband  Alcxas,  he  told 
them.  My  life  is  now  but  short ;  I  know  the  dispositions  of  the  Jewi?h 
people,  and  nothing  will  please  them  more  thanmy  death.  'You  have  these 
men  in  your  custody  ;  as  soon  as  the  breath  is  out  of  my  body,  and  before 
my  death  can  be  known,  do  you  let  in  the  soldiers  upon  them  and  kill  them. 
All  Juda?a  and  every  family  will  then,  though  unwillingly,  mourn  at  my 
death.'  Nay,  Josephus  says,  '  That  with  teats  in  his  eyes  ho  conjured 
them  by  their  love  to  him,  and  their  fidelity  to  God,  not  to  fail  of  doing  him 
this  honour  ;  and  they  promised  they  would  not  fail ;'  these  orders,  indeed, 
were  not  executed.  But  asa  modern  historian  of  very  good  sense  observes, 
'the  history  of  this  his  most  wicked  design  takes  oft'all  objection  against  the 
truth  of  murdering  the  innocents,  which  may  be  made  irom  the  incredi- 
bility of  so  barbarous  and  horrid  an  act.  For  this  thoroughly  shows,  that 
there  can  nothing  be  imagined  so  cruel,  barbarous,  and  horrid,  which  this 
pnan  was  not  capable  of  doing.'  It  may  also  be  proper  to  observ'e,  that  almost 
all  the  executions  I  have  instanced,  were  sacrifices  to  his  state  jealousy, 
and  loveVf  empire."  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiv.  c.  23.  25,  2(5.28.  lib. 
xvi.  c.  7,  8. 11,  12.  hb.  rvii.  c.  (j.  Lardner's  Credibility,  part  i.  book  ii.  c. 
2.  §1.  ^ 

»  From  Schulz's  Archteologia  Hebraica,  p.  54.  Reland  has  given  a  gene- 
alogical table  of  the  entire  Herpdian  family.    (Palaestina,  torn.  i.  p.  174.) 


ANTIPAS  or  ANTIPATFR,  an  IdumMn, 
appointed  prefect  of  Juda;a  and  Syria  by  Juhus  Caesar. 


HEROD  THE  GREAT,  king  of  Juda>a,. 

(Matt.  ii.  1.  Luke  l^.,, 
of  whose  ofTspring  the  following  are  to  be  noticed:— 


-Mariamne 

.5.), 


AnisTonri.cs, 
strangled  by 

order  of 
his  father. 


Archelaus, 
(Matt.  ii.  22.) 


Philip, 
(Luke  iii.  1.) 


Hebod  Antipa^, 

(Luke  iii.  1. 

Mall.  jtiv.  a 

Mark  vi.  14. 

Luke  iii.  I'.i,  yn.  and 

xxiii.  11.) 


HF.noD, 
king  of  Chaicis. 


Heuod  Agrippa, 
the  eld.-r, 
(Acts  xii.) 


HEiioniAs, 

marrieil  to  Herod  Philip, 

(.Matt.  xiv.  3. 

Mark  VI.  17. 

Luke  iii.  19. 


Bebntce, 
(Acts  XXV.  13.) 


AoHippA,  junior, 
(Acts  XXV.  13. 
xxvi.  1.  et  seq.) 


I 

Dai'sif.LA, 

(Aclsxxiv.  24.) 


Herod,  misnamed  the  Great,  by  his  will  divided  iiis  do- 
minions among  his  three  sons,  Archelaus,  Herod  Antipas, 
and  Herod  Philip. 

2.  To  Archelaus  he  assigned  Juda?a,  Samaria,  and  Idu- 
maa,  with  the  regal  dignity,  subject  to  the  aj)probation  of 
Augustus,  who  ratified  his  will  as  it  respected  the  territorial 
division,  but  conferred  on  Archelaus  the  title  o{  Ethnarch,  or 
chief  of  the  nation,  with  a  promise  of  the  regal  dignity,  if 
he  should  prove  himself  worthy  of  it.  Archelaus  entered 
upon  his  new  office  amid  the  loud  acclamations  of  his  sub- 
jects, who  considered  him  as  a  king;  hence  the  evangelist, 
in  conformity  with  the  Jewish  idiom,  says  that  he  reigned. 
(Matt.  ii.  22.)  His  reign,  however,  commenced  inauspi- 
ciously  :  for,  after  the  death  of  Herod,  and  before  Archelaus 
could  go  to  Rome  to  obtain  the  confirmation  of  his  father's 
will,  the  Jews  having  become  very  tumultuous  at  the  temple 
in  consequence  of  his  refusing  them  some  demands,  Arclie- 
laus  ordered  his  soldiers  to  attack  them;  on  which  occasion 
upwards  of  three  thousand  were  slain. ^  On  Archelaus  going 
to  Rome  to  solicit  the  regal  dignity  (agreeably  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  tributary  kings  of  that  age,  who  received  their 
crowns  from  the  Roinan  emperor),  the  Jews  sent  an  embassy, 
consisting  of  fifty  of  their  principal  men.  with  a  petition  to 
Augustus  that  they  might  be  permitted  to  live  according  to 
their  own  laws,  under  a  Roman  governor.  To  this  circum- 
stance our  Lord  evidently  alludes  in  the  parable  related  by 
Saint  Luke.  (xix.  12 — 27.)  Jl  certain  nobleman  (a;jfv;)f,  a 
man  of  birth  or  rank,  the  son  of  Herod),  went  into  a  fur 
country  (Italy),  to  receive  for  himself  a  kingdom  (that  of  Ju- 
daea) and  to  return.  But  his  citizens  (the  Jews)  hated  him 
and  sent  a  message  (or  embassy)  after  him  (to  Augustus 
Caesar),  saying,  "  ffe  will  not  have  this  man  to  reign  over  t/s," 
The  Jews,  however,  failed  in  their  request,  and  Archelaus, 
having  received  the  kingdom  (or  ethnarchy),  on  his  return 
inflicted  a  severe  vengeance  on  those  who  would  not  that  he 
should  reign  over  them.^  Tlie  application  of  this  parable  is  to 
Jesus  Christ,  who  foretells,  that,  on  his  ascension,  he  would 
go  into  a  distant  country,  to  receive  the  kingdom  from  his 
Father;  and  that  he  would  return,  at  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, to  take  vengeance  on  those  who  rejected  him.*  The 
subsetiucnt  reign  of  Archelaus  was  turbulent,  and  dis- 
graced by  insurrections  of  the  Jews  against  the  Romans,  and 
also  by  banditti  and  pretenders  to  the  crown :  at  length,  after 
repeated  complaints  against  his  tyranny  and  mal-administra- 
tion,  made  to  Augustus  by  the  principal  Jews  and  Samari- 
tans, who  were  joined  by  his  own  brothers,  Archelaus  was 
deposed  and  banished  to  v  ienne  in  Gaul,  in  the  tenth  year  of 
his  reign ;  and  his  territories  were  annexed  to  the  Roman 
province  of  Syria.^ 

3.  Herod  Antipas  (or  Antipater),  another  of  Herod's 
sons,  received  from  his  father  the  district  of  Galilee  and 

»  This  circumstance  probably  deterred  the  Holy  Family  from  setllin?  in 
Judaea  on  their  return  from  Egypt ;  and  induced  them  by  the  divine  adnio- 
nilion  to  return  to  their  former  residence  at  Nazareth  in  Galilee.  (Matt,  iu 
22,  23.)    Dr.  Hale.s's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  p.  717. 

*  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvii.  c.  9.  §  3.  c.  11.  Harwood's  Introduction, 
vol.  i.  p.  2y4. 

»  There  is  an  impressive  application  of  this  parable  in  Mr.  Jones's  Lec- 
tures on  the  figurative  Language  of  Scripture,  lect.  v.  near  the  beginning 
(.Works,  vol.  iii.  pp.  3.5,  36.) 

6  Josephus,  Ant  Jud.  lib.  xvii.  c.  11.  (al.  xii.)  §2,  c.  13.  (al.  xiv.) 


52 


POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IL 


Persea,  with  the  title  of  Tetrarch.^  He  is  described  by  .Tose- 
phus  as  a  crafty  and  incestuous  prince,  with  which  cliaracter 
the  narratives  of  the  evangelists  coincide;  for,_  havintr  de- 
serted his  wife,  the  daufrhter  of  Aretas  king-  of  Arabia,  he 
forcibly  took  away  and  married  Herodias  the  wife  of  his 
brother  Herod  Philip,  a  proud  and  cruel  woman,  to  gratify 
whom  he  caused  John  the  Baptist  to  be  beheaded  (.Matt.  xiv. 
3.  Mark  vi.  17.  Luke  iii.  !(».),  who  had  provoked  her  ven- 
geance by  his  faithful  reproof  of  their  incestuous  nuptials  ; 
Siough  Josephus  ascribes  the  Baptist's  death  to  Herod's 
apprehension,  lest  the  latter  should  by  his  influence  raise  an 
insurrection  among  the  people.  It  was  this  Herod  that  laid 
snares  for  our  Saviour;  wiio,  detecting  his  insidious  inten- 
tions, termed  him  a  fox  (Luke  xiii.  3-2.),  and  who  was  sub- 
sequently ridiculed  by  him  and  his  soldiers.  (Luke  xxiii.  7 — 
11.)  Some  years  afterwards,  Herod,  aspiring  to  the  regal 
dignity  in  Judaja,  was  banished  together  with  his  wife,  first 
to'Xyons  in  Gaul,  and  thence  into  Spain.2 

4.  Philip,  tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,  Gaulonitis,  and  Bata- 
nasa,  is  mentioned  but  once  in  the  New  Testament.  (Luke 
iii.  1.)  He  is  represented  by  Josephus  as  an  amiable  prince, 
beloved  by  his  subjects,  whom  he  governed  with  mildness 
and  equity  :■'  on  liis  decease  without  issue,  after  a  reign  of 
thirty-seven  years,  his  territories  were  annexed  to  the 
province  of  Syria.^ 

5.  AoRiPPA,  or  Herod  A^ippa  L,  was  the  son  of  Aristo- 
bulus,  and  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  sustained 
various  reverses  of  fortune  previously  to  his  attaining  the 
royal  dignity.  At  first  he  resided  at  Rome  as  a  private  per- 
son, and  ingratiated  hinise.lf  into  the  favour  of  the  emperor 
Tiberius :  but  being  accused  of  wishing  him  dead  that 
Caligula  might  reign,  he  was  thrown  into  prison  by  order  of 
Tiberius.  On  the  accession  of  Caligula  to  the  empire, 
Agrippa  was  created  king  of  Batana?a  and  Trachonitis,  to 
which  Abilene,  Judaa,  and  .Samaria  were  subsequently  added 
by  the  emperor  Claudius.  Returning  home  to  his  dominions, 
he  governed  them  much  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  subjects 
(for  whose  gratification  he  put  to  death  the  apostle  James, 
and  meditated  that  of  St.  Peter,  who  was  miraculously 
delivered.  Acts  xii.  2 — 17.);  but,  being  inflated  with  pride  on 
account  of  his  increasing  power  and  grandeur,  he  was  struck 
with  a  noisome  and  painful  disease,  of  which  he  died  at 
Caesarea  in  the  manner  related  by  St.  Luke.  (Acts  xii.  21 
—23.y 

6.  Herod  Agrippa  II. ,  or  Junior,  was  the  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding Herod  Agrippa,  and  was  educated  under  the  auspices 
of  the  emperor  Claudius  :  being  only  seventeen  years  of  age, 
at  the  time  of  his  father's  death,  he  was  judged  to  be  unequal 
to  the  task  of  governing  the  whole  of  his  dominions.  These 
were  again  placed  under  the  direction  of  a  Roman  procurator 
or  governor,  and  Agrippa  was  first  king  of  Chalcis,  and  after- 
wards of  Batanaja,  '1  rachonitis,  and  Abilene,  to  which  other 
teiTitories  were  suljsequently  added,  over  which  he  seems  to 
have  ruled,  with  the  title  of  king.*^  It  was  before  this 
Agrippa  and  his  sister  Bernice  that  St.  Paul  delivered  his 
masterly  defence  (Acts  xxvi.),  where  he  is  expressly  termed 
a  king.  He  was  the  last  Jewish  prince  of  the  Herodian 
family,  and  for  a  long  time  survived  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

7.  Besides  Herodias,  who  has  been  mentioned  above, 
the  two  following  princesses  of  the  Herodian  family  are 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament;  viz. 

(1.)  Bernice,  the  eldest  daughter  of  king  Herod  Agrippa 
I.  and  sister  to  Agrippa  IL  (Actsxxv.  13.  23.  xxvi.  30.)  was 
first  married  to  her  uncle  Herod  kin^  of  Chalcis ;  after  whose 
death,  in  order  to  avoid  the  merited  suspicion  of  incest  with 
her  brother  Agrippa,  she  became  the  wife  of  Polemon,  king 
of    Cilicia.     This  connection  being    soon   dissolved,   she 

«  Concerning  the  meaning  of  this  term  learned  men  are  by  no  means 
agreed.  In  its  primary  and  original  signification.it  implies  a  governor  of  the 
fourth  part  of  a  country  ;  and  this  seems  to  have  been  the  first  meaning 
affixed  to  it.  But  afterwards  it  was  given  to  the  governors  of  a  province, 
wlielher  their  government  was  tlie  fourtli  part  uf  a  country  or  not :  for  He- 
rod divided  liis  l^ingdom  only  into  three  parts.  The  Telrarchs,  however, 
were  regarded  as  princes,  and  sometimes  were  complimented  with  the  title 
of  king.  (Matt.  xiv.  9.)  Beausobrc's  liitrod.  to  the  New  Test.  (Bp.  Wat- 
son's Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  123.)  The  Romans  conferred  this  title  on  those 
princes  whom  they  did  not  choose  to  elevate  to  the  regal  dignity;  the 
Tntraich  was  lower  in  point  of  rank  than  a  Roman  governor  of  a  province. 
Hchub.ii,  Archreol.  Hebr.  pp.  18,  19.     Jahn,  ArchiCol.  Eibl.  §210. 

•1  .losephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  -xviii.  c.  7. 

3  Ibid.  lib.  xvii.  c.  8.  §  1.  lib.  xviii.  c.  5.  H.  Dc  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.  33.  §8. 
lih.  ii.  c.  6.  §3. 

■■  Ibid.  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  4.  §6. 

'•  Ibid.  lib.  xviii.  cc.  5 — R. 

«  Ibid.  lib.  xix.  c.  9.    De  Bell  Jud.  lib.  ii.  cc.  12,  13. 


returned  to  her  brother,  and  became  the  mistress,  first  of 
Vespasian,  and  then  of  Tims,  who  would  have  married  her, 
liut  that  he  was  unwilling  to  displease  the  Romans,  who 
were  averse  to  such  a  step.'^ 

(2.)  Drusilla,  her  sister,  and  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Herod  Agrippa,  was  distinguished  for  her  beauty,  and  was 
equally  celel)rated  witlr  Bernice  for  her  profligacy.  She 
was  fiist  espoused  to  Epiphancs,  the  son  of  Antiochus,  king 
of  Comagena,  on  condition  of  his  embracing  the  Jewish 
religion  ;  but  as  he  afterwards  refused  to  be  circumcised,  she 
was  given  in  marriage,  by  her  brother,  to  Azizus  king  of 
Emessa,  who  submitted  to  that  rite.  When  Felix  came  into 
Judffia,  as  procurator  or  governor  of  Judaea,  he  persuaded  her 
to  abandon  her  husband  and  marry  him.  Josephus^  says  that 
she  was  induced  to  transgress  the  laws  of  her  countr3%  and 
become  the  wife  of  Felix,  in  order  to  avoid  the  envv  of  her 
sister  Bernice,  who  was  continually  doing  her  ill  offices  on 
account  of  her  beauty.^ 


SECTION  IL 

POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS  UNDER  THE  ROMAN  PROCURA- 
TORS, TO  THE  SUBVERSION  OF  THEIR  CIVIL  AND  ECCLESIAS- 
TICAL POLITV. 

I.  Powers  and  functions  of  the  Roman  procurators. — IT.  Po- 
Utical  and  civil  state  of  the  Jeivs  under  their  administration. 
— III.  .^ccoujit  of  Pontius  Pilate. — IV.  .^nd  of  the  procura- 
tors Felix  and  Festus. 

I.  The  Jewish  kingdom,  which  the  Romans  had  created 
in  favour  of  Herod  the  Great,  was  of  short  duration ;  expir- 
ing on  his  death,  by  the  division  of  his  territories,  and  by 
the  dominions  of  Archelaus,  which  comprised  Samaria, 
Judasa,  and  Idumsea,  being  reduced  to  a  Roman  province 
annexed  to  Syria,  and  governed  by  the  Roman  Procurators. 

These  oflicers  not  only  had  the  charge  of  collecting  the 
imperial  revenues,  but  also  had  the  power  of  life  and  death  in 
capital  causes  :  and  on  account  of  their  high  dignity  they  are 
sometimes  called  governors  (H^^s^cvs?).  They  usually  had  a 
council,  consisting  of  their  friends  and  other  chief  Romans  in 
the  province ;  with  whom  they  conferred  on  important  ques- 
tions.'o  During  the  continuance  of  the  Roman  republic,  it 
was  very  unusual  for  the  governors  of  provinces  to  take 
their  wives  with  them.  Augustus"  disapproved  of  the  intro- 
duction of  this  practice,  which,  however,  was  in  some 
instances  permitted  by  Tiberius.  Thus  Agrippina  accompa- 
nied Germaniciis'2  into  Germanj^and  Asia,  and  Plancina  was 
with  Piso,  whose  insolence  towards  Germanicus  she  con- 
tributed to  inflame  i'^  and  though  CaecinaSeverus  afterwards 
offered  a  motion  to  the  senate,  to  prohibit  this  indulgence 
(on  account  of  the  serious  inconveniences, — not  to  say 
abuses,  that  would  result  from  the  political  influence  which 
the  wives  might  exercise  over  their  husljands),  his  motion 
was  rejected,^  and  they  continued  to  attend  the  procurators  to 
their  respective  provinces.  This  circumstance  will  account 
for  Pilate's  wife  being  at  Jerusalem.  (Matt,  xxvii.  19.)  The 
procurators  of  Juda?a  resided  principally  at  Caesarea,'^  which 
was  reputed  to  be  the  metropolis  of  that  country,  and  occu- 
pied the  splendid  palace  which  Herod  the  Great  had  erected 
there.  On  the  great  festivals,  or  when  any  tumults  were 
apprehended,  they  repaired  to  Jerusalem,  that,  l)y  their 
presence  and  influence,  they  might  restore  order.  P'or  this 
purpose  they  Avere  accompanied  by  cohorts  (^in-upM,  Acts  x. 
1.),  or  bands  of  soldiers,  not  legionary  cohorts,  but  distinct 
companies  of  military  :  each  of  them  was  about  one  thousand 
strong.16  Six  of  these  cohorts  were  constantly  garrisoned  in 
Judana ;  five  at  Caesarea,  and  one  at  Jerusalem,  part  of 
which  was  quartered  in  the  tower  of  Antonia,  so  as  to  com- 

1  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xix.  c.  1.  §  I.  lib.  xx.  c.7.  §3.  Tacitus,  Hist.  lib. 
ii.  c.  81.     Suetonius  in  Tito,  c.  7.    Juvenal,  Sat.  vi.  155. 

8  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  x.\.  c.  7.  §  1,  2.    Acts  xxiv.  24. 

»  Schulzii  Archa!ologia  Hebraica,  pp.  49—59.  Prjtii  Introd.  ad  Nov.  Test, 
pp.  429—444.  Dr.  Lardner's  Credibility,  vol.  i.  book  i.  ch.  1.  §§  1—11 
(Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  11—30.  8%'o.  or  vol.  i.  pp.  9—18.  4to.)  Carpzovii  Anliqui- 
tates  Hebne  Gentis,  pp.  15 — 19. 

10  Josephus  (Ant.  Jud.  hb.  xx.  c.  4.  §4.  and  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  16.  §  1.) 
mentions  instances  in  which  the  Roman  procurators  thus  took  council  with 
their  assessors. 

"  Suetonius,  in  Angusto,  c.  24. 

»»  Tacitus,  Annal.  lib.  ii.  cc.  54,  55.  lib.  i.  cc.  40,  41. 

'3  Ibid.  lib.  i.  c.40.  "  Ibid.  lib.  iii.  cc.  33,  34. 

'!>  .losephus.  Ant.  Jud?  lib.  xviii.  c.  3.  §  1.  lib.  xx.  c-  5.  §  4.    De  Bell.  Jud.  , 
lib.  ii.  c.  9.  I  2.    Tacit.  Hist.  lib.  ii.  c.  79. 

»»  Biscoe  ou  the  Act.s,  vol.  i.  pp.  3.30—335. 


Sect.  II.] 


UNDER  THE  ROMAN  PROCURATORS. 


53 


niand  the  temple,  and  part  in  the  praetorium  or  governor's 
palace. 

'I'he.se  procurators  wore  Komans,  sometimes  of  the  emios- 
trian  order,  and  sometimes  freednieii  of  the  ('iii])eror:  Fcdix 
(Acts  xxiii.  21 — 2G.  xxvi.  .3.  22 — 27.)  was  a  frcedinan  of  the 
emperor  ('hiadius,'  with  whom  he  was  in  hijrh  favour. 
These  iroveiiiors  w<^re  sent,  not  h^'  the  senat*;,  hut  hy  the 
Caesars  themselves,  into  those  provinces  which  were  situated 
on  the  confines  of  the  empire,  and  were  placed  at  the  empe- 
ror's own  dis|)(isal.  'I'licir  duties  consisted  in  collcctinjT  and 
remiltinir  trihute,  in  tln^  administration  of  justice,  atiil  the 
repression  (jf  tumults;  some  of  them  lield  independent  juris- 
dictions, while  others  were  suhordinate  to  the  proconsul  or 
governor  of  the  iiean>st  province.  Tims  Judu;a  was  annexed 
to  the  province  of  .Syria. 

II.  The  .lews  en(iured  their  suhjection  to  the  Romans  with 
great  reluctance,  on  account  of  lUo.  tribute  which  they  were 
oi)lige(l  to  j>ay  :  l)ut  in  all  oilier  rcs))ccts  they  enjoyed  a  larjre 
measure  ot  national  liheity.  It  appears  from  the  whole  tenor 
Jew  Testament  (lor  the  particul 


of  the  Ne\ 


lar  passages  are  too 


numerous  to  bo  cited),^  that  tliey  practised  their  own  reli- 
gious rites,  wois!iip|)e((  in  the  temple  and  in  their  synagogues, 
followed  their  own  customs,  and  lived  very  much  according 
to  their  own  laws.  Thus  tln^y  had  their  liigii-priests,  and 
council  or  senate;  they  iullictcMl  lesser  punishments;  tiiey 
could  apprehend  men  and  hring  them  before  the  council;  and 
if  a  guard  of  soldiers  was  necessary,  could  be  assisted  by 
them,  on  reiiuesting  them  of  the  governor.  Further,  they 
could  hind  men  and  keep  them  in  custody;  the  council  could 
likewise  summon  witnesses  and  take  examinations;  they 
could  excommunicate  ])ersoiis,  and  they  could  inflict  scourg- 
ing in  their  synagogue  (Deul.  xxv.  3.  Matt.  x.  17.  Mark 
xiii.  !).);   they  enjoyed  the  ])rivilcge  of  referring  litigated 

Siiestions  to  arbitrators,  whose  decisions  in  reference  to  tiiem 
le  Roman  pra-tor  was  bound  to  see  put  in  execution. •* 
Beyond  this,  however,  they  were  not  allowed  to  go;  ftjr, 
■when  they  had  any  capital  oU'eiiders,  they  carried  them  before 
tlie  procurator,  who  usually  paid  a  regard  to  what  they 
stated,  and,  if  they  brought  evidence  of  the  fact,  pronounced 
sentence  according  to  their  laws.  He  was  the  proper  judge 
in  all  capital  causes;  for,  after  the  council  of  the  Jews  had 
taken  under  their  consideration  the  case  of  Jesus  Christ, 
which  they  pretended  was  of  this  kind,  they  went  with  it 
immediately  to  the  governor,  who  re-examined  it  and  pro- 
nounced sentence.  That  they  had  not  the  power  of  life  and 
death  is  evident  from  Pilate's  granting  to  them  the  privilege 
of  judging,  but  not  of  condemning  Jesus  Christ,  and  also 
from  their  acknowledgment  to  Pilate — //  is  nof  lawful  for  us 
to  put  ant/  man  in  death  (John  xviii.  31.) ;  and  likewise  from 
the  power  vested  in  Pilate  of  ndeasing  a  condemned  criminal 
to  tbem  at  the  passover  (Jobn  xviii.  3'J,  40.),  which  he  could 
not  have  done  if  he  had  not  had  the  power  of  life  and  death, 
as  well  as  from  his  own  declaration  that  he  had  power  to 
-crucify  and  power  to  release  Jesus  Christ.''  (John  xix.  10.) 

•  Suclonius  in  Claudio,  c.  28. 

»  See  Ur.  Gardner's  Credibility,  part  i.  book  ii.  c.  2.  where  the  various 
passages  are  adduced  and  fully  considered. 

»  Ci)d.  lib.  i.  tit.  9.  I.  8.  dc  .)uda.'is.— As  the  Christians  were  at  first  re- 
garded as  a  sect  of  the  Jews,  tliey  likewise  enjoyed  the  same  privUege. 
Thi.-i  circumstance  will  account  for  Saint  Paul's  blaininjt  the  Corinthian 
Christians  liir  carryins  their  causes  before  the  Komau  pra'tor,  instead 
of  leaving  them  to  referees  chosen  from  among  their  brethren.  (1  Cor. 
VI.  1—7.) 

«  The  celebrated  Roman  Jurist,  Ulpian,  slates  that  the  governors  of  the 
Roman  provinces  And  the  ri^lit  of  t/iesworil ;  which  implied  the  authority 
of  punishing  malefactor.s;  an  authority  which  was  personal,  and  not  to  be 
transferred.  (Lib.  vi.  c.  8.  dc  Otfirio  Proconsulis.)  And  Josephus  states 
(Ue  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  8.  §  1.)  that  Coponius,  who  was  sent  to  govern  .lu- 
diea  as  a  province  after  the  banishment  of  Archelaus,  was  invested  by 
Augustus  with  the  power  of  hfe  and  death.  (Bp.  Gray's  Connection  of 
Sacred  and  Profane  Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  273.  See  also  Dr.  Lardner's  Cre- 
dibility, c.  2.  I  6.)  The  case  of  the  Jewif  stoning  Stephen  (Acts  vii.  56,  57.) 
has  been  urged  by  soine  learned  men  as  a  proof  that  the  former  hail  tlie 
power  of  life  and  death,  but  the  circumstances  of  that  case  do  not  support 
this  assertion.  Stephen,  it  is  true,  had  been  e.xamined  before  the  great 
council,  who  had  heard  witnesses  again-i^t  him,  but  nowhere  do  we  read 
thai  they  had  collected  votes  or  proceeded  to  the  giving  of  sentence,  or 


III.  Of  the  various  procurators  that  governed  Judcea  under 
the  Romans,  Pontius  Pu.ate  is  the  hest  known,  and  most 
fre(iuenlly  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writings. — He  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  native  of  Italy,  and  was  sent  to  govern  Judeea 
about  the  ytar  A.  D.  2G  or  27.  Pilate  is  characterized  by 
Josephus  as  an  unjust  and  cruel  governor,  sanguinary,  obsti- 
nate, and  impetuous;  who  disturbed  the  traiKiuriiily  of  Jndaia 
ijy  persisting  in  carrying  into  Jerusalem  the  effigies  of  Tibe- 
rius Caesar  that  were  upon  the  Roman  ensigns, lind  by  other 
acts  of  oppression,  which  produced  tumults  among  the  Jews.* 
Dreading  the  extreme  jealousy  and  suspicion  of  Tit)erius,  he 
delivered  up  the  Redeemer  to  be  crucified,  contrary  to  the 
conviction  of  his  better  judgment:  and  in  the  vain  liope  of 
conciliating  the  Jews  whom  he  had  oppressed.  After  he  had 
held  his  ofFice  for  ten  years,  having  caused  a  number  of  in- 
nocent .Samaritans  to  be  put  to  death,  that  injured  people 
sent  an  embassy  to  Vitellius,  proconsul  of  Syria;  by  whom 
he  was  ordered  to  Rome,  to  give  an  account  of  his  rnal-admi- 
nistration  to  the  emperor.  But  Tiberius  being  dead  before 
he  arrived  there,  his  successor  Caligula  banished  him  to 
Caul,  where  he  is  said  to  have  committed  suicide  about  the 
year  of  (Mirist  'll." 

ly.  On  the  death  of  king  Herod  Afrrippa,  Juda-a  being 
again  reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  the  government  of  it 
was  confided  to  Antonil's  Fkmx  ;  who  had  originally  been 
the  slave,  then  the  freedman  of  Nero,  and,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  his  brother  Pallas,  also  a  freedman  of  that  emperor, 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  procurator  of  Judaea.  He  libe- 
rated that  country  from  banditti  and  impostors  (the  vert/ 
wurlhy  dieds  alluded  to  by  TertuUus,  Acts  xxiv.  2.);  but  he 
was  in  other  respects  a  cruel  and  avaricious  governor,  incon- 
tinent, intemperate,  and  unjust.  So  oppressive  at  length  did 
his  administration  become,  that  the  Jews  accused  him^before 
Nero,  and  it  was  only  through  the  powerful  interposition  of 
Pallas  that  Felix  escaped  condign  punishment.  \{\s  thirds 
wife,  Drusilla,  has  already  been  mentioned.  It  was  before 
these  persons  that  St.  Paul,  with  singular  propriety,  reasoned 
of  righteousness,  temperance,  and  a  judgment  to  come.  (Acts 
xxiv.  25.)  On  tlie  resignation  of  Felix,  a.  d.  GO,  the  govern- 
ment of  Juda-a  was  coinmitted  to  Portius  Festus,  before 
whom  Paul  defended  himself  against  the  accusations  of  the 
.Tews  (Acts  xxv.),  and  appealed  from  his  tribunal  to  that  of 
Cffisar.  Finding  his  province  overrun  with  robbers  anil  mur- 
derers, Festus  strenuously  exerted  himself  in  suppressing 
their  outrages.     He  died  in  Judaea  about  the  year  t)2.'> 

The  situation  of  the  Jews  under  the  two  last-mentioned 
procurators  was  truly  deplorable.  Distracted  by  tumults, 
excited  on  various  occasions,  their  country  was  overrun  with 
robbers  that  plundered  all  the  villages  whose  inhabitants 
refused  to  listen  to  their  persuasions  to  shake  oflTthe  Roman 
yoke.  Justice  was  sold  to  the  highest  bidder;  and  even  the 
sacred  office  of  high-priest  was  exposed  to  sale.  But,  of  all 
the  procurators,  no  one  abused  his  power  more  than  Gessius 
Florus,  a  cruel  and  sanguinary  governor,  and  so  extremely 
avaricious  that  he  shared  with  the  robbers  in  their  br)oty,  and 
allowed  them  to  follow  their  nefarious  practices  with  impu- 
nity. Hence  considerable  numbers  of  the  wretched  Jews, 
with  their  families,  abandoned  their  native  country;  while 
those  who  remained,  being  driven  to  desperation,  took  up 
arms  against  the  Romans,^  and  thus  commenced  that  war, 
which  terminated  in  the  destruction  of  Juda;a,  and  the  tukiitg 
atvay  of  their  name  and  natioti."> 

even  to  pronounce  him  guilty:  all  which  ought  to  have  been  done,  if  the 
proceedings  had  been  regular.  Before  Stephen  could  finish  his  (tefence 
a  sudden  tumult  arose  ;  the  people  who  were  present  rushed  with  one 
accord  upon  him,  and  casting  him  out  of  the  cily.  stoned  him  before  the 
affair  could  be  taken  before  the  Roman  procuratoir.  Pritii  Introd  ad  Nov 
Test.  p.  5!t2. 

»  .losephus.  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  3.  §§  I,  2. 

«  Ibid.  lib.  xviii.  c.  4.    Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  ii.  cc.  7,  8. 

'  Claudii  Commentalio  de  Felice,  pp.  62,  63. 

«  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xx.  c.  8.  §§  9,  10.  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c. 
14.  §  1. 

s  Ihid.  lib.  XX.  cc.  8.  11.    Ibid.  lib.  ii.  cc.  9,  10. 

'0  Schulzil  Arcbeeologia  Ilebraica,  pp.  59—66. 


54 


JEWISH  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE, 


[Paht  II.  Chap.  IH 


CHAPTER  III. 

COtTRTS  OF  JUDICATURE,  LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS,  AND  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF  THE  JEWS. 

SECTION  I. 

JEWISH  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE  AND  LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS.^ 

I.  Seat  of  Justice. — IT.   Inferior  Tribunals. — III.  Appeals. —  Constitution  of  the  Sanhedrin  or  Great  Council. — IV.   Time  of 

Trials. Form  of  legal  Proceedini^s  among-  the  Jeivs. — 1.    Citation  of  the  Parties. — 2,  3.  Fortn  of  Pleading  in  civil  and 

criminal   Cases.— 4:.    Witnesses. —  Oaths. — 5.   The  Lot,  in  rjhat    Cases  used  judicially. — 6.  Forms  of  ..Acquittal. — 7.   Sum- 
mary Justice,  sometimes  clamoroushj  demanded. — V.  Execution  of  Sentences,  by  ivhom  and  in  what  mariner  performed. 

or  less  honourable  place  in  the  synagogue.  And  the  context 
shows,  that  judges  and  judicial  causes  were  the  subjects  of 
the  apostle's  thoughts.'^ 

II.  On  the  settlement  of  the  Israelites  in  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan, Moses  commanded  them  to  appoint  judges  and  officers 
in  all  their  gates,  throughout  their  tribes  (Deut.  xvi.  18.)  ; 
whose  duty  it  was  to  exercise  judicial  authority  in  the  neigh- 
bouring villages;  but  weighty  causes  and  appeals  were  car- 
ried before  the  supreme  judge  or  ruler  of  the  conmionwealth. 
(Deut.  xvii.  8,  9.)  According  to  Josephus,  these  inferior 
judges  were  seven  in  number,  men  zealous  in  the  exercise 
of  virtue  and  righteousness.  To  each  judge  (that  is,  to  each 
college  of  judges  in  every  city)  two  officers  were  assigned 
out  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.^  These  judges  existed  in  the  time 
of  that  historian  ;5  and,  although  the  rabbinical  writers  are 
silent  concerning  them,  yet  their  silence  neither  does  nor 
can  outweigh  the  evidence  of  an  eye-witness  and  magistrate, 
who  himself  appointed  such  judges. 

The  Priests  and  Levites,  who,  from  their  being  devoted 
to  the  study  of  the  law,  were,  consequently,  best  skilled  in 
its  various  precepts,  and  old  men,  who  were  eminent  for 
their  age  ana  virtue,  administered  justice  to  the  people  :  in 
consequence  of  their  age,  the  name  of  elders  became  attached 
to  them.  Many  instances  of  this  kind^^ecur  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament; they  were  also  called  rulers,  afx^mK.  (Luke  xii.  58. 
where  ruler  is  synonymous  with  judge.)''  The  law  of  Mosos 
contained  the  most  express  prohibitions  of  bribery  (Exod. 
xxii.  8.)  and  partiality  ;  enjoining  them  to  administer  jus- 
tice without  respect  of  persons,  and  reminding  them,  that  a 
judge  sits  in  the  seat  of  God,  and,  consequently,  that  no  man 
ought  to  have  any  pre-eminence  in  his  sight,  neither  ought 
he  to  be  afraid  of  any  man  in  declaring  the  law.  (Exod.xxiii. 
3.  6,  7.  Lev.  xix.  15.  Deut.  i.  17.  xvi.  18,  19.)  The  pro- 
phet Amos  (viii.  6.)  reproaches  the  corrupt  judges  of  his 
time,  with  taking  not  only  silver,  but  even  so  trifling  an  arti- 
cle of  dress  as  a  pair  of  (wooden)  sandals,  as  a  oribe,  to 
condemn  the  innocent  poor  who  could  not  afford  to  make 
them  a  present  of  equal  value.  Turkish  officers  and  their 
wives  in  Asia,  to  this  day,  go  richly  clothed  in  costly  silks 
given  them  by  those  who  nave  causes  depending  before 
them.'  It  is  probable,  at  least  in  the  early  ages  after  the  set- 
tlement of  the  Jews  in  Canaan,  that  their  judges  rode  on 
luhiie  asses,  by  way  of  distinction  (Judges  v.  10.),  as  the 
MoUeths  or  men  of  the  law  do  to  tHis  day  in  Persia,«  and  the 
heads  of  families  returning  from  their  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.^ 

III.  From  these  inferior  tribunals,  appeals  lay  to  a  higher 
court,  in  cases  of  importance.  (Deut.  xvii.  8 — 12.)  In  Jeru- 
salem, it  is  not  improbable  that  there  were  superior  courts,  in 
which  David's  sons  presided.  Psalm  cxxii.  5.  seems  to 
allude  to  them  :  though  we  do  not  find  that  a  supreme  tri- 
bunal was  established  at  Jerusalem  earlier  than  in  the  reign 
of  Jehoshaphat.  (2  Chron.  xix.  8 — 11.)     It  was  composed  of 

3  Macknight  on  James  ii.  2. 

4  Josephws,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  14.  Schulzii  Prolusio  de  variis  Judaeo- 
rum  efroribus  in  Descriplione  Tcnipli  ii.  §  xv.  pp.  27 — 32.  ;  prefixed  to  his 
edition  of  Roland's  Treatise  De  Spoliis  Templi  Hierosolymitani  Trajecti  ad 
Rhenum,  1775.  8vo. 

'  Josephus,  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  20.  §  5. 

•  Ernesti  Institutio  Interprets  Novi  Testamenti,  part  iii.  c.  10.  §  73.  p.  356. 

'  Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  136.  * 

8  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  ii.  p.  317. 

9  "  We  met,  one  day,  a  procession,  consisting  of  a  family  returning  from 
the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  Drums  and  pipes  announced  the  joyful  event. 
A  white-bearded  old  man,  riding  on  tnwliite  ass,  led  the  way  with  patri- 
archal grace ;  and  the  men  who  met  him,  or  accompanied  him,  were  con- 
tinually throwing  their  arms  about  his  neck,  and  almost  dismounting  him 
with  their  salutations.  He  was  followed  by  his  three  wives,  each  riding 
gn  a  high  camel ;  their  fpmale  acquaintances  running  on  each  side,  while 
they  occasionally  stooped  down  to  salute  them.  The  women  continually 
uttered  a  remarkably  shrill  whistle.  It  was  impossible,  viewing  the  old 
man  who  led  the  way,  not  to  remember  the  expression  in  Judges  v.  10  " 
Jowett's  Christian  Researches,  p.  163. 


I.  In  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  the  Gede  of  the  City  was 
the  Seat  of  Justice,  where  conveyances  of  titles  and  estates 
were  made,  complaints  were  heard  and  justice  done,  and 
all  public  business  was  transacted.  Thus  Abraham  made 
the  acquisition  of  the  se])ulchre  in  the  presence  of  all  those 
who  entered  in  at  the  gate  of  the  city  of  Hebron.  (Gen.  xxiii, 
10.  18.)  When  Hamor  and  his  son  Shechem  proposed  to 
make  an  alliance  with  Jacob  and  his  sons,  they  spoke  of  it 
to  the  people  at  the  gate  of  the  cily.  (Gen.  xxxiv.  24.)  In 
later  times  Boaz,  having  declared  his  intention  of  marrying 
Ruth,  at  the  gate  of  Bethlehem  cau.sed  her  kinsman  to  resign 
his  pretensions,  and  give  him  the  proper  conveyance  to  the 
estate.   (Ruth  iv.  1 — 10.)     From  the  circumstance  of  the 

fates  of  cities  being  the  seat  of  justice,  the  judges  appear  to 
ave  been  termed  the  Elders  of  the  Gale  (Deut.  xxii.  15. 
XXV.  7.) ;  for,  as  all  the  Israelites  were  husbandmen,  who 
went  out  in  the  morning  to  work,  and  did  not  return  until 
night,  the  city  gate  was  the  place  of  greatest  resort.  By  this 
ancient  practice,  the  judges  were  compelled,  by  a  dread  of 
public  displeasure,  to  be  most  strictly  impartial,  and  most 
carefully  to  investigate  the  merits  of  the  causes  which  were 
brought  before  them.  The  same  practice  obtained  after  the 
captivity.  (Zech.  viii.  16.)  The  Ottoman  court,  it  is  well 
known,  derived  its  appellation  of  the  Forte,  from  the  distri- 
bution of  justice  and  the  despatch  of  public  business  at  its 
gates.     During  the  Arabian  monarchy  in  Spain,  the  same 

Sractice  obtained  ;  and  the  magnificent  gate  of  entrance  to  the 
loorish  palace  of  Alhamra  at  Grenada  to  this  day  retains  the 
appellation  of  the  Gate  of  Justice  or  of  Judgment.'^  To  the 
practice  of  dispensing  justice  at  the  gates  of  cities,  there  are 
numerous  allusions  in  the  Sacred  Volume.  For  instance,  in 
Job  V.  4.  the  children  of  the  wicked  are  said  to  be  crushed  in 
the  gate,-  that  is,  they  lose  their  cause,  and  are  condemned  in 
the  court  of  judgment.  The  Psalmist  (cxxvii.  5.),  speaking 
of  those  whom  God  has  blessed  with  many  children,  says 
that  they  shall  not  be  ashamed,  but  they  shall  speak  with  the 
enemies  in  the  gate ,-  that  is,  those  who  are  thus  blessed  shall 
courageously  plead  their  cause,  and  need  not  fear  the  want 
of  justice  when  they  meet  their  adversaries  in  the  court  of 
judicature.  Compare  Prov.  xxii.  22.  and  xxxi.  23.  Lament. 
v.  14.  Amos  v.  12.,  in  all  which  passages  the  gate,  and  elders 
of  the  land  or  (f  the  gale,  respectively  denote  the  seat  of  jus- 
tice and  the  judges  who  presided  there.  And  as  the  gates  of 
a  city  constituted  its  strength,  and  as  the  happiness  of  a  peo- 
ple depended  much  upon  the  wisdom  and  integrity  of  the 
judges  who  sat  there,  it  may  be  that  our  Saviour  alluded  to 
this  circumstance,  when  he  said.  The  gates  of  hell  shall  not 
prevail  against  his  church  (Matt.  xvi.  18.)  ;  that  is,  neither 
the  strength  nor  policy  of  Satan  or  his  instruments  shall  ever 
be  able  to  overcome  it. 

In  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  the  Jews  held  courts  of  judica- 
ture in  their  .synagogues,  wjiere  they  punished  offenders  by 
scourging.  (Matt.  x.  17.  Acts  xxh.  19.  xxvi.  11.)  After 
their  example.  Dr.  Macknight  thinks  it  probable,  that  the 
first  Christians  held  courts  for  determining  civil  causes,  in 
the  places  where  they  assembled'for  public  worship,  called 
your  synagogue  in  the  epistle  of  James,  (ii.  2.  Gr.)  It  is 
evident,  he  adds,  that  the  apostle  speaks  not  of  their  assem- 
bly, but  of  the  place  where  their  assembly  was  held,  from 
his  mentioning  the  litigants  as  sitting  in  a  more  honourable 

«  Besides  the  authorities  incidentally  cited  in  the  course  of  this  section, 
the  following  works  have  been  consulted  for  it,  throughout;  viz.  Schulzii 
Archreologia  Hebraica,  pp.  66 — 81.  ;  Cahnet,  Dissertation  sur  la  Police  des 
Hebreux  (Dissertations,  tom.  i.  pp.  187—204.);  Alber,  Hermeneutica  Vet. 
Test.  pp.  234—238.  ;  Pritii  Introd.  ad  Nov.  Test.  pp.  575—594. :  Brunings 
Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  99—107. ;  Home's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp.  30—41.  ; 
Jahn,  Archaeol.  Biblica,  §§  243—248.  ;  Ackermann,  Archaeol.  Bibl.  §§  237 

»  Murphy's  Arabian  Antir  uities  of  Spain,  plates  xiv.  xv.  pp.  8,  9. 


Sect.  I.] 


AND  LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS. 


55 


priests  and  heads  of  families,  and  had  two  presidents, — one 
in  the  person  of  the  lii<^h-priest,  and  another  who  s:it  in  the 
name  of  the  kinjr.  The  judicial  estahlishnient  was  reorg-a- 
nizod  after  tlu;  captivity,  and  two  classes  of  jiKhj^es,  inferior 
and  superior,  wen^  appointed.  (K'/ra  vii.  2;j.)  IJiit  the  more 
dilRcult  cases  and  ajjpeals  wrTe  ljrou<4lit,  eitlier  l)efore  the 
ruler  of  the  state,  or  hefore  the  hijih-prii'st, ;  until,  in  the  ajje 
of  the  Maccahees,  a  supnune  judicial  tritiunal  was  instituted, 
which  is  first  mentioned  undf^r  Hyrcanus  II.' 

This  trihunal  (which  I'.ust  not  he  confoimdcd  with  the 
seventy-two  counsellors,  who  were  appointed  to  assist  Moses 
in  the  civil  adniiiiislration  of  the  <roveiiiuieiit,  hut  who  never 
fulfilled  the  office  of  judircs)  is  hy  tlie'l'alniuilistsdcnouiinatcd 
Sanhkdrin,  and  is  tlie  (rreat  Council  so  often  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament.  It  was  most  prohabiy  instituted  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees,  and  was  composed  of  seventy  or  se- 
venty-two menil)ers,  under  the  chief  presidency  of  the  liiirh- 
priest,  under  whom  were  two  vice-presidents ;  the  first  of 
whom,  called  tlie  Father  of/ /le  ('(ni  nci  I, s-M.  on  \hc  riirht,  asthe 
second  vic(;-|)residcnt,  wiio  was  called  Chuh-din,  or  the  IVise 
Man,  did  on  the  left  hand  of  tlie  president.  The  other  asses- 
sors, or  members  of  this  council,  comprised  three  descriptions 
of  persons,  viz.  1.  The  Af;^/sps;c,  or  I'A'Vy /V/es/.<,  who  were 
partly  such  priests  as  had  executed  the  pontificate',  and  partly 
the  princes  or  chiefs  of  the  twenty-four  coursea  or  class(!S  of 
priests,  who  eiijoyiid  this  honourable  title  : — 2.  The  Ujhtj^u- 
Ttfici,  or  Elders,  periiaps  the  princes  of  tribes  or  heads  of  fa- 
milies;— and,  \i.  The  r/)/^^*T«;c,  Sa-ibni,  or  men  learned  in 
the  law.  It  does  not  appear  that  a//  the  elders  and  scribes 
were  members  of  this  tribunal :  most  probably  those  only 
were  assessors,  who  were  either  elected  to  the  ofilce,  or  no- 
minated to  it  by  royal  authority.  They  are  reported  to  have 
sat  in  a  semi-circular  form  ;  and  to  this  manner  of  their  sitting 
in  judgment  .lesus  Christ  is  supposed  to  refer  in  Matt.  xix. 
29.,  and  St.  Paul  in  1  Cor.  vi.  2. 

The  Sanhedrin  held  its  daily  sittings  early  in  the  morning 
(according  to  the  Talmudists)  in  the  Temple  ;  but  they  are 
contradicted  by  Josephus,^  who  speaks  of  a  council-house  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Temple,  where  this  council 
was  in  all  probability  convened ;  though  in  extraordinary 
emergencies  it  was  assembled  in  the  higli-priest's  house,  as 
was  the  case  in  the  mock  trial  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  autho- 
rity of  this  tribunal  was  very  extensive.  It  decided  all 
causes,  which  were  brought  before  it,  by  appeal  from  inferior 
courts  ;  and  also  took  cognizance  of  the  general  affairs  of 
the  nation.  Bifare  .ludaea  was  subject  to  the  Roman  power, 
the  Sanhedrin  had  the  right  of  judging  in  capital  cases,  but 
not  afterwards  ;  the  stoning  of  Stephen  being  (as  we  have 
already  observed)  a  tumultuary  act,  and  not  in  consequence 
of  sentence  pronounced  by  this  council.' 

Besides  the  Sanhedrin,  the  Talmudical  writers  assert  that 
there  were  other  smaller  councils,  each  consisting  of  twenty- 
three  persons,  who  heard  and  d(>termined  petty  causes :  two 
'of  these  were  at  .Terusalem,  and  one  in  every  city  containing 
one  hundred  and  twentj'  inhabitants.  .Tosephus  is  silent  con- 
cerning these  tribunals,  but  they  certuiuly  appear  to  have 
existed  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ;  who,  "by  images  taken 
from  these  two  courts,  in  a  very  striking  manner  represents 
the  different  degrees  of  future  ])unishments,  to  which  the 
impenitently  wicked  will  be  doomed  according  to  the  respec- 
tive heinousness  of  their  crimes.  But  I  *oy  unto  you,  that 
whosoever  is  angri/  luith  his  brother  without  a  cause,  shall  be  in 
danger  of  the  judgment  ;  and  ivhosever  shall  sai/  to  his  brother, 
Baca,  shall  be  in  danger  of  the  council  ;  but  whosoever  shall 
say.  Thou  fool,  shall  be  in  danger  of  hell  fire.  (Matt.  v.  22.) 
That  is,  whosoever  shall  indulge  causeless  ann  unprovoked 
resentment  against  his  Christian  brother,  shall  be  punished 
with  a  severity  similar  to  tliat  which  is  inflicted  by  the  court 
of  judgment.  He,  who  shall  suffer  his  |)assions  to  transport 
him  to  greater  extravagances,  so  as  to  make  his  brother  the 
object  of  derision  and  contempt,  shall  be  exposed  to  a  still 
severer  punishment,  corresponding  to  that  which  the  council 
imposes.  But  he  who  shall  load  ids  fellow-Christian  with 
odious  appellations  and  abusive  language,  shall  incur  the 
severest  degree  of  all  punishments, — etpiaL  to  that  of  being 
burnt  alive  in  the  valley  of  Hinnom:"' — which,  having 
formerly  been  the  scene  of  those  horrid  sacrifices  of  children 
to  Molo<!h  by  causing  them  to  pass  through  the  fire,  the 

'  Jrtspphus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiv.  c.  9.  §  3. 

»  De  B.>11.  Juil.  lib.  v.  c.  4.  §  2.  lib.  vi.  c.  6.  §  3. 

»  Dr.  Liglufoot  has  given  a  list  of  si.vteen  presidents  who  direrted  the 
sanhedrin  from  the  captivity  till  its  dissolution.  (Prospect  of  the  Temple, 
cli.  xxii.  I  1.     Works,  vol.  ix.  pp.  342—346.  8vo.  edit.) 

«  Harwood's  Introduction  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  188,  189.. 


Jews  in  our  Saviour's  time  used  to  denote  the  place  of  the 
damned. 

Where  there  were  not  one  hundred  and  twenty  inhabitants 
in  a  town  or  village,  according  to  the  Talimidist,  there  was 
a  trilninal  of  thrff-  judges:  and  to  this  tribunal  some  writers 
hav(^  erroneously  imagined  that  Jiisi|)li  of  Arimathea  be- 
longed, rather  than  to  the  great  Sanhedrin.  But  both  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament  and  Josephus  are  silent  con- 
cerning the  existence  of  such  a  tribunal.  Jalin  is  of  opinion 
that  this  court  was  merelj'  a  session  of  three  arbitrators, 
which  the  Koman  laws  periuitted  to  the  Jews  in  civil  causes  : 
as  theTalmuilists  themselves  state  iliiU  one  judge  was  chosen 
by  the  accuser,  another  by  the  party  accused,  and  a  third  by 
both  parties.  It  apjiears,  however,  tliatonly  petty  affairs  were 
cognizable  by  this  tribunal.  The  reference  to  arbitrators, 
recommended  to  Christians  by  St.  Paul  in  1  Cor.  vi.  1 — 5., 
has  h(>en  supposed  to  he  derived  from  this  tribunal. 

It  is  essential  to  the  ends  of  justice,  that  the  proceedings 
of  the  courts  should  be  committed  to  writing,  and  preserved 
in  archives  or  registries:  Jost-plius  informs  us  that  there  was 
such  a  repository  at  J(>rusalem,  which  was  burnt  by  the  Ro- 
mans,' and  which  was  furnished  with  scribes  or  notaries,  for 
recording  the  proceedings.  From  this  place,  probably,  St. 
Luke  derivfjd  his  account  of  the  proceoflings  against  the 
protomartyr  Stephen,  related  in  Acts  vi.  and  vii.  These  tribu- 
nals also  liad  inferior  ministers  or  officers  {u-r^^n-M,  Matt.  v. 
25.),  who  probably  corresponded  with  our  apparitors  or  mes- 
sengers ;  and  others  whose  office  it  was  to  carry  the  decrees 
into  execution,  viz.  1.  The  ^r^axripec,  or  exactors,  whose  busi- 
ness it  was  to  levy  the  fines  imposed  by  the  court ;  and, 
2.  The  ^^tiTMiT'M,  or  tormentors,  those  whose  ofllice  it  was  to 
examine  by  torture  :  as  this  charge  was  devolved  on  gaolers, 
in  the  time  of  Christ,  the  word  /Sas-aws-oc  came  to  signify  a 
gaoler."^ 

IV.  It  a])pears  from  Jer.  xxi.  12.,  that  causes  were  heard, 
and  judgment  was  executed  in  the  mornin?.  According  to 
the  Talmud,''  capital  causes  were  prohibited  from  being  heard 
in  the  night,  as  also  were  the  institution  of  an  examination, 
the  pronouncing  of  sentence,  and  the  carrying  of  it  into 
execution,  on  one  and  the  same  day  ;  and  it  was  enjoined 
that  at  least  the  execution  of  a  sentence  should  be  deferred 
until  the  following  day.  How  flagrantly  this  injunction  was 
disregarded  in  the  case  of  Jesus  Christ,  it  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  mention.  According  to  the  T-almud,  also,  no  judg- 
ments could  be  executed  on  festival  days ;  but  this  by  no 
means  agrees  with  the  end  and  design  of  capital  punishment 
expressed  in  Deut,  xvii.  13.  viz.  That  all  the  people  might 
hear  and  fear.  It  is  evident  from  Matt.  xxvi.  5.  that  the  chief 
priests  and  other  leading  men  among  the  Jews  were  at  first 
afraid  to  apprehend  Jesus,  lest  there  should  be  a  tumult 
among  the  people  :  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  feared  the 
Galilaeans  more  than  the  populace  of  Jerusalem,  hecause 
they  were  the  countrymen  of  our  Lord.  Afterwards,  how- 
ever, when  the  traitor"  Judas  presented  himself  to  them,  their 
fears  vanished  away. 

In  the  early  ages  of  the  Jewish  history,  judicial  procedure 
must  have  been  summary,  as  it  still  is  in  Asia.s  Of  advo- 
cates, such  as  ours,  there  is  no  appearance  in  any  part  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Everyone  nleaaed  his  own  cause;  of  this 
practice  we  have  a  memorable  instance  in  1  Kings  iii.  IG — 
28.  As  causes  were  heard  at  the  city  gate,  where  t!ie  people 
assembled  to  hear  news  or  to  pass  away  their  time,  Michaelis 
thinks  that  men  of  experience  and  wisdom  might  he  asked 
for  their  opinions  in  difficult  cases,  and  might  sometimes 
assist  with  their  advice  those  who  seemed  embarrassed  in 
their  own  cause,  even  when  it  was  a  good  one.  Probably 
this  is  alluded  to  in  Job  xxix.  7 — 17.  and  Isa.  i.  17.^  From 
the  Romans,  the  use  of  advocates,  or  patrons  who  pleaded 
the  cause  of  another,  might  have  passed  to  the  Jews.  In 
this  view  the  word  nap^KX^Toc,  or  advocate,  is  applied  to 
Christ,  our  intercessor,  who  pleads  the  cause  (f  sinners  with  his 
Father.  (1  John  ii.  1.)  The  form  of  proceeding  appears  to 
have  been  as  follows  : — 

1.  Those  who  were  summoned  before  courts  of  judicature, 
were  said  to  be  Trf.yiryfxfjtfAa-A  u;  Kfia-iv,  because  they  were  cited 
by  posting  up  their  names  in  some  public  place,  and  to  these 

» .lospphus,  De  Bell.  .Tud.  lib.  vi.  c.  3.  §  3. 

«  Sciileu.^ner's  and  Parkhurst's  Lexicon,  in  voce. 

">  Sanhedrin,  IV. 

•  .^nd  also  among  the  Marootzee,  a  nation  inhabiting  the  interior  of 
South  Africa.  Campbell's  Travels  in  the  interior  of  South  Africa,  vol.  ii. 
p.  236.  (Ixjndon.  1822.  Svo.)  From  this,  and  other  coincidences  with  Jew- 
ish observances,  Mr.  C.  thinks  it  probable  that  the  Marootzee  are  of  Jewish 
or  Arabian  origin 

»  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  iv.  pp.  320.  323. 


56 


JEWISH  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE, 


[Part  II.  Chip.  Ill- 


judgment  was  published  or  declared  in  writing.  The  Greek 
writers  applied  the  term  7rp'.yi-)fiifjifxivcv(,  to  those  whom  the 
Romans  called  pi-oscrrpfos  or  prascribcd,  that  is,  whose  names 
were  posted  up  in  wrilinoj  in  some  public  place,  as  persons 
doomed  to  die,  with  a  reward  ollered  to  whoever  would  kill 
them.  To  this  usaire  there  is  an  allusion  in  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  (verse  4.),  where  tlie  p(>rsons  who  are  said  to  be  n-poyt- 
■^(■■t/x/uivoi  lie  Tci/To  TO  ncijun,  f(n-c  written  to,  or  before  described  for, 
this  condemnation,  denote  those  who  were  long  before  de- 
scribed, in  the  examples  of  their  wickedness  contained  in  the 
writincrs  of  Moses  and  tlie  prophets,  such  as  the  angels  that 
sinnedT  the  antediluvians,  the  people  of  Sodom,  <fcc.  And  in 
the  condemnation  of  these  sinners,  God  has  shown  what  he 
will  do  to  all  others  like  them.'  In  the  sacred  writings,  all 
false  teachers  and  impure  practices  have  been  most  openly 
proscribed  and  cond(nnned,  and  in  the  following  verses  of  tiie 
same  epistle  the  apostle  distinctly  specifies  who  these  per- 
sons are. 

2.  He,  who  entered  the  action,  went  to  the  judges,  and 
stated  his  affair  to  them ;  and  then  they  sent  officers  with 
him  to  seize  the  party  and  bring  him  to  justice.  To  this  our 
Lord  alludes,  when  he  says  (Matt.  v.  25.),  Jigree  with  thine 
adversary  while  thou  art  in  the  way  with  him,  before  thou  art 
brought  before  the  judge,  lest  thou  be  condemned.  On  the 
day  appointed  for  liearing  the  cause,  the  plaintiff  and  defend- 
ant presented  themselves  before  the  judges;  who  at  first 
sat  alone.  (Dent.  xxv.  1.)  In  later  times,  the  Jewish  writers 
inform  us,  that  there  were  always  two  notaries  belonging  to 
the  court,  one  of  whom  stood  on  the  right  hand  of  the  judge, 
who  wrote  the  sentence  of  acquittal ;  and  the  other,  on  his 
left  hand,  Avbo  wrote  the  sentence  of  condemnation.  To  this 
custom,  probably,  our  Saviour  referred  (Matt.  xxv.  33.), 
when,  speaking  of  the  last  judgment,  he  says,  that  he  will 
set  the  sheep  on  his  right  hand,  in  order  to  be  acquitted,  and 
the  goats  on  hi.t  kft,  in  order  to  be  condemned.  It  appears 
that  the  judicial  decrees  were  (as  they  still  are  in  the  East) 
first  written  by  a  notary,  and  then  authenticated  or  annulled 
by  the  magistrate.  To  this  the  prophet  Isaiah  alludes  when 
he  denounces  a  woe  unto  them  that  decree  unrighteous  decrees, 
and  to  the  ivr iters  that  write  grievousness.  (Isa.  x.  1.  marginal 
rendering.)^  The  judges  sat,  while  the  defendants  stood, 
particularly  during  the  examination  of  witnesses.  Thus, 
Jesus  stood  Ijefore  the  governor.  (Matt,  xxvii.  11.) 

3.  In  criminal  cases,  when  the  trial  came  on,  the  judge's 
first  care  was  to  exhort  the  criminal  to  confess  his  crime,  if 
he  really  were  guilty :  thus  Joshua  exhorted  Achan  to  give 
glory  to  the  Lord  God  <f  Israel,  and  make  confession,  unto  him, 
(Josh.  vii.  19.)  To  this  custom  of  the  Jews,  St.  Paul  seems 
to  allude,  when  he  says.  Hippy  is  he  that  condemneth  not 
himself  ill  that  thing  which  he  alloweth  (Rom.  xiv.  23.);  that 
is,  who,  being  convinced  of  the  truth  of  a  thing,  does  not 
really  and  eflectually  condemn  himself  in  the  sight  of  God 
by  denying  it.  After  the  accusation  was  laid  before  the 
court,  the  criminal  was  heard  in  his  defence,  and  therefore 
Nicodemus  said  to  tlie  chief  priests  and  Pharisees,  Duth  our 
law  judge  any  man  b  fore  ft  hear  him,  and  know  what  he  doth  ? 
(John  vii.  51.)  If,  during  the  trial,  the  defendant,  or  sup- 
posed criminal,  said  any  thing  that  displeased  either  the  judge 
or  his  accuser,  it  was  not  unusual  for  the  latter  to  smite  him 
on  the  face.  Tiiis  was  the  case  with  Saint  Paul  (Acts  xxiii. 
2.),  and  the  same  brutal  conduct  prevails  in  Persia  to  this 
day.'' 

4.  In  matters  of  life  and  death,  the  evidence  of  one  witness 
was  not  sufficient :  in  order  to  establish  a  charge,  it  was 
necessary  to  have  the  testimony  of  two  or  three  credible  and 
unimpeachable  witnesses.  (Num.  xxxv.  30.  Dent.  xvii.  6,  7. 
xix.  15.)  Thougli  the  law  of  Moses  is  silent  concerning  the 
evidence  of  women,  Josephus  says  that  it  was  prohibited  on 
account  of  the  levity  and  boldness  of  their  sex!  He  also 
adds  that  the  testimony  of  servants  was  inadmissible,  on  ac- 
count of  the  probability  of  their  being  influenced  to  speak 
what  was  untrue,  eitlier  from  hope  of  gain  or  fear  of  pu- 
nishment. Most  likely,  this  was  the  exposition  of  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees,  and  the  practice  of  the  Jews,  in  the 
last  age  of  their  political  existence. ^  The  party  sworn  held 
up  his  right  hand,  which  explains  Psal.  cxliv.  8.,  PVhose 
mouth  speuketh  vanity,  and  their  right  hand  is  a  right  hand 
of  falsehood.     In  general,  the  witnesses  to  be  sworn  did  not 

1  Parkhurst's  and  Schleusner's  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  voce 
ripo^-px^io.     Baothroyd  on  Jude  4. 

*  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  ii.  pp.  519 — 521. 

3  Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  95.    Hanway's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  299. 

♦  Michaelis's  Cornmentariiss  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  iv.  p.  325,  Schul- 
zii  Archecol.  Hebr.  p.  74.    Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  8.  §  15. 


pronounce  the  formula  of  the  oath,  either  when  it  was  a  judi- 
cial one,  or  taken  on  any  other  solemn  occasion.  A  formula 
was  read,  to  which  they  said  .dmen.  (Lev.  v.  1.  1  Kings 
viii.  31.)  Referring  to  this  usage,  when  Jesus  Christ  was 
abjured  or  put  upon  his  oath,  he  immediately  made  an  an- 
swer. (Matt.  xxvi.  63.)  AH  manner  of  false  witness  was 
most  severely  prohibited.  (Exod.  xx.  IG.  xxiii.  1 — 3.)* 

5.  In  questions  of  property,  in  default  of  any  other  means 
of  decision,  recourse  was  had  to  the  lot.  In  this  manner,  it 
will  be  recollected  that  the  land  cf  Canaan  was  divided  by 
Joshua,  to  which  there  are  so  many  allusions  in  the  Old 
Testament,  particularly  in  the  book  of'Psalms.  And  it  should 
seem,  from  Prov.  xvi.  33.  and  xviii.  18.  that  it  was  used  in 
courts  of  justice,  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  though,  probably, 
only  with  the  consent  of  both  parties.  In  criminal  cases, 
recourse  was  had  to  the  sacred  lot,  called  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim,  in  order  to  discover,  not  to  convict  the  guilty  party 
(Josh.  vii.  14 — IS.  1  Sam.  xiv.  37 — 45.);  but  it  appears  to 
have  been  used  only  in  the  case  of  an  oath  being  transgressed, 
which  the  whole  people  had  taken,  or  the  leader  of  the  host 
in  their  name.^ 

A  peculiar  mode  of  eliciting  the  truth  was  employed  in  the 
case  of  a  woman  suspected  of  adultery.  She  was  to  be 
brought  by  her  husband  to  the  tabernacle, — afterwards  to  the 
temple  ;  where  she  took  an  oath  of  purgation,  imprecating 
tremendous  punishment  upon  herself.  The  fonn  of  this  pro- 
cess (which  was  the  foundation  of  the  trial  by  ordeal  that  so 
generally  prevailed  in  the  dark  ages)  is  detailed  at  length  in 
Num.  V.  11 — 31.,  to  which  the  rabbinical  writers  have  added 
a  variety  of  frivolous  cereinonies.  If  innocent,  the  woman 
suffered  no  inconvenience  or  injury;  but  if  guilty,  the  punish- 
ment which  she  had  imprecated  on  herself  immediately  over- 
took her.^ 

6.  Sentences  were  only  pronounced  in  the  day  time ;  of 
which  circumstance  notice  is  taken  in  Saint  Luke  s  narrative 
of  our  Saviour's  mock  trial,  (xxii.  66.)  It  was  the  custom 
among  the  Jews  to  pronounce  sentence  of  condemnation  in 
this  manner: — He  is  guilty  of  death.  (iMatt.  xxvi.  66.)  In 
other  countries,  a  person's  condcmnutiun  was  announced  to 
him  by  giving  him  a  black  stone,  and  his  acquittal  by  giving 
him  a  white  stone.     Ovid  mentions  this  practice  thus  : — 

Mos  erat  antiquus,  niveis  atrisque  lapitlis, 
His  dam7iare  reos,  illis  absulvere  culpa. 

Nunc  quoque  sic  lata  est  sententia  tristis 

Met.  lib.  xv.  41—43. 

A  custom  was  of  old.  and  still  obtains, 
Wliich  life  or  death  by  suftVages  ordains: 
W/iite  slu7ies  and  black  witbin  an  urn  are  cast ; 
Thejirst  absolve,  but  fate  is  in  the  la-it. 

Dryden. 

In  allusion  to  this  custom,  some  critics^  have  supposed  that 
our  Saviour  (Rev.  ii.  17.)  promises  to  give  the  spiritual  con- 
queror a  white  stone,  and  on  the  stone  a  new  name  written, 
which  no  num  knowcth,  saving  he  that  receiveth  it ;  which  may 
be  supposed  to  signify — TVell  done,  thou  good  and  fait  if ul 
servant.  The  white  stones  of  the  ancients  were  inscribed 
with  characters ;  and  so  is  the  white  stone  mentioned  in  the 
Apocalypse.  According  to  Persius,  the  letter  0  was  the 
token  of  condemnation : 

Et  potis  es  nigrum  vitio  pr»figere  Theta. 

Saj.  iv.  13. 
Fixing  thy  stigma  on  the  brow  of  vice. 

Drummond. 

But,  as  there  was  a  nciu  name  inscribed  on  the  white  stone 
o-iven  by  our  Lord,  which  no  nmn  knoweth  but  he  who  receiv- 
eth it,  it  should  rather  seem  that  the  allusion  in  this  passage 
is  to  the  tesserx  hospitales,  of  which  the  reader  will  find  an 
account  infra,  in  the  close  of  chap.  vi.  of  Part  IV.  of  this 
volume. 

7.  Such  were  the  judicial  proceedings  in  ordinary  cases, 
when  the  forms  of  law  were  observed.  On  some  occasions, 
however,  when  particular  persons  were  obnoxious  to  the 
populace,  it  was  usual  for  them  to  demand  prompt  justice 
upon  the  supposed  delinquents.  It  is  well  known  that  in 
Asia,  to  this  day,  those  who  demand  justice  against  a  crimi- 
nal, repair  in  large  bodies  to  the  gate  of  the  royal  residence, 
where  they  make  horrid  cries,  tearing  their  garments  and 
throwing  dust  into  the  air.  This  circumstance  throws  great 
light  upon  the  conduct  of  the  Jews  towards  St.  Paul,  when 

s  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iv.  pp.  342,  343.  Brunings  says,  that  in 
cases  of  idolatry,  the  Jeivs  assert  the  admissibility  of  false  witnesses ;  but 
he  cives  no  authority  for  this  statement. 

6  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iv.  pp.  357—359. 

■■  Schulzii  Archaiologia  Hebraica,  pp.  79,  80. 

8  Wetstein,  Doddridge,  and  Dean  Woodhouse  on  Rev.  ii.  17. 


Sect.  I.] 


AND  LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS, 


57 


the  cliief  captain  of  the  Roman  garrison  at  Jerusalem  pre- 
sented liimse'if  to  them.  (Acts  xxii.  '2H — .3<!.)  When  they 
found  tlie  apostle  in  tlie  teiii|)lc,  prejudiced  as  tlicy  were 
acrainst  him  in  }reneral,and  at  that  time  particnlarly  irritated 
by  tlie  mistaken  notion  that  he  had  polluted  tlif^  holy  ])laee 
by  tlu!  introduction  of  (ireeks  into  it,  they  raised  a  tumult, 
and  were  on  the  point  of  in(lictin<r  summary  ven<reance  on 
Saint  Paul.  As  soon  as  the  chief  captain  of  the;  Roman  sol- 
diers, who  resided  in  afastleadifpininsf  the  temple,  iieard  the 
tumult,  he  hastened  thither.  'I'liey  then  ceased  Ijcatintr  tlie 
apostle,  and  addressed  thi'uiselves  to  him  as  the  ciiief  olli- 
cial  jjcrson  thert^  e.\claimin<r,  .'livai/  willi  him,  Permissinn 
beinf]f  at  len<fth  jriven  to  Paul  to  explain  the  aflair  in  their 
hearinfj,  they  hecame  still  more  violently  enraired  ;  hut  not 
darinjr  to  do  themselves  justice,  they  demanded  it  nearly  in 
the  same  maimer  as  the  I'ersian  peasants  now  do,  hy  loud 
vociferations,  tearing  olT  their  clothes  and  throwin<r  up  dust 
into  the  air." 

V.  As  soon  as  sentence  of  condemnation  was  pronounced 
against  a  person,  hi;  was  immediately  drapired  from  the  court 
to  the  place  of  execution.  'I'husour  Lora  was  instantly  hur- 
ried from  the  presence  of  Pilate  to  ('alvary  :  a  similar  in- 
stance of  prompt  execution  occurred  in  the  case  of  Achan ; 
and  the  same  practice  obtains  to  this  day,  both  in  Turkey  and 
Persia.  In  those  countries,  when  the  enemies  of  a  irreat 
man  have  sufficient  inlhuMice  to  procure  a  warrant  for  his 
death,  a  capid^i  or  executioner  is  despatched  with  it  to  tlie 
victim,  who  ([uietly  submits  to  his  f  ite.^  Nearly  the  same 
method  of  executing  criminals  was  used  by  the  ancient  .Icw- 
ish  princes.  It  is  evidently  allud(>d  to  in  Prov.  xvi.  14. 
Thus  Benaiah  was  the  capidgi  (to  use  the  modern  Turkish 
term)  who  was  sent  by  Solomon  to  put  to  death  Adonijah, 
a  prince  of  the  blood  royal  (1  Jviriirs  li.  25.),  and  also  .loab 
the  commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  (29 — 31.)  John  the 
Baptist  was  put  to  death  in  like  manner.  (Matt.  xiv.  10.) 
Previously,  however,  to  executinrr  the  criminal,  it  was  usual, 
among  the  ancient  Persians,  to  cover  his  head,  that  he  might 
not  beliold  the  face  of  th(>  sovereign.  Thus,  the  head  of  Phi- 
lotas,  who  had  consi)ired  against  Alexander  the  Great,  was 
covered  ;5  and  in  conformity  with  tliis  practice,  the  head  of 
Haman  was  veiled  or  covered.  (Esth.  vii.  8.) 

So  zealous  were  the  Jews  for  the  observance  of  their  law, 
that  tiiey  were  not  ashamed  theinselves  to  he  the  execution- 
ers of  it,  and  to  punisli  ciiminals  with  their  own  hands.  In 
stoning  persons,  the  witnesses  threw  the  first  stones,  agree- 
ably to  the  enactment  of  !\Iosi  s.  (Dent.  xvii.  7.)  Thus,  the 
witnesses  against  the  iirotomurtyr  Stephen,  after  laying  down 
their  clothes  at  the  feet  of  Saul,  stoned  him  (Acts  vii.  58, 
59.)  ;  and  to  this  custom  our  .Saviour  alludes,  when  he  said 
to  tlie  Pharisi>es,  who  had  brought  to  him  a  woman  who  had 
been  taken  in  adultery, — //•'  that  is  wilhinit  sin  uinong  you, 
let  hiiu  first  cad  a  sfune  at  her.  (John  viii.  7.)  As  there  were 
no  public  executioners  in  the  more  ancient  periods  of  the 
-Jewish  history,  it  was  not  unusual  for  persons  of  distinguished 
rank  themselves  to  put  the  sentence  in  execution  upon  offend- 
ers. Thus  Samuel  put  Agag  to  death  (1  Sam.  xv.  33.) ; 
and  in  like  manner  NelTuchadnezzar  ordered  Arioch  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  his  forces  to  destroy  the  wise  men  of  Ba- 
bylon, because  they  could  not  interpret  his  dream.  (Dan.  ii. 
21.)  Previously,  however,  to  inflicting  punishment,  it  was 
a  cBstom  of  the  Jews,  that  the  witnesses  should  lay  their 
hands  on  the  criminal's  head.  This  custom  originated  in  an 
express  precept  of  (lod,  in  the  case  of  one  who  had  blas- 
phemed the  name  of  Jehovah,  who  was  ordered  to  be  brought 
without  the  camp  :  when  all,  who  had  heard  him,  were  ap- 
pointed to  lay  their  hands  upon  his  head,  and  afterwards  the 
congregation  were  to  stone  him.  By  this  action  they  signi- 
fied, that  tlie  condemned  person  suffered  justly,  protesting 
that,  if  he  were  innocent,  they  desired  that  his  blood  might 
fall  on  their  own  head.  In  allusion  to  this  usage,  when  sen- 
tence was  pronounced  against  Jesus  Christ,  the  Jews  ex- 
claimed,— lis  bluodbeupon  us  and  our  chiMren.  (Matt,  xxvii. 
25.)  From  the  above-noticed  precept  of  bringing  the  crimi- 
nals without  the  camp,  arose  tne  custom  of  executing  them 
without  the  city. 

But  in  whatever  manner  the  criminal  was  put  to  death, 

'  Harraor's  Observations,  vol.  Hi.  pp.  307—309. 

"^  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  pp.  372—370.  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  have  related 
.  a  siniular  instance  of  similar  rapidity  of  e.M^-utin:;  a  condemned  person, 
lu  tliis  case  "  ttie  sufferer  had  been  appoiiiti'd  to  the  command  of  the 
hadj"  (or  pilgrims  to  Mecca),  "  and  had  sot  olf  from  Constantinople.  While 
he  was  on  his  return  from  Mecca,  a  Kliatsheriffe  was  despatched  from  the 
capital,  ordering  his  head  to  be. cut  ofT,  and  sent  immediately  to  Constanti- 
nople. His  sentence  was  carried  into  execution  beibre  he  reached  Damas- 
cus."   Travels  in  Esrypl,  <kc.  p.  257. 

3  Q,i)intus  Curtius,  lib.  vi.  c.  8.  torn.  ii.  p.  34.  edit.  Bipont. 
A'oL.  II.  H 


according  to  the  Talmudical  writers,  the  Jews  always  gave 
him  some  wine  with  incense  in  it,  in  order  to  stupify  and  in- 
toxicate him.  This  custom  is  said  to  have  originated  in  the 
precept  recorded  in  Prov.  xxxi.  (i.,  which  sufficiently  explains 
the  reason  why  wine,  mingled  with  myrrh,  was  offered  to 
Jesus  Christ  when  on  the  cross.  (Mark  xv.  23.)  In  the 
latter  ages  of  the  Jewish  polity,  this  medicated  cup  of  wine 
was  so  generally  given  before  execution,  that  the  word  cup 
is  sometimes  put  in  the  Scriptures  for  death  itself.  Thus, 
Jesus  Christ,  in  his  last  prayer  in  the  garden  of  Cethsemane, 
said — //  it  be  possible  let  this  cvp  pass  from  me.  (Matt,  xxvi 
39.  42."^ 


SECTION  II. 

OF  THE  ROMAN  JUDICATURE,  MANNER  OF  TRIAL,  TREATMENT 
OF  PRISONERS,  AND  OTHER  TRIBUNALS  MENTIONED  IN  THE 
NEW  TESTAMENT. 

I.  Judicial  proceedings  of  the  Jiomana. — II.  Privileges  and 
treatment  of  lioman  citizens, -when  prisoners. — III.  Appeals 
to  tlie  imperial  tribunal. — IV.  The  Roman  method  of  fetter- 
ing and  confining  criminals. — V.  77ie  lioman  tribunals.— 
VI.  Other  tribunals  mentioned  in  the  J\'ew  Testament : — 
1.   The  Are-jpagus  at  Athens.-^-",  The  Assembly  at  Ephesux. 

Wherever  the  Romans  extended  their  power,  they  also 
carried  their  laws;  and  though,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
they  allowed  their  conquered  subjects  to  enjoy  the  free  per- 
formance of  theii  religious  worship,  as  well  as  the  holding  of 
some  inferior  courts  of  judicature,  yet  in  all  cases  of  a  capital 
nature  the  tribunal  of  the  Roman  prefect  or  president  was  the 
last  resort.  Without  his  permission,  no  person  could  be  put 
to  death,  at  least  in  Judaja.  And  as  we  iind  numerous  allu- 
sions in  the  New  Testament  to  the  Roman  judicature,  man- 
ner of  trial,  treatment  of  prisoners,  and  infliction  of  capital 
punishment,  a  brief  account  of  these  subjects  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  political  state  of  Judaea  under  the  Romans, 
naturally  claims  a  place  in  the  present  sketch.^ 

I.  "The  judicial  proceedings  of  the  Romans  were  con- 
ducted in  a  manner  worthy  the  majesty,  honour,  and  magna- 
nimity of  that  people.  Instances,  indeed,  occur  of  a  most 
scandalous  venality  and  corruption  in  Roman  judges,  and  the 
story  of  Jugurtha  and  Verres  will  stand,  a  lasting  monument 
of  the  power  of  gold  to  pervert  justice  and  shelter  the  most 
atrocious  villany.  But,  in  general,  in  the  Roman  judicatures, 
both  in  the  imperial  city  and  in  the  provinces,  justice  was 
administered  with  impartiality ;  a  fair  and  honourable  trial 
was  permitted  ;  the  allegations  of  the  plaintiff  and  defendant 
were  respectively  heard;  the  merits  of  the  cause  weighed 
and  scrutinized  with  cool  unbiassed  judgment;  and  an  equi- 
table sentence  pronounced.  The  Roman  law,  in  conformity 
to  the  first  principal  of  nature  and  reason,  ordained  that  no 
one  should  be  condemned  and  punished  without  a  previous 
public  trial.  This  was  one  of  the  decrees  of  the  twelve 
tables  :  No  one  shall  be  condemned  before  he  is  tried. ^  Under 
the  Roman  government,  both  in  Italy  and  in  the  provinces, 
this  universally  obtained.  After  the  cause  is  heard,  says 
Cicero,  a  man  may  be  acquitted  :  but,  his  cause  unheard,  no 
one  can  be  condemned."  To  this  excellent  custom  among 
the  Romans,  which  the  law  of  nature  prescribes,  and  all  the 
principles  of  equity,  honour,  and  humanity  dictate,  there  are 
several  allusions  in  Scripture.     \\  e  find  the  holy  apostles, 

*  The  materials  of  this  section  are  principally  derived  from  Dr.  Harwood's 
Irtlrodiiclion  to  the  NewTrslamenl(a  work  nowof  rare  occurrence),  vol.  ii. 
sccti<m  xvi.  ihe  texts  cited  being  carefully  verified  and  corrected.  The  sub- 
jects of  this  and  the  followinc  section  are  also  discussed  by  Dr.  Lardner, 
Credil)ilily,  part  i.  book  i.  c.  10.  5§9 — 11. ;  and  especially  by  Caliiiet  in  his 
elaborate  Dissertation  sur  les  siipplices  dont  it  est  parte  dans  I'Ecrilure, 
inserted  in  his  Coiiinientaire  Littirale,  torn.  i.  part  ii.  pp.  3b7 — 402.,  and  in 
his  Dissertations,  torn.  i.  p.  241.  et  scg.  See  also  Merill's  Notae  Philologic2e 
in  passionemChrisli,  and  Wyssrnbach'sNota;  NomicoPhilolopictP  in  pas- 
sionem,  in  vol.  iii.  of  Crenius's  Fasciculus  Opusculorum,  pp.  583 — 691.  and 
Lydius's  Florum  Sparsio  ad  llistoriaia  Passionis  Jesu  Chrisli,  ISino.  Dor- 
drechti,  1072. 

»  Interfici  indemnatum  quemcunque  hominem,  eliam  xil  Tabularum 
dccreta  veluerant.  Fragment,  xii.   Tab.  tit.  27. 

«  Causii  cognila  niulti  possunt  absolvi :  incojnitA  quidem  condemnari 
nemo  potest.  In  Verrem,  lib.  i.  c.  25.  "  Producing  the  laws  which  ordain 
that  no  person  shall  suffer  death  without  a  legal  trial.''  Dion.  Hahcam.lib. 
iii.  p.  153.  Hudson.  "He  did  not  allow  ihem  to  inflict  death  on  any  citizen 
iincondemned."  Ibid.  lib.  vi.  p.  370.  lib.  vii.  p.  428.  edit.  Hudson,  Oxon. 
1704.  "  They  thought  proper  to  call  him  to  justice,  as  it  is  contrary  to  the 
Roman  customs  tocondemn  any  one  to  death  without  a  previous  trial." 
Appian.  Uell.  Civil,  lib.iii.  p.  906.  Tollii,  1070.  "Did  not  you  miserably  murder 
Lentulus  and  his  associates,  without  their  being  either  judged  or  con- 
victed 7"    Dion  Cassius,  lib.  46.  p.  463.    Reimar. 


58 


OF  THE  ROMAN  JUDICATURE, 


[Part  II.  Cuap.  III. 


who  did  not,  like  frantic  enthusiasts  and  visionaries,  court 
persecution,  but  embraced  every  legal  method  v.hich  the 
usages  and  maxims  of  those  times  had  established  to  avoid 
it,  and  to  extricate  themselves  from  calamities  and  suiferings, 
pleading  this  privilegp,  reminding  the  Romans  of  it  wiien 
they  were  going  to  infringe  it,  and  in  a  spirited  manner  up- 
hraiding  their  persecutors" witli  ^heir  violation  of  it.  When 
Lysi.iS,  the  Roman  tribune,  ordered  Saint  Paul  to  be  con- 
ducted into  the  castle,  and  to  be  examined  by  scourging,  that 
he  might  learn  what  he  had  done  that  enraged  the  mob  thus 
violently  against  him,  as  the  soldiers  were  fastening  him 
with  thongs  to  the  pillars  to  inflict  tliis  upon  him,  Paul  said 
to  the  centurion  who  was  appointed  to  attend  and  see  this  ex- 
ecuted. Doth  the  Roman  law  authorize  you  to  scourge  a  free- 
man of  Rome  uncondemned,  to  punish  him  before  a  le^al 
sentience  hath  been  passed  upon  him  1  (Acts  xxii.  25.)  '1  he 
centurion  hearing  this  went  immediately  to  the  tribune,  bid- 
ding him  be  cautious  how  he  acted  upon  the  present  occa- 
sion, for  the  prisoner  was  a  Roman  citizen  !  The  tribune 
upon  this  information  went  to  him,  and  said.  Tell  me  the 
truth.  Are  you  a  freeman  of  Rome?  He  answered  in  the  af- 
firmative. It  cost  me  an  immense  sum,  said  the  tribune,  to 
purchase  this  privilege.'  But  I  was  the  son  of  a  freeman,^ 
said  the  apostle.  Immediately,  therefore,  those  who  were 
ordered  to  examine  him  by  torture  desisted ;  and  the  tribune 
v/as  extremely  alarmed  that  he  had  bound  a  Roman  citizen,  i 
In  reference  to  this  also,  when  Paul  and  Silas  were  treated 
with  the  last  indignity  at  Philippi  by  the  multitude  abetted 
by  the  magistrates,  were  beiten  with  rods,  thrown  into  the 
public  gaol,  and  their  feet  fastened  in  the  stocks,  the  next 
morning  upon  the  magistrates  sending  their  lictors  to  the 
prison  with  orders  to  the  keeper  for  the  two  men  whom  they 
had  the  day  before  so  shamefully  and  cruelly  treated  to  be 
dismissed,  "Paul  turned  to  the  messengers  and  said,  We  are 
Roman  citizens.  Your  magistrates  have  ordered  us  to  be 
publicly  scourged  without  a  legal  trial.  They  have  thrown 
us  into  a  dungeon.  And  would  they  now  have  us  steal 
away  in  a  silent  and  clandestine  manner  1  No!  Let  them 
come  in  person  and  conduct  us  out  themselves.  The  lictors 
returned  and  reported  this  answer  to  the  governors,  who  were 
gi'eatly  alarmed  and  terrified  when  they  understood  they  were 
Roman  citizens.  Accordingly,  they  went  in  person  to  the 
gaol,  addressed  them  with  great  civility,  and  begged  them 
in  the  most  respectful  terms  that  they  would  quietly  leave 
tlie  town.  (Acts  xvi.  37.)'' 

"  Here  we  cannot  but  remark  the  distinguished  humanity 
and  honour  which  St.  Paul  experienced  from  the  tribune 
Lysais.  His  whole  conduct  towards  the  apostle  was  worthy 
a  Roman.  This  most  generous  and  worthy  officer  rescued 
him  from  the  sanguinary  fury  of  the  mob,  who  had  seized 
Ihe  apostle,  shut  the  temple  doors,  and  were  in  a  tumultuous 
manner  dragging  him  away  instantly  to  shed  his  blood. 
Afterwards,  also,  when  above  forty  Jews  associated  and 
mutually  bound  themselves  hy  the  most  solemn  adjurations, 
that  they  would  neither  eat  nor  drink  till  they  had  assassi- 
nated him  ;  when  the  tribune  was  informed  of  this  conspiracy, 
to  secure  the  person  of  the  apostle  from  the  determined  fury 
of  the  Jews,  he  immediately  gave  orders  for  seventy  horse- 
men and  two  hundred  spearmen  to  escort  the  prisoner  to 
Csesarea,  where  the  procurator  resided;  writing  a  letter,  in 
which  he  informed  the  president  of  the  vindictive  rage  of 
the  Jews  against  the  prisoner,  whom  he  had  snatched  from 
their  violence,  and  whom*  he  afterwards  discovered  to  be  a 

•  Dion  Cassins  confirms  what  the  tribune  here  asserts,  that  this  honour 
was  purcliased  at  a  very  h\s,h  price.  "The  freedom  of  Rome  formerly," 
says  tlte  historian,  "  could  only  be  purchased  for  a  large  sum  ;"  but  he  ob- 
serves, "that  in  the  rei2:n  of  Claudius,  when  Messalina  and  his  freedmen 
hid  the  mana'iemt'nt  of  every  thing,  this  honour  became  so  cheap  that  any 
person  might  buy  it  for  a  little  broken  glass."  Dion  Cassius,  lib.  ix.  p.  955. 
Remiar. 

■^  "Bu!  I  was  free  born."  Probably,  St.  Paul's  family  was  honoured  with 
the  freedom  of  Rome  for  engaging  in  Ciesar's  party,  and  distinguishing 
tlK'Miselves  in  his  cause  during  the  civil  wars.  Appian  informs  us,  that 
"He  made  the  Laodiceans  andTarsensians  free,  and  o.xempted  them  from 
taxijii ;  and  those  of  the  Tarsensians  who  had  been  sold  for  slaves,  he  or- 
dered bv  an  edict  to  be  released  from  servitude."  Appian  de  Bell.  Civil. 
p.  lOrr. 'Tollii.  1070. 

3  It  was  deemed  a  great  aggravation  of  any  injury  by  the  Roman  law,  that 
it  was  done  in  puWic  before  the  people.  The  P'hillppian  magistrates,  there- 
fore, consci.-.us  of  the  iniquity  which  they  had  conimiued,  and  of  the 
piiMishnieni  to  which  they  were  liable,  niiglit  well  be  afraid  :  for  Paul  and 
Silas  had  llieir  option,  either  to  bring  a  civil  action  against  them,  or  to  indict 
them  criuiiually  for  the  injury  which  they  had  inllicted  on  the  apostle  and 
his  couipaniiMi.  In  cither  of  which  cases,  had  they  been  cast,  lliey  would 
be  rendered  infamous,  and  incapable  of  holding  any  magisterial  othce,  and 
subjected  to  several  other  legal  incapacities,  besides  the  punishment  they 
were  to  undergo  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge,  which  in  so  atrocious  ah 
injury  wnuUl  not  have  been  small.     Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  pp.  352—354. 

*  Acts  jiLiiii.  27.  "  I  have  since  learned  that  he  is  a  Roiaan  citizen." 


Roman  citizen.  In  consequence  of  this  epistle  Felix  gave 
the  apostle  a  kind  and  candid  reception  :  when  he  read  it,  he 
turned  to  him  and  said,  When  your  accusers  come  hither 
before  me,  I  will  give  your  cause  an  impartial  hearing.^ 
4nd  accordingly  when  the  high-priest  Ananias  and  the  San- 
hedrin  went  down  to  Cajsarea  with  one  Tertullus  an  orator, 
whose  eloquence  they  had  hired  to  aggravate  the  apostle's 
crimes  before  the  procurator,  Felix,  though  a  man  of  merce- 
nary and  profligate  character,''  did  not  depart  from  the  Roman 
honour  in  this  regard  ;  and  would  not  violate  the  usual  pro- 
cesses of  judgment  to  gratify  this  body  of  men,  though  tliey 
were  the  most  illustrious  personages  of  the  province  he 
governed,  by  condemning  the  apostle  unheard,  and  yielding 
him,  poor  and  friendless  as  he  was,  to  their  fury,  merely 
upon  their  impeachment.  He  allowed  the  apostle  to  offer 
his  vindication  and  exculpate  himself  from  the  charges  they 
had  alleged  against  him ;  and  was  so  far  satisfied  with  his 
apology  as  to  give  orders  for  him  to  be  treated  as  a  prisoner 
at  large,  and  for  all  his  friends  to  have  free  access  to  him ; 
disappointing  those  who  thirsted  for  his  blood,  and  drawing 
down  upon  himself  the  relentless  indignation  of  the  Jews, 
who,  undoubtedly,  from  such  a  disappointment,  would  be 
instigated  to  lay  al  I  his  crimes  and  oppressions  before  the 
emperor. 

"  The  same  strict  honour,  in  observing  the  usual  forms 
and  processes  of  the  Roman  tribunal,  appears  in  Festus  the 
successor  of  Felix.  Upon  his  entrance  into  his  province, 
when  the  leading  men  among  the  Jews  waii;ed  upon  him  to 
congratulate  him  upon  his  accession,  and  took  that  opportu- 
nity to  inveigh  with  great  bitterness  and  virulence  against 
the  apostle,  soliciting  it  as  a  favour  (Acts  xxv.  3.)  that  he 
would  send  him  to  Jerusalem,  designing,  as  it  afterwards 
appeared,  had  he  complied  with  their  request,  to  have  hired 
ruffians  to  murder  him  on  the  road,  Festus  told  them,  that 
it  was  his  will  that  Paul  should  remain  i  i  custody  at  Ca;sa- 
rea ;  but  that  any  persons  whom  they  fixed  upon  might  go 
down  along  with  him,  and  produce  at  his  tribunal  what  they 
had  to  allege  against  the  prisoner.  This  was  worthy  the 
Roman  honour  and  spirit.  How  importunate  and  urgent  the 
priests  and  principal  magistrates  of  Jerusalem,  when  Festus 
was  in  this  capital,  were  with  him  to  pass  sentence  of  death 
upon  the  apostle,  merely  upon  their  impeachment,  and  upon 
the  atrocious  crimes  with  which  they  loaded  him,  appears 
from  what  the  procurator  himself  told  king  Agrippa  and 
Bernice  upon  a  visit  they  paid  him  at  Csesarea,  to  congratu- 
late him  upon  his  new  government.  I  have  here,  said  he,  a 
man  whom  my  predecessor  left  in  custody  when  he  quitted 
this  province.  During  a  short  visit  I  paid  to  Jerusalem,  upon 
my  arrival  I  was  solicited  by  the  priests  and  principal  magis- 
trates to  pass  sentence  of  death  upon  him.  To  these  urgent 
entreaties  I  replied,  that  it  was  not  customary  for  the  Romans 
to  gratify  (xxv.  16.)  any  man  with  the  death  of  another; 
that  the  laws  of  Rome  enacted  that  he  who  is  accused  should 
have  his  accuser  face  to  face ;  and  have  license  to  answer 
for  himself  concerning  the  crimes  laid  against  him.' 

II.  "  It  appears  from  numberless  passages  in  the  classics 
that  a  Roman  citizen  could  not  legally  he  scourged.^  This 
was  deemed  to  the  last  degree  dishonourable,  the  most  daring 
indignity  and  insult  upon  the  Roman  name.  '  A  Roman  citi- 
zen, judges !'  exclaims  Cicero  in*his  oration  against  Verres, 
'was  publicly  beaten  with  rods  in  the  forum  of  Messina: 
during  this  public  dishonour,  no  groan,  no  other  expression 
of  the  unhappy  wretch  was  heard  amidst  the  cruelties  he 
suffered,  and  the  sound  of  the  strokes  that  were  inflicted,  but 
this,  I  am  a  Roman  citizen  !  By  this  declaration  that  he  was 
a  Roman  citizen,  he  fondly  imagined  that  he  should  put  an 
end  to  the  ignominy  and  cruel  usage  to  which  he  was  now 
subjected.'^     The  orator  afterwards  breaks  forth  into  this 

f  Acts.x.xiii.  35.  Literally,  "Hoar  it  through;  give  the  whole  of  it  an  atten- 
tive examination."  Similar  expressions  occur  in  Polybius,  lib.  i.  pp.  39.  170. 
187.  Ub  iv.  p.  3liS.  edit.  Ilanov.  IGIO.     See  also  Dion.  Ilalirarn.  lib.  x.  p.  304. 

6  Felix  per  onme  sjevitiiun  ac  libidinem,  jus  reginm  servili  ingenio  exer- 
cuit.  Tacitus  Hist.  lib.  v.  p.  397.  edit.  Dublin.  Felix  cuncta  nialeiicia  im- 
puue  ralu.s.     Annal.  xii  54.     He  hoped  also  that  money,  &c.    Acts  xxiv.  26. 

■>  "Senators,"  saith  Piso,  "the  law  onlains  that  he  who  is  accused  should 
hear  his  accusation,  and  after  having  offered  his  defence,  to  wait  the  sen- 
tence of  the  judges."  Appian,  Bell.  Civil,  lib.  iii.  p.  911.  Tollii,  Amst.  1070. 
"He  said,  that  what  he  now  atlempled  to  do  was  the  last  tyranny  and  des- 
potism, that  the  same  per.son  should  be  both  accuser  and  judge,  andshould 
arbitrarily  dictate  the  degree  of  punishment."  Dion.  Ualicarn.  lib.  vii.  p. 
42»^.     Hudson. 

8  Facinus  est  vinciri  civem  Romanum  :  scelus  verberari.  In  Verrem,  lib. 
V.  170. 

9  Ccedebatur  virgis  in  medio  foro  Messina;  civis  Romanus,  judices :  cum 
interea  nuUus  gemilus'  nulla  vox  alia  isiius  miseii,  inter  dolorem  crepi-_ 
tumque  plagaruiii  audiebatur,  nisi  ha'c,  Civis  Romanus  sum.     Hac  se  com- 
inemoralione  civitatis  omnia  verbera  depulsurum  cruciatumque  a  corpora  ' 
dejecturum  arbitrabatur.    Cicero  in  Verrem,  lib.  v.  162. 


Sect.  II.] 

pathetic  prosopoiioeia  :  '  O  transporting  name  of  liberty  !  O 
the  rlistiiif^iiishoa  privilege  of  Itonian  freedom !  O  Porcian 
and  Semproiiian  laws!  Are  things  at  last  come  to  this 
wretched  state,  tliat  a  Roman  citizen,  in  a  Roman  province, 
in  the  most  pul)lic  and  o])imi  inanner,  should  be  beaten  with 
roils  !''  'I'lu!  historian  Appian,  after  relating  how  Marcellus, 
to  express  his  scorn  and  contempt  cf  (Ja.-sar,  seized  a  person 
of  some  distinclion,  In  whom  ('a-sar  had  given  his  fn^edom, 
and  beat  him  with  rods,  l)id(ling  him  go  and  show  Caesar  the 
marks  of  the  scourges  he  hacT  received,  observes,  that  this 
was  an  indignity  whif^h  is  never  inflicted  upon  a  Roman 
citizen  for  any  enormity  whatever.^  Agreealjly  to  this  cus- 
tom, which  also  obtained  at  Athens,  in  tin;  Adcli)lii  of 'I'erence, 
one  of  the  persons  of  the  drama  says  to  another.  If  you  con- 
tinue to  be  troul)lesnme  and  im|)(!rtinent,  you  shall  be;  mstanlly 
seized  and  dragged  within,  and  there  you  shall  he  torn  and 
mangled  with  scourges  witliin  an  inch  of  your  life.  What! 
a  freeman  scourged,  replies  Sannio.'*  To  this  privilege  of 
Roman  citizens,  whose  freedom  exempted  them  from  this 
indignity  and  dishonour,  there  are  several  references  in  tScrip- 
ture?  St.  Rani  pleads  this  immunity.  He  said  to  the  cen- 
turion, as  they  were  fastening  him  to  the  pillar  with  thongs 
to  inflict  upon  him  this  punishment.  Is  it  lawful  for  you  to 
scourge  a  Roman'?'  So  also  at  Philippi  he  told  the  messen- 
gers of  the  magistrates,  They  have  beaten  us  openly  uncon- 
demned,  being  Romans,  and  have  cast  us  into  prison,  and 
now  do  they  thrust  us  out  privately;  no,  verily,  but  let  them 
come  themselves  and  fetch  us  out.  And  the  sergeants  told 
these  words  to  the  magistrates,  and  they  feared  when  they 
heard  that  they  were  Romans,  and  were  conscious  they  had 
used  them  with  a  contumely  and  dishonour  which  subjected 
them  to  the  just  displeasure  of  the  Roman  senate. 

"  Neither  was  it  lawful  for  a  Roman  citizen  to  be  bound,* 
to  be  examined  by  the  (pii'stion,  or  to  be  the  subject  of  any 
ingenious  and  cruel  arts  of  tormenting  to  extort  a  confession 
from  him.  These  punishments  were  deemed  servile ;  torture 
was  not  exercised  but  upon  slaves ;''  freemen  were  privileged 
from  this  inhumanity  ana  ignominy.  It  is  a  flagrant  enormity, 
says  Cicero,  for  a  Roman  citizen  to  be  bound  :'  not  meaning 
by  that,  that  it  was  unlawful  for  a  Roman  to  be  fettered  and 
imprisoned  ;  but  it  was  in  the  highest  degree  unjustifiable  and 
illegal  for  a  freeman  of  Rome  to  be  bound  in  order  to  be  tor- 
tured for  the  discovery  of  his  crimes.  Dion  Cassius,  parti- 
cularizing the  miseries  of  Claudius's  government,  observes, 
that  Messalina  and  Narcissus,  and  the  rest  of  his  freemen, 
seized  the  occasion  that  now  offered  to  perpetrate  the  last 
enormities.  Among  other  excesses  they  emploj'ed  slaves 
and  freedmen  to  be  infi^rmers  against  their  masters.  They 
put  to  the  torture  several  persons  of  the  first  distinction,  not 
merely  foreigners,  but  citizens ;  not  only  of  the  common  peo- 
ple, but  some  even  of  the  Roman  knights  and  senators: 
though  Claudius,  when  he  first  entered  upon  his  government, 
had  bound  himself  under  a  solemn  oath  that  he  would  never 
'apply  the  torture  to  any  Roman  citizen.^  These  two  pas- 
sages from  Cicero  and  Dion  illustrate  what  St.  liuke  relates 
concerning  Lysias  the  tribune.  This  officer,  not  knowing 
the  dignity  of  his  prisoner,  had,  in  violation  of  this  privilege 
of  Roman  citizens,  given  orders  for  the  apostle  to  be  bound, 
and  examined  by  scourging.  (Acts  xxii.  21,  25.)  When 
he  was  afterwards  informed  by  his  centurion  that  St.  Paul 
was  a  freeman  of  Rome,  the  sacred  historian  observes,  that 
upon  receiving  this  intelligence,  the  chief  captain  was  afraid, 
after  he  knew  that  he  was  a  Roman,  and  uecause  he  had 
bound  him.  (xxii.  29.) 

III.  "  We  find  that  St.  Paul,  when  he  discovered  that 
Festus  his  judge  was  disposed  to  gratify  the  Jews,  appealed 
from  a  provincial  court  to  the  imperial  tribunal;  transferred 
his  cause,  by  appeal,  from  the  juusdiction  of  the  Roman  pro- 
curator to  the  decision  of  the  emperor.     This  appears  to  be 

«  O  nomen  dulce  liberalis!  O  jus  eximium  nostrre  civitatis  !  OlexPor- 
cia,  leg€sque  Sciiip»"onia; !  Hiicciiie  tandem  omnia  recederunt,  ut  civis  Ro- 
luanus  in  provincia  populi  Romani,  delegatis  in  foro  virgis  caederetur. 
Ibid.  163. 

>  Appian.  Bell.  Civil,  lib.  ii.  p.  731.  Tollii. 

»  Nam  si  molestus  pcrgis  esse,  jam  intro  abripiere,  atque  ibi 
Usque  ad  neceni  operiere  loris.     S.  loris  liber. 

AUelphi,  act  ii.  scenal.  ver.  !S. 

*  Acts  xxii.  25.  The  consul  Marcellus  scourged  with  rods  one  of  the  ma. 
gislralesof  that  place  wlio  came  to  Rome,  declaring  lie  inflicted  this  as  a 
oublic  toli^ii  tliat  he  was  no  Roman  citizen.  Plutarch,  in  Ccesar.  p.  13:^1. 
edit.  Gr.  Si  opium. 

»  Facinus  est  vinciri  civem  Romanum.    Cicero  in  Verr.  lib.  v.  170. 

«  Q.  Gallium  praMorera,  servilem  in  modum  lorsit.  Sueton.  in  vita  Au- 
b'usti,  cap.  27.  p.  192.  Variorum  Edit. 

■>  See  the  last  note  but  one. 

'  Dion  Cassius,  lib.  Ix.  p.  953.  Reimar. 


MANNEK  OF  TRIAL,  &c.        ^  59 

another  sinwular  privilege  which  a  freeman  of  Rome  enjoyed. 
The  sacrecT  historian  relates,  that  after  Festus  had  stayed 
about  ten  days  in  the  metropolis,  he  went  down  to  Caesarea, 
and  the  next  day  after  his  arrival  he  siunmoncd  a  court,  as- 
cended the  bench,  and  ordered  Paul  to  be  brought  before  him. 
Here,  as  he  stood  at  the  bar,  his  prosecutors  from  Jerusalem 
with  great  virulence  charged  him  with  many  heinous  and 
atrocious  crimes,  none  of  which,  upon  strict  examination, 
they  were  able  to  prove  against  him.  For  in  his  apology  he 
publicly  declared,  in  the  most  solemn  terms,  that  tlK;)'  could 
not  convict  him  of  any  one  instance  of  a  criminal  behaviour, 
either  to  the  law,  the  temple,  or  to  the  Roman  emppior. 
Festus  then,  being  (Acts  xxv.  9.)  desirous  to  ingratiate  him- 
self with  the  Jews,  asked  him  if  he  was  willing  his  cause 
siniiild  b(!  tried  at  Jerusalem,  'i'o  tiiis  proposal  Paul  replied, 
I  am  now  bcjfore  Ca;sar's  tribunal,  where  my  cause  ought  to 
be  impartially  canvassed  and  decided.  You  yourself  are  con- 
scious that  I  have  been  guilty  of  notliiiig  criminal  against 
my  countrymen.  If  1  have  injured  them,  if  1  have  perpe- 
trated any  capital  crime,  I  submit  without  reluctance  to  capital 
punishment.  Uut  if  all  the  charges  they  have  now  brought 
against  me  are  proved  to  be  absolutely  false  and  groundless, 
no  person  can  condemn  me  to  death  mertdy  to  gratify  them. 
I  appeal  to  the  emperor.  Festus,  after  deliberating  with  the 
Roman  council,  turned  and  said  to  him.  Have  yon  appealed 
to  the  emperor'?  You  shall  then  go  and  be  judged  by  the 
emperor.  From  the  above-mentioned  particulars,  which  are 
corroborated  by  several  other  similar  incidents  in  the  Roman 
history,  it  appears  that  a  Roman  citizen  could  by  appeal 
remove  his  cause  out  of  the  provinces  to  Rome.  '  It  was,' 
says  Mr.  Melmoth, '  one  of  the  privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen, 
secured  by  the  Sempronian  law,  that  he  could  not  be  capitally 
convicted  but  by  tiie  suff"rage  of  the  people,  which  seems 
to  have  been  still  so  far  in  force  as  to  make  it  necessary 
to  send  the  person  here  mentioned  to  Rome's  We  are  in- 
formed by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  that  the  ever-memo- 
rable Poplicola  enacted  this  law,  that  if  any  Roman  governor 
showed  a  disposition  to  condemn  any  one  to  death,  to  scourge 
him,  or  despoil  him  of  his  property,  that  any  private  person 
should  have  liberty  to  appeal  from  his  jurisdiction  to  the 
judgment  of  the  people,  that  in  the  mean  time  he  should  re- 
ceive no  personal  harm  from  the  magistracy  till  his  cause 
was  finally  decided  by  the  people.'"  This  law,  which  w-as 
instituted  at  the  first  establishment  of  the  commonwealth, 
continued  in  force  under  the  emperors.  If  a  freeman  of 
Rome,  in  any  of  the  provinces,  deemed  himself  and  his  cause 
to  be  treated  by  the  president  with  dishonour  and  injustice, 
he  could  by  appeal  remove  it  to  Rome  to  the  determination 
of  the  emperor.  Suetonius  informs  us  that  Augustus  dele- 
gated a  number  of  consular  persons  at  Rome  to  receive  the 
appeals  of  people  in  the  provinces,  and  that  he  appointed  one 
person  to  superintend  the  affairs  of  each  province."  A  passage 
m  Pliny's  epistle  confirms  this  right  and  privilege  which 
Roman  freemen  enjoyed  of  appealing  from  provincial  courts 
to  Rome,  and,  in  consequence  of  such  an  appeal,  being  re- 
moved, as  St.  Paul  was,  to  the  capital,  to  take  their  trial  in 
the  supreme  court  of  judicature.  In  that  celebrated  epistle 
to  Trajan,  who  desiredf  to  be  informed  concerning  the  princi- 
ples and  conduct  of  the  Christians,  he  thus  writes:  'The 
method  I  have  observed  towards  those  who  have  been  brought 
before  me  as  Christians  is  this — I  interrogated  them  whether 
they  were  Christians :  if  they  confessed,  I  repeated  the  ques- 
tion twice  again,  adding  threats  at  the  same  time,  when,  if 
they  still  persevered,  1  ordered  them  to  be  immediately 
punished;  for  I  was  persuaded,  whatever  the  nature  of  their 
opinions  might  be,  a  contumacious  and  inflexible  obstinacy 
certainly  deserved  correction.  There  were  others,  also, 
brouoht  before  me,  possessed  with  the  same  infatuation, 
but,  oeing  citizens  of  Rome,  I  directed  them  to  be  carried 
thither.''2 

IV.  "The  Roman  method  of  fettering  and  confining  cri- 
minals was  singular.  One  end  of  a  chain,  that  was  of  com- 
modious length,  was  fixed  about  the  right  arm  of  the  prisoner, 
and  the  other  end  was  fastened  to  the  left  arm  of  a  soldier. 
Thus  a  soldier  was  coupled  to  the  prisoner,  and  every  where 

s  Mr.  Melmoth's  note  on  the  97th  letter  in  the  10th  book  of  Pliny's  Epis- 
tles, vol.  ii.  p.  672.  3d  edit. 

>o  Dion.  IluUcaru.  lib.  v.  p.  281.  edit.  Oxon.  1704.  See  also  p.  334.  ejusdem 
edit. 

"  Appellationesquotannisurbanorum  quidem  litlgatorum  prsetori  delega- 
vit;  acprovlncialiumconsularibusviris,  quossingulos  cujusque  provinciee 
ne'Totiis  reposuisset.  Sueton.  vit.  August,  cap.  33.  p.  208.  edit.  var.  Lug.  Bat 
1602. 

'»  Plinii  Epistolae,  lib.  x.  episl.  97.  pp.  722, 723.  ed.  var.  1669. 


60 


OF  THE  ROMAN  JUDICATURE,  MANNER  OF  TRIAL,  &c. 


[Paht  n.  Chap.  III. 


attended  and  guarded  him.'  Tliis  manner  of  confinement  is 
frequently  mentioned,  and  there  are  many  beautiful  allusions 
to  it  in  the  Roman  writers.  Thus  was  St.  Paul  confined. 
Fettered^  in  this  manner,  he  delivered  his  apology  before 
Festus,  king  Agrippa,and  Bernice.  And  it  was  this  circum- 
stance that  occasioned  one  of  the  most  pathetic  and  affecting 
strokes  of  true  oratory  that  ever  was  displayed  cither  in  the 
Grecian  or  Roman  senate.  Would  to  God  that  not  only  thou, 
hut  aha  all  that  hear  me  this  day,  were  both  almost  and  alto- 
gether such  as  lam,  except  these  bonds  !  What  a  prodigious 
effect  must  this  striking  conclusion,  and  the  sight  of  the  irons 
held  up3  to  enforce  it,  make  upon  the  minds  of  the  audience  ! 
During  the  two  years  that  St.  Paul  was  a  prisoner  at  large,  and 
lived  at  Rome  in  his  own  hired  house,  he  was  subjected  to  this 
confinement.  Paul  was  suffered  to  dwell  with  a  soldier  that 
kept  him.  The  circumstance  of  publicly  wearing  his  chain, 
and  being  thus  coupled  to  a  soldier,  was  very  disgraceful  and 
dishonou'rable,  and  the  ignominy  of  it  would  naturally  occa- 
sion the  desertion  of  former  friends  and  ncquaintance.  Hence 
the  apostle  immortalizes  the  name  of  Onesiphorus,  and  fer- 
vently intercedes  with  God  to  bless  his  family,  and  to  re- 
member him  in  the  day  of  future  recompense,  for  a  rare 
instance  of  distinguished  fidelity  and  affection  to  him  when 
all  had  turned  away  from  him  and  forsaken  him.  The  Lord 
give  mercy  to  the  house  of  Onesiphorus,  for  he  oft  refreshed  me, 
and  was  not  ashamed  of  my  chain,  but  immediately  upon  his 
arrival  in  Rome  he  sought  me  out  very  diligently  till  he  found 
me  !  The  Lm-d  grant  unto  him  that  he  may  find  mercy  of  the 
Lord  in  that  day.  (2  Tim.  i.  16, 17,  18.) 

"  Sometimes  the  prisoner  was  fastened  to  two  soldiers, 
one  on  each  side,  wearing  a  chain  both  on  his  right  and  left 
hand.  St.  Paul  at  first  was  thus  confined.  W  hen  the  tri- 
bune received  him  from  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  he  com- 
manded him  to  be  bound  with  two  chains.  (Acts  xxi.  33.) 
In  this  manner  was  Peter  fettered  and  confined  by  Herod 
Agrippa.  The  same  night  Peter  was  sleeping  between  two  sol- 
diers, oound  with  two  chains.  (Acts  xii.  6.) 

"  It  further  appears,  that  if  the  soldiers,  who  were  thus  ap- 
pointed to  guard  criminals,  and  to  whom  they  were  chained, 
suffered  the  prisoner  to  escape,  they  were  punished  with 
death.  Thus,  when  Peter  was  delivered  out  of  prison  by  a 
miracle,  the  next  morning  we  read  there  was  no  small  con- 
fusion among  the  soldiers  who  were  appointed  his  guards, 
and  to  whom  he  had  been  chained,  what  was  become  of 
Peter. 

"  Whence  it  appears  that  his  deliverance  had  been  effected, 
and  his  shackles  had  been  miraculously  unloosed,  without 
their  knowledge,  when  they  were  sunk  in  repose.  Upon 
which  Herod,  after  making  a  fruitless  search  for  him,  ordered 
all  those  who  had  been  entrusted  with  the  custody  of  Peter 
to  be  executed.  (Acts  xii.  19.)  In  like  manner  also  keepers 
of  prisons  were  punished  with  death,  if  the  confined  made 
their  escape.  This  is  evident  from  what  is  related  concern- 
ing the  imprisonment  of  Paul  and  Silas  at  Philippi.  These, 
after  their  oodles  were  mangled  with  scourges,  were  precipi- 
tated into  the  public  dungeon,  and  their  feet  were  made  fast 
in  the  stocks.  At  midnight  these  good  men  prayed  and  sang 
praises  to  God  in  these  circumstances ;  when  suddenly  a 
dreadful  earthquake  shook  the  whole  prison  to  its  foundation, 
all  the  doors  in  an  instant  flew  open,  and  the  shackles  of  all 
the  prisoners  dropped  to  the  ground.  This  violent  concus- 
sion awakening  tne  keeper,  when  he  saw  the  doors  of  the 
prison  wide  open,  he  drew  his  sword,  and  was  going  to 
plunge  it  in  his  bosom,  concluding  that  all  the  prisoners  had 
escaped.  In  that  crisis  Paul  called  to  him  with  a  loud  voice, 
entreating  him  not  to  lay  violent  hands  upon  himself,  assur- 
ing him  all  the  prisoners  were  safe. 

V.  "The  Roman  tribunal,  if  we  may  judge  of  it  from 
■what  is  related  concerning  Pilate's,  was  erected  on  a  raised 
stage,  the  floor  of  which  was  embellished  with  a  tesselated 
pavement.  This  consisted  of  littje  square  pieces  of  marble, 
or  of  stones  of  various  colours,  which  were  disposed  and  ar- 
ranged with  great  art  and  elegance,  to  form  a  chequered  and 
pleasing  appearance.-'     Pliny  informs  us  that  this  refinement 

1  Quonmilmncliim  eaclem  catena  et  custodiam  et  milirem  copnlat,  sic  ista 
quae  t^m  di-isiniilia  sunt,  pariter  inceduat.  Senecae  Episl.  5.  loin.  ii.  p.  13. 
Cronnvii,  1672.     So  also  Manilius. 

Vinctorum  dominus,  sociusque  in  parte  cateniB, 

lutordum  pa2nis  ianoxia  corpora  servat. — Lib.  V.  v.  628,  629. 

2  In  like  mannei  the  brave  but  unfortunate  Euraenes  addressed  a  very 
patliPtic  speecli  to  hisarmy,  with  his  fetters  on.  Plutarch,  Eunienes.  Jus- 
tin, lib.  xiv.  cap.  3. 

3  Prolatarn,  sicut  erat  catenatus,  manum  ostendit.  .Justin,  lib.  xiv.  cap. 3. 
p.  SIT).     Gronovii. 

*  Opus  tessellatum  ex  parvulis  coloria  varii  lapillis  quadratis  constabat, 
(uibus  solum  pavjmenti  incrustabatur.     Varro  de  re  rustioa,  lib.  iii.  1. 


was  first  introduced  among  the  Romans  by  Sylla.'  Their 
great  men  were  so  fond  of  this  magnificence,  and  thought  it 
so  essential  to  the  elegance  and  siilendour  of  life,  that  they 
appear  to  have  carried  with  them  these  splendid  materials  to 
form  and  compose  these  elaborate  floors,  for  their  tents,  for 
their  houses,  and  for  their  tribunals,  wherever  they  removed'' 
— from  a  depraved  and  most  wretchedly  vitiated  taste,  at  last 
deeming  them  a  necessary  and  indispensable  furniture,  not 
merely  a  vain  and  proud  display  of  grandeur  and  greatness. 
With  this  variegated  pavement,  composed  of  pieces  of  mar- 
ble or  stone  thus  disposed  and  combined,  the  evangelist 
informs  us,  that  the  floor  of  Pilate's  tribunal  was  ornamented. 
(John  xix.  13.)  Such  an  embellishment  of  a  tribunal  was 
only  a  proud  ostentatious  display  to  tlie  world  of  Italian 
greatness  and  magnificence,  calculated  less  for  real  use  than 
to  strike  the  beholders  with  an  idea  of  the  boundless  prodi- 
gality and  extravagance  of  the  Romans. 

"  Having  mentioned  Pilate  the  Roman  procurator,  we  can- 
not close  this  section  withcut  remarking  the  efforts  he  re- 
peatedly made,  when  he  sat  in  judgment  upon  Jesus,  to  save 
him  from  the  determined  fury  of  the  Jews.  Five  successive 
attempts  are  enumerated  by  commentators  and  critics.  He 
had  the  fullest  conviction  of  his  innocence — that  it  was  merely 
through  malice,  and  a  virulence  which  nothing  could  pla- 
cate, that  they  demanded  his  execution.  Yet  though  the 
governor  for  a  long  time  resisted  all  their  united  clamour  and 
importunity,  and,  conscious  that  he  had  done  nothing  worthy 
of  death,  steadily  refused  to  pronounce  the  sentence  of  con- 
demnation upon  him  ;  yet  one  argument,  which  in  a  menacing 
manner  they  addressed  to  him,  at  last  totally  shook  his  firm- 
ness, and  induced  him  to  yield  to  their  sanguinary  purpose. 
The  Jews,  after  aggravating  his  guilt,  and  employing  every 
expedient  in  vain  to  influence  the  president  to  inflict  capital 
punishment  upon  him,  at  last  cried  out:  If  thou  let  this  man 
go,  thou  art  not  Cassar^s  friend ;  whosoever  makelh  himself  a 
king,  speaketh  against  Cscsar.  Upon  hearing  this,  all  his 
former  firmness  instantly  vanished ;  he  could  stem  the  torrent 
of  popular  fury  no  longer  :  to  this  he  yielded,  and  immediately 
ordered  his  execution.  Then  delivered  he  him,  therefore,  to  them 
to  be  crucified.  This  conduct  of  Pilate  arose  from  his  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  character  and  temper  of  his  master  Tiberius, 
who  was  a^loomy  old  tyrant,  day  ana  night  incessantly  haunted 
with  the  fiends  of  jealousy  ana  suspicion — who  would  never 
forgive  any  innovations  in  his  government,  but  punished  the 
authors  and  abettors  of  them  with  inexorable  death. '^  Pilate, 
therefore,  hearing  the  Jews  reiterating  this  with  menaces, 
that  if  he  let  him  go  he  was  not  Cesar's  friend — knowing 
the  jealousy  and  cruelty  of  Tiberius,'^  and  fearing  that  the 
disappointed  rage  of  the  Jews  would  instigate  them  to  accuse 
him  to  the  old  tyrant,  as  abetting  and  suffering  a  person  to 
escape  with  impunity,  who  had  assumed  the  regal  title  and 
character  in  one  of  his  provinces,  was  alarmed  for  his  own 
safety;  and  rather  than  draw  down  upon  his  devoted  head 
the  resentment  of  the  sovereign,  who  would  never  forgive  or 
forget  an  injury,  real  or  imaginary,  contrary  to  his  own  judg- 
ment and  clear  persuasion  of  the  innocence  of  Jesus,  sen- 
tenced him  to  be  crucified." 

VI.  As  the  Romans  allowed  the  inhabitants  of  conquered 
countries  to  retain  their  local  tribunals,  we  find  incidental 
mention  made  in  the  New  Testament  of  prpvincial  courts  of 
justice.  Two  of  these  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  claim 
a  distinct  notice  in  this  place;  viz.  1.  The  Areopagus,  at 
Athens;  and,  2.  The  Assembly,  at  Ephesus. 

1.  The  tribunal  of  the  Areopagus  is  said  to  have  been 
instituted  at  Athens,  by  Cecrops  the  founder  of  that  city, 
and  was  celebrated  for  the  strict  equity  of  its  decisions. 
Among  the  various  causes  of  which  it  took  cognizance,  were 
matters  of  religion,  the  consecration  of  new  gods,  erection 
of  temples  and  altars,  and  the  introduction  of  new  ceremonies 
into  divine  worship.  On  this  account  St.  Paul  was  brought 
before  the  tribunal  of  Areopagus  as  a  setter  forth  of  strange 
gods,  because  he  preached  unto  the  Athenians,  Jesus  and 
AvsLo-Tucn;,  or  the  Mesurrection.  (Acts  xvii.  18.)  Its  sittings 
were  held  on  the  Apao?  Usiyo;,  or  //('//  of  Mars  (wlience  its 
name  was  derived),  which  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  the' city 
of  Athens,  opposite  to  the  Acropolis  or  citadel,  and  is  an 
insulated  precipitous  rock,  broken  towards  the  south,  and  on 
the  north  side  sloping  gently  down  to  the  temple  of  Thesus. 

'  Lithostrota  acceptavere  sub  Sylla.    Plinii  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xxxvi.  p.  60. 

«  In  expeditionibus  tessella  at  sectilia  pavimenta  circumtulisse.     Sueto- 
nius vita  J.  C'aisaris.  cap.  46.  p.  74.  edit,  variorum  Lug.  Bat.  1662.  Vid.  etiain. 
not.     Salmasii  in  loc. 

■■  See  Suetonius,  Tacitus,  Dion  Cassius. 

8  Philo  makes  the  very  same  remark  concerning  Pilate,  p.  390.  edit. 
Mangey. 


Sect.  III.] 

Its  appearance  is  thus  described  by  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke  : — "  It 
is  not  possible;  to  conceive  a  situation  olVreator  peril,  crone 
more  calculated  to  prove  the  sincerity  of  a  iircaciuT,  than  that 
in  whicii  the  apostle  was  here  placed  :   and  the  truth  of  this, 

fierhaps,  will  never  he  belter  felt  than  by  a  spectator,  who 
rom  this  (sniincnce  actually  ix'holds  the  nuinunients  of  pacran 
pomp  and  superstition,  by  which  iu;,  whom  the  Athenians 
considered  as  the  sslltr  fmlli  of  K/niiif^i-  !(ij(/.s,  was  then  sur- 
rounded :  rei)resentin<r  to  tin;  iniairination  the  disci|)les  of 
Socrates  and  of  I'lato,  the  doirmatist  of  the  porch,  and  the 
sceptic  of  the  acadcuny,  addressed  by  a  poor  and  lowly  man, 
who,  rttdf:  in  spicc/i,  without  the  eiiticiii<r  worch-  of  incurs  wis- 
dom, enjoined  precepts  contrary  to  tlu-ir  taste,  and  very  hostile 
to  tlieir  prejudices.  One  of  the  peculiar  i)rivile<res  of  tlie 
Are')p:i<rit!e  seems  to  liave  been  si^  at  defiance  by  the  zeal  of 
Saiit  P'uil  on  this  occasion;  namely,  that  of  inflicting  ex- 
tri'ine  and  exemplary  p\Miishm<'nt  upon  any  person,  who 
should  sliirht  the  celebration  of  the  holy  mysteries,  or  blas- 
pheme liie"^<)ds  of  (Jreece.  We  asciMided  to  the  sununit  by 
means  of  sii-ps  cut  in  the  natural  stone.  'Die  sublime  scene 
here  exhibitcMl,  is  so  strikiniy,  that  a  brief  description  of  it 
may  prove  iiow  truly  it  oilers  to  us  a  commentary  vipon  the 
apostle's  words,  as  lliey  were  delivered  upon  the  spot.  lie 
stood  upon  the  top  of  the  rock,  and  beneath  the  cano])y  of 
heaven.  Before  him  there  was  spread  a  glorious  prospect  of 
mountains,  islands,  seas,  and  skies:  behind  him  towered  the 
lofty  Acropolis,  crowned  with  all  its  marble  temples.  Thus 
every  object,  whether  in  the  face  of  nature,  or  among  the 
works  of  art,  conspired  to  elevate  the  mind,  and  to  till  it 
with  reverence  towards  that  Being,  tvho  made  and  governs  the 
world  (Acts  xvii.  21.  28.)  ;  who  sitteth  in  that  light  which 
no  mortal  eye  can  approach,  and  yet  is  nigh  unto  the  meanest 
of  his  creatures ;  in  whom,  we  live  and  iiiave  and  have  our 
bcinu;.^''^ 

2.  The  Assembly  mentioned  in  Acts  xix.  39.  is,  most 
probably,  that  belonging  to  the  district  of  Ephesus,  Asia 
Minor  being  divided  into  several  districts,  each  of  which  had 
its  appropriate  legal  assembly.  S>ome  of  these  are  referred 
to  by  Cicero,2  aiid  many  otliers  are  mentioned  by  Pliny,^ 
particularly  this  of  Ephesus.  The  Tf>x/Afx-xTfu<;  or  chief  officer 
says,  that  If  Demetrius  had  any  claim  of  ])roperty  to  make, 
there  were  civil  courts  in  which  he  might  sue :  if  he  had 
crimes  to  object  to  any  person,  the  proconsul  was  there,  to 
take  cognizance  of  the  charge  :  but,  if  he  had  complaints  of 
a  political  nature  to  prefer,  or  had  any  thing  to  say  which 
might  redound  to  the  honour  of  their  goddess,  there  was  the 
usual  legal  assembly  of  the  district  belonging  to  Ephesus, 
in  which  it  ought  to  be  proposed.  The  regular  periods  of 
such  assemblies,  it  appears,  were  three  or  four  times  a  month  ; 
although  tli(>y  were  convoked  extraordinarily  for  the  despatch 
of  any  pressing  business.^ 


ON  THE  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF  THE  JEWS. 


61 


SECTION  III.5 

ON  THE  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF   THE  JEWS. 

I.  Chimes  against  God: — i.  Idolatry. — 2.  Blasphemy. — 3. 
Falsely  prophesying.  —  4.  Divination.  —  .5.  l^evjnry.  —  II. 
Crimks  against  Parents  and  Magisthatks. — III.  Chimes 
AGAINST  Piioi'EnTT  : — 1.  Theft. — 2.  ,Man-stealing-. — 3.  The 
crime  of  denying  any  thing'  taken  in  trust,  or  found. — 
4.  Rfgrdatiuns  concerning  debtors. — IV.  Chimes  against 
THE  Person  : — 1.  ^Murder. — 2.  Homicide. — 3.  Corporal  in- 
juries,— 4.  Crimes  of  lust. — V.  Chimes  of  Malice. 

I.  It  has  been  shown  in  a  preceding  chapter,"  that  the 
maintenance  of  the  worship  of  the  only  true  God  was  a  fun- 
damental object  of  the  Mosaic  polity.  The  government  of 
the  Israelites  being  a  Theocracy,  that  is,  one  in  which  the 
supreme  legislative  power  was  vested  in  the  Almighty,  who 
was  regarded  as  their  king,  it  was  to  be  expected  that,  in  a 
state  confessedly  religious,  crimes  against  the  Supreme  Ma- 
jesty of  Jehovah  shomd  occupy  a  primary  place  in  tue  statutes 
given  by  Moses  to  that  people.     Accordingly, 

«  Dr.  Cl.irlco's  Travels,  vol.  vi.  pp.  2C3— 2ir,.  SpeaNoMr.  Dmiwell's  Clas- 
eical  and.J'opographical  Tour  throu.'ih  Grpece,  vol.  i.  pp.  361,  362. 

»  Cicero.  Episl.  art  Atticum,  lib.  v.  pp.  20. 

'  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  v.  cc.  25.  29.  32,  33.  See  also  Cellarii  Geosraphia 
Antiqua,  vol.  ii.  p.  127. 

«  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  p.  312.,  and  Bloomfield's  Annotations,  vol.  iv. 
p.  657. 

»  This  section  is  wholly  an  abridgment  of  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol. 
jv.  pp.  1—312. 
.  *  ssee  p.  41.  supra. 


1.  Idolatrv,  that  is,  the  worship  of  other  gods,  in  the 
Mosaic  law  occupies  the  first  place  in  the  list  of  crimes.  It 
was,  indeed,  a  crime  nrit  merely  against  God,  but  also  against 
a  fundamental  law  of  the  state,  and,  consecpientiy,  was  a 
species  of  hi  Lch-lreaxin,  which  was  cajiitally  punished.  This 
crime  consisted  not  in  ideas  and  opinions,  but  in  the  overt 
act  of  worshipping  otiier  gods.  An  Israelite,  therefore,  was 
guilty  of  idolatry  : — 

(I.)  When  he  actually  worshipped  other  gods  besides 
Jehovah,  the  only  true  CJod.  This  was,  properly  speaking, 
the  state  crime  just  noticed  ;  and  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  tlie 
greatest  of  all  ollences  against  sound  reason  and  conuuon 
sense.  'I'his  crime  was  prohibited  in  the  first  of  the  ten 
commandments.  (Exod.  xx.  3.) 

(2.)  Jii/  tror.shippinfr  iiiif.'i^e.i,  whether  of  the  true  God 
under  a  visible  form,  to  which  the  Israelites  were  but  tro 
prone  (Exod.  xxxii.  4,  5.  Judg.  xvii.  3.  xviii.  1 — (>.  11 — 17. 
30,  31.  vi.  25—33.  viii.  21—27.  1  Kings  xii.  2r)— 31.),  or 
of  the  images  of  the  gods  of  the  (Jentiles,  of  which  we  have 
so  many  instances  in  the  sacred  hisiorv.  All  iinai^e-worship 
whatever  is  expressly  forbidden  in  Exod.  xx.  4,  5.  :  and  a 
curse  is  denounced  against  it  in  Dent,  xxvii.  15. 

(3.)  Bi/  proMratiun  hi  fire,  or  udorution  if,  mich  images,  or 
of  any  thing  else  revered  as  a  god,  such  as  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars.  (Exod.  xx.  5.  xxxiv.  14.  Dent.  iv.  19.)  This 
prostration  consisted  in  falling  down  on  the  knees,  and  at 
the  same  time  touching  the  ground  with  the  forehead. 

(4.)  Bi/  huvini^  altars  or  irroves  dedicated  to  idols,  or  images 
thereof,-  all  which  the  Mosaic  law  required  to  be  utterly 
destroyed  (Exod.  xxxiv.  13.  Deut.  vii.  5.  xii.  3.);  and  the 
Israelites  were  prohibited,  by  Deut.  vii.  25,  26.,  from  keep- 
ing, or  even  bringing  into  their  houses,  the  gold  and  silver 
that  had  been  upon  any  image,  lest  it  should  prove  a  snare, 
and  lead  them  astray  :  because,  having  been  once  conse- 
crated to  an  idol-god  (considering  the  then  prevalent  super- 
stition as  to  the  reality  of  such  deities'),  some  idea  of  its 
sanctity,  or  some  dread  of  it,  might  still  nave  continued,  and 
have  thus  been  the  means  of  propagating  idolatry  afresh 
among  their  children. 

(5.)  Bi/  offering;  sacrifices  to  iduh;  which  was  expressly  for- 
bidden in  Lev.  xvii.  1 — 7.,  especially  human  victims,  the 
sacrifices  of  which  (it  is  well  known),  prevailed  to  a  fright- 
ful extent.  Parents  immolated  their  offspring :  this  ho7rid 
practice  was  introduced  among  the  Israelites,  from  the 
Canaanites,  and  is  repeatedly  reprobated  by  the  prophets 
in  the  most  pointed  manner.  The  oflering  of  human  victims 
was  prohibited  in  Lev.  xviii.  21.  compared  with  2,  S.  24 — 
30.  XX.  1 — 5.  Deut.  xii.  30.  and  xviii.  10. 

(6.)  Bt/  eatins;  of  offerings  made  to  idoh,  made  bi/  other  peo- 
ple, who  invited  them  to  their  offering-feasts.  Though  no 
special  law  was  enacted  against  thus  attending  the  festivals 
of  thtnr  gods,  it  is  evidently  presupposed  as  unlawful  in 
Exod.  xxxiv.  15. 

Idolatry  was  punished  by  stoning  the  guilty  individual. 
When  a  whole  city  became  guilty  of  idolatry,  it  was  con- 
sidered in  a  state  of  rebellion  against  the  government,  and 
was  treated  according  to  the  laws  of  war.  Its  inhabitants 
and  all  their  cattle  were  put  to  death ;  no  spoil  was  made, 
but  every  thing  which  it  contained  was  burnt,  together  with 
the  city  itself;  nor  was  it  ever  allowed  to  be  rebuilt.  (Deut. 
xiii.  13 — 18.)  This  law  does  not  appear  to  have  been  par- 
ticularly enforced ;  the  Israelites  (trom  their  proneness  to 
adopt  the  then  almost  universally  prevalent  polytheism)  in 
most  cases  overlooked  the  crime  of  a  city  that  became  noto- 
riously idolatrous ;  whence  it  happened,  that  idolatry  was 
not  confined  to  any  one  city,  but  soon  overspread  the  whole 
nation.  In  this  case,  when  the  people,  as  a  people,  brought 
guilt  upon  themselves  by  their  idolatry,  God  reserved°to 
himself  the  infliction  of  the  punishments  denounced  against 
that  national  crime ;  which  consisted  in  wars,  famines,  and 
other  national  judgments,  and  (when  the  measure  of  their 
iniquity  was  completed)  in  the  destruction  of  their  polity, 
and  the  transportation  of  the  people  as  slaves  into  other 
lands.  (Lev.  xxvi.  Deut.  xxviii.  xxix.  xxxii.)  For  the  crime 
of  seducing  others  to  the  worship  of  strange  gods,  but  more 
especially  where  a  pretended  prophet  (who  might  often 
naturally  anticipate  what  would  come  to  pass)  uttered  pre- 
dictions tending  to  lead  the  people  into  idolatrj',  the  appointed 
punishment  was  stoning  to  death.  (Deut.  xiii.  2 — 12.)  In 
order  to  prevent  the  barbarous  immolation  of  infants,  Moses 
denounced  the  punishment  of  stoning  upon  those  who  offered 
human  sacrifices;  which  the  bystanaers  might  instantly 
execute  upon  the  delinquent  when  caught  in  the  act,  without 
any  judicial  inquiry  whatever.    (Lev.  xx.  2.) 


62 


ON  THE  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  Ill 


2.  God  being  both  the  sovereign  and  the  leg-islator  of  the 
Israelites,  Blaspheiviy  (that  is,  tlie  spe-akinor  ijijvirioiisly  of 
his  name,  h  s  attriliutes,  iiis  irovei'nnient,  and  his  revelation) 
was  not  only  a  crime  against  Him,  b\it  also  aoainst  the  state; 
it  was,  therefore,  punislnid  capitally  by  stoning.  (Lev.  xxiv. 
10—11.) 

3.  It  appears  from  Dent,  xviii.  20 — 22.  that  a  False  Pro- 
phet was  punished  capitally,  being  stoned  to  death  ;  and 
there  were  two  cases  in  wiiich  a  person  was^  held  as  con- 
victed of  the  crime,  and  conseipiently  liable  to  its  punish- 
ment, viz.  (1.)  If  he  had  prophesied  any  thing-  in  the  name 
of  any  other  god, — whetlier  it  took  place  or  not,— he  was 
at  all  events  considered  as  a  false  prophet,  and,  as  such, 
stoned  to  death.  (Dent.  xiii.  2 — 6.) — (2.)  If  a  prophet  spoke 
in  the  name  of  the  true  God,  be  was  tolerated,  so  long  as  he 
remained  unconvicted  of  imposture,  even  though  he  threat- 
ened calamity  or  destruction  to  the  state,  and  he  could  not 
be  punished  :  but  when  the  event  which  he  had  predicted 
did  not  come  to  pass,  he  was  regarded  as  an  audacious  im- 
postor, and,  as  such,  was  stoned.    (Deut.  xviii.  21,  22.) 

4.  Divination  is  the  conjecturing  of  future  events  from 
things  which  are  supposed  to  presage  them.  The  eastern 
people  were  always  fond  of  cfivination,  magic,  the  curious 
arts  of  interpreting  dreams,  and  of  obtaining  a  knowledge 
of  future  events.  When  Moses  gave  the  law  which  bears 
his  name  to  the  Israelites,  this  disposition  had  long  been 
common  in  Egypt  and  the  neighbouring  countries.  Now, 
all  these  vain  arts  in  order  to  pry  into  futurity,  and  all  divina- 
tion whatever,  unless  God  was  consulted  by  prophets,  or  by 
Urim  and  Thummim  (the  sacred  lot  kept  by  the  high-priest), 
were  expressly  prohibited  by  the  statutes  of  Lev.  xix.  26. 
31.  XX.  G.  23.  27.  and  Deut.  xviii.  9 — 12.  In  the  case  of  a 
person  transgressing  these  laws,  by  consulting  a  diviner,  God 
reserved  to  himself  the  infliction  of  his  punishment;  the 
transgressor  not  being  amenable  to  the  secular  magistrate. 
(Lev.  XX.  G.)  The  diviner  himself  was  to  be  stoned.  (Lev. 
XX.  27.) 

5.  Perjury  is,  by  the  Mosaic  law,  most  peremptorily  pro- 
hibited as  a  most  heinous  sin  against  God  ;  to  whom  the 
punishment  of  it  is  left,  and  who  in  Exod.  xx.  7.  expressly 
promises  that  he  will  inflict  it,  without  ordaining  the  inflic- 
tion of  any  punishment  by  the  temporal  magistrate  ;  except 
only  in  the  case  of  a  man  falsely  charging  another  with  a 
crime,  in  which  case  the  false  witness  was  liable  to  the  same 
punishment  which  would  have  been  inflicted  on  the  accused 
party  if  he  had  been  found  to  have  been  really  guilty  (as  is 
shown  in  p.  64.  infra) ;  not  indeed  as  the  punishment  of 
perjury  against  God,  but  of  false  witness. 

11.  CrTmes  against  Parents  and  Magistrates  consti- 
tute an  important  article  of  the  criminal  law  of  the  Hebrews. 

1.  In  the  form  of  government  among  that  people,  we 
recognise  much  of  the  patriarchal  spirit ;  in  consequence  of 
which  fathers  enjoyed  great  rights  over  their  families.  The 
Cursing  of  Parents, — that  is,  not  only  the  imprecation  of 
evil  on  them,  but  probably,  also  all  rude  and  reproachful  lan- 
guage towards  them,  was  punished  with  death  (Exod.  xxi. 
17.  Lev.  XX.  9.);  as  likewise  was  the  striking  of  them. 
(Exod.  xxi.  15.)     An  example  of  the  crime  of  cursing  of  a 

Karent,  which  is  fully  in  point,  is  given  by  Jesus  Christ  in 
latt.  XV.  4 — 6.  or  Mark  vii.  9 — 12. ;  "  where  he  upbraids 
the  Pharisees  with  their  giving,  from  their  deference  to  hu- 
man traditions  and  doctrines,  such  an  exposition  of  the  divine 
law,  as  converted  an  action,  which,  by  the  law  of  Moses, 
would  have  been  punished  with  death,  into  avow,  both  o'oli- 
gatory  and  acceptable  in  the  sight  of  God.  It  seems,  that  it 
was  then  not  uncommon  for  an  undutiful  and  degenerate  son, 
who  wanted  to  be  rid  of  the  burden  of  supporting  his  parents, 
and  in  his  wrath,  to  turn  them  adrift  upon  the  wide  world,  to 
say  to  his  father  or  mother,  Koi-ban,  or,  He  that  Corban  (con- 
secrated) which  I  should  appropriate  to  thy  support ;  that  is. 
Every  thing  wherewith  I  might  ever  aid  or  serve  thee,  and,  of 
course,  every  thing,  which  I  ought  ''to  devote  to  thy  relief  in  the 
days  of  helpless  old  age,  I  here  vow  unto  God. — A  most  abomi- 
nable vow,  indeed  !  and  which  God  would,  unquestionably, 
as  little  approve  or  accept,  as  he  would  a  vow  to  commit 
adultery.  And  yet  some  of  the  Pharisees  pronounced  on 
such  vows  this  strange  decision ;  that  they  were  absolutely 
obligatory,  and  that  the  son,  who  uttered  such  words,  was 
bound  to  abstain  from  contributing,  in  the  smallest  article, 
to  the  use  of  his  parents,  because  every  thing,  that  should 
have  been  so  appropriated,  had  become  consecrated  to  God, 
and  could  no  longer  be  applied  to  their  use,  without  sacrilege 
and  a  breach  of  Eis  vow.     But  on  this  exposition,  Christ  not 


only  remarked,  that  it  abrogated  the  fifth  commandment,  but 
he  likewise  added,  as  a  counter-doctrine,  that  INIosos,  their 
own  legislator,  iiad  expressly  declared,  that  the  inim  who 
cursed  father  or  mother  cleycrvtd  to  die.  Now,  it  is  impossi- 
ble for  a  mail  to  curse  his  parents  more  eifectually,  than  by 
a  vow  like  this,  when  he  interprets  it  \\ith  such  rigour,  as  to 
preclude  him  from  doin^  any  thing  in  future  for  their  benefit. 
It  is  not  imprecating  upon  them  a  curse  in  the  common  style 
of  curses,  which  evaporate  into  air;  but  it  is  fulfilling  the 
curse,  and  making  it  to  all  intents  and  purposes  etl'ectual."' 

Of  the  two  crimes  above  noticed,  the  act  of  striking  a  parent 
evinces  the  most  depraved  and  wicked  dispcsition :  and 
severe  as  the  punishment  was,  few  parents  would  apply  to  a 
magistrate,  until  all  methods  had  been  tried  in  vain.  Both 
these  crimes  are  included  in  the  case  of  the  stubborn,  rebel- 
lious, and  drunkard  son ;  whom  his  parents  were  unable  to 
keep  in  order,  and  who,  when  intoxicated,  endangered  the 
lives  of  others.  Such  an  irreclaimalile  offender  was  to  be 
punished  with  stoning.  (Deut.  xxi.  18 — 21.)  Severe  as  this 
law  may  scent,  we  have  no  instance  recorded  of  its  being 
carried  into  effect ;  but  it  must  have  had  a  most  salutary  ope- 
ration in  the  prevention  of  crimes,  in  a  climate  like  that  of 
Palestine,  where  (as  in  all  southern  climates)  liquor  produces 
more  formidable  effects  than  with  us,  and  where  also  it  is 
most  probable  that  at  that  time,  the  people  had  not  the  same 
efficacious  means  which  we  possess,  of  securing  drunkards, 
and  preventing  them  from  doing  mischief. 

2.  Civil  government  being  an  ordinance  of  God,  provision 
is  made  in  all  well  regulated  states  for  respecting  the  persons 
of  Magistrates.  We  have  seen  in  a  former  chapter,^  that 
when  the  regal  government  was  established  among  the  Israel- 
ites, the  person  of  the  king  was  inviolable,  even  though  he 
might  be  tyrannical  and  unjust.  It  is  indispensably  neces- 
sary to  the  due  execution  of  justice  that  the  persons  of  magis- 
trates be  sacred,  and  that  they  should  not  be  insulted  in  the 
discharge  of  their  office.  All  reproachful  words  or  curses, 
uttered  against  persons  invested  with  authority,  are  prohi- 
bited in  Exod.  xxii.  28.  No  punishment,  however,  is  speci- 
fied ;  probably  it  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  judge,  and 
was  different  according  to  the  rank  of  the  magistrate  and  the 
extent  of  the  crime. 

III.  The  Crimes  or  offences  against  Property,  mentioned 
by  Moses,  are  theft,  man-stealing,  and  the  denial  of  any  thing 
taken  in  trust,  or  found. 

1.  On  the  crime  of  Theft,  Moses  imposed  the  punishment 
of  double  (and  in  certain  cases  still  higher)  restitution ;  and 
if  the  thief  were  unable  to  make  it  (which,  however,  could 
rarely  happen,  as  every  Israelite  by  law  had  his  paternal 
field,  the  crops  of  which  might  be  attached),  he  was  ordered 
to  be  sold  for  a  slave,  and  payment  was  to  be  made  to  the  in- 
jured party  out  of  the  purchase-money.  (Exod.  xxii.  1.  3.) 
The  same  practice  obtains,  according  to  Chardin,  among  the 
Persians.  The  wisdom  of  this  regulation  is  much  greater 
than  the  generality  of  mankind  are  aware  of:  for,  as  the  de- 
sire of  gain  and  the  love  of  luxuries  are  the  prevalent  induce- 
ments to  theft,  restitution,  varied  according  to  circumstances, 
would  effectually  prevent  the  unlawful  gratification  of  that 
desire,  while  the  idle  man  would  be  deterred  from  stealing 
by  the  dread  of  slavery,  in  which  he  would  be  compelled  to 
work  by  the  power  of  blows.  If,  Rowever,  a  thief  was  found 
breaking  into  a  house  in  the  night  season,  he  might  be  killed 
(Exod.  xxii.  2.),  but  not  if  the  sun  had  arisen,  in  which  case 
he  might  be  known  and  apprehended,  and  the  restitution 
made  which  was  enjoined  by  Moses.  When  stolen  oxen  or 
sheep  were  found  in  the  possession  of  a  thief,  he  was  to  make 
a  two-fuld  restitution  to  the  owner,  who  thus  obtained  a  profit 
for  his  risk  of  loss.  (Exod.  xxii.  4.)  The  punishment  was 
applicable  to  every  case  in  which  the  article  stolen  remained 
unaltered  in  his  possession.  But  if  it  was  already  alienated 
or  slaughtered,  the  criminal  was  to  restore  four-fold  for  a 
sheep,' and  Jive-fold  for  an  ox  (Exod.  xxii.  1),  in  consequence 
of  its  great  value  and  indispensable  utility  in  agriculture,  to 
the  Israelites,  who  had  no  horses.  In  the  time  of  Solomon, 
when  property  had  become  more  valuable, from  the  increase 
of  commerce,  the  punishment  of  restitution  was  increased  to 
seven-fold.  (Prov.  vi.  30,  31.)  When  a  thief  had  nothing  to 
pay,  he  was  sold  as  a  slave  (Exod.  xxii.  3.),  probably  for  as 
many  years  as  were  necessary  for  the  extinction  of  the  debt, 
and  of  course,  perhaps,  for  life ;  though  in  other  cases  the 
Hebrew  servant  could  be  made  to  serve  only  for  six  years. 
If,  however,  a  thief,-after  having  denied,  even  upon  oath,  any 
tlieft,  with  which  he  was  charged,  had  the  honesty  or  con-  " 
1  Micliaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iv.  p.  300.  »  See  p.  44.  supra. 


III.] 


ON  THE  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF  THE  JEWS. 


63 


science  toTotract  his  perjury,  and  to  confess  his  ^lilt,  instead 
of  double  restitution,  lie  iiaa  only  to  repay  the  amount  stolen, 
and  one  fifth  more.  (Levit.  vi.  2 — 5.) 

2.  Man-stkamng,  that  is,  the  seizintj  or  stealing  of  the 

Eerson  of  a  free-horn  Israelite,  eith(!r  to  use  him  as  a  slave 
imself,  or  to  sell  him  as  a  slave  to  others,  was  absolutely 
and  irremissibly  punished  with  death.  (E\od.  xxi.  IG.  Deut. 
xxiv.  7.) 

3.  "Where  a  person  was  judicially  convicted  of  having 

DKNIKD    ANY    THlNfJ    COMMITTKn    TO    HIS    TIU'ST,    Or    found    by 

him,  his  ])uiiislmient,  as  in  the  cas(>  of  tlieft,  was  double 
restitution;  only  that  it  never,  as  in  that  crime,  went  sp  far 
as  (iua(iru|)le,  or  (|uintu])le  restitution;  at  least  nolhincr  of  this 
kind  is  ordairunl  in  Exod.  xxii.  H.  If  tlie  person  accused  of 
this  crime  had  sworn  himself  <ruiltless,  and  afterwards,  from 
the  impulse  of  his  conscience,  acknowledired  the;  connnission 
of  perjury,  he  had  only  one-fifth  beyond  the  value  of  the 
article  d(-ni(>d  to  r(>fimd  to  its  owner.     (Levit.  vi.  5.) 

■1.  The  .Mosaic  laws  resjiectiiiir  Dkrtous  were  widely  dif- 
ferent from  those  which  obtain  in  Kuropt-an  countries:  the 
mode  of  procedure  sanctioned  by  them,  thouoh  simple,  was 
very  efiicieiit.  Persons,  who  had  property  due  to  them, 
might,  if  they  chose,  secure  it  either  by  means  of  a  mort- 
gajre,  or  by  a  jilcdoe,  or  by  a  bondsman  or  surety. 

(I.)  The  creditor,  when  about  to  receive  a  pledge  for  a 
debt,  was  not  allowed  to  enter  the  debtor's  house,  and  take 
what  he  pleased ;  but  was  to  wait  before  the  door,  till  the 
debtor  should  deliver  up  that  pledge!  with  which  he  could 
most  easily  dispense.  (Deut.  xxiv.  10,  11.  Compare  Job 
xxii.  6.  xxiv.  3.  7—9.) 

(2.)  When  a  mill  or  mill-stone,  or  an  upper  garment,  was 
given  as  a  ])ledge,  it  was  not  to  be  ke])t  all  night.  These 
articles  appear  to  be  specified  as  examples  l7)r  all  other 
things  with  which  the  debtor  could  not  dispense  without 
great  inconvenience.  (Exod.  xxii.  2G,  27.  Deut.  xxiv.  G.  12.) 

(3.)  The  debt  which  remained  unpaid  until  the  seventh  or 
sabbatic  year  (during  which  the  soil  was  to  be  left  without 
cultivation,  and,  consequently,  a  ])erson  was  not  supposed  to 
be  in  a  condition  to  make  payments),  could  not  be  exacted 
during  that  neriod.  (Deut.  xv.  1 — 11.)  But,  at  other  times, 
in  case  the  (lel)t  was  not  paid,  the  creditor  might  seize,  first, 
the  /i.crc(/.liiri/  land  of  the  debtor,  and  enjoy  its  produce  until 
the  debt  was  paid,  or  at  least  until  the  year  ol  jubilee;  or, 
secondly,  his  liini.scji.  These  might  be  sold  in  jjcrpetuity, 
except  those  belonging  to  the  Levitc  s.  (Lcvit.  xxv.  11 — 32.) 
Thirdly,  in  case  the  house  or  land  was  not  sulTicient  to  cancel 
the  debt,  or  if  it  so  happened  that  the  debtor  had  none,  the 
person  of  the  dc^btor  might  be  sold,  together  with  his  wife 
and  children,  if  he  had  any.  This  is  implied  in  Lev.  xxv. 
39.;  and  this  custom  is  -alluded  to  in  Job  xxiv.  9.  It  existed 
in  the  time  of  Elisha  (2  Kings  iv.  1.) ;  and  on  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  some  rich  persons 
exercised  this  right  over  their  poor  debtors.  (Neh.  v.  1 — 
- 13.)  Our  Lord  alludes  to  the  same  custom  in  Matt,  xviii.  25. 
As  the  person  of  the  debtor  might  thus  be  seized  and  sold, 
his  cuttle  and  furniture  were,  conseeiuently,  liable  for  his 
debts.  This  is  alluded  to  by  iSolomoii,  in  Prov.  xxii.  27.  It 
does  not  appi-ar  that  imprisonment  for  debt  existed  in  the  age 
of  Moses,  nut  it  seems  to  have  prevailed  in  the  time  of  Jesus 
Christ.  (^Matt.  xviii.  31.) 

(4.)  It  a  person  had  become  bondsman,  or  surety  for  an- 
other, he  was  liable  to  be  called  upon  for  payment  in  the 
same  way  with  the  original  debtor.  But  this  practice  does 
not  appear  to  have  obtained  before  the  time  of  Solomon  (in 
whose  Proverbs  there  are  several  references  to  it),  when  it 
was  attended  with  serious  conseepiences.  It  seems  that  the 
formality  observed  was,  for  the  person  who  became  surety 
to  give  his  hand  to  the  debtor,  and  not  to  the  creditor,  to  inti- 
mate that  he  becam(>,  in  a  legal  sense,  one  with  the  debtor; 
for  Solomon  cautions  his  son  ag-ainst  giving  his  hand  to  a 
stranger,  to  a  person  whose  circumstances  he  did  not  know : 
and  entreats  him  to  go  and  urge  the  person  to  whom  he  had 
given  his  hand,  or  for  whom  he  had  become  surety,  to  pay 
liis  own  debt;  so  that  it  must  have  been  to  the  debtor  that 
the  liand  was  given.  8ee  Prov.  xi.  15.  xvii.  18.  and  xxiL  26. 

IV.  Among  the  Crimes  which  may  be  committed  against 
THK  Pkkson, 

1.  Murder  claims  the  first  place.  As  this  is  a  crime  of 
the  most  heinous  nature,  IMoses  has  described  four  accessory 
circumstances  or  marks,  by  which  to  distinguish  it  from  sim- 
ple homicide  or  manslaughter;  viz.  (1.)  When  it  proceeds 
from  hatred  or  enmity.  (iSJum.  xxxv.  20.  21.  Deut.  xix.  11.) 
— (2.)  When  it  proceeds  from  thint  of  blood,  or  a  desire  to 
satiate  revenge  with  the  blood  of  another.  (Num.  xxjjlv,  20.) — 


3.)  When  it  is  committed  premeditatedly  and  deceitfully. 
Exod.  xxi.  14.) — (4.)  When  a  man  lies  in  wait  for  another, 
rills  upon  him,  and  slays  him.  (Deut.  xix.  11.)  In  order 
to  constitute  wilful  murder,  besides  enmity,  Moses  deemed 
it  essential,  that  th(!  deed  be  perpetrat<;d  by  a  blow,  a  thrust, 
or  a  cast,  or  other  thing  of  such  a  nature  as  inevitably  to 
cause  death.  (Num.  xxxv.  IG — 21,):  such  as,  the  use  of  an 
iron  tool, — a  stone,  or  piece  of  wood,  that  may  probably 
cause  death, — the  striking  of  a  man  with  tin?  fist,  out  of  en- 
mity,— pushing  a  man  down  in  such  a  manner  tliat  his  life 
is  endangerc^il, — and  throwing  any  thing  at  a  man,  from  san- 
guinary motives,  so  as  to  occasion  his  death.  The  punish- 
ment of  murder  was  death,  without  all  power  of  redemption. 

2.  Homicide  or  Manslaughter  is  discriminated  by  the  fol- 
lowing adjuncts  or  circumstances: — (1.)  That  it  takes  place 
irithoiit  hatr('d  or  enmity.  (Num.  xxxv.  22.  Deut.  xix.  4 — 
G.) — (2.)  n7Mo»/ thirst  for  revenge.  (Exod.  xxi.  13.  Num. 
xxxv.  22.) — (3.)  \Vhen  it  happens  by  mistake.  (Num.  xxxv. 
11.  15.) — (4.)  liy  acrid/ lit,  or  (as  it  is  termed  in  the  English 
law)  rhance-nicdlff.  (Deut.  xix.  5.)  The  punishment  of 
homicide  was  confinement  to  a  city  of  refuge,  as  will  be 
shown  in  the  fi)l lowing  section. 

Besides  the  two  crimes  of  murder  and  homicide,  there  are 
two  other  sp(>cies  of  homicide,  to  which  no  punishment  was 
annexed;  viz.  (1.)  If  a  man  caught  a  thief  breaking  into  his 
house  by  night,  and  kilUnl  him,  //  wa.s  not  l/lood-guiltiness, 
that  is,  he  could  not  be  nunished;  but  if  he  did  so  when  the 
sun  was  up,  it  was  Ijlooct-guiltiness ;  for  the  tliief's  life  ought 
to  have  been  spared, for  the  reason  annexed  to  the  law  (Exod. 
xxii.  2,  3.),  VIZ.  because  then  the  person  robbed  might  have 
it  in  his  power  to  obtain  restitution ;  or,  at  any  rate,  the  thief, 
if  ho  could  not  otherwise  make  up  his  loss,  might  be  sold, 
in  order  to  repay  him. — (2.)  If  the  Go  1  or  avenger  of  blood 
overtook  the  innocent  homicide  before  he  reached  a  city  of 
refuge,  and  killed  him  while  his  heart  was  hot,  it  was  consi- 
dered as  done  in  justifiable  zeal  (Deut.  xix.  G.) ;  and  even 
if  he  found  him  without  the  limits  of  his  asylum,  and  slew 
him,  he  was  not  punishable.  (Num.  xxxv.  2G,  27.)  The 
taking  of  pecuniary  compensation  for  murder  was  prohibited ; 
but  the  mode  of  punishing  murderers  was  undetennincd ;  and, 
indeed,  it  appears  to  have  been  left  in  a  great  degree  to  the 
pleasure  of  the  Go  1.  An  exception,  however,  was  made  to 
the  severity  of  the  law  in  the  case  of  a  perfect  slave  (that  is, 
one  not  of  Hebrew  descent),  whether  male  or  female.  Al- 
though a  man  had  struck  any  of  his  slaves,  whether  male  or 
female,  with  a  stick,  so  as  to  cause  their  death,  unless  that 
event  took  place  immediately,  and  under  his  hand,  he  was 
not  punished.  If  the  slave  survived  one  or  two  days,  the 
master  escaped  with  impunity :  it  being  considered  that  his 
death  might  not  have  proceeded  from  the  beating,  and  that  it 
was  not  a  master's  interest  to  kill  his  slaves,  because,  as 
Moses  says  (Exod.  xxi.  20,  21.),  they  are  his  money.  If  the 
slave  died  under  his  master's  hand  while  beating  him,  or 
even  during  the  same  daj%  his  death  was  to  be  avenged  ;  but 
in  what  manner  Moses  has  not  specified.  Probably  the 
Israelitish  master  was  subjected  only  to  an  arbitrary  punish- 
ment, regulated  according  to  circumstances  by  the  pleasure 
of  the  judge. 

In  order  to  increase  an  abhorrence  of  murder,  and  to  deter 
them  from  the  perpetration  of  so  heinous  a  crime, — when  it 
had  been  committed  by  some  person  unknown,  the  citj'  near- 
est to  which  the  corpse  was  found  was  to  be  ascertained  by 
mensuration:  after  which  the  elders  or  magistates  of  that 
city  were  required  to  declare  their  utter  ignorance  of  the 
afiair  in  the  very  solemn  manner  prescribed  in  Deut.  xxi. 
1—9. 

3.  For  other  Corporal  Injuries  of  various  kinds,  different 
statutes  were  made,  wiiich  show  the  humanity  and  wisdom 
of  the  Mosaic  law.  Thus,  if  a  man  injured  another  in  a  fray, 
he  was  obliged  to  pay  the  expenses  of  his  cure,  and  of  his 
bed,  that  is,  the  loss  of  his  time  arising  from  his  confine- 
ment. (Exod.  xxi.  18,  19.)  By  this  admirable  precept, 
most  courts  of  justice  still  regulate  their  decisions  in  such 
cases. — If  a  pregnant  woman  was  hurt,  in  consequence  of  a 
fray  between  two  individuals, — as  posterity  among  the  Jews 
w-as  among  the  peculiar  promises  of  their  covenant, — in  the 
event  of  her  premature  delivery,  the  author  of  the  misfortune 
was  oblig(>d  to  give  her  husband  such  a  pecuniary  compensa- 
tion as  he  might  demand,  the  amount  oi  which,  if  the  oflTen- 
der  thought  it  loo  high,  was  to  be  determined  by  the  decision 
of  arbitrators.  On  the  other  hand,  if  either  the  woman  or 
her  child  was  hurt  or  maimed,  the  law  of  retaliation  took  its 
full  effect,  as  stated  in  Exod.  xxi.  22 — 25. — The  law  of 
retaliation  also  operated,  if  one  man  hurt  another  by  either 


64 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  II.  Chap,  IH. 


assaulting  him  openly,  or  by  any  insidious  attack,  whether 
the  partif-s  were  both  Isrnelites,  or  an  Israelite  and  a  foreigner. 
(Lev.  xxiv.  19 — 2-2.)  This  equality  of  the  law,  however, 
did  not  extend  to  slaves :  but  if  a  master  knocked  out  the 
eye  or  tooth  of  a  slave,  the  latter  received  his  freedom  as  a 
compensation  for  the  injury  he  had  sustained.  (Exod.  xxi. 
26,  27.)  If  this  noble  law  did  not  teach  the  unmerciful 
slave-holder  humcaufi/,  at  least  it  taught  him  caution  ;  as  one 
rash  blow  miurht  have  deorived  liim  of  all  right  to  the  future 
services  of  his  slave,  and,  consequently,  self-interest  would 
oblige  him  to  be  cautious  and  circumspect. 

4.°  The  crime,  of  wliich  decency  withholds  the  name,  as 
nature  abominates  the  idea,  was  punished  with  death  (Lev. 
xviii.  22,  23.  xx.  13.  15,  IG.),  as  also  was  adultery'  (Lev. 
XX.  10.), — it  shonld  seem  by  stoning  (Ezek.  xvi.  38.  40. 
John  viii.  7.),  except  in  certain  cases  which  are  specified  in 
Lev.  xix.  20 — 22.  Other  crimes  of  lust,  which  were  com- 
mon among  the  Egyptians  and  Canaanites,  are  made  capital 
by  Moses.  For  a  full  examination  of  the  wisdom  of  his 
laws  on  these  subjects,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  commen- 
taries of  Michaelis.2 

V.  In  nothing,  however,  were  the  wisdom  and  equity  of 
the  Mosaic  law  more  admirably  displayed,  than  in  the  rigour 
with  which  Crimes  of  Malice  were  punished.  Those  pests 
of  society,  malicious  informers,  were  odious  in  the  eye  of 
that  law  (Lev.  xix.  16 — 18.),  and  the  publication  of  false 
reports,  affecting  the  characters  of  others,  is  expressly  pro- 
hioited  in  Exod.  xxiii.  1.:  though  that  statute  does  not 
annex  any  punishment  to  this  crime.  One  exception,  how- 
ever, is  made,  which  justly  imposes  a  very  severe  punish- 
ment on  the  delinquent.  See  Deut.  xxii.  13 — 19.  All  manner 
of  false  witness  was  prohibited  (Exod.  xx.  16.),  even  though 
it  were  to  favour  a  poor  man.  (Exod.  xxiii.  1 — 3.)  But  in 
the  case  of  false  testimony  against  an  innocent  man,  the 
matter  was  ordered  to  be  investigated  with  the  utmost  strict- 
ness, and,  as  a  species  of  wickedness  altogether  extraordi- 
nary, to  be  brought  before  the  highest  tribunal,  where  the 
priests  and  the  judges  of  the  whole  people  sat  in  judgment : 
and  after  conviction,  the  false  witness  was  subjected  to  pu- 
nishment, according  to  the  law  of  retaliation,  and  beyond  the 
possibility  of  reprieve  ;  so  that  he  suffered  the  very  same 

Eunishment  which  attended  the  crime  of  which  he  accused 
is  innocent  brother.  (Deut.  xix.  16 — 21.)  No  regulation 
can  be  more  equitable  than  this,  which  must  have  operated 
as  a  powerful  prevention  of  this  crime.  Some  of  those 
excellent  laws,  which  are  the  glory  and  ornament  of  the 
British  Constitution,  have  been  mad.e  on  this  very  ground. 
Thus,  in  the  37  Edw.  III.  c.  IS.,  it  is  enacted,  that  all  those 
who  make  suggestion,  shall  suffer  the  same  penalty  to  which 
the  other  party^would  have  been  subject,  if  he  vvere  attainted, 
in  case  his  suggestions  be  found  evil.  A  similar  law  was 
made  in  the  same  rei^n.  (38  Edw.  III.  c.  9.)  By  a  law 
of  the  twelve  tables,  false  witnesses  were  thrown  down  the 
Tarpeian  rock.  In  short,  false  witnesses  have  been  deserv- 
edly execrated  by  all  nations,  and  in  every  age. 


SECTION  IV.  , 

ON    THE    PUNISHMENTS    MENTIONED    IN    THE    SCRIPTURES.^ 

Deaign  of  punishments. —  Classification  of  Jetvish  punishments. 
— I.  Punishments,  NOT  CAPITAL. — 1.  Scourging'. — 2.  Retali- 
ation.— 3.  Pecuniary  Fines. — 4.  Offerings  in  the  nature  of 
pu7ushment. — 5.  Imprisonment. — 6.  Banishment. —  Oriental 
mode  of  treating  prisoners, — 7.  Depriving  them  of  sight. — 
8.  Cutting  or  plucking  off  the  hair. — 9.  Excomm%inicatio7i. 
— II.  Capital  Punishments. — 1.   Slaying  with  the  siuord. 

'  2.  Stoning. — 3.  Burning  to  death. — 4.  Decapitation. — 5. 
JPrecipitation. — 6.  Drowning, — 7.  Bruising  in  a  mortar, — 

«  As  the  .Jewish  law  inflicted  such  heavy  punishments  on  those  who  com- 
mitled  fornication  and  adultery,  it  is  probalile,  from  Prov,  ii.  16.,  that  the 
Jews  liad  harlots  among  them  from  the  neighbouring  nations,  who  seduced 
them  iiiio  impurity  and  idolatry,  and  who  might  be  tolerated  in  some  cor- 
rupt periods  of  their  state.  The  case  was  the  same  at  Athens,  where  foreign 
ha'In's  wpi-p  lolernted.  Hence  the  term  strange  women,  came  to  be  ap- 
plied to  all  bad  women,  whether -foreigners  or  Israehtes.  Orton's  Exposi- 
tion, vol.  V.  p.  6. 

»  Vol.  iv.  pp.  163—203. 

'  The  general  authorities  for  this  section  are,  Schulzii  Archcpologia  Ho- 
braica,  pp.  82—92.  Calmet,  Dissertation  sur  les  Supplices  des  Hebreux, 
Dissert,  torn.  I.  pp.241— 276.  ;  Bruninss,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  107—114.  ;  Alber, 
Hermeneut.  Vet.  Test.  tom.  i.  pp.  225—233.  C.  B.  Michaelis,  de  judiciis, 
poenisque  capitalibus  Hebrceorum,  in  Pott's  and  Ruperti's  Sylloge  Cbmnien- 
tationum,  vol.  iv.  pp.  177—239. ;  Jahn,  Archaeologia  Biblica,  §§  219—255, ; 
Ackermann,  Archaeologia  Biblica,  §§  243—258. 


8.  Dichotomy,  or  cutting  astinder. — 9.  Tv/xVAVKr/xti,  or  beat' 
ing  to  death. — 10.  Kxposing  to  -wild  beasts. — 11.  Crucifxion. 
— (1.)  Prevalence  of  this  mode  of  punishment  among  the  an- 
cients. — (2.)  Ignominy  of  crucifixion. — (.3.)  The  circum- 
stances of  our  Saviour^s  crucijixion  considered  and  illus' 
trated. 

The  end  of  punishment  is  expressed  by  Moses  to  be  the 
determent  of  others  from  the  commission  of  crimes.  His 
language  is,  that  others  may  hear  and  fear,  and  maij  shun  the 
conunission  of  like  crimes.  (Deut.  xvii.  13.  xix.  20.)  By  the 
wise  and  humane  enactments  of  this  legislator,  parents  are 
not  to  be  put  to  death  for  their  children,  nor  children  for  their 
parents  (Deut.  xxiv.  16.),  as  was  afterwards  the  case  with 
the  Chaldasans  (Dan.  vi.  24.),  and  also  among  the  kings  of 
Israel  (1  Kings  xxi.  and  2  Kings  ix.  26.),  on  charges  of  trea- 
son.'' Of  the  punishments  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writers, 
some  were  inflicted  by  the  Jews  in  common  with  other  na- 
tions, and  others  were  peculiar  to  themselves.  They  are 
usually  divided  into  two  classes,  non-capital  and  capital, 

I.  The  NON-CAPITAL  or  inferior  Punishments,  which  were 
inflicted  for  smaller  offences,  are  eight  in  number ;  viz. 

1.  The  most  common  corporal  punishment  of  the  ancient 
Mosaic  law  was  Scourging.  (Lev.  xix.  20.  Deut.  xxii.  18. 
XXV.  2,  3.)  After  the  captivity  it  continued  to  be  the  usual 
punishment  for  transgressions  of  the  law,  so  late  indeed  as  the 
time  of  Josephus;^  and  the  apostle  tells  us  that  he  suflfered 
\tjive  times.s  (2  Cor.  xi.  24.)  In  the  time  of  our  Saviour  it 
was  not  confined  to  the  judicial  tribunals,  but  was  also  in- 
flicted in  the  synagogues.  (Matt.  x.  17.  xxiii.  34.  Acts  xxii. 
19.  xxvi.  11.)  The  penalty  of  scourging  was  inflicted  by 
judicial  sentence.  The  offender  having  been  admonished  to 
acknowledge  his  guilt,  and  the  witnesses  produced  against 
him  as  in  capital  cases,  the  judges  commanded  him  to  be  tied 
by  the  arms  to  a  low  pillar:  the  culprit  being  stripped  down 
to  his  waist,  the  executioner,  who  stood  behind  him  upon  a 
stone,  inflicted  the  punishment  both  on  the  back  and  breast 
with  thongs  ordinarily  made  of  ox's  hide  or  leather.  The 
number  of  stripes  depended  upon  the  enormity  of  the  offence. 
According  to  the  talmudical  writers,''  while  the  executioner 
was  discharging  his  office,  the  principal  judge  proclaimed 
these  words  with  a  loud  voice  : — If  tlwu  ouservest  not  all  the 
words  of  this  law,  iSfc.  then  the  Lord  shall  make  thy  pltii^ues 
wonderful,  is'c,  (Deut.  xxviii.  58,  59.)  ;  adding.  Keep  there- 
fore the  words  of  this  covenant,  and  do  them,  that  ye  may  pros- 
per in  all  that  ye  do  (Deut.  xxix.  9.)  ;  and  concluding  with 
these  words  of  the  Psalmist  (Ixxviii.  38.) : — But  he  be, ng  fill 
of  compassion  f> -gave  their  iniquities ,-  which  he  was  tn  repeat, 
if  he  had  finished  these  verses  before  the  full  number  of 
stripes  was  given.  It  was  expressly  enacted  that  no  Jew 
should  suffer  more  than  forty  stripes  for  any  crime,  though  a 
less  number  might  be  inflicted.  In  order  that  the  legal  num- 
ber might  not  be  exceeded,  the  scourge  consisted  of  three 
lashes  or  thongs  :  so  that,  at  each  blow,  he  received  three 
stripes  :  consequently  when  the  full  punishment  was  inflicted, 
the  delinquent  received  only  thirteen  blows,  that  is,  forty 
strives  save  one ,-  but  if  he  were  so  weak,  as  to  be  on  the  point 
of  tainting  away,  the  judges  would  order  the  executioner  to 
suspend  his  flagellation.  Among  the  Romans,  however,  the 
number  was  not  limited,  but  varied  according  to  the  crime  of 
the  malefactor  and  the  discretion  of  the  judge.  It  is  highly 
probable  that,  when  Pilate  took  Jesus  and  scourged  him,  he 
directed  this  scourging  to  be  unusually  severe,  that  the  sight 
of  his  lacerated  body  might  move  the  Jews  to  compassionate 
the  prisoner,  and  desist  trom  opposing  his  release.  This  ap- 
pears the  more  probable;  as  our  Saviour  was  so  enfeebled  by 
this  scourging,  that  he  afterwards  had  not  strength  enousfn 
left  to  enable  him  to  dra^  his  cross  to  Calvary.  Among  the 
Jews,  the  punishment  of  scourging  involved  no  sort  of  igno- 
miny, which  could  make  the  sufferer  infamous  or  an  object 
of  reproach  to  his  fellow-citizens.  It  consisted  merely  in  the 
physical  sense  of  the  pain.* 

2.  Retaliation,  or  the  returning  of  like  for  like,  was  the 
punishment  inflicted  for  corporal  injuries  to  another, — eye  for 
eye,  tooth  for  toolh,  hand  for  hand,  foot  for  foot.  (Exod.  xxi. 
24.)     It   appears,  however,  to   have   been  rarely,  if  ever, 

*  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iv. p.  371.  vol.  iii.  pp.404.  400 — 402. 
s  Ant.  .lud.  lib.  iv.  c.  8.  §11. 

0  In  inflicting  the  punishment  of  whippinjr,  the. Tews  sometimes,  for  noto- 
rious offences,  tied  sharp  bones,  pieces  of  lead,  or  thorns  to  the  end  of  the 
thongs,  called  by  the  Greeks  x(rTfxyciK,uKu;  /^xa-riy  xg,  Jlagra  taxillata  ; 
but  in  the  Scriptures  termed  scorpions.    To  these  Kehoboam  alludes  in  - 
1  Kings  xii.  11. — Barder's  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  414. 

1  Cited  by  Dr.  Lightfoot,  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  901.  folio  edit. 
»  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  441—448. 


Sect.  IV.] 

/ 
Strictly  put  in  execution  :  but  the  iDJurioua  party  was  to  q;ive 
the  injured  person  satistaetion.  In  ttiis  sense  the  tjutcttu^uj. 
amonur  the  Greeks,  and  lh(^  //t.c  Tdiimiii  anionfr  tiie  Ronians, 
was  understood;  and  an  r(|uiva!(Mil  was  accepted,  the  value 
of  an  eye,  a  tooth,  &c.  for  the  eye  or  tootli  itself.  It  should 
S!'eiTi  that  in  the  time  of  .Tesus  ('hris-t,  the  Jews  had  juade 
tills  law  (tlie  exeeutiiin  of  which  l)eloni^ed  to  tiie  civil  ma<ris- 
trate)  a  trrouud  for  iiullioriy.ino-  |)rivate  resentments,  and  all 
the  excrsses  commiltcd  hy  a  vindictive  spirit.  J{('V(ui<re  was 
carriinl  to  the  utmost  extremity,  and  more  evil  re  u rued  than 
what  had  hcen  r(!ceived.  On  this  account  our  Saviour  j)ro- 
hihited  retaliation  in  his  divine  sermon  on  the  mount.  (Alutt. 
V.  :{H,  39.) 

3.  l(ESTiTrTU)N. — .Tuslice  rccpiircs  that  those  thiiifrs  which 
have  heen  stolen  (jr  uidaw  fully  taken  from  ancjthcr  should  ijc 
restored  to  tlu'  party  a^jjricvcd,  and  that  compensation  siiould 
be  made  to  him  l)y  the  ajrjrressor.  Accordingly,  various  fines 
or  pecuniary  |)ayments  were  enacted  by  the  i\losaic  law;  as, 
(1.)  Fiiir.s,  ti'Ji'  (on'sh), strictly  so  called,  wentcommoidy 
to  the  injured  party;  and  \vi>re  of  two  kinds, — /'/xrf/,  that  is, 
those  of  which  the  aiuonnt  was  dcteraiined  hy  some  statute, 
as  for  instance,  that  of  Dent.  xxii.  1!).  orxxii.  -l'.).  ; — and  i^n- 
deler mined,  or  where  the  amount  was  left  to  the  decision  of 
the  judges.  (Exod.  xxi.  '2'2.) 

(•i.)  Two-fold,  four-fold,  and  even  five-fold,  restitution  of 
thinsrs  stolen,  and  restitution  of  ])roperty  unjiistlj''  retained, 
with  twenty  per  cent.  ov(>r  and  above.  '1  hus,  if  a  man  killed 
a  beast,  he  was  to  make  it  "rood,  beast  for  beast.  (Lev.  xxiv. 
18.) — If  an  ox  pushed  or  (jored  another  man's  servant  to 
death,  his  owner  was  hound  to  pay  for  the  servant  thirty 
slakels  of  silver.  (Exod.  xxi.  3'2.) — In  the  case  of  one  man's 
ox  pushinir  the  ox  of  another  man  to  death,  as  it  would  be 
very  difficult  to  ascertain  which  of  the  two  had  been  to  blame 
for  the  (quarrel,  the  two  owners  wvrc  oblitrod  to  bear  the  loss. 
The  livmir  ox  was  to  be  sold,  and  its  price,  together  with 
the  dead  beast,  was  to  be  ecpially  divided  between  them.  If, 
however,  one  of  the  oxen  had  previously  been  notorious  for 
pushinjr,  and  the  owner  had  not  taken  care  to  confine  him, 
m  such  case  he  was  to  give  the  loser  another,  and  to  take  the 
dead  ox  himself.  (Exod.  xxi.  3(1.) — If  a  man  dug  a  pit  and 
did  not  cover  it,  or  let  an  old  \)\y  remain  open,  and  another 
man's  beast  fell  into  it,  the  owner  of  such  pit  was  obliged  to 
pay  for  the  beast,  and  had  it  for  the  payment.  (Exod.  xxi.  33, 
31.) — When  a  fire  was  kindled  in  the  fielcls  and  did  any 
damage,  he  who  kindled  it  was  to  make  the  damage  good. 
(Exod.  xxii.  G.)' 

(3.)  Cuntpensatioti,  not  commanded,  but  only  allowed,  by 
law,  to  be  given  to  a  person  injured  that  he  might  depart 
from  his  suit,  and  not  insist  on  the  legal  punishment,  whether 
corporal  or  capital.  It  is  termed  either  ncD  (kcpZ/ck^,  that  is, 
Conipensution  or  ircj  |<-iq  (p'dj'jn  iNfp//esH),  that  is,  Ran.som  of 
L'fe.  In  one  case  it  is  most  expressly  permitted  (Exod.  xxi. 
,30.)  ;  but  it  is  prohibited  in  the  case  of  murder  and  also  in 
homicide.  (Num.  xxxv.  31,  3-2.)  The  hiirhest  fine  leviable 
by  the  law  of  INIoses,  was  o)ie  liundrrd  ihe/i-els  of  silver,  a  great 
sum  in  those  times,  when  the  precious  metals  were  rare.^ 

4.  To  this  class  of  punishments  may  be  referred  the  Sin 
and  Trespass  Okfi^rings,  which  were  in  the  Natuue  of 
Punishments.  They  were  in  general  extremely  moderate, 
and  were  enjoined  in  the  following  cases  : — 

(1.)  For  every  unintentional  traugression  of  the  Levitical 
law,  even  if  it  was  a  sin  of  coniiui.sxion  (for  in  the  Mosaic  doc- 
trine concerning  sin  and  trespass  ofl'erings,  all  transgressions 
are  divided  into  sins  of  coimuixnion,  and  sins  of  ow/w,'o/?),  a 
sin-otTering  was  to  be  made,  and  thereupon  the  legal  punish- 
ment was  remitted,  which,  in  the  case  of  wilful  transgression, 
was  nothing  less  than  extirpation.  (Lev.  iv.  2.  v.  1.  4 — 7). 

(•2.)  Whoever  had  made  a  rash  oath;  and  had  not  kept  it, 
was  obliged  to  make  a  sin-olVcriiig;  for  his  iiiconsideration, 
if  it  was  an  oath  to  do  evil,  and  for  his  neglect,  if  it  was  an 
oath  to  do  good.  (Lev.  v.  4.) 

(3.)  Whoever  had,  as  a  witness,  been  guilty  of  perjury — 
not,  however,  to  impeach  an  innocent  man  (for  in  that  case  the 
Icx  tuLunis  operated),  but — in  not  testifying  what  he  knew 
against  a  guilty  person,  or  in  any  other  respect  concerning 
the  matter  in  question  ;  and  in  consequence  thereof  felt  dis- 
quieted in  his  conscience,  might,  without  being  liable  to  any 
.Farther  pOnishment,  or  ignominy,  obtain  remission  of  the  per- 
jury, by  a  confession  of  it,  accompanied  with  a  trespass- 
olTering.  (Lev.  v.  1.) 

f4.)  Whoever  had  incurred  debt  to  the  sanctuary,  that  is 
had  not  conscientiouslv  naid  his  tithes,  had  his  crime  can- 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


65 


conscientiously  paid  his  tithes,  had  his  crime  can- 

'  Micliaelis's  Conimenlaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  365—367.  477,  478. 
»  Il)id.  pp.  47ii,  479. 
Vol.  ir.  I 


celled  by  making  a  trespass-offering,  and  making  up  his  de- 
ficiencies with  twenty  per  cent,  over  and  above.  (Lev.  v, 
14,15.)^^ 

(ij.)  The  same  was  the  rule,  where  a  person  denied  any- 
thing given  him  in  trust,  or  any  thing  U  st,  which  he  had 
found,  or  any  ])romise  he  had  made? ;  or  again,  where  he  had  ac- 
quired any  property  dishonestly,  and  had  hi.s  conscience  awak- 
cn<d  account  of  it. — even  where  it  was  a  theft,  rf  which  he 
had  once  cleared  himself  by  oath,  but  was  now  moved  by  the 
impulse  of  his  conscience  to  make  voluntary  rcs'ilution,  and 
wished  to  get  rid  of  the  guilt.  (Lev.  vi.  1 — T.)  By  the 
olfering  made  on  such  an  occasion,  the  preceding  crime  was 
wholly  cancelled  ;  and  because  the  delinquent  would  other- 
wise have  had  to  make  restitution  from  two  to  Jive  fold,  he 
now  gave  twenty  per  cent,  over  and  above  the  amount  of  his 
theft. 

((j.)  In  the  case  of  adultery  committed  with  a  slave,  aa 
offering  was  appointed  by  Lev.  xix.  20 — -22.  :  which  did  not, 
however,  wholly  cancel  the  punishment,  but  mitigated  it  from 
death,  which  was  the  established  punisliment  of  adultery,  to 
that  of  stripes  for  the  woman,  the  man  bringing  the  trespass- 
olfi  ring  in  the  manner  directed  by  .Moses.^ 

iSuch  measures  as  these,  Rlichaelis  remarks,  must  have  had 
a  great  eflect  in  prompting  to  the  restitution  of  property 
unjustly  acquired  :  but  in  the  case  of  crimes,  of  which  the 
good  of  the  community  expressly  ref|uired  that  the  legal 
punishment  should  uniformly  and  actually  be  put  in  execution, 
no  such  offering  could  be  accepted.'' 

5.  I.MPiusoNMENT  docs  uot  appear  to  have  been  imposed 
by  Moses  as  a  punishment,  though  he  could  not  be  unac- 
quainted with  it ;  for  he  describes  it  as  in  use  among  the 
Egyptians.  (Gen.  xxxix.  20,  21.)  The  only  time  he  men- 
tions it,  or  more  properly  arrest,  is  solely  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  culprit  safe  until  judgment  should  be  given  on 
his  conduct.  (Lev.  xxiv.  12.)  In  later  times,  however,  the 
punishment  of  the  prison  came  into  use  among  the  Israelites 
and  Jews  ;  whose  history,  under  the  monarchs,  abounds  with 
instances  of  their  imprisoning  persons,  especially  the  pro- 
phets, who  were  obnoxious  to  them  for  their  faithful  reproofs 
of  their  sins  and  crimes.  Thus,  Asa  committed  the  prophet 
Hanaiii  to  prison,  for  reproving  him  (2  (.."hron.  xvi.  10.)  ;* 
Ahab  committed  Micaiah  (1  Kings  xxii.  27.),  as  Zcdekiah 
did  the  proj)hct  .Teremiah,  lor  the  same  offence.  (Jer.  xxxvii. 
21.)  John  the  Baptist  was  imprisoned  by  Herod,  misnamed 
the  Great  (Matt.  iv.  12.)  ;  and  Peter  by  Herod  Agrippa. 
(Acts  xii.  4.)  Debtors  (Matt,  xviii.  30.)  and  murderers1;Luke 
xxiii.  ly.)  were  also  committed  to  prison.  We  read  also  of 
Tupiia-i;  infjuccriit.,  a  commou  prison,  a  public  gaol  (Acts  v.  18.), 
which  was  a  place  of  durance  and  confinement  for  the  worst 
sort  of  offenders.  In  their  prisons,  there  was  usually  a  dun- 
geon (Jer.  xxxviii.  G.),  or  a  pit  or  cistern,  as  the  word  iia 
(bor)  is  rendered  in  Zech.  ix.  11.  where  it  unquestionably 
refers  to  a  prison :  and  from  this  word  we  may  conceive  the 
nature  of  a  dungeon,  viz.  that  it  was  a  place,  in  which  indeed 
there  was  no  water,  but  in  its  bottom  deep  mud,-  and,accord- 
i"gl)S  we  read  that  Jeremiah,  who  was  cast  into  this  worst 
and  lowest  part  of  the  prison,  sunk  into  the  mire.  (Jer. 
xxxviii.  G.)'^ 

In  the  prisons  also  were  SfocAs,  for  detaining  the  person  of 
the  prisoner  more  securely.  (Job  xiii.  27.  xxxiii.  11.)^ 
Michaclis  conjectures  that  they  were  of  the  sort  by  the 
Greeks  called  nivrtirvpi^y'.v,  wherein  the  prisoner  was  so  con- 
fined, that  his  body  was  kept  in  an  unnatural  position,  which 
must  have  proved  a  torture  truly  insupportable."  The  V.van^a. 
'S>uh'j.Kii,  or  Inner  Prison,  into  which  Paul  and  Silas  were 
tlirust  at  Philippi,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  same  as  the 
pit  or  cistern  above  noticed  ;  and  here  their  ftet  were  made 
fust  in  the  wooden  stocks  (Acts  xvi.  21),  n  ^vkov.  As  this 
prison  was  under  the  Roman  government,  tlu;se  stocks  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  cippi  or  large  pieci  s  of  wood  in 
use  among  that  people,  which  not  only  loaded  the  legs  of 
prisoners,  but  sometimes  distended  them  in  a  very  painful 
manner.     Hence  the  situation  of  Paul  and  .Silas  would  be 


3  Micliaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  482— 4S7. 

<  Ibid.  pp.  483. 

'  This  place  is  termed  the  prison-lioiise :  but  it  appears  that  suspected 
ner.sons  were  ssomelimes  confinrd  in  part  of  ihehoiise  which  was  occupied 
by  tlie  preat  officers  of  slate,  and  was  converted  Into  a  prison  for  this  pur- 
po.*:e.  In  this  manner  Jeremiah  was  at  first  confined  (.ler.  xxxvii.  15.),  and 
probabl.v  Josei)h  in  the  same  manner  (see  Gen.  xl.  3.):  a  siniilar  practice 
obtains  in  the  East  to  this  da  v.    See  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  p.  503. 

6  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  43J— 442.  Scliulzii  Arcbaeol. 
Hebr.  pp.  S4,  85. 

■>  The  word  rendered  storA-s  in  our  authorized  version  of  Jer.  xx.  2.  and 
xxix.  26.  ought  to  have  been  rendered  house  of  cvrrection.  See  Dr.  Blar- 
ney's notes  on  those  passages. 

'  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  p.  443. 


66 

rendered  more  painful  than  that  of  an  offender  sitting  in  the 
stocks,  as  used  among  us  ;  especially  if  (as  is  very  possible) 
they  lay  on  the  hard  or  dirty  gi-ound,  with  their  bare  backs, 
laci^rated  by  recent  scourging.' 

The  keepers  of  the  prison  anciently  had,  as  in  the  East 
they  still  have,  a  discretionary  power  to  treat  their  prisoners 
just  as  they  please;  nothing  fu-thcr  being  required  of  them, 
than  to  produce  tliem  when  called  for.  According  to  the 
accurate  and  observant  traveller,  Chardin,  the  gaoler  is  mas- 
ter, to  do  as  he  pleases  ;  to  treat  his  prisoner  well  or  ill ;  to 
put  him  in  irons  or  not,  to  shut  him  up  closely,  or  to  hold 
luai  in  easier  restraint ;  to  admit  persons  to  him,  or  to  suffer 
no  one  to  see  him.  If  the  gaoler  and  his  servants  receive 
large  fees,  however  base  may  be  the  character  of  the  prisoner, 
he  shall  be  lodged  in  the  best  part  of  the  gaoler's  own  apart- 
ment :  and,  on  the  contrary,  if  the  persons,  who  have  caused 
the  prisoner  to  be  comlned,  make  the  gaoler  greater  presents, 
he  will  treat  his  victim  with  the  utmost  inhumanity.  Chardin 
illustrates  this  statement  by  a  narrative  of  the  treatment 
received  by  a  very  great  Armenian  merchant.  While  he 
bribed  the  gaoler,  the  latter  treated  him  with  the  greatest 
lenity;  but  afterwards,  when  the  adverse  party  presented  a 
considerable  sum  of  money,  first  to  the  judge,  and  afterwards 
to  the  gaoler,  the  hapless  Armenian  first  felt  his  privileges 
retrenched  :  he  was  next  closely  confined,  and  then  was 
treated  with  sucli  inhumanity  as  not  to  be  permitted  to  drink 
ofteiier  than  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  even  during  the  hot- 
test time  in  the  summer.  No  person  was  allowed  to  approach 
him  but  the  servants  of  the  prison :  at  length  he  was  thrown 
into  a  dungeon,  where  he  was  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  brought 
to  the  point  to  which  all  this  severe  usage  w^as  designed  to 
force  him.2  What  energy  does  this  account  of  an  eastern 
prison  give  to  those  passages  of  Scripture,  which  speak  of 
tlie  foul  co7ni»g  into  iron  (P.sal.  cv.  17.  marginal  rendering), 
of  the  sori-owftd  sighing  (f  (he  prisoner  coming  before  God 
(Psal.  Ixxix.  11.),  and  of  Jeremiah's  being  kept  in  a  dungeon 
many  days,  and  supplicating  that  he  might  not  be  remanded 
thither  lest  he  should  die  !  (Jer.  xxxvii.  16 — 20.) 

6.  Banishment  was  not  a  punishment  enjoined  by  the 
Mosaic  law  ;  but  after  the  captivity,  both  exile  and  forfeiture 
of  property  were  introduced  among  the  Jews :  and  it  also 
existed  under  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  called  diminutio 
capitis,  because  the  person  banished  lost  the  right  of  a  citizen, 
and  the  city  of  Rome  thereby  lost  a  head.^  But  there  was 
another  kind  of  exile,  termed  aisportatio,  which  was  accounted 
the  w^orst  kind.  The  party  banished  forfeited  his  estate;  and 
being  bound  was  put  on  board  ship,  and  transported  to  some 
island  specified  exclusively  by  the  emperor,  there  to  be  con- 
fined in  perpetual  banishment.  In  this  manner  the  apostle 
John  was  exiled  to  the  little  island  of  Patmos  (Rev.  i.  9.), 
where  he  wrote  his  Revelation. 

7.  In  the  East,  anciently,  it  was  the  custom  to  ptJT  otJT 
THE  Eves  of  PnisoNsas.  Thus  Samson  was  deprived  of 
sight  by  the  Philistines  (Judg.  xvi.  21.),  and  Zedekiah  by 
the  Chaldees.  (2  Kings  xxv."7.)  It  is  well  known  that  cut- 
ting out  one  or  both  of  the  eyes  nas  been  frequently  practised 
in  Persia  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  as  a  punishment  for 
treasonable  ofi'encei.'  To  the  great  work  of  restoring  eye- 
balls to  the  sightless  by  the  Messiah,  the  prophet  Isaiah 
probably  alludes  in  his  beautiful  prediction  cited  by  our 
Lord,  and  applied  to  himself  in  Luke  iv.  18.^ 

8.  Cutting  off  the  Hair  of  criminals  seems  to  be  rather 
an  ignominious  than  a  painful  mode  of  punishment :  yet  it 
appears  that  pain  was  added  to  the  disgrace,  and  that  the 
hair  was  violently  plucked  off,  as  if  the  executioner  were 
plucking  a  bird  alive.  This  is  the  literal  meaning  of  the 
original  word,  which  in  Neh.  xiii.  25.  is  vendeTed  puicked  off 
their  hair  ,■  sometimes  hot  ashes  were  applied  to  the  skin  after 
the  hair  was  torn  oil',  in  order  to  render  the  pain  more  exqui- 
sitely acute.  In  the  spurious  boc  k,  commonly  termed  the 
fourth  book  of  Maccabees,  it  is  said  that  the  tyrant  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes  caused  the  hair  and  skin  to  be  entirely  torn 

'  Doddridge's  Expositor,  and  Kuinoel,  on  Acts  xvi.  24.  Biscoe  on  Acts, 
vol.  i.  p.  o4. 

»  Harmpr's  Observations,  vol.  iii,  pp.  .504,  .503. 

»  Dr.  Adam's  Roman  Antiquities,  pp.  66,  67. 

*  In  18^0,  Mr.  Rae  Wilson  uief,  at  Acre,  with  numerous  individuals,  who 
exhibited  marlis  of  the  venaeance  of  the  late  pacha  Hadjee  Achmet,  from 
his  sansainary  cruelties  fitly  surnamed  Djezzar,  or  the  Butcher.  They 
were  disfigured  in  various  ways,  by  a  hand  amputated,  an  eye  lorn  out,  or 
a  no.'se  which  had  been  split,  or  partly  or  totally  cut  off.  (Travels  in  the 
Holy  Land,  vol.  ii.  p.  43.)  I;i  the  winter  of  1S26,  two  emirs  had  their  eyes 
burnt  out,  and  their  totiiues  in  part  cut  off;  by  theKiiiir  Bechir,  the  prince 
of  Mount  Lebanon,  their  uncle  ;  on  account  of  their  liavingbeon  concerned 
iu  some  disturbances  against  his  government.  (Missionary  Register,  July, 
1827,  p.  333.)  .7       B        .       ., 

'  i'laguionltf  supplementary  to  Calraet,  No.  192. 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Pakt  II.  Chap.  IH 


off  the  heads  of  some  of  the  seven  Maccabean  brethren.  As 
an  historical  composition  this  book  is  utterly  destitute  ot 
credit;  but  it  shows  that  the  mode  of  punishment  under  con- 
sideration was  not  unusual  in  the  East.  This  sort  of  torture 
is  said  to  have  been  frequently  inflicted  on  the  early  martyrs 
and  confessors  for  the  Christian  faith. 

9.  Exclusion  from  sacred  Worship,  or  Excommunica- 
tion, was  not  only  an  ecclesiastical  punishment,  but  also  a 
civil  one ;  because  in  this  theocratic  republic  there  was  no 
distinction  between  the  divine  and  the  civil  right.  The  fan- 
cies of  the  Rabbins,  relative  to  the  origin  of  excommunica- 
tion, are  endless.  Some  affirm,  that  Adam  excommunicated 
Cain  and  his  whole  race ;  others,  that  excommunication  began 
with  Miriam,  for  having  spoken  ill  of  Moses;  others,  again, 
find  it  in  the  song  of  Deborah  and  Barak  (Judg.  v.  23. 
Curse  ye  Meroz'),  interpreting  Moroz  as  a  person  who  had  re- 
fused to  assist  Barak.  But  it  is  most  probable,  that  the 
earliest  positive  mention  of  this  punishment  occurs  after  the 
return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  in  P^zra  x.  7,  8.,  or  in 
the  anathema  of  Nehemiah  (xiii.  5.)  against  those  who  had 
married  strange  women.  In  later  times,  according  to  the  rab- 
binical .writers,  there  were  three  degrees  of  excommunication 
among  the  Jews.  The  first  was  called  mid  (n/'dui),  removal 
or  separation  from  all  intercourse  with  society  :  this  is,  in  the 
New  Testament,  frequently  termed  casting  out  of  the  syna- 
gogue. (John  ix.  22.  xvi.  2.  Luke  vi.  22,  &c.)  This  was  in 
force  for  thirty  days,  and  might  be  shortened  by  repentance. 
During  its  continuance,  the  excommunicated  party  was  pro- 
hibited from  bathing,  from  shaving  his  head,  or  approaching 
his  wife  or  any  other  person  nearer  than  four  cubits  :  but  it 
he  submitted  to  this  prohibition,  he  was  not  debarred  the  pri- 
vilege of  attending  the  sacred  rites.  If,  however,  the  party 
continued  in  his  obstinacy  after  that  time,  the  excommunica- 
tion was  renewed  with  additional  solemn  maledictions.  This 
second  degree  was  called  onn  (cHep.fM),  which  signifies  to 
anathematize,  or  devote  to  death :  it  involved  an  exclusion 
from  the  sacred  assemblies.  The  third,  and  last  degree  of  ex- 
communication was  termed  Nnxoc  f SHf/M-aTHA)  or  n.^n  pD 
(MffRffN-ATHA),  that  is,  the  Lord  cometh,  or  may  the  Lord  come  ,- 
intimating  that  those  against  whom  it  was  fulminated,  had 
nothing  more  to  expect  hut  the  terrible  day  of  judgment.*' 

The  condition  of  those  who  were  excommunicated  was  the 
most  deplorable  that  can  be  imagined.  They  were  perpetu- 
ally excluded  from  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Jewish 
people,  were  debarred  from  all  social  intercourse,  and  were 
excluded  from  the  temple  and  the  synagogues,  on  pain  of 
severe  corporal  punishment.  Whoever  had  incurred  this 
sentence  was  loaded  with  imprecations,  as  appears  from 
Deut.  xxvii.  where  the  expression  cursed  is  he,  is  so  often 
repeated:  whence  to  curse  and  to  exconuiiunicate  -were  equiva- 
lent terms  with  the  Jews.  And  therefore  St.  Paul  says,  that 
no  man,  speaking  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  calleth  Jesus  anatliema 
or  accursed  (1  Cor.  xii.  3.),  that  is,  curses  Him  as  the  Jew 
did,  who  denied  him  to  be  the  Messiah,  and  excommunicated 
the  Christians.  In  the  second  degree,  they  delivered  the 
excommunicated  party  over  to  Satan,  devoting  him  by  a 
solemn  curse:  to  this  practice  St.  Paul  is  supposed  to  allude 
(1  Cor.  V.  5.)  ;  and  in  this  sense  he  expresses  his  desire  even 
to  be  accursed  for  his  brethren  (Rom.  ix.  3.),  that  is,  to  be 
excommunicated,  laden  with  curses,  and  .to  suffer  all  the 
miseries  consequent  on  the  infliction  of  this  punishment,  if  it 
could  have  been  of  any  service  to  his  brethren  the  Jews.  In 
order  to  impress  the  minds  of  the  people  with  the  greater 
horror,  it  is  said  that,  when  the  offence  was  published  in  the 
synagogue,  all  the  candles  were  lighted,  and  when  the  pro- 
clamation was  fmished,  they  were  extinguished,  as  a  sign 
that  the  excommunicated  person  was  deprived  of  the  light  of 
Heaven  ;  further,  his  goods  were  confiscated,  his  sons  were 
not  admitted  to  circumcision  ;  and  if  he  died  without  repent- 
ance.or  absolution,  by  the  sentence  of  the  judge  a  stone  was 
to  be  cast  upon  his  coffin  or  bier,  in  order  to  show  that  he 
deserved  to  be  stoned.^ 

II.  TheTalmudical  writers  have  distin^ished  the  capital 
Punishments  of  the  Jews  into  lesser  deaths,  and  such  as  were 
more  grievous :  but  there  is  no  warrant  in  the  Scriptures  for 
these  distinctions,  neither  are  these  writers  agreed  among 
themselves  what  particular  punishments  are  to  be  referred  to 
these  two  heads.  A  capital  crime  was  termed,  generally,  a 
sin  of  death  (Deut.  xxii.  26.),  or  a  sin  ivorthy  of  death  (Deut^ 

.    6  Robinson's  Lexicop   on  the  Gr.   Test,  voce    A-drui/rty-x'yos.     .lahn, 
Archteologla  Bihlica,  §2.')8.    Ackermann,  Aichieol.  Bibl.  §252.   Encyclop;e-. 
dia  Metropolitana,  vol.  xxi.  p  703. 

'  Grotius's  Note,  or  rather  Dissertation,  on  Luke  vi.  22.     Lightfoot's  ' 
Works,  vol.  ii.  pp.  747—749.     Selden,  do  Jure  Naturse  et  Gentium,  lib.  iv.  c. 
8.  Lamy's  Apparatus  Biblicus  vol.  1.  pp.  279—284. 


Sect.  IV.] 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


67 


xxi.  22.);  which  mnde  of  exprossioii  is  adopted,  or  rithcr 
imitated,  by  the  apostle  John,  who  distinguishes  between  a 
si)i  un/n  dctitli,  and  a  k'hi  not  unto  diMiii.  (1  John  v.  16.) 
Criminals,  or  those  who  were  deemed  wortiiy  of  capitil 
punishment,  w<"re  called  .■^ou.s  or  men  of  daitli  (1  .Sam.  xx.  31. 
xwi.  Ml.  2  Sam.  xix.  21».  marfrinal  reiiderinjr) ;  just  as  he 
who  iiad  ineurnd  tlie  punishment  of  sc<:ur<iin^  was  desi<irnated 
a  sun  of  .y/ripes.  (I)eiil.  x.Kv.  2.  Heb.)  Those  who  suffered  a 
capital  |)unishinent,  weres.iid  to  \te  put  lu  deal /i  for  t/ieir  own 
•in.  (Di'Ut.  xxiv.  ICi.  2  Kings  xiv.  (5.)  A  similar  phraseo- 
locry  was  adopted  by  Jesus  C'hrist,  when  he  said  tot.'ie  Jews, 
Ics/nill  dir  in  i/oitr  .v//i.v.  (John  viii.  21.  21.)  Eleven  difler- 
ent  sorts  of  capital  punishments  are  mentioned  in  the  Sacred 
Writiiiffs;  viz. 

1.  Slaving  by  tiik  Sword  is  commonly  confounded  with 
decapitation  or  b(headin<T.  They  were,  however,  two  dis- 
tinct p\mishnienls.  TIk^  laws  oi"  Moses  are  totally  silent 
concerninjr  th(>  latter  |)raetiee,  and  it  a])pears  that  those  who 
were  slain  vvilh  the  sword  were  i)ul  to  death  in  any  way 
which  the  execulinner  thouL>ht  proper.  See  1  Kiiijrs  ii.  25. 
21).  ^l.  'M.  l(j.  This  punishment  was  inflicted  in  two  cases  : 
— (I.)  When  a  murderer  was  to  be  put  to  death;  and  (2.) 
When  a  whole  city  or  tribe  was  iuistilely  attacked  for  any 
common  crinuj,  l/ici/  sniolt  all  (as  the  Hebrew  phrase  is)  icith 
the  rd^e  of  llie  xicord.  (Ueul.  xiii.  13 — ItJ.)  Here,  doubtless, 
the  sword  was  used  by  v.vvry  one  as  he  found  opportunity.' 

With  respect  to  the  case  of  murder,  frequent  mention  is 
made  in  the  Old  'IVstament  of  the  '7K3  (goel)  or  blood-avenger  ,- 
various  regulations  were  made  by  IMoses  concerning  this  per- 
son. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  East,  it  is  well  known,  are  now, 
■what  they  anciently  were,  exceedingly  revengeful.  If,  there- 
fore, an  individual  should  luifortunately  happen  to  lay  violent 
hands  upon  anoliier  person  and  kill  him,  the  next  of  kin  is 
bound  to  avenge  the  death  of  the  latter,  and  to  pursue  the 
murderer  with  unceasing  vigilance  until  he  have  caught  and 
killed  him,  either  by  force  or  by  fraud.  The  same  custom 
exists  in  Arabia  and  J'ersia,^  and  also  among  the  Circas- 
sians,'  Ingush  Tartars,'  Nubians,'^  and  Abyssinians,''  and  it 
appears  to  have  been  alluded  to  by  Rebecca  :  when  she 
learned  that  Esau  was  threatening  to  kill  his  brother  Jacob, 
she  endeavoured  to  send  the  latter  out  of  the  country,  saying, 
iVIty  should  I  be  bereft  of  you  bolli  in  one  day?  ((Jen.  xxvii. 
15.)  She  could  not  be  afraid  of  the  magistrate  for  punishing 
the  murder,  for  the  patriarchs  were  subject  to  no  superior  in 
Palestine :  and  Isaac  was  much  too  partial  to  Esau,  for  her 
to  entertain  any  expectation  that  he  would  condemn  him  to 
death  for  it.  It  would,  tln^refore,  appear  that  she  dreaded  lest 
he  should  fall  by  the  hand  of  the  blood-avenger,  perhaps  of 

'  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  418,  419. 

•  '■  The  interest  of  the  common  safety  lias,  for  ages,  established  a  law 
among  them"  (the  Arabians)  "  which  decrees  ihat  tlie  blood  of  every  man, 
who  is  slain,  must  be  avenged  by  that  of  his  murderer.  This  vengeance  is 
called  lar,  or  retaliation  ;  and  the  right  of  exacting  it  devolves  on  ttie  nearest 
of  kin  to  the  deceased.  So  nice  are  the  Arabs  on  tliis  point  of  honour, 
that  if  any  one  neglects  to  seek  his  retaliation,  he  is  disgraced  for  ever. 
lie  therelbre  watclies  every  opportunity  of  revenge  :  if  his  enemy  perishes 
from  any  other  cause,  slill  lie  is  not  satisfied,  and  his  vengeance  is  directed 
against  the  nearest  relation.  These  auimosilies  are  transmitted,  as  an 
inheritance,  from  father  lo  children,  and  never  cease  but  by  the  e.xtinction 
of  one  of  the  families,  unless  they  agree  to  sacrifice  the  criminal ;  or  pur- 
chase tliP  hlood  for  a  slated  price,  in  money  or  in  Mocks.  Without  this 
satisfaction  tliere  is  ireillur  peace,  nor  truce,  nor  alliance  between  them  ; 
nor,  sometimes,  even  between  whole  tribes.  There,  is  blood  beltreen  us, 
say  they,  on  every  occasion ;  and  this  expression  is  an  insurmountable 
barrier."  (Volney's  Travels  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  vol.  i.  p.  3G7.  See  al.so 
Niebuhr,  Description  de  I'Arabie,  pp.  20 — 30.)— In  Turkey  and  in  Persia 
murder  is  never  pro.secuted  by  the  officers  of  the  government.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  next  relations,  and  of  them  only,  to  revenge  the  slaughter 
of  their  kinsmen;  and  if  they  rather  choose,  as  they  generally  do,  to  com- 
pound  the  matter  for  money,  noihing  more  is  .said  about  if.— Lady  M.  W. 
Montague's  Letters,  let.  42.     Sir  K.  K.  Porter's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  7.5,  76. 

'  Among  the  Circassians,  all  the  relatives  of  the  murderers  are  consi- 
dered as  guilty.  This  customary  infatuation  to  avenge  the  blood  of  rela- 
tions, generates  most  of  the  fends,  and  occasions  great  bloodshed  among 
all  the  tribes  of  Caucasus  ;  for,  unless  pardon  be  purchased,  or  obtained 
by  intermarriage  between  the  two  families,  the  principle  of  revenge  is 
propagated  to  all  succeeding  generations.  If  the  thirst  of  vengeance  is 
quenched  by  a  price  paid  to  the  family  of  the  deceased,  this  tribute  is 
called  T/ilil-  Uasa,  or  the  price  of  blood  :  but  neither  princes  nor  usdens 
(or  nobles)  accept  of  such  a  compensation,  as  it  is  an  established  law 
among  them,  lo  flrmand  blood  for  blood.— PMas,  Voyages  dans  les  Gou- 
vernemens  Meridionaiix  de  TEmpire  de  Russie,  tom.  i.  p.  441.    Paris,  ISCB. 

•  Dr.  Henderson,  in  describing  the  operation  of  the  oriental  law,  of 
"  blood  for  blood"  among  the  Ingush  Tartars,  mentions  the  case  of  "  a  young 
man  of  amiable  disposition,  who  was  worn  down  almost  to  a  skeleton,  by 
the  constXnt  dread  in  wliich  he  lived,  of  having  avenged  upon  him  a  mur- 
der committed  by  his  father  before  he  was  born.  He  can  reckon  up 
more  than  a  hundred  persons  who  consider  themselves  bound  to  take  away 
his  life,  whenever  a  favourable  opportunity  shall  present  itself"  Biblical 
Researches  and  Travels  in  Russia,  p.  485. 

•  Light's  Travels  in  Egypt,  Nubia,  &c.  p.  95.  Burckhardt's  Travels  in 
Nubia,  p.  138. 

•  Salt's  Voyage  to  Abyssinia,  pp  345, 346. 


some  Ishmaelite.  The  office,  therefore,  of  the  Go  1  wr.s 
in  use  before  the  time  of  Moses,  and  it  was  probably  filled  by 
the  nearest  of  blood  to  the  party  killed,  as  the  right  of  re- 
deeming a  mortgaged  field  is  given  to  him.  To  prevent  the 
unnecessary  Uiss  of  life  through  a  sanguinary  spirit  of  re- 
venge, the  Hebrew  legislator  made  various  enactments  con- 
cenfing  the  blood-avenger.  In  most  ages  and  countries, 
certain  reputed  sacred  places  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  btiug 
asylums :  Moses,  therefore,  takir.g  it  for  granted  that  the 
murderer  would  flee  to  tl.e  altar,  crmimanded  that  when  the 
crime  was  deliberate  and  intentional,  he  should  be  torn  even 
from  the  altar,  and  put  to  death.  (Exod.  xxi.  14.)  Jiutin  the 
case  of  unintentional  murder,  the  nian-sla3'er  was  enjoined  to 
flee  to  one  of  the  six  cities  of  refuge  which  (we  have  already 
seen)  were  appropriated  for  his  residence.  The  roads  to  tlic^^e 
cities,  it  was  enacted,  should  be  kept  in  such  a  state  that  the 
unfortunate  individual  might  meet  with  no  impediment  what- 
ever in  his  way.  (Dent.  xix.  3.)  If  the  Go  1  overtook  the 
fugitive  before  he  reached  an  asylum,  and  put  l;im  to  deat'i, 
he  was  not  considered  as  guilty  of  blood  :  but  if  the  man- 
slayer  hfid  reached  a  place  of  refurje,  he  was  immediately 
])rotected,  and  an  inquiry  was  instituted  wh.ether  he  hid  n 
right  to  such  protection  and  asylum,  that  is,  whether  he  had 
caused  his  neighbour's  death  undesignedly, ox\\^9,  ^dt liberate 
murderer.  In  the  latter  case  he  was  judicially  delivered  to 
the  Go  1,  who  miglit  put  hirn  to  di^ath  in  whatever  way  he 
chose  :  but  in  the  former  case  the  homicide  continued  in  the 
place  of  refuge  until  the  high-prie«.t's  death,  when  he  might 
return  home  in  perfect  security.  If,  hew'ever,  the  Goel  found 
him  without  the  city  or  beyond  its  suburbs,  he  might  slay 
him  without  being  gtiilty  of  blood.  (Num.  xxxv.  2G,  27.) 
Further  to  guard  the  life  of  man,  and  prevent  the  perpetration 
of  murder,  Rloses  positively  prohibited  the  receivmgof  asum 
of  money  from  a  murderer  in  the  way  of  com])ensation. 
(Num.  xxxv.  31.)  It  should  seemthat  if  no  avenger  of  blood 
appeared,  or  if  he  were  dilatory  in  the  pursuit  of  the  murderer, 
it  uecame  the  duty  of  the  magistrate  himself  to  iufiict  the 
sentence  of  the  law  ;  and  thus  we  find  that  David  deemed 
this  to  be  his  duty  in  the  case  of  Joab,  and  that  Sclemen,  in 
obedience  to  his  father's  dying  entreaty,  actually  discharged 
it  by  putting  that  murderer  to  death.  (1  Pvings  li.  5,  6.  2y — 
3-4. )7  There  is  a  beautiful  allusion  to  the  biocd-avenger  in 
Heb.  vi.  17, 18. 

Hewing  in  pieces  with  the  sword  may  be  referred  to  this 
class  of  punishments.  Thus  Agag  was  executed,  as  a  cri- 
minal, by  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Sam.  xv.  33.)  ;  and  recent 
travellers  inform  us  that  criminals  are  literally  hewed  in 
pieces  in  Abyssinia,  Persia,  and  in  Asiatic  Turkey.* 

2.  Stoning  was  denounced  against  idolaters,  blasphemers, 
sabbath-breakers,  incestuous  persons,  witches,  wizards,  and 
children  who  either  cursed  their  parents  or  rebelled  against 
them.  (Lev.  xx.  2.  27.  xxiv.  14.  Deut.  xiii.  10.  xvii.  5. 
xxi.  21.  and  xxii.  21.  24.)  It  was  the  most  general  punish- 
ment denounced  in  the  law  against  notorious  criminals ;  and 
this  kind  of  punishment  is  intended  by  the  indefinite  term  of 
putting  to  death.  (Lev.  xx.  10.  coinpared  with  John  viii.  5.) 
Michaelis  supposes  that  the  culprit  was  bound,  previously  to 
the  execution  of  his  sentence.  The  witnesses  threw  the  first 
stones,  and  the  rest  of  the  people  then  followed  their  example. 
Instances  of  persons  being  stoned  in  the  Old  Testament  occur 
in  Achan  (Josh.  vii.  25.),  Adoram  (1  Kings  xii.  IS),  Naboth 
(1  Kings  xxi.  10.),  and  Zechariah.  (2Chron.  xxiv.  21.)' 

In  the  New  Testament  we  meet  with  vestiges  of  a  punish- 
ment, which  has  frequently  been  confounded  w  ith  lapidation  : 
it  originated  in  the  latter  times  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth, 
and  was  termed  the  rebel's  beating.  It  was  often  fatal,  and 
was  inflicted  by  the  mob  with  their  fists,  or  staves,  or  stones, 
without  mercy,  or  the  sentence' of  the  judges.  Whoever 
transgressed  against  a  prohibition  of  the  wise  men,  or  of  the 
scribes,  which  had  its  foundation  in  the  law,  was  delivered 
over  to  the  people  to  be  used  in  this  manner,  and  was  called 
a  son  of  rebellion. ^'>  The  frequent  taking  uj)  cf  stones  by  tlie 
Jews  against  our  Saviour,  meiuioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  also  the  stoning  of  Stephen  (Acts  vii.  59.),  were  instances 
of  this  kind,  to  which  some  have  referred  the  stoning  of  St. 
Paul  at  Lystra.  (Acts  xiv.  19.)  But  this  appears  to  be  a 
mistake.  The  people  of  Lj-stra  were  Gentiles,  though  they 
stoned  Paul  at  the  instigation  of  the  Jews  who  came  from 
Antioch  and  Iconium :  and  it  appears  from  various  passages 

■>  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  221—225. 

8  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  81.    Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iv.  pp.229, 
230.    Capt.  Light's  Travels  in  F^gypt,  Nubia,  <tc.  p.  194. 
»  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  p.  421. 
'»  Ibid.  pp.  4'^— 429. 


68 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Paut  U.  Chap.  III. 


of  Greek  authors,  that  stoning  was  a  Grecian  puiiishmeiit. 
The  inconstancy  of  a  populace,  easily  persuaded  by  any 
plausible  dema<r"ogues,  will  sufficiently  account  for  t!ie  sudden 
changfe  in  the  mind  of  the  Lystrians  towards  the  apostle.' 

Although  tbe  law  of  Moses  punished  no  one  witli  infamy, 
during  life,  yet  three  marks  of  infamy  are  denounced  against 
those  who  were  punished  capitally  ;  viz. — (1.)  Burninir  the 
criminal  who  had  been  stoned,  agreeably  to  the  ancient  con- 
suetudinary law.  (Gen.  xxxviii.  24.  Lev.  xx.  14.  xxi.  9.) — 
(3.)  Hann;ing,  eitlier  on  a  tree  or  on  a  giblset  (for  the  Hebrew 
word  signifies  both)  ;  which  was  practised  in  Egypt  (Gen. 
xl.  17 — 19.),  and  also  enjoined  by  Mcses.  (Num.  xxv.  4,  5. 
Deut.  xxi.  23.)  Tbe  five  Canaanitish  kings  were  first  slain 
and  then  hanged.  (Josh.  x.  26.)  Persons  who  were  hanged 
were  cousideFed  as  accursed  of  Gcd,  that  is,  punished  by  him 
and  abominable;  on  which  account  they  were  to  be  taken 
down  and  buried  the  same  day.  (Deut.  xxi.  23.)  The  hang- 
ing of  Saul's  sons,  recorded  lu  2  Sam.  xxi.  6.,  was  done,  not 
by  the  Israelites,  but  by  the  Gibeon'fe.<f,  who  were  of  Canaan- 
itish origin,  and  pmhably  retained  their  old  laws.  The  hang- 
ino-  mentioned  by  Moses  was  widely  different  from  crucifixion, 
wfiich  was  a  Koman  punishment ;  on  account  of  its  ignominy^ 
however,  the  .Tews  subseciuently  extended  the  declaration  of 
Moses  to  it,  and  accounted  the  crucified  person  as  accursed. 
(John  xix.  31— 3  t.  Gal.  iii.  13.)— (3.)  The  Heaping  of 
cilones  on  the  bodies  of  criminals,  who  had  been  already 
stoned  to  death,  or  slain  by  the  sword,  or  upon  their  remains, 
when  consumed  by  fire.2  Such  a  heap  was  accumulated  over 
Achan  (Josh.  vii.  25,  2(5.),  and  also  over  Absalom.  (2  Sam. 
xviii.  17.)  The  Arabs,  long  after  the  time  of  David,  ex- 
pressed their  d(nestation  of  deceased  enemies  in  the  same 
manner.'  Similar  heaps  were  raised  over  persons  murdered 
in  the  highways  in  the  time  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxxix. 
15.) ;  as  they  also  are  to  this  da}'^,  in  Palestine,  and  other 
parts  of  the  East.' 

3.  Burning  Offenders  alive  is  a  punishment  which 
Moses  commanded  to  be  inflicted  on  the  daughters  of  priests, 
who  should  be  guilty  of  fornication  (Lev.  xxi.  9.),  and  upon 
a  man  who  should  marry  both  the  mother  and  the  daughter. 
(Lev.  XX.  14.)  This  punishment  seems  to  have  been  in  use 
in  the  East,  from  a  very  earljr  period.  When  Judah  was  in- 
formed that  his  daughter-in-law  Tamar  was  pregnant,  he  con- 
demned her  to  be  burnt.  (Gen.  xxxviii.  24.)  Many  ages  after- 
wards we  find  the  Babylonians  or  Chaldreans  burning  certain 
offenders  alive  (Jer.  xxix.  22.  Dan.  iii.  6.) ;  and  this  mode 
of  punishment  was  not  uncommon  in  the  East  so  lately  as  the 
seventeenth  century.* 

The  preceding  are  the  only  capital  punishments  denounced 
in  the  Mosaic  law :  in  subsequent  times  others  were  intro- 
duced among  the  Jews,  as  their  intercourse  increased  with 
foreign  nations. 

4.  Decapitation,  or  beheading,  though  not  a  mode  of 
punishment  enjoined  by  Moses,  was  certainly  in  use  before 
his  time.  It  existed  in  Egypt  (Gen.  xl.  19.),  and  it  is  -well 
known  to  have  been  inflicted  under  the  princes  of  the  Hero- 
dian  family.  Tims  John,  the  Baptist  was  beheaded  (Matt, 
xiv.  8 — 12.)  by  one  of  Herod's  life-guards,  who  was  de- 
spatched to  his  prison  for  that  purpose.  (Mark  vi.  27.) 

5.  Precipitation,  or  casting  headlong  from  a  window,  or 
from  a  precipice,  was  a  punishment  rarely  used  ;  though  we 
meet  with  it  in  the  history  of  the  kings,  and  in  subsequent 
times.  Thus,  the  profligate  Jezebel  was  precipitated  out  of 
a  window  (2  Kings  ix.  30.  33.),  and  the  same  mode  of  punish- 
ment still  obtains  in  Persia.'''  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  bar- 
barously forced  ten  thousand  Idumaean  prisoners  of  war  to 
leap  from  the  lop  of  a  high  rock.  (2  Chron.  xxv.  12.)  The 
Jews  attempted  to  precipitate  Jesus  Christ  from  the  brow  of 
a  mountain.  (Luke  iv.  29.)  James,  surnamed  the  Just,  was 
thrown  from  the  highest  part  of  the  temple  into  the  subjacent 
valley.  The  same  mode  of  punishment,  it  is  well  known, 
obtained  among  the  Romans,  who  used  to  throw  certain  male- 

«  Biscoe  on  tlie  Acts,  vol.  i.  pp.  315,  3l6. 

«  Michaelishas  given  some  instances  of  this  practice.  See  his  Commen- 
taries, vol.  iii.  p.  430. 

3  Br.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  901,  902. 

•«  Pr.  Shaw's  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  i.     Pref.  p.  xviii.  8vo.  edit. 

'  Chardin,  in  his  Travels  (vol.  vi.  p.  118.  of  Langlt's'  edition),  afier 
speakins  of  the  most  common  inories  of  punishinK  vvith  death,  .says,  "But 
there  is  s'ill  a  particular  way  of  puttin?  to  deatli  such  as  have  transgressed 
in  civil  affiirs,  either  by  causins  a  d^^arlh,  or  by  selling  al)ove  tlie  tax  l)y 
a  false  weight,  or  who  have  committed  themselves  in  any  other  manner. 
The  cooks  are  put  upon  a  spit,  and  roasted  over  a  slow  fire  (see  Jeremiah 
xxix.  22.),  bakers  are  tlirown  into  a  hot  oven.  During  the  dearth  in  1688, 
I  saw  such  ovens  heated  on  the  royal  sqiiare  at  Ispahan,  to  terrify  the 
bakers,  and  deter  them  from  deriving  advantage  from  the  general  distress." 
— Burdf^r's  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  204. 

<•  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Persia,  vol.  ii,  pp.  38 — 30. 


factors  from  the  Ta;-peian  rock.'    The  same  practice  obtains 
among  the  Moors  at  Corstantine,  a  town  in  J3arbary,8 

(3.  Drowning  was  a  purishment  in  use  among  the  Syrians, 
and  was  well  known  to  the  Jews  in  the  time  f  f  our  Saviour, 
though  we  have  no  evidence  that  it  was  practised  by  them. 
It  was  also  in  use  among  the  Greeks  and  Komans.  The 
Emperor  Augustus,  we  are  tnld,  punished  certain  persons, 
who  had  been  guilty  of  rapacity  in  the  province  (of  Syria  or 
of  Lycia),  by  causing  them  to  be  thrown  into  a  river,  with  a 
heavy  weight  about  their  necks.^  Josephus'"  also  tells  us 
that  the  Galileans  revolting,  drowned  the  partisans  of  Herod 
in  the  sea  of  Gennesareth.  'I'o  this  mo(U^  of  capital  punish- 
ment Jesus  Christ  alludes  in  Matt,  xviii.  6." 

7.  Bruising,  or  pounding  in  a  Mortar,  is  a  punishment  still 
in  use  among  the  Turks.  The  uhma  or  body  of  lawj'ers 
are  iu  Turkey  exempted  fron;  confiscation  of  their  prrpert}'^, 
and  from  being  put  to  death,  except  by  the  pestle  and  mortar. 
Some  of  the  Turkish  guards,  who  had  permitted  the  escape 
of  the  Polish  prince  Cereski  in  1G18,  were  pounded  to  death 
in  great  mortars  of  iron.'^  This  horrid  punishment  was  not 
unknown  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  who  expressly  alludes  to 
it  in  Prov.  xxvii.  22. 

8.  Dichotomy,  or  cutting  asunder,  was  a  capital  punish- 
ment anciently  in  use  in  the  countries  contiguous  to  Judaea. 
The  rabbinical  writers  report  that  Isaiah  was  thus  put  to 
death  by  the  profligate  Manasseh;  and  to  this  Saint  Paul  is 
supposed  to  allude.  (Heb.  xi.  37.)  Nebuchadnezzar  threat- 
ened it  to  the  Chaldee  magi,  if  they  did  not  interpret  his 
dream  (Dan.  ii.  5.),  and  also  to  the  blasphemers  of  the  true 
God.  (Dan.  iii.  29.)  Herodotus  says,  that  Sabacho  had  a 
vision,  in  which  he  was  commanded  to  cut  in  lira  all  the 
Egyptian  priests  :  and  that  Xerxes  ordered  one  of  the  sons 
of  Pythias  to  be  cut  in  two,  and  one  half  placed  on  each 
side  of  the  way,  that  his  army  might  pass  between  them.'^ 
Trajan  is  said  to  have  inflicted  this  punishment  on  some  re- 
bellious Jews.  It  is  still  practised  by  the  Mcors  of  Western 
Barbary,  and  also  in  Persia.'^ 

9.  Beating  to  death  (Ty</5rav((r^(;c)  was  practised  by 
Antiochus  towards  the  Jews  (2  Mace.  vi.  19.  28.  30.),  and 
is  referred  to  by  Saint  Paul.  (Heb.  xi.  35.  Gr.)  This  was 
a  punishment  iu  use  among  the  Greeks,  and  was  usually 
inflicted  upon  slaves.  The  real  or  supposed  culprit  was 
fastened  to  a  stake,  and  beaten  to  death  with  sticks.  The 
same  punishment  is  still  in  use  among  the  Turks,  under  the 
appellation  of  the  bastinado  :  with  them,  however,  it  is  sel- 
dom mortal. 

10.  Exposing  to  wild  Beasts  appears  to  have  been  a 
punishment  among  the  Modes  and  Persians.'  It  was  inflicted 
first  on  the  exemjjlarj'  prophet  Daniel,  who  was  miraculously 
preserved,  and  afterward.s  on  his  accusers,  who  miserably 
perished.  (Dan.  vi.  7.  12.  16 — 21.)  From  them  it  appears 
to  have  passed  to  the  Romans. '^  In  their  theatres  they  had 
two  sorts  of  ainusement.'^,  each  sufficiently  barbarous.  Seme- 
times  they  cast  men  naked  to  the  wild  beasts,  to  be  devoured 
by  them  :  this  punishment  was  inflicted  on  slaves  ai;d  vile 
persons.  Sometimes  persons  were  sent  into  the  theatre, 
armed,  to  fight  with  wild  beasts :  if  they  conquered,  they 
had  their  lives  and  liberty  :  but  if  not,  they  fell  a  prey  to  the 
beasts.  To  this  latter  usage  (concerning  which  some  further 
particulars  are  given  in  a  subsequent  page)  Saint  Paul  refers 
in  2  Tim.  iv.  17.  and  1  Cor.  xv.  33. 

In  the  case  of  certain  extraordinary  criminals,  besides  in- 
flicting upon  them  the  sentence  to  which  they  luxd  been  con- 
demned, it  was  not  \musual  to  demolish  their  houses,  and 
reduce  them  to  a  common  place  for  filtli  and  dung.  Among 
otlier  things.  Nebuchadnezzar  denounced  this  disgrace  to  the 
diviners  of  Chaldsea,  if  they  did  not  declare  his  dream  to 
him  (Dan.  ii.  5.)  ;  and  afterwards  to  all  such  as  should  not 
worship  the  God  of  Shadrach,  Meshech,  and  Abednego. 
(Dan.  iii.  29.)  And  Darius  threatened  the  same  punish- 
ment to  those  who  should  molest  the  Jews.  (Ezra  vi.  11.) 
In  this  way  the  Romans  destroyed  the  house  ofSpurius 
Cassius,  after  they  had  precipitated  him  from  the  Tarpeian 

'  Livy,  Hist.  lib.  vi.  c.  20, 

8  Pitfs  Religion  and  Manners  of  the  Maliomctans,  pp.  311,  312.  London 
edit.  1810. 

0  Seutonius,  in  Augusto,  c.  07.  ">  Ant..Jud.  lib.  xiv.  c.  15.  §10. 

11  (Jrolius  in  loc. 

1*  Knolles's  History  of  the  Turks,  vol.  ii.  p.  9J7.  London,  1CS7. 

"  Raphelii  Annotalionesin  Nov.  Test,  ex  Herodoto,  tom.  i.  p.  376.  Other 
instances  from  ancient  writers  are  given  by  Dr.  Whitby,  on  Matt.  xxiv.51. 
and  KuinoSl,  Conmient.  in  Hist.  Lib.  Nov.  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  633. 
■    X  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  457.    Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  96. 

"  This  barbarous  mode  of  punishment  still  exists  in  Morocco.  See  an 
interesting  exl)  act  from  Host's  Account  of  Morocco  and  Fez,  in  Burder's 
Oriental  Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  207 


Sect.  IV.] 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


69 


rock,  for  havintr  (as  ihey  said)  aimod  at  tyranny.'  Fnrthor,  the 
heads,  liiuids,  and  feet  of  state  eriniiiials,  were  also  fre<|iieiitly 
cutoff,  and  iixed  up  in  the  most  public  places,  as  a  warninir  to 
others.  This  piuiishnient  ni)taiiis  auionj^  tlie  Turks,  and  was 
inflii-lcjd  on  the  sons  of  Jiimnion  (who  had  treacherously 
murdered  Ishhosheth),  hy  command  of  Daviil  :  who  com- 
manded that  the  assassins'  h;mils  and  f(;<t  should  he  hunjr  up 
over  the  pool  of  Hehron,  which  was  prohahly  a  place  of 
great  resort.'-  Amonjr  the  ancie-nt  (>halda.'ans,  cuttinir  olf  the 
nose  and  (nirs  wasaconmion  pmiishment  of  adulterers.  To 
this  the  i)rophi^t  Kzekiel  alludes,  (xxiii.  '25.) 

11.  ('iiuciKixioM  was  a  punislunent  which  the  ancients 
inflicted  only  on  the  most  notorious  criminals  and  malefac- 
tors. 'I'he  cross  was  maih;  of  two  heams,  either  crossin<rat 
the  top  at  riirht  an<;les,  or  in  the  middle  of  their  leufrth  like 
ail  X.  There  was,  hesides,  a  piece  on  the  centre  of  the 
transverse  heam,  to  which  was  attached  the  accusation,  or 
statement  of  tiie  culprit's  crime;  toyjelher  with  a  ])iece  of 
wood  that  projected  from  tin;  middh;,  on  which  tli(»  jjerson 
sat  as  on  a  kind  of  sarldle,  and  hy  which  the  whole  hody 
was  supportcul.  .lustin  Martyr,  in  his  dialogue  with  Trypho 
the  Jew,  fjives  this  descrii)tion;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note, 
that  he  lived  in  the  former  part  of  the  second  century  of  the 
('hristian  icr.i,  hefore  the  j)unishment  of  the  cross  was  a!)o- 
lished.  The  cross  on  which  our  Lord  sulfered  was  of  the 
former  kind,  heing^thus  represented  on  all  ancient  monu- 
ments, coins,  and  crosses. 

Crucifixion  is  one  of  the  most  cruel  and  excruciating 
deaths,  which  the  art  of  in<reniously  tormenting  and  extin- 
guishing life  ever  devised.  The  naked  hody  of  the  criminal 
was  fasl(>ned  to  the  upright  heam  hy  nailing  or  tying  the  feet 
to  it,  and  on  the  transverse  heam  by  nailing  and  sometimes 
tying  the  hands  to  it.  Those  mend)(>rs,  hL'iiig  the  grand  in- 
struments of  motion,  are  provided  with  a  greater  quantity  of 
nerves,  which  (especially  tliose  of  the  hands)  are  peculiarly 
sensible.  As  the  nerves  arc  the  instruments  of  all  sensation 
or  feeling,  wounds  in  the  parts  where  they  abound  must  be 
peculiarly  painful ;  especially  when  inflicted  with  such  rude 
instruments  as  large  nails,  forcibly  driven  through  the  ex- 
quisitely delicate  tendons,  nerves,  anil  bones  of  those  parts. 
The  horror  of  this  punishment  will  appear,  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  the  person  was  permitted  to  hang  (the  whole 
weight  of  his  body  being  borne  up  by  his  nailed  hands  and 
feet,  and  by  the  ])roiecting  piece  in  the  middle  of  the  cross), 
until  he  perished  through  agony  and  want  of  food.  There 
are  instances  of  crucified  persons  living  in  this  exfjuisite 
torture  several  days.'  "1  he  wise  and  adorable  Author  of 
our  being  has  formed  and  constituted  the  fabric  of  our  bodies 
in  such  a  merciful  manner,  that  nothing  violent  is  lasting. 
Friendly  death  sealed  the  eyes  of  those  wretches  generally  in 
three  days.  Hunger,  thirst,  and  acute  pain  dismissed  them 
from  their  intolerable  sutVerings.  The  rites  of  sepulture 
were  denied  them.  Their  dead  bodies  were  generally  left 
on  the  crosses  on  which  they  were  first  suspended,  and  be- 
came a  prey  to  every  ravenous  beast  and  carnivorous  bird.' 

(1.)  "  Crucifixion  obtained  among  several  ancient  nations, 
the  Egyptians,*  Persians,  Creeks,'^'  and  Carthaginians.  The 
Carthaginians  generally  adjudged  to  this  death  their  unfortu- 
nate and  unsuccessful  coimnanders.''     There  arc  many  un- 

<  Dionys.  Ilalicarnass:  lib.  viii.  cc.  73,  79 

'  Ilunner's  Ohsorvatinns.  vol.  i.  pp.  .501,  502.  Tiiis  kiml  of  punishment 
was  ill  list"  in  tlir-  lime  (if  M(i)\,imnicil,  who  introduces  Pliaraoli  as  saying, 
I  will  surely  cut  <///  i/our  /Kinds  aiitl-i/ourj'eet  on  the  cfinusilK  stilts  ;  that 
is,  first  tliB  li^ilit  lian'd,  and  then  the  left  foot :  next  the  left  hand,  an<t  Ihen 
the  rinhl  fool.  Koran,  ch.  x.v.  71.  ami  xxvi.  49.  (Sale's  translation,  |>p.  i'^J, 
3ltl.  -llo.  edit.)  See  additional  examples  of  such  nnitilations  in  Ifunler'.'S 
Oriental  I.ileratnre,  vol.  ii.  p.  180.  Wilson's  Travels  in  Eavpt  and  the 
Holy  I.an<l,  pp.  :i;5— 377. 

'  Dr.  Adam  Clarke  on  Malt,  x.xvii.35.  For  the  reinainder  of  thi.?  account 
of  the  cnioifi.vion  the  author  isindi^bled  to  Dr.  Lardlier's  Credibility  of  the 
Gospel  History,  part  i.  book  i.  c.  7.  5§  ix. — x\W.,  and  Dr.  Harwood's  Intro- 
duciion  to  tlie'Ncw  Testament,  vol.  ii.  pp.  .330— .3o3. 

«  Pasces  in  crncc  corvos.  Hoi-at.  Epist.  lib.  i.  epist.  16.  ver.  43. 

Viilnir,  jnnienio  et  canibus,  crucibusque  rrlictis 
Ad  fceCus  properat;  partenique  cadaveris  affert. 

Juvenal,  Satyr.  14.  ver.  77,  73. 

»  Thucydides,  lib.  i.  sect.  110.  p.  71.  edit.  Duker.  Justin,  trealin;;  of  the 
affairs  of  Ejypi,  say.s  :  Concursu  niultiludinis  et  Agalhocles  occiditur,  et 
mulieres  in  uliioneni  Eurydice.?  patilnilis  sultiauntur.  Justin,  lib.  xxx.  cap. 
2.  p.  578.  edit.  (Jronovii.  Herodoti  Erato,  p.  5U.  edit.  Wesscling.  17G3.  See 
also  Thalia,  p. '200.  and  Polyhymnia,  p.  617. 

•  Alexander  crucified  two  thousafld  Tyrians.  Triste  deinde  speclacu- 
lum  victoribus  ira  pra>buit  reuis  ;  duo  nnllia,  inqnihns  occidendi  def<'ceiat 
.rabies,  cru>ibus  ailfixi  per  nmi'us  liiorisspaiiuin.  dependerunt.  Q.  Curlii, 
lib.  iv.  cap.  4.  p.  1S7.  edit.  Snakenburgh,  17-24.  See  also  Plutarch  in  vita 
Alex,  and  Justm,  lib.  xviii.  cap.  3. 

•■  Duces  bella  pravo  consillo  serentcs,  etiamsi  prospera  forlnna  subse- 
cnta  esset,  cruel  tamen  suflisrebantur.  Valerius  Maximus,  lib.  ii.  cap.  7. 
p.  191.  edit.  Torren.  Leida;,  17:26; 


happy  instances  of  this.  They  crucified  Bomilcar,'  whom 
.Instill  calls  their  king,  when  they  detected  his  intended  de- 
sign of  joining  Agathoides.  They  erected  a  cross  in  the 
midst  of  the  forum,  on  which  they  suspended  him,  and  from 
which,  with  a  great  and  nncontpiered  spirit,  amidst  all  his 
sulfcrings,  he  bitterly  inveiglied  against  them,  and  upbraided 
them  with  all  the  black  atid  atrocious  crimes  they  hatl  lately 
perjjetrated.  Hut  this  manner  of  executing  criminals  pre- 
vailed most  among  the  Romans.  It  was  generally  a  servile 
punishment,  and  chiefiy  inflicted  f)n  vile,  worthless,  and  in- 
corrigibh^  slaves. »  in  reference  to  this,  the  apostle,  dt'scrib- 
ing  the  condescension  of  .lesus,  and  bis  submission  to  this 
iTiost  opprobrious  death,  repn  sents  him  as  taking  upon  him 
the  form  of  a  servant  (l^hil.  ii.  7,  8.),  and  becoming  obedient 
to  death,  even  the  death  of  the  cross. 

(2.)  "  It  was  universally  and  deservedly  reputed  the  most 
shameful  and  ignominious  death  to  which  a  wretch  could  be 
exposed,  in  such  an  <!xit  were  comjirised  every  idea  and 
circumstance  of  odium,  disgrace,  and  ])ublic  scandal."  Hence 
the  apostle  magnifies  and  extols  the  great  love  of  our  Re- 
deetiKir,  in  thai  while  wc  were  yet  sinnern,  ('hrint  ditd  for  us, 
and  for  the  joif  set  biforc  him,  endured  the  cro.ii>,  dcspitiing  the 
shame  (Horn.  v.  8.  Heb.  xii.  2.)  ;  disregarding  every  cir- 
cumstance of  public  indignity  and  infamy  with  which  such  a 
death  was  loaded.  "  It  was  from  the  idea  they  connected 
with  such  a  death,  that  the  Greeks  treated  the  anostles  with 
the  last  contempt  and  pity  for  publicly  embarKing  in  the 
cause  of  a  person  who  had  been  Drought  to  this  reproachful 
and  dishonourable  death  hy  his  own  countrymen.  The 
preachingof  the  cross  was  to  them  foolishness  (1  Cor.  1.23.)  ; 
the  promulgation  of  a  system  of  religion  that  had  been  taught 
bj'  a  person  who,  hy  a  national  act,  had  publicly  sufl'ered  the 
punishment  and  death  of  the  most  useless  and  abandoned 
slave,  was,  in  their  ideas,  the  last  infatuation ;  and  the  preach- 
ing of  Christ  crucified,  publishing  in  the  world  a  religion 
whose  founder  suffered  on  a  cross,  appeared  the  last  absur- 
dity and  madness.'"  The  heathens  looked  upon  the  attach- 
ment of  the  primitive  Christians  to  a  religion,  wiiose  pub- 
lisher had  come  to  such  an  end,  as  an  undoubted  proof  of 
their  uttt-r  ruin,  that  they  were  destroying  their  interest,  com- 
fort, and  happiness,  by  adopting  such  a  system  founded  on 
such  a  dishonourable  circumstance."  'I  he  same  inherent 
scandal  and  ignominy  had  crucifixion  in  the  estimation  of  the 
.Tews.  They  indeed  annexed  more  complicated  wretched- 
ness to  it,  for  they  esteemed  the  miscreant  who  was  adjudged 
to  such  an  end  notoulj'  to  be  abandoned  of  men,  but  forsaken 
of  God.  He  that  is  hanged,  says  the  law,  is  accursed  of 
God.  (Deut.  xxi.  23.)  Hence  St.  Paul,  representing  to  the 
Galatians  the  grace  of  Jesus,  who  released  us  from  that 
curse  to  which  the  law  of  Moses  devoted  us,  by  being 
made  a  curse  for  us,  by  submitting  to  be  treated  for  oursakes 
as  an  execrable  malef^ictor,  to  show  the  horror  cf  such  a  death 
as  Christ  voluntarily  endured,  adds,  //  is  written  in  the  law. 
Cursed  is  ercry  one  that  hangcth  on  a  tree!  (Gal.  iii.  13.) 
And  from  this  express  declaration  of  the  law  of  Moses  con- 
cerning persons  thus  executed,  we  may  account  for  that  aver- 
sion the  Jews  discovered  against  Christianity,  and  perceive 
tlie  reason  of  what  St.  Paul  asserts,  that  their  ])reachinff  of 
Christ  crucified  was  to  the  Jews  a  stumbling-block.  (1  Cor, 
i.  23.)  The  circumstance  of  the  cross  caused  them  to  stum- 
ble at  the  very  gate  of  Christianity.'^ 

'  Itomilrar  rex  Pa'norum  in  medio  fnro  a  PiBnis  palibulo  snflixus  est. 
De  sununa  cruce,  veluli  de  tribunali,  Pd-noruiu  scelera  concionaretur. 
Justin,  lib.  xxii.  cap.  7.  p.  SO."),  ed.  Gronovii. 

»  Fone  cruceni  servo.     Juvenal,  Sat.  6.  ver.  218. 

10  "I'roni  this  circumstance,"  says  Justin  Martyr,  "  the  heathens  are 
fully  convinced  of  our  madness  for  ttivini;  the  second  lOace  after  the  im- 
mniable  and  eternal  God,  and  Father  of  all,  ;oa  person  wlio  was  crucified!" 
Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  2.  pp.  GO,  01.  edit.  Paris,  1630.  Et  qui  houiineni  sununo 
supjihcio  |)ro  iacinore  puuitum,  et  crucis  ligna  feralia  ceremonias  fabulatur, 
conirruentia  perdilis  sceleratiscpie  tribuil  altaria:  ut  id  colani  quod  me- 
rentur.  Minucius  PVlix,  p.  57.  edit.  Davis.  Canlab.  1712.  Nam  quod  re- 
ligion! nostra  houiinem  noxium  et  cruceui  ejus  adscribilis,  longe  de 
vicinia  verilalis  erratis.    Min.  Felix,  p.  147. 

11  That  this  was  the  sentiment  of  the  heathens  concerning  the  Christians, 
St.  Paul  informs  us,  and  he  exhorts  the  Philippians  not  to  be  discouraged 
by  it.  Philip.  i.iS.  Not  intimidated  in  any  thing  by  your  adversaries;  for 
though  they  looked  upon  your  attachment  to  the  gospel  as  an  uiHloubted 
proof  of  your  utter  ruin,  yet  to  you  it  is  a  demonstration  of  your  salvation 
— a  salvation  which  hath  God  for  its  author. 

'»  Trypho  the  Jew  every  where  atfecls  to  treat  Ihe  Christian  religion 
with  coniempi,  on  account  of  the  crucifixion  of  its  author.  He  ridicules 
its  professors  for  centering  all  their  hopes  in  a  man  who  was  crucified ! 
Dialog,  cum  Tryphone,  p.  Zi.  The  person  whom  you  call  your  Messiah, 
says  he,  incurred  the  last  disgrace  and  ignominy,  for  he  fell  under  the 
greatest  curse  in  the  law  of  God,  he  was  crucified!  p.  90.  Again,  we 
must  hesitate,  says  Trypho,  with  regard  to  our  believing  a  person,  who 
was  so  ignomiaously  crucified,  being  tlie  Messiah  ;  for  it  is  written  in  the 


70 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Paht  II.  Chap.  Ill 


(3.)  *'The  several  circumstances  related  by  the  four  evan- 
gelists as  accompanying  the  crucifixion  of  .lesiis  were  con- 
formable to  the  Roman  custom  in  such  executions ;  and, 
frequently  orcurrinor  in  ancient  authors,  do  not  only  reflect 
beauty  and  lustre  upon  these  passages,  but  happily  corrobo- 
rate and  confirm  the  narrative  of  the  sacred  penmen."  We 
will  exhil)it  before  our  readers  a  detail  of  these  as  they  are 


specified  by  the  evang^elists. 
Every  mark  of  infamy  tha 


ivery  marK  ol  intamy  that  malice  could  suq^gest  was  ac- 
cumulated on  the  head  of  our  Redeemer.  While  he  was  in 
tlie  hicrh-priest's  house,  they  did  spit  in  his  face  and  buffeted 
him,  and  others  smote  him  with  the  palms  of  tlieir  hands,  say- 
ing. Prophecy  unto  us,  thou  Christ,  tvho  is  he  that  smote  thee  P 
(Matt,  xxvi.'er,  f)8.  Mark  xiv.  65.)  Pilate,  hearintr  that 
our  Lord  was  of  Galilee,  sent  him  to  Herod ;  and  before  he 
was  dismissed  by  him,  Herod,  with  his  men  of  war,  set  him  at 
nous;ht ,-  and  mocked  him,  and  arrayed  him  in  a  gorgeous  robe. 
(Luke  xxiii.  11.)  He  was  insulted  and  mocked  by  the  sol- 
diers, when  Pilate  ordered  him  to  be  scourged  the  first  time ; 
that  by  that  lesser  punishment  he  might  satisfy  the  Jews  and 
save  his  life,  as  is  related  by  St.  John.  After  Pilate  had 
condemned  him  to  be  crucified,  the  like  indignities  were  re- 
pealed by  the  soldiers,  as  we  are  assured  by  two  evangelists. 
(Matt,  xxvii.  27—31.  Mark  xv,  16 — 20.)  And  they  stripped 
him,  and  put  on  hint,  a  scarlet  robe,  and  when  they  had  plaited 
a  crown  of  thorns,^  they  put  it  on  his  head,  and  a  reed  in  his 
right  hand:  and  they  bowed  the  knee  before  him,  and  mocked 
him,  saying.  Hail!  king  of  the  Jews.  And  they  spit  upon 
him,  and  took  the  reed,  and  smote  him  on  the  head. 

These  are  tokens  of  contempt  and  ridicule  which  were  in 
use  at  that  time.  Dio,  amoii^  the  other  indignities  offered 
to  Sejanus  the  favourite  of  Tiberius  (in  whose  reign  our 
Saviour  was  crucified),  as  they  were  carrying  him  from  the 
senate-house  to  prison,  particularly  mentioneci  this, — "  That 
they  struck  him  on  the  head."  But  there  is  one  instance  of 
ridicule  which  happened  so  soon  after  this  time,  and  has  so 
great  a  resemblance  to  that  to  which  our  Saviour  was  ex- 
posed, that  it  deserves  to  be  stated  at  length.  Caligula,  the 
successor  of  Tiberius,  had,  in  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign, 
given  Agrippa  the  tetrarchy  of  his  uncle  Philip,  being  about 
the  fourth  part  of  his  grandfather  Herod's  dominions,  with 
the  right  of  wearing  a  diadem  or  crown.  When  he  was 
setting  out  from  Rome  to  make  a  visit  to  his  people,  the  em- 
peror advised  him  to  go  by  Alexandria  as  the  best  way. 
When  he  came  thither  he  kept  himself  very  private :  but  the 
Alexandrians  having  got  intelligence  of  his  arrival  there,  and 
of  the  design  of  his  journey,  were  filled  with  envy,  as  Philo 
says,  at  the  thoughts  of  a  Jew  having  the  title  of  king. 
They  had  recourse  to  various  expedients,  in  order  to  mani- 
fest their  indication:  one  was  the  following: — "There 
was,"  says  Philo,2  "  one  Carabas,  a  sort  of  distracted  fellow, 
that  in  all  seasons  of  the  year  went  naked  about  the  streets. 
He  was  somewhat  between  a  madman  and  a  fool,  the  com- 
mon jest  of  boys  and  other  idle  people.  This  wretch  they 
brouo-ht  into  the  theatre,  and  placed  hiha  on  a  lofty  seat,  that 
he  might  be  conspicuous  to  all ;  then  they  put  a  thing  made 
of  paper  on  his  head  for  a  crown,  the  rest  of  his  body  they 
covered  with  a  mat  instead  of  a  robe,  and  for  a  sceptre  one 
put  into  his  hand  a  little  piece  of  reed  which  he  had  just 
taken  up  from  the  ground.  Having  thus  given  him  a  mimic 
royal  dress,  several  young  fellows  with  poles  on  their  shoul- 
ders came  and  stood  on  each  side  of  him  as  his  guards.  Then 
there  came  people  toward  him,  some  to  pay  their  homage  to 
him,  others  to  ask  justice  of  him,  and  some  to  know  his  will 
and  pleasure  concerning  affairs  of  state :  and  in  the  crowd 
were  loud  and  confused  acclamations  of  Maris,  Maris ;  that 
beings  as  they  say,  the  Syriac  word  for  Lord,  thereby  inti- 
mating whom  they  intended  to  ridicule  by  all  this  mock 

law,  Cursed  is  every  one  wlio  is  hanged  on  a  cross.   Justin  Martyr,  Dialog. 
'  cuniTryphone,  p.  271.  edit.  Jebb.  London,  1719.     See  also  pages  272.  283. 
378.  392.     See  also  Eusebii  Hist.  Ecd.  pp.  171.  744.     Cantab. 

»  Various  opinions  have  been  ofFered  concerning  the  species  of  thorn, 
intended  by  the  sacred  writers.  Bartholin  wrote  an  elaborate  dissertation 
De  Spinea  Corona,  and  Lydius  has  collected  the  opinions  of  several 
writers  in  his  Florum  Sparsio  ad  Historiam  Passionis  Jesu  Christi.  f  Ana- 
lect.  pp.  13 — 17.)  Tiie  intelligent  traveller  Hasselquist  says,  that  the  naba 
or  nahka-  of  the  Arabians  "  is  in  all  probability  the  tree  which  afforded 
the  crown  of  thorns  put  on  the  head  of  Clirist :  it  grows  very  commonly 
in  the  East.  Tliis  plant  was  very  fit  for  the  purpose ;  for  it  has  many 
SMALL  AND  SHARP  SPINES  which  'are  well  adapted  to  give  pain.  The  crown 
might  easily  be  made  of  these  soft,  round,  and  pliant  branches;  and  what 
in  my  opinion  seems  to  be  the  greatest  proof  is,  that  the  leaves  very  much 
resemble  those  of  ivy,  as  they  are  of  a  very  deep  green.  Perhaps  the 
enemies  of  Christ  would  have  a  plant  somewhat  resembling  thai  with 
which  emperors  and  generals  were  used  to  be  crowned,  that  there  might 
be  calumny  even  in  the  punishment."  Hasselquist's  Voyages  and  Travels 
in  the  Levant,  pp.  288,  289. 
slnFlacc.  p.  970. 


show :  Agrippa  being  a  Syrian,  and  king  of  a  large  country 
in  Syria." 

When  Pilate  had  pronounced  the  sentence  of  condemna- 
tion on  our  Lord,  and  publicly  adjudged  him  to  be  crucified, 
he  gave  orders  that  he  should  be  scourged.  Then  Pilate  took 
Jesus  and  scourged  him.  And  when  he  had  scourged  Jesus,  says 
another  of  the  evangelists,  he  delivered  him  to  be  crucified. 
Among  the  Romans,  scourging  was  always  inflicted  previ- 
ously to  crucifixion.  Many  examples  might  be  produced  of 
this  custom.  Let  the  following  suffice.  Livy,  speaking  of 
the  fate  of  those  slaves  who  had  confederated  and  taken  up 
arms  against  the  state,  says,  that  many  of  them  were  slain, 
many  taken  prisoners,  and  others,  after  they  had  been  whip- 
ped or  scourged,'  were  suspended  on  crosses.  Philo,  relating 
the  cruelties  which  Flaccus  the  Roman  prefect  exercised  upon 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  says,  that  after  they  were  mangled 
and  torn  witli  scourges'  in  the  theatres,  they  were  fastened 
to  crosses.  Josephus  also  informs  us,  that  at  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem  great  numbers  of  the  Jews  were  crucified,  after 
they  had  been  previously  whipped,  and  had  suffered  every 
wanton  cruelty.^ 

"  After  they  had  inflicted  this  customary  flagellation,  the 
evangelist  informs  us  that  they  obliged  our  Lord  to  carry  to 
the  place  of  execution  the  cross,  or,  at  least,  the  transverse 
beam  of  it,  on  which  he  was  to  be  suspended.  Lacerated, 
therefore,  with  the  stripes  and  bruises  he  had  received,  faint 
with  the  loss  of  blood,  his  spirits  exhausted  by  the  cruel  in- 
sults and  blows  that  were  given  him  when  they  invested 
him  with  robes  of  mock  royalty,  and  oppressed  with  the  in- 
cumbent weight  of  his  cross;  in  these  circumstances  our 
Saviour  was  urged  along  the  road.  We  doubt  not  but  in 
this  passage  to  Calvary  every  indignity  was  oflfered  him. 
This  was  usual. ^  Our  Lord,  fatigued  and  spent  with  the 
treatment  he  had  received,  could  not  support  his  cross.  The 
soldiers,  therefore,  who  attended  him,  compelled  one  Simon, 
a  Cyrenean,  who  was  coming  from  the  country  to  Jerusa- 
lem, and  then  happened  to  be  passing  by  them,  to  carry  it  for 
him.  The  circumstance  here  mentioned  of  our  Lord  bearing 
his  cross  was  agreeable  to  the  Roman  custom.  Slaves  and 
malefactors,  who  were  condemned  to  this  death,  were  com- 
pelled to  carry  the  whole  or  part  of  the  fatal  gibbet  on  which 
they  were  destined  to  die.  This'constituted  a  principal  part 
of  the  shame  and  ignominy  of  such  a  death.  Cross-bearer 
was  a  term  of  the  last  reproach  among  the  Romans.  The 
miserable  wretch,  covered  with  blood,  from  the  scourges  that 
had  been  inflicted  upon  him,  and  groaning  under  the  weight  of 
his  cross,  was,  all  along  the  road  to  the  place  of  execution, 
loaded  with  every  wanton  cruelty.'  So  extreme  were  the 
misery  and  sufferings  of  the  hapless  criminals  w'ho  were 
condemned  to  this  punishment,  that  Plutarch  makes  use  of  it 
as  an  illustration  of  the  misery  of  sin,  that  every  kind  of 
wickedness  produces  its  own  particular  torment;  just  as 
every  malefactor,  when  he  is  brought  forth  to  execution,  car- 
ries his  own  cross. 8  He  was  pushed,  thrown  down,  stimu- 
lated with  goads,  and  impelled  forward  by  every  act  of  inso- 
lence -and  inhumanity  that  could  be  inflicted.^  There  is 
great  reason  to  think  that  our  blessed  Redeerner  in  his  way 
to  Calvary  experienced  every  abuse  of  this  nature,  especially 
when  he  proceeded  slowly  along,  through  languor,  lassitude, 
and  faintness,  and  the  soldiers  and  rabble  found  his  strength 
incapable  of  sustaining  and  dragging  his  cross  any  farther. 
On  this  occasion  we  imagine  that  our  Lord  suffered  very 
cruel  treatment  from  those  who  attended  him.  Might  not  the 
scourging  that  was  inflicted,  the  blows  he  had  received  from 
the  soldiers  when  in  derision  they  paid  him  homage,  and  the 
abuse  he  suffered  on  his  way  to  Calvary,  greatly  contribute 
to  accelerate  his  death,  and  occasion  that  speedy  dissolution 
at  which  one  of  the  evangelists  tells  us  Pilate  marvelled  ] 
"  When  the  malefactor  had  carried  his  cross  to  the  place 

»  Multi  occisi,  niulli  capti,  alii  verberati  crucibus  affixi.  Livii,  lib. 
xxxiiit  36. 

«  Philo  in  Flac.  p.  529.  edit.  Mangey.  See  also  pages  527,  .528.  ejusdenri 
editionis.  The  Roman  custoni  was  to  scourge  before  all  executions.  The 
magistrates  bringing  them  out  into  the  forum,  after  they  bad  scourged  them 
according  to  custom,  they  struck  off  their  heads.  Poiybii  Hist.  lib.  i.  p.  10. 
tom.  i.  edit.  Gronovii.  1670.  ' 

'  .Josephus  de  Bello  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  2.  p.  353.  Havercamp.  Bell.  Judiac. 
lib.  ii.  cap.  14.  §  9.  p.  182.  Haverc. 

6  VId.  .lusti  Lipsii  de  Cruce,  lib.  ii.  cap. 6.  p.  1180.    Vesalise. 

'  Plutarch  de  tarda  Dei  vindicta,  p.  982.  edit.  Gr.  8vo.  Sleph.  Dionysii 
Halicar.  lib.  vii.  tom.  i.  p.  456.  Oxon.  1704. 

8  O  carnificium  cribrum,  quod  credo  fore : 
Ita  te  forabunt  palibulatum  per  vias 
Stimulis,  si  hue  reveniat  senex. 

Plautus  Mostel.  Act.  i.  bc.  1.  ver.  53.  edit.  var.  1684. 
»  Nee  dubium  est  quin  impulerint,  dejecerint,  erexerint,  per  saevitiara 
ant  per  lusum.    Lipsius  de  Cruce,  tom.  vi.  p.  1180.    Vesalice. 


Sect.  IV.] 


OF  CRUCIFIXION. 


71 


of  execution,  a  hole  was  (Uio^  in  the  enrth,  in  which  it  was 
to  he  fixR'l ;  the  criminal  was  stripped,  a  stiijicfvirinr  potion 
was  jTJven  him,  the  cross  was  laid  on  the  crronnd,  the  wretch 
(iistend'^d  upon  it,  and  four  soldiers,  two  on  each  side,  at  the 
same  time  were  emploved  in  d  ivinfr  fVxir  laruc  nails  throug'ii 
his  hands  and  feet.  Al'ier  tln'y  iiad  (!<>(  ply  fixed  and  riveted 
thrse  nails  in  the  Wfod,  tlicy  elevated  the  cross  wiili  the 
acroni/.inij  wretr-h  upon  it;  and  in  order  to  fix  it  more  firmly 
and  securely  in  tlu*  earth,  they  let  it  violently  fall  into  the 
cavity  they  had  (1u<t  to  n-ceive  it.  'I'liis  vf'hement  precipita- 
tion of  the  cross  must  ijive  the  person  that  was  nailed  to  it  a 
most  dreadful  eonvulsive  shoek,  and  ajrit  ite  his  whole  frame 
in  a  dire  and  nio-t  exi-ruciitinir  niamier.  'I'hese  several  par- 
ticulars the  Romans  ohserved  in  the  crucifixion  of  our  Lord. 
Upon  his  arrival  at  ('alvary  he  was  stripped  :  a  stiipefyinsr 
drnu<jht  was  offered  him,  which  he  refused  to  drink.  This, 
St.  Mark  says,  was  a  comnosition  of  myrrh  and  wine.  The 
design  of  this  jiotion  was,  hy  its  inehriaiinir  and  intoxicalino- 
quality,  to  hluni  the  edije  of  |);iiM,  and  stun  the  (|iiicktnss  of 
sensibility.'  Our  Fiord  rejected  this  medicated  cup,  offered 
him  perliaps  liy  the  kindness  of  some  of  his  friends,  it  hein^ 
his  fixed  n^sohiti'ii  to  meet  death  in  all  its  horrors;  not  to 
alleviate  and  suspend  its  pains  hy  any  such  preparation,  but 
to  submit  to  the  death,  even  this  death  (  f  crucifixion,  with 
all  its  attendant  circumstances."  He  had  the  joy  that  was 
set  befre  him,  in  iirocurinir  the  salvation  of  uumi,  in  full  and 
immediate  view.  Mi;  wanted  not,  thendbre,  on  this  great 
occasion,  any  thinjT  to  produce  an  unnatural  stupor,  and  tlirow 
oblivion  and  stupefaction  over  his  senses.-  He  cheerfnlly 
and  voluntarily  orank  the  cup  with  all  its  bitter  ingredients, 
which  his  heavenly  Father  had  put  into  his  hands.  Our 
Lord  was  fisteaed  to  his  cross,  as  was  usual,  by  four  soldiers,-^ 
two  on  each  side,  accordin<T  to  the  res])cctiv(^  limbs  tiiey 
severally  nailed.  While  they  were  employed  in  piercing  his 
hands  and  feet,  it  is  probable  that  he  offered  to  Heaven  that 
most  compassionate  and  affectinjr  prayer  for  his  murderers, 
in  which  he  pleaded  tlu^  only  circumstance  that  could  possi- 
bly extenuate  their  (jfuilt:  Fatlirr,  fin-<xive  tliem^for  tliet/  kvoio 
rt'it  n-liiit  t/ici/  (III .'  It  appears  from  the  evantrelist  that  our 
Lord  was  crucified  without  the  city,  .^nd  he  bear  inu;  hi  a  cross 
went  forth  to  a  plncc  culled  the  place  of  a  skull,  which  is  called 
in  the  Hebrew  Goli^otha.  (.lohn  xix.  17.)  I'or  the  place  where 
Jesw  was  eruc'fied  was  7ili:;h  to  the  c:ty,  (ver.  20.)  And  the 
apostle  to  the  Hebrews  has  likewise  mentioned  this  circum- 
Stincp :  IVheref  ire  Jesus  aho — suffered  wthout  the  ij;ate.  (Heb. 
xiii.  12.)  This  is  conformable  to  the  .lewish  law,  and  to  ex- 
amples mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  (Num.  xv.  35.) 
And  the  Lord  sird  unto  Moses,  The  man  shall  surch/  be  put  to 
death  :  all  the  congregation  shall  stone  him  ivith  stones  w'thmit 
the  camp.  (1  Kinofs  xxi.  13.)  Then  they  carried  hint  [Na- 
both]  forth  out  of  the  c'ty,  and  stoned  hitu  ii:ith  stones  that  he 
died.  This  was  done  at.Iezrecl,  in  the  territories  of  the  kintr 
cf  Israel,  not  far  from  Samaria.  And  if  this  custom  was 
"practised  there,  we  may  be  certain  the  Jews  did  not  choose 
that  criminals  should  be  executed  within  .Terusalem,  of  the 
sanctity  of  which  they  had  so  high  an  opinion,  and  which 
they  were  very  zealous  to  preserve?  free  from  all  ceremonial 
impurity,  though  they  defiled  it  with  the  practice  of  the  most 
horrid  inmioralilies.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  that  they  might, 
in  thr  ir  sudden  and  ungoverned  rage  (to  which  they  were 
subjert  in  the  extreme  at  this  tim"),  upon  any  affront  ofTered 
to  their  laws  or  customs,  put  persons  who  thus  provoked 
thf^m  to  dea'h,  upon  the  spot,-  in  the  city,  or  the  tem|)le,  or 
wherever  they  f amd  them;  but  whenever  they  were  calm 
en^^ugh  to  admit  the  form  of  a  legal  process,  we  may  be 
assured  that  they  did  not  approve  of  an  execution  within  the 
city.  And  among  the  Romans  this  custom  w'as  very  com- 
mon,'' at  least  in  the  provinces.     The  robbers  of  Ephesus, 

'  S.-^sp  mnllimoflis  conrulc;it  iciibns,  myrrh;p  control  prpsuinptione  mu- 
ni'iis.  Apiili'ii  Mplaniorph.  lib.  viii.  Asain :  Olitirina'iis  inyrrtia;  pre- 
suniptione  nullis  Vl■rb^•r'!l)lls,  ai"  nf  ipsi  qnidPiti  succiibiiit  ijini.  I.io  x. 
Apuleii  Mpt.  ll-qiip  lioitie,  says  Si.  Jcronip.  .Iuila;i  onincs  increduli  Do- 
iiiinicie  re-urreclioiiis  acrio  et  fello  potint  Jesiiin,  el  daiit  'i  vinum  niyr- 
rhatiun,  ut  dum  consopiant,  et  mala  eorum  non  videat.  Ilieronyuius  ad 
Matt,  xxvii. 

»■  Sep  Dr.  Benson's  Life  of  Christ,  p.  503. 

>  Mon.-t  no.squ'ique  non  paruin  evangplista.  qui  quatiior  nnmerat  milites 
cruci.i;»n'ps,  scilicpt  jn.via  qMnmor  iiieiiibra  fiaeiida.  Qnoil  clariiin  etiani 
eil  ex  tunicne  partitione,  qiiie  qnaluor  inilitibus  faciemla  erat.  Cornelii 
Ciirtii  dp  Clavis  Doininiris,  p.  .1"i.  edit.  AntwerpifP.  1670.  The  four  soldiers 
who  parted  his  sarnients,  and  cast  lots  for  his  vp.^iiiire,  were  the  four  wlio 
raised  liim  to  the  cross,  each  of  thi'in  fixing  a  liuib,  and  who,  it  seems,  for 
thiu  service  had  a  right  to  the  crucified  person's  clothes.  Dr.  Macknight, 
p.  60t.  spcond  edition,  4to. 

♦  Credo  eso  isioc  pxnnplo  tibi  esse  eunduin  actutum  extra  portam,  dis- 
pp.ssis  uiaiiibu.s  patibuluui  quem  habebis.  Plautus  in  Mil.  Glor.  act  ii. 
seen.  4. 


whom'  Petroniug  Arbiter  mentions,  were  crucified  hy  order 
of  the  governor  of  the  province  without  the  city.  This  was 
the  custom,  likewise,  in  Sicily,  as  ai)pears  from  Cicero.^ 

"  It  was  customary  for  fhe  Romans,  on  any  extraordinary 
execution,  to  put  over  t'le  head  of  tho  malefactor  an  inscrip- 
tion denoting  tlu;  crime  fur  whi(di  liesullered.  Several  exam- 
|)l('s  of  this  occur  in  the  Homan  history."'"  It  was  also  usual 
at  this  time,  at  Jerusalem,  to  post  up  advertisements,  which 
were  designed  to  be  read  by  all  classes  of  persons,  in  several 
languages.  Titus,  in  a  message  which  he  sent  to  the  Jews 
when  the  city  was  on  the  ptiint  of  f.dling  into  his  hands,  and 
by  whiih  he  endeavoured  to  persuade  them  to  surrender, 
says:  Did  you  not  erect  pillars,  with  inscriptions  on  them  in 
the  (JitKKK  and  in  our  (the  Latin)  laniruage,  "Let  no  one 
pass  beyond  these  bounds  ]"«  "  In  conformity  to  this  usage, 
an  inscri|)tiou  by  Pilate's  order  Avas  fixed  above  the  head  of 
.lesiis,  written  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  specifving  what 
it  was  that  had  brought  him  to  this  end.  This  writing  was 
by  the  Romans  called  tilulus,  a  tith-,'-'  and  it  i.s  the  very  ex- 
pression mad(?  use  of  by  the  evangelist  John,  I'llate  wrote  a 


TITLE  (5jpv4«  TITAOn),  and  put   it  on  the  cross.   (John  xix 
'     "  "        party  of  soldie 

appointed  to  keep  guard,"  and  to  attend  at  the  place  of  exe- 


I'J.)'-'     After  \\w  cross  was  erected,  a  party  of  soldiers  was 


ciition  till  the  criminal  breathed  bis  last;  thus  also  we  read 
that  a  bfxly  of  Roman  soldirrs,  with  a  centurion,  were  de- 
puti>d  to  guard  our  Lord  and  the  two  malefactors  that  were 
crucified  with  him.   (Matt,  xxvii.  5t.) 

"  While  they  were  thus  attending  them,  it  is  said,  our 
Saviour  complained  of  thirst.  This  is  a  natural  circumstance. 
The  exquisitely  sensible  and  tender  extremities  of  the  body 
being  thus  perforated,  the  person  languishing  and  faint  with 
loss  of  blood,  and  lingering  under  such  acute  and  excruci- 
ating torture, — these  causes  must  necessarily  produce  a  vehe- 
ment and  excessive  thirst.  One  of  the  guards,  hearing  this 
request,  hastened  and  took  a  sponge,  and  filled  it  from  a 
vessel  that  stood  by,  that  was  full  of  vinegar.  The  usual 
drink  of  the  Roman  soldiers  was  vinegar  and  water. '^  The 
knowledge^  of  this  custom  illustrates  tliis  passage  of  sacred 
history,  as  it  has  sometimes  been  inquired,  for  w  hat  purpose 
was  tfiis  vessel  of  vinegar  1  Consiaerinsr,  however,  the  de- 
rision and  cruel  treatment  which  Jesus  Christ  had  already 
received  from  the  soldiers,  it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that 
one  of  them  gave  him  the  vinegar  with  the  design  of  aug- 
menting his  unparalleled  sufferings.  After  receiving  this, 
Jesus  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  and  uttered  with  all  the  vehe- 
mence he  could  exert,  that  comprehensive  word  on  which  a 
volume  might  be  written,  //  is  finished .'  the  important  work 
of  human  redemption  is  finished  ;  after  which  he  reclined 
his  head  upon  his  bosom,  and  dismissed  his  spirit."  (John 
xix.  30.  Matt,  xxvii.  50.) 

The  last  circumstance  to  be  mentioned  relative  to  the 
crucifixion  of  our  fSaviour,  is  the  petition  of  the  Jews  to 
Pilate,  that  the  death  of  the  sufl'erers  might  be  accelerated, 
with  a  view  to  the  interment  of  Jesus.  All  the  four  evange- 
lists have  particularly  mentioned  this  circur. stance.  Joseph 
of  Jlriniathea  went  to  Filate,  and  begged  the  body  of  Jesus,- 
then  Pilate  cmtunanded  the  body  to  be  delivered.  Jlnd  when 
Joseph  had  taken  the  body,  he  laid  it  in  his  own  new  tomb. 
(Matt,  xxvii.  58 — (10.  Mark  xv.  15,  -Ifi.  Lukexxiii.  50 — 53. 
John  xix.  3-< — 10.)  And  it  may  be  fairly  concluded,  the 
rulers  of  the  Jews  did  not  disapprove  of  it :  since?  they  were 
solicitous  that  the  bodies  mio^lit  he  taken  down,  and  not  hang 
on  the  cross  the  next  day.  (John  xix.  31.)  The  Jews  there- 
fore, says  St.  John,  because  it  tvas  the  preparation,  that  the 
bodies  should  not  remain  on  the  cross  on  the  Sabbath-day  (^for 

»  Quuin  interim  imperafor  provincis  latrones  jus.sit  crucibusadfiai,  se- 
cnniluin  iUam  candeui  casuliim,  in  qua  reccns  cadaver  uiatrona  dcllebat 
Satyr,  c.  71. 

«  (iuitl  enim  attinuit,  cum  Mamerlini  more  alque  instituto  sue  cracem 
fixisset  post  urhein  in  via  Poiiipeia  ;  te  jubere  in  ea  parte  figcre,  quse  ad 
fretuui  sppctaret  t  In  Verr.  lib.  v  c.  60.  n.  169. 

I  Dion  Cassius,  lib  liv.  p.  732.  edit.  Reimar,  l?,^).  See  also  Suetonius  in 
f'alisula,  c.  3i     Eust-bius,  Hisl.  Eccl.  lib.  v.  p.  206.  Cantab.  1720. 

•  Josephus,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.  2.  §  4. 

'  See  instances  in  Suetonius,  in  Caliirula.  c.  34. ;  and  in  Domilian,  c.  10. 

'0  "  It  is  with  much  propriety  that  .Matthew  calls  this  x.nx  accusation : 
for  it  was  false,  that  ever  Christ  pretended  to  be  king  of  the  .lews,  in  the 
sense  the  inscription  held  forth :  tie  was  accused  of  this,  but  there  was  no 
proof  of  the  acrusation ;  however,  it  was  afii.\ed  to  the  cross."  Dr.  A. 
Clarke  on  Matt,  xxvii.  37. 

II  Miles  rriices  asser\"abat,  ne  quis  corpora  ad  .sepulturam  defraheret. 
Pptronius.  Arbiter,  cap.  111.  p.  513.  edit.  Burman.  Traject.  ad  Rhen.  1709. 
Vid   not.  ad  loc. 

'■3  The  Roman  soldiers,  says  Dr.  Uuxham,  drank  posca  (viz.  water  and 
vineirar)  for  their  common  drink,  and  fomid  it  very  healthy  and  useful. 
Dr.  Huxham's  Method  for  preservins  the  Health  of  Seamen,  in  his  Essay 
on  Fevers,  p.  263.  3d  edition.  See  also  Lamy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  vol.  ii. 
p.  278.    See  also  Macknight  in  loc. 


72 


JEWISH  AND  ROMAN  MODES  OF  COMPUTING  TIME, 


[Part  IT. 


that  Sahhath-day  was  an  high  day),  besought  Pilate  that 
their  legs  /night  be  broken,  and  that  they  might  be  tahcii 
away. 

Burial  was  not  alwaj^s  allowed  b)'  the  Romans  in  these 
cases.  For  we  find  that  sometimes  a  soldier  was  appointed 
to  guard  the  bodies  of  malefactors,  that  they  mi<|;ht  not  be 


they  seem  to  intimate  that  it  ought  not  usually  to  be  denied 
when  requested  by  any. 

Hence  it  appears,  that  burial  was  ordinarily  allowed  to 
persons  who  were  put  to  death  in  Juda?a  :  and  the  subsequent 
conduct  of  Pilate  shows  th;;t  it  was  seldom  denied  by  the 
Roman  governors  in  that  country.     'J'h(^re  is.  moreover,  an 


taken  away  and  buried. •     However  it  seems  that  it  was  not  I  express  coinmand  in 'the  law  (of  which  we  know  that  the 


often  refused  unless  the  criminals  wc^e  very  mean  and  infa 
mous.  Cicero  reckons  it  one  of  the  horrid  crimes  of  Verres's 
administration  in  vSicily,  tliat  lie  would  take  money  of  parents 
for  the  burial  of  their  children  whom  he  had  put  to  death.2 
Both  iSuetonius^  and  Tacitus'  represent  it  as  one  of  tlie  un- 
common cruelties  of  Tiherius,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign, 
that  he  generally  denied  burial  to  those  who  were  put  to  death 
by  his  orders  at  Rome.  Ulpian,  in  his  treatise  of  the  duly 
of  a  proconsul,  says,  "  Tlie  bodies  of  those  who  are  con- 
demned to  death  are  not  to  be  denied  to  their  relations  :"  and 
Auorustus  writes,  in  the  tenth  book  of  his  own  life,  "  that  lie 
hau  been  wont  to  observe  this  custom;"''  that  is,  to  grant 
the  bodies  to  relations.  Paulus  says,  "  that  the  bodies  of 
those  who  have  been  punished  [with  death]  are  to  be  given 
to  any  that  desire  them  in  order  to  burial."" 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  from  these  two  lawyers,  that  the 

fovernors  of  provinces  had  a  right  to  grant  burial  to  the 
odies  of  those  who  had  been  executed  by  their  order  :  nay, 


latter  Jews  were  religiously  observant),  that  the  bodies  of 
those  who  were  hanged  should  not  he  suflered  to  remain  all 
night  upon  the  tree.  (Dent.  xxi.  23.)'  "  On  this  account  it 
was,  that,  after  the  crucifixion,  a  numhor  of  leading  men 
among  the  Jews  waited  on  Pirate  in  a  body,  to  desire  that  he 
would  hasten  the  death  of  the  malefactors  hanging  on  their 
crosses.  (John  xix.  31.)  Pilate,  therefore,  despatched  his 
orders  to  the  soldiers  on  duty,  who  broke  the  legs  of  tlie  two 
criminals  who  were  crucified  along  with  Christ;  but  wlien 
they  came  to  Jesus,  finding  he  had  already  breathed  liis  hist, 
tiiey  thought  this  violence  and  trouble  unnecessary  ;  but  one 
of  the  soldiers  pierced  his  side  with  a  spear,  whose  point 
appears  to  have  penetrated  into  the  pericardium,  or  membrane 
surrounding  the  heart ;  for  St.  John,  who  says  he  was  an 
eye-witness  of  this,  declares  that  tliere  issued  from  the  wound 
a  mixture  of  blood  and  water.  This  wound,  had  he  not  been 
dead,  must  necessaiily  have  been  fatal.  This  circumstance 
St.  John  saw,  and  has  solemnly  recorded  and  attested. "« 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ON  THE  JEWISH  AND  ROMAN  MODES  OF  COMPUTING  TIME,  MENTIONED  IN   THE   SCRIPTURES. 


I.   Days. — II.  Hours, —  Watches  of  the  J\'ighi. — III.    Weeks — IV.  Jlfo7iths. — V.   Tears,  civil,  ecclesiastical,  and   nattiral.— 
Jewish  Calendar. — VI.  Parts  of  the  Time  taken  for  tlie  Whole, — VII.  Reinarkable  jEras  of  the  Jews, 


It  is  well  known  that,  in  the  perusal  of  ancient  authors, 
we  are  liable  to  fall  into  many  serious  mistakes,  if  we  con- 
sider their  modes  of  computing  time  to  be  precisely  the  same 
as  ours :  and  hence  it  oecomes  necessary  that  we  observe 
their  different  notations  of  time,  and  carefully  adjust  them  to 
our  own.  This  remark  is  particularly  applicable  to  the  sacred 
writers,  whom  sceptics  and  infidels  have  charged  with  vari- 
ous contradictions  and  inconsistencies,  which  fall  to  the  ground 
as  soon  as  the  various  computations  of  time  are  considered 
and  adapted  to  our  own  standard.  The  knowledge  of  the 
diffi^rent  divisions  of  time  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  will 
elucidate  the  meaning  of  a  multitude  of  passages  with  regard 
to  seasons,  circumstances,  and  ceremonies. 

I.  The  Hebrews  computed  their  Days  from  evening  to 
evening,  according  to  the  command  of  Moscs.^  (Lev.  xxiii. 
32.)  It  is  remarkable  that  the  evening  or  natural  night  pre- 
cedes the  morning  or  natural  day  in  the  account  of  the  creation 
(Gen.  i.  5,  6io.)  :  whence  the  prophet  Daniel  employs  the 
compound  term  evening-morning  (Dan.  viii.  14.  marginal 
reading)  to  denote  a  civil  day  in  his  celebrated  chronological 
prophecy  of  the  2300  days ;  and  the  same  portion  of  time  is 
termed  in  Greek  vi;;^^^/"'^"'' 

The  Romans  haid  two  different  computations  of  their  days, 

«  See  tlie  passage  cited  from  Petronius  Arbiter,  in  note  ",  p.  71. 

a  Rapiiiiit  euni  ad  supplicium  dii  patrii :  quod  iste  inventus  est,  qui  e 
complexii  parentum  abreptos  filios  ad  necein  duceret,  et  parentes  pre- 
tium  pro  sepultura  posceret.     In  Ver.  lib.  i.  cap.  3. 

'  Nemo  punitoruiu  non  et  in  Gejnonias  adjectus  uncoque  tractus.  Vit. 
Tiber.,  c.  61. 

«  Et  quia  dainnati,  publicatis  bonis,  sepulturii  prohibebantur.  Ann.  lib. 
6.  c.  29, 

»  Oorpora  eoruin  qui  capite  damnantur  cognatis  ipsorum  neganda  non 
sunt :  et  id  se  observasso  etiain  I).  Aug.  lib.  x.  de  vita  sui'i,  scrilait.  Ilodie 
autoni  corum,  in  quos  aMiuiadvoitilur,  corpora  non  aliter  sepeliunlur,  quam 
si  fuerit  petiluni  et  peruiissutn;  et  nonnunquam  non  permittitur,  maxiuie 
majostalis  causfi  damnatoruni.  1.  i.  IT.  de  cadaver.  Punit. 

6  Corpora  aniuiadversoruui  quibuslibet  petentibus  adsepulturam  danda 
sunt.  1.  iii.  eod. 

•>  See  an  instance,  incidentally  mentioned  by  .Tosephus.  De  Bell.  Jud. 
lib.  iv.  c.  5.  §2. 

'And  he  that  saw  it  bare  record,  and  his  record  is  (rue ;  and  he  knoweth 
that  he  sailh  true,  that  ye  tnight  believe.    Jobn  xix.  35. 

s  Tacitus,  speatiing  of  the  ancient  Germans,  taltes  notice  that  their 
account  of  time  diflfors  from  tliat  of  the  Romans  ;  and  lliat  instead  of  days 
they  reckoned  the  number  ofniglits.  DeMor.  Germ.  c.  11.  So  also  did  the 
ancient  Gaul.s  (Cresar  de  Bell.  Gall.  lib.  vi.  c.  17.) ;  and  vestiges  of  this  an- 
cient practice  still  remain  in  our  own  country.  We  say  last  Sunday  se'n- 
niglit  or  Mis  day  fortnight.  The  practice  of  computing  time  by  nights, 
instead  of  days,  obtains  among  the  IVIashoos,  an  inland  nation,  dwelling  in 
the  interior  of  South  Africa.  Travels  by  the  Rev.  John  Campbell,  vol.  i. 
p.  182.    (London,  1822.  8vo.) 


and  two  denominations  for  them.  The  one  they  called  the 
civil,  the  other  the  natural  day ;  the  civil  day  was  from  mid- 
night to  midnight ;  and  the  natural  day  was  from  the  rising  to 
the  setting  sun.'"  The  natural  day  of  the  Jews  varied  in 
length  according  to  the  seasons  of  the  year :  the  longest  d^y 
in  the  Holy  Land  is  only  fourteen  hours  and  twelve  minuses 
of  our  time;  and  the  shortest  day,  nine  hours  and  forty-eight 
minutes.  This  portion  of  time  was  at  first  divided  mio  four 
parts  (Nell.  ix.  3.)  ;  which,  though  varying  in  length  accord- 
ing to  the  seasons,  could  nevertheless  be  easily  discerned 
from  the  position  or  appearance  of  the  sun  in  the  horizon. 
Afterwards  the  natural  day  was  divided  into  twelve  hours, 
which  were  measured  from  dials  constructed  for  that  purpose. 
Among  these  contrivances  for  the  measurement  of  time,  the 
sun-dial  of  Ahaz  is  particularly  mentioned  in  2  Kings  xx. 
11."  Jahn  thinks  it  probable  that  Ahaz  first  introduced  it 
from  Babylon. '2 

n.  The  earliest  mention  of  Hours  in  the  Sacred  Writings 
occurs  in  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  (iii.  6.  15.  v.  5.)  :  and  as 
the  Chaldajans,  according  to  Herodotus, '^  were  the  inventors 
of  this  division  of  time,  it  is  provable  that  the  Jews  derived 
their  hours  from  them.  It  is  evident  that  thjj  division  of  hours 
was  unknown  in  the  time  of  Moses  (compare  Gen.  xv.  12.- 
xviii.  1.  xix.  1.  15.  23.);  nor  is  any  notice  taken  of  them  by 
the  most  ancient  of  the  profane  poets,  who  mentions  only 
the  morning  or  evening  or  mid-day, ^^  With  Homer  corres- 
ponded the  notations  of  time  referred  to  by  the  royal  Psalmist, 
who  mentions  them  as  the  times  of  prayer.  (Psal.  Iv.  17.) 
The  Jews  computed  their  hours  of  the  civil  day  from  six  in 
the  morning  till  six  in  the  evening:  thus  i\\e\x first  hour  cor- 
responded with  our  seven  o'clock;  their  second  to  our  eight ,■ 
their  third  to  our  nine,  &c. 

Tlie  knowledge  of  this  circumstance  will  illustrate  several 
passages  of  Scripture,  particularly  Matt,  xx.,  where  the  third, 

>o  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  ii.  c.  77. ;  Censorious  de  Die  Natali,  c.  23.  ;  Macro- 
bius  Salurnal.  lib.  iii.  c.  3.  See  also  Dr.  Ward's  Dissertations  on  soveral 
passages  of  Scripture,  p.  126.  ;  and  Dr.  Macknight's  Harmony,  vol.  i.  Pre- 
lim. Obs.  v.     Adam's  Roman  Antiquities,  p.  'M5. 

"  Few  topics  have  caused  more  discussion  among  biblical  commentatora 
than  the  sun-dial  of  Ahaz.  As  the  original  word  signifies,  properly,  steps 
or  stairs,  many  have  imagined  that  it  was  a  kind  of  ascent  to  the  pate  of 
tlie  palace,  marked  at  proper  distances  with  figures  showing  the  division 
of  the  day,  rather  than  a  regular  piece  of  dial-work.  On  this  subject  the 
reader  will  find  some  very  ingenious  and  probable  illustrations,  together 
will  a  diagram,  in  Dr.  A  Clarke's  Commentary,  on  2Kinss  xx. 

»»  Jahn,"Archseol.  Hebr.  §  101.  ,i3  Lib.  ii.  c.  109. 

'* 'Hoof,  >i  ^£i^>i,  H  iUtcrov  vii^xf. — Horn.  II.  lib.  xxi.  3. 


Chap.  IV.] 


MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


':'3 


sixth,  ninth,  and  eleventh  hours  (ver,  3.  5.  6.  9.)  respectively 
denote  nine  o'clock  in  the  morniriij,  twelve  at  noon,  three  and 
five  in  the  afternoon;  see  also  Acts  ii.  15.  iii.  1.  x.  9.  30. 
The  first  three  hours  (from  six  to  nine)  were  their  morning: 
during  the  third  hour,  from  eight  to  niiu^,  tlieir  morning  sacri- 
fice was  prepanMl,  oiTered  up,  and  laid  on  th(!  altar  precisely 
at  nine  o'clock ;  this  interval  they  termed  the  prrpuration 
{Traptta-Kfuit).  Josephus  confirms  the  narrative  of  the  evange- 
lists.' As  the  Israelites  went  out  of  Egypt  at  the  vernal 
eijuinox,  the  morning  watch  would  answer  to  our  four  o'clock 
in  the  inorning.2 

Jiefore  the  ('antivity  the  night  was  divided  into  three  parts 
or  Watches.  (Fsal.  Ixiii.  (j.  xc.  4.)  TheyiVA/ or  hcginning 
of  watchers  is  mentioneil  in  Lam.  ii.  ID.  ;  the  middk-n-nlrh 
in  Jud<r.  vii.  19.;  and  the  inorniiiir-wdtch,  or  ivutch  of  day. 
break,  \\\  Kxod.  xiv.  21.  It  is  prohahle  that  these  watches 
varied  in  length  accordinfr  to  the  seasons  of  the  year :  conse- 
quently those  who  had  a  um"  and  inclement  winter  watch  to 
encounter,  woidd  ardently  desire  the  apjiroach  of  morning 
light  to  terminate  their  watch.  This  circumstance  would 
heautifully  illustrate  the  fervour  of  the  Psalmist's  devotion 
(Psal.  cxxx.  ().)  as  well  as  serve  to  explain  other  passages 
of  the  Old  Testament.^  These  three  watclics  are  also  men- 
tioned hy  various  profane  writ(^rs.' 

During  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  the  night  was  divided  into 
four  watches,  a  fourth  watch  having  heen  introduced  among 
the  Jews  from  the  Romans,  who  derived  it  from  the  Greeks. 
The  second  and  third  watches  are  mentioned  in  Luke  xii.  38. ; 
the  fourth  in  Matt.  xiv.  25. ;  and  the  four  are  all  distinctly 
mentioned  in  Mark  xiii.  35.  JViilch,  therefore,  for  ye  know 
not  when  the  master  of  the  house  eonieth ,-  at  even  (o^*)  or  the 
late  watch),  or  at  midnigut (/unrcvmriou),  or  at  the  cocK-cnow- 
ING  (aAfxTipc^oiKac),  or  in  the  MORNING  (^rp*/,  the  early  watch). 
Here,  the  first  watch  was  at  even,  and  continued  from  six  till 
nine  ;  the  second  commenced  at  nine  and  ended  at  twelve,  or 
midnight;  the  ////«/ watch,  called  hy  the  Romans  g-f////cmH<w, 
lasted  from  twelve  to  three  ;  and  the  mornini^  watch  closed  at 
six.  A  douhle  cock-crowing,  indeed,  is  noticed  hy  St.  Mark 
(\iv.  30.),  where  the  other  evan<relists  mention  only  one. 
(Matt.  xxvi.  31.  Luke  xxii.  31.  John  xiii.  38.)  But  this 
may  be  easily  reconciled.  The  Jewish  doctors  divided  the 
cocK-crowing  into  the  first,  second,  and  third ;  the  heathen 
nations  in  general  observed  only  two.  As  the  cock  crew  the 
second  time  after  Peter's  third  denial,  it  was  this  second  or 
principal  cock-crowing  (for  the  Jews  seem  in  many  res])ccts 
to  have  accommodated  themselves  to  the  Roman  computa- 
tion of  time)  to  which  the  evangelists  Matthew,  Luke,  and 
John  refer.  Or,  perhaps,  the  second  cock-crowing  of  the 
Jews  might  coincide  with  the  second  of  the  Romans.* 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark  that  thi>  word //"«;•  is  frequently 
used  with  great  latitude  in  the  Scriptures,  and  sometimes  im- 
plies the  space  of  time  occupied  hy  a  whole  watch.  (Matt. 
XXV.  13.  xxvi.  -10.  Mark  xiv.  37.  Luke  xxii.  59.  Rev.  iii. 
3.)  P(!rhaps  the  third  Aoi/r  mentioned  in  Acts  xxiii.  23.  was 
a  military  watch  of  the  night.'' 

The  Jews  reckoned  two  evenings  :  the  former  began  at  the 
ninth  hour  of  the  natural  day,  or  three  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon ;  and  the  latter  at  the  eleventh  hour.  Thus  the  pas- 
chal lamb  was  retpiired  to  be  sacrificed  between  the  evenings 
(Kxod.  xii.  a.  Lev.  xxiii.  4.)  ;  which  Josephus  tells  us,  the 
Jews  in  his  time  did,  from  the  ninth  hour  until  the  eleventh." 
Hence  the  law,  requiring  the  paschal  lamb  to  be  sacrificed 
"  at  even,  at  the  going  down  of  the  sun"  (Deut.  xvi.  6^,  ex- 
pressed both  evenings.     It  is  truly  remarkable,  that  "  Christ 

'  During  the  sirge  of  .lerusalrm,  the  .Jewish  liislorian  relates  that  ilic 
priests  were  not  iiiterrujileit  in  the  discliarsi'  of  (lieir  sacred  fiiiietions,  but 
coiitlnueil  twice  a  day,  in  the  morning,  and  at  the  ninth  hour  (or  at  throe 
o'clock  in  tlie  afternoon),  to  otter  u\)  sacrifices  at  the  altar.  The  Jews 
rarely,  if  ever,  ate  or  drank  till  after  the  hour  of  prayer  (Acts  x.  30.),  and 
on  Sabhalh-days  not  till  the  sixth  hour  (twelve  at  noon,  Josephus,  de  vita 
sua,  §51):  which  circuinslance  well  explains  the  aposile  Peter's  defence 
of  those  on  whom  the  Holv  Spirit  had  miraculously  descended  on  the  day 
of  Penlei-ost.     (Acts  ii.  lo!) 

*  Ilr.  A.  Clarke  on  Exod.  xiv.  11. 

»  Thus  the  l.'Mth  psalm  gives  an  instance  of  the  teinple  watch  :  the  whole 
psilm  is  n.ithing  more  tlian  the  alternate  cry  of  two  different  divisions  of 
the  walch.  The  lirst  watch  aildresS'-s  the  second  (ver.  1,  2.)  reminding 
thi'in  of  their  duly  ;  and  the  seeoml  answers  (ver.  3.)  by  a  solenm  ble.ssins. 
The  address  and  the  answer  seem  both  to  be  a  set  form,  which  each  indi- 
vidual pcdcl'iined  or  suns  aloud,  at  stated  intervals,  to  notify  the  time  of 
the  night.     Hishnp  Loxvlh's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  357. 

*  See  Homer,  Hiad,  lib.  x.  v.  252,  253.  Livy,  hb.  vii.  c.  35.  and  Zenophon, 
Aiiab.  lib.  i».  p.  250.  (edit.  Hutchinson.) 

■  »  Liiihllbot,  Hor.  Hcb.  on  John  xiii.  3S.  (Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  597.)  Grotius 
'  and  Whitby  <>n  Matl.  x.xvi.  Jl.  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol. 
i.  p.  112.  Ity  which  writers  various  passages  of  classical  authors  are  cited. 
See  also  Mr.  Towasend's  Harmony  of  the  New  Testament,  vol.  i.  pp. 
4a)— 4.S2. 

*  Fr;ii.'ments  annexed  to  Cahnet's  Dictionary,  No.  cclxiil.  p.  164. 
'  Oe  Bell  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.9.  §3. 

Vol.  II.  K 


our  passover,"  the  antitype  of  the  paschal  lamb,  "expired  at 
the  niiith  hour,  and  w;  s  taken  down  from  the  cross  at  the 
eleventh  hour,  or  sunset."'' 

III.  Seven  nights  and  days  constituted  a  Week  ;  six  of 
these  were  appropriated  to  labour  and  the  ordinary  purposes 
of  life,  and  tlie  sn'cnth  day  or  Solj/jathvins  appointed  by  C»od 
to  be  observed  as  a  day  of  rest,  because  that  mi  it  he  hod  restea 
from  all  his  work  which  God  had  created  and  made.  (Gen.  ii, 
3.)  This  division  of  time  was  universally  observed  by  the 
descendants  of  Noah ;  and  some  eminent  critics  have  conjec- 
tured thatit  was  lost  during  the  bondage  of  the  Israelites  in 
l']gyi)t,  but  was  revived  and  enacted  by  Moses  agreeably  to 
the  (livine  command.  This  conjecture  derives  some  weight 
from  the  word  Suliliat  or  Sal.bnta,  denriing  a  week  among 
the  Syrians,  Arabians,  Christian  Persians,  and  Ethiopians, 
as  in  the  following  ancient  Syriac  Calendar,  expressed  in 
Hebrew  characters :" 

Nnaty-in. . .  One  of  the  Sabbath,  or  Week. .  .Sunday. 

t<n2'Z'~np.  •  •  Tivo  of  the  Sabbath Monday. 

NPiil'Ti'jn.  •  ■  Three  of  the  Sabbath Tuesday. 

NP3C"Sp3"\N.  .  .Fiiiir  of  tlie  Sabbath WcdncHday. 

NnJi'"!<wCn. .  .Five  of  the  Sabbath Thursday. 

Nn^'i'— >];   . .  Eve  of  the  Sabbath Friday. 

Nri2i'.    .  The  Sabbath Saturday. 

The  high  antitpiity  of  this  calendar  is  evinced  by  the  use 
of  the  cardinal  numbers,  we,  two,  three,  &e.  instead  of  the 
ord\nn\s,fi)-st, second, third, See.  following  the  Hebrew  idiom; 
as  in  the  account  of  the  creation,  where  we  read  in  the  origi- 
nal, "  one  day — tioo  day — three  day,"  &c. ;  where  the  Sep- 
tuatrint  retains  it  in  the  first,  calling  it  y^y.tpu.  /utia.  It  is  re- 
markable that  all  the  evangelists  follow  the  Syriac  calendar, 
both  in  the  word  o-uCQuth,  used  for  "  a  week,"  and  also  in  re- 
taining the  cardinal  number  jum  o-uCCutu^v,  "  one  of  the  week," 
to  express  the  day  of  the  resurrection.  (.Matt,  xxviii.  1.  Mark 
xvi.  2.  Luke  xxiv.  1.  John  xx.  1.)  Afterwards  Mark  adopts 
the  usual  phrase,  Trpcerii  crASCctTn,  "  the  first  of  the  week"  (Mark 
xvi.  9.),  where  he  uses  the  singular ^-aoC^Tiv  fir  a  week,-  and 
so  does  Luke,  as  N>io-TJua>  JVj  ts  caQSo-tx,  "  I  fast  twice  in  the 
week."  (Luke  xviii.  12.) 

The  Syriac  name  for  Friday,  or  the  sixth  day  of  the  week, 
is  also  adopted  by  Mark,  who  renders  it  7rf,'.<r-jSSxTcy,  ^^sabbath- 
eve"  (xv.  42.),  corresponding  to  Tr-jfUTK^n,  *■'■  preparation-dcy." 
(Matt,  xxvii.  62.  Mark' xv.  42.  Luke  xxiii.  54.  John  xix. 
31.)  And  Josephus  also  conforms  to  this  usage,  except  that 
he  uses  o-^CCttT*  m  the  singular  sense,  for  the  Sabbath-day,  in 
his  account  of  a  decree  of  Augustus,  exempting  the  Jews  of 
Asia  and  Cyrcne  from  secular  services,  ev  a-uCda-i,  »  t»  tt^ 
Txurnf  mpt7K.iv»,  ATTo  Tj)c  Lp-f.  ji'v.Tjic.  "  Ou  tllC  Siibbut h-Av^\  or 
on  the  /)?-eparation-<\;\y  hi'fi'TC  it,  I'rom  the  ninth  hour.''^'<>  The 
first  three  evangelists  also  use  the  plural  o-uSC^tu.,  to  denote 
the  Sabbath-day.  (Matt.  xii.  5 — II.  Mark  i.  21.  and  ii.  23. 
Luke  iv.  16,  &,c.)  Whereas  John,  to  avoid  ambiguity,  ap- 
propriates the  singular  a-ur^C-jrcv  to  the  Sabbrdh-ihy,  and  the 
plural  <Ta.QivT-x  to  the  week.  (John  v.  9 — 16.  vii.  22,  &c.  xx.  1.) 

The  second  Sabbath  after  the  first  (Luke  vi.  1 .),  San'.f.Tr^Tcv, 
or  rather  the  second  prime  Sabbath,  concerning  which  com- 
mentators have  been  so  greatly  divided,  appears  to  have  heen 
the  first  Sabbath  after  the  second  day  of  unleavened  bread  or 
of  the  passover  week.  Besides  weens  of  days,  the  Jews  had 
weeks  of  seven  years  (the  seventh  of  which  was  called  the 
sabbatical  year)  ;  and  weeks  of  seven  tin.es  seven  years,  or 
or  of  forty-nine  years,  which  were  reckoned  from  one  jubilee 
to  another.  The  fiftieth  or  jab  lee  year  was  celebrated  with 
singular  festivity  and  solemnity." 

IV.  The  Hebrews  had  their  Months,  w^hich,like  those  of 
all  other  ancient  nations,  were  lunar  ones,  being  measured  by 
the  revolutions  of  the  moon,  and  consisting  alternately  of 
twenty-nine  and  thirty  days.  While  the  Jews  continued  in 
the  land  of  Canaan,  the  conmiencement  of  their  months  and 
years  was  not  settled  by  any  astronomical  rules  or  calcula- 
tions, but  by  ihe  p/uisis  or  actual  appearance  of  the  moon.  As 
soon  as  they  saw  the  moon,  they  began  the  month.  Persons 
were  therefore  appointed  to  watch  on  the  tops  of  the  moun- 
tains for  the  first  appearance  of  the  moon  after  the  change : 
as  soon  as  they  saw  it,  they  informed  the  Sanhedrin,  and 
public  notice  was  given,  first,  by  the  sounding  of  trumpets, 
to  which  thc.e  is  an  allusion  in  Psal.  Ixxxi.  3. ;  and  after- 

s  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  p.  lU.  In  the  two  following 
pages,  he  illustrates  several  appaicnily  chronoloj^ical  contradictions  be- 
tween Ihe  evangelists  with  equal  feliciiy  and  learning. 

s  This  calendar  is  taken  fioni  lip.  M.ir.-h's  Translation  of  Michaelis's  In- 
trodiictionlotlie  NewTes'amcnt,  vol.  i.  p.  I3li. 

'0  .^nli<l.  lib.  xvi.  c.  0.  §  2. 

»'  Ur.  H^es's  Aualysia  of  Claonac.^y,  vol.  i.  p.  120. 


74 


JEWISH  AND  KUJVIAIN   MUDi:S  OF  COMPUTING  TIME. 


[Paht  II. 


wards  lio-h ting; beacons  thronorhout  the  land  ;  thongli  (as  the 
mishnical  rabbins  tell  us)  after  they  had  frequently  been  de- 
ceived by  the  Samaritans,  who  kindled  false  fires,  they  used 
to  announce  the  appearance  by  sending  messengers.  As, 
however,  they  had  no  months  longer  than  thirty  days,  if  they 
did  not  see  the  new  moon  the  night  following  the  thirtieth 
day,  they  concluded  that  the  appearance  was  obstructed  by 
the  clouds;  and,  without  watchmgany  longer,  made  the  next 
day  the  first  day  of  the  following  month.  But,  on  the  dis- 
persion of  the  Jews  throughout  all  nations,  having  no  oppor- 
tunities of  being  informed  of  the  appearance  of  the  new 
moons,  they  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  astronomical 
calculations  and  cycles,  in  order  to  fix  the  beginning  of  their 
months  and  years.  At  first,  they  employed  a  cycle  of  eighty- 
four  years  :  but  this  being  discovered  to  be  defective,  thev 
had  recourse  to  the  Metonic  cycle  of  nineteen  years ;  which 
was  established  by  tbe  authority  of  rabbi  Hillel,  prince  of  the 
iSanhedrin,  about  the  year  360  of  the  Christian  aira.  This 
they  still  use,  and  say  that  it  is  to  be  observed  mitil  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah.  In  the  compass  of  this  cycle  there 
are  twelve  common  years,  consisting  of  twelve  months,  and 
seven  intercalary  years,  consisting  of  thirteen  months.' 

Originally,  the  Jews  had  no  particular  names  for  their 
months,  but  called  them  the//-s^  second,  &c.  Thus  the  De- 
luo'e  beo-an  in  the  second  month,  and  came  to  its  height  in  the 
seventh  month,  at  the  end  of  150  days  (Gen.  vii.  11 — 24.  viii. 
4.)  ;  and  decreased  until  the  tenth  month,  when  the  tops  of 
the  mountains  were  seen.  (viii.  5.)  Afterwards  they  acquired 
distinct  names ;  thus  Moses  named  the  Jirst  month  of  the  year 
Mib  (Exod.  xii.  2.  xiii.  4.)  ;  signifying  green,  from  the  green 
ears  of  corn  at  that  season  ;  for  it  began  about  the  vernal  equi- 
nox. The  second  month  was  named  Zif,  signifying  in  Chal- 
dee  glory  or  splendour  ,■  in  which  the  foundation  of  Solomon's 
temple  was  laid.  (1  Kings  vi.  1.)  The  seventh  mouth  was 
styled  Ethanini,  which  is  interpreted  harvests  by  the  Syriac 
version.  (1  Kings  viii.  2.)  The  eighth  mowih.  Bui ,-  from 
the  fall  of  the  leaf.  (1  Kings  vi.  38.)  But  concerning  the 
origin  of  these  appellations  critics  are  by  no  means  agreed  : 
on  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  they  introduced 
the  names  which  they  had  found  among  the  Chaldaeans  and 
Persians.  Thus,  the  "first  month  was  also  called  Nisan,  signi- 
fy in  g./Z/fi^/t/;  because  in  that  month  the  Israelites  were  thrust 
out  of  Egypt  (Exod.  xii.  39.)  ;  the  third  month,  Slvan,  signi- 
fying a  bramble  (Esth.  iii.  7.  Neb.  ii.  1.);  and  the  sfxth 
month  FAul,  signifying  mourning,  probably  because  it  was 
the  time  of  preparation  for  the  great  day  of  atonement,  on  the 
tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month.  (Neh.vi.  15.)  The  ninth 
month  was  called  Chisltu,  signifying  chilled ,-  when  the  cold 
weather  sets  in,  and  fires  are  lighted.  (Zech.  vii.  1.  Jer.  xxxvi. 
22.)  The  tenth  month  was  called  Teheth,  signifying  miry. 
(Esth.  ii.  16.)  The  eleventh,  Shebef,  signifying  a  stuff  or  a 
iceptre.  (Zech.  i.  7.)  And  tbe  twelfth  Jldur,  signifying  a 
magnificent  mantle,  probably  from  the  profusion  of  flowers 
and  plants  with  which  the  earth  then  begins  to  be  clothed  in 
warm  climates.  (Ezra  vi.  15.  Esth.  iii.  7.)  It  is  said  to  be 
a  Syriac  term.  (2  Mac.  xvi.  36. )2 

V.  The  Jews  had  four  sorts  of  Years, — one  for  plants,  an- 
other for  beasts,  a  third  for  sacred  purposes,  and  the  fourth 
was  civil  and  common  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine. 

1.  The  year  of  Flatits  was  reckoned-from  the  month  corres- 
ponding with  our  January  ;  because  they  paid  tithe-fruits  of 
the  trees  which  budded  at  that  time. 

2.  The  second  year  was  that  of  Beasts ,-  for  when  they 
tithed  their  lambs,  tbe  owner  drove  all  the  flock  under  a  rod, 
and  they  marked  the  tenth,  which  was  given  to  the  Levites. 
They  could,  however,  only  take  those  which  fell  in  the  year, 
and  this  year  began  at  the  mouth  Elul,  or  the  beginning  of 
our  August. 

But  the  two  years  which  are  the  most  known  are  the  Civil 
and  Ecclesiastical  Years. 

3.  The  Civil  Year  commenced  on  the  fifteenth  of  our  Sep- 
tember, because  it  was  an  old  tradition  that  the  world  was 
created  at  that  time.  From  this  year  the  Jews  computed 
their  jubilees,  dated  all  contracts,  and  noted  the  birth  of  chil- 
dren, and  the  reign  of  kings.  It  is  said  also  that  this  month 
was  appointed  for  making  war  ;  because,  the  great  heats  be- 
ing passed,  they  then  wejit  into  the  fie  d.  In  2  Sam.  xi.  1. 
we  read  that  David  sent  Joah  and  his  servants  with  him,  and 
all  Israel,  to  destroy  the  Jmmonitcs,  at  the  return  of  the  year 

»  Dr.  A.  Clarkp,  at  the  endof  hiscominentaryon  Ppuleronomy,  has  given 
six  elaborately  constructed  tables,  e.xplanntory  of  the  .Jewish  calendar. 
Mr.  Allen  has  also  given  six  tables  ;  vvliicli,  ihuiiKh  less  extensive  than  the 
jireceding,  are  well  caloilated  to  affont  a  cleai-  idea  of  the  construction  and 
variation;!  of  tlie  Jewish  calendar.     Hee  Modern  Judaism,  pp.  3G9— 377. 

*  Di .  Hales's  Analysis  oi  L'luonology,  vol.  i.  p.  127. 


(marginal  rpudering),  at  the  time  when  kings  go  forth  to  battle, 
that  is,  in  the  month  of  September.  The  annexed  table  ex- 
hibits the  months  of  the  Jewish  civil  year,  with  the  corres- 
ponding months  of  our  computation  : — 

1.  Tisri....  corresponds  with  part  of....  September  ami  October. 

2.  Marchesvan October  and  November. 

3.  Chisleu  or  Kisleu November  and  December. 

4.  Thebet .' December  and  January. 

5.  Sebat  January  and  February. 

H.  Adar February  and  March. 

7.  Nisan  or  Abib March  and  April. 

8.  Jyar  or  Zif April  and  May. 

9.  Si  van May  and  June. 

10.  Tbauunuz  J\me  and  July. 

11.  Ab   July  and  Auitust. 

12.  Elul August  and  September. 

Some  of  the  preceding  names  are  still  in  use  in  Persia. 

4.  The  Ecclesiastical  or  Sacred  Year  began  in  March,  or  on 
the  first  day  of  the  month  Nisan,  because  at  that  time  they 
departed  out  of  Egypt.  From  that  month  they  computed 
their  feasts,  and  the  prophets  also  occasionally  dated  their 
oracles  and  visions.  Thus  Zechariah  (vii.  1.)  says,  that  the 
ward  of  the  Lord,  came  unto  him  in  the  fourth  day  of  the  ninth 
month,  even  in  Chisleu  ,■  which  answers  to  our  November, 
whence  it  is  evident  that  he  adopted  the  ecclesiastical  year, 
which  commenced  in  March.  The  month  Nisan  is  noted  in 
the  Old  Testament  for  the  overflowings  of  Jwdun  (Josh,  iii 
15.  1  Chron.  xii.  15.)  ;  which  were  common  at  that  season, 
the  river  being  swollen  by  the  melted  snows  that  poured  in 
torrents  from  Mount  Lebanon.  The  following  table  presents 
the  months  of  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical  year,  compared  with 
our  months  : — 

^'  (Neh"  it'l^st^h.'i'ii  V  i  (  answers  to  part  of  March  and  April. 

2.  Jyar  or  Zif April  and  May. 

3.  Sivan  (Esth.  viii.  9.) May  and  June. 

4.  Thammuz June  and  July. 

5.  Ab July  and  AuLai.st. 

6.  Elul  (Neh.vi.  1.5.) Auijust  and  September. 

7.  Tisri. September  and  October. 

8.  Marchesvan October  and  November. 

9.  Kisleu  or  Chisleu  (Zech.  vii.  1.  Neh.  i.  1.)  November  and  December. 

10.  Thebet December  and  January. 

11.  Sebat  (Zech.  i.  7.) January  and  February. 

12.  Adar  (Ezra  vi.  15.  Esth.  iii.  7.) February  and  March. 3 

The  Jewish  months  being  regulated  by  the  phases  or  ap- 
pearances of  the  moon,  their  years  were  consequently  lunar 
years,  consisting  of  twelve  lunations,  or  354  days  and  8 
hours  ;  but  as  the  Jewish  festivals  were  held  not  only  on  cer- 
tain fixed  days  of  the  month,  but  also  at  certain  seasons  of 
the  year,  consequently  great  confusion  would,  in  process  of 
time,  arise  by  this  method  of  calculating  ;  the  spring  month 
sometimes  falling  in  the  middle  of  winter,  it  became  neces- 
saiy  to  accommodate  the  lunar  to  solar  years,  in  order  that 
their  months,  and  consequently  their  festivals,  might  always 
fall  at  the  same  season.  For  this  purpose,  the  Jews  added  a 
whole  month  to  the  year,  as  often  as  it  was  necessary ;  which 
occurred  commonly  once  in  three  yearS,  and  sometimes  once 
in  two  years.  This  intercalary  month  was  added  at  the  end 
of  the  ecclesiastical  year  after  the  month  Adar,  and  was  there- 
fore called  Ve-Adar,  or  the  second  Adar  :  but  no  vestiges  of 
such  intercalation  are  to  be  found  in  the  Scriptures. 

As  agriculture  constituted  the  principal  employment  of  the 
Jevvs,  they  also  divided  their  natural  year  into  seasons  with 
reference  to  their  rural  work.  These,  we  have  seen,  were 
six  in  number,  each  of  two  months'  duration,  including  one 
whole  month  and  the  halves  of  two  others.  See  an  account 
of  them  in  pp.  23 — 25.  of  this  volume. 

To  this  natural  division  of  the  year  there  are  several  allu- 
sions in  the  vSacred  Writings  :  as  in  Jer.  xxxvi.  22.  where 
king  Jehoiakim  is  said  to  be  sitting  in  thewinter-housein  the 
ninth  sacred  month  Chisleu,  the  latter  half  of  which  fell  in 
the  winter  or  rainy  season ;  so,  in  Ezra  x.  13.  it  is  said  that 
the  congregation  of  the  people  which  had  been  convened  on 
the  twentieth  day  of  the  same  month,  were  not  able  to  stand 

3  The  precedins  view  of  the  sacred  and  civil  years  of  the 'Jews  is  that 
generally  adopted  by  the  most  eminent  writers  on  Jewish  antiquities,  after 
tbe  opinions  of  the  Jewish  rabbins,  who  affirm  that  March  and  September 
were  the  initial  months  of  these  two  years,  instead  of  April  and  October. 
That  this  was  the  case  at  a  late  period  is  admitted  by  Jalm  and  Ackermann, 
after  J.  D.  Michaelis.  But  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Ro- 
mans, who  commenced  their  year  with  the  month  of  March,  it  appears 
that  the  .Jews  adopted  the  practice  of  their  conquerors.  In  confirmation 
of  this  remark  it  may  be  observed  that  the  rabinnical  opinion  is  opposed 
not  only  by  Josephus,  but  also  by  the  genius  of  the  Syriac  and  Arabic 
languages,  and  by  the  fact  that  the  ceremonies  prescribed  to  be  observed 
on  the  three  great  fe.^tival  days  do  not  agree  witli  the  months  of  March  and 
September.  For  a  further  investigation  of  this  curious  question,  which 
cannot  be  discussed  v^ithin  the  limits  of  a  note,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Michaelis's  Commentatio  de  Mensibus  Hebrworum,  in  the  Conmientationes 
RegiiB  Societatis  Goettingensi  per  annos  1763-68,  pp.  10.  el  suf/.,  or  to  Mr., 
Bowyer's  translation  of  this  disquisition  in  his  "  Select  Discourses"  on 
the  Hebrew  months,  &c  pp.  1 — 32. 


ClIAP.   IV.] 


THE  JEWISH  CALENDAR. 


75 


out  in  the  open  air,  bpcause  i1  wns  "a  time  of  much  rain." 
Tiie  knowl(Hi<r(;  of  this  uuAc  of  dividinir  tlic  year  iUustralcs 
John  X.  22,  '23.  and  accounts  for  our  Lord's  waliiincr  in  the 
portico  of  tlio  t('ni|)l(!  at  the  feast  of  dedication,  which  was 
celebrated  towards*  the  clise  of  the  same  monlli. 

Further,  1\h'.  Jews  divided  tlieir  sohir  year  into  four  parts, 
called  by  them  'J''/{ti/)/i'i/  (that  is,  reviditlioiia  of  linte\  or 
fj'^arters,  whicli  tliey  distiniruisluHl  by  the  names  ot  the 
months  witli  which  ihey  commenced  :  thus,  the  vernal  equi- 
nox' is  termcul  Tilmphal  JV.'s'ia  ,-  tiie  autumnal  e(|uinox,  Tilat- 
plial  Ti.\rl ;  the  winter  solstice,  Tikii/j/uit  'JVbilli;  and  the 
summer  solsti(re,  ']\kii]iliat  '/'/luiitnittz.  Some  critics  have 
conj(^ctured  liial  our  Lord  ref<'rs  to  tiie  iuterveniiifr  space  of 
four  moutlis,  from  the  cnuclusion  of  seed-time  to  the  com- 
mencement of  th(i  harvest,  in  Jolm  iv.  35. 

The  followiufr  (Jai-kmdau  will  present  to  the  reader  a  view 
of  the  entire  Jkwish  Ykah.  It  is  abridired  from  Father 
Lamy's  Jjij)iiratus  /j,li/icii.\,'  with  additions  from  the  (Jal(Mi- 
(lar  printed  by  (.'almet,  at  tin;  end  of  his  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible.  In  it  are  inserted  the  festivals  and  fasls  celobrat<'d 
by  the  Jews;  includin<j  not  only  those  enacted  by  the  law  of 
Moses,  and  which  are  dciscribccl  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this 
work,  but  likewise  thosi;  which  were  not  established  until 
after  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  and  those  which  are  ob- 
served l)y  the  .lew  s  to  the  present  lime.  The  lessons  also 
are  introduced  wiiich  they  were  accustomed  to  read  in  the 
synaj^ogues. — Those  days,  on  wliich  no  festival  or  fast  was 
celebrated,  are  designedly  omitted. 


1.    TISRI,  FORMERLY  CALLED    ETHANIM. 

The  FIRST  month  of  the  civil  t/ear,  the  seventh  month  of  the 
ecchniiislicul  year;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  with 
part  of  our  tieptember  and  October. 

1.  Rosch  Ilascliana,  tlio  beginning  of  the  civil  year.  The  feast  of  trum- 
pols  coinuiandecJ  in  Leviticus.  (Lev.  x.xiii.  24,  25.  Num.  x.\'ijc.  \.  Jer. 
xli.  1.) 

3.  Tlie  fast  of  Gedaliah;  because  Gedaliah,  the  son  of  Ahikam,  and  all 
the  Jews  that  were  with  him,  were  slain  at  Mizpali.  (2  Kings  .\.vv.  25.) 
This  is  the  fast  tliat  Zccliariah  calls  the  fast  of  the  seventh  month.  (Zech. 
viii.  19.) 

5.  A  fast.  Twenty  Israelites  were  killed :  Rabbi  Akiba,  the  son  of  Jo- 
Beph,  was  loaded  with  irons,  and  died  in  prison. 

7.  A  fast,  appointed  on  account  of  the  golden  calf     (E.tod.  x.xxii.  6,  7,  8.) 
The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Deut.  xx\-i.  1.  to  Deut.  xxix.  and  the 

Ixth  chapter  of  Isaiah. 
10.  The  fast  of  expiation.  (Lev.  xxiii.  27.) 

14.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Deut.  xxix.  10.  to  Deut.  xxxi.  1. 
when  the  year  had  most  Sabbaths;  and  wlien  fewest,  the  book  was  finished 
on  this  day.     And  from  Isa.  Ixi.  I.  to  Isa.  Ixiii.  10. 

15.  The  feast  of  tabernacles.  (Lev.  xxiii.  34,  35.)  It  lasted  seven  days, 
exclusive  of  the  octave  or  eighth  day. 

21.  Hosanna  Rabba,  the  seventh  day  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles  ;  or  the 
feast  of  branches. 

The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  i.  1.  to  Gen.  vi.  9.  and  from  Isa. 
zlii.  5.  to  Isa.  xliii.  II. 

22.  The  octave  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles.    (Lev.  xxiii.  36.) 

"  23.  The  soleninily  of  the  law,  in  memory  of  the  covenant  and  death  of 
Moses.    On  this  day  Solomon's  dedication  was  finished.    (1  Kings  viii.  65.) 

28.  The  lessons  were  from  Gen.  vi.  9.  to  Gen.  xii.  1.  and  from  Isa.  liv.  1. 
to  Isa.  Iv.  5. 

30.  On  this  day  the  lessons  were  from  Gen.  xii.  1.  to  Gen.  xviii.  1.  and 
from  Isa.  xl.  27.  to  Isa.  xli.  17.  (This  day  is  the  fast  held  in  commemoration 
of  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  whom  Nebuchadnezzar  made  governor  of 
Judiea,  after  he  had  destroyed  Jerusalem,  according  to  Dr.  Prideaux.  » 

2.  MARCHESVAN 

The  SECOXD  month  of  the  civil,  year,  the  eighth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  only  tiventy-nine  days,  and  cor- 
responds with  part  of  our  October  and  JWnember. 

1.  The  new  moon.  (Cahnet  observes,  in  the  .lewish  Calendar,  at  the  end 
of  his  Dictionary  of  the  Hiblc,  that  the  Jews  always  made  two  new  moons 
for  every  month ;  the  first  of  which  was  the  last  day  of  the  preceding 
month  ;  and  the  first  day  of  the  month  was  the  second  new  moon  of  that 
month.) 

3.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xviii.  1.  to  Gen.  xxiii.  1.  and 
from  8  Sam.  iv.  1.  to  2  Sam.  iv.  38. 

6.  A  fast,  appointed  on  account  of  Zedekiah's  ha\'ing  his  eyes  put  out  by 
the  command  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  after  he  had  seen  his  children  slain  be- 
fore his  face.    (2  Kings  xxv.  7.  Jer.  Hi.  10.) 

8.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  (jen.  .\xiii.  1.  to  Gen.  xxv.  19.  and 
from  1  Sam.  i.  1.  to  1  Sam.  i'  32. 

15.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xxv.  19.  to  Gen.  xxviii.  10. 
and  from  Mai.  i.  1.  to  Mai.  ii.  8. 

19.  Fast  to  expiate  the  crimes  committed  on  account  of  the  feast  of 
tabernacles. 

23.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  stones  of  the  altar  which  the  Gentiles  pro- 
■  faned,  1  Mac.  iv.  46. 

The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xxviii.  10.  to  Gen.  xxiii.  3.  and 
from  Hos.  xi.  7.  to  IIos.  xiv.  3. 

25.  A  fast  in  memory  of  some  places  which  the  Cuthseans  seized,  and 
were  recovered  by  the  Israelites  after  the  captivity. 

'  Lamy's  Apparatus  BIblicus,  vol.  i.  p.  \n^^.  et  seq. 

»  Prideaux's  Connection,  part  i.  book  i.  under  the  year  538. 


In  this  month  the  Jews  prayed  for  the  rain,  which  they  call 
Jorc,  or  the  autumnal  rain,  which  was  very  sfa.sonabie  for  their 
seed.  Genebrard  pretends  that  they  did  not  ask  for  this  rain  till 
the  next  month.  Perhap.s  there  niii,dit  be  no  stated  time  for 
asking  for  it ;  that  mipht  depend  upmi  their  want  of  it.  The 
Jews  say  it  was  in  October;  and  it  was  called  in  general  the 
autumnal  rain,  which  season  lasted  three  months. 

3.  CHISLEU,  OR  CASLEU. 

The  THIRD  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  ninth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  with 
part  of  our  JVovember  and  December, 

1.  The  new  moon. 

2.  Prayers  for  rain. 

3.  A  fcaxt  in  memory  of  the  idols  wliich  the  Asmontcans  threw  out  of 
the  temple. 

6.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Con.  xxxii.  3.  to  Gen.  xxxvil.  1. 
and  the  whole  book  of  Obadiah,  or  from  Hos.  xii.  12.  to  the  end  of  the 
book. 

7.  A  fast,  instituted  because  king  Jchoiakim  burned  the  prophecy  of 
Jeremiah,  which  Uarurh  had  written.  (Jer.  xxxvi.  U-'J.)  This  fast  Dr.  Pri- 
deaux places  on  the  29th  of  this  niiinlh.'  But  C'almet  pliiccs  it  on  the  sixth 
of  this  month,  and  makes  the  seventh  of  this  month  a  festival,  in  memory 
of  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great,  the  son  of  AnUjialer.  Scaliger  will  have 
it  that  it  was  instituted  on  account  of  Zedekiah's  having  his  eyes  put  out, 
after  his  children  had  been  slain  in  his  sight. 

10.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xxxvii.  1.  to  Gen.  xli.  1.  and 
from  .\nios  ii.  6.  to  Amos  iii.  9. 

17.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xli.  1.  to  Gen.  xliv.  18.  and 
from  1  Sam.  ill.  15.  to  the  end  of  the  cliapter. 

25.  The  dedication  of  the  temple.    This  feast  lasted  eight  days. 

The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xliv.  18.  to  Gen.  xlvii.  27.  and 
from  Ezek.  xxxvii.  15.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

4.  THEBETH,  or  TEBETH. 

The  fourth  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  tenth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year;  it  has  but  tiaenty-nine  days,  and  cor- 
responds with  part  of  our  December  and  Januury. 

1.  The  new  moon. 

3.  Tlie  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xlvii.  27.  to  the  end  of  the 
book,  and  the  thirteen  first  verses  of  the  second  chapter  of  the  first  book 
of  Samuel. 

8.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Greek.  Philo,  in 
his  life  of  Moses,  says,  that  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  celebrated  a  feast  on 
this  day,  in  memory  of  the  72  Literpreters.  But  the  Jews  at  present  abo- 
minate that  version. 

9.  A  fast,  the  reason  of  which  is  not  mentioned  by  the  Rabbins. 

10.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  siege  which  the  king  of  Babylon  laid  to  Jeru- 
salem. (2Kingsxxv.) 

11.  The  lessons  were  the  first  five  chapters  of  Exodus,  and  with  them 
from  Isa.  xx\ii.  6.  to  Isa.  x.wii.  14.  or  else  from  Jer.  i.  I.  to  Jer.  ii.  4. 

17.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Exod.  vi.  1.  to  Exod.  x.  1.  and 
from  Ezek.  xxviii.  25.  to  Ezek.  xxx.  1. 

25.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Exod.  x.  1.  to  Exod  xiii.  17.  and 
from  Jer.  xlvi.  13.  to  the  end  of  the  chajner. 

28.  A  fast  in  memory  of  Rabbi  Simeon's  having  driven  the  Sadducees 
out  of  the  Sanhedrin,  where  they  had  the  upper  hand  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander JanucBus ;  and  his  having  introduced  the  Pharisees  in  their  room. 

5.  SEBAT,  SHEVET,  or  SHEBAT. 

The  FIFTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  eleventh  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  with 
part  of  our  January  and  February. 

1.  The  new  moon.  In  this  month  the  Jews  began  to  reckon  the  years 
of  the  trees  which  they  planted,  whose  fruit  was  not  to  be  eaten  till  after 
they  had  been  planted  lliree  years.  C'almet  fixes  the  beginning  of  this 
year  of  trees  to  the  15th  day  of  this  month. 

2.  A  rejoicing  for  the  death  of  Alexander  Jannseus. 

3.  Now  is  read  from  Exod.  xiii.  17.  to  Exod.  xviii.  1.  and  from  Judg.  iv.  4. 
to  Judg.  vi.  1. 

A  fast  in  memory  of  the  death  of  the  elders  who  succeeded  Joshua. 
(Judg.  ii.  10.) 

8.  \  fast,  because  on  this  day  died  the  just  men  who  lived  in  the  days  of 
Joshua.     (Judg.  ii.  10.) 

10.  The  lessons  were  from  Exod.  xviii.  1.  to  Exod.  xxi.  1.  and  the  whole 
sixth  chapter  of  Isaiah. 

J7.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Exod.  xxi.  I.  to  Exod.  xxv.  I.  and 
Jer.  xxxiv.  from  ver.  8.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

23.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  insurrection  of  the  other  tribes  against  that 
of  Benjamin,  on  account  of  the  dea<h  of  the  Levite's  wife.    (Judg.  xx.) 

26.  Now  is  read,  from  Exod.  xxv.  1.  to  Exod.  xxvii.  20.  and  from  1  Sam.  v. 
12.  to  1  Sam.  vi.  14. 

29.  Now  is  read,  from  Exod.  x.wii.  20.  to  Exod.  xxx.  11.  and  Ezek.  xliiL 
from  the  10th  verse  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

6.  ADAH. 

The  SIXTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  twelfth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year ;  it  has  only  twenty-nine  days,  and  cor- 
responds with  part  of  otir  February  and  March. 

1.  The  new  moon.    Genebrard  places  the  first-fruits  on  this  day. 

3.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Exod.  xxx.  11.  to  Exod.  xxxv.  1.  and 
from  1  Sam.  xviii.  1.  to  1  Sam.  xxm.  39. 

7.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  death  of  Moses,  the  lawgiver  of  the  Jews. 
(Deut.  xxxiv.  5,  6.) 

'  Connection,  part  i.  book  i.  under  the  year  685. 


76 


THE  JEWISH  CALENDAR. 


[Part  U. 


9.  A  fast.  The  schools  of  Schammai  and  Ilillel  began  to  be  divided  on 
this  day. 

12.  Tlie  lessons  are  from  Exod.  xx.xv.  1.  to  E.xod.  xx.xviii.  21.  and  from 
1  Sam.  xvii.  13.  to  1  Sai:i,  xvii.  26.  (Tliis  day  j.s  also  a  Toast  in  memory  of 
the  death  of  Hollianus  and  Pipus,  two  proselytes  and  biotliers,  who  chose 
rather  to  die  ttian  violate  the  law.)' 

13.  A  festival  on  account  of  tlie  death  of  Niranor.  (2  Mace.  xv.  37.) 
Genebrard  places  the  fast  of  Esther  (Esth.  iv.  10.)  on  this  day. 

X4.  Purim  the  first,  or  the  Little  Feast  of  Lots. 

15.  Purim  the  second,  or  the  Great  Feast  of  Lots.  (Esth.  ix.  18.)  An  ac- 
count of  these  festivals  is  given  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  volume. 

The  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Zorobabel  (Ezravi.  Iti.)  was  made  in  this 
month,  but  the  day  is  not  known. 

18.  Now  is  read  from  Exod.  xxxviii.  21.  to  the  end  of  the  book  ;  and  from 
1  Sam.  vii.  50.  to  1  Sam.  viii.  21. 

20.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  rain  obtained  of  God,  by  one  Onias  Ham- 
maael.  in  a  time  of  n;reat  dearth. 

25.  Ttie  lessons  were  the  first  five  chapters  of  Leviticus,  and  from  Isa. 
xliii.  21.  to  Isa.  xliv.  21. 

28.  A  feast.  The  Grecian  edict,  which  forbade  the  Jews  the  use  of  cir- 
cumcision, recalled. 

The  intercalary  month  was  inserted  here,  when  the  year  was  to  consist 
of  thirteen  lunar  months ;  and  the  month  so  added  was  called  Ve-Adar,  that 
is,  the  second  Adar. 

7.  ABIB,  OR  NISAN. 

The  SEVENTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  first  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  thirty  days,  arid  corresponds  with 
part  of  our  JMarch  and  Jlpril. 

1.  The  new  moon.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  death  of  the  children  of 
Aaron.    (Lev.  x.  1.) 

3.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  vi.  1.  to  Lev.  ix.  1.  and  from  Jer.  vii.  21. 
to  Jer.  viii.  4. 

10.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  death  of  Miriam.  (Num.  xx.  1.)  On  this  day 
every  one  provided  liimself  with  a  lamb  against  the  14th. 

12.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  ix.  1.  to  Lev.  xii.  1.  and  from  2  Sam.  vi.  1. 
to2Sam.  vii.  17. 

14.  The  passover.  The  Jews  now  burn  all  the  leavened  bread  they  have 
ia  their  houses. 

15.  The  feast  of  unleavened  bread. 

16.  The  morrow  after  the  feast  of  the  passover.  On  this  second  day  the 
Jews  offered  up  to  God  the  Omer,  that  is,  the  sheaf  of  the  new  barley 
harvest,  which  was  cut  and  carried  into  the  temple  with  much  ceremony. 
The  fifty  days  of  pentecost  were  reckoned  from  tliis  day. 

19.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xii.  1.  to  Lev.  xiv.  1.  and  from  2  Sam.  iv. 
42.  to  2  Sam.  v.  20. 

21.  Tbe  last  day  of  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread. 

26.  A  fast  for  the  deatli  of  Joshua.    (Josh.  xxiv.  29.) 

27.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xiv.  1.  to  Lev.  xvi.  1.  and  2  Sam.  vii.  3. 
to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

29.  Genebrard  observes,  that  the  Jews  in  this  month  prayed  for  the 
spring  rain,  or  the  latter  rain,  which  was  seasonable  for  their  harvest. 
(J>eut.  xi.  14.  Zech.  x.  1.)  This  is  tliat  rain  which  the  Hebrews  call 
Malkosh,  that  is,  the  rain  which  prepares  for  the  harvest,  and  makes  the 
grain  swell. 

8.  JYAR,  OR  ZIF. 
The  EIGHTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  secottd  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year ;  it  has  otily  txuenty-nine  days,  and  cor- 
responds -with  part  of  our  April  and  JMay. 

I.  The  new  moon. 

3.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xvi.  1.  to  Lev.  xix.  1.  and  17  verses  of 
Ezek.  xxii. 
10.  A  fast  for  the  death  of  Eli,  and  the  taking  of  the  ark.    (1  Sam.  iv.  18.) 

II.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xix.  1.  to  Lev.  xx.  1.  and  from  Amos  ix.  7. 
to  the  end ;  or  else  from  Ezek.  xx.  2.  to  Ezek.  xxi.  21. 

14.  The  second  passover  (Num.  ix.  10,  11.)  in  favour  of  those  who  could 
not,  or  were  not  suffered  to  celebrate  the  passover  the  last  month. 

19.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xxi.  1.  to  Lev.  xxv.  1.  and  from  Ezek.  iv. 
15.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

23.  A  feast.    Simon  takes  Gzy.s.,  according  to  Scaliger. 

26.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xxv.  1.  to  Lev.  xxvi.  3.  and  from  Jer. 
xxxii.  6.  to  Jer.  xxxii.  28. 

28.  A  fast  for  the  death  of  Samuel,  who  was  lamented  by  all  the  people. 
(1  Sam.  xxv.  1.) 

9.  SIVAN,  OR  SIUVAN. 

The  TfiiTTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  third  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  ivith 
part  of  our  J\Iay  and  June. 

1.  The  new  moon. 

3.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xxvi.  3.  to  the  end  of  the  book,  and  from 
Jer.  xvi.  19.  to  Jer.  xvii.  15. 

6.  The  feast  of  pentecost,  which  is  also  called  the  feast  of  weeks,  be- 
cause it  fell  just  seven  weeks  after  the  morrow  after  the  feast  of  the 
passover. 

10.  Numbers  is  begun  and  read  to  ch.^iv.  ver.  21.  and  from  Hosea  ii.  10. 
to  Hosea  ii.  21 . 

13.  A  feast  in  memory  of  the  victories  of  the  Maccabees  over  the  Bath- 
surites,  1  Mace.  v.  52. 

17.  A  feast  for  the  taking  of  Csesarea  by  the  Asmoucoans. 

19.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  iv.  21.  to  Num.  viii.  1.  and  from  Judg.  ii. 
2.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

23.  A  fast,  because  Jeroboam  forbad  the  ten  tribes,  which  obeyed  him, 
to  carry  up  their  first-fruits  to  Jerusalem.     (1  Kings  xii.  27.) 

25.  A  fast,  on  account  of  the  murder  of  the  rabbins,  Simon  the  son  of 
Gamaliel,  Ishmael  the  son  of  Elisha,  and  Ananias  the  Sagan,  that  is,  the 
high-priest's  vicar. 

2ri.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  viii.  to  Num.  xiii.  1.  and  from  Zech.  ii. 
10.  to  Zech.  iv.  S. 

27.  A  fast,  because  Rabbi  Hanina,  the  son  of  Tardion,  was  burnt,  and 
With  him  the  book  of  the  law. 


'  Sclden.  1.  iii.  c.  13.  de  Syned.  ex  Megill.  Taanith.  Calmet's  Calend 


10.  THAMMUZ,  OR  TAMMUZ. 

The  tenth  tnonth  of  the  civil  year,  the  fourth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  only  t-weiity-nine  days,  and  cor- 
responds with  part  of  our  June  and  July. 

1.  The  new  moon. 

3.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xiii.  1.  to  Num.  xvi.  1.  and  the  2d  chap- 
ter of  .loshua. 

10.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xvi.  1.  to  Num.  xix.  i.  and  from  1  Sam. 
xi.  14.  to  1  Sam.  xii.  23. 

14.  A  feast  for  the  abolition  of  a  pernicious  book  of  the  Sadducees  against 
the  oral  law  and  tradition. 

17.  The  fast  of  the  fourth  month,  because  the  tables  of  the  law  were 
broken,  the  perpetual  sacrifice  ceased,  Epistemon  burned  the  law,  and  set 
up  an  idol  in  the  temple. »  (Exod.  x.xxii.  19.) 

19.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xix.  1.  to  Num.  xxii.  2.  and  the  11th  ^ 
chapter  of  Judges  to  the  34th  verse. 

26.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xxii.  2.  to  Num.  xxv.  10.  and  from  Mic. 
V.  7.  to  Mic.  vi.  9. 

29.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xxxv.  10.  to  Num.  xx.  2.  and  from  1  Sara. . 
xviii.  46.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

11.  AB. 

The  ELEVENTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  fifth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  with 
part  of  our  July  aiid  August. 

1.  The  new  moon.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  death  of  Aaron  the  high- 
priest.    (Num.  xxxiii.  38.) 

3.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xxx.  2.  to  Num.  xxxiii.  1.  and  from 
Jer.  i.  1.  to  Jer.  ii.  4. 

9.  The  fast  of  the  fifth  month,  because  the  temple  was  first  burnt  by  the 
Chaldees,  and  afterwards  by  the  Romans,  on  this  day ;  and  because  God 
on  this  day  declared  in  the  time  of  Moses  that  none  of  those  who  came 
out  of  Egypt  should  enter  into  the  land  of  promise.  (Num.  xiv.  29.  31.) 

12.  The  book  of  Numbers  is  now  finished;  and  from  Jer.  ii.  4.  to  Jer. 
ii.  29.  is  also  read. 

18.  A  fast,  because  in  the  time  of  Ahaz  the  evening  lamp  went  out.  Ge- 
nebrand  calls  this  lamp  the  Western  Lamp. 

20.  Deuteronomy  is  begun,  and  read  from  i.  1.  to  iii.  23.  and  the  1st  chap- 
ter of  Isaiah  to  verse  23. 

21.  Selden  asserts  that  this  was  the  day  that  all  the  wood  which  was 
wanted  in  the  temple  was  brought  into  it;  but  others  think  that  this  was 
done  in  the  next  month. 

24.  A  feast  for  the  Maccabees  having  abolished  that  law  of  the  Sadducees 
whereby  sons  and  daughters  inherited  alike. 

28.  The  lessons  were  from  Deut.  iii.  23.  to  Deut.  vii.  12.  and  Isa.  xl.  to 
verse  27. 

12.  ELUL. 

The  TWEtFTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  sixth  month  of 
the  ecclesiastical  year ;  it  has  but  tiventy-nine  days,  and 
corresponds  with  part  of  our  August  and  September. 

1.  The  new  moon. 

3.  The  lessons  were  from  Deut.  vii.  12.  to  Deut.  xi.  26.  and  from  Isa.  xlix. 
14.  to  Isa.  Ii.  4. 

7.  The  dedication  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehemiah. 

12.  The  lessons  were  from  Deut.  xi.  27.  to  Deut.  xvi.  18.  and  from  Isa. 
liv.  11.  to  Isa.  Iv.  4. 

17.  A  fast,  because  of  the  death  of  the  spies  who  brought  up  the  evil 
report  of  the  land  of  promise.     (Num.  xiv.  36,  37.) 

20.  The  lessons  were  from  Deut.  xvi.  18.  to  Deut.  xxi.  10.  and  from  Isa. 
Ii.  12.  to  Isa.  Iii.  18. 

21.  The  festival  of  wood  offering  {xylophoria). 

22.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  and  incorrigible 
Israelites. 

28.  The  lessons  were  from  Deut.  xxi.  10.  to  Deut.  xxvi.  1.  and  Isa.  liv.  to 
verse  11. 

29.  This  is  the  last  day  of  the  month,  on  which  the  Jews  reckoned  up 
the  beasts  that  had  been  born,  the  tenth  of  which  belonged  to  God. 
They  chose  this  day  on  which  to  do  it,  because  the  fir.«t  day  of  the  month 
Tisri  was  a  festival,  and  therefore  they  could  not  tithe  a  liockon  that  day. 


VI.  In  common  with  otlier  nations,  the  Jews  reckoned  any 
part  of  a  period  of  time  for  the  whole,  as  in  Exod.  xvi.  35. 
An  attention  to.  this  circumstance  will  explain  several  appa- 
rent contradictions  in  the  Sacred  Writinors :  thus,  a  part  of 
the  day  is  used  for  the  whole,  and  part  of  the  year  for  an 
entire  year. 

In  Gen.  xvii.  12.  circumsion  is  enjoined  to  he  performed 
when  a  child  is  eisrht  days  old,  but  in  Lev.  xii.  3.  on  the 
eighth  day ,-  accordingly,  when  Jesus  Christ  is  said  to  have 
been*  circumcised  when  eight  days  were  accomplished  (Luke  ii. 
21.)  and  John  the  Baptist  on  the  eighth  day  (Luke  i.  59.), 
the  last,  which  was  the  constant  usage,  explains  the  former 
passage.  Abenezra,  an  eminent  Jewish  commentator  (on 
Lev.  xii.  3.),  says,  that  if  an  infant  were  born  in  the'  last 
hour  of  the  day,  such  hour  was  counted  for  one  whole  day. 
This  observation  critically  reconciles  the  account  of  our 
Lord's  resurrection  in  Matt,  xxvii.  63.  and  Mark  viii.  31., 
"  three  days  after,''''  with  that  of  his  resurrection  "  on  the  third 
day,''''  according  to  Matt.  xvi.  21.  Luke  ix.  22.,  and  accord- 
ing to  fact ;  for,  as  our  Lord  was  crucified  on  Good  Friday, 
about  the  sixth  hour,  or  noon,  the  remainder  of  that  day  to" 


»  Sec  Prideaux's  Con.  p.  i.  b.  1.  under  the  year  J 


Chap.  IV.] 


REMARKABLE  ^RAS. 


77 


sunset,  accordinnr  to  the  Jewish  cornmitation,  was  reckoned 
as  one  day.  Saturday,  it  is  uuiversullyadiiiittrd.  formed  tlie 
aeronr/  <i;\y ;  and  as  tlie  third  day  bejran  on  Saturday  at  sun- 
set, and  our  Saviour  rose  al)nut  sunris;;  on  the  f'ollowinjj 
morninir,  that  part  of  a  day  is  justly  reckoned  for  tiu'  tliird 
day  ;  so  that  llu;  interval  was  '■' //nee  r/iii/.s  rind  tlirie  nif^/itx,'''' 
or  three  calendar  days  current,  not  excecdinir  -l-J  hours,  and, 
<!onse(iuently,  not  two  entire  days.'  This  ol)S(>rvatiou  also 
illustrates  2  (^liron.  x.  5.  12.  :  and  the  same  mode  of  com- 
jintinir  tinu!  obtains  in  tlu;  East,  to  this  day.^ 

In  iik(!  niann(T,  in  some  jjurts  of  the  Mast,  the  ycMir  eiulintr 
on  a  certain  day,  any  ])ortion  of  the  f(jn'ifoin<4'  year  is  taken 
for  a  whole  year;  s(j  that,  supposinff  a  child  to  he  horn  in 
the  last  week  of  our  December,  it  would  be  nxrknned  one 
year  old  on  the  first  day  of  .lanuary,  because;  born  in  the  old 

J  ear.  If  this  nitxle  of  computation  obtained  ainonjr  the  Ile- 
rtiws,  the  princiide  of  it  easily  accounts  ibr  those  anachron- 
isms of  sinirle  years,  or  parts  of  years  taken  for  whole  ones, 
which  occur  in  sacred  writ:  it  obviates  the  (liflicultii's  which 
concern  the  half  years  of  several  princes  of . I  udah  and  Israel, 
in  which  the  latter  half  of  the  deceased  kinir's  last  year  has 
liitlierto  been  su|)posed  to  be  added  to  the  former  half  of  his 
successor's  first  year. 

"We  are  told"  (1  Sam.  xiii.  1.  mart^.  readinfr),  "  a  son 
of  one  year  was  Saul  in  his  kinjrdom  :  and  two  years  he 
reigned  over  Israel,"  that  is,  say  he  was  crowned  in  .Inne  : 
he  was  conscHjueutly  one  year  old  on  the  first  of  .January 
followinir,  thoujrh  he  had  only  reiirned  six  months, — t/ie  soil 
of  a  year.  But,  after  this  so  followingr  first  of  .January  he 
was  in  the  second  year  of  his  reijrn  ;  thoufrh,  according  to 
our  computation,  the  first  y(>ar  of  his  reign  wanted  some 
months  of  being  coiupleted  ;  in  this,  his  second  year,  he  chose 
three  thousand  military,  &c.  guards. 

"  The  phrase  {^tto  hmx)  used  to  denote  the  age  of  the 
infants  slaughtered  at  Bethlehem  (Matt.  ii.  16.)  '  from  two 
years  old  and  under,'  is  a  difficulty  that  has  been  deeply  felt 
by  the  learned.  Some  infants  two  weeks  old,  some  two  months, 
cthiTS  two  years,  equally  slain  !  Surely  those  born  so  long 
before  could  not  possibly  he  included  in  the  order,  whose 
purpose  w'as  to  destroy  a  child,  certainly  born  wathin  a  few 
months.  This  is  regulated  at  once  by  the  idea  that  they 
were  all  of  nearly  equal  age,  being  recently  born ;  some  not 
long  before  the  close  of  the  old  year,  others  a  little  time  since 
the  beginning  of  the  new  year.  Now,  those  born  before  the 
close  of  the  old  year,  though  only  a  few  months  or  weeks, 

•  Pr.  Ilalcs,  to  wliomwc  are  partly  indebted  for  the  above  remark,  has 
cited  several  passa^ies  from  profane  authors,  who  have  used  a  similar 
phraseology.  (Analysis  of  Clironology,  vol.  i.  pp.  121,  122.)  Similar  illustra- 
tions from  rabbinical  writers  are  collected  by  Bp.  Beveridgc  (on  the  39 
Articles,  in  Art.  IV.  Works,  vol.  ix.  p.  lo9.  note  f ),  liv  Dr.  Liglitfoot  (Ilor. 
Heb.  in  Matt.  xii.  40.),  and  by  Reland.  (Antiq.  Heb.  lib.  iv.  c.  1.) 

»  Shortly  before  the  philanthropic  Mr.  Howard  arrived  at  Constantinople, 
the  grand  chamberlain  of  the  city  (wliose  province  it  was  to  supply  the  in- 
habitants Willi  bread)  had  been  beheaded  in  a  sununary  way,  in  tbi'  jiublic 
'street,  for  having  furnished,  or  permitted  to  be  furnished,  loaves  short  of 
weight ;  and  his  boily  was  exposed  for  a  day  and  a  half,  with  three  light 
loaves  beside  it  to  denote  his  crime.  "  When  Mr.  Howard  was  told  that 
the  body  had  Iain  there  for  three  days,  he  expressed  his  surprise  tliat  it 
had  not  bred  a  contagion.  He  learnt,  however,  that  in  point  of  fact  it  had 
not  been  left  so  long,  as  they  were  not  entire  days:  for,  it  being  the  even- 
ing when  tlie  head  was  struck  otT;  it  remained  the  whole  of  the  second,  and 
was  removed  early  in  the  succeeding  morning,  which  was  accounted  the 
third  ;  thus"  (as  ^lr.  H.'s  biographer  very  properly  remarks)  "  the  manner 
of  compulation,  in  use  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's  crucifixion  and  burial, 
etill  subsists  among  the  eastern  nations."  (Brown's  Life  of  John  Howard, 
Esq.  pp.  437,  433.  8vo.  edit.) 


would  be  reckoned  not  merely  one  year  old,  but  also  in  their 
second  year,  as  the  expression  implies  ;  and  those  born  since 
the  beginning  of  the  year,  would  be  well  described  by  the 
phrase  '  and  under,''  that  is,  under  one  year  old  ; — some,  two 
years  old,  though  not  born  a  complete  twelvemonth  (perhaps, 
in  fact,  barely  six  months) ;  others,  vndir  one  year  old,  yet 
born  three,  four,  or  five  months,  and,  tiierelore,  a  trifle 
yoimger  than  those  before  described  :  according  to  the  time 
which  Ilerod  had  diligently  inquired  of  the  wise  men,  in 
tkrir  second  year  and  under."^ 

VII.  Besides  the  computation  of  years,  the  Hebrews  first 
and  th(!  .Jews  afterwards,  were  accustomed  to  reckon  their 
tiuK!  from  somt!  iti;MARKAiu.E  ^ras  or  epochas.  'i'hus,  I. 
I'Vom  (ien.  vii.  11.  and  viii.  1.*?.,  it  appears  that  they  reck- 
oimd  from  the  lives  of  the  patriarchs  or  other  illustrious  per- 
sons: 2.  I''rom  their  deparlure  out  of  Egypt,  and  the  first 
institution  of  their  polity  (lOxod.  xix.  1.  xl.  17.  Num.  i.  1. 
ix.  1.  xxxiii.  .'JH.  1  Ivings  vi.  1.):  3.  Afterwards,  from  the 
building  of  the  temj)le  (1  Ivings  ix.  10.  2  Chron.  viii.  1.), 
and  from  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  .Judah  and  Israel :  4. 
Then  from  the  commencement  of  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(l">Z(k.  i.  1.  xxxiii.  21.  xl.  1.);  and,  perhaps,  also  from 
their  return  from  captivity,  and  the  dedication  of  the  second 
temple.  In  process  of  time  they  adopted,  5.  The  vIOra  of 
the  vSeleucida;,  which  in  the  hooks  of  Maccabees  is  called 
the  j^]ra  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Alexandrian  jf]ra  :  it  began 
froin  the  year  when  Seleucus  Nicanor  attained  the  sovereign 
power,  that  is,  about  312  years  before  the  birth  of  Jesus 
Christ.  This  ff-ra  the  Jews  continued  to  employ  for  upwards 
of  thirteen  hundred  years.'  6.  They  were  further  accustomed 
to  reckon  their  years  from  the  years  when  their  princes  began 
to  reign.  Thus,  in  1  Kings  xv.  1.  Isa.  xxxvi.  1.  and  Jer.  i. 
2,  3.,  we  have  traces  of  their  anciently  computing  according 
to  the  years  of  their  kings;  and  in  later  times  (1  Mace.  xiii. 
42.  xiv.  27),  according  to  the  years  of  the  Asmonaean  princes. 
Of  this  mode  of  computation  we  have  vestiges  in  Matt, 
ii.  1.  Luke  i.  5.  and  iii.  1.  Lastly,  ever  since  the  compila- 
tion of  the  Talmud,  the  Jews  have  reckoned  their  years  from 
the  creation  of  the  world.* 

»  Calmet's  Dictionary,  4to.  edit.  vol.  ii.  Supplementary  Addenda. 

*  There  are  in  fact  two  dates  assigned  to  the  ;era  of  the  Seleucida;  in  the 
two  books  of  Maccabees.  As  Seleucus  did  not  obtain  permanent  possession 
of  the  city  of  Babylon  (which  had  been  retaken  from  him  by  Demetrius, 
surnamed  Poliorcetes,  or  the  vanrpiisher  of  cities)  until  the  spring  of  the 
year  311  before  Christ,  the  Babylonians  fixed  the  commencement  of  this 
.Tra  in  the  latter  year.  "The  first  book  of  Maccabees  computes  the  years 
from  April,  B.  c.  311,  as  Michaelis  has  shown  in  his  note  on  1  Mace,  x  21. ; 
while  the  second  book  dates  from  October,  b.  c.  312. ;  consecpienlly,  there 
is  often  the  difference  of  a  year  in  the  chronology  of  these  books.  (Com- 
pare 2Macc.  xi.  21.  with  1  Mace.  vi.  16.,  and  2Macc.  xiii.  1.  with  1  Mace, 
vi.  20.)  This  rera  continued  in  general  use  among  the  orientals,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Mohammedans,  who  einployetl  it  together  with  their  own 
»ra  from  the  flight  of  Mohammed,  B.  c.  622.  The  Jews  had  no  other  epoch 
until  A.  D.  1040 ;  when,  being  expelled  from  Asia  by  the  caliphs,  and  scat- 
tered about  in  Spain,  England,  Germany,  Poland,  and  other  western  coun- 
tries, they  began  to  date  from  the  creation,  though  still  without  entirely 
dropping  the  a?ra  of  the  Seleucida?.  The  orientals  denominate  this  epoch 
the  ara  of  the  Itro-hornerl ;  by  which  it  is  generally  supposed  they  mean 
Alexander  flic  Great.  But  perhaps  the  name  had  primary  reference  to 
Seleuctis;  for  on  some  coins  he  is  represented  with  two  horns.  See  Froc- 
lich,  Annales  Syria*,  Tab.  ii.  Seleuc.  Nic.  1.  et  Tab.  iii.  29."— (Jahn's  His- 
tory of  the  Hel)rew  Commonwealth,  vol.  i.  pp.  249,  250.) 

»  Reland,  AnUii.  Hebr.  pp.  2ft3— 21.5.  Schulzii  Compendium  Archa?olo. 
gia-  Heliraica.',  lib.  i.  c.  11.  pp.  91 — 107.  Lainy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  book 
i.  ch.  5.  vol.  i.  pp.  i:?8 — liVI.  Calmet's  Dictionary,  articles  Day,  Week, 
Month,  Year.  Jahn,  ct  Ackermann,  Archa-ologia  Biblir.a,  §§  101 — 103.  Jen. 
ning's  Jewish  Antic|uities,  book  iii.  ch.  1.  See  also  Wachner's  Antiquitates 
Hcbra'orum,  part  ii.  p.  5.  et  seq.  Pritii  Introd.  in  Nov.  Test.  pp.  5Gb — 575.; 
Parcau,  Antiquitas  Hebraica,  pp.  310 — 318: 


78 


ON  TRIBUTE  AND  TAXES. 


[Paht  II. 


CHAPTER  V. 


ON  THE  TRIBUTE  AND  TAXES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 

I.  Animal  Payments  made  by  the  Jetvs  for  the  svpport  of  their  Sacred  Worship. — II.  Tributes  paid  to  their  o-wn  Sovereigns. — 
III.  Tributes  and  Customs  paid  by  them  to  foreign  Poivers. — JVotice  of  the  Money-changers. — IV.  Account  of  the  Publi- 
cans or  Tax-gatherers. 

As  no  government  can  be  supported  without  great  charge,  (Luke  ii.  1 — 5.) :  and  afterwards,  when  Juda-a  was  reduced 
it  is  but  just  that  every  one  who  enjoys  his  share  of  protec-  into  a  Roman  province,  on  the  dethronement  and  banishment 
tion  from  it,  should  contribute  towards  it  maintenance  and  of  his  son  Archelaus,  the  Romans  imposed  on  tbe  Jews  not 
support.  only  the  annual  capitation  tax  of  a  denarius  (?:p'A),  but  also 

I.  On  the  first  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  be-  a  tax  on  goods  imported  or  exported  (tsmc),  and  various 
fore  any  regulation  was  made,  the  people  contributed,  on  any  other  taxes  and  burtnens.  To  this  capitation  tax  the  evange- 
extraordinaTy  occasion,  according  to  their  ability,  as  in  the  lists  allude  in  Matt.  xxii.  17.  and  Mark  xii.  14.  where  it  is 
case  of  tbe  voluntary  donations  for  the  tabernacle.  (Exod.  termed  vc/^ta-fA-j.  Knvtrcu  {numisma  cenfisCis), or  ihetvihutemoncy; 
XXV.  2.  XXXV.  5.)  After  the  tabernacle  was  erected,  a  pay-  and  as  this  tax  appears  from  Matt.  xxii.  20,  21.  to  have  been 
ment  of  half  a  shekel  was  made  by  every  male  of  twenty  paid  in  Roman  coin,  the  .Tews  paid  it  with  great  reluctance; 
years  of  age  and  upwards  (Exod.  xxx.  13,  14.),  when  the  and  raised  various  insurrections  on  account  of  it.  Among 
census,  or  sum  of  ike  children  of  Israel,  was  taken :  and  on  ;  these  malcontents,  .Tudas,  surnamed  the  Gaulonite  or  Gali- 
the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian  captivity,  an  !  laean,  distinguished  himself:  he  pretended  that  it  was  not 
annual  payment  of  the  third  part  of  a  shekel  was  made,  for  j  lawful  to  pay  tribute  to  a  foreigner;  that  it  was  the  badge  of 


the  maintenance  of  the  teinple-worship  and  service.  (Neh. 
X.  32.)  Subsequently,  the  enactment  of  Moses  was  deemed 
to  be  of  perpetual  obliffation,2  and  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour 
two  drachmae,  or  half  a  shekel,  were  paid  by  every  Jew, 
whether  native  or  residing  in  foreign  countries :  besides 
which,  every  one,  who  was  so  disposed,  made  voluntary 
offerings,  according  to  his  ability.  (Mark  xii.  41 — 44.)^ 
Hence  vast  quantities  of  gold  were  annually  brought  to 
Jerusalem  into  the  temple,''  where  there  was  an  apartment 
called  the  Treasury  {Xai^ot^uKtiKio)/),  specially  appropriated  to 
their  reception.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Vespa- 
sian, by  an  edict,  commanded  that  the  half  shekel  should  in 
future  be  brought  by  the  Jews,  wherever  they  were,  into  the 
capitol.5  In  addition  to  the  preceding  payments  for  the  sup- 
port of  their  sacred  worship,  we  may  notice  the  first-fruits 
and  tenths,  of  which  an  account  is  found  in  Part  III.  chap, 
iv.  infra. 

II.  Several  of  the  Canaanitish  tribes  were  tributary  to  the 
Israelites  even  from  the  time  of  Joshua  (Josh.  xvi.  10.  xvii. 
13.  Judg.  i.  28.  33.)  whence  they  could  not  but  derive  con- 
siderable wealth.  The  Moabites  and  Syrians  were  tributary 
to  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  2.  6.)  :  and  Solomon  at  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  compelled  the  Amorites,  Hittites,  Perizzites, 
Hivites,  and  Jebusites,  who  were  left  in  the  country,  to  pay 
him  tribute,  and  to  perform  the  drudgery  of  the  public  works 
which  he  had  undertaken,  and  from  which  the  children  of 
Israel  were  exempted.  (1  Kings  ix.  21,  22.  S3.  2  Chron.  viii. 
9.)  But  towards  the  end  of  his  reign  he  imposed  a  tribute 
on  them  also  (1  Kings  v.  13,  14.  ix.  15.  xi.  27.),  which 
alienated  their  minds,  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  that  discontent, 
which  afterwards  ripened  into  open  revolt  by  the  rebellion  of 
Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat. 

III.  Afterwards,  however,  the  Israelites,  being  subdued  by 
other  nations,  were  themselves  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to 
their  conquerors.  Thus  Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egypt, 
imposed  a  tribute  of  one  hundred  talents  of  silver  and  a 
talent  of  gold.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  33.  35.)  After  their  return 
from  captivity,  the  Jews  paid  tribute  to  the  Persians,  under 
whose  government  they  were  (Ezra  iv.  13.),  then  to  the 
Greeks,  from  which,  however,  they  were  exonerated,  when 
under  the  Maccabees  they  had  regained  their  liberty.^  In 
later  times,  when  they  were  conquered  by  the  Roman  arms 
under  Pompey,  they  were  again  subjected  to  the  payment  of 
tribute,  even  though  their  princes  enjoyed  the  honours  and 
dignities  of  royalty,  as  was  the  case  with  Herod  the  Great 

»  The  materials  of  this  chapter,  where  other  authorities  arc  not  cited, 
are  derived  fi-om  Schulz's  Archteologia  Hebraica,  c.  13.  de  vectigalibus  et 
tributis,  and  Pareau's  Antiquitas  Hebraica,  part  iii.  sect.  ii.  c.  5.  de  tributis 
et  vectigalibus. 

•>■  Josephus,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vii.  c.  6.  §  6.  Philonis  Judffii  Opera,  torn.  ii. 
p.  224. 

3  A  singular  law  was  in  force  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  prohibit- 
ing one  mite  (xs^tov)  from  being  cast  into  the  treasury.  The  poor 
widow,  therefore,  who  in  Mark  xii,  42.  is  said  to  have  cast  in  txco  mites, 
gave  the  smallest  sum  permitted  by  the  law.  Schoetgen,  Horfe  Hebraic*, 
vol.  i.  p.  250.    Townsend's  Harmony  of  the  New  Testament,  vol.  i.  p.  114. 

■«  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiv.  c.  7.  §  2.    Cicero,  Orat.  pro  Flacco,  c.  28. 

6  Josephus,  de  Bell.  Jud.  hb.  vii.  c.  6.  §  6. 

6  1  Mace.  X.  29,  30.  xi.  35,  36.  xv.  5.     Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiii.  C:  2. 

3.  c.  4.  §  9.  c.  6.  §  6. 


actual  servitude,  and  that  they  were  not  allowed  to  own  any 
for  their  master  who  did  not  worship  the  Lord.  These  senti- 
ments animated  the  Pharisees,  who  came  to  Christ  with  the 
insidious  design  of  ensnaring  him  by  the  question,  whether 
it  was  lawful  to  pay  tribute  to  Ca;sar  or  not  1  Which  ques- 
tion he  answered  with  equal  wisdom  and  regard  for  the 
Roman  government.  (Matt.  xxii.  17 — 21.)  With  these  sen- 
timents the  Jews  continued  to  be  animated  long  after  the 
ascension  of  Jesus  Christ;  and  it  should  seem  that  some  of 
the  first  Hebrew  Christians  had  imbibed  their  principles. 
In  opposition  to  which,  the  apostle  Paul  and  Peter  in  their 
inimitable  epistles  strenuously  recommend  and  inculcate  on 
all  sincere  believers  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  duties  of  submis- 
sion and  obedience  to  princes,  and  a  conscientious  dis- 
charge of  their  duty,  in  paying  tribute.  (Rom.  xiii.  7.  1  Pet. 
ii.  13.) 

To  suppjy  the  Jews  who  came  to  Jerusalem  from  all  parts 
of  the  Roman  empire  to  pay  the  half-shekel  with  coins  cur- 
rent there,  the  money-changers  (xcxxu^ca/)  stationed  them- 
selves at  tables,  in  the  courts  of  the  temple,  and  chiefly,  it 
should  seem,  in  the  court  of  the  Gentiles,  for  which  they 
exacted  a  small  fee,  holbon  (koxxvSi,;).  It  was  the  tables  on 
which  these  men  trafircked  for  this  unholy  gain,  which  were 
overturned  by  Jesus  Christ.    (Matt.  xxi.  12.)' 

The  money-changers  (called  TfxTn^ncu  in  Matt.  xxi.  12. 
and  x.'.p/uATi;ctt  in  John  ii.  14.)  were  also  those  who  made  a 
profit  by  exchanging  money.  They  supplied  the  Jews,  who 
came  from  distant  parts  of  Judffia  and  other  parts  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  with  money,  to  be  received  back  at  their 
respective  homes,  or  which,  perhaps,  they  had  paid  before 
they  commenced  their  journey.  It  is  likewise  probable  that 
they  exchanged  foreign  coins  for  such  as  were  current  at 
Jerusalem. 

IV.  Among  the  Romans,  the  censors  let  their  taxes  by 
public  auction ;  and  those  who  farmed  them  were  called 
Fublicani,  or  Publicans.  These  farmers-general  were 
usually  Roman  knights,^  who  had  under  them  inferior  col- 
lectors :  Josephus  has  made  mention  of  several  Jews  who 
were  Roman  knights,^  whence  Dr.  Lardner  thinks  it  proba- 
ble that  they  had  merited  the  equestrian  rank  by  their  good 
services  in  collecting  some  part  of  the  revenue.  The  col- 
tectors  of  these  tributes  were  known  by  the  general  name  of 
TsAaiva/,  that  is,  tax-gatherers,  in  our  authorized  version  ren- 
dered Publicans.  Some  of  them  appear  to  have  been  re- 
ceivers-general for  a  large  district,  as  Zaccheus,  who  is  styled 
a  chief  publican  (Af;^/TSAa)v»?),  Matthev/,  who  is  termed  sim- 
ply a  publican  (Tsawiujc),  was  one  who  sat  at  the  receipt  of 
custom  where  the  duty  was  paid  on  imports  and  exports. 
(Matt.  ix.  9.  Luke  v.  29.  Mark  ii.  14.)      These  ofiicers,  at 

•>  Grotius,  Hammond,  and  Whitby,  on  Matt.  xxi.  12.  Dr.  Lightfoot's 
Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  225.  In  Ceylon,  "  Moormen,  whose  business  it  is  to  give 
cash  for  notes,  may  be  seen  sitting  in  public  places,  with  heaps  of  coin 
before  ihem.  On  observing  a  person  with  a  note,  or  in  want  ot  their  ser- 
vices, they  earnestly  solicit  his  attention."  Callaway's  Oriental  Observa- 
tions, p.  68. 

8  Cicero,  in  Verrem,  lib.  iii.  c.  72.  Orat.  pro  Planco,  c.  9.  De  Petitione 
Consulatus,  c.  1.  Tacit."  Annal.  lib.  iv.  c.  6.  Adam's  Roman  Antiquities, 
pp.  25.  60. 

»  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  14.  §  9. 


CUAP.  VI.] 


GENEALOGICAL  TABLES,  AND  PUBLIC  MEMORIALS  OF  EVENTS. 


79 


least  the  inferior  ones  (like  the  ruhdarx,  or  toll-nrathorers,  in 
nuidern  Persia,'  and  the  iniriircfK,  or  collectors  of  customs,  in 
Asia  Minor,''  were  ir(;nerally  rapacious,  extrirtiufj  more  than 
the  lepal  trihnte ;  whence  they  were  reckoned  infamous 
aiTiono-  the  Greeks,  and  various  passages  in  tiie  (Josjx'ls  sliow 
how  odious  they  were  to  the  Jews  (Mark  ii.  15,  Hi.  iiuke 
iii.  1.3.),  insomuch  that  the  Piiarisees  would  hold  no  com- 
munication whatever  with  them,  and  imputed  it  to  our  Saviour 
asacrimethat  Uv.sat  at  meat  v,h\]  publicans.  (Matt.  ix.  10,  11. 
xi.  19.  xxi.  31,  '.i'2.)  The  payment  of  taxes  to  the  Romans  was 
accounted  by  the  .lews  an  intolerable  frrievance :  hence  those 
who  assisted  in  coUectini"'  them  were  detested  as  plunderers 
in  the  cause  of  the;  Romans,  as  betrayers  of  the  liberties  of 
their  country,  and  as  abettors  of  those  w'lio  had  enslaved  it; 
this  circumstance  will  account  for  the  contempt  and  hatred  so 


often  expressed  by  the  Jews  in  the  evangelical   histories 
aprainst  the  collectors  of  the  taxes  or  tribute. ^ 

The  ])arable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the  Pidilican  (Luke  xviii. 
10 — 1.3.)  will  derive  considerable  illustration  from  these  cir- 
cumstances. Our  Savir)ur,  in  liriutrinfr  these  two  characters 
totretber,  appears  to  have  chosen  them  as  making;  the  stron^rest 
contrast  between  what,  in  the  public  estimation,  were  the 
extremes  of  excellence  and  villany.  The  Pharisees,  it  is 
well  known,  were  the  most  powerful  ?ect  among  the  Jews, 
and  made  great  pretences  to  piety :  and  when  the  account  of 
the  Persian  rahdars,  given  in  the  preceding  page,  is  recol- 
lected, it  will  account  for  the  Pharisee,  in  a(idressing  God, 
having  made  Krlnrtioiiers,  and  i/ia  unjust,  almost  synouymeus 
terms  with  publicans ;  because,  from  his  peculiar  office,  the 
rahdar  is  almost  an  extortioner  by  profession. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


ON  THE  GENEALOGICAL  TABLES  OP  THE  HEBREWS,  AND  PUBLIC  MEMORIALS  OP  EVENTS. 
I.  On  the  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  Ifebrevis. — II.  Public  Memorials  of  Events. 


I.  Thf  Hebrews  were  very  careful  in  preserving  their 
Gkneai.ogies,  or  the  history  of  the  successions  of  families. 
Vestiges  of  these  histories  of  families  appear  in  Gen.  v.  and 
X.  In  proportion  as  the  Hebrews  increased  in  numhers  dur- 
ing their  residence  in  Egypt,  it  became  an  object  of  growing 
importance  carefully  to  preserve  the  genealogical  tables  of 
the  whole  nation,  in  order  that  each  tribe  might  be  kept  per- 
fectly distinct.  The  charge  of  these  genealogies  was,  most 
probably,  confided,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  s/iulerim,  or 
scribes,  of  whom  a  short  account  is  given  in  p.  42.  supra,  and 
afterwards  to  the  Levites ;  at  hiast  m  the  time  of  the  kinjrs, 
we  find  that  the  scribes  were  g(Mierallj'  taken  from  the  tril)e 
of  Levi.  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  4.  2Chron.xix.8 — 11.  xxxiv.  13.) 
"  This  was  a  very  rational  procedure,  as  the  Levites  devoted 
themselves  particularly  to  study;  and,  among  husbandmen 
and  vmlearned  people,  few  w-ere  likely  to  be  so  expert  in 
writiuo^,  as  to  be  intrusted  with  keeping  registers  so  impor- 
tant. In  later  times  the  genealogical  tables  were  kept  in  the 
temple."* 

\Vhatever  injury  the  puhlic  genealogies  might  have  sus- 
tained in  consecpience  oi  the  Bahylonish  captivity,  it  was  re- 
paired on  the  restoration  oi'  the  Jewish  polity,  as  far  at  least 
as  was  practicable.  (Ezra  ii.  viii.  1 — 14.  Neb.  vii.  xii.) 
Hence  it  is,  that  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  first  book 
of  Chronicles  is  composed  of  genealogical  tables  :  the  com- 
parison of  which,  as  well  as  of  the  genealogy  recorded  in 
'Gen.  v.  with  the  tables  in  Matt.  i.  and  Luke  iii.  will  contri- 
bute materially  to  show  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies  re- 
lative to  the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  Josephus  states  that  the 
Jews  had  an  uninterrupted  succession  of  their  high-priests 
preserved  in  their  records  for  the  space  of  nearly  two  thou- 
sand years  ;  and  that  the  priests  in  Judaea,  and  even  in  Egypt 

«  The  rahdars,  or  loll-gallierers,  are  appointed  to  levy  a  toll  ujion 
KaHlhfs  or  caravans  of  merchants ;  "  wiio  in  general  exercise  their  ottioe 
witii  so  much  hnilality  anti  exlorlion,  as  lo  be  execrated  by  all  travellers. 
The  police  of  the  highways  is  coiitiiled  to  them,  and  whenever  any  goods 
are  stolen,  they  are  meant  to  be  the  instruments  of  restitution  ;  but  when 
they  are  put  to  the  test,  are  found  lo  be  inefficient.  None  but  a  man  in 
power  can  hope  to  recover  what  he  has  once  lost. . .  .The  collections  of  the 
toll  are  fanned,  consequently  extortion  ensues;  andas  most  of  the  ralidars 
receive  no  other  emolument  than  what  they  can  exact  over  and  above  the 
prescribed  dues  from  the  traveller,  their  insolence  is  accounted  for  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  detestation  in  which  they  are  held  on  the  other." 
Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  70. 

»  At  Smyrna,  the  miri^iee  sits  in  the  house  allotted  to  him,  as  Matthew  sat 
at  the  rfcfijit  of  custom  (or  in  the  custom-house  of  Capernaum)  ;  "and  re- 
ceives the  money  which  is  due  from  various  persons  and  commodities, 
enterinff  into  the  city.  The  exactions  and  rude  behaviour  of  these  men" 
(says  Mr.  Hartley,  who  experienced  both)  "  are  just  in  character  with  the 
conduct  of  the  pul)licans  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.". . .  .When  men 
are  Kuilty  of  such  conduct  as  this,  no  wonder  that  they  were  detested  in 
ancient  iimcs,  as  were  the  publicans;  and  in  modem  limes,  as  are  the 
mirisees."    (Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece,  p.  23!).) 

»  Lardner's  Credibility,  part  i.  book  i.  c.  9.  §§  10,  11.  Carpzovii  Appara- 
tus Anticiuitatuin  Sacri  Codicis,  pp.  C9,  30.  As  the  Christians  subsequently 
were  oflon  termed  Galila'ans,  and  were  represented  as  a  people  hostile 
to  all  ffovernment,  and  its  necessary  supports,  St.  Paul  in  Rom.  xiii.  6.  stu- 
diously obviates  this  slander;  and  enjoins  the  payment  of  tribute  to  civil 
governors,  because,  as  all  Bovernmenis  derive  their  authority  from  (3od, 
rulers  are  his  ministers,  attendins;  upon  this  very  thins;,  viz.  the  public  ad- 
ministration, to  protect  the  good  and  to  punish  the  evil  doer.  (Gilpin  and 
Valpv  on  Rom.  xiii.  6.) 
«  Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  71. 

■  »  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  p.  250. 


and  Babylon,  or  in  any  other  place  whithersoever  their  priests 
were  carried,  were  careful  to  preserve  their  genealogies.* 
Such  priests  after  the  captivity  as  could  not  produce  their 
genealogies  were  excluded  from  the  sacerdotal  office.  Hence, 
when  in  Heb.  vii.  3.  Melchizedek  is  said  to  have  been  with- 
out descent  {^uyai-xKoymoi;,  that  is,  without  genealogy),  the  mean- 
ing is,  that  his  name  was  not  found  in  the  public  genealogical 
registers  :  his  father  and  mother,  and  ancestors  were  unknown, 
whence  his  priesthood  was  of  a  different  kind,  and  to  be  re- 
garded differently  from  that  of  Aaron  and  his  sons. 

From  siinilar  public  registers  Mathew  and  Luke  derived 
the  genealogies  of  our  Saviour;  the  former  of  which,  from 
Abraham  to  Jesus  Christ,  embraces  a  period  of  nearly  two 
thousand  years,  while  the  genealogy  of  Luke,  from  Adam  to 
Christ,  comprises  a  period  of  about  four  thousand  j'ears.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  Jews  carried  their  fondness  for 
genealogies  to  great  excess,  and  prided  themselves  on  tracing 
their  pedigrees  up  to  Abraham.  Jerome  says  that  they  were 
as  weal  acquainted  with  genealogies  frnm  Adam  to  Zendi- 
babtd  as  they  were  with  their  own  names.'  Agaitist  such 
unprofitable  genealogies  Paul  cautions  Timrjthy  (1  Tim.  i.  4.) 
and  Titus,  (iii.  9.)  Since  the  total  dispersion  of  the  Jews  in 
the  reign  of  Adrian,  the  Jews  have  utterly  lost  their  ancient 
genealogies. 

In  exhibiting  genealogical  tables  with  any  specific  design, 
some  of  the  sacred  writers,  for  the  sake  of^brevitA-,  omitted 
names  which  were  of  less  importance,  and  distributed  tho 
genealogies  into  certain  equal  classes.  Examples  of  this 
kind  occur  in  Exod.  vi.  14 — 24.  1  Chron.  vi.  12 — 15.  com- 
pared with  Ezra  i.  5.  and  in  Matt.  i.  17.  The  Arabs  have 
not  unfrequently  taken  a  similar  liberty  in  their  genealogies.s 
II.  From  the  remotest  ages,  mankind  have  been  desirous 
of  perpetuating  the  memory  of  remarkable  events,  not  only 
for  their  own  benefit,  but  also  in  order  to  transmit  them  to 
posterity ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  antiquity  of  such  events 
has  been  the  simplicity  of  the  Public  Mt:.MoRiALS  employed 
to  preserve  the  remendiraiice  of  them.  When,  therefore,  any 
remarkable  event  befell  the  patriarchs,  they  raised  either  a 
rude  stone  or  a  heap  of  stones  in  the  very  place  where  such 
e_vent  had  happened.  (Gen.  xxviii.  18.  xxxi.45,46.)  Some- 
times, also,  they  gave  names  to  places  importing  the  nature 
of  the  transactions  which  had  taken  place  (Gen.  xvi.  14.  xxi. 
31.  xxii.  14.  xxviii.  19.  xxxi.  47 — 19.) ;  and  symbolical  names 
were  sometimes  given  by  them  to  individuals.  (Gen.  xxv. 
26.  30.)  To  this  usage  the  Almiohty  is  represented  as  vouch- 
safing to  accommodate  himself;  in  Gen.  xvii.  5.  15.  and 
xxxii.  28,  29. 

Conformably  to  this  custom,  Moses  enjoined  the  Israelites 
to  erect  an  altar  of  great  stones  on  which  the  law  was  to  be 
inscribed,  after  they  had  crossed  the  river  Jordan  (Deut. 

«  .losephns  against  Apion,  book  i.  §7. 

T  Valpy's  Gr.  Test.  vol.  iii.  p   117. 

8  Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  318—320.  Schulzii  Archaeol.  Hebr.  p.  41. 
The  ecclesiasticalhistorian  Eusebiu.s,  on  the  authority  of  Julius  Africa- 
nus,  a  writer  of  the  third  century,  relates  that  Herod,  misnamed  the 
Great,  committed  to  the  (lames  all  the  records  of  the  Jewish  genealogies ; 
but  Carpzov  has  shown  that  this  narrative  is  not  worthy  of  credit.  Anti- 
quilates  Gentis  Hebrseae,  p.  36. 


80 


ON  THE  TREATIES  OR  COVENANTS, 


[Pabt  U, 


xxvii.  1 — 4.)i  and  also  gave  to  those  places,  which  had  been 
signalized  by  the  previous  conduct  of  the  Israelites,  signifi- 
cant names  which  would  be  perpetual  memorials  of  their  re- 
bellion against  God.  (Exoq.  xvii.  7.)  Tiie  same  custom 
obtained  after  their  arrival  in  the  land  of  Canaan.  (Josh,  iv.) 
In  like  manner,  Samuel  erected  a  stone  at  Mizpeh,  to  com- 
memorate the  discomfiture  of  the  Philistines.  (1  Sam.  vii.  12.) 
In  progress  of  time  more  splendid  monuments  were  erected 
(1  Sam.  XV.  12.  2  Sam.  viii.  13.  xviii.  18.);  and  symbolical 
memorial  names  were  given  both  to  things  and  persons. 
Thus,  the  columns  whicri  were  erected  in  the  temple  of  So- 
lomon,— Jucliin  he  shall  establish,  Boaz,  in  it  is  strength, — 
most  probably  denoted  the  devout  monarch's  hope,  that  Jeho- 
vah would  firmly  establish  that  temple  in  the  entrance  of 
which  they  were  placed.      To  the  same  practice  Pareau 


ascribes  the  origin  of  the  name  of  Maccabaeus  with  which 
Judas  was  first  distinguished  (1  Mace.  ii.  4.),  (who  was  sur- 
named  wapD,  Macaba,  or  the  Ilanimer,  on  account  of  his  sin- 
gular valour  and  success  against  the  enemies  of  his  nation) ;' 
and  also  the  new  name  given  by  our  Lord  to  Peter  (Matt. 
xvi.  18.  John  i.  43.),  and  the  name  given  to  the  field  which 
was  bought  with  the  purchase-money  of  Judas's  treason. 
(Matt,  xxvii.  8.  Acts  i.  19.)  The  great  festivals,  prescribed 
by  Moses  to  the  Jews,  as  well  as  the  feasts  and  lasts  insti- 
tuted by  them  m  later  times,  and  the  tables  of  the  law  which 
were  to  be  most  religiously  preserved  in  the  ark,  were  so 
many  memorials  of  important  national  transactions. 

In  more  ancient  times  proverbs  sometimes  originated  from 
some  remarkable  occurrence.  (Gen.  x.  9.  xxii.  14.  1  Sam 
x.  12.  xix.  24.)2 


CHAPTER  VII. 


ON  THE  TREATIES  OR  COVENANTS,  CONTRACTS,  AND  OATHS  OE  THE  JEWS. 

I.   Whether  the  Jews  ivere  prohibited  from  concluding  Treaties  -with  heathen  J^Tations. — II.   Treaties,  hoiv  made  and  ratijied. 
—  Covenant  of  Salt. — III.    Contracts  for  the  Sale  and  Cession  of  alienable  Property,  how  made. — IV.   Of  Oaths. 


I.  A  Treaty  is  a  pact  or  covenant  made  with  a  view  to 
the  public  welfare  by  the  superior  power.  It  is  a  common 
mistake,  that  the  Israelites  were  prohibited  from  forming 
alliances  with  heathens  :  this  would  in  effect  have  amounted 
to  a  general  prohibition  of  alliance  with  any  nation  whatever, 
because  at  that  time  all  the  world  were  heathens.  In  the 
Mosaic  law,  not  a  single  statute  is  enacted,  that  prohibits  the 
conclusion  of  treaties  with  heathen  nations  in  general ;  al- 
though, for  the  reasons  therein  specified,  Moses  either  com- 
mands them  to  carry  on  eternal  war  against  the  Canaanites 
and  Amalekites  (but  not  against  the  Moabites  and  Ammon- 
ites), or  else  forbids  all  friendship  with  these  particular  na- 
tions. It  is  however,  clear,  from  Dent,  xxiii.  4 — 9.,  that  he 
did  not  entertain  the  same  opinion  with  regard  to  all  foreign 
nations  :  for  in  that  passage,  though  the  Moabites  are  pro- 
nounced to  be  an  abomination  to  the  Israelites,  no  such  decla- 
ration is  made  respecting  the  Edomites.  Further,  it  is  evident 
that  they  felt  themselves  bound  religiously  to  observe  treaties 
when  actually  concluded  :  though  one  of  the  contracting  par- 
ties had  been  guilty  of  fraud  in  the  transaction,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  treaty  with  the  Gibeonites.  (Josh,  ix^  David  and 
Solomon  lived  in  alliance  with  the  king  of  Tyre;  and  the 
former  with  the  king  of  Hamath  (2  Sam.  viii.  9,  10);  and 
the  queen  of  Sheba  cannot  be  regarded  in  any  other  light  than 
as  an  ally  of  Solomon's.  Even  the  Maccabees,  who  were 
so  laudably  zealous  for  the  law  of  Moses,  did  not  hesitate  to 
enter  into  a  compact  with  the  Romans.  The  only  treaties 
condemned  by  the  prophets  are  those  with  the  Egyptians, 
Babylonians,  and  Assyrians,  which  were  extremely  prejudi- 
cial to  the  nation,  by  involving  it  continually  in  quarrels 
with  sovereigns  more  powerful  than  the  Jewish  monarchs ; 
and  the  event  always  showed,  in  a  most  striking  manner, 
the  propriety  of  their  reproofs. 

II.  \arious  solemnities  were  used  in  the  conclusion  of 
treaties  ;  sometimes  it  was  done  by  a  simple  junction  of  the 
hands.  (Prov.  xi.  21.  Ezek.  xvii.  18.)  The  Hindoos  to  this 
day  ratify  an  engagement  by  one  person  laying  his  right 
hand  on  the  hand  of  the  other.''  Sometimes,  also,  the  cove- 
nant vvas  ratified  by  erecting  a  heap  of  stones,  to  which  a 
suitable  name  was  given,  referring  to  the  subject-matter  of 
the  covenant  (Gen.  xxxi.  4-4 — 54.)  ;  that  made  between  Abra- 
ham and  the  king  of  Gerar  was  ratified  by  the  oath  of  both 

ffarties,  by  a  present  from  Abraham  to  the  latter  of  seven  ewe 
ambs,  and  by  giving  a  name  tathe  well  which  had  given 
occasion  to  the  transaction.  (Gen.  xxi.  22 — 32.)  It  was, 
moreover,  customary  to  cut  the  victim  (which  was  to  be 
offered  as  a  sacrifice  upon  the  occasion)  into  two  parts,  and 
so  placing  each  half  upon  two  different  altars,  to  cause  those 
who  contracted  the  covenant  to  pass  between  both.  (Gen. 
XV.  9,  10.  17.  Jer.  xxxiv.  18.)   This  rite  was  practised  both 

»  In  like  manner  Charles,  mayor  of  the  palace  to  the  king  of  France, 
received  Ihe  name  of  Martel,  or  the  Ilanmirr,  from  the  irresistible  blows 
he  is  said  to  have  given  to  the  Saracens  or  Moors,  who  were  utterly  dis- 
comfited in  the  memorable  battle  fought  near  Poictiers,  in  733. — Another, 
and  more  generally  received  origin  of  the  appellation  Maccabees,  has 
been  given  in  p.  50.  supra. 

^  Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  320—322. 

»  Ward's  View  of  the  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  328. 


by  believers  and  heathens  at  their  solemn  leagues  ;  at  first, 
doubtless,  with  a  view  to  the  great  Sacrifice,  who  was  to 
purge  our  sins  in  his  own  blood ;  and  the  offering  of  these 
sacrifices,  and  passing  between  the  parts  of  the  divided  vic- 
tim, was  symbolically  staking  their  hopes  of  purification  and 
salvation  on  their  performance  of  the  condition  on  which  it 
was  offered.'' 

The  editor  of  the  Fragments  supplementary  to  Calmet^  is 
of  opinion  that  what  is  yet  practised  of  this  ceremony  may 
elucidate  that  passage  in  Isa.  xxviii.  15. : — TVe  have  made  a 
covenant  will:  death,  and  ivith  hell  are  we  at  agreement ;  when 
the  overflowing  scourge  shall  pass  through,  it  shall  not  come 
unto  us,  for  we  have  made  lies  our  refuge,  and  under  falsehood 
have  tee  hid  ourselves.  As  if  it  had  been  said  : — We  have 
cut  off  a  'covenant  Sacrifice,  a  purification  offering  with 
death,  and  with  the  grave  we  have  settled,  so  that  the 
scourTO  shall  not  injure  us.  May  not  such  a  custom  have 
been  the  origin  of  the  following  superstition  related  by  Pitts  ? 
— "  If  they  (the  Algerine  corsairs)  at  any  time  happen  to  be 
in  a  very  great  strait  or  distress,  as  being  chased,  or  in  a 
storm,  they  will  gather  money,  light  up  candles  in  remem- 
brance of  some  dead  marrabot  (saint)  or  other,  calling  upon 
him  with  heavy  sighs  and  groans.  If  they  find  no  succour 
from  their  before-mentioned  rites  and  superstitions,  but  that 
the  danger  rather  increases,  then  they  go  to  sacrificing  a 
sheep  (or  two  or  three  upon  occasion,  as  they  think  needful), 
which  is  done  after  this  manner  :  having  cut  off  the  head 
with  a  knife,  they  immediately  take  out  the  entrails,  and 
throw  them  and  the  head  overboard ;  and  then,  with  all  the 
speed  they  can  (without  skinning)  they  cut  the  body  into 
two  parts  by  the  middle,  and  throw  one  part  over  the  right 
side  of  the  ship,  and  the  other  over  the  left,  into  the  sea,  as 
a  kind  of  propitiation.  Thus  those  blind  infidels  apply  them- 
selves to  imaginary  intercessors,  instead  of  the  living  and 
true  God."'^  In  the  case  here  referred  to,  the  ship  passes 
between  the  parts  thus  thrown  on  each  side  of  it.  This 
behaviour  of  the  Algerines  may  betaken  as  a  pretty  accurate 
counterpart  to  that  of  making  a  covenant  with  death  and  with 
imminent  danger  of  destruction,  by  appeasing  the  angry 
gods. 

Festivities  always  accompanied  the  ceremonies  attending 
covenants.  Isaac  and  Ahimclech  feasted  at  making  their 
covenant  (Gen.  xxvi.  30.),  .dnd  he  made  them  a  feast,  and 
they  did  eat  and  drink.  (Gen.  xxxi.  54.)  Jacob  offered  sacri- 
fice upan  the  mount,  and  called  his  brethren  to  eat  bread.  This 
practice  was  also  usual  amongst  the  heathen  nations.' 

••  This  remarkable  practice  may  be  clearly  traced  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  writers.    Homer  has  the  following  expression : — 

Opxist  TTHTTx  Tiifinvrsg.  Iliad,  lib.  ii.  ver.  124. 

Ilaving  cut  faithful  oaths. 
Eustathius  explains  the  passage  bv  saying,  they  were  oaths  relating  to 
important  matlcrs,  and  were  made  by  the  division  of  the  victim.    See  also 
Virgil,  ^n.  viii.  ver.  640. 
•    "  No.  129.  ~  "=  Travels,  p.  18. 

1  Burder's  Oriental  Customs,  vol.  ii.  p.  84.— Fifth  edition.    See  examples  - 
of  the  ancient  mode  of  ratifying  covenants,  in  Homer.    II.  hb.  iii.  verses   , 
103—107.  245.  et  sea.     Virgil,  .*;n.  lib.  viii.  641.  xix.  lUd.etscq.     Dionysius 
Halicarnassensis,  lib.  v.  c.  1.    Hooke's  Roman  History,  vol.  i.  p.  67. 


Chap.  VII.] 


Afterwards,  when  the  Mosaic  law  was  estahlished,  and 
the  people  were  settled  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  the  people 
feasted,  in  their  peace  offerings,  on  a  part  of  the  sacrifice,  in 
token  of  their  reconciliation  with  Ciod  (Dent.  xii.  G,  7.)  :  and 
thus,  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  sunner,  we  renew  our 
covenant  with  God,  and  (in  the  beaiitiliil  lanjruajfe  of  the 
communion  office  of  the  Antrlican  chiircli)   "  we  offer  and 

E resent  ourselves,  our  souls  and  bodies,  to  be  a  reasonable, 
oly,  and  lively  sacrifice"  unto  Him,  bein<r  at  His  tal)le 
feasted  with  the  bread  and  wine,  tlie  rcpnfscntation  of  tlie 
sacrifice  of  Christ's  body  and  blood  ;  who  l)y  liiniisclf  once 
offered  upon  the  cross  has  made  a  full,  perfect,  and  sufhcient 
sacrifice,  oblation,  and  atonement  for  the  sin  of  the  whole 
world. 

Sometimes  the  parties  to  the  covenant  were  sprinkled  with 
the  blood  of  the  victim.  Thus  Moses,  after  sorinkliiiir  part 
of  the  blood  on  the  altar,  to  show  that  Jehovali  was  a  party 
to  tlie  covenant,  sprinkled  part  of  it  on  the  Israelites,  and 
said  imto  them.  Behold  the  hhtud  of  the  covenant  whic/i  the 
Lord  hath  made  with  i/ou.  (^Kxod.  xxiv.  G.  8.)  To  this 
transaction  St.  Paul  alludes  m  bis  Kpisile  to  the  Hebrews 
(ix.  20.),  and  explains  its  evanpjelical  mcauinir. 

'I'he  Scythians  are  said  to  have  first  pnured  wine  into  an 
earthen  vessel,  and  then  the  coutractintr  parlies,  cuttinnr  their 
arms  with  a  knife,  let  some  of  tiie  blood  run  into  the  wine, 
with  which  they  stained  their  armour.  After  which  they 
themselves,  together  with  the  other  persons  present,  drank 
of  the  mixture,  uttering  the  direst  maledictions  on  the  party 
who  should  violate  the  treaty.' 

Another  mode  of  ratifying  covenants  was  by  the  superior 
contracting  party  presenting  to  the  other  some  article  of  his 
own  dress  or  arms.  Thus,  Jonathan  stripped  himself  of  the 
robe  that  was  upon  him,  and  gave  it  to  David,  and  his  gar- 
ments, even  to  the  sword,  and  to  his  bow,  and  to  his  girdle. 
(1  Sam.  xviii.  4.)  The  highest  honour,  which  a  king  of 
Persia  can  bestow  upon  a  subject,  is  to  cause  himself  to 
be  disapparelled,  and  to  give  his  robe  to  the  favoured  indi- 
vidnal.2 

In  Num.  xviii.  19.  mention  is  made  of  a  covenant  of  salt. 
The  expression  api)ears  to  be  borrowed  from  the  practice  of 
ratifying  thidr  federal  engagements  by  salt;  which,  as  it  not 
only  imparted  a  relish  to  dilTerent  kinds  of  viands,  but  also 
preserved  them  from  putrefaction  and  decay,  became  the 
emblem  of  incorruptibility  and  permanence.  It  is  well 
kn(jwn,  from  the  concurrent  testimony  of  voyagers  and 
travellers,  that  the  Asiatics  deem  the  eating  together  as  a 
bond  of  perpetual  friendship :  and  as  salt  is  now  (as  it 
anciently  was)  a  common  article  in  all  their  repasts,  it  may 
be  in  reference  to  this  circumstance  that  a  perpetual  covenant 
is  termed  a  covenant  of  salt ,-  because  the  contracting  parties 
ate  together  of  the  sacrifice  offered  on  the  occasion,  and  the 
whole  transaction  was  considered  as  a  league  of  endless 
friendship.'  In  order  to  assure  those  persons  to  w-hom  the 
divine  promises  were  made,  of  their  certainty  and  stability, 
the  Almighty  not  only  willed  that  they  should  have  the  force 
of  a  covenant ;  but  also  vouchsafed  to  accommodate  himself 
(if  we  may  be  permitted  to  use  such  an  expression)  to  the 
received  customs.  Thus,  he  constituted  the  rainbow  a  sign 
of  his  covenant  with  mankind  that  the  earth  should  be  no 
more  destroyed  by  a  deluge  (Gen.  ix.  1'2 — 17.) ;  and  in  a 
vision  appeared  to  Abraham  to  pass  between  the  divided 
pieces  of  the  sacrifice,  which  tne  patriarch  had  ofTered. 
((Jen.  XV.  12 — 17.)  Jehovah  further  instituted  the  rite  of 
circumcision,  as  a  token  of  the  covenant  between  himself 
and  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii.  9 — 11.) ;  and  sometimes  sware  by 
himself  (Gen.  xxii.  IG.  Luke  i.  l'^.\  that  is,  pledged  his 
eternal  power  and  godhead  for  the  fulfilment  of  his  nromise, 
there  being  no  one  superior  to  himself  to  whom  lie  could 
make  appeal,  or  by  whom  he  could  be  bound.  Saint  Paul 
beautifully  illustrates  this  transaction  in  his  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  (vi.  1.3 — 18.)  Lastl}',  the  whole  of  the  Mosaic 
constitution  was  a  mutual  covenant  between  Jehovah  and  the 
Israelites;  the  tables  of  which  being  preserved  in  an  ark, 
the  latter  was  thence  termed  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  and  as 
(we  have  just  seen)  the  blood  of  the  victims  slain  in  ratifica- 
tion of  that  covenant,  was  termed  the  blood  of  the  covenant. 
(Exod.  xxiv.  8.  Zech.  ix.  11.)  Keferring  to  this,  our 
Saviour,  ^hen  instituting  the  Lord's  supper,  after  giving  the 

>  Herodotus,  lib.  iv.  c.  70.  vol.  i.  p.  273.  Oxon.  1809.  Doughtaji  Analecta, 
1.  p.  69. 

»  Hariner's  Observations,  vol.  ii.  p.  94.  Burder's  Or.  Cust.  vol.  i.  p. 
206. 

»  Some  pleasing  facts  from  modern  history,  illnstraiivp  of  the  covenant 
of  salt,  are  collected  by  the  industrious  editor  ol  Caliuel,  Fragments, 
No,  130.  . 

Vol.  II.  L 


CONTRACTS,  AND  OATHS  OF  THE  JEWS.  gj 

cup,  said,  77iis  is  (signifies  or  represents)  my  blood  of  the 

New  Covenant,  which  is  shed  for  many,  fwr  the  remission  of 

■--     (Matt.  xxvi.  28.)      By  this  very  remarkable  expres. 


sins,    ^iviatt.  xxvi. 

sion,  Jesus  Christ  teaches  us,  that  as'  his  body  was  to  be 
broken  or  crucified,  xjmf  x//av,  in  our  stead,  so  his  blood  was  to 
be  poured  out  {aixy)/o/xvjo)i,  a  sacrificial  term)  to  make  an  atone- 
mriif,  as  the  words  remission  of  sins  evidently  imi)ly  ;  for 
without  shedding  of  blood  there  is  no  remission  (Heb.  ix.  22.) 
nor  any  remission  by  shedding  of  blood  but  in  a  sacrificial 
way.     Compare  Heb.  ix.  20.  and  xiii.  12. 

III.  What  treaties  or  covenants  were  between  the  hio-h 
contracting  powers  who  were  authorized  to  conclude  them, 
that  contracts  of  bargain  and  sale  are  between  private  indi- 
viduals. 

Among  the  Hebrews,  and  long  before  them  among  the 
Canaanites,  the  purchase  of  any  thing  of  eonseqiumce  wag 
concluded  and  the  price  paid,  at  the  gate  of  the  city,  as  the 
seat  of  judgment,  before  all  who  went  out  and  came  in. 
(Gen.  xxiii.  IG — 20.  Huth  iv.  1,  2.)  As  persons  of  leisure, 
and  those  who  wanted  amusement,  were  wont  to  sit  in  the 
gates,  purchases  there  made  could  always  be  testified  by 
numerous  witnesses.  From  Ruth  iv.  7 — 1 1.  we  learn  another 
singular  usage  on  occasions  of  purchase,  cession,  and  ex- 
change, viz.  that  in  earlier  times,  the  tran.sfer  of  alienable 
property  was  confirmed  by  the  proprietor  plucking  off  his 
shoe  at  the  city  gate,  in  the  presence  of  the  elders  and  other 
witnesses,  ana  handing  it  over  to  the  new  owner.  The 
origin  of  this  custom  it  is  impossible  to  trace :  but  it  had 
evidently  become  antiquated  in  the  time  of  David,  as  the 
author  of  the  book  of  Ruth  introduces  it  as  an  unknown 
custom  of  former  ages. 

In  process  of  time  the  joining  or  striking  of  hands,  already 
mentioned  with  reference  to  public  treaties,  was  introduced 
as  a  ratification  of  a  bargain  and  sale.  This  usage  was  not 
unknown  in  the  days  of  Job  (xvii.  3.),  and  Solomon  often 
alludes  to  it.  (See  Prov.  vi.  1.  xi.  15.  xvii.  18.  xx.  16. 
xxii.  26.  xxvii.  13.)  The  earliest  vestige  of  written  instru- 
ments, sealed  and  delivered  for  ratifying  the  disposal  and 
transfer  of  property,  occurs  in  Jer.  xxxii.  10 — 12.,  which  the 
propliet  commanded  Baruch  to  bury  in  an  earthen  vessel  in 
order  to  be  preserved  for  production  at  a  future  period,  as 
evidence  of  the  purchase.  (14,  15.)  No  mention  is  ex- 
pressly made  of  the  manner  in  which  deeds  were  anciently 
cancelled.  Some  expositors  have  imagined  that  in  Col.  ii. 
14.  Saint  Paul  refers  to  the  cancelling  of  them  by  blottinor 
or  drawing  a  line  across  them,  or  by  striking  them  through 
with  a  nail :  but  we  have  no  information  whatever  from 
antiquity  to  authorize  such  a  conclusion. ^ 

I V.  It  was  customary  for  those  who  appealed  to  the  Deity 
in  attestation  of  any  thing,  to  hold  up  their  right  hand 
towards  heaven  ;  by  which  action  the  party  swearing,  or 
making  oath,  signified  that  he  appealed  to  God  to  witness 
the  truth  of  what  he  averred.  Thus  Abram  said  to  the  king 
of  Sodom — /  have  lift  up  my  hand  unto  the  Lord  the  most 

high  God,  the  possessor  of  heaven  and  earth, that  I  will 

not  take  any  tiling  that  is  thine.  (Gen.  xiv.  22,  23.)  Hence 
the  expression, "  to  lift  up  the  hand,"  is  equivalent  to  making 
oath.  In  this  form  of  scriptural  antiquity,  the  angel  in  the 
Apocalypse  is  represented  as  taking  a  solemn  oath.  (Rev. 
X.  5.)*' 

Among  the  Jews,  an  oath  of  fidelity  was  taken  by  the 
servant's  puttinor  his  hand  under  the  thigh  of  his  lord,  as 
Eliezer  did  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xxiv.  2.);  whence,  with  no 
great  deviation,  is  perhaps  derived  the  form  of  doing  homage 
at  this  day,  by  putting  the  hands  between  the  knees,  and 
within  the  hands  of  the  liege.^  Sometimes  an  oath  was 
accompanied  with  an  imprecation,  as  in  2  Sam.  iii.  9.  35. 
Ruth  i.  17.  1  Kings  ii.  23.  2  Kings  vi.  31. :  but  sometimes 
the  party  swearing  omitted  the  imprecation,  as  if  he  were 
afraid,  and  shuddered  to  utter  it,  altnough  it  was,  from  other 
sources,  sufficiently  well  understood.  (Gen.  xiv.  22,  23. 
Ezek.  xvii.  18.)  At  other  times  he  merely  said,  ^^  Let  God 
be  a  witness, -^^  and  sometimes  affirmed,  saying,  ".^s  surely  as 
God  liveth.''^  (Jer.  xlii.  5.  Ruth  iii.  13.  I  Sam.  xiv.  45.  xx. 
3.  21.) 

These  remarks  apply  to  the  person  who  uttered  the  oath 

«  Schulzii  Areh.-eologiaHebraica,  cap.  14.  deFoederibusetContractibus, 
pp.  130— 13i  ;  Parcau,  Antiquila.s  Hebraica,  part  iii.  §  2.  cap.  3.  de  Fnede- 
ribus  et  Contractibus,  pp.  322—325.  Bruning,  Antiquitates  Hebrosce,  cap. 
26.  pp.  242-215.     Michaelis's  Conioienlaries,  vol.  i.  pp.  310 — 313. 

5  "  Tliis  mode  of  swearing  has  descended  even  to  our  own  times  and 
nation,  being  still  used  in  Scotland,  and  there  allowed  by  act  of  Parliament 
to  those  dissenters  who  are  styled  Seeeders.  The  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  was  taken  in  this  form."  Dean  Wood- 
house,  on  Rev.  x.  5. 

•  Faley's  Mor  and  Polit.  PhilosophT,  Book  ill.  ch.  16.  §  1. 


82 


LAWS  RESPECTING  STRANGERS,  &c. 


[Paut  n. 


himself  of  his  own  accord.     When  an  oath  was  exacted.,    2  KinffS  ii.  2.  Jud^.  vi.  13.  15.    1  Kings  iii.  17.  26. ;  a  prac- 


whether  by  a  judge  or  another,  the  person  who  exacted  it 
put  the  oath  in  form ;  and  the  person  to  whom  it  was  put, 
responded  by  saying,  .imen,  Amen,  so  lei  it  be :  or  gave  his 
response  in  other  expressions  of  like  import,  such  as  j-u  sj/rac, 
Tliou  hast  said  it,  (Num.  v.  19 — 22.  1  Kings  xxii.  16. 
Dent,  xxvii.  15 — 26.)  Sometimes  the  exactor  of  the  oath 
merely  used  the  following  adjuration,  viz.  I  adjure  you  by 
the  living  God  to  answer,  ivhether  this  thing  be  so  or  not.  And 
the  person  sworn  accordingly  made  answer  to  the  point  in- 
quired of.  (Num.  V.  22.  Matt.  xxvi.  61.)  It  should  be  re- 
marked here,  that  although  the  formulary  of  assent  on  the 
part  of  the  respondent  to  an  oath  was  frequently  Amen,  Amen, 
yet  this  formulary  did  not  always  imply  an  oath,  but,  in 
some  instances,  was  merely  a  protestation.  As  the  oath  was 
an  appeal  to  God  fLev.  xix.  12.  Dent.  vi.  13.),  the  taking 
of  a  false  oath  was  deemed  a  heinous  crime ;  and  perjury,  ac- 
cordingly, was  forbidden  in  those  words.  Thou  shall  not  take 
the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain,  that  is,  shalt  not  call 
God  to  witness  in  pretended  confirmation  of  a  falsehood. 
(Exod,  XX.  6.) 

It  was  also  common  to  swear  by  those  whose  life  and  pros- 
perity were  dear  to  the  party  making  oath.  Thus,  .Joseph 
swore  by  the  life  of  the  king  (Gen.  xlii.  15.)  ;  and  this  prac- 
tice prevailed  subsequently  among  the  IIel)rews.  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  20.  2  Sam.  xi.  11.  xiv.  19.  comp.  Psal.  Ixiii.  11.)  A 
person  sometimes  swore  by  himself,  and  sometimes  by  the 
life  of  the  person  before  whom  he  spoke,  as  in  1  Sam.  i.  26. 


tice  which  obtains  in  Syria  to  this  day.'  In  some  instances, 
persons  adjured  others  by  the  beasts  of  the  field  (Sol.  Song 
li.  7.),  a  sort  of  adjuration  which  still  makes  its  appearance 
in  the  writings  of  the  Arabian  poets.^ 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  Jews  were  in  the  haljitof  swear- 
ing by  the  altar,  by  Jernsalem,  by  heaven,  by  the  earth,  by 
themselves,  by  their  heads,  by  the  gold  of  the  temple,  by  sacri- 
fices, &c.  Because  the  name  of  God  was  not  mentioned  in 
these  oaths,  they  considered  them  as  imposing  but  small,  if 
any  obligation  ;'■'  and  we,  accordingly,  find,  that  our  Saviour 
takes  occasion  to  inveigh,  in  decided  terms,  against  such  arts 
of  deception.  (Matt.  v.  33 — 37.  xxiii.  16 — 22.)  It  is  against 
oaths  of  this  kind,  and  these  alone  (not  against  an  oath  uttered 
in  sincerity),  that  he  expresses  his  displeasure,  and  prohibits 
them.  This  is  clear,  since  he  himself  consented  to  take  upon 
him  the  solemnity  of  an  oath  (Matt.  xxvi.  64.)  ;  and  since 
Paul  himself,  in  more  than  one  instance,  utters  an  adjuration. 
Compare  Rom.  ix.  1.  2  Cor.  i.  23. 

In  the  primitive  periods  of  their  history,  the  Hebrews  re- 
ligiously observed  an  oath  (Josh. ix.  14,  15.);  but  we  find, 
that,  in  later  times,  they  were  often  accused  by  the  prophets 
of  perjury.  After  the  captivity,  the  Jews  became  again  cele- 
brated for  the  scrupulous  observance  of  what  they  had  sworn 
to,  but  corruption  soon  increased  among  them  :  they  revived 
the  old  forms,  the  words  without  the  meaning  ;  and  acquired 
among  all  nations  the  reputation  of  perjurers.* 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


J>AWS  RESPECTING  STRANGERS,  AGED,  DEAF,  BLIND,  AND  POOR  PERSONS. 
I.   Of  Stra7igers. — II.    Of  the  Aged,  Blind,  and  Deaf. — III.    Of  the  Poor. 


All  wise  legislators  have  deemed  it  an  important  bran(;h 
of  political  economy,  to  direct  their  attention  towards  aliens 
and  to  the  poor :  and  the  humanity  and  wisdom  of  the  Mo- 
saic regulations  in  this  respect  will  be  found  not  unworthy 
of  a  divmely  inspired  legislator. 

I.  Strangers  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Mo- 
ses, who  specifies  two  different  descriptions  of  them,  viz.  1. 
Q"'3i'in  (TOScHaBiM),  or  those  who  had  no  home,  whether 
they  were  Israelites  or  foreigners ;  and  2.  z2^-\i  (gcrim),  or 
those  who  were  strangers  generally,  and  who  possessed  no 
landed  property,  though  they  might  have  purchased  houses. 
Towards  both  of  these  classes  the  Hebrew  legislator  en- 
forced the  duties  of  kindness  and  humanity,  by  reminding  the 
Israelites  that  they  had  once  been  strangers  in  Egypt.  (Lev. 
xix.  33,  34.  Deut.  x.  19.  xxiii.  7.  xxiv.  18.)  Hence  he  or- 
dained the  same  rights  and  privileges  for  the  Israelites,  as  for 
strangers.  (Lev.  xxiv.  19 — 22.  Num.  ix.  14.  xv.  5.)  Stran- 
gers might  be  naturalized,  or  permitted  to  enter  into  the  con- 
gregation of  the  Lord,  by  submitting  to  circumcision,  and  re- 
nouncing idolatry.  (Deut.  xxiii.  1 — 9.)  The  Edomites  and 
Egyptians  were  capable  of  becoming  citizens  of  Israel  after 
the  third  generation.  Doeg  the  Edomite  (1  Sam.  xxi.  8. 
Psal.  Iii.)  was  thus  naturalized  ;  and,  on  the  conquest  of  Idu- 
maea  by  the  Jews,  about  129  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ, 
the  Jews  and  Idumaeans  became  one  people.  It  appears, 
also,  that  other  nations  were  not  entirely  excluded  from  being 
incorporated  with  the  people  of  Israel :  for  Uriah  the  Hittite, 
who  was  of  Canaanitish  descent,  is  represented  as  being  a  fully 
naturalized  Israelite.  But  the  "  Ammonites  and  Moahites, 
in  consequence  of  the  hostile  disposition  which  they  had  ma- 
nifested to  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  were  absolutely 
excluded  from  the  right  of  citizensliip,"^ 

"  In  the  earlier  periods  of  the  Hebrew  state,  persons  who 
were  natives  of  another  country,  but  who  had  come,  either 
from  choice  or  necessity,  to  take  up  their  residence  among 

>  "By  your  life"  is  still  a  common  oath  in  Syria  (Biirckhardt's  Travels 
in  Syria,  p.  40.),  but  the  most  common  oath  in  tljat  country  is, — "  On  my 
head."    (Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  2IJ9.) 

»  Consult  the  Koran,  Sura  Ixxxv.  1—3.  Ixxxvi.  1.  11—13.  Ixxxix.  1^. 
xci.  1 — 8,  (fee. 

s  Martialis  Episrammat.  XI.  95. 

«  Alber,  Hermeneut.  Vet.  Test.  pp.  210,  211.  Jahn's  Archeeologia  Biblica, 
translated  by  Mr.  Upham,  pp.  494,  495. 

»  MichaeUs's  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  233—239. 


the  Hebrews,  appear  to  have  been  placed  in  favourable  cir- 
cumstances. At  a  later  period,  viz.  in  the  reigns  of  David 
and  Solomon,  they  were  compelled  to  labour  on  the  religious 
edifices,  which  were  erected  by  those  princes  ;  as  we  may 
learn  from  such  passages  as  these : — ind  Solomon  numbered 
all  the  strangers  that  were  in  the  land  of  Israel,  after  the  num- 
bering wherewith  David  his  father  had  tiumbered  them  ,-  and 
they  were  found  a  hundred,  and  fifty  thousand  and  three  thou- 
sand and  six  hundred ;  and  he  set  three-'scwe  and  ten  thou.sand 
of  them  to  be  bearers  of  burdens,  and  fourscore  thousand  to  be 
hewers  in  the  mountain.  (2  Chron.  ii.  1.  17,  18.  compared 
with  1  Chron.  xxii.  2.)  The  exaction  of  such  laborious 
services  from  foreigners  was  probably  limited  to  those  who 
had  been  taken  prisoners  in  war ;  and  who,  according  to 
the  rights  of  war  as  they  were  understood  at  that  period, 
could  be  justly  employed  in  any  offices,  however  low 
and  however  laborious,  which  the  conqueror  thought  proper 
to  impose.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  degenerate  Jews 
did  not  find  it  convenient  to  render  to  the  strangers  from  a 
foreign  country  those  deeds  of  kindTiess  and  humanity,  which 
were  not  only  their  due,  but  which  were  demanded  in  their 
behalf  by  the  laws  of  Moses.  They  were  in  the  habit  of 
understanding  by  the  word  neighbour,  their  friends  merely, 
and  accordingly  restricted  the  exercise  of  their  benevolence 
by  the  same  narrow  limits  that  bounded  in  this  case  their 
interpretation ;  contrary  as  both  were  to  the  spirit  of  those 
passages,  which  have  been  adduced  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph."" 

II.  In  a  monarchy  or  aristocracy,  birth  and  office  alone 
give  rank,  but  in  a  democracy,  where  all  are  on  an  equal 
footing,  the  right  discharge  of  official  duties,  or  the  arrival 
of  OLD  AGE,  are  the  only  sources  of  rank.  Hence  the  Mosaic 
statute  in  Lev.  xix.  32.  {Jiefore  the  hoary  head  thou  shalt  stand 
up,  and  shall  reverence  the  aged),  will  be  found  suited  to  the 
republican  circumstances  of  the  Israelites,  as  well  as  con- 
formable to  the  nature  and  wishes  of  the  human  heart :  for 
no  man  has  any  desire  to  sink  in  honour,  or  to  be  of  less 
consequence  than  he  was  before ;  and  to  allow  precedence  to 
old  age  cannot  be  a  matter  that  will  ever  affect  a  young  man 
very  sensibly.  Nor  does  Moses  confine  his  attention  to  the 
aged.  He  extends  the  protection  of  a  special  statute  to  the 
DEAF  and  the  blind,  in  Lev.  xix.  14.,  which  prohibits  re 

0  Jiihn's  Archieologia  Biblica,  by  Upham,  p.  197. 


Chap.  IX.] 


MILITARY  .\FFAIRS. 


83 


vilin<T  tho  one  or  puttinofa  stumhlinp;-l)1ofk  in  the  way  of  tlie 
otlifT.  In  l)put.  xxvii.  IH.  a  curse  is  denounced  ajrainst  him 
who  mislrads  tho  lilind. 

in.  With  rtfrard  to  those  wliom  iTiisf(>rtnno  or  other  cir- 
omnstances  had  reduced  to  jiovcrlj',  vari'>us  huniano  rejriila- 
tioiis  were  niad(> :  for  tliouali  M(jses  hnd,  liy  iiis  statutes 
relative  to  the  division  of  tiu^  land,  studied  to  prevent  any 
lsra(ditps  from  hcinyf  horn  ])oor,  yet  he  nowhere  indnjrres  tlie 
hope  that  tlw^re  would  actually  he  no  poor.  On  the  contrary 
he  expressly  says  (Dent.  xv.  11.).  tiik  Poor  sIkiH  never cmxe 
out  of  thfi  wnd ;  and  he  enjr)ins  tlu;  llehrews  to  open  wide 
their  hands  to  their  hrc'thren,  to  tins  poor  and  to  tlie  needy  in 
their  land.  He  exhorts  the  opulent  to  assist  a  decayed  fsra- 
elile  with  a  loan,  and  not  to  refuse  even  thoujrh  the  sahhati- 
cal  year  drew  niirh  (Dent.  xv.  7 — 10.');  and  no  pledire  was 
to  he  detained  fr)r  thi^  loan  of  money  tliat  served  for  the  pre- 
servation of  his  life  or  health  (I)eut.  xxiv.  12,  l.T.),  or  was 
necessary  to  enahle  him  to  procure  hread  for  himself  and 
family,  as  the  upper  and  netlier  mill-stones.  Durinjr  harvest, 
the  owner  of  a  lield  was  ])rohihited  from  reajiiui;  the  corn 
that  ffrew  in  its  corners,  or  the  after-<rrowth  :  and  tho  scat- 
terea  ears,  or  sheaves  carel(>ssly  left  on  the  rrround,  erjually 
belontred  to  the  poor.  After  a  man  had  once  shaken  or 
beati'ii  his  oHvi-  trees,  ho  was  not  permitted  to  gratlier  the 
olives  that  still  luiujr  on  them:  so  that  the  fruit,  which  did 
not  ripen  until  after  tix;  season  of  irathering',  helonrred  to  the 
poor.  (Lev.  xix.  •»,  10.  Deut.  xxiv.  10,  20"^  21.  Ruth  ii.  2 — 
19.)  Further,  whatever  grew  during  the  sahbatical  year,  in 
the  fields,  gardens,  or  vineyards,  the  poor  might  take  at  plea- 
sure, having  an  equal  right  to  it  with  the  owners  of  the  land. 
Another  important  privilege  enjoyed  hy  the  poor  was,  what 
were  called  svcuiid  tent/i.s  and  second  firstlings.  "  Besides  the 
tenth  received  hy  the  Levites,  the  Israelites  were  ohliged  to 
set  apart  unufher  tenlii  of  their  field  and  garden  produce;  and 
in  like  manner,  of  their  cattle,  a  second  set  of  offerings,  for 
the  purpose  of  presenting  as  thank  offerings  at  the  high  fes- 
tivals."    Of  these  thank  olTerings  only  certain  fat  ''pieces 


were  consumed  on  the  altar  :  the  remainder,  after  deducting 
the  priest's  portion,  was  appropriated  to  the  sacrifice  feasts^ 
to  which  the  Israelites  were  hound  to  invite  the  stranger,  the, 
widow,  and  the  orphan.  "When  anv  part  of  these" tenths 
remained,  which  they  had  not  hoen  ahle  to  hring  to  the  altar 
or  to  consume  as  olTerings,  they  were  ohliged'^  every  three 
years  to  make  a  conscientious  estimate  of  the  amount,  and, 
without  presenting  it  as  an  offering  to  God,  employ  it  in 
l)enevolent  entertainments  in  their  native  cities."  (Dent, 
xii.  5—12.    17—19.    xiv.  22—29.    xvi.  10,   11.    xxvi.  12, 

i:j.v 

lint  though  Moses  has  made  sueh  abundant  provision  for 
the  poor,  yet  it  does  not  appear  that  h(!  has  said  any  thing 
respecting  beggars.  The  earliest  mention  of  beggars  occurs 
in  Psal.  cix.  10.  In  the  New  Testament,  however,  we  read 
of  beggars,  blind,  distressed,  and  maimed,  who  lay  at  the 
doors  of  the  rich,  bj'  the  way  sides,  and  also  before  the  gate 
of  the  temple.  (Ma'rk  x.  4(5.  Luke  xvi.  20,  21.  Acts  iii.2.)2 
Hut  "  we  have  no  reason  to  sujipose,  that  there  existed  m 
the  time  of  Christ  that  class  of  persons  called  vatrrant  hes- 
f^nrx,  who  present  their  supplications  for  alms  from  door  to 
door,  and  who  are  found  at  the  present  day  in  the  Kast, 
although  less  frequentlv  than  in  the  countries  of  Europe. 
That  the  custom  of  seeking  alms  by  sounding  a  trumpet  or 
horn,  which  prevails  among  a  class  of  Mohammedan  monas- 
tics, Kukndar  or  Karendul,  prevailed  also  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  may  be  inferred  from  Matt.  vi.  2,  ;  where  the  verb 
crcthTTKnic,  which  possesses  the  shade  of  signification,  that 
would  be  attached  to  a  corresponding  word  in  the  Hiphil 
form  of  the  Hebrew  verbs,  is  to  be  rendered  transitively,  as 
is  the  case  with  many  other  verbs  in  the  New  Testament. 
There  is  one  thing  characteristic  of  those  orientals,  who  are 
reduced  to  the  disagreeable  necessity  of  following  the  voca- 
tion of  mendicants,  which  is  worthy  of  being  mentioned; 
they  do  not  appeal  to  the  pity  or  to  the  alms-giving  spirit, 
but  to  the  justice  of  their  benefactors.  (.lob  xxii.  7.  xxxi. 
16.  Prov.  iii.  27,  28.)"3 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OF    THE    MILITART    AFFAIRS    OF    THE    JEWS    AND    OTHER    NATIONS     MENTIONED    IN 

THE    SCRIPTURES. 

SECTION  L 


ON    THE    MILITARY    DISCIPLINE    OF    THE    JEWS. 

The  earliest  TVars,  predatory   Excursions. — II.  Character  of  the  Wars  of  the  Israelites. — Their   Levies  hoiv  raised. 

Mosaic   Statutes  concerning  the  Jsraelitish  Soldiers. — III.  Divisions,  and  Officers  of  the  Jewish  Armies  ; — -which  were 

sometimes  conducted  by  the  A'inq-s  in  I'erson. — JMilitary  Chariots. — IV.  Encampments. — V.jyfilitary  Schools  and  Training-. 

VI.  Defensive  ^nns. — VII.  Offensive  Arms. — VIII.  Fortifications. — IX.  Mode  of  declaring  War. — X.  Military  Tactics. 

Order  of  Battle. — Treatment  of  the  Slain,  of  captured  Cities,  and  of  Captives. — XI;  Triumphant  Reception  of  the  Con- 
querors.— XII.  Distribution  of  the  Spoil. — Military  Honours  conferred  on  eminent  Warriors. — A  military  Order  established 
by  David. — XIII,  Trophies. 


I.  There  were  not  wanting  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the 
world  men  who,  abusing  the  power  and  strength  which  they 
possessed  to  the  purposes  of  ambition,  usurped  upon  their 
weaker  neighbours.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  Kingdom 
founded  by  the  plunderer  Nimrod  (Gen.  x.  8 — 10.),  whose 
name  signifies  a  rebel;  and  it  was  most  probably  given  him, 
from  his  rejection  of  the  laws  both  of  God  and  man,  and 
supporting  by  force  a  tyranny  over  others.  As  mankind 
continued  to  increase,  quarrels  and  contests  would  naturally 
arise,  and,  spreading  from  individuals  to  families,  tribes  and 
nations,  produced  wars.  Of  the  military  affairs  of  those 
times  we  have  very  imperfect  notices  in  the  Scriptures. 
These  wars,  however,  appear  to  have  been  nothing  more 
than  predatory  incursions,  like  those  of  the  modern  vVaha- 
bees  and  Bedouin  Arabs,  so  often  described  by  oriental  tra- 
vellers. The  patriarch  Abraham,  on  learning  that  his  kins- 
man Lot  had  been  taken  captive  by  Chedorlaomer  and  his 
confederate  emirs  or  petty  kings,  mustered  his  trained  ser- 
vants, three  hundred  and  eighteen  in  number;  and  coming 
against  the  enemy  by  night,  he  divided  his  forces,  and  totally 


1  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  254 — K9. 
'  Jahii'sArchscoIogia,  by  Upham,  p.  198. 


»  Ibid.  p.  249. 


discomfited  them.  (Gen.  xiv.  14 — 16.)  The  other  patriarchs 
also  armed  their  servants  and  dependants,  when  a  conflict 
was  expected.  (Gen.  xxxii.  7 — 12.  xxxiii.  1.)^ 

II.  Although  the  Jews  are  now  the  very  reverse  of  being 
a  military  people  (in  which  circumstance  we  may  recognise 
the  accomplishment  of  prophecy),^  yet  anciently  they  were 
eminently  distinguished  for  their  prowess.  But  the  notices 
concerning  their  discipline,  which  are  presented  to  us  in  the 
Sacred  Writings,  are  few  and  brief. 

The  wars  in  which  the  Israelites  were  engaged,  were  of 
two  kinds,  either  such  as  were  expressly  enjoined  by  divine 

*  This  section  is  chiefly  translated  from  Calmet's  Dissertation  surla 
Milice  desanciensHebreux,  inserted  in  the  third  volume  of  his  Comtncn- 
taire  Litt6rale  sur  la  Bible,  and  also  in  vol.  i.  pp.  20.3—^0.  of  his  Disserta- 
tions qui  peuvent  seriir  do  Prolcgomenes  de  I'Ecriture  ;  which,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  celebrated  tactician,  the  Chevalier  Folard,  discusses  the 
military  affairs  of  the  Hebrews  with  so  much  accuracy  and  knowledce,  as 
to  leave  scarcely  any  room  for  additions.  (Dissertation  on  the  Military 
Tactics  of  the  Hebrews,  in  vol.  iii.  p.  535.  of  the  folio  English  translation 
of  Calmet's  Dictionary.)  The  Dissertation  of  the  Chevalier  Folard  has 
also  been  consulted  ;  together  with  Alber's  Inst.  Herm.  Vet.  Test.  torn.  i. 
pp.  239—247.  ;  Schulzii  Archsoloaia  Hebraica,  pp.  132—146,  ;  Jahn.  Archse- 
ologia  Biblica,  §§  266—296.  ;  Ackermann,  Arrhaeologia  Bjblica,  §^260—288. ; 
Home's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp.  3U3— 316. ;  Bfuning,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp 
"4—91. ;  Carpzovii  Antiquitates  Gentis  Hehraeae,  pp.  665—671. 

»  See  Lev.  xxv\.  36.  Deut.  xxviii.  65,  66. 


84 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IX. 


command,  or  such  as  "were  voluntary  and  entered  upon  by 
the  prince  for  revencring  some  national  affronts,  and  for  the 
honour  of  his  sovereignty.  Of  the  first  sort  were  those  un- 
dertaken against  the  seven  nations  of  Canaan,  whom  God 
had  devoted  to  destruction,  viz.  the  Hittitcs,  the  Amorites, 
the  Canaanites  ([strictly  so  called),  the  Perizzites,  the  Hi- 
vites,  the  Jebusites,  and  the  Girgashites.  These  the  Israel- 
ites were  commanded  to  extirpate,  and  to  settle  themselves 
in  their  place.  (Deut.  vii.  1,2.  and  xx.  IG,  17.)  There  were 
indeed  other  nations  who  inhabited  this  country  in  the  days 
of  Abraham,  as  may  be  seen  in  Gen.  xv.  19,  20.  But  these 
had  either  become  extinct  since  that  time,  or  being  but  a 
small  people  were  incorporated  with  the  rest.  To  these 
seven  nations  no  terms  of  peace  could  be  offrred  ;  f(jr,  bein^ 

fuilty  of  gross  idolatries  and  other  detestable  vices  of  au 
inds,  GoQ  thought  them  unfit  to  live  any  longer  upon  the 
face  of  the  earth.  These  wars,  thus  undertaken  by  the  com- 
mand of  God,  were  called  the  wars  of  the  Lord,  of  which  a 
Particular  record  seems  to  have  been  kept,  as  mentioned  in 
[urn.  xxi.  14. 

In  the  voluntary  wars  of  the  Israelites,  which  were  un- 
dertaken upon  some  national  account,  such  as  most  of  those 
were  in  the  times  of  the  Judges,  when  the  Moabites,  Philis- 
tines, and  other  neighbouring  nations  invaded  their  country, 
and  such  as  that  of  David  against  the  Ammonites,  whose 
king  had  violated  the  law  of  nations  by  insulting  his  ambas- 
sadors,— there  were  certain  rules  established  by  God,  which 
were  to  regulate  their  conduct,  both  in  the  undertaking  and 
carrying  on  of  these  wars.     As,  first,  they  were  to  proclaim 

Eeace  to  them,  which,  if  they  accepted,  these  people  were  to 
ecome  tributaries  to  them  ;  hut  if  they  refused,  all  the 
males,  upon  besieging  the  city,  were  allowed  to  be  slain,  if 
the  Israelites  thought  fit ;  but  the  women  and  little  ones  were 
to  be  spared,  and  the  cattle  with  the  other  goods  of  the  city 
were  to  belong,  as  spoil,  to  the  Israelites.  (Deut.  xx.  10 — 
15.)  Secondly,  in  besieging  a  city  they  were  not  to  commit 
unnecessary  waste  and  depredations  ;  for  though  they  were 
allowed  to  cut  down  barren  trees  of  all  sorts,  to  serve  the 
purposes  of  their  approaches,  yet  they  were  obliged  to  spare 
the  fruit  trees,  as  bemg  necessary  to  support  the  lives  of  the 
inhabitants  in  future  times,  when  the  little  rancour,  which 
was  the  occasion  of  their  present  hostilities,  should  be  re- 
moved and  done  away.   (Deut.  xx.  19,  20.) 

The  Israelites,  in  the  beginning  of  their  republic,  appear 
to  have  been  a  timorous  and  cowardly  people ;  their  spirits 
were  broken  by  their  bondage  in  Egypt;  and  this  base  temper 
soon  appeared  upon  the  approach  of  Pharaoh  and  his  army, 
before  the  Israelites  passed  through  the  Red  Sea,  which  made 
them  murmur  so  much  against  Moses.  (Exod.  xiv.  10,  11, 
12.)  But  in  no  instance  was  their  cowardice  more  evident, 
than  when  they  heard  the  report  of  the  spies  concerning  the 
inhabitants  of  the  land,  which  threw  them  into  a  fit  of 
despair,  and  made  them  resolve  to  return  into  Egypt,  not- 
witnslanding  all  the  miracles  wrought  for  them  by  God. 
(Num.  xiv.  1 — 6.)  It  was  on  this  account  that  David,  who 
was  well  acquainted  with  their  disposition,  says,  that  they  got 
not  the  land  in  possession  by  their  own  sword,  neither  did  their 
own  arm  save  them,  but  thy  right  hand  and  thine  arm,  and  the 
light  of  thy  countenance,  because  thou  hadst  a  favour  unto 
them.  (Psal.  xliv.  3.) 

After  their  departure  from  Egypt,  the  whole  of  the  men, 
from  twenty  years  and  upwards,  until  the  age  of  fifty  (when 
they  might  demand  their  discharge  if  they  chose),  were  lia- 
ble to  military  service,  the  priests  and  Levites  not  excepted. 
(Num.  i.  3.  22.  2  Sam.  xxiii.20.  1  Kings  ii.  35.)  Like  the 
militia  in  some  countries,  and  the  hardy  mountaineers  of  Le- 
banon at  this  day,"  they  were  always  ready  to  assemble  at 
the  shortest  notice.  It  the  occasion  were  extremely  urgent, 
affecting  their  existence  as  a  people,  all  were  summoned  to 
war ;  but  ordinarily,  when  there  was  no  necessity  for  con- 
voking the  whole  of  their  forces,  a  selection  was  made.  Thus 
Joshua  chose  twelve  thousand  men,  in  order  to  attack  the 
Amalekites  (Exod.  xvii.  9,  10.)  :  in  the  war  with  the  Midi- 
anites,  one  thousand  men  were  selected  out  of  each  tribe 
(Num.  xxxi.  4,  5.),  and  in  the  rash  assault  upon  the  city  of 
Ai,  three  thousand  men  were  employed.  (Josh.  vii.  3,  4.) 
The  book  of  Judges  furnishes  numerous  instances  of  this 

»  A  recent  learned  traveller  in  the  Holy  Land,  describing  the  present 
state  of  Mount  Lebanon,  says,  that,  "  of  the  peasants,  great  numbers 
carry  arms.  In  fact,  every  young  man  may  in  some  sense  be  called  a 
Boldier,  and  would  in  case  of  need  muster  as  such  :  the  gun  which  serves 
him  for  field-sport  and  sustenance  is  ready  for  the  call  of  war ;  and  his 
discipline  consists  in  the  bracing,  hardy  habits  of  a  mountaineer."  Rev. 
W.  Jowett'.s  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  74.  (London,  1825.  8vo.) 


mode  of  selection.  Hence  we  read  in  the  Scriptures  of 
choosing  the  men,  not  of  levying  them.  In  like  manner, 
under  the  Roman  republic,  all  the  citizens  of  the  military  age 
(seventeen  to  forty-six  years)  were  obliged  to  serve  a  certain 
number  of  campaigns,  when  they  WTre  commanded.  On  the 
day  appointed,  the  consuls  held  a  levy  {delectum  habebanl), 
by  the  assistance  of  the  military  or  legionary  tribunes;  when 
it  was  determined  by  lot  in  what  manner  the  tribes  should 
be  called.  Tne  consuls  ordered  such  as  they  pleased  to  be 
cited  out  of  each  tribe,  and  every  one  was  obliged  to  answer 
to  his  name  under  a  severe  penalty.  On  certain  occasions, 
some  of  the  most  refractory  were  put  to  death. ^  To  the 
above  described  mode  of  selecting  troops,  our  Saviour  alluded, 
when  he  said  that  many  are  culled,  but  ftw  chosen  (Matt.  xx. 
16.)  :  the  great  mass  of  the  people  being  convened,  choice 
was  made  of  those  who  were  the  most  fit  for  service. 

This  mode  of  selecting  soldiers  accounts  for  the  formation 
of  those  vast  armies,  in  a  very  short  space  of  time,  of  which 
we  read  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  men  of  Jabesh  Gilead, 
who,  in  the  beginning  of  Saul's  reign,  were  besieged  by  the 
Ammonites,  had  only  seven  days'  respite  given  them  to  send 
messengers  to  the  coasts  of  Israel,  after  which,  if  no  relief 
came  to  them,  they  were  to  deliver  up  the  city  and  have 
their  eyes  put  out,  which  was  the  best  condition,  it  seems, 
they  could  procure.  (1  Sam.  xi.  1,  2,  3.)  As  soon  as  Saul 
was  informed  of  it,  he,  by  a  symbolical  representation  of  cut- 
ting a  yoke  of  oxen  in  pieces,  and  sending  them  all  over 
Israel,  signified  what  should  be  done  to  the  oxen  of  such  as 
did  not  appear  upon  this  summons.  In  consequence  of  this 
summons,  we  find  that  an  army  of  three  hundred  and  thirty 
thousand  men  was  formed,  who  relieved  the  place  within  the 
seven  days  allowed  them.  In  like  manner,  when  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  had  heard  of  the  crime  that  was  committed 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Gibeah  against  the  Levite's  concubine, 
it  is  said,  that  they  resolved  not  to  return  to  their  houses  till 
they  had  fully  avenged  this  insult  (Judg.  xx.  8.),  and  ac- 
cordingly, upon  the  fribe  of  Benjamin's  refusing  to  deliver 
up  these  men,  an  army  was  soon  gathered  together  of  four 
hundred  thousand  men  of  war.  (verse  17.)  Nor  was  the  pro- 
viding of  their  armies  with  necessaries  any  impediment  to 
these  sudden  levies  ;  for  in  the  beginning  of  the  Jewish 
republic,  tjieir  armies  consisting  altogether  of  infantry,  every 
one  served  at  their  own  expense,  and  ordinarily  carried  their 
own  arms  and  provisions  alon^  with  them.  And  thus  we 
find  that  Jesse  sent  a  supply  of  provisions  by  David  to  his 
other  three  sons  that  were  in  Saul's  camp  (1  Sam.  xvii.  13. 
17.),  which  gave  David  an  opportunity  of  engaging  Goliath  ; 
and  this  was  the  chief  reason  why  their  wars  in  those  days 
were  ordinarily  but  of  a  short  continuance,  it  being  hardly  pos- 
sible that  a  large  body  could  subsist  long  upon  such  provisions 
as  every  one  carried  along  with  him.  After  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon, their  armies  became  vastly  numerous :  we  read  that 
Abijah  king  of  Judah  had  an  army  of  four  hundred  thousand 
men,  with  which  he  fought  Jeroboam  king  of  Israel,  who  had 
double  that  number  (2  Chron.  xiii.  3.),  and  it  is  said  there 
were  five  hundred  thousand  killed  of  Jeroboam's  army,  (ver, 
17.)  Asa  king  of  Judah  had  an  army  of  nearly  six  hundred 
thousand  men,  when  he  was  attacked  by  Zerah  the  Ethiopian 
with  a  host  of  a  million  of  men.  (2  Chron.  xiv.  8,  9.)  Je- 
hoshaphat  king  of  Judah  had  eleven  hundred  and  sixty  thou- 
sand men,  without  reckoning  the  garrisons  in  his  fortified 
places.  (2  Chron.  xvii.  14 — 19.) 

Various  regulations  were  made  by  Moses  concerning  the 
Israelitish  sofdiers,  which  are  characterized  by  equal  wis- 
dom and  humanity.  Not  to  repeat  what  has  already  been 
noticed  above,  we  may  remark  that  the  following  classes 
of  persons  were  wholly  exempted  from  military  service 
(Deut.  XX.  5 — 8.  xxiv.  5.)  ;  viz. 

1.  He,  who  had  built  a  new  house,  and  had  not  dedicated 
it,  was  to  return  home,  lest  he  should  die  in  battle,  and  an- 
other-r.ian  dedicate  it.  From  the  title  of  Psal.  XXX. — Ji  Psalm 
or  Song  at  the  dedication  of  the  house  of  David, — it  was  evi- 
dently a  custom  in  Israel  to  dedicate  a  new  house  to  Jeho- 
vah, with  prayer,  praise,  and  thanksgiving,  in  order  that  he 
might  obtain  the  divine  blessing.  > 

2.  Those  who  had  planted  a  vine  or  olive  yard,  and  who 
had  not  yet  eaten  of  its  produce. 

3.  Every  man  who  had  betrothed  a  wife  and  had  not  taken 
her  home.  It  is  well  known,  that  among  the  Jews  a  consi- 
derable time  sometimes  elapsed  between  the  espousal  or  be- 
.trothing  of  the  panties  and  the  celebration  of  a  marriage. 
When  the  bridegroom  had  made  proper  preparations,  the  - 

»  Dr.  Adam's  Roman  Antiquities,  pp.  362,  363.  fifth  edit. 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  MILITARY  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE' JEWS. 


85 


bride  was  conducted  to  his  house,  and  the  nuptials  were 
consumrnaKid. 

4.  Evf^ry  newly  married  man,  durincr  the  first  year  afUjr 
his  marriage.  Tlie  humanity  of"  these  cxemplions  will  be 
the  more  evident,  wlien  it  is  recollcctt'd  that,  aiicit^ntlv,  it 
was  de-emed  an  exces-iive  liardship  lor  a  ixTsfjn  to  he  obhVed 
to  go  to  l)attl('  Hn  which  tliere  was  a  prohahility  of  his  being 
slain)  who  had  h-ft  a  new  house  unfinished,  a  newly  pur- 
chased heritage  half  tilled,  or  a  wife  with  whom  he  had  just 
contracttMl  marriage;.  Homer  represents  the  case  of  Frotesi- 
lans  as  siiiguhirly  afllicting,  who  was  (jbliged  to  go  to  the 
Trojan  war,  Weaving  his  wife  in  the  deepest  distress,  and  his 
house  unfinished.' 

5.  The  last  exemption  was  in  favour  of  the  fearful  and 
faint  heart ed ;  an  exemption  of  such  a  disgraceful  nature, 
that  one  would  think  it  never  would  iiave  been  claimed. 
Such,  however,  was  tin;  ease  in  CJideon's  expedition  against 
the  Midianites.  Ten  thousand  only  remained  out  of  tliirli)- 
twu  Ihdiimiid,  of  wliicrh  nmnber  his  army  originally  consisted; 
twenty-two  tiiousand  having  complied  witii  his  pro(damution, 
that  whosoever  was  fearful  and  afraid  might  return  and  depart 
early  from  Moinit  (Jilead.  (.ludg.  vii.  .'5.)- 

Beforti  the  regal  government  was  estalilished,  the  Israeli- 
tish  army  was  entirely  disbanded  at  the  conclu^sion  of  a  war. 
The  earliest  instance  recorded  of  any  military  force  being 
kept  in  time  of  peace,  is  in  tlie  reign  of  Saul,  who  r(!tained 
two  thousand  for  his  body  guard,  and  one  thousand  for  his 
son  Jonathan's  guard.  (1  ISam.  xiii.  1,  2.)  David  had  a  dis- 
tinct guard,  called  Cherethites  and  Pelethites,  conceriuuff  the 
origin  of  whose  name  various  contradictory  opinions  have 
been  offered.  Josephus,  however,  expressly  says,  that  they 
were  his  guards,  and  the  Chaldee  paraphrast  terms  them 
archers  nndslinirersj  Besides  these  he  had  twelve  bodies  of 
twenty-four  thousand  men  each,  who  were  on  duty  for  one 
month,  forming  an  aggregate  of  two  hundred  and  eiglity-eight 
thousand  men.  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  1 — 15.)  Subsequently,  when 
the  art  of  war  was  improved,  a  regular  force  seems  to  have 
been  kept  up  both  in  peace  and  war;  for,  exclusive  of  the 
vast  army  which  Jehoshaphat  had  in  the  field,  we  read  that 
he  had  troops  throurrhout  all  the  fenced  cities,  which  doubt- 
less were  garrisoned  in  time  of  peace  as  well  as  during  war. 

III.  The  Officers  who  were  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Hebrew  forces -appear  not  to  have  differed  materially  from 
those  whom  we  hud  in  ancient  and  modern  armies. 

The  Division  of  the  army  into  three  bands  or  companies, 
mentioned  in  Gen.  xiv.  It,  15.  Job  i.  17.  Judg.  vii.  IC.  20. 
1  Sam.  xi.  11.  and  2  Sam.  xviii.  2.,  was  probably  no  other 
than  the  division  into  the  centre,  left,  and  right  iving,  which 
obtains  in  the  modern  art  of  war.  The  Hebrews,  when  they 
departed  from  Kgypt,  marched  in  military  order,  ortox  'jjj 
(al  TstBOTrtM)  by  their  armies  or  hosts^  (Exod.  xii.  51.),  and 
D'2'r:n-}  (ve-cH«MMSHiM),  which  word  in  our  English  Bibles 
(Exod.  xiii.  18.^  is  renaercd  harnessed,  and  in  the  margin, 
01/  fire  in  a  rank.  It  is  probable,  from  these  expressions, 
tliat  they  followed  each  other  in  ranks  fifty  deep,  and  that  at 
the  head  of  each  rank  or  file  of  fifty  was  trie  captain  of  fifty. 
(1  Sam.  viii.  12.  2  Kings  i.  9 — HA  The  other  divisions 
consisted  of  tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  &c. ;  and  the  officers 
that  commanded  them  are  styled  captains  of  thousands,  cap- 
tains of  hundreds,  captains  of  fifties,  and  captains  of  tens ; 
of  these  mention  is  made  in  1  Chron.  xii.  14.  20.  xiii.  1. 
xxviii.  1.  and  2  Kings  i.  9.  11.  13.  These,  probably,  were  of 
the  same  rank  with  those  whom  Moses  constituted  in  the 
wilderness,  rulers  of  thousands,  &c.  (Exod.  xviii.  25.),  and 
who  at  first  acted  in  a  double  capacity,  being  at  the  same  time 
civil  magistrates  and  military  otiicers.  The  captains  of  thou- 
sands seem  to  have  been  much  the  same  as  colonels  of  regi- 
ments with  us ;  and  the  captains  of  hundreds  might  probably 
answer  to  those  who  in  our  army  have  the  command  of  troops 
and  companies ;  the  captains  ot  fifties  and  tens  to  our  subal- 
terns, sergeants,  and  corporals.  During  the  Mosaic  com- 
monwealth, in  conformity  to  the  law  in  Deut.  xx.  9.,  all  these 

t  Iliad,  lib.  ii.  700—702. 

«  Michaclis's  Coirimcntaries,  vol.  iil.  pp.  34 — 37. 

'  On  this  subject  ihe  reader  may  consult  the  Dissertations  of  Ikcnius, 
De  Crellii  et  Plethi  (Lug.  Bat.  1749),  and  of  Lakemacher,  Observationes 
Philologica;,  part  ii.  pp.  11 — 44.,  and  also  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the 
Law  of  Moses,  §  232. 

•  It  is  frffm  this  circumstance  "that  the  Divine  Being  calls  himself  the 
Lord  op  Hosts,  or  armies;  because  the  Israelites  were  brought  out  of 
Egypt  under  his  direction,  marshalled  and  ordered  by  himself,  guided  by 
his  wisdom,  supported  by  his  providence,  and  protected  by  his  might. 
This  is  the  true  and  simple  reason,  why  God  is  so  frequenUy  styled  in 
Scripture  the  Lord  of  Hosts:  /or  the  Lord  did  brin^  ttie  children  of  Israel 
out  i]f  Egypt  by  their  armies."  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary,  on  Exod. 
xii.  51. 


officers  were  appointed  by  the  Shnferim,  genealogists  or  offi- 
cers (as  they  are  termed  in  our  version),  who  probably  chose 
the  heads  if  families ;  but  after  the  monarchy  took  place, 
they  received  their  commissions  either  from  the  king  in  the 
same  manner  as  at  present,  as  appears  from  2  Sam.  xviii.  1. 
and  2  (^hron.  xxv.  5. ;  orfrom  thecoinmandcr-in-chief  (2Sam. 
xviii.  11.):  and  it  should  seem  that  a  captain's  commission 
was  den(jted  by  giving  a  military  girdle  or  sash.  (2  Sam. 
xviii.  11.) 

'l'h<;  first  and  principal  Head  of  the  armies  of  Israel  was 
the  Almiglily  himself,  who  is  so  frequently  termed  in  Scrip- 
tun;  the  Lord  of  Hosts.  The  whole  nation  marched  forth 
under  tin;  sn|)erinten(ling  guidance  of  their  (iod.  Subordinate 
to  F  lini,  and  as  his  lieutenant-general,  was  tlie  principal  officer, 
or  leader  of  the  whole  army,  who,  in  the  Scriptures,  is  termed 
the  Captain  of  the  Lokd's  Host,  and  who  appears  to  have 
been  of  the  same  rank  with  him  who  is  now  called  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  an  army.  Such  were  Joshua  and  the 
Judges  under  the  primitive  constitution  of  their  government 
as  siUtled  l)y  (iod  himself:  such  was  Abner  under  Saul  (2  Sam. 
ii.  H.),  Joab  under  David  (2  Sam.  xx.  2.3.),  and  Arnasa  under 
Absalom,  when  he  was  raising  a  rebellion  against  his  father. 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  25.)  The  command  and  authority  of  this  captain 
of  the  host  appear  to  have  been  very  great,  sometimes  indeed, 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  sovercdgn.  David  seems  to  have 
been  afraid  of  Joab  his  commander-in-chief;  otherwise  he 
would  never  have  suffered  him  to  live  after  the  sanguinary 
assassinations  which  he  had  perpetrated.  It  is  evident  that 
the  captain  of  the  host  enjoyed  great  influence  in  the  time  of 
Elisha  :  for  we  read,  that  the  prophet  having  been  hosj)itably 
entertained  by  an  opulent  woman  at  Shunem,  and  being  de- 
sirous of  making  her  some  acknowledgment  for  her  kindness, 
ordered  his  servant  Gehazi  to  inquire  what  she  would  wish 
to  have  done  for  her.  IVuuldst  thou  be  spoken  for  to  tlie  king, 
m-  to  the  Captain  of  the  Host?  (2  Kings  iv.  13.) 

After  the  establishment  of  the  monarch}',  the  kings  went  to 
war  in  person,  and  at  first  fought  on  foot,  like  the  meanest  of 
their  soldiers.  Thus  David  fought,  until  the  danger  to  which 
he  exposed  himself  became  so  great,  that  his  people  would 
no  longer  allow  him  to  lead  them  on  to  battle.  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
17.)  It  does  not  appear  that  there  were  any  horse  in  the  Is- 
raelitish  army  before  the  time  of  Solomon.  In  the  time  of 
David  there  were  none;  for  the  rebel  Absalom  was  mounted 
on  a  mule  in  the  battle  in  which  he  lost  his  life.  (2  Sam. 
xviii.  9.)  Solomon,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Egypt,  procured  horses  from  that  country  at  a  great 
expense  (1  Kings  x.  28,  29.);  and  afterwards  had  four  thou- 
sand stalls  for  horses  and  chariots,  and  twelve  thousand  horse- 
men. (2  Chron.  ix.  25.)  From  Zech.  xiv.  20.it  should  seem, 
that  bells  formed  a  part  of  the  caparison  of  war-horses.  Sub- 
sequent kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  went  into  the  battle  in 
chariots,  arrayed  in  their  royal  vestments,  or  sometimes  in 
disguise.  They  generally  had  a  spare  chariot  to  attend  them  : 
thus  we  read  that  king  Josiah,  after  he  was  mortally  wounded, 
was  taken  out  of  his  war-chariot,  and  put  into  another,  in 
which  he  vvas  carried  to  Jerusalem.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  23,  24. 
1  Kings  xxii.  34.)  Both  kings  and  generals  had  armour- 
bearers,  who  were  chosen  from  the  bravest  of  the  soldiery, 
and  not  only  bore  the  arms  of  their  masters,  but  were  also 
employed  to  give  Lis  commands  to  the  subordinate  captains, 
and  w-ere  present  at  his  side  in  the  hour  of  peril.  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  (i.  xvii.  7.) 

Military  chariots  were  much  in  use  among  the  Egyptians, 
Canaanites,  and  other  oriental  nations.*  Two  sorts  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures ;  one  in  which  princes  and  generals 
rode,  the  other  to  oreak  the  enemy's  battalions  by  rushing  in 
among  them,  armed  with  iron  scythes,  which  caused  terrible 
havoc.  The  most  ancient  war-chariots,  of  which  we  read, 
are  those  of  Pharaoh,  which  were  destroyed  in  the  Red  Sea 
(Exod.  xiv.  7.):  his  infantry,  cavalry,  and  war-chariots  were 
so  arranged  as  to  form  separate  divisions  of  his  army.  (Exod. 
xiv.  G,  7.)  The  Canaanites,  whom  Joshua  engaged  at  the 
waters  of  Merom,  had  cavalry  and  a  multitude  of  chariots. 
(Josh.  xi.  4.)  Sisera,  the  general  of  Jabin,  kin^  of  Hazor, 
had  nine  hundred  chariots  of  iron  in  his  army.  (Judg.  iv.  3.) 
The  tribe  of  Judah  could  not  obtain  possession  of  part  of  the 
lands  allotted  to  them,  because  the  innabitants  of  the  country 
^yere  strong  in  chariots  of  iron.  (Judg.  i.  19.)  The  Philis- 
tines, in  their  war  with  Saul,  had  thirty  thousand  chariots, 
and  six  thousand  horsemen.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5.)  David,  having 
taken  a  thousand  war-chariots  from  Hadadezer,  king  of  Da- 
mascus, hzun-strung  the  horses,  and  burnt  nine  hundred  cha- 

>  They  were  also  used  among  the  ancient  Britons. 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


[Paht  II.  Chap.  IX. 


riots,  reservintr  only  one  hundred.  (2  Sam.  viii.  4.)  It  does 
not  appear  that  the  Hebrews  ever  used  chariots  in  war,  though 
Solomon  had  a  considerable  number;  but  we  know  of  no 
military  expedition  in  which  he  employed  them.  In  the 
second  book  of  Maccabees,  mention  is  made  of  chariots 
armed  with  scythes,  which  the  king  of  Syria  led  against  the 
Jews.  (2  Mace.  xiii.  2.)  These  chariots  were  generally 
placed  on  the  whole  front  of  the  infantry,  ranged  in  a  straight 
line,  parallel  sometimes  to  the  cavalry.  Some  of  them  were 
with  four,  others  with  two  wheels  only :  these  were  driven 
against  the  enemy,  whom  tliey  never  failed  to  put  into  dis- 
order, when  they  were  followed  closely  by  the  line.  There 
were  two  ways  of  rendering  them  useless:  first,  by  opening 
a  passaTO  for  them  through  the  battalions;  secondly,  by  kill- 
ing tiie  norses  before  they  were  too  far  advanced  :  in  which 
case  they  were  of  the  greatest  disservice  to  those  who  em- 
ployed them,  because  they  not  only  embarrassed  them,  but, 
further,  broke  the  closeness  of  the  line,  and  checked  all  the 
force  of  the  onset.  The  infantry  were  divided  into  light- 
armed  iroops,  and  mio  spearmen.  (Gen.  xlix.  19.  1  Sam.  xxx. 
8.  15.  23.  2  Sam.  iii.  22.  iv.  2.  xxii.  30.  Psal.  xviii.  30.  in 
the  Hebrew,  29.  of  our  English  version,  2  Kings  v.  2.  Hos. 
vii.  1.)  The  light-armed  troops  of  infantry  were  furnished 
with  a  sling  and  javelin,  with  a  bow,  arrows,  and  quiver,  and 
also,  at  least  in  later  times,  with  a  buckler :  they  fought  the 
enemy  at  a  distance.  The  spearmen,  on  the  contrarj',  who 
were  armed  with  spears,  swords,  and  shields,  fought  hand 
to  hand.  (I  Chron.  xii.  24.  34.  2  Chron.  xiv.  8.  xvii.  17.) 
The  light-armed  troops  were  commonly  taken  from  the  tribes 
of  Epnraim  and  Benjamin.  (2  Chron.  xiv.  8.  xvii.  17.) 

IV.  No  information  is  given  us  in  the  Scriptures,  con- 
cerning the  order  of  Encampment  adopted  by  the  Israelites 
alter  their  settlement  in  Canaan.     During  their  sojourning 


in  the  wilderness,  the  form  of  their  camp,  according  to  the 
account  given  in  Num.  ii.,  appears  to  have  been  quadrangu- 
lar, having  three  tribes  placed  on  each  side,  under  one  gene- 
ral standard,  so  as  to  inclose  the  tabernacle,  which  stood  in 
the  centre.  Between  these  four  great  camps  and  the  taber- 
nacle were  pitched  four  smaller  camps  of  the  priests  and 
Levites,  who  were  immediately  in  attendance  upon  it;  the 
camp  of  Moses  and  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  (who  were  the 
ministering  priests,  and  had  the  charge  of  the  sanctuarj')  was 
on  the  east  side  of  the  tabernacle,  where  the  entrance  was. 
From  Isa.  liv.  2.  it  appears  that  the  tents,  under  which  they 
lived,  were  nearly  the  same  as  those  which  are  now  in  use 
in  the  East.  Every  family  and  household  had  their  particu- 
lar ensign ;  under  which  they  encamped  or  pursued  their 
march.  Rabbinical  writers  assert  that  the  standard  of  .Tudah 
was  a  lion;  that  of  Reuben,  the  figure  of  a  man;  that  of 
Ephraim,  an  ox ;  that  of  Dan,  an  eagle  with  a  serpent  in  his 
talons :'  but  for  these  assertions  there  is  no  foundation. 
They  are  probably  derived  from  the  patriarch's  prophetic 
blessing  of  his  children,  related  in  Gen.  xlix.  It  is  far  more 
likely,  that  the  names  of  the  several  tribes  were  embroidered 
in  large  letters  on  their  respective  standards,  or  that  they 
were  distinguished  by  appropriate  colours.  The  following 
diagram,  after  Ainsworth,  Roberts,  and  Dr.  A.  Clarke, ^  will, 
perhaps,  give  the  reader  a  tolerable  idea  of  the  beautiful  order 
of  the  Israelitish  encampment;  the  sight  of  which,  from  the 
mountains  of  Moab,  extorted  from  Balaam  (when  he  saw 
Israel  abiding  in  his  tents  according  to  their  tribes)  the  follow- 
ing exclamation  : — "  Huw  goodly  are  thy  tents,  0  Jacob,  and 
thy  tabernacles,  0  Israel!  As  the  valleys  are  they  spread  forth, 
as  gardens  by  the  river''s  side,  as  the  trees  of  lign-aloes  which 
the  Lord  hath  planted,  and  as  cedar  trees  beside  the  waters, 
(Num.  xxiv.  2.  5,  6.) 


EAST. 


o    < 
CD    Pi 

s  ^ 

Pi 

P 
o 


186,400   Men. 
FIRST  GRAND  DIVISION. 


JUDAH, 

74,600. 

IssACHAR,  and  Zabulon, 

54,400.  57,400. 


MOSES,                      AARON, 

and  the  priests. 

m 
H    ■ 

i 

o 

m 
3 

S 

tn 

•oco's 

•saXINOHSlI'JO 

■--        0^    d. 


■oot''58        -oos'se 

'AiiwyrNaa  pu^  'HassvNvp\[ 

■OOS'Of- 

'WIVHHd3 


•NOISIAia  QMVHD  aaiHJL 
•u^W  OOT'801 


USSM 


CO 

O 
O 

^* 

< 

00 

O 


During  the  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness, 
Moses  made  various  salutary  enactments,  which  are  recorded 
in  Deut.  xxiii.  10 — 15.,  for  guarding  against  the  vice  andun- 
cleanliness  that  might  otherwise  have  prevailed  among  so 
large  a  body  of  people,  forming  an  aggregate  of  upwards  of 
three  millions.  The  following  was  the  order  of  their  march, 
which  is  not  much  unlike  that  in  which  the  caravans  or  assem- 
blages of  oriental  travellers  still  continue  to  move  : — When 
they  were  to  remove  (which  was  only  when  the  cloud  was 
taken  off  the  tabernacle),  the  trumpet  was  sounded,  and  upon 
the  first  alarm  the  standard  of  Judah  being  raised,  the  three 
tribes  which  belonged  to  it  set  forward ;  then  the  tabernacle 
being  taken  down,  which  was  the  proper  office  of  the  Levites, 
the  Gershonites  and  the  Merarites  (two  families  of  that  or- 


der), attended  the  wagons  with  the  boards,  staves,  &c.  When 
thesq  were  on  their  march  a  second  alarm  was  sounded, 
upon  which  the  standard  of  Reuben's  camp  advanced  with 
the  three  tribes  under  it.  After  them  followed  the  Kohath- 
ites  (the  third  family  of  the  Levites)  bearing  the  sanctuary, 
that  is,  the  Holy  of  Holies  and  the  utensils  thereto  belpng- 
iiig ;  and  because  this  was  less  cumbersome  than  the  boards, 
pillars,  and  other  parts  of  the  tabernacle,  and  more  holy,  it 
was  on  that  account  not  put  into  a  wagon,  but  carried  on 
their  shoulders.     Next  followed  the  standard  of  Ephraim's 

>  Lamy  de  Tabernaoulo,  lib.  iii.  c.  2.  Carpzov  has  given  at  length  the 
rabbinical  descriptions  of  the  Israelitish  standards.  Antiq.  Hebr.  Gentis. 
pp.  667,  668.  .  ,  . 

«  In  their  Cominentariee,  on  Num.  ii.  Roberts's  Calvis  Bibliornm,  p.  ■ 
24.  folio  edit. 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  MILITARY  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  VEWS. 


87 


camp  with  the  trihcs  belonainnfto  it:  and  last  of  all  the  other 
three  tribes  under  the  standard  of  Dan  bronirlit  up  the  rear; 
Moses  and  Aaron  oversijeing  tlie  whole,  that  every  thing  was 
done  as  (iod  had  directed,  while  the  sons  of  Aaron  were 
chiefly  employed  in  Mowing  the  trumpets,  and  other  offices 
properly  Ix'lonifing  to  them. 

From  1  Sum.  xxvi.  5.,  as  rendered  in  our  authorized  ver- 
sion (Siiti/  lin/iii  llie  tirncli,(in(l  llie  propk  pilr/iid  niuiid about 
him),  it  has  been  imagined  that  the  Israelites  had  a  fortified 
camp.  The  proper  rendering  is,  that  S(tu/  lay  ainoiii^  the  hag- 
gngi',  with  his  spear  stuck  at  his  head  (v.  7.),  in  the  same 
manner  as  is  usual  among  the  Persians,'  and  also  among  the 
Arabs  to  this  day,  wherever  th(^  disposition  of  the  ground 
will  permit  it :  their  emir  or  prince  being  in  the  centre  of  the 
Araba  around  him  at  a  respectful  distance.^  When  David  is 
represented  as  sometimes  secreting  himself  in  the  night,  when 
he  was  with  his  armies,  instead  of  lodging  with  the  people 
(•J  Sam.  xvii.  H,  9.),  it  probably  means  that  he  <lid  not  hnvw. 
in  the  middle  of  the;  camp,  which  was  the  proper  place  for  a 
king,  in  order  that  he  might  the  better  avoid  any  surprise 
from  ids  enemies.-^ 

V.  In  ancient  times  the  Hebrews  received  no  pay,  during 
their  military  service  :  the  same  practice  of  gratuitous  service 
obtained  among  the  (Jrec'ks  and  Romans,  in  the  early  period 
of  their  respective  republics.'  The  Cherethitesand  Peleth- 
ites  appear  to  have  been  the  first  stipendiary  soldiers:  it  is 
hfjwever  ))robable,  that  the  great  military  officers  of  Saul, 
David,  Solomon,  and  the  other  kings,  hvid  some  allowance 
suitable  to  the  dignity  of  their  rank.  The  soldiers  were  paid 
out  of  the  kintr's  treasury :  and  in  order  to  stimulate  their 
valour,  rewarcls  and  honours  were  publicly  bestowed  on  those 
who  distinguished  themselves  against  the  enemy;  consisting 
of  jiccuuiary  presents,  a  girdle  or  belt,  a  woman  of  quality 
for  a  wife,  exemptions  from  taxes,  promotion  to  a  higher 
rank  in  the  army,  &c.  all  of  which  were  attended  with  great 
profit  and  distinction.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  11.  Josh.  xv.  16.  1  Sam. 
xviii.  25.  1  Chron.  xi.  6.)  In  the  age  of  the  Maccabees,  the 
patriot  Simon  both  armea  and  paid  his  brave  companions  in 
arms,  at  his  own  expense.  (1  Mace.  xiv.  32.)  Afterwards, 
it  became  an  established  custom,  that  all  soldiers  should 
receive  pay.  QLuke  iii.  11.  1  Cor.  ix.  7.) 

It  apjjcars  trom  various  passages  of  Scripture,  and  espe- 
cially t'rom  Isa.  ii.  4.  and  Mic.  iv.  3.,  that  tnere  were  mili- 
tary schools,  in  which  the  Hebrew  soldiers  learned  war,  or, 
in  modern  language,  were  trained,  by  proper  officers,  in  those 
exercises  which  were  in  use  among  the  other  nations  of  anti- 
quity. Swiftness  of  foot  was  an  accomplishment  highly 
valued  among  the  Hebrew  warriors,  both  for  attacking  and 
pursuing  an  enemy,  as  well  as  among  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans.  In  2  Sam.  i.  19.  Saul  is  denominated  the  roe 
(in  our  version  rendered  the  beauty)  of  hracl ,-  the  force  of 
which  expression  will  be  felt,  when  it  is  recollected  that  in 
the  East,  to  this  day,  the  hind  and  roe,  the  hart  and  antelope, 
continue  to  be  held  in  high  estimation  for  the  delicate  ele- 
gance of  their  form,  or  their  graceful  agility  of  action.  In 
2  Sam.  ii.  18.  we  are  told  that  Asahel  was  as  light  offuut  as  a 
wild  roe ,- — a  mode  of  expression  perfectly  synonymous  with 
the  epithet  of  Vl'J'x<:  aiwt  Ai(^iKKrj;,  the  swip-foutcd  Achillts, 
which  is  given  by  Homer  to  his  hero,  not  fewer  than  thirty 
times  in  the  course  of  the  Iliad.  David  expressed  his  grati- 
tude to  God  for  making  his  feet  like  hind'' s  feet  for  swiftness, 
and  teaching  his  hands  to  war,  so  that  a  bow  of  steel  was 
broken  by  his  arms.  (Psal.  xviii.  33,  31.)  The  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin could  boast  of  a  ^reat  number  of  brave  men,  who 
could  use  their  ri^ht  and  left  hands  with  equal  dexterity 
(Judg.  XX.  l(j.  1  Criron.xii.2.),  and  who  were  eminent  for 
their  skill  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and  the  sling.  The  men  of  war, 
out  of  the  tribe  of  Gad,  who  came  to  David  when  persecuted 
by  Saul,  are  described  as  being  men  of  war,  fit  for  the  battle, 
that  could  handle  shield  and  buckler,  whose  faces  were  like  the 
faces  of  lions,  and  who  were  as  swift  as  the  roes  upon  the 
mountains.  (1  Chron.  xii.  8.) 

VI.  The  Hebrews  do  not  appear  to  have  had  any  peculiar 
military  habit:  as  the  flowing  dress  which  they  ordinarily 
wore,  would  have  impeded  their  movements,  they  girt  it 
closely  around  them  when  preparing  for  battle,  and  loosened 
it  on  "their  return.  (2  Sam.  xx.  8.  1  Kings  xx.  11.)  They 
vised  the  same  arms  as  the  neighbouring  nations,  both  defen- 
sive and  offensive,  and  these  were  made  either  of  iron  or  of 

»  Morier's  Second  .Journey  into  Persia,  pp.  115,  116. 

»  Capiams  Irby's  and  Mangle's  Travels  in  Egypt.  <fcc.  p.  SOS.  Dr.  Delia 
Cella's  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  from  Tripoli  in  Barbary  to  the  Western 
Frontiers  of  EL'ypt,  p.  II. 

3  Mariner's  Obsorvations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  430,  A'^X. 

*  Livy,  lib.  iv.  c.  53.    Bruuing's  Aiitiquit.  Grsec.  p.  102. 


brass,  principally  of  the  latter  metal.  In  the  Scriptures  we 
read  of  brazen  shields,  helmets,  and  bows ;  the  helmet, 
greaves,  and  target  of  the  gigantic  Goliath  were  all  of  brass, 
which  was  the  metal  chiefly  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks.* 
The  national  museums  of  most  countries  contain  abundant 
s|)ecimens  of  brazen  arms,  which  have  been  rescued  from  the 
destroying  hand  of  time.  Originally,  every  man  ])rovi(led  his 
own  arms:  but  after  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy, 
depots  were  formed,  whence  they  were  distributed  to  the  men 
as  occasion  required.  (2  Chron.  xi.  12.  xxvi.  M,  1.5. J 

Of  the  Dkkensive  Ar.ms  of  the  He',  rews,  the  following 
were  the  most  remarkable  ;  viz. 

1.  'I'he  Ht.;i,MKT  pao  (kob'/nc),  for  covering  and  defending 
the  head.  This  was  a  part  of  the  military  provision  made  by 
Tzziah  for  his  vast  army  (2  (^hron.  xxvi.  M.^ :  and  lonw  be- 
fore the  time  of  that  king,  the  helim^ts  of  Saul  and  of  the 
Philistine  champion  were  of  brass.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  38.  5.) 
This  military  cap  was  also  worn  by  the  Persians,  Ethiopians, 
and  Libyans  (Kzek.  xxxviii.  .'>.),  and  by  the  troops  which 
Antiochus  sent  against  .liidas  Maccabeus.  (1  Mace  vi.  35.) 

2.  The  BuEA.sT-PLATE  or  Corslf.t,  p'Ti'  (sH  hio.n)  wag 
another  piece  of  defensive  armour.  Goliath,  and  the  soldiers 
of  Antiochus  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5.  1  Mace.  vi.  .35.)  were  acctjutred 
with  this  defi  nee,  which,  in  our  authorized  trai.slation,  is 
variously  rendered  huhergeon,  coat  of  mail,  and  brigaiidine. 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  38,  2  Chron.  xxvi.  If.  Isa.  lix.  17.  .ler.  xlvi.  4.) 
Between  the  joints  of  his  harness  (as  it  is  termed  in  1  Kings 
xxii.  34.),  the  profligate  Ahab  was  mortally  wounded  by  an 
rrrow  shot  at  a  venture.  From  these  various  renderings  of 
the  original  word,  it  should  seem  that  this  piece  of  armour 
covered  both  the  back  and  breast,  but  princi|)ally  the  latter. 
The  corslets  were  made  of  various  materials :  sometimes 
they  were  made  of  flax  or  cotton,  woven  very  thick,  or  of  a 
kind  of  woollen  felt :  others  again  were  made  of  iron  or 
brazen  scales,  or  laminae,  laid  one  over  another  like  the  scales 
of  a  fish ;  others  were  properly  what  we  call  coats  of  mail ; 
and  others  were  composea  of  two  pieces  of  iron  or  brass, 
which  protected  the  back  and  breast.  All  these  kinds  of 
corslets  are  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Goliath's  coat  of 
mail  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5.)  was  literally,  a  corslet  of  secies,  that  is, 
composed  of  numerous  lamina;  of  brass,  crossing  each  other. 
It  was  called  by  the  Latin  writers  squamea  lorica.^  Similar 
corslets  were  worn  by  the  Persians  and  other  nations.  The 
breast-plate  worn  by  the  unhappy  Saul,  when  he  perished  in 
battle,  is  supposed  to  have  been  of  flax,  or  cotton,  woven 
very  close  and  thick.  (2  Sam.  i.  9.  marginal  rendering.) 

3.  The  Shield  defended  the  whole  body  during  the  battle. 
It  was  of  various  forms,  and  made  of  wood  or  ozier,  covered 
with  tough  hides,  or  of  brass,  and  sometimes  was  overlaid 
with  gold.  (1  Kings  x.  16,  17.  xiv.  26,  27.)  Two  sorts  are 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  viz.  the  njx  (ts/«n«h)  great 
shield  or  buckler,  and  the  jjc  (Maceyi)  or  smaller  shield.  It 
was  much  used  by  the  Jews,  Babylonians,  Chaldaeans,  As- 
syrians, and  Egyptians.  David,  who  was  a  great  warrior, 
often  mentions  a  shield  and  buckler,  in  his  divine  poems,  to 
signify  that  defence  and  protection  of  heaven  which  he  ex- 
pected and  experienced,  and  in  which  he  reposed  all  his  trust. 
(Psal.  V.  12.)  And  when  he  says,  God  will  with  favour 
compass  the  righteous  as  with  a  shield,  he  seems  to  allude  to 
the  use  of  the  great  shield  tsinnah  (which  is  the  word  he  uses) 
with  which  they  covered  and  defended  their  whole  bodies. 
King  Solomon  caused  two  different  sorts  of  shields  to  be  made, 
viz.  the  tsinnah  (which  answers  to  the  clypeus  of  the  Latins), 
such  a  large  shield  as  the  infantry  wore,  and  the  maginnim 
or  scuta,  which  were  used  by  the  horsemen,  and  were  of  a 
much  less  size.  (2  Chron.  ix.  15,  16.)  The  former  of  these 
are  translated  targets,  and  are  double  in  weight  to  the  other. 
The  Philistines  came  into  the  field  with  this  weapon :  so  we 
find  their  fomiidable  champion  was  anpointed.  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
7.)  One  bearing  a  shield  went  before  him,  whose  proper 
duty  it  was  to  carry  this  and  some  other  weapons,  with  which 
to  furnish  his  master  upon  occasion.' 

»  Calmet,  in  his  elaborate  Dissertation  sur  la  Milice  des  Anriens  Ile- 
breux,  has  collected  numerous  examples  from  Homer,  Hesiod,  Virgil,  and 
various  other  classic  writers,  in  wliich  brazen  arms  and  armour  are  men- 
tioned.    Dissertations,  torn.  i.  pp.  220 — 222. 

•  vEneid,  lib.  ix.  707. 

■>  The  ctievalier  Folard  is  of  opinion  that  (he  brazen  shield,  with  which 
Goliath  covered  his  shoulders,  consisted  only  of  brass  plates  fastened  upon 
the  wood  ;  similar  to  the  bucklers  which  Solomon  alterwards  enriclied 
with  golii  plates,  and  deposited  ill  the  temple  (1  Kings  x.  16,  17.),  and  which, 
having  been  carried  away  by  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  were  replaced  by 
Rehoboam,  with  other  brazen  shields.  An  additional  reason  for  conclud- 
ing Goliath's  shield  to  have  been  coii'posed  of  brass  plates  affixed  to  wood, 
is,  that  if  it  had  been  wholly  composed  of  this  metal,  and  had  been  of  a 
size  proportionable  to  his  body,  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  giant,  and  still 
1  more  whether  his  squire,  would  have  been  able  to  support  its  weight. 


88 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


[Part  II.  Chap,  IX. 


A  shield-bearer  was  an  office  amon^  the  Jews  as  well  as 
the  Philistines,  for  David  when  he  hrst  went  to  court  was 
made  king  Saul's  armour-bearer  (1  Sam.  xvi.  21.\and  Jona- 
than had  a  youna;  man  who  bore  his  armour  oetbre  him. 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  1.)  Besides  this  tsinnah,  or  great  massy  shield, 
Goliath  was  furnished  with  a  less  one  (1  Sam.  xvii.  G.  and 
45.),  which  is  not  expressed  by  one  of  the  fore-mentioned 
words,  but  is  called  ctdon,  which  we  render  a  target  in  one 
place  and  a  shield  in  another,  and  was  of  a  different  nature 
from  the  common  shields.  He  seems  not  only  to  have  held 
it  in  his  hand  when  he  had  occasion  to  use  it,  but  could  also 
at  other  times  conveniently  hang  it  about  his  neck  and  turn 
it  behind,  on  whirh  account  it  is  added,  that  it  was  between 
his  shoulders.  Tiie  loss  of  the  shield  in  fight  was  excessively 
resented  by  the  Jewish  warriors,  as  well  as  lamented  by 
them,  for  it  was  a  signal  ingredient  of  the  public  mourning, 
that  the  shield  of  the  tuighty  was  vilely  cast  away.  (2  Sam. 
i.  21.)  David,  a  man  of  arms,  who  composed  the  beautiful 
elegy  on  the  death  of  Saul  related  in  2  Sam.  i.  19 — 27.,  was 
sensible  how  disgraceful  a  thing  it  was  for  soldiers  to  quit 
their  shields  in  the  field,  yet  this  was  the  deplorable  case  of 
the  Jewish  soldiers  in  that  unhappy  engagement  with  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  7.),  they  fled  away  and  left  their 
shields  behind  them  ;  this  vile  and  dishonourable  casting 
away  of  that  principal  armour  is  deservedly  the  subject  of 
the  royal  poet  s  lamentation. 

But  these  honourable  sentiments  were  not  confined  to  the 
Jews.  We  find  them  prevailing  among  most  other  ancient 
nations,  who  considered  it  infamous  to  cast  away  or  lose 
their  shield.     With  the  Greeks  it  was  a  capital  crime,  and 

Eunished  with  death.  The  Lacedemonian  women,  it  is  well 
nown,  in  order  to  excite  the  courage  of  their  sons,  used  to 
deliver  to  them  their  fathers'  shields,  with  this  short  address  : 
"  This  shield  thy  father  always  preserved  ;  do  thou  preserve 
it  also,  or  perish."  Alluding  to  these  sentiments.  Saint  Paul, 
when  exhorting  the  Hebrew  Christians  to  steadfastness  in 
the  faith  of  the  Gospel,  urges  them  not  to  cast  away  their 
confidence,  their  confession  of  faith,  which  hath  great  recom- 
pense of  reward,  no  less  than  the  approbation  of  God,  the 
peace  which  passeth  all  understanding  here,  and  the  glories 
of  heaven,  as  their  e/cnja/ portion.  (Heb.  x.  35.) 

It  may  be  furtlier  observed,  that  they  used  to  scour  and 
polish  their  arms,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  prophet's  ex- 
pressions of  furbishing  the  spears  and  making  bright  the  ar- 
rows (Jer.  xlvi.  4.  and  li.  11.),  and  it  should  seem  that  such 
shields  as  were  covered  with  leather  were  oiled  in  order  to 
keep  them  clean,  and  prevent  them  from  becoming  too  dry. 
To  this  custom  there  is  an  allusion  in  2  Sam.  i.  21.  and  Isa. 
xxi.  5.  When  the  shields  were  not  in  use,  they  were  co- 
vered with  a  case,  in  order  to  preserve  them  from  being  rusty 
and  soiled ;  hence  we  read  of  uncovering  the  shield,  which 
signifies  preparing  for  war,  and  having  that  weapon  espe- 
cially in  readiness.   (Isa.  xxii.  6.) 

4.  Another  defensive  provision  in  war  was  the  Military 
Girdle,  or  Belt,  which  answered  a  twofold  purpose,  viz. 
first,  in  order  to  wear  the  sword,  which  hung  at  the  soldier's 
girdle  or  belt  (1  Sam.  xvii,  39)  ;  secondly,  it  was  necessary 
to  gird  their  clothes  and  armour  toother,  and  thus  David 
girded  his  sword  upon  his  armour.  To  gird  and  to  arm  are 
synonymous  words  in  Scripture ;  for  those  who  are  said  to 
be  able  to  put  on  armour  are,  according  to  the  Hebrew  and 
the  Septuagint,  girt  with  a  girdle,  and  hence  comes  the  ex- 
pression of  girding  to  the  battle.  (1  Kings  XX,  11,  Isa,  viii.  9. 
2  Sam,  xxii,  40.)  The  military  girdle  was  the  chief  orna- 
ment of  a  soldier,  and  was  highly  prized  among  all  ancient 
nations :  it  was  also  a  rich  present  from  one  chieftain  to 
another.  Thus,  Jonathan  gave  his  girdle  to  David,  as  the 
highest  pledge  of  his  esteem  and  perpetual  friendship, 
(1  Sam,  xviii.  4.)' 

5.  Boots  or  Greaves  were  part  of  the  ancient  defensive 
harness,  because  it  was  the  custom  to  cast  certain  ?fA7r'.Sn, 
impediments  (so  called  because  they  entangle  their  feet, 
afterwards  known  by  the  name  of  gall-traps,  which  since,  in 
heraldry,  are  corruptly  called  call-trops),  in  the  way  before 
the  enemy :  the  military  boot  or  shoe  was,  therefore,  neces- 
sary to  guard  the  legs  and  feet  from  the  iron  stakes  placed 
in  the  way  to  gall  and  wound  them;  and  thus  we  are  ena- 
bled to  account  for  Goliath's  greaves  of  brass  which  were 
upon  his  legs, 

VII,  The  Offensive  Arms  were  of  two  sorts,  viz.  such 
as  were  employed  when  they  came  to  a  close  engagement ; 

'  In  like  manner,  Ajax  gave  his  girdle  to  Hector,  as  a  loken  of  the  high- 
est respect.    (Iliad,  vii.  305.)    Dr  A.  Clarke,  on  2 Sam.  xviii.  11, 


and  those  with  wliich  they  annoyed  the  enemy  at  a  distance. 
Of  the  former  description  were  the  sword  and  the  battle-axe. 

1.  The  Sword  is  the  most  ancient  weapon  of  offence  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible.  With  it  Jacob's  sons  treacherously  as- 
sassinated the  Shechemites.  (Gen.  xxxiv,  25,)  It  was  worn 
on  the  thigh  (Psal.  xlv.  3.  Exod.  xxxii.  21. \  and  it  should 
seem  on  the  left  thigh  ;  though  it  is  particularly  mentioned 
that  Ehud,  a  Benjamite,  put  a  dagger  or  short  sword  under 
his  garments  on  his  right  thiffh.  (Judg.  iii.  16.)  The  palan- 
quin, or  travelling  couch  of  Solomon  (Song  iii.  7,  8.  where 
our  version  terms  it  a  bed),  was  surrounded  by  threescore 
valiant  Israelitish  soldiers,  every  one  of  whom  had  his  sword 
girt  upon  his  thigh.  There  appear  to  have  been  two  kinds 
of  swords  in  use,  a  larger  one  with  one  edge,  which  is  called 
in  Hebrew  the  mouth  of  the  sword  (Josh.  vi.  21.);  and  a 
shorter  one  with  two  edges,  like  that  of  Ehud.  The  modern 
Arabs,  it  is  well  known,  wear  a  sabre  on  one  side,  and  a 
cajigiar  or  dagwr  in  their  girdles. 

2.  Of  the  Battle-axe  we  have  no  description  in  the 
Sacred  Volume :  it  seems  to  have  been  a  most  powerful 
weapon  in  the  hands  of  cavalry,  from  the  allusion  made  to 
it  by  Jeremiah  : — Thou  art  my  battle-axe  and  weapons  uf  war,- 
for  ivith  thee  will  I  break  in  pieces  the  nations,  and  with  thee 
will  I  destroy  kingdoms :  and  with  thee  will  I  break  in  pieces 
the  horse  and  his  rider,  and  with  thee  will  I  break  in  pieces  the 
chariot  and  his  rider.  (Jer.  li.  20,  21.) 

The  other  offensive  weapons  for  annoying  the  enemy  at  a 
distance,  were  the  spear  or  javelin,  the  sling,  and  the  bow 
and  arrow, 

3.  The  Spear  or  Javelin  (as  the  words  nm  (romcch),  and 
n''jn  (chi'/nith),   are  variously  rendered   in  Num.  xxv.  7. 

1  Sam.  xiii.  19.  and  Jer.  xlvi,  4.)  was  of  different  kinds, 
according  to  its  length  or  make.  Some  of  them  might  be 
thrown  or  darted  (1  Sam,  xviii,  11,);  and  it  appears  from 

2  Sam,  ii  23,  that  some  of  them  were  pointed  at  both  ends. 
When  armies  were  encamped,  the  spear  of  the  general  or 
commander-in-chief  was  stuck  into  the  ground  at  his  head,^ 

4.  Slinos  are  enumerated  among  the  military  stores  col- 
lected by  Uzziah,  (2  Chron,  xxvi,  14,)  In  the  use  of  the 
sling,  David  eminently  excelled,  and  slew  Goliath  with  a 
stone  from  one.  The  Benjamites  were  celebrated  in  battle 
because  tlM>y  had  attained  to  a  great  skill  and  accuracy  in 
handling  this  weapon ;  they  could  sling  stones  to  a  hair''s 
Ijreadlh,  and  not  miss  (Judg.  xx.  1(5.);  and  where  it  is  said 
that  they  were  left-handed,  it  should  rather  be  rendered  am- 
bidexters, for  we  are  told,  they  could  use  both  the  right-hand 
and  the  left  (1  Chron.  xii.  2,);  that  is,  they  did  not  con- 
stantly use  their  right  hand  as  others  did,  when  they  shot 
arrows  or  slung  stones,  but  they  were  so  expert  in  their  mili- 
tary exercises,  that  they  could  perform  them  with  their  left 
hand  as  well  as  with  their  right. 

5.  Bowsand  Arrows  are  of  great  antiquity:  indeed,  no  wea- 
pon is  mentioned  so  early.  Ihus  Isaac  said  to  Esau,  Take 
thy  weapons,  thy  quiver  and  thy  bow  (Gen.  xxvii.  3.)  ;  though 
it  is  true,  these  are  not  spoken  of  as  used  in  war,  but  in 
hunting,  and  so  they  are  supposed  and  implied  before  this ; 
where  it  is  said  of  Ishmael,  that  he  became  an  archer,  and 
used  bows  and  arrows  in  shooting  of  wild  beasts.  (Gen.  xxi. 
20.)  This  afterwards  became  so  useful  a  weapon,  that  care 
was  taken  to  train  up  the  Hebrew  youth  to  it  betimes.  When 
David  had  in  a  solemn  manner  lamented  th'e  death  of  king 
Saul,  he  gave  orders  for  teaching  the  young  men  the  use  of 
fhe  bow  (2  Sam,  i.  18.),  that  they  might  be  as  expert  as  the 
Philistines,  by  whose  bows  and  arrows  Saul  ancl  his  army 
were  slain.  These  were  part  of  the  military  ammunition 
(for  in  those  times  bows  were  used  instead  of  gims,  and  ar- 
rows supplied  the  place  of  powder  and  ball).  From  Job  xx, 
24,  and  from  Psal.  xviii.  34.  it  may  be  collected,  that  the 
military  bow  was  made  of  steel,  and,  consequently,  was 
very  stiff  and  hard  to  bend,  on  which  account  they  used  tlieir 
foot  ih  bending  their  bows;  and  therefore  when  the  prophets 
speak  of  treading  the  bow,  and  of  bows  trodden,  they  are  to  be 
understood  of  bows  bent,  as  our  translators  rightly  render  it 
(Jer.  1.  14.  Isa.  v,  28.  xxi.  15.) ;  where  the  Hebrew  word 
which  is  used  in  these  places  signifies  to  tread  upon.  This 
weapon  was  thought  so  necessary  in  war,  that  it  is  called 
the  hoM-  of  war,  or  the  battle-bow.  (Zech.  ix.  10.  x.  4.) 

VIII.  Many  of  the  cities  of  Palestine,  being  erected  on 
eminences,  were  fortified  by  nature;  but  most  frequently  they 
were  surrounded  with  a  lofty  wall,  either  single  or  double 
(Deut.  xxviii.  52.  5  Chron.  xxxiii,  14,  Isa,  xxii,  11,)  ;  on 
which  were  erected  towers  or  bulwarks,  (2  Chron.  xiv.  7. 

»  See  p.  87.  supra,  for  examples  of  this  custom. 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  MILITARY  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  JEWS. 


89 


xxvi.  9.  Psal.  xlviii.  13.)  Those  towers  were  furnished  with 
machines,  from  which  the  bcsiotrod  couhl  discliarjre  arrows 
and  great  stones.  (2  Cliron.  xxvi.  15.)  It  was  also  usual  to 
erect  towers  on  the  confines  of  a  country,  to  rcjjrcss  the  in- 
cursions of  troublesome  neifrlibonrs,  and  wliich  also  served 
as  occasional  places  of  refuge.  The  tower  of  I'eniel  (.ludg. 
viii.  9.  17.),  and  those  erect(;d  hy  IJzziah  {2  (Cliron.  xxvi.  'J, 
10.),  appear  to  have  been  of  tliis  description;  and  similar 
towers  were  afterwards  erected  by  the  crusaders.'  When 
the  Israelites  were  about  to  besiege  a  city,  they  dug  trenches, 
drew  a  line  of  cirtuimvallation,  erecU^l  ramparts,  built  forts 
against  it,  and  cast  a  mount  against  it ;  they  also  set  the 
camp  against  it,  and  set  battering  rams  against  it  round  about, 
(•J  Sam.  XX.  15.  Lam.  ii.  H.  Kzek.  iv.  2.)  Tiiese  engines 
offilidt,  as  our  margin  renders  it  in  tiie  prophecy  of  Jeremiah 
(vi.  (■).),  in  all  ])rol)ability,  resend)led  m  some  measure  tlu; 
oalista;  and  catapullx*  among  the  Homans  ;  whicli  were  used 
for  tiirowing  stones  and  arrows,  and  anciently  starved  instead 
of  mortars  and  carcasses.  Further,  in  order  to  give  notice 
of  an  approaching  enemy,  and  to  bring  the  dis|)ersed  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country  together,  they  used  to  set  uj)  beacons  on 
the  tops  of  mountains,  as  a  ])roper  alarm  upon  tliose  occasions. 

Such  were  the  various  instruments  of  olfence  and  defence 
ill  use  among  the  ancient  Israelites.  Sometimes,  however, 
they  were  very  badly  provided  with  military  weapons  :  for, 
after  the  Philistines  had  gained  many  considerable  advantages 
over  tliem,  and  in  elVect  subdued  their  country,  they  took 
care  that  no  smith  should  be  left  throughout  the  land  of  Is- 
rael, to  prevent  tiiem  from  making  swords  and  spears  ;  so 
that  tlie  Israelites  were  obliged  to  go  down  to  the  rhilistines 
whenever  they  had  occasion  to  sharpen  their  instruments  of 
husbandry.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  1!),20.  22.)  Longbefore  the  reign 
of  Saul  we  read  that  there  ica.s  not  a  .ifuc/d  or  fpear  seen 
anionic  fort fi  lliousund  in  laritel  (.ludg.  v.  8.)  ;  thougli  it  is  pro- 
bable that  they  had  other  military  weapons  which  are  not  men- 
tioned. After  Nebuchadnezy/ar  liad  captured  Jerusalem,  he 
adopted  the  ])olicy  of  the  Philistines,  and  took  all  tlie  crafts- 
men and  smiths  with  iiim  to  IJaliylon,  that  the  poorest  of  the 
people,  whom  he  had  left  behind,  might  be  in  no  condition 
to  rebel.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  11.) 

It  was  an  ancient  custom  to  shnof  an  arroiv  or  cast  a  spear 
into  the  country  which  an  army  intended  to  invade.  As  soon 
as  Alexander  bad  arrivinl  on  the  coasts  of  Ionia,  he  threw  a 
dart  into  the  country  of  the  Persians. ^  Tlie  throwing  of  a 
d-.irt  was  considered  as  an  emblem  of  the  commencement  of 
hostilities  among  the  Ilomans.^  Some  such  custom  as  this 
appears  to  have  obtained  among  the  eastern  people  ;  and  to 
this  the  prophet  Elisha  alluded  when  he  termed  the  arrow 
shot  by  tiie  king  of  Israel,  the  arrow  of  deliverance  from  Syria 
(2  Kings  xiii.  17.)  :  meaning,  that  as  surely  as  that  arrow 
was  shot  towards  the  lands  wliich  had  been  conquered  from 
the  Israelites  by  the  Syrians,  so  surely  should  those  lands  be 
reconquered  and  restored  to  Israel. 

-  IX.  Previously  to  undertaking  a  war,  the  heathens  con- 
sulted their  oracles,  soothsayers,  and  magicians  ;  and  after 
their  example,  Saul,  when  forsaken  by  God,  had  recourse  to 
a  witch  to  know  the  result  of  the  impending  battle  (1  Sam. 
xxviii.  7.) :  they  also  had  recourse  to  divination  by  arrows, 
and  inspection  of  tlie  livers  of  slaughtered  victims.  (Ezek. 
xxi.  21.)  The  Israelites,  to  whom  these  things  were  prohi- 
bited, formerly  consulted  the  urim  and  thummim,  or  the 
sacred  lot.  (Judg.  i.  1.  xx.  27,  28.)  After  the  establishment 
of  the  monarchy,  the  kings,  as  they  were  piously  or  impi- 
ously disposed,  consulted  the  prophets  of  the  Lord,  or  tlie 
f.ilse  prophets,  the  latter  of  whom  (as  it  was  their  interest) 
failed  not  to  persuade  them  that  they  should  succeed. 
(I  Kings  xxii.  G — 13.  2  Kings  xix.  2.  20.)  Their  expedi- 
tions were  generally  undertaken  in  the  spring  (2  Sam.xi.  1.), 
and  carried  on  through  the  summer.  Previously  to  the  en- 
gagement, the  combatants  anointed  their  shields,  and  took 
iKod  that  their  strength  might  not  fail  them.  (Isa.  xxi.  5. 
Jer.  xlvi.  3,  4.)     The  law  and  usage  of  civilized  nations  re- 

3uire  that  no  war  should  be  undertaken  without  a  previous 
eclaration,  and  without  a  previous  demand  of  satisfaction 
for  the  injury  complained  of.  Hence,  in  the  voluntary  wars 
ot  the  Jews,  Moses  ordained  that  certain  conditions  of 
peace  should  be  offered  before  the  Israelites  attacked  any 
place.  (Dfut.  xx.  10 — 20.)  There  does  not,  however,  ap- 
pear  to  have   been  any  uniform   mode  of  declaring  war. 

1  Harnipr's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  415 — tlS.  425 — 1-23. 
»  .luslin,  Hist.  Pliilipp.  lib.  ii. 

3  I.ivy,  lib.  i.  c.  32.    Other  instances  from  the  Roman  history  may  be 
seen  in  Adam's  Roman  Antiquities,  p.  362. 
Vol.  II.  M 


When  Jephthah  was  appointed  judge  of  the  Israelites 
beyond  the  Jordan,  he  sent  messengers  (or  ambassadors) 
to  the  king  of  the  Ammonites,  saying.  What  hast  thou  to 
do  vu'lh  me,  that  thou  art  come  airiiinst  me,  to  fi^ht  in  my 
hind?  (Judg.  xi.  12.)  On  the  Ammonites  complaining 
that  the  Israelites  had  forcibly  seized  their  lands,  Jephthah, 
after  Jiistifying  his  peoplefrom  the  charge,  concluded  by  say- 
ing, J'he  Lord,  the  Judi;e,  Oejud^e  this  dui/  /jelicecn  the  chil- 
dren of  f.\ruel  and  the  children  of  jhnrnon  (27.)  ;  after  which 
he  attacked  and  totally  discomfited  them.  Wtien  the  Philis- 
tines invaded  the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Judali,  to  avenge  the 
injury  committed  by  Samson  in  burning  their  corn,  in  reply- 
to  the  ([uestion  of  the  men  of  Judah,  H'hi/  are  ye  come  up 
(i/j;ain.st  ns  ?  and  on  their  promising  to  deliver  up  Samson, 
the  Philistines  withdrew  their  forces.  (Judg.  xv.  i»,  10,  &c.) 
After  the  detestable  crime  committed  by  certain  Henjamites 
of  the  town  of  Gibeah,  upon  the  Levite's  concubine,  all  the 
assembled  Israelites  sent  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  to  demand 
that  the  guilty  parties  should  be  delivered  up,  that  they  might 
])ut  thcnL  to  death,  and  put  away  evil  from  Israel.  (Judg.  xx. 
12,  13.)  Nor  did  they  resolve  upon  war,  until  after  the 
refusal  of  the  Benjamites. 

In  later  times,  we  may  observe  a  kind  of  defiance,  or  decla- 
ration of  war  between  David's  army  under  the  command  of 
Joab,  and  that  of  Ishbosheth  under  Abner,  who  said  to  Joab, 
Let  the  younir  men  now  arise  and  play  before  i/s.  Jnd  Juab 
said.  Let  them  arise ,-  and  immediately  the  conflict  began  be- 
tween twelve  men  of  each  army  (2  Sam.  ii.  14,  15.)  Ama- 
ziah,  king  of  Judah,  proud  of  some  advantages  which  he  had 
obtained  over  the  Levites,  sent  a  challenge  to  Jehoash  king 
of  Israel,  saying.  Come,  let  us  look  one  another  in  the  face. 
Jehoash,  in  a  beautiful  parable,  dissuaded  him  from  going  to 
war  ;  to  which  Amaziah  refused  to  listen.  The  two  kinj;s 
did  look  one  another  in  the  face  at  licthshemesh,  where  the  kiig 
of  Judah  was  totalljr  defeated.  (2  Kings  xiv.  8 — 12.)  Ben- 
Iladad,  king  of  Syria,  declared  war  against  Ahab  in  a  yet 
more  insolent  manner.  Having  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  he 
sent  messengers,  saving.  Thy  silver  and  thy  gold  is  mine  ,- 
thy  wives  also,  and  thy  aiildren  are  mine.  Ahab,  who  felt  his 
weakness,  rei)lied.  My  lord,  0  king,  according  to  thy  saying, 
I  am  thine  and  all  that  I  have.  Then  Ben-Hadad,  niore  inso- 
lent than  before,  rejoined.  Although  I  have  sent  unto  thee,  say- 
ing. Thou  shalt  deliver  me  thy  silver,  and  thy  gold,  and  thy 
wives,  and  thy  children  ,-  yet  1  will  send  my  servants  unta  thin 
to-morrow  about  this  time,  and  they  shall  search  thine  hotite, 
and  the  houses  of  thi/  servants,  and  whatsoever  is  pleasant  in 
thine  eyes,  they  shall  put  it  in  their  hand,  and  take  it  away. 
These  exorbitant  demands  being  rejected  by  Ahab  and  his 
counsel,  who  resolved  to  defend  themselves  and  sustain  the 
siege,  Ben-Hadad  was  obliged  to  abandon  it,  after  havino- 
lost  the  greater  part  of  hfs  army.  (1  Kings  xx.  4 — 21.) 
When  Pharaoh  Necho  king  of  Egypt,  on  his  way  to  Car- 
chernish  against  the  Assyrians,  was  desirous  of  crossing  the 
dominions  of  the  king  of  Judah,  Josiah,  who  was  the  ally 
or  tributary  of  the  Assyrian  monarch,  opposed  his  passage 
with  an  army.  Then  Necho  sent  ambassadors  to  him,  say- 
ing, IVhat  have  I  to  do  tvith  thee,  thou  king  of  Judah  ?  I  come 
not  against  thee  this  day,  but  against  the  house  wherewith  1 
have  war,  for  God  commanded  me  to  make  ha.sfe.  Forbear  thou 
from  meddling  with  God,  who  is  with  me,  that  he  destroy  thee 
not.  Josiah  persisted,  and  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  battle 
which  he  lost.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  20 — 24.) 

X.  Of  the  precise  mode  in  which  the  earliest  Jewish 
armies  \\ere  drawn  up,  the  Scriptures  give  us  no  information  : 
but,  as  tlie  art  of  war  was  tlien  comparatively  imperfect, 
much  reliance  was  placed  in  the  multitude  of  combatants, — 
a  notion,  the  fallacy  of  which  is  exposed  in  Psal.  xx.xiii.  16. 

Subsenuently,  however,  under  the  kings,  when  the  Jews 
had  cavalry,  they  threw  them  upon  the  wings  (according  to 
the  chevalier  Folard),  in  large  squadrons  of  six  or  eight  hun- 
dred horse,  with  a  depth  equal  to  the  front,  and  with  little 
intervals  between  them.  But  this  order  was  not  always  ob- 
served. John  the  son  of  Simon  Maccabecus,  in  the  battle 
which  he  fought  with  Cendebcus,  ])laccd  his  horse  in  the 
centre,  and  threw  his  foot  upon  the  wings;  to  which  success- 
ful stratagem  he  was,  under  Providence,  indebted  for  a  com- 
plete victory  (1  Mace.  xvi.  7,  8.)  :  for  the  novelty  of  this 
order  of  battle  amazed  the  enemy's  infantry,  and  confounded 
Cendebeus,  when  he  found  that  he  had  to  encounter  the  whole 
of  John's  cavalry,  which  bore  down  his  foot,  while  the  infantry 
of  the  Jews  broke  through  his  licrse,  and  put  them  to  I'.ight. 

P'rom  the  time  of  Moses  to  that  of  Solomon,  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  was  present  in  the  camp,  the  symbol  of  the  divine 


90 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IX. 


presence,  and  an  incitement  to  valiant  achievements.  It 
was  taken  b)^  the  Philistines  in  the  time  of  the  high-priest 
Eli  (1  Sam.  iv.  11.),  but  subsequently  restored.  In  like 
manner  the  Philistines  carried  their  deities  into  the  field  of 
battle  (1  Chron.  xiv.  12.)  ;  and  it  appears  that  Jeroboam  and 
the  Israelites  of  the  ten  tribes  had  their  golden  calves  with 
them  in  the  field.  (2  Chron.  xiii.  8.)  Before  they  engaged 
in  battle,  the  law  of  Moses  appointed  two  priests  to  blow 
with  two  silver  trumpets  (Num.  x.  9.),  which  are  described 
by  Josephus'  to  have  been  a  cubit  long,  and  narrow  like  a 
pipe,  but  wider,  as  ours  are,  at  the  bottom  ;  no  more  than  two 
were  at  first  ordered  for  present  use,  but  more  were  after- 
wards made  wlu^n  the  priests  and  the  people  were  increased. 
There  were  others  called  trumpets  of  rams'  horns  (Josh.  vi. 
4.),  probably  from  their  shape,  which  were  used  in  war,  to 
incite  the  soldiers  to  the  conflict.  These  instruments  were 
blown  to  call  the  people  to  the  sanctuary  to  pay  their  devo- 
tion, and  pray  to  God  before  they  engaged ;  and  they  were 
sounded  with  a  particular  blast,  that  they  might  know  the 
meaning  of  the  summons :  then  the  anointed  fur  the  war, 
going  from  one  battalion  to  another,  was  to  exhort  the  sol- 
diers" to  fight  valiantly.  (Deut.  XX.  2.)  There  were  officers 
whose  duty  it  was  to  make  proclamation,  that  those  whose 
business  it  was  should  make  sufficient  provision  for  the  army 
before  they  marched  ;  and  every  tenth  man  was  appointed  for 
that  purpose.  (Josh.  i.  10,  11.  Judg.  xx.  10.)  Sometimes 
they  advanced  to  battle  singing  hymns  (2  Chron.  xx.  21, 
22.)  ;  and  the  signal  was  mven  by  the  priests  sounding  the 
trumpets.     (Nuiii.  x.  9.     Judg.  vi.  34.     2Chron.  xiii.  14. 

1  Mace.  iii.  54.  iv.  13.)  It  should  seem  that  a  notion  pre- 
vailed among  the  ancient  idolatrous  nations  of  the  East,  of 
the  efficacy  of  devoting  an  enemy  to  destruction.  Under 
this  persuasion  Balak  engaged  Balaam  to  curse  the  Israel- 
ites because  they  were  too  mighty  for  him  (Num.  xxii.  6.) ; 
and  Goliath  cursed  David  by  his  gods.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  43.)2 
The  Romans  in  later  times  had  a  peculiar  form  of  evoking  or 
calling  out  the  gods,  under  whose  protection  a  place  was 
supposed  to  be,  and  also  of  devoting  the  people,  which  is 
fully  described  by  Macrobius,^  and  many  accounts  are  related 
in  the  Hindoo  puranas  of  kings  employing  sages  to  curse 
their  enemies  when  too  powerful  for  them.  It  was  custom- 
ary for  the  Hebrew  kings  or  their  generals  (in  common  with 
other  ancient  nations)  to  deliver  an  address  to  their  armies. 
(2  Chron.  xiii.  4—12.  xx.  21.  1  Mace.  iv.  8—11.)  These 
harangues  had  a  great  share  in  the  success  of  the  day,  and 
often  contributed  to  the  gaining  of  a  battle.  The  Greek  and 
Roman  historians  abound  with  pieces  of  this  kind  ;  but  they 
are  too  long,  and  too  elaborate,  to  be  originals.  Those  only 
which  are  recorded  in  the  Scriptures  appear  to  be  natural  : 
the  terms  in  which  they  are  conceived  carry  certain  marks 
of  truth,  which  cannot  f  lil  to  strike  the  reader :  they  are  short 
but  lively,  moving,  and  full  of  pious  sentiments. 

The  onset  of  the  battle,  after  the  custom  of  the  orientals, 
was  very  violent  (Num.  xxiii.  24.  xxiv.  8,  9.),  and  was  made 
with  a  great  shout,  (Exod.  xxxii.  17.   1  Sam.  xvii.  20.  52. 

2  Chron.  xiii.  15.  Jer.  1.  42.)  The  same  practice  obtained 
in  the  age  of  the  Maccabees  (1  Mace.  iii.  54.),  as  it  does  to 
this  day  among  the  Cossacks,  Tartars,  and  Turks.  All  the 
wars,  in  the  earliest  times,  were  carried  on  with  great  cru- 
elty and  ferocity;  of  which  we  may  see  instances  in  Judg. 
viii,  7.  16.  2  Kings  iii.  27.  viii.  12.  xv.  IG.  2  Chron.  xxv. 
12.  Amos  i.  3.  13.  and  Psal.  cxxxvii.  8,  9.  Yet  the  kings 
of  Israel  were  distinguished  for  their  humanity  and  lenity 
towards  their  enemies.  (1  Kings  xx.  31.  2  Kings  vi.  21 — 23. 
2  Chron.  xxviii.  8 — 15.)  When  the  victory  was  decided, 
the  bodies  of  the  slain  were  interred,  (livings  xi.  15. 
2  Sam.  ii.  32.  xxi.  14.  Ezek.  xxxix.  11,  12.  2  Mace.  xii. 
39.)  Sometimes,  however,  the  heads  of  the  slain  were  cut 
off,  ajid  deposited  in  heaps  at  the  palace  gate  (2  Kings  x. 
7,  8.),  as  is  frequently  done  to  this  day  in  Turkey,  and  in 
Persia ;''  and  when  the  conquerors  were  irritated  at  the  ob- 
stinacy with  wtiich  a  city  was  defended,  they  refused  the 
rites  of  burial  to  the  dead,  whose  bodies  were  cast  out,  a 
prey  to  carnivorous  birds  and  beasts.  This  barbarity  is 
leelingly  deplored  by  the  Psalmist.  (Ixxix.  1 — 3.)  And  on 
some  occasions  the  remains  of  the  sbin  were  treated  with 
every  mark  of  indignity.  ■  Thus  the  Philistines  cut  off  tlie 
headdf  Saul,  and  stripped  off  his  armour,  which  thexj  -put  in 
the  house  of  their  deity,  Ashtaroih  or  Astarte ;  and  they  fas- 

1  Antiq.  lib.  iii.  c.  II. 

»  In  like  inanner,  Uie  Cingalose  frequently  utter  imprecations  in  the 
name  of  the  most  malignant  of  their  deities.  Callaway's  Oriental  Obser- 
vations, p.  20. 

»  Saturnalia,  lib.  iii.  c.  9.  *  Moricr's  Second  Journey,  p.  186. 


tened  his  body  and  the  bodies  of  his  sons  to  the  wall  of  Beth- 
shan  ;  whence  they  were  soon  taken  by  the  brave  inhabitants 
of  Jabesh  Gilead.  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  9 — 12.)  A  heap  of  stones 
was  raised  over  the  grave  of  princes,  as  in  the  case  of  Absa- 
lom. (2  Sam.  xviii.  17.)  The  daily  diminishing  cairn  of 
pebble-stones,  situated  about  two  miles  from  the  lake  of 
Grasmere,  in  Cumberland,  and  known  by  the  appellation  of 
Dunniail  Raise-stones,  was  raised  in  a  like  manner  to  com- 
memorate the  name  and  defeat  of  Dunmail,  a  petty  king  of 
Cumbria,  a.  d.  945  or  946,  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  monarch 
Edmund  I. 

When  a  city  was  taken,  after  beino;  rased  to  the  founda- 
tion, it  was  sometimes  sowed  with  salt,  and  ploughed  up,  in 
token  of  perpetual  desolation.  In  this  manner  Abimelech, 
after  putting  the  inhabitants  of  Shechem  to  the  sword,  level- 
led it  with  the  ground,  and  sowed  it  with  salt:  and  thus 
many  centuries  after,  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  (a.  d. 
1163),  irritated  at  the  long  and  strenuous  defence  made  by 
the  besieged  inhabitants  of  Milan,  on  capturing  that  citj"-, 
abandoned  it  to  pillage,  and  sparing  nothing  but  the  churches, 
ordered  it  to  be  entirely  rased  to  tiie  ground,  which  was 
ploughed  and  sown  loith  salt,  in  memory  of  its  rebellion.^ 
The  prophet  Micah  (iii.  12.)  foretold  that  Jerusalem  should 
be  ploughed  as  afield,  and  his  prediction  (as  we  have  seen  in 
another  part  of  this  work)  was  most  literally  fulfilled  after 
Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Roman  anny  under  Titus.  It 
was  not  unusual  in  remote  antiquity  to  pronounce  a  curse 
upon  those  who  should  rebuild  a  destroyed  city.  Thus 
Joshua  denounced  a  curse  upon  the  man  who  should  rebuild 
Jericho  (Josh.  vi.  26.),  the  fulfilment  of  which  is  recorded 
in  1  Kings  xvi.  34.  In  like  manner  Croesus  uttered  a  curse 
on  him  who  should  rebuild  the  walls  of  Sidene,  which  he 
had  destroyed ;  and  the  Romans  also  upon  him  who  should 
rebuild  the  city  of  Carthagci^ 

Various  indignities  and  cruelties  were  inflicted  on  those 
who  had  the  misfortune  to  be  taken  captive.  On  some  occa- 
sions particular  districts  were  marked  out  for  destruction. 
(2  Sam.  viii.  2.)  Of  those  whose  lives  were  spared,  the 
victors  set  their  feet  upon  the  necks  (Josh.  x.  24.),  or  muti- 
lated their  persons'  (Judg.  i.  7.  2  Sam.  iv.  12.  Ezek.  xxiii. 
25.8),  or  imposed  upon  them  the  severest  and  most  laborious 
occupation^.  (2  Sam.  xii.  31.)  It  was  the  barbarous  custom 
of  the  conquerors  of  those  times,  to  make  their  unhappy 
captives  bow  down  that  they  mi^ht  go  over  them  (Isa.  li. 
23.),9  and  also  to  strip  them  naked,  and  make  them  travel  in 
that  condition,  exposed  to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather, 
and,  which  was  worst  of  all,  to  the  intolerable  heat  of  the 
sun.  Nor  were  women,  as  appears  from  Isa.  iii.  17.,  ex- 
empted from  this  treatment,  lo  them  this  was  the  height 
of  indignity,  as  well  as  of  cruelty,  especially  to  those  de- 
scribed by  the  prophets,  who  had  indulged  themselves  in  all 
manner  of  delicacies  of  living,  and  all  the  superfluities  of 

6  Modern  Universal  History,  vol.  xxvi.  p.  11.  8vo.  edit. 

6  Border's  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  301. 

■>  That  the  cutting  off  the  thumbs  and  toes  of  captured  enemies  was  an 
ancient  mode  of  treating  them,  we  learn  from  jElian  (Var.  Hist.  lib.  ii.  c. 
9.),  who  tells  us,  tliat  the  "Athenians,  at  the  instigation  of  Cleon,  snn  of 
Cletenatas,  made  a  decree  that  all  the  inhabitanisof  the  island  of  jEgina 
should  have  the  thumb  cut  off  from  the  right  hand,  so  that  they  might  ever 
after  be  disabled  from  holding  a  spear,  yet  might  handle  an  oar.""  It  was  a 
custom  among  those  Romans  who  disliked  »mililary  life,  to  cut  off  their  own 
thumbs,  that  they  might  not  be  capable  of  serving  in  the  army.  Some- 
times the  parents  cut  otf  the  thumbs  of  their  children,  that  they  might  not 
be  called  into  the  army.  According  lo  Suetonius,  a  Roman  knight,  wlio 
had  cut  off  the  thumbs  of  his  two  sons,  to  prevent  them  from  being  called 
to  a  military  hfe,  was,  by  the  order  of  Augustus,  publicly  sold,  bolh  he  and 
his  properly.  Eipiilein  Rumatmni,  quod  duoous  filit's  adolesceiitihus, 
causa  deiractandi  sacramenti,  pollices  ampulasset,  ipsum  boiiaque  suhjecit 
hasta;.  Vit  August,  c.  24.  Cahnet  remarks,  that  the  Italian  language  has 
preserved  a  term,  jwltrone,  which  signifies  one  whose  thumb  is'cut  off,  to 
designate  a  soldier  destitute  of  courage.  Burder's  Oriental  Literature, 
vol.  1.  p.  310. 

8  Ezek.  x.xiii.  25.  They  shall  take  ainat/  thy  nose  and  thine  ears.  This 
cruelty  is  still  practised  under  some  of  the  despotic  governments  of  the 
eastern  countries.  One  of  the  most  recent  instances  is  thus  related  by 
Messrs.  Waddington  and  Hanbury,  during  their  visit  to  some-  parts  of 
Ethidjlia  : — "  Our  servants,  in  their  expedition  into  the  village,  found  only 
an  old  woman  alive,  m'lh  her  ears  off.  The  pasha  buys  human  ears  at 
fifty  piastres  apiece,  which  leads  to  a  thousand  unnecessary  cruellies, 
and  barbarizes  the  system  of  warfare  ;  but  enables  his  highness  to  collect 
a  large  stock  of  ears,  which  he  sends  down  to  liis  father,  as  proofs  of  bis 
successes."  .lournal  of  a  Visit,  &c.  p.  US.  (London,  1822.  4lo.) — Similar 
instances  of  this  kind  of  cruelty  may  be  seen  In  Dodwell's  Classical  Tour 
through  Greece,  vol.  i.  p.  20.  Sir  .lames  Malcolm's  Hist  of  Persia,  vol.  i. 
p.  S.')'). ;  and  Burckhardt's  Travels  in  Nubia,  p.  3.5. 

9  A  similar  barbarous  instance  is  recorded  long  after  the  time  of  Isaiah. 
The  Roman  emperor  Valerian,  being  through  treachery  betrayed  to  Sapor 
king  of  Persia,  was  treated  by  him  as  the  basest  and  most  abject  slave  : 
for  the  Persian  monarch  commanded  the  unhappy  Roman  to  how  himself 
doicn,  and  offer  him  his'back,  on  which  he  set  bis  foot,  in  order  In  mount 
his  chariot  or  his  horse,  whenever  he  had  occasion.  (Lactantius,  de  Morle 
Persecutorum,  c.  5.  Aurelius,  Victor,  Epitome,  c.  32.)  Bp.  Lowth's 
Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  315.    In  p.  307.  he  has  given  another  similar  instance. 


Se 


T.] 


ON  THE  MILITARY  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  "JEWS. 


91 


ornament-al  dress;  and  pycn  whose  faces  had  hardly  ever 
been  exposed  to  the  sijrht  of  men.  Tliis  is  always  mentioned 
as  the  hardest  part  of  The  lot  of  captives.  Nahiim  (iii.  5,  6.), 
denounciiior  the  fife  of  Ninevt  h,  paints  it  in  very  stroiiij  co- 
lours.'' Women  and  ( liildren  wi'ic  also  exposed  to  treatment 
at  which  hniiKinitv  siiiiddcrs.  ('/cch.  xiv. '2.  lOstli.  iii.  13. 
2  Kinffs  viii.  12.  I'sal.  cxxxvii.  !».  Isa.  xiii.  Ki.  18.  2  Kintrs 
XV.  1().  Ilos.  xiii.  1().  Amos  i.  13.)  And  whole  nations  were 
carried  into  captivity,  and  transplanted  to  distant  countries: 
this  was  the  case  with  tlie  Jews  (-2  KiufTS  xxiv,  12 — 1(>..  Jer. 
xxxix.  !),  10.  xl.  7.),  as  Jeremiah  had  ])redicted  (Jer.  xx.  5.), 
and  instances  of  similar  conduct  are  not  waiitin<r  in  the  mo- 
dern history  of  the  Hast.-  In  some  cases,  indeed,  the  con- 
quered nations  were  merely  made  tril)utaries,  as  the  IMoabites 
and  Syrians  were  by  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  4.  6.)  :  hut  this 
was  considered  a  ijreat  ifrnominy,  and  was  a  source  of  re- 
proach to  the  id(d  deities  of  the  countries  vvhicii  were  thus 
subjected.  (2  Kinjrs  xix.  12,  13.)  Still  further  to  show  their 
•absolute  superioritv,  the  victorious  sovereijrns  used  to  chanire 
the  names  of  the  monarchs  wliom  they  subdued.  Thus  we 
find  tiie  kinjr  of  Habyloii  chanoinjr  the;  name  of  INIattaniah 
into  Zedekiah,  \tlien  he  constituted  iiim  kinw  of  Judali. 
(2  Kinirs  xxiv.  17.)  Archbishop  Usher  remarks,  that  the 
kinir  of  Kify])t  <jave  to  JOliakim  the  name  of  Jehoiakim 
(2  Chron.  xxxvi.  4.),  thereby  to  testify  that  he  ascril)ed  his 
victory  over  the  Haoylonians  to  Jehovah  the  God  of  Israel, 
by  whose  command,  as  he  |)retcnded  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  21, 
22.),  he  undertdok  tlie  expedition.  N<^buchadnezzar  also 
ordenHl  his  euiuich  to  chani^(i  the  name  of  Daniel,  who  after- 
wards was  called  Belteshazzar;  and  tlie  three  companions 
of  Daniel,  whose  names  formerly  were  Hananiah,  Mishael, 
and  Azariah,  he  called  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abednefro. 
(Dan.  i.  7.)  It  was  likewise  a  custom  amon^  the  heathens 
to  carry  in  triumph  the  imaorcs  of  the  gods  of  such  nations 
as  they  had  vanquished  :  Isaiah  prophesies  of  Cyrus,  that 
in  this  manner  he  would  treat  the  gods  of  Babylon,  when  he 
says,  Bel boivetk,  Ncbo  sfonpet/i,  their  idols  were  upon  llie  beast.s, 
and  upon  (he  cattle,  and  thenisehes  have  gone  into  captiviti/. 
(Isa.  xlvi.  1,  2.)  Daniel  foretells  that  the  g^ods  of  the  Sy- 
rians, with  their  princes,  should  be  carried  captive  into  Kfrypt 
(Dan.  xi.  8.) ;  and  similar  predictions  are  to  be  met  with  in 
Jeremiah  (xlviii.  7.)  and  in  Amos.  (i.  15.) 

XI.  On  their  return  home,  the  V^ictors  were  received  with 
every  demonstration  of  joy.  The  women  preceded  tiiem  with 
instruments  of  music,  singing  and  dancing.  In  this  manner 
Miriam  and  the  women  of  Israel  joined  in  chorus  with  the 
men,  in  the  song  of  victory  which  Moses  composed  on  occa- 
sion of  the  overthrow  of  Pharaoh  and  his  Egyptian  host  in 
the  Red  Sea,  and  which  they  accompanied  with  timbrels  and 
dances.  (Exod.xv.  1 — 21.)  Thus,  also,  Jephthah  was  hailed 
by  his  daughter,  on  his  return  from  discomfiting  the  children 
of  Ammon  (Judg.  xi.  34.) ;  and  Saul  and  David  were  greeted, 
in  like  maimer,  on  their  return  from  the  defeat  of  the  Philistines. 
7Vte  women  came  out  of  all  the  cities  of  Israel,  singing  and 
dancing,  to  meet  king  Saul,  with  tabrets,  with  joy,  and  with 
instruments  of  music.  Jlnd  the  women  answered  one  another 
as  they  played,  and  said,  Saul  hath  slain  his  thousands  and 
David  his  ten  thousands .'  (1  Sam.  xviii.  7,  8.)  The  victori- 
ous army  of  Jehoshaphat,  the  pious  king  of  Judah,  long  after- 
wards, returned,  every  man  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  with  the 
king  at  their  head,  to  go  again  to  Jerusalem  with  joy ,-  for  the 
Lord  luid  made  them  to  rejoice  over  their  enemies.     And  they 

«  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  45. 

•  111  the  tliirteenth  century,  when  the  Moguls  or  Tartars  under  Zinghis 
Kahn  overran  and  conquered  Asia,  "  the  inhabitants  who  had  submitted  to 
tlieir  discretion,  were  ordered  to  evacuate  their  houses,  and  to  assemble 
in  some  plain  ailjacent  to  tlie  city,  where  a  divi.sion  was  made  of  tlie  van- 
qiiislied  into  three  parts.  The  first  class  consisted  of  the  soldiers  nf  the 
garrison,  and  of  the  i/outig  men  capable  of  bearing  arms ;  and  their  fate 
was  instantly  decided:  they  were  either  enlisted  among  the  Moguls,  or 
they  were  mas.-ocred  on  the  spot  by  the  troops,  who  with  pointed  spears 
and  bended  bows  had  tbrmed  a  circle  round  the  captive  multitude.  The 
second  class,  composed  of  the  young  and  beautiful  icomen,  o(  the  arti- 
ficers of  every  ranlc  and  profession,  and  nf  the  more  wealthy  or  honourable 
citizens,  friMii  whom  a  private  ransom  miglu  be  expected,  was  distributed 
in  equiU  or  pioportionable  lots.  The  remainder,  wliose  life  or  death  was 
alike  useless  to  ihe  conqiierors,  were  permitted  to  return  to  the  city,  which 
in  the  mean  while  had  been  stripped  of  its  valuable  furniture  ;  and  a  ta.\ 
was  imposed  on  those  wretched  inhabitants  for  the  indulgence  of  bre.-\th- 
ing  their  na-ive  air."  (Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  367,  363.  4to.,  or  vol.  vi  p.  55.  8vo.  edit.)  Here  we  evidently  see 
the  dislinctii,)n  made  by  Jeremiah  (xx.  5.)  of  the  strength  of  the  city  (that 
is.  Ihe  men  of  war  who  constitute  the  strength  of  a  city  or  state);  its 
labours  or  industry  (that  is,  the  industrious  artisans  and  mechanics)  ;  and 
all  the  precious  things  thereof  all  that  is  valuable  in  it,  or  the  honourable 
and  respectal>le  members  of  the  community  not  included  in  the  two  former 
classes  ;  and  also  those  poorer  and  meaner  citizens  who,  according  to  Jer. 
xxxix.  13.  and  xl.  7.,  were  left  in  Judaea,  but  still  tributary  to  the  Chal- 
dseans,  first  under  Zedekiah,  and  next  under  Gedaliah.  Dr.  Blayney,  on 
Jer..  XX.  5.  :     " 


came  to  Jerusalem  with  psalteries  and  harps,  and  trumpets  unto 
the  house  of  the  Lord.  (2  Chron.  xx.  27.  28.)  The  same 
custom  still  obtaitis  in  India  and  in  Turkey."  In  further 
commemoration  of  signal  victories,  it  was  a  common  prac- 
tice, both  among  the  ancient  heathen  iiatinns  and  the  Jews, 
to  hang  up  the  arms  that  were  taken  fn  m  tlieir  enemies  in 
their  temjjles.  Thus  we  find,  that  the  sword  with  which 
David  cut  off  Golialh's  head,  being  dedicated  to  the  Lord, 
was  ke|)t  as  a  memorial  of  his  victory,  and  of  the  Israelites' 
(hdiverance,  and  was  deposited  in  the  tabernacle  ;  for  we  find 
that  when  David  came  to  Abimelech  at  Nob,  where  the 
tabernacle  was,  Abimelech  acknowledged  it  was  there,  and 
delivered  it  to  David.  (I  Satri.  xxi.  8,  9.)  For  when  occa- 
sions of  state  required  it,  it  was  no  unusual  thing  to  take 
such  trojihies  down,  and  employ  tliem  in  the  public  service. 
Thus  when  Joash  was  crowned  kiiior  of  Judah,  Jehoiada,  the 
high-priest  (who  had  religiously  (MUicated  him),  delivered  to 
the  captains  tf  hundreds  spears,  and  bucklers,  and  shields,  that 
had-  been  king  J)avid''s,  which  were  in  the  house  (f  God, 
(2  Chron.  xxiii.  !».) 

Xli.  By  the  law  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxi.  19 — 24.)  the  whole 
ariny  that  went  out  to  war  were  to  stay  without,  seven  da5-3 
before  they  were  admitted  into  the  camp,  and  such  as  had  had 
th<>ir  hands  in  blood,  or  had  touched  a  dead  body,  though 
killed  by  another,  were  to  be  purified  on  the  third  and  on  the 
seventh  day  by  tlie  water  of  separation.  All  spoil  of  gar- 
ments, or  other  things  that  they  had  taken,  were  to  be  purified 
in  the  saine  manner,  or  to  be  washed  in  running  water,  as  the 
method  was  in  other  cases.  All  sorts  of  metals  had,  besides 
sprinkling  with  the  water  of  separation,  a  purification  by  fire, 
and  what  would  not  bear  the  fire  passed  through  the  water 
before  it  could  be  applied  to  use. 

In  the  Distribution  of  the  Spoil,  the  king  anciently  had 
the  tenth  part  of  what  was  taken.  Thus  Abraham  gave  a 
tenth  to  Melcliisedec  king  of  Salem.  (Gen.  xiv.  20.  Hcb.  vii. 
4.)  And  if  any  article  of  peculiar  beauty  or  value  were  found 
among  the  spoil,  it  seems  to  have  been  reserved  for  the  com- 
mander-in-chief. To  this  Deborah  alludes  in  her  triumphal 
ode.  (Judg.  V.  30.)  After  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy, 
the  rabbinical  writers  say  (but  upon  what  authority  it  is  im- 
possible now  to  ascertain)  that  I'le  king  had  all  the  gold,  sil- 
ver, and  other  precious  articles,  besides  one  half  of  the  rest 
of  the  spoil,  which  was  divided  between  him  and  the  people. 
In  the  case  of  the  Midianitish  war  (Num.  xxxi.  27.),  the 
whole  of  the  spoil  was,  by  divine  appointment,  divided  into 
two  parts  :  the  armj'  that  won  the  victor}'  had  one,  and  those 
that  stayed  at  home  had  the  other,  because  it  was  a  common 
cause  in  which  they  engaged,  and  the  rest  were  as  ready  to 
fight  as  those  that  went  out  to  battle.  This  division  was  by 
a  special  direction,  but  was  not  the  rule  in  after-ages ;  for, 
after  the  general  had  taken  what  he  pleased  for  himself,  the 
rest  was  divided  among  the  soldiers,  as  well  those  who  kept 
the  baggage,  or  were  disabled  bv  wounds  or  weariness,  as 
those  who  were  engaged  in  the  fight,  hut  the  people  had  no 
share ;  and  this  was  ordained,  as  a  statute  to  be  observed 
throughout  their  generations  (1  Sam.  xxx.  24.)  :  but  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees  the  Jewish  army  thought  fit  to  recede 
from  the  strictness  of  this  military  law,  for  when  they  had 
obtained  a  victory  over  Nicanor,  under  the  conduct  of  Judas, 
they  divided  among  themselves  many  spoils,  and  made  the 
maimed,  orphans,  iridoivs,  yea,  and  the  aged  al.o,  equal  in 
spoils  with  themselves.  (2  INIacc.  viii.  28.  30.)  In  the  Midi- 
anitish war,  after  the  distribution  of  the  spoils  among  the 
army  and  the  people,  there  was  another  division  maae  for 
the  service  of  the  priesthood,  and  the  Levitical  ministry. 
(Num.  xxxi.  28 — 30.)  The  priests,  out  of  the  share  that 
fell  to  the  army,  were  allotted  one  out  of  five  hundred  of  all 
women  and  children,  and  cattle  that  were  taken;  and  the 
Levites,  from  the  part  that  fell  to  the  people,  received  one 
out  of  fifty,  so  that  the  priest  had  just  a  tenth  part  of  what 
was  allowed  to  the  Levites,  as  they  had  a  tenth  part  of  the 
Levitical  tithes,  which  was  paid  them  for  their  constant  sup- 
port :  but  whether  this  was  the  practice  in  future  wars  is  un- 
certain. Sometimes  all  the  spoils  were,  by  divine  appoint- 
ment, ordered  to  be  destroyed ;  and  there  is  an  instance  in 
the  sieg-e  of  Jericho,  when  all  the  silver  and  the  gold  (except 
the  gold  and  the  silver  of  their  images,  which  were  to  be  con- 
sumed utterly),  and  vessels  of  brass  and  iron,  were  devoted 
to  God,  and  appropriated  to  his  service.  They  were  to  be 
brought  into  the  treasury  which  was  in  the  tabernacle,  after 
they  were  purified  by  making  them  pass  through  the  fire  ac- 
cording to  the  law ;  the  Jews  conceive  that  these  spoils 

»  Forbes's  Oriental  Memoirs,  vol.  ii.  p.  295.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Mon- 
tague's Letters,  vol.  i.  p.  197. 


92 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IX. 


(called  in  the  Scripture  the  accursed  thinor  on  the  account  of 
their  beinjr  devoted  with  a  curse  upon  him  who  should  take 
them  for  his  own  use)  were  eiven  to  God,  because  the  city 
was  taken  upon  the  Sabbath-day.  But  in  succeeding  ages, 
it  appears  to  be  an  established  rule  that  the  spoil  was  to  be 
divided  among  the  army  actually  engaged  in  battle ;  those 
who  had  the  charge  of  the  baggage  (as  already  noticed) 
being  considered  entitled  to  an  equal  share  with  the  rest. 
(I  Sam.  XXX.  24.) 

Besides  a  share  of  the  spoil  and  the  honours  of  a  triumph, 
various  military  rewards  were  bestowed  on  those  warriors 
who  had  pre-eminently  distinguished  themselves.  Thus 
Saul  promised  to  confer  great  riches  on  the  man  who  should 
conquer  Goliath,  and  further  to  give  his  daughter  in  marriage 
to  him,  and  to  exempt  his  father's  house  from  all  taxes  in 
Israel.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  25.)  How  reluctantly  the  jealous  mo- 
narch fulfilled  his  promise  is  well  known.  David  promised 
the  conunand  in  chief  of  all  his  forces  to  him  who  should 
first  mount  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  expel  the  Jebusites 
out  of  the  city  (2  Sam.  v.  8.  1  Chron.  xi.  6.) ;  which  honour 
was  acquired  by  .Toab.  In  the  rebellion  of  Absalom  against 
David,  Joab  re})lied  to  a  man  who  told  him  that  the  prince 
was  suspended  in  an  oak, —  JVIiy  didst  tliou  not  stniie  him  to 
the  ground,  and  I  ivould  have  given  thee  ten  shekels  of  silver 
and  a  girdle  ?  (2  Sam.  xviii.  11.)  Jephthah  was  constituted 
head  and  captain  over  the  Israelites  beyond  Jordan,  for  deli- 
vering them  from  the  oppression  of  the  Ammonites.  (Judg. 
xi.  11.  compared  with  xii.  7.) 

From  2  Sam.  xxlii.  8 — 39.  it  appears  that  the  heroes  or 
"mighty  men,"  during  the  reign  of  David,  were  thirty-seven 
in  number,  including  Joab,  who  was  commander-in-chief  of 
all  his  forces.  These  warriors  were  divided  into  three  classes, 
the  first  and  second  of  which  consisted,  each,  of  three  men, 
Jashobeam,  Eleazar,  and  Sharamah  ;  Abishai,  Benaiah,  and 
Asahel ;  and  the  third  class  was  composed  of  the  remaining 
thirty,  of  whom  Asahel  appears  to  have  been  the  head.  Such 
is  the  list  according  to  2  Sam.  xxiii. ;  but  in  1  Chron.  xi.  10 
— 47.  the  list  is  more  numerous,  and  differs  considerably  from 
the  preceding.  The  most  probable  solution  of  these  vari- 
ations is,  that  the  first  list  contains  the  worthies  who  lived  in 
the  former  part  of  David's  r^ign,  and  that  it  underwent  vari- 
ous changes  in  the  course  of  his  government  of  the  kingdoni 
of  Israel.  At  the  head  of  all  these  "  mighty  men"  was 
Jashobeam  the  son  of  Hachmoni  (1  Chron.  xi.  11.),  who 
from  his  office  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8.  (Hebr.  and  marginal  ren- 
dering) is  termed  Juseb-Bassebet,  the  Tachmonite,  head  of  the 
three;  and  whose  military  appellation  was  Adino-He-Ezni 
{the  lifting  up — or  striking  with — a  spear)  because  he  lifted 
up  his  spear  against,  or  encountered,  three  hundred  soldiers 
at  once.  However  extraordinary  it  may  seem,  we  may  here 
clearly  perceive  a  distinct  order  of  knighthood,  similar  to  our 
modern  orders,  and  presenting  the  same  honorary  degrees, 
and  of  which  Jashobeam,  according  to  modern  parlance,  was 
the  grand-master.  An  institution  of  this  kind  was  in  every 
respect  adapted  to  the  rei^n,  the  character,  and  the  policy  of 
David.' 

After  the  return  of  the  Jewish  armies  to  their  several 
homes,  their  military  dress  was  laid  aside.  The  militia, 
which  been  raised  for  the  occasion,  were  disbanded  ;  their 
warlike  instruments,  with  the  exception  of  such  as  were 
private  property,  were  delivered  up  as  the  property  of  the 
state,  until  some  future  war  should  call  them  forth ;  and  the 
soldiers  themselves  returned  (like  Cincinnatus)  to  the  plough, 
and  the  other  avocations  of  private  life.  To  this  suspension 
of  their  arms,  the  prophet  Ezekiel  alludes  (xxvii.  10,  11.) 
when  he  says,  that  they  of  Persia,  and  of  Lud,  and  of  Phut, 
and  of  Jlrvud,  were  in  the  Tyrian  army  as  men  of  war,  and 
hanged  their  shields  upon  the  loulls  of  Tyre.  To  the  same  cus- 
tom also  the  bridegroom  refers  in  the  sacred  idyls  of  Solomon 
(Song  iv.  4.),  when  he  compares  the.  neck  of  his  bride  to 
the  towei-  of  David  buildedfor  an  armoury,  whereon  there  hang 
a  thousand  bucklers,  all  shields  of  mighty  men. 

XIII.  It  does  not  certainly  appear  from  the  Sacred  Writ- 
ings, that  the  Hebrews  were  accustomed  to  erect  Trophies 
or  monuments  for  commemorating  their  victories.  In  1  Sam. 
XV.  12.  Saul  is  said  to  have  set  him  up  a  place  on  Mount  Car- 
mel ;  which  some  expositors  understand  to  be  a  column,  or 
other  monument,  while  others  imagine  it  to  have  been  sim- 
ply a  hand,  pointing  out  the  place  where  he  had  obtained  his 
decisive  victory  over  the  Amalekites.  Far  more  devout  was 
the  conduct  of  Moses,  who,  after  discomfitino-  Amalek, 
erected  an  altar  to  the  Lord,  with  this  inscriptio°n,  Jehovah- 

»  Coquerel,  Biographic  Sacr6e,  lorn.  ii.  p.  107. 


»i?s«',  that  is.  The  Ijort)  is  my  banner.  (Exod.xvii.  15.)  Un- 
der the  influence  of  similar  devout  afl'pctinns,  David  conse- 
crated the  sword  and  other  arms  of  Goliath  in  the  tabernacle, 
and  subsequently  deposited  in  the  sacred  treasury  the  rich 
spoils  won  in  battle,  as  Samuel  and  Saul  had  done  before 
him  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  26: — 28.),  and  as  several  of  his  pious 
successors  on  the  throne  of  Judah  also  did.  Thus  they 
gratefully  acknowledged  that  they  were  indebted  to  the  Lord 
of  Hosts  alone  for  all  their  strength  and  victories. 


SECTION  IL 

ALLUSIONS    IN    THE    NEW  TESTAMENT  TO    THE    MILITARY  DISCI- 
PLINE AND  TRIUMPHS  OF    THE  ROMANS. 

I.  Divisions  of  the  Jioman  army,  and  Roman  military  officers 
mentioned  in  the  J^^'etu  Testament. — II.  .illusions  to  the  ar- 
mour of  the  Romans. — III.  To  their  military  discipline.— 
Strict  suf>ordination. —  Rewards  to  soldiers  luho  had  distin- 
guished themselves. — IV.  Allusions  to  the  Roman  tritimphs. 

I.  At  the  time  the  evangelists  and  apostles  wrote,  the  Ro- 
mans had  extended  their  empire  almost  to  the  utmost  bound- 
aries of  the  then  known  world,  principally  by  their  unparal- 
leled military  discipline  and  heroic  valour.  Judaea  was  at 
this  time  subject  to  their  sway,  and  their  troops  were  sta- 
tioned in  different  parts  of  that  country. 

The  Roman  army  was  composed  of  Legions  {Aeyiavic), 
each  of  which  was  divided  into  ten  cohorts,  each  cohort  into 
three  maniples,  and  each  maniple  {^Truf^-x)  into  two  centuries. 
The  number  of  men  in  a  legion  was  different  at  different 
times.  But  besides  the  cohorts  which  were  formed  into 
legions,  there  were  certain  others  separate  and  distinct  from 
any  legion ;  such  were  the  Cohortes  Urbanae,  and  Praetoriae, 
&c.  Such  appears  to  have  been  the  Italian  Bund  {^th^u. 
Jthxikm)  mentioned  in  Acts  x.  1.,  which  was  in  attendance  on 
the  Roman  governor,  who  at  that  time  was  residing  at  Caesa- 
rea.  It  was  probably  called  the  Italian  cohort,  because  most 
of  the  soldiers  belonging  to  it  were  Italians,  and  also  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  other  troops  which  were  drawn  from 
Syria  and  the  adjacent  regions.  The  Italian  legion  was  not 
in  existence  at  this  time. 2  Of  the  same  description  also  was 
the  Augustan  Band  or  Co/^or/ (Acts  xxvi.  1.),  {iTrn^-ji  Sjo^s-t^), 
which,  most  probably,  derived  its  name  from  Sebaste,  the 
capital  of  Samaria.  The  commanding  officer  of  the  Praeto- 
rian Cohorts  at  Rome  (a body  of  troops  instituted  by  Augus- 
tus to  guard  his  person,  and  to  whom  the  care  of  the  city  was 
subsequently  committed)  was  termed  Pra fetus  Praotorw. 
This  last  officer  was  the  Captain  of  the  Guard  {lTfi.'ro?ni^(^>,T\ 
to  whose  custody  Paul  was  committed,  it  being  a  part  cf  his 
office  to  take  the  charge  of  accused  persons.  (Acts  xxviii. 
16.)  The  commanding  officer  of  an  ordinary  cohort  was 
called  Tribunus  Cohwtis,  if  it  was  composed  of  Roman  citi- 
zens ;  or  Prscfectus  Cohmiis,  if  composed  of  auxiliary  troops. 
The  officer  intended  by  both  these  words  is  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament termed  XtAt^PX^c,  or  Captain  of  a  Thousand,  most 
probably  because  each  tribune  had  under  him  ten  centuries 
of  trofips.  This  was  the  officer  who  commanded  the  legion 
of  soldiers  that  garrisoned  the  tower  of  Antonia,  which  over- 
looked the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  porticoes  of  which  a 
company  kept  guard  (KcvtrToJav)  to  prevent  any  tumult  at  the 
great  festivals. 5'  Claudius  Lysias  was  the  tribune  or  Roman 
captain  of  tLis  fort,  who  rescued  Paul  from  the  tumultuous 
attack  of  the  murderous  Jews.  (Acts  xxi.  31.  xxii.  34.  xxiii. 
26.)  Under  the  command  of  the  tribune  was  the  centurion 
{KivTupicDv  or  'Ex.ATcvT:tpx''()^  wlio,  as  lils  name  implies,  had  one 
hundred  men  under  him.^ 

The  Roman  infantry  were  divided  into  three  principal 
classes,  the  Hastuti,  the  Principes,  and  the  Triarii,  each  of 
which  was  composed  of  thirty  manipuli  or  companies,  and 
each  manipulus  contained  two  centuries  or  hundreds  of  men: 
over  every  company  were  placed  two  centurions,  who,  hpw- 
ever,  were  very  far  from  being  er/ual  in  rank  and  honour,  though 
possessing  the  sanre  office.  The  Triarii  and  Principes  were 
esteemed  the  most  honourable,  and  had  their  centurions  elected 
first,  and  these  took  precedency  of  the  centurions  of  the  Hastati, 
who  were  elected  lust.     The  humble  centurion,  who  in  Matt. 

»  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,"  vol.  i.  pp.  328 — 332.  Doddridge  on  Acts  x.  1.  and 
Kuinoel  on  Acts  x.  1.  and  xxvii.  1. 

3  JosepVius,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  5.  §  8.    Ant.  .lud.  lib.  xx.  c.  4.  §  3. 

«  Biscoe  on  tlie  Acts,  vol.  i.  pp.  328,  329.  Adam's  Hotnan  Antiquities, 
pp.  336  339.  ?2. 


Skct.  IL] 


ROMAN  DISCIPLINE  AND  TRIUMPHS. 


93 


viii.  8,  9.  bosonrrlit  the  aid  of  the  compassionate  Redeemer, 
appears  to  liave  boon  oftliis  last  order.  He  was  a  man  un- 
der aiilharitii,  that  is,  of  tiie  i'liiicipcs  or  Triarii,  and  had 
none  und'r  him  l)iit  tlu;  hundred  men,  who  appear  to  have 
been  in  a  state  of  the  strietest  military  snhordination,  as  well 
asof  lovintf  snhjeetion  to  him.  /«/«,  said  thecentnrion,  a  man 
under  <ihI  liar  ill/,  hav'ni'j;  soldiers  under  me,  and  /  sai/  to  l/iin 
man,  Go,  and  he  i^oelfi,  and  in  nnnther,  I'onie,  and  he  conielh  ,- 
and  to  mi/  slave  (Ta  i'.vKoi  «'-y),  Do  this,  and  he  doeth  it.  The 
a]i|)licatinn  of  his  ar<rnment,  addressed  to  Christ,  setins  to  be 
this  : — Jf  I,  who  am  a  person  snbjeetlo  the  control  of  others, 
yet  have  some  so  comjd(H(dy  subject  to  myself,  that  1  can 
say  to  one.  Come,  and  lie  nnneth,  &e.  how  much  more  then 
canst  thou  accomplish  whatsoever  Ihou  wiliest,  hein'/  under 
no  control,  and  havinsj  all  thin<rs  under  thy  command  ?' 

The  Af^i'.huSu  or  Spearmen,  mentioned  in  Acts  xxiii.  23., 
were  soldiers,  earryinor  spears  or  lances  in  their  ri'^ht  hand, 
whose  duty  it  was,  not  oidy  to  attend  as  fjuards  upon  their 
snvereinii  or  conunander,  hut  also  to  gruard  prisoners,  who 
were  bound  by  a  chain  to  their  rijrht  hand.^  The  ^Ttn'.uXiT^fi: 
(in  Latin,  Spicalalores  or  >Speculatores,  from  the  spiculum,  a 
javelin  or  spear  which  they  carried)  were  a  kind  of  soldiers 
who  formed  the  body-^uard  of  princes.  Among  other  duties 
of  these  guards,  was  that  of  putting  condemned  persons  to 
death.' 

II.  The  allusions  in  the  New  Testament  to  the  military 
discipline,  armour,  battles,  sie<res,  and  military  honours  of 
the  Greeks,  and  especially  of  the  Romans,  are  very  nume- 
rous ;  and  the  sacred  writers  have  derived  from  them  meta- 
phors and  expressions  of  singular  propriety,  elegance,  and 
energy,  for  animating  Christians  to  lortitude  against  tempta- 
tions, and  to  constancy  in  the  profession  of  their  holy  faith 
under  all  persecutions,  and  also   for   stimulating   them    to 

Eersevere   unto   the  end,  that  they  may  receive  those  final 
onours   and  that  immortal  crown  which   await  victorious 
piety. 

In  the  following  very  striking  and  beautiful  passage  of  St. 
Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  (vi.  11 — 17.),  the  various 
parts  of  the  panoply-armour  of  the  heavy  troops  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  (those  who  had  to  sustain  the  rudest 
assaults)  "  are  distinctly  enumerated,  and  beautifully  applied 
to  those  moral  and  spiritual  weapons  with  which  the  believer 
ought  to  be  fortified.  /■'(//  ini  the  whole  armour  of  God,  that 
ye  may  be  able  to  stand  against  the  iviles  of  the  devil.  For  we 
wrestle  not  against  Jlesh  and  bhmd,  but  against  principalities, 
against  powers,  against  the  rulers  of  the  darkness  of  this  world, 
against  spiritual  wickedness  in  high  places.  Wherefore,  take 
unto  you  the  whole  armour  of  God,  that  ye  may  be  able  to  with- 
stand in  the  evil  day,  and  having  done^  all  to  stand.     Stand, 


your  loins  girt  about  with  truth,  and  havim 


therefore,  havin^ 

on  the  breast-phite  of  right eousne  s :  and  your  feet  shod  with  tfi 

preparation  <f  the  gospel  of  peace  :  above  all,^  taking  the  shield^ 

-  of  faith,  wherewith  you  shall  be  able  to  quench  all  the  Jiery  darts'' 

«  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Jtatt.  vin.  9. 

»  Valpy's  Gr.  Test.  vol.  iii.  p.   255. 

»  Robinson's  Gr.  Lox.  to  the  New  Test,  in  voce. 

«  Eph.  vi.  13.  '  As-xi]»  xxhpj.xo-aAt-'nj'..  Tins  verb  frequently  signifies 
to  (li'spatcti  a  foe,  totally  to  vanquish  and  subdue  an  adversary.  So  it 
should  be  translated  in  this  place.  'Ov  x-jli>y,iifix  xkhifyx(rxT<i :  Whom  he 
despatc/ied  wilh  his  own  hand.  Dion.  Halicarn.  torn.  i.  p.  99.  Oxon.  1704. 
IUWj  iroA.s/«ix  nxlspyxTx/iivai  :  Having  quelled  all  ho.stilities.  Idem,  p. 
S-C).  Mij'  ii;  iiTu  =oA.>.oui  =o>.!.«iouc  x^lupj. irii  :  By  which  you  have  van- 
quished many  enemies.  Polyseni  .Stratair.  p.  421.  Lugd.  1589.  llj/fx,- 
»Zxhvi  <riS«p»i  xx]ktf^  xTx/itiv.  Idcju,  p.  599.  Casaubon.  Tiufow  xyftcv — 
rxii  pcspTi  liivxti  xxhipyxT.uiv^  ;  He  despatched  a  wild  bull  only  with  his 
h:inds.  Appian.  vol.  i.  p.  3)1.  Aiust.  1670.  See  also  pp.5.  291.  410.531. 
Tiillii.  The  word  here  used  by  the  apostle  has  also  this  signilicatiun  in 
DionCassius,  Josephus,  andPhilo. 

»  Erri  -a  •o-ii',  after  all,,  or  besides  all:  it  never  signifies  above  all.  Av7oi 
Ji  x**.'^*'?  f'  -xTi  'iixixiv.^v;  Afterall,  he  himself  passed  with  difficulty. 
Plutarch,  Caesar,  p.  1311.  edit.  Gr.  Stephan.  A^-.vTx  -pxlov  tuv  ^xKxyy  x, 
itilx  T«uU  Tou;  I'rr.To,-,  i!7i  Tx<r.  Si  TO  (r«iuo~(!()-.v  :  First,  he  led  up  the  pha- 
lanx, next  the  cavalry,  after  all  the  bagua^e.  Polybius,  p.  604.  Casaubon. 
Et.  sxa-i  Si  Ao-o-iv  'ns.«  «»•  Ti<rirX|)x«oi.]x  xxi  i^vivxi  Suo  :  After  all,  Assis 
reianed  forty-nine  years  and  two  months.  Josephus  contra  Apion.  p.  445. 
Havercaitip. 

«  The  shield  here  intended  (J^upsoc)  is  the  scutum,  or  large  oblong  shield 
of  the  Romans,  which  was  made  of  wood  covered  with  hides,  and  derived 
its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  a  door  (i^"f »).  As  faith  is  that  Christian 
grace,  by  which  all  the  others  are  preserved  and  rendered  active,  it  is 
here  properly  represented  under  thefiiTureofa  shield;  which  covered 
and  protected  the  whole  body  ;  and  enables  the  believer  to  qupnc/i— to 
intercept,  blunt,  and  extinguish,  as  on  a  shielil— /A<;  Jiert/  darls  of  l/ie 
tcickfid  onu,  that  is,  all  those  evil  thoughts,  and  strong  injections,  as  they 
are  terutvd,  which  inflame  the  passions  of  the  unrenewed,  smd  excite  the 
soul  to  acts  of  transgression. 

1  Bi>.>i  siTMf^nivx.  These  dreadful  weapons  were  frequently  employed 
by  the  ancients,  nupiop,  T»:iu,ux?i.  Appian.  p.  329.  llup^opaij  o.rTo.j 
b*i-Ktri»i.    Thucydides,  torn.  ii.  lib.  xi.  p.  202.    Glasg. 

Toiouf,  «ypn  Jrfi^oi',  txi'i  TuposvTa;  oi(rTouc. 

Oppian.  Kuny.  lib.  ii.  ver.  425. 

According  to  Amnuanus  Marcellinus  (lib.  ixiij.  c.  4.)  these  fiery  darts 


of  the  wicked,  and  fake  the  helmet  s  of  salvation,  and  the  sword 
of  the  Spirit,  luhich  is  the  word  (f  God,^^'^ 

[laving  thus  equipped  the  spiriual  soldier  with  the  divine 
panf>ply,  the  apostle  proceeds  to  show  him  how  he  is  to  use 
It :  he  therefore  subjoins — Praying  alwai/s  ivith  all  prayer 
and  supplication  in  the  Spirit,  and  watching  therntnto  with  all 
perseverance.  The  Greeks  and  other  ancient  nations,  we  have 
already  observed,  offered  up  prayers  befre  they  went  into 
the  battle.  Alluding  to  this.  Saint  Paul  adds  the  exhortation 
to  believers,  praying  always,  at  all  seasons,  and  on  all  occa- 
sions, w'//A  all  prayer  (^morr  C0TTccl\y,  supplication  for  what 

is   good)  and  deprecation  of  evil ;  and  uMt chin g  thereunto 

being  always  on  their  guard  lest  their  spiritual  enemies  should 
surprise  them — with  all  perseverance,  being  always  intent  on 
their  object,  and  never  losing  sight  of  their  danger  or  of  their 
interest.!" 

"  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  the  apostle,  exhorting  men 
to  renounce  those  sins  to  which  they  had  been  long  accus- 
tomed, and  to  enter  upon  a  nev.-  and  holy  life,  uses  a  beauti- 
ful similitude,  borrowed  fmm  the  custom  of  soldiers  throw- 
ing off  their  ordinary  habit  in  order  to  put  on  a  suit  of  armour. 
77ie  night  is  far  spent,  the  day  is  at  hand:  let  us  therefore  cast 
OFF  the  works  of  darkness,  and  let  us  put  on  the  armour  of 
light."  (Rom.  xiii.  12.)  In  another  passage  he  represents, 
by  a  striking  simile,  in  what  manner  the  apostles  were  for- 
tified against  the  opposition  with  which  they  were  called  to 
conflict  in  this  world.  By  the  word  of  truth,  by  the  power  of 
God,  by  the  armour  of  righteousness  on  the  right  hand  and 

ON  THE  LEFT."    (2  Cof.  vi.  T.)'^ 

III.  It  is  well  known  that  the  strictest  subordination  and 
obedience  were  required  of  every  Roman  soldier.  An  allu- 
sion to  this  occurs  in  the  speech  of  the  centurion  to  Jesus 
Christ  (Matt.  viii.  8,  9.)  wliich  has  already  been  noticed 
above,  and  which  is  greatly  illustrated  by  two  striking  pas- 
sages in  Arrian's  Discourses  of  Epictetus: — speaking  tf  the 
Saturnalia,  he  says, — "  We  agreed  to  play  Agamemnon  and 
Achilles.     He  who  is  appointed  for  Agamemnon  sys  to  me, 

^  Go  to  .ichilles,  and  force  away  Briseis.'' — I  c;o. — 'Come.' / 

come."'^  Again,  discoursing  on  all  things  being  under  the 
divine  inspection,  he  says, — "  When  God  commands  the  plants 
to  blossom,  they  bear  blossoms.  When  he  commands  them  to 
bear  seed,  they  bear  seed.  When  he  commands  them  to  bring 
forth  fruit,  X\\Qy  put  forth  their  fruit.  When  he  commands 
them  to  ripen,  they  grow  ripe.  When  he  commands  them  to 
fade  and  shed  their  leaves,  and  to  remain  inactive,  and  involv- 
ed ^or  contracted)  within  themselves,  they  thus  remain  and 
are  inactive.'''^ 

Nor  is  the  military  subordination  adverted  to  by  the  cen- 
turion, without  its  (almost  verbal)  parallel  in  modern  times 
in  the  East: — Kirtee-Ranah,  a  captive  Ghoorkha  chief,  who 
was  marching  to  the  British  heao-quarters, — on  being  inter- 
rogated concerning  the  motives  that  induced  him  to  quit  his 
native  land  and  enter  into  the  service  of  the  Rajah  of  Nep  1, 
— replied  in  the  following  very  impressive  manner: — "  My 
master,  the  rajah,  sent  me:  lie  says  to  his  people, — to  one, '  Go 

consisted  tof  a  hollowed  reed,  to  the  lower  part  of  which,  under  the  point 
or  barb,  was  fastened  a  round  receptacle,  made  of  iron,  for  combustible 
materials,  so  that  such  an  arrow  had  the  form  of  a  distaff  This  was  tilled 
with  burning  naphtha;  and  when  the  arrow  was  shot  from  a  slack  bow 
(for  if  discharged  from  a  tiahl  bow  the  fire  went  out),  it  struck  the  ene- 
mies' ranks  and  remained  infixed,  the  flame  consuming  whatever  it  met 
with  ;  water  poured  on  it  increased  its  violence  ;  there  were  no  other  means 
to  extin-cuish  it  but  by  throwme  earth  upon  it.  Similar  darts  or  arrows, 
which  were  twined  round  with  tar  and  pitch,  and  set  fire  to,  are  described 
by  I.ivy  (lib.  xxi.  c.  8.),  as  having  been  made  use  of  by  the  inhabitEuits  of 
the  city  of  Saguntum,  when  besieaed  by  the  Romans. 

*  On  the  tops  of  the  ancient  helmets,  as  well  as  on  those  now  in  use,  is 
a  crest  or  ridge,  furnished  with  ornaments;  some  of  the  ancient  helmets 
had  emblematic  figures,  and  it  is  probable  that  Saint  Paul,  who  in  1  Tbess. 
v.  8.  terms  the  helmet  the  hope  qfsalratiov,  refers  to  such  helmets  as  had 
on  them  the  emblematic  representation  of  hope.  Ilis  meaning  therefore 
is,  that  as  the  helmet  defended  the  brad  from  deadly  blows,  so  the  hope  of 
sniratioii  (of  conquering  every  adversary,  and  of  surmounting  every 
difficulty,  through  Christ  strengthening  tlie  Christian),  built  on  the  pro- 
mises of  God,  will  ward  off,  or  preserve  him  from,  the  fatal  eflT?cis  of  all 
temptations,  from  worldly  terrors  and  evils,  so  that  they  shall  not  disorder 
the  imagination  or  pervert  the  Judgment,  or  cause  men  to  desert  the  path 
of  duly,  to  their  final  destruction. 

»  Dr.  Harwood's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  49,  50. 

'•  Drs.  Chandler,  Macknight,  and  A.  Clarke,  on  Eph.  vi.  11—17.  In  the 
fifth  of  Bishop  Home's  Discourses  (Works,  vol.  v.  pp  60—72.)  the  reader 
will  find  an  admirable  and  animated  exposition  of  the  Christian  armour. 

Fulgentiaque  induit  arma.  Virgil,  .fflneid.  ii.  ver.  747.  Iip»7o«  Tcitw  a-rro. 
5yo-jo^iv,  xvxyxr  yxp  tov^  fisKKivlxi  os-Xt^iO-iaci,  y\j/tvcvr$»t  Vfoh^ov,  Lu. 
cian.  torn.  ii.  p.  2.56.  edit.  Graevii. 

•«  Harwood's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  p.  52. 

■'  Arrian's  Epictetus,  book  i.  c.  25.  §  1.  (Mr.  Carter's  translation,  vol.  i. 
p.  11.3.) 

>«  Ibid,  book  i.  c.  14.  Raphelii  Annotatioaea  ia  Sacram  Scripturam,  ex 
Herodoto,  &c.  vol.  i.  pp.  242,  243. 


94 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


PaHT  II.   CUAP  IX. 


you  to  Gurwhal,-^  to  another,  '  Go  you  to  Cashmire,  or  to  any 
d'stant  pnrl,^ — '  My  Lord,  thy  slare  obeys  ;  it  i-i  done.' — 
None  ever  in(|uires  into  tin"!  reason  of  an  order  of  the  rajah."' 
In  liis  Epistle  to  'I'iinothy,  who  appears  to  liave  heen 
greatly  dejected  and  dispirited  hy  the  opposition  he  mot  with, 
St.  Paul  animates  him  to  fortitude,  and  amoiiff  other  direc- 
tions eneourages  him  to  endure  hardship  as  a  (jood  soldier 
of  .lesus  Christ  (2  Tim.  ii.  3.) — and  what  hardship  a  Roman 
soldier  snpjjorted,  the  following  passage  in  Josephus  will 
abundantly  evince.  It  is  the  most  striking  commentary  upon 
this  text  that  ever  was  written.  "  When  they  march  out  of 
their  encampment,  they  advance  in  silence  and  in  great  de- 
corum, each  man  kee[)ing  ins  proper  rank  just  as  in  battle. 
Their  infantry  are  armedwilh  breastplates  and  helmets,  and 
they  carry  a  sword  on  each  side.  Tne  sword  they  wear  on 
their  left  side  is  by  far  the  longest,  for  that  on  the  right  is 
not  above  a  span's  length.  That  select  body  of  infantry, 
which  forms  part  of  the  general's  life-guards,  is  armed  with 
lances  and  bucklers,  but  the  n-st  of  the  phalanx  have  a  spear 
and  a  long  shield,  besides  which  they  bear  a  saw  and  a 
basket,  a  spade  and  a  hatchet;  they  also  carry  with  them  a 
cord,  a  sickle,  a  chain,  and  provisions  for  three  days  !  so  that 
a  Roman  foot-soldier  is  but  very  little  different  from  a  beast 

OF  BURDEN."^ 

According  to  a  military  custom,  established  in  an  early 
period  of  the  commonwealth,  every  Roman  soldier  chose  his 
favourite  comrade ;  and  by  that  tie  of  friendship  all  were 
mutually  bound  to  share  every  danger  with  their  fellows. ^ 
Saint  Paul,  alluding  to  this  practice,  terms  Epaphroditus  his 
companion  in  labour  and  f  lluw-f^ildier.  (Phil.  ii.  25.)  Fur- 
ther, "  it  is  well  known  that  the  Roman  soldiers  were  not 
allowed  to  marry  ;  by  this  prohibition  the  Roman  providence, 
as  much  as  possible,  studying  to  keep  their  military  disem- 
barrassed from  the  cares  and  distractions  of  secular  life. 
To  this  law  the  apostle  refers ;  no  one  that  warreth,  entan- 

GLETH    HIMSELF    WITH    THE    AFFAIRS    OF    THIS    LIFE  ;    that     he 

may  please  him  who  hath  chosen  him  to  be  a  soldier.  (2  Tim. 
ii.  4.)' 

"  The  names  of  those  who  died  or  were  cashiered  for  mis- 
conduct were  expunged  from  the  muster-roll.  To  this  cus- 
tom, probably,  the  following  text  alludes;  in  this  view  the 
similitude  is  very  striking,  /  will  not  blot  out  his  name  out 
of  thn  book  of  life.  (Rev.  iii.  5.)* 

"  The  triumphant  advancement  of  the  Christian  religion 
through  the  world,  St.  Paul  compares  to  the  irresistible  pro- 
grtfis  of  a  victorious  army,  before  which  every  fortified  place, 
and  all  opposition,  how  formidable  soever,  yielded  and  fell. 
(2  Cor.  X.  4.)  For  the  weapons  of  our  warfare  are  not  carnal, 
but  mighty  through  God°  to  the  pulling  down  of  strongholds  ,- 
easting  down  imaginations,  and  every  thing  that  exulteth  itself 
against  the  knowledge  of  God,  and  bringing  into  captivity 
every  thought  to  the  obedience  of  Christ.''  Having  spoiled  prin- 
cipalities and  powers,  he  made  a  show  of  them  openly,  triumph- 
ing over  them. 

«  Fraser's  Notes  on  the  Hills  at  the  Foot  of  the  Hiinala  Mountains,  p.  226. 
London,  1820.  4lo. 

'  Joseplius,  De  Bell.  Jud  lib.  iii.  c.  5.  §  5.  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii. 
p.  52.  Tlie  following  particulars,  collected  from  Roman  aulliors,  will  con- 
firm and  illustrate  the  siatements  of  Josephus:-^" The  load  wliicli  a  Ro- 
man soldier  carried  is  ajmost  incredible  (Virg.  Georg.  iii.  346.  Horat.  Sat. 
ii.  10.);  victuals  (ciharia)  (or  fifteen  days  (Cic.  Tusc.  ii.  1.5,  16.),  sometimes 
more  (Liv.  Epit.  57.),  usually  corn,  as  being  lighter,  sometimes  drest  food 
(fioctus  dims,  Liv.  iii.  27.),  utensils  (utensilia,  ib.  42.),  a  saw,  a  basket,  a 
mattock,  an  axe,  a  book,  and  leather  thong,  a  chain,  a  pot,  &c.  (Liv.  xxviii. 
45.  Horat.  Epod.  ix.  13.),  stakes  usually  three  or  four,  sometimes  twelve 
(Liv.  iii.  27.) ;  the  whole  amounting  to  sU'/y  pounds  weight,  besides  arms  : 
for  a  Roman  soldier  considered  these  not  as  a  burden,  but  as  a  part  of  him- 
self (arma  membra  milites  ducebant.  Cic.  Tusc.  ii.  16.)." — Adam's  Roman 
Antiquities,  p.  377. 

»  Livy,  lib.  ix.  c.  39.  Tacitus,  Hist.  lib.  i.  c.  18. — Murphy's  note,  in  his 
translation  of  Tacitus,  vol.  v.  p.  356.  8vo.  edit. 

*     Ton;     Ss    O-Tpx7£U0jU£l'3f5,      tTTil^il      ^UVXIXX?      OUX      S^VVXvlo      £  X      yeTUJV      VOjU'x:V 

t'/,t'v.  Dion,  (iassius,  lib.  Ix.  p.  961.  Reimar.  Tacitus,  speaking  of  some 
Roman  veterans,  says,  Neque  conjugiis  suscipiendis  netpie  alendis  liberis 
sueti.     Taciti  Annales,  tom.  ii.  lib.  xiv.  cap.  27.  p.  210.  Dublin. 

'  It  is,  however,  possible  that  this  allusion  may  be  drawn  from  civil  life, 
in  which  case  the  meaning  of  the  above  cited  passage  will  be  this : — As  in 
states  and  cities,  those  who  obtained  freedom  and  fellowsliip  were  enrolled 
in  the  public  registers,  wliich  enrolment  was  their  title  to  (he  privileges  of 
citiznns  ;  so  the  King  of  Heaven,  of  the  New  Jerusalem,  engages  to  pre- 
serve in  his  register  and  enrolment,  in  the  book  of  life,  the  names  of  those 
who,  like  the  faithful  members  of  the  church  of  Sardis,  in  a  corrupted  and 
supine  society,  shall  preserve  allegiance,  and  a  faithful  discharge  of  their 
Christian  duties.  He  will  own  them  as  his  fellow-citizens,  before  men  and 
angels.  Compare  Malt.  xx.  32.  Luke  xii.  8.  See  also  Psal.  Ixix.  23.  Ezek. 
xiii.  9.  Exod.  xxxiii.  33  Dan.  xii.  1.  Mai.  iii.  16.  Luke  x.  20.  Dr.  Woodhouse 
on  the  Apocalypse,  p.  84. 

e  i1mvx.U  Toi  Bsi.,  exceeding  powerful.  Moses  is  called  arreio;  tw  ^£», 
exceeding  beautiful.  Acts  viii.  20. 

'  See  the  conquest  of  the  Gospel  and  its  triumph  over  idolatry  in  a  very 
striking  manner  represented  by  Eusebius,  lib.  x.  p.  463.  Cantab. 


"  By  a  very  striking  metaphor,  taken  from  the  pay  of  a 
soldier,  he  represents  the  wages  with  which  sin  rewards  these 
who  fight  under  her  banuers,  to  be  certain  and  inevitable 
death.     The  wages«  of  sin  is  death. 

"  Our  Lord  in  that  wonderful  prophecy  of  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  accurately  represents  the  Roman  manner  of 
besieging  and  taking  towns, — which  was  by  investing  the 
place,  digging  a  deep  trench  round  it,  and  encompassing  it 
with  a  strong  wall,  to  prevent  escape,  and  consume  the  in- 
habitants by  famine.  The  days  shall  come  upon  thee,  that 
thine  enemies  shall  cast  a  trench  about  thee,  and  compass  thee 
ROUND,  a?id  keep  thee  iti  on  every  side  .•  and  shall  lay  thee  even 
with  the  ground,  and  thy  children  within  thee,  and  they  sliull 
not  leave  in  thee  one  stone  upon  another ,-  because  thou  knowcst' 
not  the  time  of  thy  visitation.    (Luke  xx.  42,  43.) 

"  In  expatiating  upon  the  difficulties  and  distresses  wiih 
which  the  first  preachers  of  the  Gospel  conflicted,  the  apos- 
tle Paul  in  a  strong  figure  compares  their  situation  to  that 
of  an  army  pent  up  in  a  narrow  place — annoyed,  on  every  side 
— but  not  \.oi;\\\y  precluded  from  an  escape'^ — their  condition  to 
the  last  degree  perplexed  and  wretched,  yei  not  altogether 
desperate  z^^  forlorn.  (2  Cor.  iv.  8.)  We  are  troubled  on 
every  side,  yet  not  distressed:  we  are  perj)lexed,  but  not  in 
despair.'''' 

Once  more,  "  as  among  the  other  military  honours  and  re- 
compenses, rich  and  splendid  crowns,^"  frequently  of  gold, 
were  publicly  bestowed  upon  the  illustrious  conqueror,  and 
upon  every  man  who,  acting  worthy  the  Roman  name,  had 
distinguished  himself  by  his  valour  and  his  virtue — in  allu- 
sion to  <A/s  custom  how  beautiful  and  striking  are  those  many 
Eassages  of  Sacred  Scripture,  which  represent  Jesus  Christ, 
efore  angels  and  the  whole  assembled  world,  acknowledg- 
ing and  applauding  distinguished  piety,  and  publicly  confer- 
ring crowns  of  immortal  glory  upon  persevering  and  victorious 
holiness.  Be  thou  faithful  unto  death:  I  will  give  thee  a 
CROWN  of  life.  (Rev.  ii.  10.)  Blessed  is  the  man  that  endu- 
reth  temptation  ,-  for  when  he  is  tried,  he  shall  receive  the  crown 
of  life  (James  i.  12.),  which  the  Lord  hath  promised  to  them, 
that  love  him.  When  the  chief  shepherd  shall  appear,  ye  shall 
receive  a  crown  of  glory  that  fadeih  not  away.  (1  Pet.  v.  4.) 
/  have  f  night  a  good  fight,  I  have  finished,  my  course,  I  have 
kept  the  faith :  Henceforth  there  is  laid  tip  for  me  a  crown  of 
righteousness,  which  the  Lord  the  righteous  judge  shall  give  me 
at  that  day ;  and  not  to  me  only,  but  unto  all  them  also  that 
love  his  appearing.''^  (2  Tim.  iv.  8.) 

IV.  But  the  highest  military  honour  that  could  be  conferred 
in  the  Roman  state  was  a  triumph,  or  solemn  procession, 
with  which  a  victorious  general  and  his  army  advanceci 
through  the  city  to  the  capitol ;  and  which  was  the  most 
grand  and  magnificent  spectacle  ever  beheld  in  ancient  times. 

"  After  a  decisive  battle  gained,  and  the  complete  conquest 
of  a  kingdom,  the  most  illustrious  captives  in  war,  kings, 
princes,  and  nobles,  with  their  wives  and  children,  to  the 
perpetual  infamy  of  this  people,  were,  with  the  last  dis- 
tionour  and  ignominy,  led  in  fetters  before  the  general's  cha- 
riot, through  the  public  streets  of  Rome :  scaifolds  being 
every  where  erected,  the  streets  and  public  places  crowded, 
and  this  barbarous  and  uncivilized  nation  all  the  while  in 
the  highest  excess  of  joy,  and  in  tfie  full  fruition  of  a  spe- 
tacle  that  was  a  reproach  to  humanity.  Nor  was  only  the  '• 
sovereign  of  large  and  opulent  kingdoms,  the  magnanimous 
hero'2  who  had  lought  valiantly  for  nis  country  and  her  liber- 

8  Rom.  vi.  23.  o^/uivnc,  the  pay  of  a  soldier.  O-J/wi/iov  m  a-rpxlua, — 
xalivej-xsti'Tf;  xf,yMfii>v  :  Bringing  money  to  pay  the  army.  Dion.  Halicarn. 
tom.  i.  p.  563.  Oxon.  AaEiui/  n-S^mvia,  ts  hxi  t'  xKKx  otroiv  tSei  rti  (rrf,xh». 
p.  537. 

9  Harwood's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  pp.  53 — .58. 

10  i;T£C3ti/ou;  1711  Txi(  vixm;  Tux"""! — %pu<rou;  bKx?i  :  He  received  several 
crotcnji  of  gold  on  account  of  his  victories.  Dion.  Cassias,  lib.  xlii.  p. 
334.  edit.  Reimar.  Vid.  eliam  notas  Fabricii  ad  loc.  Toi;  ^'t  Syi  vx\iy.fx'\f,rrxiri 
y.xi  rm^xvnv  iKxixf  £ Jwxs :  To  those  who  had  conquered  in  the  naval 
engagement  he  gave  croirns  of  olire.  Lib.  xlix.  p.  597.  See  also  pp.  537. 
580.  So  also  .losephus  says  that  Titus  gave  croicns  of  gold  to  those  who 
had  distinguished  themselves  in  the  siege  of  .Jerusalem  ;  <rT£cavous  arihiei 
Xfvtrtxjq.     Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vii.  p.  404.  See  also  p.  412.  Havercamp. 

>'  Behind  the  children  and  their  train  walked  Perseus  himself  [the  qap- 
tive  king  of  Macedon],  and  wearing  sandals  of  the  fashion  of  his  country. 
He  had  the  appearance  of  a  man  overwhelmed  with  terror,  and  whose 
reason  almost  staggered  under  the  load  of  his  misfortunes.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  great  number  of  friends  and  favourites,  whose  countenances 
were  oppressed  with  sorrow;  and  who,  by  fixing  their  weeping  eyes  con- 
tinually upon  their  prince,  testified  to  the  spectators  that  it  was  his  lot 
which  they  lamented,  and  that  they  were  regardless  of  their  own.  Plu- 
tarchi  Vitre,  in  .^inil.  tom.  ii.  pp.  186,  187.  edit.  Briani. 
'  i»  Thus,  at  the  conchigion  of  the  second  Punic  war,  the  Numidian  ahrt 
Carthaginian  captive  generals  were  led  in  triumph.  Appian.  tom.  i.  p.  58. 
edit.  ToUii.  Arast.  1670.  Several  kings,  princes,  and  generals  were  also 
led  in  Pompey's  triumph.    Appian.  tom.  i.  p.  417. 


Part  III.  Chap.  I.] 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


95 


ties,  the  weak  and  tender  sex,  bom  to  a  happier  fVite,  and  i  and  powerful,  celebrates  a  most  magTiificent  TRiUMrn  over 
youiifT  oliildren,!  insensible  of  their  wretched  eondition,  led  them,  Icmh  them  in  procession,  openly  exposing  them  to  the 
111  triiiiii])li  ;  but  vast  iiuiidjers  of  watjoiis,  full  of  rich  fur- 1  v  ew  of  the  whoi.k  woni.n,  as  the  captives  of  his  omnipo- 
tence, and  the  trophies  of  his  Gospel !  Having  spoiltd princi- 
palities and  powers,  he  made  a  show  of  /hem  openli/,  triumphing 
irver  them  ."" — The  second  passage,  whose  beautiful  and  strik- 
ing imaorcry  is  taken  from   a  Roman  triumph,  occurs   in  2 


but  vast  iiuiidiers  of  watjoiis,  full  of  rich  fur 
iiitup',  statutes,  pictures,  plate,  vases,  vests,-'  of  which  they 
had  stripped  palaces  and  the  houses  of  the  jfreat;  and  carts 
loaded  with  the  arms  they  had  taken  from  the  enemy,  and 
with  the  coin,"  of  the  e[n|)ires  they  had  contpiered,  ))illat^ed, 
and  enslaved,  preceded  the  triumphal  car.  On  this  most 
splendid  occasion,  imperial  Rouk^  was  a  scene  of  universal 
festivity  :  tiie  leinpies  were  all  thrown  o|)en,  were  adoriu'd 
wi  h  <rarlaiids,  and  filled  with  chjuds  of  incense  and  the 
richest  p<!rfumes;'  the  spectators  were  clothed  in  white  gar- 
ments:' hecatombs  of  victims  were  slain,''  and  the  most 
sumptuous  eiiU^rtainments'  were  given.  The  illustrious  cap- 
tives, after  having  been  dragged  tiir(j\igh  the  city  in  this  pro- 
cession, and  thus  |)ublicly  exposed,  were  generally  imprison- 
ed, frequiMitly  strangled  and  despatched^  in  dungeons,  or  sold 
for  slaves.'^ — 'I'o  sererul  of  these  well  known  circumstances 
attending  a  Ili>mim  triumph,  the  sacred  writers  evidently 
allude  in  the  following  passages.  In  the  Jirst  of  which 
Jesus  (Ihrist  is  r(!presenl(ul  as  a  great  coix/ueror,  who,  after 
having  totally  vam/uis/iiil  and  su/ijugo/cd  all  the  empires  and 
kingdoms  ot  false  religion,  and  overturned  the  mighty  esta- 
bliskmeiil  of  Judaism  and  Paganism,  supported  by  the  great 


('or.  ii.  11 — 16.  Now  thanks  be  unto  God,  who  always  caus- 
eth  us  to  triumph  in  Christ,  and  muketh  manifest  the  savour 
of  his  knowledge  Ijy  us  in  every  phice.  For  we  are  unto  God 
a  sweet  savour  of  Christ,  in  them  that  are  saved,  and  in  them 
that  perish ,-  to  the  one  we  are  a  savour  of  death  unto  death  ,- 
and  to  the  other,  of  life  unto  life.  In  this  passage  God  Al- 
mighty, in  very  striking  sentiments  and  language,  is  repre- 
s(Mited  as  leading  the  apiif'tles  in  triuiii/)h"  through  the  world, 
showing  them  every  where  as  the  monuments  of  his  grace 
and  mercy,  and  by  their  means  diffusing  in  every  place  the 
odour  of  the  knowledge  of  God — in  reference  to  a  triumph, 
w  hen  all  the  temples  were  filled  with  fragrance,  and  the 
whole  air  breathed  perfume; — and  the  apostle,  continuing 
the  allusion,  adds,  that  this  odour  would  prove  the  means  of 
l\u'.  salrution  of  some,  and  destruction  of  others — as  in  a 
triumph,  after  the  pomp  and  procession  was  concluded,  some 
of  the  captives  y/exe  put  to  death,  others  saved  alive."*^ 


PART  III. 

SACRED  ANTIQUITIES  OF  THE  JEWS,  AND  OF  OTHER  NATIONS  INCIDENTALLY  MENTIONED 

IN   THE    SCRIPTURES. 

CHAPTER  I. 

OP    SACRED    PLACES. 


The  whole  world  being  the  workmanship  of  God,  there  is 
no  place,  in  which  men  may  not  testify  their  reverence  for 
His  supreme  M  ijesty.  From  the  very  beginning  of  time 
some  place  was  always  appropriated  to  the  solemn  duties  of 
religious  worship.  Adam,  even  during  his  continuance  in 
Paradise,  had  some  place  where  to  present  himself  before 
the  Lord  ;  and,  after  his  expulsion  thence,  his  sons  in  like 
manner  had  whither  to  bring  their  oblations  and  sacrifices. 
This,  nrobably,  was  the  reason  why  Cain  did  not  immedi- 
ately fall  upon  his  brother,  when  his  offering  was  refused, 
because  perhaps  the  solemnity  and  religion  of  the  place,  and 
the  sensible  appearance  of  the  divine  Majesty  there,  struck 

•  Pliitarcti,  in  his  account  of  the  triumph  of  jF.milius  at  the  conquest  of 
Miiccilon,  reiiresriiis  this  tragical  circiiinstance  in  ^  very  affcctinv;  manner. 
Tlie  kiiifi's  children  were  also  led  captive,  and  along  with  then)  a  train  of 
iiursi'.-;,  and  tutors,  and  governors;  all  bathed  in  tears,  stretching  out  their 
lianils  III  the  spectators,  and  tear hiiig  the  cliildren  to  entreat  and  supplicate 
their  mercy.  There  were  two  hoys  and  a  girl,  wliose  temler  age  rendered 
theiii  iiisensihle  to  the  greatness  of  their  calamity,  and  this  their  insensi- 
hilily  was  the  most  atfectin;;  circumstance  in  their  unhappy  condition. 
Plutarch.  /Eiuil.  lorn.  ii.  p.  IS6.     See  also  Appian.  p.  417.  edit.  'Anist.  Ib70. 

«  Kpxi»p»i  xfyvf'^vi,  XX.  »(p»7si,  x;ti  ?.x*.xi  xxi  xuMxx;.     Plutarcli,  il)id. 

p.  497.        \^y,u.:lK„^Oli   ai^p.xT.    X^rl   >(l:iCxl?    XXI   XOXCOTOIJ    X.   K.   p.  496.    SCC 

also  Appian.  torn.  i.  p.  58.  and  p.  417.     Tollii. 

»  \vSfii;  t:7t7rof!vi)vlo.  Tfiirx"'")',  vojm<r/«»  pipouTtj  upyvfauv  x.  \.     Eitx 

iU-T,  Toujour  oi'  TO  vo^ir/ix  ^ifovxfi.  Plutarch,  toin.  ii.  p.  184.  Appiai>. 
p.  417. 

«   llx;  J(  ixo;  «vs-.'x7o,  XXI  o-Tf^xvMV  XKl  6u/ui«yux7a)l'  (JW  wXiif i({.      PlutBrch. 

torn.  i.  p.  496.  Gr.  Svo. 

»  Niveosad  fraena  Quirites.  Juvenal.  Sat.  x.  ver.  45.  KxSxpxij  trSifiri 
xiK.Tr^,ftifo,,     Plutarch,  p.  496.  Steph. 

•  MsTx  T-.uroui  ny.vlo  xpurixif,.,  rpoiixt  Souc,  sxxtoi/  iixoiri,  ,in7pxi; 
iTKffiivd,  XXI  rrsuuxn.  AJler  these  were  led  one  hundred  and  twenty 
fat  oxen,  which  had  their  horns  jiilded,  and  which  were  adorned  with 
ribands  and  garlands.     Plutarch,  ii.  p.  885. 

1  Ay.xi/iimj  {.  55  TO  Kx;ri7x'X.ioi' 0  ilximaVj  Tipv  /tiv  TOfcffnv  xxTjjrxutrsi , 
iio-Ti*  Jii  To-j;  riXooi  iu(r-ip  1^3}  irriv  i;  to  '•icov.  Appian.  toin.  i.  p.  59. 
edit.  Anist.  1670.  r  m  i 

•  II  »p;>.  j.V    S'tf    KxX'l7»>.10V,    OuJjl'X   TMV    X I  XjUxX»Tu»V,   cS?    STjpOl    TxiV   iflX/t- 

eo.«  T.f -y^yo.T.,,.  rx.!.>.fTol.  Appian.  p.  41S.  For  example.  Aristobiiliis, 
kins  of  tfte  Jews,  after  having  been  exposed,  and  dragced  through  the  city 
m  Piimpey's  triumph,  was  immeiliatc-lv,  after  the  procession  was  con- 
cludeil,  put  to  deaih:  Tigranes,  some  tiiiie  afterwards,  Apio-robeuxo;  tujoj 
■  '-.,1'"'i  '»'  T.5.P.1.1,;  v(rTif-,v.  Appian.  de  Bellis  Mithrid.  p.  419.  Amst. 
ItxO.     See  also  p.  403. 

»  I.onge  plurimos  captives- ex  Etruscis  ante  curnim  duxit,  quibus  sub 
hasta  venumdatis.    Livy,  lib.  vi.  p.  409.  edit.  Elz.  16ai. 


him  with  a  reverential  awe  that  might  cause  him  to  defer  his 
villanous  design  till  he  came  into  the  field  where  he  dew 
him. 

The  patriarchs,  both  before  and  after  the  flood,  used  altars 
and  mountains  and  groves  for  the  same  purpose :  thus  wc 
read  of  Noah's  building  an  altar  to  the  Lord,  and  offering 
burnt-offerings  upon  it.  (Gen.  viii.  20.)  Abraham,  when  he 
was  called  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  erected  altars 
wherever  he  pitched  his  tent  (Gen.  xii.  8.  and  xiii.  4.)  :  he 
planted  a  grove  in  Beersheba,  and  called  there  on  the  name  of 
the  Lord  (Gen.  xxi.  33.) :  and  it  was  upon  a  mountain  that 
God  ordered  him  to  offer  up  his  son  Isaac.  (Gen.  xxii.  2.) 
Jacob  in  particular  called  a  place  by  the  name  of  God's  House, 
where  he  vowed  to  pay  the  tithes  of  all  that  God  should  give 
him.  (Gen.  xxviii.  22.) 

There  were  several  public  places  appropriated  to  the  reli- 
gious w'orship  of  the  Jews,  viz.  1.  The  Tuliernacle,  which  in 
time  gave  place  to,  2.  The  Temple,  both  of  which  are  often- 
times in  Scripture  called  the  Sanctuary ;  between  which  there 
was  no  other  difference  as  to  the  principal  design  (though 

»»  Coloss.  ii.  15.  ep<x/<5!uo-x{  xuTouj,  Leading  them  in  triumph. 

11  feipix^SiuovTi  »/ix,-,  Causeth  us  to  triumph;  rather,  Leadeth  us  about 
in  triumph.  EJpix/nSiu  jr  xxi  xvi^ps  ?>■,  He  was  led  in  triumph,  and  then  put 
4o  death.  Appian.  p.  40.3.  Amst.  1670.  "The  Greek  word,  c>pix/iE(usvTi, 
which  we  render  causctk  us  to  triumph,  properly  signifies  to  triumph 
over,  or  to  lead  in  triumph,  as  our  translators  themselves  have  rightly 
rendered  it  in  another  place,  Coloss.  ii.  15.  And  so  the  apostle's  true 
meaning  is  plainly  this:  Now  thanks  be  to  God,  who  always  triiimpheth 
over  us  in  Christ  :  leading  us  about  in  triumph,  as  it  were  in  solemn  pro- 
cession. This  yields  a  most  congruous  and  beautiful  sense  of  his  words. 
And  in  order  to  display  the  force  of  his  fine  sentiment,  in  iis  full  compass 
and  extent,  let  it  be  observed,  that  when  Si.  Paul  represents  himself  and 
others  as  being  led  about  in  triumph,  like  so  many  capiives,  by  the  pre- 
vailing power  and  efficacy  of  Gospel  grace  and  truth,  his  words  naturally 
imply  and  suggest  three  things  worthy  of  particular  notice  and  attention  ; 
namely,  a  contest,  a  victory,  and  an  open  show  of  his  victory."  (Brekeli's 
Discourses,  pp.  141.  142.)  "While  God  was  leading  about  such  men  in 
triumph,  he  made  them  very  serviceable  and  successful  in  promoting 
Christian  knowledse  in  every  place  wherever  they  came."   (Ibid.  p.  151.) 

'«  Ilarwood's  Inlroduction  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  ii  |)p.  29 — .34.  col- 
lated with  Bruninss's  disquisition  Pe  Triumpho  Romanoriim  in  the  Appen- 
dix to  his  Compendium  Antiquitatum  Graecarum  (pp.  415 — 434),  wliich 
seems  to  have  guided  Dr.  Harwood  in  his  n  anner  of  illustratins  a  Roman 
triumph.  He  has,  however,  greatly  improved  upon  Bruniugs's  Disser- 
tation. 


96 


thorc  was  in  beauty  and  workmanship)  than  tliat  the  taber- 
nacle was  a  moveable  t('mi)le,  as  the  temjile  was  an  immove- 
able tabi  riiacle ;  on  which  account  the  tabernacle  is  some- 
times called  the  temple  (1  8am.  i.  9.  and  iii.  3.),  as  tlie  tem- 
ple is  sometimes  called  the  tabernacle.  (.ler.  x.  2().  Lam.  ii. 
(1.)  3.  There  were  also  places  of  worship  calh  d  in  Scrip- 
ture ff  g/i  Places,  used  promiscuously  durin<r  the  times  of 
l)otii  the  tabernacle  and  ten)])le  until  the  captivity  ;  and,  lastly, 
there  were  Si/nau;(iij;iie--  amonir  the  .lews,  and  other  places, 
used  only  for  prayer,  called  Pniseuclinc  or  Orulorits,  which 
chiefly  obtained  after  the  captivity ;  of  these  various  struc- 
tures some  account  will  be  found  in  the  followinof  sections. 


OF  SACRED  PLACES.  [Paht  HI.  Chap.  I. 

This  tabemac  e  was  set  up  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai,  and 


SECTION  L 


OF  THE  TABERNACLE. 


L  Different  tabernacles  in  vse  among-  the  Israelites. — IL  The 
Tabernacle,  so  culled  by  way  of  eminence,  not  of  Egyp- 
tian origin. — Its  materials. — IIL  Form  and  construction  of 
the  tabernacle. — lis  contents. — IV.  Its  migrations. 

I.  Mention  is  made  in  the  Old  Testament  of  three  different 
tabernacles  previously  to  the  erection  of  Solomon's  temple. 
The  fimt,  which  Moses  erected,  is  called  the  Tabernacle  of 
the  Congregation  (Exod.  xxxiii.  7.);  here  he  gave  audience, 
heard  causes,  and  inquired  of  .Jehovah,  and  here  also,  at  first, 
perhaps  the  public  othces  of  relijjion  were  solemnized.  The 
second  tabernacle  was  that  erected  by  Moses  for  Jehovah,  and 
at  his  express  command,  partly  to  be  a  palace  of  liis  presence 
as  the  king  of  Israel  (Exod.  xl.  34, 35.),  and  partly  to  be  the 
medium  of  the  most  solenm  public  worship,  which  the  peo- 
ple were  to  pa)^  to  him.  (20 — 29.)  This  tabernacle  was 
erected  on  the  first  day  of  the  first  month  in  the  second  year 
after  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  The  third 
public  tabernacle  was  that  erected  by  David  in  his  own  city, 
for  the  reception  of  the  ark,  when  he  received  it  from  the 
house  of  Obed-Edom.  (2  Sam.  vi.  7.  1  Chron.  xvi.  1.)  Of 
the  second  of  these  tabernacles  we  are  now  to  treat,  which 
was  called  the  tabernacle  by  way  of  distinction.  It  was 
a  moveable  chapel,  so  contrived  as  to  be  taken  to  pieces  and- 
put  together  again  at  pleasure,  for  the  convenience  of  carry- 
ing it  from  place  to  place. 

II.  It  has  been  imagined  that  this  tabernacle,  together  with 
all  its  furniture  and  appurtenances,  was  of  Egyptian  origin  : 
that  Moses  projected  it  after  the  fashion  of  some  such  struc- 
ture which  he  had  observed  in  Egypt,  and  which  was  in  use 
among  other  nations ;  or  that  God  directed  it  to  be  made  with 
a  view  of  indulging  the  Israelites  in  a  compliance  with  their 
customs  and  modes  of  worship,  so  far  as  there  was  nothing 
in  them  directly  sinful.  The  heathen  nations,  it  is  true,  had 
such  tabernacles  or  portable  shrines  as  are  alluded  to  by  the 
prophet  Amos  (v.  2G.),  which  might  bear  a  great  resemblance 
to  tnat  of  the  Jews ;  but  it'has  neither  been  proved,  nor  is  it 
probable,  that  they  had  them  before  the  Jews,  and  that  the 
Almighty  so  far  condescended  to  indulge  the  Israelites,  a 
wayward  people,  and  prone  to  idolatry,  as  to  introduce  them 
into  his  own  worship.  It  is  far  more  likely  that  the  heathens 
derived  their  tabernacles  from  that  of  the  Jews,  who  had  the 
whole  of  their  religion  immediately  from  God,  than  that  the 
Jews,  or  rather  that  God  should  take  them  from  the  heathens.' 

The  materials  of  the  tabernacle  were  provided  by  the  peo- 
ple; every  one  brought  his  oblation  according  to  his  ability  : 
those  of  the  first  quality  offered  gold,  those  of  a  middle  con- 
dition brought  silver  and  brass,  and  shittim-wood  ;-  and  the 
offerings  of  the  meaner  sort  consisted  of  yarn,  fine  linen, 
goats'  hair  and  skins  ;  nor  were  the  women  backward  in  con- 
tributing to  this  work,  for  they  willingly  brought  in  their 
bracelets,  ear-rings,  and  other  ornaments,  and  such  of  them 
as  were  skilful  in  spinning  made  yarn  and  thread.  In  short, 
the  liberality  of  the  people  on  this  occasion  was  so  great, 
that  Moses  was  obliged  by  proclamation  to  forbid  any  more 
offerings,  and  thereby  restrain  the  excessive  zeal  of  the  peo- 
ple for  that  service.  (Exod.  xxxv.  and  xxxvi.) 

1  The  hypothesis  above  noticed  was  advancer!  by  Spencer  in  his  learned, 
but  in  many  respects  fanciful,  treatise,  Ue  Le!;il)us  Hebrceoruni,  lib.  iii. 
diss.  i.  c.  3.  and  diss.  vi.  c.  I.  His  arguments  were  examined  and  refuted 
bv  Buddeus  in  his  Historia  Ecclesiastica  Veteris  Testament!,  part  i.  pp. 
3i0.  548. 

»  This  shitlimii^ood  is  supposed  to  have  been  either  the  acacia  or  the 
cedar,  botli  whicli  grow  in  Egypt  and  in  Syria.  The  acacia  is  delineated 
by  Prosper  Alpinus,  De  Plantis  jEgyptiacis,  c.  4.  Hasselquist  found  it  in 
Palestine  (Tour  in  the  Levant,  p.  250.),  and  Dr.  Pococke  Ibund  it  both  on 
Mount  Sinai  and  in  Egypt.    The  cedar  has  been  already  mentioned. 


carried  along  with  the  Israelites  from  place  to  place  as  they 
jourtieyed  towards  Canaan,  and  is  often  called  the  Tt.b'-rnacle 
if  tilt  Congregat.mi.  In  form,  it  appears  to  have  closely  re- 
sembled our  modern  tents,  but  it  was  much  larger,  having 
the  sides  and  roof  secured  with  boards,  hangings,  and  cover- 
ings, and  was  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  large  outer  ccurt, 
which  was  enclosed  by  pillars,  posted  at  equal  distances, 
whose  spaces  were  filled  up  with  curtains  fixed  to  these  pil- 
lars: whence  it  is  evident  that  this  tabernacle  consisted  first 
of  the  tent  or  house  itself,  which  was  covered,  and  next  of 
the  court  that  surrounded  it,  which  was  open  :  all  which  are 
minutely  and  exactly  described  in  Exod.  xxv. — xxx.  xxxvi. 
— xl.  from  which  chapters  the  following  particulars  are 
abridged. 

III.  1'he  tent  itself  was  an  oblong  square,  thirty  cubits  in 
length,  and  ten  in  height  and  breadth.  The  inside  of  it  was 
divided  by  a  veil  or  hanging,  made  of  rich  embroidered  linen, 
which  parted  the  Holy  Place,  which  is  called  thej^/-.'/  taber- 
nacle in  Heb.  ix.  2.  6.,  from  the  Holij  (f  Holes.,  called  the 
second  tabcrnuck  in  Heb.  ix.  7.  In  the  former  stood  the  altar 
of  incense  overlaid  with  gold,  the  table  of  shew-bread,  con- 
sisting of  twelve  loaves,  and  the  great  candlestick  of  pure 
gold,  containing  seven  branches :  none  of  the  pec  pie  were 
allowed  to  go  into  the  holy  place,  but  only  the  priests.  The 
Holy  of  Holies  (so  called  because  it  was  the  most  sacred 
place  of  the  tabernacle,  into  which  none  went  but  the  high- 
priest)  contained  in  it  the  ark,  called  the  aik  of  the  testimony 
(^']xod.  xxv.  22.),  or  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  (Josh.  iv.  7.) 
This  was  a  small  chest  or  coffer  made  of  shittim-wood,  over- 
laid with  gold,  into  which  were  put  the  two  tables  of  the  law 
(as  well  the  broken  ones,  say  the  Jews,  as  the  whole),  with 
the  pot  of  manna,  and  Aaron's  rod  that  budded.  (Heb.  ix.  4.) 
This  was  the  most  holy  of  all  the  sacred  furniture.  None 
but  the  priests  were  allowed  to  touch  it ;  and  only  the  Kohath- 
ites,  the  sacerdotal  family,  were  permitted  to  carry  it,  with 
poles  made  of  shittim-wood,  also  overlaid  with  gold  inserted 
in  two  golden  rings  at  each  end.  (1  Kings  viii.  8.)  Hence 
LIzziah  the  Levite  was  punished  with  death  for  touching  it. 
(2  Sam.  vi.  7.) 

The  lid  or  covering  of  the  ark  was  wholly  of  solid  gold, 
and  called  the  mercy-seat :  at  the  two  ends  of  it  were  two 
cherubim  (or  hieroglyphic  figures,  the  form  of  which  it  is  im- 
possible now  to  ascertain),  looking  inwards  towards  each  other, 
with  wings  expanded,  which,  embracing  the  whole  circum- 
ference of  the  mercy-seat,  met  on  each  side  in  the  middle. 
Here  the  Shechinah  or  Divine  Presence  rested,  both  in  the 
tabernacle  and  temple,  and  was  visibly  seen  in  the  appear- 
ance of  a  cloud  over  it.  (Lev.  xvi.  2.)  Frcni  this  the  divine 
oracles  were  given  out  by  an  audible  voice,  as  often  as  Jeho- 
vah was  consulted  on  behalf  of  his  people.  (Excd.  xxv.  22. 
Num.  vii.  89.)  And  hence  it  is  that  the  ark  is  called  the 
footstool  of  God  f  Psal.  xcix.  5.),  who  is  so  often  said  in 
Scripture,  1o  diceli  behveen  the  cherubim.  (2Kinosxix.  L5. 
Psal.  Ixxx.  1.)  The  roof  of  the  tabernacle  was  a  square 
frame  of  planks,  resting  upon  their  bases,  and  over  these 
were  coverings  or  curtains  of  different  kinds  ;  of  which  the 
first  on  the  inside  was  made  of  fine  linen,  curiously  embroi- 
dered in  various  colours  of  crimsog  and  scarlet,  purple,  and 
hyacinth.  The  next  was  made  of  goats'  hair,  curiously  wove 
together ;  and  the  last,  or  outmost,  was  of  sheep  and  badgers' 
skins  (some  dyed  red,  and  others  of  azure  blue),  which 
served  to  preserve  the  other  rich  curtains  from  the  rain,  and 
to  protect  the  tabernacle  itself  from  the  injuries  of  the 
weather. 

The  tabernacle  was  surrounded  by  a  large  oblong  court, 
an  hundred  cubits  long,  and  fifty  broad,  nearly  in  the  centre 
of  which  stood  a  vessel,  called  the  Braze?!  Laver,  in  which 
the  priests  washed  their  hands  and  feet,  whenever  they  were 
to  oner  sacrifices,  or  go  into  the  tabernacle ;  and  directly  op- 
posite' to  the  entrance  of  the  tabernacle  stood  the' Brazen 
Jlllar  of  burnt-olTerings,  in  the  open  air,  in  order  that  the  in- 
terior might  not  be  spoiled  by  the  fire,  which  was  at  first 
miraculously  kindled^  (Lev.  ix.  24.),  and  which  was  kept 

3  God  had  previously  ordered  that  the  fire  on  this  altar,  when  once 
kindled,  should  never  go  out.  (Lev.  vi.  12,  13.)  It  was  reckoned  an  impious 
presumption  to  make  use  of  any  other  but  this  sacred  fire  in  burning 
mcense  belbre  the  Lord;  wliich  was  sufficiently  notified  to  Aaron  by  an 
injunction  given  him,  that  he  was  to  light  the  incense  offered  to  God,  in 
the  most  holy  place  on  the  great  day  of  expiation,  at  this  fire  only.  (Lev. 
xvi.  12,  13.)  Notwithstanding  which  prohibition  Nadab  and  Abiliu,  two 
unhappy  sons  of  Aaron,^  forgetful  of  their  duly,  took  their  censers,  and 
putting  common  fire  in  them,  laid  incense  thereon,  and  ofl^cred  strange  - 
fire  before  the  Lord,  in  their  daily  ministrations,  which  prolane  approach 
God  immediately  resented  ;  for  we  are  told  that  a  fire  icent  out  from  the 
Lord,  and  devoured  them,,  so  that  they  died.  (Lev.'x.  1.) 


Sect.  I.] 


OF  THE  TABERNACLE. 


97 


perpetually  upon  it,  and  by  the  smoke  arising  from  the  vic- 
tims that  were  there  consumed. 

There  is  no  precept  in  the  law  to  make  the  altar  a  privi- 
lenred  place,  hut  m  conformity  to  tlie  custom  of  otlier  nations 
the  Jews  seem  to  iiave  made  it  such  ;  for,  i'rom  llie  words  in 
Kxod.  xxi,  11.  wher(!  God  ordered  tlie  wilful  murderer  to  be 
taken fr<i III  his  altar,  that  he  may  die,\i  si^ems  umiuestionably 
true,  that  both  in  the  wilderness  and  afterwards  in  ('anaan, 
this  altar  contiu\ied  a  sanctuary  for  tiios(!  who  lied  unto  it; 
and  very  probably  it  was  tin;  horns  of  this  altar  (then  at 
Gibeon)  tliat  Adonijah  and  .loablook  hold  of  (1  ivin<rs  i.  /jO, 
and  ii.  2R.),  for  the  temple  of  Solomon  was  not  then  erected." 

After  the  Israelites  were  setthid  in  the  land  of  promise,  it 
appears  that  this  tabernacle  was  surrounded  with  a  irreat 
many  other  tents  or  cells,  which  were  placed  about  it  in  tlie 
same  manner  as  the  buildinjrs  were  afterwards  placed  round 
the  temple.  These  were  absolutely  necessary  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  priests  durinir  the  time  of  their  ministration,  and 
for  layinpf  up  the  utensils  and  provisions  which  were  used  in 
the  tanernacle.  This  circumstance  explains  what  is  related  of 
Eli's  sons  <join<r  into  the  kitchen  wlu^re  the  peace-ofii'riiijrs 
were  dressinjr,  and  takinir  out  of  the  pots  what(>ver  the  flesh- 
hook  brou<jht  up.  (1  Sam.  ii.  11.)  And  thus  Eli  is  said  to  be 
laid  down  in  his  place  (iii.  2.),  that  is,  was  {jone  to  bed  in  one 
of  these  tents  nearthe  tabernacle,  next  to  which  Samuel  lay, 
which  made  him  (bein<r  then  a  child)  run  to  Eli,  when  he 
heard  the  voice  of  the  Lord,  thinkinff  that  Eli  had  called  (4, 
5,  &c.)  :  and  this  also  explains  what  is  said  of  David  (Matt. 
xii.  4.),  that  he  entered  into  the  house  of  God  and  did  eat  the 
shew-bread,  that  is,  he  came  to  the  priest's  habitation,  which 
was  among  these  tents  round  the  tabernacle,  and  which  were 
reckoned  as  parts  of  the  house  of  God. 

When  the  tabernacle  was  finished,  it  was  consecrated, 
with  all  the  furniture  therein,  by  being  anointed  with  a  pecu- 

'  It  is  evident  from  tliis  and  otlier  passages  of  Scripture,  that  llie  altar 
was  considered  as  an  asylum  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that,  among  almost  all 
the  heathen  nations  of  antiquity,  the  altars  of  their  deities  were  accounted 
80  sacred  that  the  vilest  miscreant  found  safety,  if  he  once  reached  an 
altar.  Hence  arose  many  abuses,  and  justice  was  greatly  perverted  :  so 
that  it  became  a  maxim  that  the  guilty  should  be  punished  even  though 
they  should  have  taken  refuge  there.  We  have  remarked  above  that  the 
presumptuous  murderer  was,  by  divine  command,  to  be  dragged  thence 
an<l  put  to  death.  Euripides  thus  alludes  to  a  similar  ordinance  among  the 
heathen  nations  in  his  time  : — 

KxKtv  yaf  »vSfx  Xfl  K^Kai;  Trxrxs'y  xsi. 

Eurip.  Frag.  42.  edit.  Musgrave. 

In  English  thus  : — 

"If  an  unrighteous  man,  availing  himself  of  the  law,  should  claim  tlie 
protection  of  the  altar,  I  would  drag  him  to  justice,  nor  fear  the  wrath  of 
the  gods:  for  it  is  necessary  that  a  wicked  man  should  always  sutler  for 
liis  crimes."    Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  1  Kings  ii.  30. 


liar  oil,  prepared  by  divine  command  for  that  very  pnrpose 
(Exod.  XXX.  22,  &c.),  after  which  God  made  His  people 
sensible  of  His  special  presence  in  it,  covering  it  with  a 
cloud  which  overshadoweci  it  by  day,  and  by  night  gave  light, 
as  if  it  had  been  a  fire,  and  by  giving  answers  in  an  audible 
manner  from  the  ark  when  consulted  by  the  higii-])riest. 
Whenever  the  Israelites  changed  their  camp  the  tabernacle 
was  taken  down,  and  every  Levitr^  knew  what  part  he  was 
to  carry,  for  this  was  a  part  of  their  oflice ;  and  sometimes, 
u|)oii  extraordinary  occasions,  the  priests  themselves  bore  the 
ark,  as  when  they  passed  over  .Ionian,  and  besieged  .lericho. 
(Josh.  iii.  14.  and  vi.  G.)  Concerning  the  manner  of  carry- 
ing the  st^veral  ])arts  of  it,  see  Num.  iv.  When  they  en- 
camped, the  tabernacle  stood  always  in  the  midst,  being 
snrronnded  by  the  army  of  the  Israelites  on  all  sides  in  a 
(iiiadrangiilar  form, divided  according  to  their  several  tribes; 
the  Israelitish  camp  lieing  at  the  distance  of  two  thousand 
cubits  from  tht;  tabernacle,  which  by  computation  is  reckoned 
a  mile,  anrl  is  called  a  S'iib/,u/h-({(iifs  jmirnei/  (Acts  i.  12.), 
as  being  the  distance  they  had  to  go  on  that  day  to  the  place 
of  worship.  INIo.ses  and  Aaron,  with  the  priests  and  Levites, 
encamped  in  their  tents  next  the  tabernacle,  between  it  and 
the  army ;  as  represented  in  the  diagram  inserted  in  page  8G. 
supra. 

IV.  The  tabernacle  being  so  constructed  as  to  be  taken  to 
pieces  and  put  together  again  as  occasion  required,  it  was 
removed  as  often  as  the  camp  of  the  Israelites  moved  from 
one  station  to  another ;  and  thus  accompanied  them  in  all 
their  marches,  until  they  arrived  at  the  land  of  Canaan.  It 
was  at  first  set  up  at  Gilgal,  being  the  first  encampment  of 
the  Israelites  in  Canaan ;  and  here  it  continued  for  about 
seven  years,  during  which  Joshua  was  occupied  in  the  con- 
quest of  that  country.  Afterwards,  it  was  pitched  in  vShiloh, 
being  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  country  then  subdued  ;  on 
being  restored  by  the  Philistines,  who  had  taken  it  and  de- 
posited it  in  the  temple  of  one  of  their  idols,  as  related  in 
1  Sam.  iv.  10,  11.  v.  vi.,  it  remained  for  twenty  years  in  the 
custody  of  Abinadab  of  Gibeah,  and  afterwards  (for  three 
months)  in  the  house  of  Obed-Edom,  whence  David  brought 
it  with  great  solemnity  into  that  part  of  Jerusalem  which 
was  called  the  city  of  David.  (2  Sam.  vi.  17.  1  Chron.  xv. 
25.  xvi.  1.)  Here  it  remained  until  it  was  deposited  in  the 
temple  of  Solomon,  where  (having  been  subsequently  re- 
moved) it  was  again  replaced  by  order  of  the  pious  king 
Josiah.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  3.)  It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
consumed  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar.2 

"^  Schulzii  Archaeol.  Hebr.  pp.  183—204. ;  Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  94— 
101. ;  Relandi  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  11—21. ;  Home's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  il. 
pp.  129— 13S. ;  Brunings,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  14&-159. 


Vol.  II. 


N 


98 


ON  SACRED  PLACES. 


[Part  III.  Chaf.  L 


Pian  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  according  to  Lamy  and  Calmet. 


SECTION  II. 


OF    THE    TEMPLE. 


I.  The  temple  of  Solomon. — II.  The  second  temple. — Its  va- 
rious courts. — Reverence  of  the  .Tews  for  it. — III.  J\''otice  of 
the  temples  at  HeliopoUs  and  Gerizim. 

According  to  the  opinion  of  some  writers,  there  were  three 
temples,  viz.  the  first,  erected  by  Solomon;  the  second,  by 
Zerubbabel  and  Joshua,  the  high-priest ;  and  the  third,  by 
Herod  a  few  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  But  this  opi- 
nion is  very  properly  rejected  by  the  Jews :  who  do  not 
allow  the  third  to  be  a  new  temple,  but  only  the  second  tem- 
ple rebuilt :  and  this  opinion  corresponds  with  the  prophecy 
of  Haggai  (ii.  9.),  that  the  glory  of  this  hitter  house — the  tem- 
ple bunt  by  Zerubbabel,  should  be  greater  than  that  of  the 
former;  which  prediction  was  uttered  with  reference  to  the 
Messiah's  honouring  it  with  his  presence  and  ministry. 

I.  The  first  temple  is  that  which  usually  bears  the  name 
of  Solomon  ;  the  materials  for  which  were  provided  by  David 
before  his  death,  though  the  edifice  was  raised  by  Ihis  son. 
It  stood  on  Mount  Moriah,  an  eminence  of  the  mountainous 
ridge  in  the  Scriptures  termed  Mount  Sion  (Psal.  cxxxii. 
13,  14.),  which  had  been  purchased  of  Araunah  or  Oman  the 
Jebusite.  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  23,  24.  1  Chron.  xxi.  25.)  The 
plan  and  whole  model  of  this  superb  structure  were  formed 
after  that  of  the  tabernacle,  but  of  much  larger  dimensions. 
It  was  surrounded,  except  at  the  front  or  east  end,  by  three 
stories  of  chambers,  each  five  cubits  square,  which  reached 
to  half  the  height  of  the  temple  ;  and  the  front  was  o;na- 
mented  with  a  magnificent  portico,  which  rose  to  the  height 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty  cubits :  so  that  the  form  of  the 
whole  edifice  was  not  unlike  that  of  some  ancient  churches 
which  have  a  lofty  tower  in  the  front,  and  a  low  aisle  run- 
ning along  each  side  of  the  building.  The  utensils  for  the 
sacred  service  were  the  same  ;•  excepting  that  several  of 
them,  as  the  altar,  candlestick,  &c.  were  larger,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  more  spacious  edifice  to  which  they  belonged. 
Seven  years  and  six  months  were  occupied  in  the  erection 
of  the  superb  and  magnificent  temple  of  Solomon ;  by  whom 
it  was  dedicated'  with  peculiar  solemnity  to  the  worship  of 
the  Most  High,  who  on  this  occasion  vouchsafed  to  honour 
it  with  the  Shechinah,  or  visible  manifestation  of  His  pre- 
sence.    The  prayer  of  the  Hebrew  monarch,  on  this  occa- 

1  In  the  year  of  the  world  3001 ;  before  Christ  999. 


sion,  is  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  sublime  compositions  in 
the  Bible,  exhibiting,  in  the  prophetic  spirit  of  Moses,  the 
most  exalted  conceptions  of  the  omnipresence  of  the  Deity, 
of  his  superintending  Providence,  and  of  his  peculiar  pro- 
tection of  the  Israelites  from  the  time  of  their  departure  out 
of  Egypt;  and  imploring  pardon  and  forgiveness  for  all  their 
sins  and  transgressions  in  the  land,  and  during  the  captivi- 
ties which  might  ensue.2  Various  attempts  have  been  made 
to  describe  the  proportions  and  several  parts  of  this  struc- 
ture ;  but  as  no  two  writers  scarcely  agree  on  this  subject,  a 
minute  description  of  it  is  designeoly  omitted.^  It  retained 
its  pristine  splendour  only  thirtjMhree  or  thirty-four  years, 
when  Shishak  king  of  Egypt  took  Jerusalem,  and  carried 
away  the  treasures  of  the  temple  ;^  and  after  undergoing  sub- 
sequent profanations  and  pillages,  this  stupendous  building 
was  finally  plundered  and  burnt  by  the  Chaldaeans  under 
Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  year  of  the  world  3416,  or  before 
Christ  584.  (2  Kings  xxv.  13— 15.  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  17— 20.) 

II.  After  the  captivity  the  temple  emerged  from  its  ruins, 
being  rebuilt  by  Zerubbabel,^  but  M'ith  vastly  inferior  and 
diminished  glory ;  as  appears  from  the  tears  of  the  aged  men 
who  had  beheld  the  tormer  structure  in  all  its  grandeur. 
(Ezraiii.  12.)  The  second  temple  was  profaned  by  order 
of  Antiochus  Epiplianes  (a.  m.  3837vB.  c.  163)  ;  who  caused 
the  daily  sacrifice  to  be  discontinuSd,  and  erected  the  image 
of  Jupiter  Olympius  on  the  altar  of  burnt-offering.  In  this 
condition  it  continued  three  years  (2  Mace.  x.  1 — 8.),  when 
Judas  Maccabajus  purified  and  repaired  it,  and  restored  the 
sacrifices  and  true  worship  of  Jehovah,  (a.  m.  3840,  b.  c. 
160.) 

Some  years  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour,  the  repairing 
or  rather  gradual  rebuilding  of  this  second  temple,  which 
had  become  decayed  in  the  lapse  of  five  centuries,  was  un- 
dertaken by  Herod  the  Great,  who  for  nine  years  employed 
eighteen  thousand  workmen  upon  it,  and  spared  no  expense 
to  render  it  equal,  if  not  superior,  in  magnitude,  splendour, 
and  beauty  to  any  thing  among  mankind.  Josephus  calls  it 
a  work  the  most  admirable  of  any  that  had  ever  been  seen 
or  heard  of,  both  for  its  curious  structure  and  its  magnitude, 
and  also  for  the  vast  Avealth  expended  upon  it,  as  well  as  for 
the  universal  reputation  of  its  sanctity. s  But  though  Herod 
accomplished  his  original  design  in  the  time  above  specified, 

«  Hales's  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  p.  393. 

3  The  reader  will  find  a  copious  description  of  what  the  first  temple  is 
supposed  to  have  been,  in  Home's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp.  144 — 158. 

■••  In  the  year  of  the  wcrld  3033  ;  before  Christ  9G7.  1  Kings  xiv.  25,  26. 
2  Chron.  xii.  9. 

5  Ezra  i. — vi.     Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xi.  c.  4. 

«  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.  4.  §  8. 


Skct.  II.] 


OF  THE  TEMPLE. 


99 


■ynt  the  Jews  continued  to  ornament  and  enlarge  it,  expend- 
iii<r  the  sacred  treasure  in  annexiii<r  additional  buildinjrs  to  it; 
so  that  tliey  niijrht  with  great  propriely  assert  that  their  tem- 
ple had  been  forty-aiid-six  years  in  l)ui!ding.' 

Hcfore  we  proceed  to  (icscribt;  this  venerable  edifice,  it 
may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  by  the  temple  is  to  be  urider- 
strjoil  not  only  the  fabric  or  house  itsc^lf,  which  by  way  of 
eminence  is  cal]c<i  The  Tiinpli',  viz.  llm  holy  of  iiolii  s,  th(; 
sanctuary,  and  the  several  courts  botli  of  the  |)ricsts  and  Is- 
raelites; l)ut  also  all  the  numc^rous  chambers  and  rooms 
whicli  tliis  prodigious  edific;*;  comprehendfui,  and  each  of 
which  had  its  respective  degree  of  holiness,  increasing  in 
proportion  to  its  contiguity  to  the  holy  of  holies.  This  re- 
mark it  will  be  necessary  to  bear  in  mind,  lest  the  rcv.idcr  of 
the  Scri|)tures  s'lould  bc^  led  to  suppose  that  whatever  is 
there  said  lo  be  transacted  in  the  temple  was  actually  doni; 
in  the  interior  of  that  sacred  edifice.  To  this  infinite  num- 
ber of  apartments  into  which  the  temple  was  disj)osed  our 
Lord  refers  (.loliu  xiv.  'J.) ;  and,  by  a  very  striking  and  mag- 
nific(Mit  simile  borrowed  from  tliem,  he  represents  those  nu- 
merous seats  and  mansions  of  heavenly  bliss  which  his 
F(illier''s  house  contained,  and  which  were  prepared  for  the 
everlasting  abode  of  the  righteous.  The  imagery  is  singu- 
larly beautiful  aiul  happy,  wh(>n  considered  as  an  allusion  to 
the  temple,  which  our  Lord  not  unfre(iuently  called  his 
Fill  hip's  house. 

The  second  temple,  originally  built  by  Zerubbabel,  after 
the  captivity,  and  repaired  by  iterod,  differed  in  several  re- 
spects from  that  erected  by  Solomon,  although  they  agreed 
in  others. 

The  temple  erected  by  Solomon  was  more  splendid  and 
magnificent  than  the  second  temple,  which  was  deficient  in 
five  remarkable  things  that  constituted  the  chief  glory  of  the 
first : — these  were  the  ark  and  mercy-seat, — the  shechinah 
or  manifestation  of  the  divine  Presence  in  the  holy  of  holies, 
— the  sacred  fire  on  the  altar,  whicli  had  been  first  kindled 
from  heaven, — the  urim  and  thummim, — and  the  spirit  of 
prophecy.  But  the  second  temple  surpassed  the  first  in 
glory,  being  honoured  by  the  frequent  ])resence  of  our  divine 
Saviour,  agreeably  to  the  prediction  of  llaggai.  (ii.  9.)  Both, 
however,  were  erected  upon  the  same  site,  a  very  hard  rock 
encompassed  by  a  very  frightful  precipice ;  and  the  founda- 
tion was  laid  with  incredible  expense  and  labour.  The  su- 
perstructure was  not  inferior  to  this  great  work;  the  height 
of  the  temple  wall,  especially  on  the  south  side,  was  stupen- 
dous ;  in  the  lowest  places  it  was  three  hundred  cubits  or  four 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  in  some  places  even  greater.  This 
most  magnificent  pile  was  constructed  with  hard  while  stones 
of  prodigious  magnitude.^ 

The  temple  itself,  strictly  so  called  (which  comprised  the 
portico,  the  sanctuary,  and  the  holy  of  holies),  formed  only  a 
small  part  of  the  sacred  edifice  on  Mount  Moriah;  being 
surrounded  by  spacious  courts,  making  a  square  of  half  a 
mile  in  circumference.  It  was  entered  through  nine  magni- 
ficent gates;  one  of  which,  called  the  Beautiful  Gate  in  Acts 
iii.  2.,  was  more  splendid  and  costly  than  all  the  rest :  it 
was  composed  of  Corinthian  brass,  the  most  precious  metal 
in  ancient  times. 

1.  The  first  or  outer  court,  which  encompassed  the  holy 
house  and  the  other  courts,  was  named  the  Court  of  the 
Gentiles  ;  because  the  latter  were  allowed  to  enter  into  it, 
but  were  prohibited  from  advancing  further:  it  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  range  of  porticoes  or  cloisters,  above  which 
were  galleries  or  apartments  supported  by  pillars  of  white 
marble,  each  consisting  of  a  single  piece,  and  five-and-twenty 
cubits  in  height.  One  of  these  was  called  Solomon's 
Porch  or  Piazza,  because  it  stood  on  a  vast  terrace,  which 
he  had  originally  raised  from  a  valley  beneath,  four  hundred 

>  John  ii.  90.  There  is,  therefore,  no  real  contradiction  between  the 
sacred  writer  and  .losephus.  The  words  of  tlie  evangelist  are,  "  Forty-and- 
six  years  was  this  leiiinle  in  building."  This,  as  Calinet  well  observes,  is 
not  saying  that  Herod  had  employed  forty-six  years  in  erecting  it.     Jose- 

Ehus  acquaints  us  that  Herod  began  to  rebuild  the  temple,  yet  so  as  not  lo 
e  esteemed  a  new  edifice,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign  (Antiq.  lib. 
XV.  c.  14.),  computing  from  his  being  declared  king  by  the  Romans,  or  in 
the  fifteenlli  year  (Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c^  16.),  reclioning  from  the  death  of  An- 
tigonus.  He  finished  it  for  use  in  about  nine  years  (Ant.  xv.  14.) :  but  it 
continued  increasing  in  splendour  and  magnilicence  tiirough  the  pious  do- 
nations of  the  people  (Bell.  Jud.  v.  14.)  lo  the  time  of  Nero,  when  it  was 
completed,  ami  1^^,0110  workmen  were  dismissed  from  that  service,  during 
tlieprocuralorship  of  Alliinus.  From  the  eighteenth  of  Herod,  who  reigned 
thirty-snven  years,  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  more  than  a  year  before  the 
death  of  that  prince,  was  above  si.xteen  years,  added  to  which,  the  age  of 
Christ,  now  thirty,  gives  forty-six  complete  years.  Culmet's  Comment,  in 
loc. 
»  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  xv.  §  5. 


cubits  high,  in  order  to  enlarge  the  area  on  the  top  of  the 
mountain,  and  make  it  equal  to  the  plan  of  his  intended 
building;  and  as  this  terrace  was  the  only  work  of  Solomon's 
that  remained  in  the  second  temple,  the  piazza  which  stood 
upon  it  retained  the  name  of  that  prince.  Here  it  was  that 
our  Lord  was  walking  at  the  feast  of  dedication  (John  x. 
'J.?.),'  and  the  lame  man,  when  healed  by  Peter  and  John, 
glorified  (iod  before  all  ihr'  |)(!oj)le.'  (Acts  iii.  11.)  This  su- 
perb portico  is  termed  the  Koval  Portico  by  Josephus,  who 
represents  it  as  the  noblest  work  beneath  the  sun,  being  ele- 
vated to  such  a  prodigious  height  that  no  one  could  look 
down  from  its  flat  roof  to  the  valley  below  without  being 
seized  with  dizziness,  the  sight  not  reaching  to  such  an  im- 
nu^a?;urabl(!  depth.  The  south-east  corner  of  the  roof  of  this 
portico,  where  the  height  was  greatest,  is  supposed  to  have 
men  the  ttticj-^kv,  pinnacle,  or  extreme  angle,  whence  Satan 
templed  our  Saviour  to  precipitate  himself.  (Matt.  iv.  5. 
Luke  iv.  Ii.)  Tliis  also  was  the  spot  where  it  was  predicted 
that  the  abomination  of  desolation,  or  the  Rr  man  ensigns, 
should  stand.  (Dan.  ix.  27.  Matt.  xxiv.  l.'i.)  Solomon's  por- 
tico was  situated  in  the  eastern  front  of  the  t<'mjde,  opposite 
to  the  Mount  of  Olives,  where  our  Lord  is  said  to  have  sat 
when  his  disciples  came  to  show  him  the  grandeur  of  its 
various  buildings,  of  which,  grand  as  they  were,  he  said,  the 
lime  was  aj)proaching  when  one  stone  should  not  be  left  upon 
another.  (Alatt.  xxiv.  1 — 3.)  This  outermost  court  being 
assigned  to  the  Gentile  proselytes,  the  Jews,  who  did  not  wor- 
ship in  it  themselves,  conceived  that  it  might  be  lawfully 
put  to  profane  uses :  for  here  we  find  that  the  buyers  and 
sellers  of  animals  for  sacrifices,  and  also  the  money-changers, 
had  stationed  themselves;  until  Jesus  Christ,  awing  them 
into  submission  by  the  grandeur  and  dignity  of  his  person 
and  behaviour,  expelled  tliem,  telling  them  that  it  was  the 
house  of  prayer  /or  all  nations,  and  that  it  had  a  relative 
sanctity,  and  was  not  to  be  profaned.  It  is  not  improbable, 
that  the  captains  of  the  temple,  who  were  ofBcers  that  had 
the  care  and  charge  of  it,  let  out  this  court  for  profit  and  ad- 
vantage ;  and  that  the  sellers,  to  compensate  themselves  for 
what  they  paid  for  their  tables  and  seats,  made  an  unjust 
and  exorl)itant  gain ;  and  that  this  circumstance  occasioned 
its  being  called  a  den  of  tliievcs.*  (Matt.  xxi.  12,  13.  Mark 
xi.  15 — 17.  Luke  xix.  15,  4(j.) 

2.  Within  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  stood  the  Court  of 
THE  Israelites  divided  into  two  parts  or  courts,  the  outer 
one  being  aimropriated  to  the  women,  and  the  inner  one  to 
the  men.  The  Court  of  the  Women  was  separated  from 
that  of  the  Gentiles  by  a  low  stone  wall  or  partition,  of  ele- 
gant construction,  on  which  stood  pillars  at  equal  distances, 
with  inscriptions  in  Greek  and  Latin,  importing  that  no  alien 
should  enter  into  the  holy  place  To  this  wall  St.  Paul  most 
evidently  alludes  in  Eph.  ii.  13,  14.  But  now  in  Christ 
Jesus,  ye,  who  sometimes  were  fur  off,  are  made  nigh  by  the 
blood  of  Christ :  fur  he  is  our  peace,  who  hath  made  both  one 
(united  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  into  one  church),  and  hath 
broken  down  the  middle  wall  of  partition  between  us ;  hav- 
ing abolished  the  law  of  ordinances  by  which,  as  by  the 
wall  of  separation,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  were  not  only 
kept  asunder,  but  also  at  variance.  In  this  court  was  the 
treasury,  over-against  which  Christ  sat,  and  beheld  how  the 
people  threw  their  voluntary  oflerings  into  it  for  furnishing 
the  victims  and  other  thintrs  necessary  for  the  sacrifices. 
(Mark  xii.  41.   John  viii.  20.) 

From  the  court  of  the  women,  which  was  on  higher 
ground  than  that  of  the  Gentiles,  there  was  an  ascent  of  fif- 
teen steps  into  the  Inner  or  Mai's  Court :  and  so  called  be- 
cause it  was  appropriated  to  the  worship  of  the  male  Israel- 
ites. In  these  two  courts,  collectively  termed  the  Court  of 
the  Israelites,  were  the  people  praving,  each  apart  by  himself 
for  the  pardon  of  his  sins,  while  ^echariah  was  offering  in- 
cense within  the  sanctuary.  (Luke  i.  10.) 

3.  Within  the  court  of  the  Israelites  was  that  of  the 
Priests,  which  was  separated  from  it  by  a  low  wall,  one 
cubit  in  height.  This  enclosure  si:rrnunded  the  altar  of 
burnt-olTerings,  and  to  it  the  people  brought  their  oblations 
and  sacrifices  :  but  the  priests  alone  were  permitted  to  enter 
it.     From  this  court  twelve  steps  ascended  to  the  Temple 


to  sliclter  from  the  weather  the  uminiuoe  oi  niseaseu  persons  wno  lav  wan- 
ing for  a  cure  by  the  miraculous  virtue  of  those  waters.   Jennings's  Jewish 
Antiq.  p.  2(i7. 
»  Bp,  Tcarce's  CommenUry,  vol.  i.  on  Matt.  xxi.  1.3. 


100 


or  SACRED  PLACES. 


[Part  III.  Cuap.  I 


strictly  so  called,  which  was  divided  into  three  parts,  the 
portico,  the  outer  sanctuary,  and  the  holy  place. 

1.  In  the  Portico  were  suspended  the  splendid  votive 
offerings  made  by  the  piety  of  various  individuals.  Among 
its  other  treasures,  there  was  a  golden  table  given  by  Pom- 
pey,  together  with  several  golden  vines  of  exquisite  work- 
manship as  well  as  of  immense  size :  for  Josephus  relates 
that  there  were  clusters  as  tall  as  a  man.  And  he  adds,  that 
all  around  were  fixed  up  and  displayed  the  spoils  and  trojjhies 
taken  by  Herod  from  the  Barbarians  and  Arabians,  'l  hese 
votive  offerin<Ts,  it  should  seem,  were  visible  at  a  distance  ; 
for  when  Jesus  Christ  was  sitting  on  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
and  his  disciples  called  his  attention  to  the  temple,  they 
pointed  out  to  him  the  giffx  with  which  it  was  adorned. 
(Luke  xxi.  5.)  This  porch  had  a  very  large  portal  or  gate, 
which,  insteacl  of  folding  doors,  was  furnished  with  a  costly 
Babylonian  veil,  of  many  colours,  that  mystically  denoted 
the  universe. 

(2.)  The  Sanctuary  or  Holy  Place  was  separated  from 
the  holy  of  holies  by  a  double  veil,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  veil  that  was  rent  in  twain  at  our  Saviour's 
crucifixion  :  thus  emblematically  pointing  out  that  the  sepa- 
ration between  Jews  and  Gentiles  was  abolished,  and  that 
the  privilege  of  the  high-priest  was  communicated  to  all 
mankind,  who  might  henceforth  have  access  to  the  throne  of 
grace  through  the  one  great  mediator,  Jesus  Christ.  (Heb. 
X.  19 — 22.f  This  corresponded  with  the  Holy  Place  in  the 
Tabernacle.  In  it  were  placed  the  Golden  Candlestick,  the 
Altar  of  Incense,  and  the  Table  of  Shew-Bread,  which  con- 
sisted of  twelve  loaves,  according  to  the  number  of  the  tribes 
of  Israel.  Various  fanciful  delineations  have  been  given  of 
these  articles  :  in  the  subjoined  engraving  is  represented  the 
form  of  the  Golden  (candlestick  as  it  was  actually  carried 
in  the  triumphal  procession  of  the  Roman  General  Titus  ; 


and  the  following  engraving  exhibits  the  Table  of  Shew- 
Bread,  with  a  cup  upon  it,  and  with  two  of  the  sacred  trum- 
pets, which  were  used  to  proclaim  the  year  of  Jubilee,  as 
they  were  also  carried  in  the  same  triumph.  They  are  co- 
pied from  the  plates  in  Reland's  Treatise  on  the  Spoils  of 
the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,'  the  drawings  for  which  were 
made  at  Rome,  upwards  of  a  century  since,  when  the  trium- 
phal arch  of  Titus  was  in  a  much  better  state  of  preservation 
than  it  now  is. 

1  Hadr.  Relandus  de  Spoliis  Tenipli  in  Arcu  Titiano  Romse  conspicuis, 
Trajecti  ad  Rheimin,  1775.  8vo. 


(3.)  The  Holy  of  Holies  wastAventy  cubits  square.  No 
person  was  ever  admitted  into  it  but  the  high-priest,  who 
entered  it  once  a  year  on  the  great  day  of  atonement.  (Exod. 
XXX.  10,  Lev.  XVI.  2.  15.  31.  Heb.  ix.  2—l.f 

Magnificent  as  the  rest  of  the  sacred  edifice  was,  it  was 
infinitely  surpassed  in  splendour  by  the  I/mer  Ttmple  or 
Sanctuary.  "Its  appearance,"  according  to  Josephus,"  had 
every  thing  that  could  strike  the  mind  or  astonish  the  sight : 
for  it  was  covered  on  eveiy  side  with  plates  of  gold,  so  that 
when  the  sun  rose  upon  it,  it  reflected  so  strong  and  dazzling  an 
effulgence,  that  the  eye  of  the  spectator  was  obliged  to  turn 
away,  being  no  more  able  to  sustain  its  radiance  than  the 
splendour  of  the  sun.  To  strangers  who  were  approaching, 
it  appeared  at  a  distance  like  a  mountain  covered  with  snow, 
for  where  it  was  not  decorated  with  plates  of  gold,  it  was  ex- 
tremely white  and  glistering.  On  the  top  it  had  sharp- 
pointed  spijves  of  gold,  to  prevent  any  bird  from  resting  upon 
It  and  polluting  it.  There  were,"  continues  the  Jewish  his- 
torian, "  in  that  building  several  stones  which  were  forty-five 
cubits  in  length",  five  in  height,  and  six  in  breadth.^  When 
all  these  things  are  considered,  how  natural  is  the  exclama- 
tion of  the  disciples  when  viewing  this  immense  building  at 
a  distance:  Master,  see  what  manner  o/ stones  [ttotittoi  ki^oi, 
what  very  large  stones),  and  rv/iat  buildings  we  here  !  (Mark 
xiii.  1.);  and  how  wonderful  is  the  declaration  of  our  Lord 
upon  this,  how  unlikely  to  be  accomplished  before  the  race 
of  men  who  were  then  living  should  cease  to  exist.  Scest 
thou  these  great  buildings  ?  Tliere  shall  not  he  left  one  stone 
upon  another,  that  shall  not  be  thrown  down^  (Mark  xiii.  2.)'' 
Improbable  as  this  prediction  must  have  appeared  to  the  disci- 
ples at  that  time,  in  the  short  space  of  about  forty  years  after, 
It  was  exactly  accomplished ;  and  this  most  magnificent 
temple,  which  the  Jews  had  literally  turned  into  a  den  of 
thieves,  through  the  righteous  judgements  of  God  upon  that 
wicked  and  abandoned  nation,  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the 
Romans  a.  m.  4073  (a.  d.  73),  on  the  same  month,  and  on 
the  same  day  of  the  month,  when  Solomon's  temple  had  been 
rased  to  the  ground  by  tlie  Babylonians  ! 

Both  the  first  and  second  temples  were  contemplated  by 
the  Jews  with  the  highest  reverence :  of  tiieir  anectionate 
regard  for  the  first  temple,  and  for  Jerusalem,  within  whose 
walls  it  was  built,  we  have  several  instances  in  those  psalms 
which  were  composed  during  the  Babyk.nish  captivity;  and 
of  their  profound  veneration  for  the  second  temple  we  have 
repeated  examples  in  the  New  'I'estament.  "  They  could 
not  bear  any  disrespectful  or  dishonourable  thing  to.  be  said 
of  it.  The  least  injurious  slight  of  it,  real  or  apprehended, 
instantly  awakened  all  the  choler  of  a  Jew,  and  was  an  affront 
never  to  be  forgiven.  Our  Saviour,  iii  tlie  course  of  his  public 
instructions,  happening  to  say',  Bestroi/  this  temple,  and  in 
three  days  I  will  raise  it  up  again  (John  i.  19.\  it  was  construed 
into  a  contemptuous  disrespect,  designedly  thrown  out  against 
the  temple;  his  words  instantly  descended  into  the  heart  of 

«  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron,  book  ii.  cli.  1.  ;  .lenninss's  .lewish  Antiqui- 
ties, booii  ii.  ch.  1.  ;  Schulzii  Archsologia  Ifeljraica,  pp.  204 — 220. ;  Beau- 
sobre's  and  L'Enfant's  Introduction.  (Bp.  Watson's  Theol.  Tracts,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  145 — 150.)  Pareau,  Antiquitas  Hebraica,  pp.  196  -203. ;  Brunings, 
Antiq.  Helir.  pp.  165 — 172. 

3  Josephus,  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  xv.  c.  11.  §3.  De  Bell,  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  5.  §§ 
1—6. 

•»  Dr.  HarwooU's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  159. 161. 


Sect.  IL] 


OF  THE  TEMPLE. 


101 


a  Jew,  and  kept  rankling  there  for  several  yeara ;  for  upon 
his  trial,  this  declaration,  wiiicii  it  was  iinpossihle  for  a  Jew 
ever  to  forjfi^t  or  to  forgive,  was  iiniiicdiatcly  alleir(Ml  atraiiist 
him  as  \n^  with  the  most  atrocious  <>iiilt  and  impiety :  they 
told  llio  court  th<!y  had  iieard  liini  puhlicly  assert,  I  am  able 
to  destroy  this  temph;.'  'I'he  rancour  and  virulence  tiiey  had 
conceived  airainst  liim  for  tiiis  speech,  whicli  they  imafrined 
had  been  hovelled  ajrainstthe  temple,  was  not  soflened  by  all 
the  alTectinj^  circumstances  of  tiiut  excruciatinir  and  wretdied 
death  they  saw  him  die:  even  as  lie  huui;'  upon  the  cross, 
witli  infinite;  triumpli,  scorn,  and  exullatioh,  they  uj)l)raided 
him  with  it,  contemptuously  shaiiintr  their  lieads,  aiu!  sayinjj, 
'jyiou  that  (Jeslroi/ffit  the  temple,  and  Imildest  it  in  three  dut/.i, 
save  thyself .'  If  than  he  the  Son  of  (rod,  come  down  from  the 
cross.  (Matt,  xxvii.  10.)  'J'he  suj)f>rstitious  veneration,  wiiich 
this  peoide  had  for  their  temple,  further  appears  from  the  ac- 
count ot  St,ci)iu;n.  W'iien  liis  adversaries  were  batlied  and 
confounded  by  tiuit  superior  wisdom  and  tlu)Si!  distinfruished 
frifts  wliich  lie  ])ossessed,  th(>y  were  so  exasperated  at  the 
victory  he  liad  trained  over  them,  that  tliey  suborned  persons 
to  swear  tiiat  they  iiad  heard  liim  speak  1)las|)lirmy  against 
Moses  and  against  (Jod.  These  iiiflaminir  tiie  ])opulace,  tlie 
magistraU^s,  and  the  Jewish  clergy,  the  holy  man  was  seized, 
dragged  away,  and  brougiit  l)etbro  the  Sanhedrin.  Here  the 
f  ilse  witnesses,  whom  tliey  liad  procured,  stood  up  and  said, 
Tiiis  person  before  you  is  continually  uttering  the  most  re- 
proachful expressions  against  this  sacred  place,^  meaning  the 
temple.  This  was  blasphemy  not  to  be  pardoned.  A  judi- 
cature composed  of  high-priests  and  scribes  would  never  for- 
give such  impiety. 

"Thus,  also,  when  St.  Paul  went  into  the  temple  to  give 
public  notice,  as  was  usual,  to  the  priests,  of  his  having 
purified  and  bound  himself  with  a  religious  vow  along  with 
four  other  persons,  declaring  the  time  when  his  vow  was 
made,  and  tlie  oblations  he  would  offer  for  every  one  of  them 
at  his  own  expense,  when  the  time  of  their  vow  was  accom- 
plished, some  Jews  of  Asia  Minor,  when  tlie  seven  days  pro- 
scribed l)v  the  law  were  almost  completed,  happening  to  see 
him  in  the  temple,  struck  witli  horror  at  the  sight  of  such 
apprehended  profanation,  immediately  excited  the  populace, 
who  all  at  once  rushed  ui)on  him  and  instantly  seized  him, 
vehemently  exclaiming,  Men  of  Inrmd,  help  !  Thin  Is  the  man 
that  teucheth  all  men  even/  where  against  the  people  (the  Jews), 
and  the  law,  and  this  place  ,•  and,  further,  brought  Grreeks  into 
the  temple,  and  hath  polluted  this  holy  place.  (Acts  xxi.  28.) 
They  said  this,  because  they  had  a  little  before  seen  Trophi- 
nius  an  I'iphesian  along  with  him  in  the  city,  and  they  in- 
stantly (concluded  lie  had  brought  him  into  the  temple.  Upon 
this  till!  whole  city  was  immediately  raised ;  all  the  people 
at  once  rushed  furiouslj'^  upon  him,  and  dragged  him  out  of 
the  temple,  whose  doors  were  instantly  shut.  Being  deter- 
mined to  murder  him,  news  was  carried  to  the  Roman  tribune 
that  the  whole  city  was  in  a  commotion.  The  uproar  now 
raised  among  the  Jews,  and  their  determined  resolution  to 
imbrue  thi'ir  hands  in  the  blood  of  a  person  who  had  spoken 
disrespectfully  of  the  temple,  and  who  they  apprehended  had 
wantonly  profaiieil  it  by  introducing  Greeks  into  it,  verify 
and  illustrate  the  declaration  of  PJiilo;  that  it  was  certain 
and  inevitable  death  for  any  one  who  was  not  a  Jew  to  set 
his  foot  within  the  inner  courts  of  the  temple."^ 

It  only  remains  to  add,  that  it  appears  from  several  pas- 
sages of  Scrij)ture,  that  "  the  Jews  had  a  body  of  soldi(TS  who 
guarded  the  temple,  to  prevent  any  disturbance  during  the 
ministration  of  such  an  immense  number  of  priests  and  Le- 
vites.  To  this  guard  Pilate  referred,  when  he  said  to  the 
chief  priests  and  Pharisees  who  waited  upon  him  to  desire 
he  would  make  the  sepulchre  secure.  Ye  have  a  watch,  go 
ipnir  uwi/,  and  make  it  as  secure  as  i/e  can.  (Matt,  xxvii.  (io.) 
Over  these  guards  one  person  had  the  supreme  command, 
who  in  several  places  is  called  the  captain  of  thf,  templk 
(5:t^«t»jsc  to?  'lig'jZ).  or  officer  of  the  temple  guard.  '  And 
as  they  spake  unto  the  people,  the  priests  and  the  captain  of 
the  temp'e  and  the  iSadducees  came  upon  them.'  (Acts  iv.  1. 
V.  25,  2(').  John  xviii.  1'2.)  Josephus  mentions  such  an  offi- 
cer."' It  should  seem  that  this  officer  was  a  Jew,  from  the 
circumstance  of  his  assisting  the  high-priest  in  arresting 

»  Matt.  xxvi.  61.  "This  fellow  said,  I  aiu  able  to  destroy  the  temple  of 
God  and  to  build  it  in  three  days." 

»  Acts  vi.  13. 

'  Uai  wood's  Iiitrod.  vol.  ii.  pp.  166— 1G9. 

1  Tov  (rrpxri-yor,  Avxvov,  Ananias,  the  commander  of  the  temple.  Antiq. 
Jud.  lib.  XX.  C.6.  52.  Boll.  .lud.  lib.  ii.  c.  17.  §"2.  Azcf^vn;  s.;  tow  Exs:.^*?"' 
a-xfXT^yivTx,  having  the  chief  regard  to  Eloazar,  the  governor  of  the 
temple.  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  17.  §2.  edit.  Hudson.  Harwood'Slntrod.  vol. 
ii.  p.  169.  and  I>r.  Lardner's  Credibility,  book  i.  ch.  xi.  §  1.  ch.  ix.  §  1. 


those  who  were  deemed  to  be  seditious,  without  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Roman  procurator. 

III.  Uesides  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  two  others  were 
erected,  viz:  one  in  Kgypt,  and  another  on  Mount  Gerizim, 
of  which  the  following  notice  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  the 
reader : — 

1.  The  Heliopomtan  Temple,  also  called  the  Temple  of 
Onias,  was  erected  in  imitation  of  that  at  Jerusalem  by 
Onias,  tin;  son  of  Onias  the  high  priest:  who  finding  that 
no  hopt!  remained  of  ids  being  restored  to  the  pontifical  dig- 
nity which  hatl  been  iield  by  his  ancestors,  fled  into  Egypt 
in  the  time  of  Antiochus  E])iplianes.  "Having  acquired 
great  favour  with  the  then  reigning  sovereign,  Ptolemy  Plii- 
lometer,  and  his  queen  Cleo|)atra,  by  his  skill  in  political 
and  military  affairs,  Onias  repnisentedf  to  them,  that  it  would 
be  productive  of  great  advantage  to  their  kingdom,  if  the 
numerous  Jewish  iidiabitants  of  Kg^'pt  and  Cyreiie  could  have 
a  temple  of  their  own,  which  would  supersede  the  necessity 
of  their  repairing  to  .Jerusalem  in  the  dominions  of  a  foreign 
monarch,  to  perform  their  religious  services:  anil  that,  if 
such  a  temple  were  built,  many  more  Jews  would  be  induced 
to  settle  in  the  country,  as  Judjea  was  continually  expo.sed 
to  the  evils  of  war.  By  such  representations  he  at  length 
obtained  permission  to  erect  a  temple  for  the  Jews,  on  the 
site  of  an  ancient  temple  of  Bubastis  or  Isis,  in  the  city  of 
Leontopolis  in  the  Ileliopolitan  nome  (or  district)  over  which 
he  was  governor."'  To  the  Jews  he  justified  his  undertak- 
ing, on  the  plea  that  the  building  of  such  a  temple  had  been 
predicted  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  who  lived  about  six  hundred 
years  before.*'  Accordingly,  the  temple  was  completed  on 
the  model  of  that  at  Jerusalem.  Onias  was  invested  with 
the  high-priesthood  ;  the  subordinate  priests  were  furnished 
from  the  descendants  of  Aaron :  Levites  were  employed  in 
the  sacred  services ;  and  the  whole  of  their  religious  wor- 
ship was  performed  in  the  same  manner  as  at  Jerusalem. 
Though  the  Heliopolitan  temple  was  smaller  in  its  dimen- 
sions than  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  it  was  made  conforma- 
ble to  the  latter  in  every  respect,  except  that  a  golden  lamp 
suspended  by  a  golden  chain  was  sunstituted  for  a  candle- 
stick. It  was  also  adorned  with  votive  gifts.  This  temple 
continued  -until  the  time  of  Vespasian,  who,  in  consequence 
of  a  tumult  which  had  been  raised  by  the  Jews  in  Egypt, 
commanded  Lupus  the  governor  to  demolish  it.  Accordingly, 
the  gates  were  effectually  closed,  so  that  no  vestiges  re- 
mained of  any  divine  worship  having  been  there  performed. 
This  occurrence  took  place  three  hundred  and  forty-three 
years  after  the  building  of  the  temple.'  In  2  ]Macc.  i.  1 — 9. 
there  is  an  epistle  from  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem  to  those  in 
Egypt. 

2.  The  Temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  was  erected  by  San- 
ballat,  under  the  authority  of  Alexander  the  Great,  for  the 
use  of  the  Samaritans ;  who,  on  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
the  Babylonish  captivity,  pretended  that  they  were  of  the 
stock  of  the  true  and  ancient  Hebrews,  and  that  their  moun- 
tain was  the  most  proper  place  of  worship.  (L'pon  this 
principle  the  Samaritan  women  argued  with  Jesus  Christ  in 
John  iv.  20.)  Sanballat  ccnstituttd  his  son-in-law  Manasseh 
the  first  high-priest.  This  temple  was  destroyed  about  two 
hundred  years  afterwards  by  Hyrcanus,  and  was  rebuilt  by 
the  Samaritans,  between  whom  and  the  Jews  there  subsisted 
the  bitt(!rest  animosity. 8  Representations  of  this  temple  are 
to  be  seen  on  the  coins  of  the  city  of  Sichem  or  Neapolis.s 


SECTION  m. 

OF  THE  HIGH  PLACES,  AND  PROSEUCH^,  OR  ORATORIES 
OK    THE    JEWS. 

I.   Of  the  high  places, — XL  Of  the  proseuchse,  or  oratories. 

I.  Besides  the  tabernacle,  which  has  been  described  in  a 
former  section,  freouent  mention  is  made,  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, of  places  01  worship,  called  High  Places,  which 
were  in  use  both  before  and  after  the  building  of  the  temple. 

s  .Tahn's  Hist,  of  Ilcbr.  Commonwealth,  vol.i.  p.  348. 

s  There  is  a  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  among  commentators  con- 
cernina  the  interpretation  of  Isa.  xix.  IS,  19.,  which  is  the  prediction  above 
alluded  to.  See  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  and  Dr.  Boolhroyd's  translaUon  of  the 
Bible  on  that  pa.s.sage. 

1  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiii.  c.3.  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vii.  c.  10.  Schulzii 
ArchtBol.  Hebr.  pp.  221,  222.     Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  p.  203. 

»  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  x.  c.  S.  §§2—4.  lib.  xiii.  c.  9.  §1. 

8  Schulzii  Archaeol.  Hebr.  p.  2^1.    Pareau,  Ant.  Hebr.  p.  229. 


102 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


[Part  III.  Chap.  I. 


In  the  early  apjes  of  the  world,  the  devotion  of  mankind 
seems  to  have  delighted  greatly  in  groves,  woods,  and  moun- 
tains, not  only  because  these  retired  places  were  naturally 
fitted  for  contemplation,  but  probably  also  because  they  kin- 
dled a  certain  sacred  dread  m  the  mind  of  the  worshipper. 
It  is  certain  that  nothing  was  more  ancient  in  the  East,  than 
altars  surrounded  by  groves  and  trees,  which  made  the  place 
very  shady  and  delightful  in  those  hot  countries.  The  idol- 
aters in  the  first  ages  of  the  world,  who  generally  worshipped 
the  sun,  appear  to  have  thought  it  improper  to  straiten  and 
confine  the  supposed  infinity" of  this  imaginary  deity  within 
walls,  and  therefore  they  generally  made  choice  of  hills  and 
mountains,  as  the  most  convenient  places  for  their  idolatry ; 
and  when  in  later  times  they  had  brought  in  the  use  of  tem- 
ples, yet  for  a  long  time  they  kept  them  open-roofed.  Nay, 
the  patriarchs  themselves,  who  worshipped  the  true  God, 
generally  built  their  altars  near  to  some  adjacent  grove  of 
trees,  which,  if  nature  denied,  were  usually  planted  by  the 
religious  in  those  days.  When  Abraham  dwelt  at  Beershe- 
ba,ln  the  plains  of  Mamre,  it  is  said,  Ht  planted  a  grove 
there,  and  called  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  the  everlasting  God 
(Gen.  xxi'.  33.),  and  doubtless  that  was  the  place  to  which 
the  patriarch  and  his  family  resorted  for  public  worship.' 

But  at  length  these  hills  and  groves  of  the  heathen  idola- 
ters, as  they  were  more  retired  and  shady,  became  so  much 
the  fitter  for  the  exercise  of  their  unholy  rites,  and  for  the 
commission  of  the  obscene  and  horrid  practices  that  were 
usually  perpetrated  there.  (See  1  Kings  xv.  12.  2  Kings^ 
xxiii.  7.)  In  many  passages  of  Scripture  it  is  recorded  of 
the  Israelites  (who  m  this  respect  imitated  the  heathens) 
that  they  secretly  did  the  things  which  were  not  right,  that 
they  set  up  images  and  groves  in  every  high  hill,  and  under 
every  green  tree,  and  there  burnt  incense  in  all  the  high  places, 
and  ivroiight  wickedness  to  provoke  the  Lord,  as  did  the  heathen. 
(2  Kings  xvii.  9 — 13.)  On  this  account,  therefore,  God  ex- 
pressly commanded  the  Israelites  utterly  to  destroy  all  the 
places  wherein  the  nations  of  Canaan,  whose  land  they 
should  possess,  served  their  gods  upon  the  high  mountains  and 
upon  the  hills :  and  to  pay  their  devotions  and  bring  their 
oblations  to  that  place  only  which  God  should  choose.  (Dent. 
xii.  2 — 15.)  Nay,  to  prevent  every  approach  to  the  idola- 
trous customs  of  the  heathens,  they  were  forbidden  to  plant 
any  trees  near  the  altar  of  the  Lord,  (Deut.  xvi.  21.)  Hence 
it  is  clear,  that  after  God  should  fix  upon  a  place  for  his  pub- 
lic worship,  it  was  entirely  unlawful  to  offer  sacrifices  upon 
high  places,  or  any  where  else  but  in  the  place  God  did 
choose :  so  that  after  the  building  of  the  temple,  the  pro- 
hibition of  places  and  groves  (so  far  at  least  as  concerned  the 
sacrificing  m  them)  unquestionably  took  place.  And  it  was  for 
their  disohedience  to  this  command,  by  their  sacrificing  upon 
high  places  and  in  groves,  even  after  the  temple  was  erectea  (2 
Kings  XV.  35.),  and  for  not  destroying  the  high  places  of  the 
heathens,  where  their  idol  gods  were  worshipped,  which  by 
that  command  and  in  many  other  places  of  Scripture  (Num. 
xxxiii.  52.),  they  were  expressly  appointed  to  do ; — that  the 
prophets  with  so  much  holy  zeal  reproached  the  Israelites. 
VVe  have,  indeed,  several  instances  in  Scripture  besides  that  of 
Abraham,  where  the  prophets  and  other  good  men  are  said  to 
have  made  use  of  these  high  places  for  sacrificing,  as  well 
as  other  less  solemn  acts  of  devotion,  and  which  are  not 
condemned.  Thus,  Samuel,  upon  the  uncertain  abode  of  the 
ark,  fitted  up  a  place  of  devotion  for  himself  and  his  family 
in  a  high  place,  and  built  an  altar  there,  and  sacrificed  upon 
it.  (1  Sam.  ix.  12.  19.  25.)  Gideon  also  built  an  altar  and 
offered  a  sacrifice  to  God  upon  the  top  of  a  rock  (Judg.  vi. 
25,  26.);  and  the  tabernacle  itself  was  removed  to  the  high 
place  that  was  at  Gibeon.  (1  Chron.  xvi.  39.  and  xxi.  29.) 
But  all  this  was  before  the  temple  was  erected,  which  was 
the  first  fixed  place  that  God  appointed  for  his  public  wor- 
ship ;  after  which  other  places  (or  sacrificing  became  unlawful. 
That  the  Israelites,  both  kings  and  people,  offered  sacrifices 
upon  these  high  places  even  after  the  temple  was  built,  will 
evidently  appear  by  noticing  a  few  passages  in  their  history ; 
for  (not  to  mention  Jeroboam  and  his  successors  in  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  whose  professed  purpose  was  to  innovate  every 
thing  in  matters  of  religion,  and  who  had  peculiar  priests 
whom  they  termed  prophets  of  the  groves,  I  Kings  xviii.  19.) 
it  is  clear  that  most  of  the  kings  of  Judah, — even  such  of 
them  who  were  otherwise  zealous  for  the  observance  of  the 
law, — are  expressly  recorded  as  blameable  on  this  head,  and 
but  few  have  the  commendation  given  them  of  destroying 

t  Many  ancient  nations  used  to  erect  altars  and  offer  sacrificps  to  ttieir 
gods  upon  high  places  and  mountains.  See  the  examples  adduced  in  Bur- 
der's  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  233. 


these  high  places.  No  sooner  had  Rehoboam  the  son  of 
Solomon,  after  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  from  him,  strength- 
ened himself  in  his  kingdom,  but  we  read  that.Iudah  diaevil 
in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and  built  them  high  places,  and  images, 
and,  groves,  on  every  high  hill,  and  under  every  green  tree. 
(1  Kinofs  xiv.  22,  23.)    . 

Of  the  exeinplary  sovereigns,  Asa  and  Jehoshaphat,  in- 
deed, it  is  recorded  that  they  took  away  the  high  places  and 
groves  (2  Chron.  xiv.  3.  xv.  16.  xvii.  6.) ;  but  Jehoshaphat's 
son  and  successor,  Jehoram,  is  said  to  have  made  high  places 
in  the  mountains  of  Judah.  (2  Chron.  xxi.  11.)  And  though 
.Toash,  one  of  his  sons,  set  out  well,  yet  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  was  perverted  by  his  idolatrous  courtiers,  who 
served  groves  and  idols,  to  whom  it  appears  that  he  gave  a 
permission  for  that  purpose ;  for,  after  making  their  obeisance, 
we  are  told,  that  he  hearkened  to  them,  and  then  they  left  the 
house  of  God.  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  17,  18.)  Nor  was  the  reign 
of  Amaziah  the  son  of  Joash  any  better,  for  still  the  people 
sacrificed  and  burnt  incense  on  the  high  places  (2  Kings  xiv.  4.)  ; 
and  though  Uzziah  his  son  is  said  to  have  done  that  which 
luas  right  in  the  sight  of  God,  yet  this  exception  appears 
against  him,  that  the  high  places  were  not  removed,  but  the 
people  still  sacrificed  there\2  Kings  xv.  3,  4.) ;  the  same  obser- 
vation is  made  of  Jotham  and  Ahaz.  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  4.) 
But  Hezekiah,  who  succeeded  him,  was  a  prince  of  extra- 
ordinary piety :  he  removed  the  high  places,  and  brake  the 
images,  and  cut  down  the  groves  (2  Kings  xviii.  4.),  which  his 
son  Manasseh  again  built  up.  (2  Kings  xxi.  2.)  At  length 
good  king  Josiah,  a  prince  very  zealous  for  the  true  religion, 
utterly  cleared  the  land  from  the  high  places  and  groves,  and 
purged  it  from  idolatry :  but  as  the  four  succeeding  reigns 
before  the  Babylonian  captivity  were  very  wicked,  we  may 
presume  that  the  high  places  were  again  revived,  though 
there  is  no  mention  of  them  after  the  reign  of  Josiah. ^ 

II.  From  the  preceding  facts  and  remarks,  however,  we 
are  not  to  conclude,  that  the  prohibition  relating  to  high 
places  and  groves,  which  extended  chiefly  to  the  more  solemn 
acts  of  sacrificing  there,  did  on  any  account  extend  to  the 
prohibiting  of  other  acts  of  devotion,  particularly  prayer,  in 
any  other  place  besides  the  temple,  the  high  places  and  groves 
of  the  heathen  (which  were  ordered  to  be  razed)  only  ex- 
cepted. I<*or  we  learn  from  the  Sacred  Writings,  that  prayers 
are  always  acceptable  to  God  in  every  place,  when  performed 
with  that  true  and  sincere  devotion  of  heart,  which  alone 
gives  life  and  vigour  to  our  religious  addresses.  And  there- 
fore it  was  that  in  many  places  of  Judsea,  both  before  and  after 
the  Babylonian  captivity,  we  find  mention  made  in  the  Jew- 
ish and  other  histories  of  places  built  purposely  for  prayer,  and 
resorted  to  only  for  that  end,  called  Proseuch^  or  Oratories. 

These  places  of  worship  were  very  common  in  Judsea  (and 
it  should  seem  in  retired  mountainous  or  elevated  places)  in 
the  time  of  Christ;  they  were  also  numerous  at  Alexandria, 
which  was  at  that  time  a  large  and  flourishing  commercial 
city,  inhabited  by  vast  numbers  of  Jews:  and  it  appears  that 
in  heathen  countries  they  were  erected  in  sequestered  retreats, 
commonly  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  or  on  the  sea  shore.  The 
proseucha  or  oratory  at  Philippi,  where  the  Lord  opened  the 
heart  of  Lydia,  that  she  attended  unto  the  things  which  were 
spoken  by  Paul,  was  by  a  river  sid-e,  (Acts  xvi.  13,  14,  15.)^ 

It  is  a  question  with  some  learned  men,  whether  these 
proseuchce  were  the  same  as  the  synagogues  (of  which  an 
account  will  be  found  in  the  following  section),  or  distinct 
edifices  from  the  latter.  Both  Josephus  and  Philo,  to  whom 
we  may  add  Juvenal,  appear  to  have  considered  them  as 
synonymous;  and  with  them  agree  Grotius,  Ernesti,  Drs. 
Whitby,  Doddridge,  and  Lardner;''  but  Calmet,  Drs.  Pri- 
deaux  and  Hammond,  and  others,  have  distinguished  between 
these  two  sorts  of  buildings,  and  have  shown  that  though 
they  were  nearly  the  same,  and  were  sometimes  confounded 
by  Philo  and  Josephus,  yet  that  there  was  a  real  difference 
between  them ;  the  synagogues  being  in  cities,  while  the 
proseuchae  were  without  the  walls,  in  sequestered  spots,  and 

»  Homo's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp.  161—166.  Croxall's  Scripture  Po- 
liticks, pp.  90—99.  ^ 

3  Josephus  has  preserved  the  decree  of  the  city  of  Haliearnassus,  per- 
mitting the  Jews  to  erect  oratories,  part  of  which  is  in  the  following  terms: 
— "  W  e  ordain,  that  the  Jews  who  are  willing,  both  men  and  women,  do  ob- 
serve the  Sabbaths  and  perform  sacred  rites  according  to  the  Jewish  law, 
and  build  proseucha:  by  the  sea-side,  according  to  the  custom  of  their  coun- 
try ;  and  if  any  man,  whether  magistrate  or  private  person,  give  them  any 
hinderance  or  disturbance,  he  shall  pay  a  fine  to  the  city."  Ant.  Jud.  lib. 
•xiv.  c.  10.  §  23. 

<  Philo de  Legatione  ad  Caium,  p.  1011.  Josephus  de  Vita  sua,  §.'54.  Ju- 
venal, Sat.  iii.  14.  Grotius,  Whitby,  and  Doddridge  on  Luke  vi.  12.  Ernesti 
Institutio  Interpretis  Novi  Teslamenti,  pp.  363,  364.  edit.  4to.  1792.  Lard- 
ner's  Credibility,  book  i.  c.  3.  §3.  Dr.  Harwood's  Introduction  to  (he  Nevr 
Testament,  vol.  ii.  pp.  171—180. 


Sect.  IV.] 


OF  THE  SYNAGOGUES. 


103 


(particularly  in  licathcn  coiintrios)  were  usually  erected  on 
the  banks  of  rivers,  or  on  the  sea-shore  (Acts  xvi.  1.3.), 
without  any  coverintj  but  galleries  or  the  shade  of  trees. 
Dr.  Prideaux  thinks  the  nroseucha^  were  of  irreater  antiijuity 
than  the  synajroj^ues,  and  were  formed  i)y  the  .lews  in  open 
courts,  in  order  that  those  persons  who  (Iwcit  at  a  distance 
from  Jerusalem  miirht  offer  up  tlieir  j)rivate  prayers  in  them, 
as  they  were  accrustomed  to  do  in  the  courts  of  tlie  temple  or 
of  the  tabernacle.  In  the  synanrojrues,  he  further  observes, 
the  prayers  were  offered  up  in  public  forms,  while  the  pro- 
seuclia;  were  appropriat(^<l  to  private  (hwotions:  and  from  the 
oratory,  where  our  Saviour  spent  a  whole  nijrht  in  prayer, 
beinp;  erected  on  a  mountain  (liuke  vi.  I'J.),  it  is  hi<rhly  pro- 
babli!  that  these  ])roseucha'  wcw  the  same  as  the  high  places, 
SO  often  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament. i 


SECTION  IV. 

ON  THE  SYNAGOGUES. 


Form  of  a  Synagogue  Roll  of  llie  Pentaleuch. 

I.  JVature  and  origin  of  iiynagogties. — The  synaffogue  of  the 
libertines  explained. — II.  Form  of  the  synagogues. — III.  Tlie 
ojficersov  ministers. — W.  The  service  performed  iiL  the  syna- 
gogues.— V.  Ecclesiastical  power  of  the  synagogues. — VI. 
The  Shemo7ieh  Esreh,  or  j\'ineteen  Prayers  used  in  the  syna- 
gogue service, 

1.  The  Synagogues  were  buildings  in  which  the  Jews 
assembled  for  prayer,  reading  and  hearing  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, and  other  instructions.  Though  frecpiently  mentioned 
in  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament,  their  origin 
is  not  very  well  known  ;  and  many  learned  men  are  of 
opinion  that  they  are  of  recent  institution. 

Although  sacrifices  could  only  be  offered  at  the  holy  taber- 
nacle or  temple,  yet  it  does  not  apj)eur  that  the  Jews  were 
restricted  to  any  particular  place  for  the  performance  of  other 
exercises  of  devotion.  Hence  formerly,  the  praises  of  Jeho- 
vah were  sung  in  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  which  the 
more  devout  Israelites  seem  to  have  freriuented  on  Sabbath- 
days  and  new  moons  for  tlie  purpose  of  instruction  and 
prayer.  (ISam.  x.  5 — 11.  xix.  18 — 2t.  2  Kings  iv.  2.3.) 
During  the  I3abylonish  captivitj',  the  Jews,  being  deprived 
of  the  solemn  ordinances  of  divine  worship,  resorted  to  the 
house  of  some  prophet,  or  other  holy  man,  who  was  in  the 
practice  of  giving  religious  instruction  to  his  own  family, 
and  of  readiiig  the  Scriptures.  (Compare  Ezek.  xiv.  1.  and 
XX.  1.  with  Neh.  viii.  18.)  At  length  these  domestic  con- 
gregations became  fixed  in  certain  places,  and  a  regular  order 
of  conducting  divine  worship  was  introduced.  Philo-  thinks 
these  edifices  were  originally  instituted  by  Moses  :  but  as  no 
mention  is  made  of  them  during  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes,  their  origin  in  Jerusalem  is  referred  to  tlie  reigns  of 
the  Asmonaean  princes,  under  whom  they  were  first  erected, 
and  were  soon  greatly  multiplied  ;  though  in  Alexandria  and 
other  foreign  places,  where  the  Jews  were  dispersed,  they 
were  certainly  of  much  greater  anticiuity.-  There  appears  to 
be  an  allusion  to  them  in  Psal.  Ixxiv.  4. 8. 

In  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  synagogues  became  so  fre- 

1  Dr.  Hammond  on  Lukev  i.  12.  and  Acts  xvi.  13—16.  Calmet's  Diet,  voce 
Troseuctia.  Prideaux's  Connection,  part  i.  book  vi.  sub  anno  444.  vol  i. 
pp.  387—390.  edit.  1720. 

»  Ptiilo,  De  Vita  Mosis.  lib.  iii.  p.  685. 

»  Josephus,De  BeU.  Jud.  lib.  vii.  c.  3.  §3, 


quent,  that  they  were  to  be  found  in  almost  every  place  in 
.iuda?a:  but  the  Jews  were  not  permitted  to  build  one  in  a 
town,  unless  there  were  ten  persons  of  leisure  in  it.  Not 
fewer  than  four  hundred  and  eighty  synagogues  are  said  to 
have  been  erected  in  Jerusalem,  previcnisly  to  its  capture  and 
destruction  by  the  Romans.  In  the  evangelical  history  we 
find,  that  wherever  the  Jtiws  resided,  they  had  one  or  more 
synagogues,  constructed  after  those  at  Jerusalem  :  hence  we 
find,  in  Acts  vi.  9.  synagogues  belonging  to  the  Alexan- 
drians, the  Asiatics,  the  Cilicians,  the  Libertines,  and  the 
(Jyrenians,  which  were  erected  for  such  Jewish  inhabitants  of 
tho.se  countries  or  cities,  as  should  happen  to  be  at  Jerusalem. 

With  regard  to  the  synagogue  of  the  Liuektines,  a  consi- 
derable ditierence  of  opinion  exists  among  the  learned, 
whether  these  Libertines  were  the  children  of  freed  men 
(Italian  Jews  or  proselytes),  or  African  Jews  from  the  city 
or  country  called  Libertus,  or  Libertina,  near  Carthage.  The 
former  opinion  is  supported  by  Grotius  and  Vitringa;  the 
latter  (which  was  first  hinted  by  Oecumenius,  a  commenta- 
tor in  the  close  of  the  tenth  century),  by  Professor  Gerdes, 
VVetstein,  Uishop  Pearce,  and  Schleusner. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  ancient  Romans  made  a  distinc- 
tion between  the  Liberli  and  the  Libertini.  The  Libertus 
was  one  who  had  been  a  slave,  and  obtained  his  freedom  ;"* 
the  Libertinus  was  the  son  of  a  Libertus. "^  But  this  distinc- 
tion in  after-ages  was  not  strictly  observed  ;  and  1/ibertinus 
also  came  to  be  used  for  one  not  born  but  made  free,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Inf^enuus  or  o?ie  born  free.''  Whether  the  Libertini, 
mentioned  in  this  passage  of  the  Acts,  were  Gentiles,  who 
had  become  proselytes  to  Judaism,  or  native  Jews,  who  hav- 
ing been  macle  slaves  to  the  Romans  were  afterwards  set  at 
liberty,'  and  in  remembrance  of  their  captivity  called  them- 
selves Libertini,  and  formed  a  synagogue  by  themselves, 
is  differently  conjectured  by  the  learned.  It  is  proba- 
ble, that  the  Jews  of  Cyrene,  Alexandria,  &c.  erected  syna- 
gogues at  Jerusalem  at  their  own  charge,  for  the  use  of  their 
brethren  who  came  from  those  countries,  as  the  Danes, 
Swedes,  &c.  built  churches  for  the  use  of  their  own  country- 
men in  London;  andthattheltalian  Jews  did  the  same;  and  be- 
cause the  greatest  number  of  them  were  Libertini ,  their  syna- 
gogue was  therefore  called  the  synagogue  of  the  Libertines. 

In  support  of  the  second  opinion  above  noticed,  viz.  that 
the  Libertines  derived  their  name  from  Libertus  or  Libertina, 
a  city  in  Africa,  it  is  urged  that  Suidas  in  his  Lexicon,  on 
the  word  A/^v^'vif,  says,  that  it  was  cvo/au.  sSvruc,  a  national  ap- 

Sellative  ;  and  that  the  G/o.ssa  interlinearis,  of  which  Nicholas 
e  Lyra  made  great  use  in  his  notes,  has,  over  the  word  Li- 
bertini, e  rci^ione,  denoting  that  they  were  so  styled  from  a 
country.  Further,  in  the  acts  of  the  celebrated  conference 
with  the  Donatistsat  Carthage,  nn7Jo  411,  there  is  mentioned 
one  Victor,  bishop  of  the  church  of  Libertina ,-  and  in  the 
acts  of  the  Lateran  council,  which  was  held  in  619,  there  is 
mention  of  Junuarius  gratia  Dei  cpiscopus  sanctx  ecclesix  Li- 
bertincnsis,  Januarius,  by  the  grace  of  God,  bishop  of  the  holy 
church  of  Libertina ;  and  therefore  Fabricius  in  his  Geographi- 
cal Index  of  Christian  Bishoprics,  has  placed  Libertina  in  what 
was  called  Jfrica  propria,  or  the  proconsular  province  of 
Africa.  Now,  as  all  the  other  people  of  the  several  synagogues, 
mentioned  in  this  passage  of  the  Acts,  are  called  from  the 
places  whence  they  came,  it  is  probable  that  the  Libertines 
were  denominated  in  like  manner  ;  and  as  the  Cyrenians  and 
Alexandrians,  who  came  from  Africa,  are  placed  next  to  the 
Libertines  in  that  catalogue,  the  supporters  of  this  opinion 
think  it  probable,  that  they  also  belonged  to  the  same  coun- 
try. But  we  have  no  evidence  to  show  that  there  were  any 
natives  of  this  place  at  Jerusalem,  at  the  period  referred  to 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.     On  the  contrary,  as  it  is  well 

*  Cives  Romani  sunt  Liberti,  qui  vindicta,  ccnsu,  aut  testamento  nullo 
jure  iuipodiente  manumissi  sunt.    Ulpian.  tit.  i.  §6. 

'  This  appears  from  the  following  passage  ofSuetonius  concerning  Clau- 
dius, who,  he  says,  was,  ignarus  temporibus  Appii,  ct  deinceps  aliquamdiu 
Libertinos  dictos,  non  ipsos,  qui  manumittercniur,  sed  ingenuos  ex  bis 
procreatos.    In  vita  Claudii,  cap.  24.  §4.  p.  78.  Pilisci. 

«  Quintilian.  de  Institutione  Oratoria,  lib.  5.  cap.  10.  p.  246.  edit.  Gibson, 
1693.  Qui  servus  est,  si  manuniittatur,  fit  Libertinus — Justinian.  Institut 
lib.  i.  tit.  V.  Libertini  sunt,  qui  ex  justa  servitute  manumissi  sunt.  Tit.  iv. 
Insenuus  est  i.s,  qui  statim  ut  natus  est,  liber  est ;  sive  ex  duobus  ingenuia 
malriinnnio  aditus  est,  sive  ex  libertinis  duobus,  sive  ex  altero  libertino,  et 
altero  ingenuo. 

1  Of  these  there  were  great  numbers  at  Rome.  Tacitus  informs  us 
(Anal.  lib.  ii.  cap.  85.)  that  four  thousand  Libertini,  of  tlie  Jewish  supersti- 
tion, as  he  styles  it,  were  banished  at  one  time,  by  order  of  Tiberius,  into 
Sardinia  ;  and  the  rest  commanded  to  quit  Italy,  if  they  did  not  adjure,  by  a 
certain  day.  See  also  Suetonius  in  vita  Tiberii,  cap.  36.  JosephusOVntiq. 
lib.  xviii.  cap.  3.  §5.  edit.  Haverc.)  mentions  the  same  fact.  And  Philo  (Le- 
gat.  ad  Caiiun.  p.  785.  C.  edit.  Colon.  1613.)  speaks  of  a  good  part  of  the  city, 
beyond  the  Tiber,  as  inhabited  by  Jews,  who  were  mostly  Libertini,  having 
been  brought  to  Rome  as  capuves  and  slaves,  but,  being  made  free  by  their 
masters,  were  permitted  to  live  according  to  their  own  rites  and  customs. 


104 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


[Part  III.  Chap.  I. 


known  that,  only  about  fifteen  years  before,  ^eat  numbers  of 
Jews,  emancipated  slaves,  or  tlieir  sons,  wore  banished  from 
Rome,  it  is  most  likely  that  the  Libertines  mentioned  by 
Luke  were  of  the  latter  description,  especially  as  his  account 
is  corroborated  by  two  Roman  historians. 

IL  It  does  not  appear  from  the  New  Testameiit  that  tlie 
synafToofues  had  any  peculiar  Form.  The  hnildingof  them  was 
regar'ded  as  a  mark  of  piety  (Luke  vii.  5.) ;  and  they  were 
erected  within  or  without  the  city,  fjenerally  in  an  elevated 
place,  and  were  distinfjuished  from  the  proseucha;  by  beino- 
roofed.  Each  of  them  had  an  altar,  or  rather  table,  on  which 
the  book  of  the  law  was  spread ;  and  on  the  east  side  there 
was  an  ark  or  chest,  in  which  the  volume  of  the  law  was 
deposited.  The  seats  were  so  disposed  that  the  peonle  always 
sat  with  their  fiices  towards  the  elders,  and  the  place  where 
the  law  was  kept ;  and  the  elders  sat  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, that  is  to  say,  with  their  backs  to  the  ark  and  their 
faces  to  the  people.  The  seats  of  the  latter,  as  beins  placed 
nearer  the  ark,  were  accounted  the  more  holy,  and  hence 
they  are  in  the  New  Testament  termed  the  chief  seats  in  the 
synagogue ,-  which  the  Pharisees  affected  ;  and  for  which 
our  Lord  inveighed  against  them.  (Matt,  xxiii.  6.)  A  simi- 
lar precedency  seems  to  have  crept  into  the  places  of  wor- 
ship even  of  the  very  first  Christians,  and  hence  we  may 
account  for  the  indignation  of  the  apostle  James  (ii.^3.) 
against  the  imdue  preference  that  was  given  to  the  rich.  The 
women  were  separated  from  the  men,  and  sat  in  a  gallery 
enclosed  with  lattices,  so  that  they  could  distinctly  see  and 
hear  all  that  passed  in  the  synagogue,  without  themselves 
beinCT  exposed  to  view. 

III.  For  the  maintenance  of  good  order,  there  were  in 
every  synagogue  certain  Officers,  whose  business  it  was  to 
see  that  all  the  duties  of  religion  were  decently  performed 
therein.     These  were, — 

1.  The  Apxt<ruvAyfyoc,  Or  Biikr  of  the  synagogue.  (Luke 
xiii.  14.  Mark  v.  22.)  It  appears  from  Acts  xiii.  15.,  col- 
lated with  Mark  v.  22.  and  John  vi.  59.,  that  there  were  se- 
veral of  these  rulers  in  a  synagogue.  They  regulated  all  its 
concerns,  and  gave  permission  to  persons  to  preach.  They 
were  always  men  advanced  in  age,  and  respectable  for  their 
learning  and  probity.  The  Jews  termed  them  Hacamim,  that 
is,  sages  or  wise  men,  and  they  possessed  considerable  influ- 
ence and  authority.  They  were  judges  of  thefts,  and  simi- 
lar petty  offences :  and  to  them  Saint  Paul  is  supposed  to 
allude  in  1  Cor.  vi.  5.,  where  he  reproaches  the  Corinthian 
Christians  with  carrying  their  differences  before  the  tribunals 
of  the  Gentiles,  as  if  they  had  no  persons  among  them  who 
were  capable  of  determining  them.  Is  it  so,  says  he,  that 
there  is  not  a  wise  man  among  you  ?  no,  not  one  that  shall  be 
able  to  judge  between  his  brethren?  These  rulers,  likewise, 
had  the  power  of  inflicting  punishment  on  those  whom  they 
judged  to  be  rebellious  against  the  law ;  in  allusion  to  which 
circamstance  Christ  forewarned  his  disciples  that  they  should 
be  scourged  in  the  synagogues.  (Matt.  x.  17.) 

2.  Next  to  the  Apx,'^uvaiya)yo;,  or  ruler  of  the  synagogue, 
was  an  officer,  whose  province  it  was  to  offer  up  public  pray- 
ers to  God  for  the  whole  congregation :  he  was  called  'S'Ae- 
liach  Zibbor,  or  the  angel  of  the  church,  because,  as  their 
messenger,  he  spoke  to  God  for  them.'  Herice  also,  in  Rev. 
ii.  iii.  the  presiding  ministers  of  the  Asiatic  churches  are 
termed  angels. 

3.  The  Chazan  appears  to  have  been  a  different  officer 
from  the  Sheliach  Zibbor,  and  inferior  to  him  in  dignity.  He 
seems  to  have  been  the  person,  who  in  Luke  iv.  20.  is  term- 
ed uTryipim;,  the  minister,  and  who  had  the  charge  of  the 
sacred  books. 

IV.  The  service  performed  in  the  synagogue,  on  the  Sab- 
bath and  on  other  holy  days,  consisted  of  three  parts,  viz. 
prayer,  reading  the  Scriptures,  and  preaching,  or  exposition 
of  the  Scriptures. 

1.  The  first  part  of  the  synagogue  service  is  Prayer,-  for 
the  performance  of  which,  according  to  Dr.  Prideaux,  they 
had  liturgies,  in  which  are  all  the  prescribed  forms  of  the 
synagogue  worship.  The  most  solemn  part  of  these  prayers 
are  the  mt:'j?njratt'  (shcmonch  esrch),  or  the  eighteen  prayers, 
which,  according  to  the  rabbles,  were  composed  and  insti- 
tuted by  Ezra,  in  order  that  the  Jews,  whose  language  after 
the  captivity  was  corrupted  with  many  barbarous  terms  bor- 
rowed from  other  languages,  might  be  able  to  perform  their 
devotions  in  the  pure  language  of  their  own  country.  Such 
is  the  account  which  Maimonides  gives,  out  of  the  Gemara, 
of  the  origin  of  the  Jewish  liturgies;  and  the  eighteen  col- 
lects, in  particular,  are  mentioned  in  the  Mishna.     However, 


some  better  evidence  than  that  of  the  talmudical  rabbles  is 
requisite,  in  order  to  prove  their  liturgies  to  be  of  so  high  an 
antiquity ;  especially  since  some  of  their  prayers,  as  Dr.  Pri- 
deaux acknowledges,  seem  to  have  been  composed  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  have  reference  to  it.  It  is 
evident  they  were  composed  when  there  was  neither  temple 
nor  sacrifice ;  since  the  seventeenth  collect  prays,  that  God 
would  restore  his  worship  to  the  inner  part  of  his  house,  and 
make  haste,  with  fervour  and  love,  to  accept  the  burnt  sacri- 
fices of  Israel,'  &c.  They  could  not,  therefore,  be  the  com- 
position of  Ezra,  who  did  not  receive  his  commission  from 
Artaxerxes  to  go  to  Judaea,  till  more  than  fifty  years  after  the 
second  temple  was  built,  and  its  worship  restored.  The 
probability  is,  that  the  forms  of  prayer  for  the  synagogue 
worship  were  at  first  very  few,  and  that  some  luere  in  use  in 
the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  number  of  which  was  subse- 
quently increased.  To  the  eighteen  prayers  above  mentioned, 
another  was  added,  a  short  time  before  the  destruction  of 
the  second  temple,  by  Rabbi  Gamaliel,  or,  according  to  some 
writers,  by  Raobi  Samuel,  one  of  his  scholars.  It  is  di- 
rected against  apostates  and  heretics,  appellations  which  the 
Jews  liberally  employed  to  designate  all  Christians,  whether 
of  Jewish  or  of  Gentile  descent.  This  additional  prayer  is 
now  inserted  as  the  twelfth,  and  the  number  is  nineteen. 
They  are  required  to  be  said  by  all  Jews  without  exception, 
who  are  of  age,  three  times  every  day,  either  in  public,  at 
the  synagogue,  or  at  their  own  houses,  or  wherever  they 
may  happen  to  be.  As  some  readers  may  be  curious  to  see 
tliem,  they  are  subjoined,  at  the  end  of  this  section.^ 

2.  The  second  part  of  this  synagogue  service  is  the  read 
ing  of  the  Scriptures,  which  is  of  three  sorts, — the  Kirioth- 
Shema,  the  reading  of  the  whole  law  of  Moses,  and  portions 
out  of  the  prophets,  and  the  Hagiographa  or  holy  writings. 
(1.)  The  Kirioth-Shema  consists  of  three  portions  of  Scrip- 
ture, viz.  Deut.  vi.  6 — 9.  xi.  13 — 21.  Num.  xv.  37 — 41. 
As  the  first  of  these  portions  commences  with  the  word 
shema,  that  is,  hear,  they  are  collectively  termed  the  Shema, 
and  the  reading  of  them  is  called  kirioth-shema,  or  the  read- 
ing of  the  Shema.  This  reading  or  recital  is  preceded  and 
followed  by  several  prayers  and  benedictions ;  and,  next  to 
the  saying  of  the  nineteen  prayers  above  noticed,  is  the  most 
solemn  part  of  the  religious  service  of  the  Jews ;  who,  be- 
lieving the  commands  in  Deut.  vi.  7.  and  xi.  19.  to  be  of 
perpetual  obligation,  repeat  the  Shema  daily,  every  morning 
and  evening. 

(2.)  The  Law  was  divided  into  fifty-three,  according  to 
the  Masorets,  or,  according  to  others,  fifty-four  ParascKioth 
or  sections :  for  the  Jewish  year  consisted  of  twelve  lunar 
months,  alternately  of  twenty-nine  or  thirty  days,  that  is,  of 
fifty  weeks  and  four  days.  The  Jews,  therefore,  in  their 
division  of  the  law  into  Paraschioth  or  sections,  had  a  respect 
to  their  intercalary  year,  which  was  every  second  or  third, 
and  consisted  of  thirteen  months ;  so  that  tne  whole  law  was 
read  over  this  year,  allotting  one  Paraschioth  or  section  to 
every  Sabbath ;  and  in  common  years  they  reduced  the  fifty- 
three  or  fifty-four  sections  to  the  number  of  the  fifty  Sabbaths, 
by  reading  two  shorter  ones  together,  as  often  as  there  was 
occasion.  They  began  the  course  of  reading  the  first  Sab- 
bath after  the  feast  of  tabernacles ;  or  rather,  indeed,  on  the 
Sabbath-day  before  that,  when  they  finish'ed  the  last  course 
of  reading,  they  also  made  a  beginning  of  the  new  course ; 
that  so,  as  the  rabbles  say,  the  devil  might  not  accuse  them 
to  God  of  being  weary  of  reading  his  law. 

(3.)  The  portions  selected  out  of  the  prophetical  writings 
are  termed  Haphtoroth.  When  Antiochus  Epiphanes  con- 
quered the  Jews  about  the  year  163  before  the  Christian  sera, 
he  prohibited  the  public  reading  of  the  law  in  the  synagogues, 
on  pain  of  death.  The  Jews,  in  order  that  they  might  not 
be  wholly  deprived  of  the  word  of  God,  selected  from  other 
parts  of  the  Sacred  Writings  ^//?/-/our  portions,  which  were 
termed  haphtoras,  miDijn  (hophtoroth),  from  -yau  (paxaR^, 
he  dismissed,  let  loose,  opened — for  though  the  Law  was  dis- 
missed from  their  synagogues,  and  was  closed  to  them  by  the 
edict  of  this  persecuting  king,  yet  the  prophetic  writings,  not 
being  under  tne  interdict,  were  left  open;  and  therefore  they 

«  Tlie  fifth,  tenth,  eleventh,  and  fourteenth  collects  have  the  same  allu- 
sion and  reference  as  the  seventeenth.  See  the  original  prayers  in  Mai- 
monides de  Ordine  Precum,  or  in  Vitringat  (de  Synag.  vetere,  lib.  iii.  part 
ii.  cap.  11.  pp.  1033 — 1038.)  who  observes  that  the  Talmudists  will  have  the 
seventeenth  collect,  which  prays  for  the  restoration  of  the  temple  worship, 
(reduc  ministerium  Ltviticum  in  Adytum  Domus  tute,  as  he  translates  itj, 
to  have  been  usually  recited  by  the  king  in  the  temple  at  the  feast  of  taber- 
nacles ;  which  is  such  an  absurdity  that  it  confutes  itself,  and  shows  how 
little  the  Jewish  traditions  concerning  the  antiquity  and  use  of  their  liturgies 
are  to  be  depended  upon.  a  See  pp.  106, 107.  infra. 


Sect.  IV.] 


OF  THE  SYNAGOGUE. 


105 


used  Ihc^ii  in  place  of  the  others.  It  was  from  this  custom 
of  the  Jfvvs,  tliat  the  primitive  Christians  adoptod  theirs,  of 
readirijr  a  h-ssoii  evf^ry  .Sal)bath  oat  of  tlio  ()hl  and  New 
Tostamcnts.  TIk!  followiiiir  tahU^s  exhibit  the  panisehioth 
or  section  of  tiie  law,  and  the  haphtorolh  or  sections  of  the 


prophets  (which  were  substituted  for  the  former),  as  they 
nave  been  read  together  ever  since  the  days  of  the  Asmo- 
nxans  or  Maccabet  s,  and  as  they  contiime  to  be  read  in  the 
various  synacrngues  belongiiigf  to  the  English,  Portuguese, 
Italian,  Dutch,  and  German  Jews. 


A  GENERAL  VIEW  of  all  the  sections  of  the  law,  and  sections  of  the  prophets,  as  read  in 

THE    DIFFERENT    JEWISH    SYNAGOGUES    FOR    EVERY    SABBATH    OF    THE    YEAR. 


PARASCHIOTH,  or  Sections  of  the  Law. 

Sect.  GENESIS. 

i.  n>a'-i3  13orcshith, i.  1.  to  vi.  8. 

ii.  T\i  PiiSn  Tyledoth  noach, vi.  9.  to  xi.  32. 

iii.  -p  i'?  Ijcc  Icca xii.  1.  to  xvii.  27. 

iv.  N-\>i  Vaiyrra, xviii.  l.toxxii.  24. 

v.  m::' n'>n  Chaiyeh  Sarah, xxiii.  I.  to  xxv.  18. 

vi.  m^n  Toledoth, xxv.  19.  to  xxviii.  9. 

vii.  NX»i  Vaiyctse, xxviii.  10.  to  xxxii.  3. 

vlii.  n'r'J'M  Vaiyislilach, xxxii.  4.  to  xxxvi.  43. 

ix.  ai-n  Vaiyesheb, xxxvii.  1.  to  xl.  23. 

X.  Vi-iD  Mikkcts, xii.  1.  to  xliv.  17. 

xi.  B'JM  Vaiyigijash, xliv.  18.  to  xlvii.  27. 

xii.  ixv^  Vayechci, xlvii.  28.  to  1.  26. 

EXODUS. 

xiii.  ^l10t^'  Shcmoth, i.  1.  to  vi.  1. 

xiv.  n-.Ni  Vacra, vi.  2.  to  ix.  35. 

XV.  nyiD  *?!<  Na  Bo  el  Paraoh, . . .  .x.  1.  to  xiii.  16. 

xvi.  n'7;j'3  Beshalach, xiii.  17.  to  xvii.  16. 

xvii.  \-\rv>  Yithro, xviii.  1.  to  xx.  26. 

xviii.  D'l3Dl^'D  Mishpatim, xxi.  1.  to  xxiv.  18. 

xix.  nDViP  Terumah,  . , xxv.  1.  to  xxvii.  19. 

XX.  nixn  Tctsavch xxvii.  20.  to  xxx.  10. 

xxi.  HZ'n  '3  Kci  tissa, xxx.  11.  to  xxxiv.  35. 

xxii.  'jnp'i  Vaiyakhel, xxxv.  1.  to  xxxviii.  20. 

xxiii.  inipD  Pekudey, xxxviii.  21.  to  xl.  38. 

LEVITICUS. 

xxiv.  H-^pi\  Vaiyikra, i.  1.  to  vi.  7. 

xxv.  IS  N->|i'i  Vaiyikra  Tsau, vi.  8.  to  viii.  36 

xxvi.  y^T^^y  Shemini, ix.  1.  to  xi.  47. 

xxvii.  J;^-lr^  Tazria, xii.  1.  to  xiii.  59. 

xxviii.  ynxD  Metsora, xiv.  1.  to  xv.  33. 

xxix.  ni3  >-inN  Acharey  Moth, xvi.  1.  to  xviii.  30. 

xxx.  D''w'-ip  Kedushim xix.  1.  to  xx.  27. 

xxxi.  ncN  Emor, xxi.  1.  to  xxiv.  23 

xxxii.  ij'D  ina  Behar  Sinai, xxv.  1.  to  xxvi.  2. 

xxxiii.  •'T^pn^  Bechukkotai, xxvi.  3.  to  xxvii.  34. 

NUMBERS. 

xxxvi.  nanca  Bemidbar, i.  1.  to  iv.  20. 

xxxv.  nz'i  Naso, iv.  21.  to  vii.  89. 

xxxvi.  -^nSyna  Behaalotica, viii.  1.  to  xii.  16. 

xxxvii.  is;;.  Shclach, xiii.  1.  to  xv.  41. 

xxxviii.  n->|i  Korach, xvi.  1.  to  xviii.  32. 

xxxix.  npn  Chukkath, xix.  1.  to  xxii.  1. 

xl.  p^j  Balak, xxii.  2.  to  xxv.  9. 

xii.  2nj<D  Pinchas, xxv.  10.  to  xxx.  1. 

xiii.  ni3C  Mattoth, xxx.  2.  to  xxxii.  42. 

xliii.  <yDD  Masey, xxxiii.  I.  to  xxxvi.  13. 

DEUTERONOMY. 

xliv.  D'">aT  Dcbarim, i.  1.  to  iii.  22. 

xiv.  j:nnNi  Vaethchanan, iii.  23.  to  vii.  1 1. 

xlvi.  3py  Ekeb vii.  12.  to  xi.  25. 

xlvii.  r.NT  Rech, xi.  26.  to  xvi.  17. 

xlviii.  D'JD^'  Shophetim, xvi.  18.  to  xxi.  9. 

xlix.  Nyn  Tetse, xxi.  10.  to  xxv.  19. 

1.  Ni3n  Tabo, xxvi.  1.  to  xxix.  8. 

li.  DOVJ  Nitsabim xxix.  9.  to  xxx.  20. 

Hi.  -|S>i  Vaiyelec, xxxi.  1.  to  xxxi.  30. 

liii.  ij'TXn  Haazinu, xxxii.  1.  to  xxxii.  52. 

liv.  n3"i3n  mnVezotHabaracah,.  .xxxiii.  1.  to  xxxiv.  12. 


HAPHTOROTH,  or  Sections  of  the  Prophets. 

Porlug-uese  and  Italian  Jews.        German  and  Dutch  Jews, 

Isa.  xiii.  5 — 21 Isa.  xiii.  5 — 25.  xliii.  10. 

Isa.  liv.  1—10 Isa.  liv.  1—17.  Iv.  1 — 5. 

Isa.  xl.  27—31.  xii.  1— 10 Ditto. 

2  KiiiRs  iv.  1—23 2  Kings  iv.  1. — 37. 

1  Kings  i.  1 — 31 Ditto. 

Mai.  i.  1—14.  ii.  1—7 Ditto. 

Hos.  xi.  7 — 12.  xii.  1 — 1 1 Ditto. 

Obad.  i.  1—21 Hos.  xii.  12-14.  xiii.  1-16 

Amos  ii.  1 — 16.  iii.  1 — 8 Ditto. 

1  Kings  iii.  15—28.  iv.  1 Ditto. 

Ezck.  xxxvii.  15 — 28 Ditto. 

1  Kings  ii.  1 — 12 Ditto. 


Jpr.  i.  1 — 19.  ii.  1 — 3 Isa.  xxvii.  6.  to  xxix.  23. 

Ezek.  xxviii.  25.  to  xxix.  21 Ditto. 

Jer.  xlvi.  13—28 Ditto. 

Judg.  V.  1 — 31 Judg.  iv.  4.  to  v.  1 — 31. 

Isa.  vi.  1 — 31 Isa.vi.  1-13.  vii.  1-6.  ix.  6,7. 

Jer.  xxxiv.  8 — 22.  and  xxxiii.  25,  26..  Ditto. 

1  Kings  V.  12 — 18.  vi.  1 — 13 Ditto. 

Ezek.  xliii.  10—27 Ditto. 

1  Kings  xviii.  20—39 1  Kings  xviii.  1 — 39.' 

1  Kings  vii.  1 3—26 1  Kings  vii.  40 — 50. 

1  Kings  vii.  40 — 50 1  Kings  vii.  51.  viii.  1 — 21. 


Isa.  xliii.  21 — 28.  xliv.  1 — 25 Ditto. 

Jer.  vii.  21 — 34.  viii.  1 — 3.  ix.  23,  24.. Ditto. 

2  Sam.  vi.  1—19 2  Sam.  vi.  1-23.  vii.  1-17. 

2  Kings  iv.  42 — 44.  v.  1 — 19 Ditto. 

2  Kings  vii.  3 — 20 Ditto. 

Amos  ix.  7 — 15 Ezek.  xxii.  1 — 19. 

Ezek.  XX.  2—20 Amosix.  7 — 15. 

Ezek,  xliv.  15 — 31 Ditto. 

Jer.  xxxii.  6—27 Ditto. 

Jer.  xvi.  19—21.  xvii.  1 — 14 Ditto. 


Hos.  i.  10,11.  ii.  1—20 Ditto. 

Judg.  xiii.  2 — 25 Ditto. 

Zech.  ii.  10—13.  iii.  1 — 13.  iv.  1—7.  Ditto. 

Josh.  ii.  1 — 24 Amos  ix.  7 — 15. 

1  Sam.  xi.  14,  15.  xii.  1 — 22 Ditto. 

Judg.  xi.  1 — 33 Ditto. 

Micah  V.  7 — 15.  vi.  1 — 8 Ditto. 

1  Kings  XX.  46.  xix.  1 — 21 Ditto. 

Jer.  i.  1— 19.ii.  1—3 Ditto. 

Jer.  ii.  4 — 28.  iv.  1,  2 Jer.  ii.  4 — 28.  iiL  4. 


Isa.  i   1—27 

Ditto. 

xl.  1 — 26 

Ditto. 

xlix.  14—26.   1.  1—3 

Ditto. 

liv.  11—17.  Iv.  1—5 

Ditto. 

Ii.  12— 23.  Iii.  1—12 

Ditto. 

liv.  1 — 10 

Ditto 

Ix.  1—22 

Ditto 

Ixi.  10,  11.  Ixii.  1-12.  Ixiii.  1-9...  Ditto. 

Hos.  xiv.  1—9.  Mic.  vii.  18 — 20 Isa.  Iv.  6 — 13.  Ivi.  1 — 8. 

2  Sam.  xxii.  1 — 51.  Some  say  Ezek. 

xvii.  22 — 24.  xviii.  1—32 Hos.  xiv.  1-9.  Joel  iL  l-27.< 

Josh.  i.  1-18.  Eccl.  i.-xii.  inclusive,. .  .Ditto.2 


'  It  is  a  circumstance  highly  deservins  of  notice,  that  the  celebrated  pro- 
phecy,  quoted  by  the  apostle  Peter  on  the  dav  of  Penlecost  from  the  pro- 
phet Joel  (ii.  23—32.)  forms  apart  of  the  Pentecostal  seri-ice  of  the  Karaite 
Jews  in  the  Crimea.  'Such,  however,  is  the  fact ;  and  mav  we  not  con- 
clude, from  the  pertinacity  wiUi  which  this  ancient  sect  have  adhered  to 
Vol.  XL  O 


their  primitive  institutions,  that  the  same  coincidence  took  place  in  the 
apos'olic  age  ?"     Dr.  Henderson's  Biblical  Researches,  &c.  p.  326. 

»  The  above  tables  are  copied  from  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary  on  Deut. 
xxxiv.,  who  states  that  he  has  in  general  followed  the  divisions  in  the  best 
Masoretic  Bibles,  from  which  our  common  English  Bibles  in  some  case* 


106 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


[Part  III.  Chap.  I, 


In  the  synagogues  of  the  Hellenists  or  Greek  Jews,  the 
law  was  always  read  in  the  Alexandrian  or  Greek  version :' 
but  in  those  of  the  native  Jews,  the  law  was  always  read  in 
Hebrew ;  whence  it  became  necessary,  as  soon  as  that  lan- 
guage ceased  to  be  vernacular  among  the  Jews,  to  establish 
an  rnter])reter,  by  whom  the  Jewish  Scriptures  were  ex- 
pounded in  the  Chaldce  diaU^ct,  which  was  spoken  by  them 
after  the  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity. 2  The  doctor 
or  reader,  therefore,  having  the  interpreter  always  by  him, 
softly  whispered  in  his  ears  what  he  said,  and  this  interpre- 
ter repeated  aloud  to  the  people  what  had  thus  been  comnm- 
nicated  to  him.  To  this  custom  our  Saviour  is  supposed  to 
have  alluded  when  he  said  to  his  disciples,  TV/iat  ye  hear  in 
the  car.  Ihai  preach  i/e  upon  the  hiiusctops.   (Matt.  X.  21. Y 

3.  The  third  and  last  part  of  the  synagogue  service  is, 
Exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  and  Preaching  to  the  people  from 
them.  Thefirst  was  performed  at  the  time  of  reading  them, 
and  the  other  after  the  reading  of  the  law  and  the  prophets. 
In  Luke  iv.  15 — 22.  we  have  an  account  of  the  service  of 
the  synagogue  in  the  time  of  Christ;  from  wliich  it  appears 
that  he  taught  the  Jews  in  both  these  ways:  And  he  taught 
in  their  synagogues,  being  glorified  of  all.  And  he  came  to 
Nazareth,  where  he  had  been  brought  up,-  and  as  his  custom 
was,  he  went  into  the  synagogue  on  the  Sabbath-day,  and  stood 
up  for  to  read.  And  there  was  delivered  unto  him  the  book  of 
the  prophet  Esaias  ,-  and  when  he  had  unrolled  the  volume'^  he 
found  the  place  where  it  was  written,  "  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord, 
is  upon  me,  because  he  hath  anointed  me  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
the  poor ,-  he  hath  sent  me  to  heal  the  broken-hearted,  to  preach 
deliverance  to  the  captives,  and  recovering  of  sight  to  the  blind,- 
to  set  at  liberty  them  that  are  bruised,-  to  preach  the  acceptable 
year  of  the  Lord  /^^  And  he  folded  the  volume,^  and  he  gave  it 
again  to  the  minister  and  sat  dvwn  .-  and  the  eyes  of  all  them 
that  were  in  the  synagogue  were  fastened  071  him.  .dnd  he 
began  to  say  unto  them.-  This  day  is  this  Scripture  fulfilled  in 
your  ears.  And  all  bare  him  loitness,  and  wondered  at  the  gra- 
cious word's  that  proceeded  out  of  his  mouth. 

From  this  passage  we  learn,  that  when  Jesus  Christ  came 
to  Nazareth,  his  own  city,  he  was  called  out,  as  a  member 
of  that  synagogue,  to  read  the  haphtorah,  that  is,  the  section  or 
lesson  out  of  the  prophets  for  that  day ;  which  appears  to  have 
been  the  fifty-first  haphtorah,  and  to  have  cotnmenced  with 
i\\c,  first  verse  of  Isa.  Ixi.  and  not  with  the  tenth,  as  in  the 
table  above  given.  "  Have  the  Jews,"  asks  an  eminent 
commentator,  "  altered  this  haphtorah,  knowing  the  use 
which  our  blessed  Lord  made  of  it  among  their  ancestors'?"" 
Furtlier  he  stood  up  (as  it  was  customary,  at  least  for  the 
officiating  miiuster  to  do  out  of  reverence  for  the  word  of 
God)  to  read  the  Scriptures  ;  and  unrolled  the  manuscript 
until  he  came  to  the  lesson  appointed  for  that  day;  which 
having  read  he  rolled  it  up  again,  and  gave  it  to  the  proper 
officer ;  and  then  he  sat  down  and  expounded  it,  agreeably 
to  the  usage  of  the  Jews.*"  But  when  Christ  entered  any 
synagogue  of  which  he  was  not  a  member  (as  it  appears 
from  Luke  iv.  16.  he  always  did  on  every  Sabbath-day, 
wherever  he  was),  he  taught  the  people  in  sermons  after  the 
law  and  the  prophets  had  heen  read.  The  Sacred  Writings, 
used  to  this  day  in  all  the  Jewish  synagogues,  are  written  on 
skins  of  parchment  or  vellum,  and  (like  the  ancient  copies) 
rolled  on  two  rollers,  beginning  at  each  end  :  so  that,  in  read- 
will  be  found  to  vary  a  little.  On  the  above  tables,  Br.  Clarke  remarks,  that 
though  the  Jews  are  agreed  in  the  sections  of  the  law  that  are  read  every 
Sabbath;  yet  they  are  not  agreed  in  the  haphforolh,  nr  seclions  from  tlie 
prophets  ;  as  it  appears  above,  that  the  Dutch  and  German  Jews  differ  in 
several  cases  from  tlie  llalian  and  Portusnese  ;  and  there  are  some  slighter 
variations  besides  those  above,  which  he  has  not  noticed. 

'  Tertnlliaiii  Apologia,  c.  18. 

■»  From  this  practice  originated  the  Chaldee  Paraphrases,  of  which  an 
account  has  been  given  in  the  first  volume  of  this  work. 

«  Ur  Liglnfoot's  ilorcB  Hebraicffi,  on  Malt.  x.  27. 

«  "  Ai.:<^Tu^«s  TO  SiS^ioi/.  This  word  signifies  to  unfold,  ■unroll.  The 
books  of  the  ancients  were  written  on  parchment  and  rolled  up.     Hence 

the  word  volume.      ^KK'  oujt  avc£WTuJ:cvT»^  mutou;  xjei  Tui  xnpi  TTipiixk^vTli 

M  ,\i\oi,-  ;  Why  do  we  not  unfold  our  arms,  and  clasp  each  other  in  them! 
Dion.  Ilalicarn.  lib.  vi.  p.  392.  iludson.  T>ii/  iTna-ioKtiv  ANAiiTTfirAv, 
nnfolding  the  letter.  Josephus,  de  vita  sua,  p.  21.  Havercamp.  rpccj-*,- 
ts  ?.;*.. ov  -ix.  iSou^sTO,  i\.i,i/  TcuK  lltpTiui-  iTTO, y)<rx-,o,  /<iT«  Si,  ANAnTT.-AS;, 
TO  BIRAION,"  [the  very  expression  of  the  evangelist.]  Herodotus,  lib.  i.  c. 
12.').  loni.  i.  p.  158.  edit.  Oxon.  1809.  Dr.  Harvvood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii. 
1).  181. 

»  Or.  A.  Clarke,  on  Deut  xxxiv. 

■■  Tn  like  manner,  according  to  the  custom  of  their  public  instnirfers, 
we  find  our  Saviour  si««)o-  down  (Matt  v.  1.)  before  he  began  to  deliver 
his  sermon  on  the  mount  to  the  assembled  multitudes  ;  and  upon  another 
<K  casion  .fitting  down,  and  out  of  the  ship  teaching  the  peojile  who  were 
collected  on  the  shore.  (Matt.  xiii.  1.)  So  also  it  is  said  of  the  scribes,  who 
were  the  Jewish  clergy,  that  they  sat  (Matt,  xxiii.  2.)  in  Moses'  chair: 
whatever  therefore  they  hid  you  observe,  tliat  observe  and  do,  but  do  not 
ajter  their  wor/cs,for  they  say  and  do  not. 


ing  from  right  to  left,  they  roll  off  with  the  left,  while  they 
roll  on  with  the  right  hand.s  The  vignette,  at  the  head  of  this 
section,  will  convey  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
Synagogue  Rolls  are  unrolled.  It  is  taken  from  the  original 
and  very  valuable  manuscript  in  the  British  Museum,  which 
is  described  in  Vol.  I.  Part  1.  chap.  iii.  sect.  i.  §  ii. 

"  It  should  seem  also,  at  least  in  foreign  countries  where 
places  of  worship  were  established,  that  when  strangers, 
who  were  Jews,  arrived  at  such  towns,  and  went  to  offer 
their  devotions,  it  was  usual  for  the  presidents  of  the  syna- 
gogue, after  the  appointed  portion  out  of  the  law  and  the  pro- 
phets was  read,  to  send  a  servant  to  them,  and  in  a  very 
respectful  manner  to  request  that  if  they  could  impart  any 
thing  that  might  contribute  to  the  religious  instruction  and 
edification  of  the  audience,  they  would  deliver  it.  This  token 
of  respect  and  politeness  shown  to  strangers,  appears  from 
the  following  passage  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  (Acts  xiii, 
14,  15.)  When  Paul  and  his  companions,  on  their  arrival 
at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  went  into  the  Jewish  synagoo^ue  on 
the  Sabbath-day,  and  sat  down  after  the  reading  of  the  law 
and  the  prophets,  the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  sent  to  them, 
saying,  Men  and  brethren,  if  ye  have  any  word  of  exhortation 
for  the  people,  say  on.  Upon  which  Paul  stood  up,  and  beck- 
oning with  his  hand  said,  Men  of  Israel,  and  ye  that  fear  God, 
give  audience.''''^ 

The  synagogues,  however,  were  not  only  places  set  apart 
for  prayer ;  they  were  also  schools  where  youth  were  in- 
structed. The  sages  (for  so  were  the  teachers  called)  sat 
upon  elevated  benches,  while  the  pupils  stood  at  their  feet 
or  before  them;'"  which  circumstance  explains  St.  Paul's 
meaning  (Acts  xxii.  3.)  when  he  says  that  he  was  brought 
up  AT  THE  FEET  of  Gamaliel. 

V.  Those  who  had  been  guilty  of  any  notorious  crime,  or 
were  otherwise  thought  unworthy,  were  cast  out  of  these 
synagogues,  that  is,  excommunicated,  and  excluded  from 
partaking  with  the  rest  in  the  public  prayers  and  religious 
offices  there  performed ;  so  that  they  were  looked  upon  as 
mere  heathens,  and  shut  out  from  all  benefit  of  the  Jewish 
religion,  which  exclusion  was  esteemed  scandalous.  We 
are  told  that  the  Jews  came  to  a  resolution,  that  whoever  con- 
fessed that,  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  he  should  be  put  out  of  the 
synagogue.  (John  ix.  22.)  And,  therefore,  when  the  blind 
man,  who  had  been  restored  to  sight,  persisted  in  confessing 
that  he  believed  ,the  person  who  had  been  able  to  work  such 
a  miracle  could  not  have  done  it,  if  he  were  not  of  God,  they 
cast  him  out.  (ver.  33,  34.)ii 

VI.  The  following  are  the  Shemoneh  Esreh,  or  nineteen 
prayers  of  the  Jews,  referred  to  in  page  104.  as  translated  by 
Dr.  Prideaux.  That  which  was  formerly  the  nineteenth  is 
now  the  twelfth  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand  in  the  Jewish 
liturgies.  The  first  ox  precatory  part  of  each  article  was  pro- 
nounced by  the  priest,  and  the  last  or  eucharistical  part  was 
the  response  of  the  people. 

"  1.  Blessed  be  thou,  0  Lord  our  God,  the  God  of  our 
fiTthers,  the  God  of  Abraham,  the  God  of  Isaac,  the  God  of 
Jacob,  the  great  God,  powerful  and  tremendous,  the  high 
God,  bountifully  dispensing  benefits,  the  creator  and  possessor 
of  the  universe,  who  rememberest  the  good  deeds  of  our  fa- 
thers, and  in  thy  love  sendest  a  Redeemer  to  those  who  are 
descended  from  them,  for  thy  name's  sake,  O  King  our  Lord 
and  helper,  our  Saviour  and  our  shield. — Blessed  art  thou,  0 
Lord,  ivlio  art  the  shield  of  Abraham  ! 

"  2.  Thou,  0  Lord,  art  powerful  for  ever ;  thou  raisest  the 
dead  to  life,  and  art  mighty  to  save ;  thou  sendest  down  the 
dew,  stillest  the  winds,  and  makest  the  rain  to  come  down 
upon  the  earth,  and  sustainest  with  thy  beneficence  all  that 

«  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Luke  vi.  17. 

»  Dr.  Harwood's  Inlrod.  vol.  ii.  p.  1S2. 

>o  Fleury,  Laniy,  and  other  eminent  critics,  have  supposed  that  the  Jew- 
ish yo^Jth  sat  on  low  seats  or  on  the  ground,  at  the  feet  of  their  preceptors, 
who  occupied  a  lofty  chair  ;  but  Vitringa  has  shown,  from  Jewish  authority, 
that  the  disciples  of  the  rabbins  stood  before  them  in  the  manner  above 
reoresented.  See  his  treatise  de  Synag.  Vet.  lib.  i.  p.  1.  c.  7.  Kypke 
(Observ.  Sacroe,  in  Nov.  Feed.  Libros,  vol.  ii.  pp.  114,  115.)  has  collected  a 
variety  of  passages  from  Greek  writers,  to  show  that  the  expressionv^r^jp* 
T0U5  7roV:«5  at  the  feet,  is  equivalent  to  5rXi|<rioi/,  near  or  before. 

"  The  preceding  account  of  the  Jewish  Synagogues  has  been  compiled 
from  Lainy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  vol.  ii.  pp.  219—221.  Prideaux's  Connec- 
tions (book  vi.  sub  anno  444),  vol.  i.  pp.  374—391.  Fleury's  Manners  of 
the  Israelites  by  Dr.  Clarke,  pp.  336—338.  Pictet,  Antiq.  Judaiques,  pp. 
12—14.  (Theol.  Chret.  tom.  iii.)  Schulzii  Archreol.  Hebr.  pp.  225,  226. 
Rcland's  .\nliq.  Hebr.  part  i.  c.  10.  pp.  120—140.  Ikenii  Antiq.  Hebr.  parti, 
c.  9.  pp.  KXJ — 105.  Schachtii  Animadversiones  ad  Ikenii  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp. 
452—470.  Lardner's  Credibility,  book  i.  c.  9.  §6.  Pritii  Introd.  ad  Nov.  Test, 
pp.  447.  595 — 608,;  and  Dr.  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  ii.  c.  2.  ~ 
Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  204—208.  Beausobre's  and  L'Enfant's  Introd.  • 
Bp.  Watson's  Theol.  Tracts,  pp.  158 — 169.  On  the  synagogue-worship  of 
the  modern  Jews,  see  Mr.  Allen's  Modern  Judaism,  pp.  319—351. 


Sect.  IV.] 


OF  THE  SYNAGOGUE. 


107 


are  therein ;  and  of  thy  abundant  mercy  makest  the  dead 
again  to  live.  Thou  raisest  up  those  who  f.ill ;  thou  healest 
the  sick,  thou  loosest  them  who  are  hf)und,  ■and  m;iUest  good 
thy  word  of  truth  to  thosi;  who  sleep  in  the  duKt.  Who  is 
to  he  compared  to  tiiee,  O  tliou  Loitn  of  mi'^^lit !  and  who  is 
like  unto  thee,  O  our  Kiuir,  who  killcst  and  makest  alive, 
and  makest  salvation  to  spring  as  the  grass  in  the  field! 
Thou  art  failliful  to  make  the  dead  to  rise  again  to  life. — 
Bleascd  art  tJioii,  0  LoitD,  w/io  rai.scxi  the  (liad  a<(/ihi  to  I'fe  ! 

"  3.  Thou  art  holy,  and  tliy  name  is  holy,  ami  thy  saints 
do  praise  thee  every  day.  Selah.  For  a  great  king  and  a 
holy  art  thou,  0  God. — Blessed  art  thou,  (J  Lord  God,  most 
holy  ! 

"4.  Tliou  of  thy  mercy  givest  knowledge  unto  men,  and 
teachest  them  understanding  :  give,  graciously  unto  us  know- 
ledge, wisdom,  and  understanding. — Blcsxid  art  t/iou,  O 
Lord,  who  i^raciounly  trivisf  kiioudidi^c  unto  nun  ! 

"  5.  Bring  us  bac-k,  O  our  Father,  to  the  observance  of  thy 
law,  and  make  us  to  adhere  to  thy  precepts,  and  do  thou,  O 
our  King,  draw  us  near  to  thy  worship,  and  convert  us  to 
thee  by  perfijct  repentance  in  thy  presence. — Blexned  art  tluju, 
O  Lord,  ivho  vouclusafrst  to  receive  us  by  repentance  .' 

"  0.  Be  thou  merciful  unto  us,  O  our  Father  :  for  we  have 
sinned  :  pardon  us,  O  our  King,  for  we  have  transgressed 
against  thee.  For  thou  art  a  God,  good  and  ready  to  par- 
don.— Blessed  art  thuii,  O  Lord  must  gracious,  who  multipUest 
iky  mercies  in  the  foi-gieeness  of  sins .' 

"  7.  Look,  we  beseech  thee,  upon  our  afflictions.  Be  thou 
on  our  side  in  all  our  contentions,  and  plead  thou  our  cause 
in  all  our  litigations ;  and  make  haste  to  redeem  us  with  a 
perfect  redemption  for  thy  name's  sake.  For  thou  art  our 
God,  our  King,  and  a  strong  Redeemer. — Blessed  art  thou,  0 
Lord,  the  Redeemer  o/"  Israel.' 

*'  8.  Heal  us,  O  Lord  our  God,  and  we  shall  be  healed ; 
save  us,  and  we  shall  be  saved.  For  thou  art  our  praise. 
Bring  unto  us  sound  health,  and  a  perfect  remedy  for  all  our 
infirmities,  and  for  all  our  griefs,  and  for  all  our  wounds. 
For  thou  art  a  God  who  healest  and  art  merciful. — Blessed 
art  thou,  0  Lord  our  God,  who  curest  the  diseases  uf  thy  people 
Israel ! 

"  9.  Bless  us,  O  Lord  our  God,  in  every  work  of  our 
hands,  and  bless  unto  us  the  seasons  of  the  year,  and  give  us 
the  dew  and  the  rain  to  be  a  blessing  unto  us,  upon  the  face 
of  all  our  land,  and  satiate  the  world  with  thy  blessings,  and 
send  down  moisture  upon  every  part  of  the  earth  that  is  habi- 
table.— Blessed  art  tluju,  0  Lord,  who  givest  thy  blessing  to 
the  years  ! 

"  10.  Gather  us  together  by  the  sound  of  the  great  trum- 
pet, to  the  enjoyment  of  our  liberty  ;  and  lift  up  thy  ensifrn 
to  call  together  all  the  captivity,  from  the  four  quarters  of  the 
earth  into  our  own  land. — Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  who 
gatherest  together  the  exiles  of  the  people  of  Israel .' 

"II.  Restore  unto  us  our  judges  as  at  the  first,  and  our 
counsellors  as  at  the  beginning ;  and  remove  far  from  us 
affliction  and  trouble,  and  do  thou  only  reign  over  us  in  be- 
nignity, and  in  mercy,  and  in  righteousness,  and  in  justice. 
— Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  our  king,  who  lovest  righteousness 
and  justice. 

"  1*2.  'Let  there  be  no  hope  to  them,  who  apostatize  from 
the  true  religion  ;  and  let  heretics,  how  many  soever  they  be, 
all  perish  as  in  a  moment.  And  let^  the  kingdom  of  pride 
be  speedily  rooted  out  and  broken  in  our  days. — Blessed  art 
thou,  0  Lord  our  God,  wlio  destroyest  the  wicked,  and  bringest 
down  the  proud  .'^ 

•  This  is  the  prayer  which  was  added  by  Rabbi  Gamaliel  against  the 
Christians,  or  as  others  say  by  Rabbi  Samuel  the  Uttle,  who  was  one  of  his 
Bcholars. 

»  The  Roman  empire. 

»  The  twelftti  prayer,  as  now  used  by  the  Jews,  varies  considerably  from 
that  above  given.  In  the  Prayer  Book  of  the  German  and  Polish  Jetrs,  it 
stands  thus  :— "  O  let  the  slanderers  have  no  hope,  all  the  wicked  be  anni- 


"  13.  Upon  the  pious  and  the  just,  and  upon^  the  prose- 
lytes of  justice,  and  upon  the  remnant  of  thy  people  of  the 
house  of  Israel,  let  thy  mercies  be  moved.  0  Lord  our  God, 
and  give  a  good  reward  unto  all  who  faithfully  nut  their  trust 
in  thy  name  ;  and  grant  us  our  portion  with  them,  and  for 
ever  let  us  not  be  ashamed,  for  we  put  our  trust  in  thee. — 
Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  who  art  the  support  und  confidence 
of  the  just ! 

"  11.  Dwell  thou  in  the  midst  of  .Tenisnlem,  thy  city,  as 
thou  hast  ])romise(l  :  build  it  with  a  buildiri'r  to  last  forever, 
and  do  this  sp(M'dily  even  in  our  days. — Lleised  art  thou,  O 
Lord,  who  buildist  Jtrusalent  ! 

"  15.  Make  the  ofTspriiig  of  David  thy  servant  speedily  to 
grow  \i]),  aiul  flourish  ;  and  let  our  horn  be  exalted  in  thy  sal- 
vation. For  wt!  hoj)e  for  thy  salvation  every  day. — lilessed 
art  thou,  O  Lord,  who  makest  the  horn  of  our  salvation  to 
flourish  ! 

"  IG.  Hear  our  voice,  O  Lord  our  God,  mf  st  merciful 
Father,  pardon  and  have  mercy  upon  us,  and  accept  of  cur 
prayers  with  thy  mercy  and  favour,  and  send  us  not  awny 
from  thy  presence,  O  our  king.  Fer  thou  hearest  with  mercy 
the  i)rayer  of  thy  people  Israel. — Blessed  art  thou,  0  Loud, 
who  hearest  prayer  ! 

"  17.  Be  thou  well  pleased,  O  Lord  our  God,  with  thy 
people  Israel ;  and  have  regard  unto  their  prayers  ;  restore 
thy  worship  to^  the  inner  part  of  thy  house,  and  make  h;:ste 
with  favour  and  love  to  accept  ef  ibe  burnt  sacrifices  of  Is- 
rael, and  their  prayers  ;  and  let  the  worship  of  Israel  thy  peo- 
ple be  continually  well  pleasing  unto  thee. — Blessed  art  thou, 
0  Lord,  who  re.'-torest  thy  d .vine presence  to  Z'on  ! 

"  18.  We  will  give  thanks  unto  thee  w  ith  praise.  For 
thou  art  the  Lord  our  God,  the  God  of  our  fathers,  for  ever 
and  ever.  Thou  art  our  rock,  and  the  rock  of  our  life,  and 
the  shield  of  our  salvation.  To  all  generations  will  we  give 
thanks  unto  thee,  and  declare  thy  praise,  because  of  our  life 
which  is  always  in  thy  hands,  and  because  of  thy  signs, 
which  are  every  day  with  us,  and  because  of  thy  wonaers, 
and  marvellous  loving-kindness,  which  are  m'ming,  and 
evening,  and  night  before  us.  ITiou  art  gond,  for  thy  mer- 
cies are  not  consumed;  thou  art  merciful,  for  thy  lovinff- 
kindnesses  fail  not.  For  ever  we  hope  in  thee.  And  for  all 
these  mercies  be  thy  name,  O  king,  blessed  and  exalted,  and 
lifted  up  on  high  for  ever  and  ever;  and  let  all  that  live  give 
thanks  unto  thee.  Selah.  And  let  them  in  truth  and  sincerity 
praise  thy  name,  O  God  of  our  salvation,  and  our  help.  Se- 
lah.— Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  whose  name  is  good,  and  to 
whom  it  is  fitting  always  to  give  praise  ! 

"  19.  Give  peace,  beneficence,  and  benediction,  grace,  be- 
nignity, and  mercy  unto  us,  and  to  Israel  thy  people.  Bless 
us,  our  Father,  even  all  of  us  together  as  one  man,  w^ith  the 
light  of  thy  countenance.  For  in  the  light  of  thy  counte- 
nance hast  thou  given  unto  us,  O  Lord  our  God,  the  law  of 
life,  and  love,  and  benignit}',  and  righteousness,  and  blessing, 
and  mercy,  and  life,  and  peace,  i^nd  let  it  seem  good  in 
thine  eyes,  to  bless  thy  people  Israel  with  thy  peace  at  all 
times,  and  in  every  moment. — Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  who 
blessest  thy  people  Israel  with  peace  /     Amen." 

hilated  speedily,  and  all  the  tyrants  be  cut  off  quickly  ;  humble  thou  them 
quickly  in  our  davs. — Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord,  who  destroyest  enemies 
and  humblest  tyrants !"  In  the  Prayer  Book  of  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese Jews,  this  prayer  runs  thus  : — "  Let  slanderers  have  no  hope,  and 
all  presumptuous  apostates  perish  as  in  a  moment ;  and  may  thine  enemies, 
and  those  who  hale  thee,  be  suddenly  cut  off,  and  all  those  who  act  wick- 
edly be  suddenly  broken,  consumed,  and  rooted  out  ;  and  humble  thou 
them  speedily  in  our  days. — Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord,  irfio  destroyest  the 
enemies  u^d' humblest  the  proud  I"     Allen's  Modern  Judaism,  p.  329. 

4  Concerning  these  supposed  proselytes  of  justice,  see  p.  109.  infra. 
_  5  i".  c.  The  Adylum  Templi,  which  in  ihe  temple  of  Jerusalem  was  the 
holy  of  holies,  into  which  none  ever  entered  but  the  high-priest  once  a 
year,  on  the  great  day  of  e.xpiulion.  From  this  place,  after  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  were  wanting  the  ark,  the  mercy-seat,  the  Shechinah  of  the 
divine  presence,  and  the  IJrim  and  Thummiin,  which  causing  an  imperfec- 
tion in  their  worship  in  respect  of  what  it  was  formerly,  a  restoration  ol 
them  seems  to  be  tne  subject  of  this  petition. 


108 


SACRED  PERSONS. 


[Part  III.  Chap.  U 


CHAPTER  II. 


SACRED      PERSONS. 


SECTION  I.i 


OF    THE    JEWISH    CHURCH    AND    ITS    MEMBERS. 

I.   The  tuhole  JS^ition  accounted  holy. — II.  Members  of  the  Jeiuish  Church;   JJehreius  of  the  Hebre-ws. — III.  Proselytes. — 
IV.  Jeivs  of  the  Dispersion. — V.  Hellenists. — VI.   The  Libertines. — VII.  Devout  J\Ien. — VIII.    Circumcision. 


I.  Jehovah,  in  his  infinite  wisdom  and  goodness,  having 
been  pleased  to  prefer  the  posterity  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob  before  every  other  nation,  and  to  select  them  from 
every  otiier  people,  for  the  purposes  of  imparting  to  them  the 
revelation  of  his  will,  and  of  preserving  the  knowledge  and 
worship  of  the  true  God ;  He  is  thence  said  to  have  chosen 
them,  and  they  are  in  many  passages  of  Scripture  represent- 
ed as  his  chosen  and  elect  people.^  And  because  they  were 
by  the  will  of  God  set  apart,  and  approiiriated  in  a  special 
manner  to  his  honour  and  obedience,  and  furnished  with  ex- 
traordinary motives  to  holiness,  God  is  therefore  said  to  have 
sanctified  them.  (Lev.  xx.  8.  xxi.  8.  xxii.  9.  16.  32.)  For 
these  reasons  they  are  termed  a  Holy  Nation,  a  kingdom 
of  priests,  and  also  saints  ;^  and  their  covenant  relation  to 
God  is  urged  upon  them  as  a  motive  to  holiness  of  heart  and 

Practice.  (Lev.  xix.  2.  xx.  7,  8.  26.  xi.  45.  Exod.xxii.  .31.) 
iut  the  Jews  of  later  times,  becoming  proud  of  these  titles, 
and  of  their  ecclesiastical  privileges,  extended  their  charity 
only  to  those  of  their  own  faitb ;  while  towards  the  rest  of 
mankind  they  cherished  a  sullen  and  inveterate  hatred,  ac- 
counting them  to  be  profane  persons  and  sinners.''  This 
relative  or  imputed  holiness  of  the  Jews  as  a  covenant  peo- 
ple, separated  and  consecrated  to  the  worship  of  the  true 
God,  was  perpetual  (in  other  words  it  was  to  subsist  until 
the  institution  of  the  Gospel  dispensation) ;  although  the 
Jews  were  often  extremely  corrupt  in  their  manners,  as  the 
numerous  denunciations  of  the  prophets  sufficiently  indicate. 
Hence  some  of  the  rabbinical  writers  call  the  most  wicked 
kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  holy, — holy,  or  righteous,  and 
Israelite,  being  with  them  convertible  terms  (compare  Wisd. 
X.  15.  17.  20.  xviii.  1.  7.  9.  20.);  and  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord  the  Jews  held  the  preposterous  notion,  that  though  they 
should  continue  in  their  sins,  yet,  because  they  were  the 
olTspring  of  Abraham,  God  would  not  impute  their  sins  to 
them.^ 

The  apostles  being  Jews  by  birth,  though  they  wrote  in 
Greek,  have  retained  tiieir  national  idiom,  and  have  borrowed 
the  Old  Testament  phraseology,  which  they  have  applied  to 
Christians,  in  order  to  convey  to  them  accurate  ideas  of  the 
magnitude  of  God's  love  to  them  in  Christ.  Thus  the  apos- 
tles not  only  call  them  disciples  and  brethren,  that  is,  friends 
united  in  the  same  profession  of  faith  by  bonds  equally  close 
as  those  of  brothers,  having  ane  Lord,  one  faith,  one  baptism, 
but,  because  all  true  Christians  are  by  the  will  of  God  set 
apart  and  appropriated  in  an  especial  manner  to  his  honour, 
service,  and  obedience,  and  are  furnished  with  extraordinary 
helps  and  motives  to  holiness,  they  are,  therefore,  said  to  be 
sanciijied  (1  Cor.  i.  2.  vi.  11.  Heb.  ii.  11.  x.  29.  Jude  1.)  ; 
and  are  further  styled  holy,  holy  brethren,  a  holy  nation  and 
saints.^ 

>  This  section  is  principally  derived  from  Schulzii  Arch;rologia  He- 
braica,  lib.  ii.  c.  1.  de  Ecclesia  .ludaica  cjusque  Membris ;  together  with 
Beausobre  and  L'Enfant's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  (Bishop  Watson's 
Coll.  of  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  205,  206.)  Ikenii  Antiq.  pp.  343—347.  Stoscli'. 
Coinpend.  Archajol.  (Economicae  Nov.  Test.  §§  32—36,  Edwards  on  the 
Authority,  &c.  of  Scripture,  vol.  ii.  pp.  313—330.  Alber,  Inst.  Herin.  Vet. 
Test.  torn.  i.  pp.  ISl— 186. ;  Carpzovii  Anliq.  Hebr.  Gentis,  pp.  39—50. ;  Jen- 
nings's Jewish  Antiquities,  boolt  i.  eh.  3.-  Mr.  Allen  has  given  an  interest- 
ing account  of  the  mode  of  circumcision  that  obtains  among  the  Jews  of 
the  present  time  in  his  "Modern  Judaism,"  pp.  283 — 296, 

*  Compare  Deut.  iv.  37.  vii.  6.  x.  15.  1  Kings  viii.  22.  et  seq.  1  Chron. 
xvi.  13.  Psal.  cv.  6.  xxxiii.  12.  cv.  43.  cvi.  5.  cxxxv.  4.  Isa.  xli.  8,  9.  xUii,  20. 
xliv.  1,  2.  xlv.  4.  and  Ezek.  xx.  5. 

3  Compare  Exod.  xix.  6.  Lev.  xi.  44.  45.  xix.  2.  xx.  26.  Deut.  vii.  6.  xiv. 
2.  21.  xxvi.  19.  xxviii.  9.  xxxiii-.  3.  2  Chron.  vi.  41.  Psal.  xxxiv.  9.  1.  5.  7. 
Ixxix.  2.  cxxxii.  9.  cxlviii.  14. 

*  Apud  Ip.5os  fides  obstinata,  misericordia  in  promptu,  sed  adversus 
omnes  alios  hostile  odium.  Such  is  the  cliaracler  of  the  Jews  given  by  the 
Roman  historian,  as  they  were  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  (Tacit.  Hist.  lib. 
V.  c.  5.  torn.  iii.  p.  267.  edit,  Bipont,)  ;  which  is  abundanlly  confirmed  by 
the  sacred  writers.  See  Matt.  ix.  10,  11.  xxvi.  45.  Gal.  ii.  15.  17.  IThess. 
ii.  1.5,  16. 

f  See  Wliitby  on  Matt.  iii.  9. 

6  See  Col.  iii.  12.  1  Thess.  v.  27.  Heb.  iii.  1.  1  Pet.  ii.  9.  Acts  ix.  32.  41. 
XXVI.  10,  Rom,  i.  7.  xii.  1.3.  xv.  25,  26.  xvi.  15.  ICor.  i.  2.  2  Cor.  i.  1.  xiii.  13. 
Phil.  iv.  22.  Eph.  i.  1.  Phil.  i.  1.  and  Col,  i.  2. 


II.  The  first  Members  of  the  Jewish  Church  were  the 
immediate  descendants  of  Abraham  by  Isaac  and  Jacob, 
whom  God,  having  delivered  from  their  oppressive  bondage 
in  Egypt,  chose  for  himself  to  be  his  peculiar  people,  and 
their  direct  issue,  without  any  intermixture  of  Gentile  blood 
or  language.  These  are  termed  by  St.  Paul  Hebrews  of  the 
Hebrews  (Phil.  iii.  5.),  as  opposed  to  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  or 
those  who  lived  among  the  Greeks,  whose  language  they 
spoke,  and  who  were  called  Hellenists.  (Acts  vi.  1.  ix.  29. 
xi.  20.)  Many  of  the  latter  were  descended  from  parents, 
one  of  whom  only  was  a  Jew.  Of  this  description  was 
Timothy.  (Acts  xvi.  1.)  Those  who  were  born  in  Judaea, 
of  parents  rightly  descended  from  Abraham,  and  who  re- 
ceived their  education  in  Judsa,  spoke  the  language  of  their 
forefathers,  and  were  thoroughly  instructed  in  the  learning 
and  literature  of  the  Jews,  were  reckoned  more  honourable 
than  the  Hellenists ;''  and,  to  mark  the  excellence  of  their 
lineage  and  language,  they  were  called  Hebrews,- — a  name 
the  most  ancient,  and  therefore  the  most  honourable  of  all 
the  names  borne  by  Abraham's  descendants ;  for  it  was  the 
name  given  to  Abraham  himself,  by  the  Canaanites,  to  sig- 
nify that  he  had  come  from  the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates. 
A  Hebrew,  therefore,  possessing  the  character  and  qualifica- 
tions above  described,  was  more  honourable  than  an  Israelite,- 
as  that  name  indicated  onl}^  that  a  person  was  a  member  of 
the  commonwealth  of  Israel,  which  a  Jew  might  be,  though 
born  and  educated  in  a  foreign  country.  St.  Paul,  indeed, 
was  born  at  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia ;  yet  being  a  Hebrew  of  the 
Hebrews,  who  received  his  education  at  Jerusalem,  spoke 
the  language  used  there,  and  understood  the  Hebrew  in  which 
the  ancient  oracles  of  God  were  written,  he  was  a  Jew  of  the 
most  honourable  class ;  and,  therefore,  when  cautioning  the 
Philippians  against  Judaizing  teachers  and  unbelieving  Jews, 
he  enumerates  this  privilege  among  those  of  which  (if  sal- 
vation were  to  be  obtained  by  them)  he  might  have  confidence 
in  the  flesh.  (Phil.  iii.  4,  5.)  The  privileges  of  the  Israel- 
ites, which  were  very  highly  esteemed  by  all  Jews,  are 
enumerated  by  St.  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  in  a 
very  animated  manner. ^ 

All  the  posterity  of  Jacob  were  .inciently  called  Israel,  or 
Children  of  Israel,  from  the  surname  of  that  patriarch,  until 
the  time  of  king  Rehoboam:  when  ten  tribes,  revolting  from 
this  .  prince  and  adhering  to  Jeroboam,  were  thenceforth 
denominated  the  House  of  Israel:  while  the  two  tribes  of  Judah 
and  Benjamin,  who  remained  faitWul  to  the  family  of  David, 
were  styled  the  House  of  Judah.  After  the  captivity,  most 
of  those  who  returned  and  rebuilt  Jerusalem  and  the  temple, 
and  restored  the  rites  of  the  Mosaic  worship,  having  sprung 
from  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  the  term  Jews  became  a  general 
appellation  for  all  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  and  afterwards 
for  those  who  were  descended  from  them.  (Dan.  iii.  8.  Esth. 
iii.  3.  2  Mace.  ix.  17.)  And  in  this  extensive  sense  the 
word  is  employed  in  the  New  Testament. ^ 

III.  Although  the  constitution  of  the  Jewish  polity  and 
the  laws  of  Moses  allowed  no  other  nations  to  participate  in 

•■  It  has  been  remarked  that  Greek  words  ending  in  trrrn;  imply  inferi- 
ority. Thus  the  'Ea;m)v£;  (llellenEs)  were  distinguished  from  the'E\>v-,incr- 
Tcti  (HeUcnisTJE)  ;  Iho  former  imply  pure  or  native  Greeks,  who  spoke  the 
Greek  tongue  in  its  purity ;  and  the  latter,  Jews  or  others  sojourning 
among  the  Greeks,  wiio  spoke  the  Greek  languagd  according  to  tlit;  He- 
brew idiom.  Tliese  were  the  ' EKhiuKrrxi,  Ilellenists  or  Grecians  wlio 
viurinured  against  the  Hebrews.  (Acts  vi.  1.)  "Pythagoras  divided  his 
disciples  into  two  classes.  Those,  who  were  capable  of  entering  lulo  llie 
spirit  and  mystery  of  liis  doctrine,  he  called  Uvij^yofnoi,  Pi/lhaguRKANti  ; 
those,  who  were  of  adifierent  cast,  he  termed  llu5:«yopicrT»i,  or  Pytltcgo- 
RiSTS.  Tlie  former  were  eminent  and  worthy  of  their  master;  the  latter, 
but  indijf'erent.  The  same  distinction  is  made  between  those  wlio  were 
called  Attikcu;,  or  Attics,  and  ATTizicrra;  or  ,4///cists, — tlie  pure  and 
less  pure  Greeks,  as  between  those  called  '  EKKr.vxi  and  'E;^i^>|vicrrac,  Hel- 
lenEs  and  HellenJUTs,  pure  Greeks,  and  Gra?cising  Jews."  lamblichus- 
de  vita  Pylhag.  c.  18.  and  Schoettgen,  cited  by  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Acts  vi.  1. 

8  See  Drs.  Wliitby,  Doddridge,  Macknight,  A.  Clarke,  or  Messrs.  Scott, 
Henry,  &c.  on  Rom.  ix.  4.  and  Phil.  iii.  5. 

»  Robinson's  and  Parkliurst's  Lexicons,  voce  JovSaiof, 


Sect.  I.] 


OF  THE  JEWISH  CHURCH  AND  ITS  MEMBERS. 


109 


their  sacred  rites,  yet  they  did  not  exclude  from  them  such 
persons  as  were  \villin|gr  to  (]\r,ilirv  themselvfs  for  conforiiiiiiij 
to  tliem.  Henco  they  adiiiUtcd  ri{()Si:LVTi;s,  who  ronoiiiiccd 
the  worsliip  nf  idols  and  joined  in  tiit;  relioions  services  of 
tlie  Jews ;  alllioii<rh  th(!y  were  not  held  in  tiu;  s.ime  estimation 
as  Jews  hy  hirih,  descent,  and  laniruajrc,  wiio,  we  have  just 
seen,  were  termed  llehrews  of  the  Hebrews.  Duririfr  the 
time  of  Jesus  (Jhrist,  the  Jews,  es])ecially  the  Pliarisees, 
frreatiy  exerted  themselves  in  making  proselytes  to  their 
religion  and  sect.' 

(/ainict,  and  some  other  learned  men  after  him,  have  dis- 
tinjruished  two  kinds  of  proselytes,  namely,  I.  Prosit i/les  of 
the  i^alr,  who  dwelt  either  in  or  out  of  the  land  of  Israel, 
and  worsliij)ped  the  true  fJod,  observinjr  the  seven  precepts 
of  Noah,^  l)Ul  without  ohli<rin<r  themselves  to  circumcision 
or  any  other  lejral  ceremony;  and,  2.  /'nisrti/lc.s  of  justice  or 
(if  riirtihiiii.siiex.'i,  wiio  wen;  converts  to  Judaism,  and  enijanrpd 
themselves  to  receive  circumcision,  as  well  as  to  observe  the 
whole  of  the  Mosaic  law.  'I'here  does  not,  however,  appear 
to  be  any  foundation  in  the  Scriptures  for  such  a  distinction  : 
nor  can  any  with  pro|)riety  be  termed  proselytes,  except  those 
who  fti/tij  endjraced  the  Jewish  rclioion.  The  .Scriptures 
mtMition  only  two  classes  of  persons,  viz.  the  Israelites  or 
Ilei)ri'\\s  of  the  Hebrews  above  mentioned,  and  the  Gentile 
converts  to  Judaism,  which  last  are  called  hy  the  names  of 
stranoers  and  sojourners,  or  proselytes." 

In  the  initiation  of  proselytes  to  the  Jewish  religion,  ac- 
cordinor  to  the  rabbinical  writers,  the  three  followintr  obser- 
vances were  appointed,  namely,  circumcision,  baptism,  and 
the  ofTerinfj  of  sacrifices;  all  of  which,  except  circumcision, 
were  performed  by  the  women,  as  well  as  by  the  men,  who 
became  proselytes. 

1.  Circumcitiion  (the  import  of  which  is  more  fully  ex- 
plained in  pp.  110,  111.)  was  the  seal  of  the  covenant  into 
which  the  proselyte  entered  with  God,  and  of  the  solemn 
profession  which  he  made  to  observe  the  entire  law  of  Moses  : 
and  if  the  proselyte  were  a  Samaritan,  or  of  any  other  nation 
that  used  that  rite,  blood  was  to  be  drawn  afresh  from  the 
part  circumcised. 

2.  'I'he  second  ceremony  was  fVasJiing  or  Baptism,-  which 
must  be  performed  in  the  presence  of  at  least  three  Jews  of 
distinction,  and  in  the  day-time  that  notliin<ir  mioht  be  done 
in  secret.  At  the  time  of  its  performance  the  proselyte  de- 
clared his  abhorrence  of  his  past  life,  and  that  no  secular 
motives,  but  a  sincere  love  for  the  law  of  iMoses,  induced 
him  to  be  baptized ;  and  he  was  then  instructed  in  the  most 
essential  parts  of  the  law.  He  promised,  at  the  same  time, 
to  lead  a  lioly  life,  to  worship  the  true  God,  and  to  keep  his 
commandments. 

Baptism  was  also  administered  to  the  children  of  prose- 
lytes who  were  born  before  their  parents  became  proselytes, 
and  generally  at  the  same  time  with  their  parents :  but  it  was 
not  administered  to  children  born  after  that  event,  because 
the  parents  and  their  ofi'spring  were  considered  as  Israelites, 
clean  from  their  birth,  and  therefore  were  brought  into  cove- 
nant by  circumcision  alone. ^ 

3.  '1  he  third  ceremony  to  be  performed  was  that  oi  offering 
Sacrifice. 

And  it  was  a  common  notion  among  the  Jews,  that  ever}' 
person  who  had  duly  performed  them  all  was  to  be  consi- 


1 

r 


»  Compare  Acts  vi.  5.  xiii.  43.  and  Matt,  xxiii.  15.  with  Josephus,  Ant. 
Jud.  till.  .\iii.  c.  9.  §  1.  and  lib.  xx.  c.  3.  §  4. 

«  These  precepts  are  liy  the  Jewish  doctors  termed  the  seven  precepts 
•jf  Noah,  and  (they  protend)  were  given  by  God  to  the  sons  of  Noah.  They 
are  as  follows  : — I.  That  man  should  abstain  from  idolatry  ; — 2.  That  Ihey 
honid  worship  Ihe  true  tiod  alone; — 3.  That  they  should  hold  incest  in 
abhorrence  ;— -4.  That  they  should  not  commit  murder  : — 5.  Nor  rob  or 
steal; — 0.  That  they  should  punish  a  murderer  with  dealh  ; — 7.  That  tliey 
should  not  eat  blood,  uorany  thing  in  which  blood  is,  consequently,  nothing 
slranyled.  "  Every  one,"  says  a  living  Jewisli  writer,  "  that  ol.servcs 
these  seven  commandments,  is  entilled  to  happiness.  But  to  observe  lliem 
merely  from  a  sense  of  Iheir  propriety,  is  deemed  by  Maimonides  insulli- 
cient  10  constitute  e,  pious  Gentile,  or  to  confer  a  title  to  happiness  in  tlie 
world  to  come;  it  is  requi.-file  that  they  be  observed,  because  they  are 
divine  commands."     See  Allen's  Modern  Judaism,  p.  107. 

»  These  two  classes  are  very  frequently  mentioned  in  the  books  of  Mo- 
ses; thus  in  Lev.  xxv.  we  have  '-the  children  of  Israel"  (ver.  2.)  and  "the 
stranoers  that  sojourn"  among  them.  (vcr.  45.)  See  also  Ezek.  xiv.  7. — 
"Kvery  one  of  the  house  of  Israel,  or  of  the  sti anger  that  sojournelh  in 
Israel,  that  separatetb  himself  from  me,  and  setleth  up  idols  in  his  heart." 
It  is  eviilcnt  (hat,  by  the  "stranger,"  in  this  passage,  is  meant  a  proselyte 
wlio  hatj  been  converted  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  otherwise  he  could 
not  have  been  separated  from  liim.  Schulzii  Arrha?ol.  Hebr.  ut  supra 
Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  i.  ch.  iii.  pp.  63— (TO.  Dr.  Lardner  has 
remarked  that  Ihe  notion  of  two  sorts  of  proselytes  is  not  lo  be  found  in 
any  Christian  writer  before  the  fourteenth  century  ;  see  his  arguments  at 
large.  Works,  vol.  vi.  pp.  S'^?— *«.  Rvo.  or  vol.  iii.  pp.  397—400.  4to.  and  vol. 
xi.  pp.  313—324.  Svo.  or  vol.  v.  pp.  485 — 493.  4lo.  This  observation  renders 
it  probable  that  the  twelfth  prayer  of  (he  Jews  in  p.  107.  supra,  is  not  of  so 
•«arlv  a  date  as  is  commonly  supposed. 
•  ■*  Lightfoot's  Hor.  Hebr.  on  StaU.  iii.  6. 


dered  as  a  new-bom  infant.  Tlius  Maimonides  expressly 
says :' — "A  Gentile  who  is  become  a  proselyte,  and  a  servant 
who  is  set  at  libiTty,  are  both  as  it  were  new-born  babes  ;'5 
and  all  those  relations  which  he  had  while  either  Gentile  or 
servant,  now  cease  from  being  so." 

On  the'proselytism  of  the  Jews,  .Tesus  Christ  appears  to 
have  formed  the  principal  qualities  which  he  retpiired  in  the 
j)roselytes  of  his  covenant.  "The  first  condition  of  prose- 
lytisni  among  the  J(nvs  was,  that  he,  who  ciune  to  embrace 
tlicir  rcii<iion,  should  come  voluntarily,  and  that  neither  force 
nor  inlluencc;  should  be  employed  in  this  business.  This, 
also,  is  the  first  condition  required  by  Jesus  Christ,  and 
which  he  considers  as  the  founoation  of  all  the  rest.  //"««// 
inan  bewitliiig  («  t/c  bihu)  to  come  after  me.  (Matt.  xvi.  21.) 
The  second  condition  retpiired  in  the  Jewish  proselyte  was, 
that  he  should  perfectly  renounce  all  his  prejudices,  his 
errors,  his  iihdatry,  and  every  thing  that  concerned  his  false 
religion,  and  that  he  slioidd  entirely  separate  himself  from 
his  most  intimate  friends  and  acquaintances.  It  was  on  this 
ground  that  the  Jews  called  proselytism  a  new  birth,  and 
proselytes  new  Ijorn  and  new  men  ,-  and  our  Lord  requires 
men  to  be  born  again,  not  only  of  water  but  by  the  Holy 
(ihost.  (John  iii.  5.)  All  this  our  Lord  includes  in  this  worti, 
frt  him  renounce  himself — ci.7rc/py>iyu<r^uo  i-xvr-A'.  (Mark  viii.  .34.) 
To  this  the  following  scriptures  refer;  Matt.  x.  .3.3.  John  iii. 
3.  5.  2  Cor.  V.  17. — The  third  condition,  on  which  a  person 
was  admitted  into  the  Jewish  church  as  a  proselyte,  was, 
that  he  shoidd  subndl  to  the  yoke  of  the  Jewish  law ;  and 
patiently  bear  the  inconveniences  and  sufferings,  with  which 
a  prof(^ssion  of  the  Mosaic  religion  might  be  accompa- 
nied. Christ  requires  the  same  condition,  but,  instead  of  the 
yoke  of  the  law,  he  brings  in  his  own  doctrine,  which  he 
calls  his  yohe  (Matt.  xi.  29.)  and  his  cross  (^Matt.  xvi.  24. 
Mark  viii.  34.),  the  taking  up  of  which  implies  not  only  a 
bold  profession  of  Christ  crucified,  but  also  a  cheerful  sub- 
mitting to  all  the  sufferings  and  persecutions  to  which  he 
might  be  exposed,  and  even  to  death  itself. — The /';t^?7/t  con- 
dition was,  that  they  should  solemnly  engage  to  ontinue  in 
the  Jewish  religion,  faithful  even  unto  death.  This  condi- 
tion Christ  also  requires,  and  it  is  comprised  in  this  word  let 
liim  fdloiv  me.''^i     (Matt.  xvi.  24 — 26.     Mark  viii.  34 — 37.) 

IV.  In  consequence  of  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  Jews 
w'ere  dispersed  among  the  various  provinces  of  the  great 
Babylonian  empire ;  and  though  a  large  portion  of  them 
returned  under  Zerubbabel,  it  appears  that  a  considerable 
part  remained  behind.  From  this  circumstance,  as  well  as 
from  various  other  causes,  it  happened,  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord,  that  great  numbers  of  Jews  were  to  be  found  in 
Greece,  and  all  the  other  parts  of  the  Koman  empire,  which 
at  that  time  had  no  other  limits  but  those  of  the  then  known 
world. 5  It  was  of  the  Jews  dispersed  among  the  Gentiles 
OR  Greeks,  that  mention  is  made  in  John  vii.  35. :  and  to  them 
Jesus  Christ  is  also  supposed  to  have  alluded  when  he  said 
that  he  had  other  sheep  (John  x.  16.),  but  without  excluding 
the  Gentiles,  who  also  were  to  enter  into  his  sheepfold,  or 
be  admitted  into  his  church.  To  these  dispersed  Jews  it 
w-as,  that  Peter  and  James  inscribed  their  respective  epis- 
tles; the  former  to  those  who  were  scattered  through  Pontus, 
(lalatia,  (Jappadocia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Bithyiiia  (1  Pet.  i.  1.); 
and  the  latter  to  the  twelve  tribes  who  were  dispersed  through- 
out the  then  known  world.  (James  i.  1.)  The  Jews  who 
were  assembled  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  were 
of  the  dispersion.  (Acts  ii.  5 — 11.) 

V.  There  were  also  Jews  who  lived  in  those  countries 
where  Greek  was  the  living  language,  and  perhaps  spoke 

"  »  Lightfoot's  Hebr.  on  Matt.  iii.  6. ;  W.etstein  on  John  iii.  2.  ;  and  Whilby 
on  John  iii.  4,  !j,  6.  Some  learned  men  have  supposed  that  our  Lord  alluded 
to  this  rabbinical  tradition  when  he  reproached  Nicodemus  with  being  a 
master  in  Israel  (John  iii.  10),  and  yet  being  at  the  same  time  ignorant  how 
a  man  could  be  born  a  second  time.  But  it  is  most  probable  thai  Jesus 
Christ  referred  to  that  spiritual  meaning  of  circumcision  which  is  noticed 
in  p.  110.  note*,  ivfra.  The  arguments  on  the  nmch  disputed  question, 
Whether  baptism  was  in  use,  or  not,  before  the  lime  of  our  Saviour,  are 
reviewed  by  Carpzov  in  his  Apparatus  Anliquitatura  Sacrarum,  p.  49.  and 
by  Dr.  Jennings  in  his  Jewish  Aniiquilie.s,  book  i.  c.  3.  II  may  not  be 
ii-relevant  to  remark  that  the  learned  Dr.  Campbell  refers  our  Lord's  cen- 
sure of  Nicodemus,  not  to  the  rabbinical  notion  above  mentioned,  but 
rather  lo  his  entire  ignorance  of  that  effusion  of  the  Spirit  which  would  lake 
place  under  the  Messiah,  and  which  had  been  so  clearly  foretold  by  the 
prophets.     Translation  of  the  Four  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  p.  515.  3d  edit. 

«  In  allusion  most  probably  to  this  custom.  Si.  Peter  addresses  the  He- 
brews who  had  recently  embraced  Christianity,  as  new-born  babes  (1  Ep. 
ii.  2.),  because  they  had  been  born  again  not  of  corruptible  seed,  but  of 
incorruptible,  even  the  word  of  God  which  liveth  and  abideth  for  ever. 
(i.  2.3.) 

•'  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Mark  viii.  34. 

«  Philo,  de  Legatione  ad  Caium,  p.  1031.  et  in  Flaccum,  p.  971.  Josephus, 
Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvi.  c.  6.  lib.  xii.  c.  3.  lib.  xiv.  c.  10.  Cicero  Oral,  pro  Flacco, 
c.  2S. 


no 


SACRED  PERSONS. 


[Paut  m.  Chap.  II. 


no  other.  These  are  distiiiguished  in  the  New  Testament 
from  the  Hebrews  or  native  Jews,  who  spoke  what  was  then 
called  Hebrew  (a  kind  of  Chaldaico-Syriac),  by  the  appel- 
lation of  Hellenists,  or  Grecians  as  they  are  termed  in  our 
authorized  English  version.  These  in  all  other  respects 
were  members  of  the  Jewish  church ;  they  are  repeatedly 
mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Aposvles,  and  it  was  a  party  ot 
the  Hellenistic  Jews  that  requested  to  see  Jesus.' 

VI.  During  the  time  of  our  Saviour  there  was  a  consi- 
derable number  of  Jews  resident  at  Rome :  Josephus  esti- 
mates them  at  eight  thousand  ;  and  Philo,  who  relates  that 
they  occupied  a  large  quarter  of  the  city,  says,  that  they  were 
chiefly  such  as  had  been  taken  captive  at  different  times, 
and  had  been  carried  into  Italy,  where  they  had  subsequently 
acquired  their  freedom,  and  were  called  Libertines.  The 
synagogue  of  the  Libertines,  mentioned  in  Acts  yi.  9.  is,  by 
some'  c'ritics,  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  this  class  of 
Jgws  ^ 

Vli.  In  consequence  of  this  dispersion  of  the  Jews  through- 
out the  Roman  empire,  and  the  extensive  commerce  which 
they  carried  on  with  other  nations,  their  religion  became 
known,  and  the  result  was  the  prevalence  of  a  somewhat 
purer  knowledge  of  the  true  God  among  the  Gentiles.  .  Hence 
we  find,  that  there  were  many  who,  though  they  did  not 
adopt  the  rite  of  circumcision,  yet  had  acquired  a  better  know- 
ledge of  the  Most  High  than  the  pagan  theology  furnished, 
and  who  in  some  respects  conformed  to  the  Jewish  religion. 
Of  this  description  appear  to  be  the  "  Devout  Men  who  feared 
God,''''  who  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,^ 
and  particularly  the  pious  centurion  Cornelius,  of  whom  the 
sacred  writer  has  given  us  so  pleasing  an  account.  (Acts  x.) 

VIII.  All  these  persons,  with  the  exception  of  the  last 
class,  were  members  of  the  Jewish  church,  participated  in 
its  worship,  and  regulated  themselves  by  the  law  of  Moses 
(or  at  least  professed  to  do  so),  and  by  the  other  inspired 
Hebrew  books,  whence  their  sacred  rites  and  religious  in- 
struction were  derived.  No  person,  however,  was  allowed 
to  partake  of  the  sacred  ordinances,  until  he  had  undergone 
the  rite  of  Circumcision.''  This  rite  is  first  mentioned  in 
Gen.  xvii.  10 — 12.,  where  we  read  that  it  was  a  seal  of  the 
covenant  which  God  made  with  Abraham  and  his  posterity. 
Afterwards,  when  God  delivered  his  law  to  the  children  of 
Israel,  he  renewed  the  ordinance  of  circumcision,  which  from 
that  time  became  a  sacrament  of  the  Jewish  religion.  Hence 
the  protomartyr  Stephen  calls  it  the  "  covenant  of  circumci- 
sion" (Acts  vii.  8.)  ;  and  Jesus  Christ  also  ascribes  its  insti- 
tution to  Moses,  though  it  was  derived  from  the  patriarchs. 
(John  vii.  22.)  Besides  the  design  which  God  proposed  to 
himself  in  establishing  this  ceremony,  he  appointed  it  for 
some  other  ends,  suited  to  the  circumstances  of  the  Israelites; 
a  brief  consideration  of  which  will  illustrate  many  important 
passages  of  Scripture.  In  the  first  place,  it  included  in  it  so 
solemn  and  indispensable  an  obligation  to  observe  the  whole 
law,  that  circumcision  did  not  profit  those  who  transgressed. 
(Rom.  ii.  25.)  Hence  the  Jews  are  in  the  Scriptures  fre- 
quently termed  the  circumcision,  that  is,  persons  circumcised, 
as  opposed  to  the  uncircumcised  Gentiles,  who  are  styled  the 
uncircumcision  (Rom.  iii.  I.  30.  iv.  12.  Gal.ii.  7 — 9.  Eph.  ii. 
11.  Phil.  iii.  5.);  the  abstract  being  put  for  the  concrete. 
Thus,  our  Saviour  is  called  the  minister  of  circumcision  :  and 
therefore  St.  Paul  says,  that  whoever  is  circumcised,  is  bound 
to  keep  the  whole  law.  (Gal.  v.  3.)  For  the  same  reason 
Jesus  Christ  was  circumcised,  that  he  might  be  made  under 
the  law,  to  fulfil  the  promise  of  the  Messiah,  and  redeem 
those  who  were  under  the  law.  (Gal.  iv.  4.)  Secondly,  as 
only  circumcised  persons  were  deemed  to  be  visible  members 
of  the  Jewish  church,  so  none  but  these  were  permitted  to 
celebrate  the  great  festivals,  particularly  the  passover.  On 
this  account  it  was  that  Joshua  commanded  all  the  Israelites, 
who  having  been  born  in  the  wilderness  remained  uncir- 
cumcised, to  undergo  the  rite  of  citcumcision,  previously  to 
their  entering  the  land  of  Canaan  (Josh.  v.  4.  6.  9.) ;  on 
which  occasion  God  told  them  that  he  had  removed  or  rolled 
away  the  reproach  of  Egypt  from  them ;  in  other  words,  that 
they  should  thenceforth  be  regarded  as  his  peculiar  people, 

»  John  xii.  20.  See  also  Acts  vi.  1.  ix.  29.  and  xi.  20.  and  the  commenta- 
tors on  those  passages. 

a  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvii.c.  11.  (al.  13.)  hb.  xviii.  c.  3.  (al.  4.)  §§  4,  5. 
Philo  de  Legal,  ad  Caium,  p.  1014.  Tacitus,  Annal.  lib.  ii.  c.  85.  Sueto- 
nius in  Tiberio,  c.  36.  Wolfius  on  Acts  vi.  1.  has  detailed  the  various 
opinions  of  learned  men  respecting  the  Libertines. — See  pp.  251,  252. 
supra. 

3  See  Acts  xiii.  43.  50.  xvi.  14.  xvii.  4.  17.  and  xviii.  7. 

«  Calmet  has  an  elaborate  disquisition  on  the  origin  and  design  of  cir- 
cumcision.   Dissertations,  torn.  i.  pp.  411—422. 


and  no  longer  as  the  slaves  of  Egypt.  The  knowledge  of 
this  circumstance  beautifully  illustrates  Eph.  ii.  11 — 13.; 
where  St.  Paul,  describing  the  wretched  state  of  the  Gentiles 
before  their  conversion,  represents  them  as  aliens  from  the 
commonwealth  of  Israel,  and,  consequently,  excluded  from 
all  its  privileges  and  blessings.  Thirdly,  circumcision  was 
an  open  profession  of  the  worsliip  of  the  true  God,  and,  con- 
sequently, an  abjuration  of  idolatry ;  on  tliis  account  we  are 
told  that  during  the  persecution  of  Antiochus  the  heathen  put 
to  death  those  Jewish  women  who  had  caused  their  children 
to  be  circumcised  ;*  and  such  Jews  as  apostatized  to  hea- 
thenism took  away  as  much  as  possible  every  vestige  of  cir- 
cumcision. As  this  rite  was  an  open  proff  ssion  of  the  Jewish 
religion,  some  zealous  converts  from  that  faith  to  Christianity 
strenuously  urged  its  continuance,  especially  among  those 
who  were  of  Jewish  origin ;  but  this  was  expressly  prohi- 
bited by  St.  Paul.  (1  Cor.  vii.  18.) 

Lastly,  circumcision  was  appointed  for  mystical  and  moral 
reasons  :  it  was,  as  baptism  is  with  us,  an  external  sign  of 
inward  purity  and  holiness :  hence  these  expressions  of 
"  circumcising  the  foreskin  of  the  heart,"  the  "  circumcision 
of  the  heart,"  the  "  circumcision  made  without  hands,"  the 
"  uncircumcised  in  heart,"  &c.  so  often  occurring  in  the  Scrip- 
tures.6 

The  sacrament  of  circumcision  was  enjoined  to  be  observed 
on  the  eighth  day  (Gen.  xvii.  12.),  including  the  day  when 
the  child  was  born,  and  that  on  which  it  was^performed  ;  and 
so  scrupulous  were  the  Jews  in  obeying  the  letter  of  the  law, 
that  they  never  neglected  it,  even  though  it  happened  on  the 
Sabbath-day.  (John  vii.  22, 23.)  This  they  termed  "  driving 
away  the  Sabbath."  If  they  were  obliged  to  perform  circum- 
cision, either  sooner  or  later,  it  was  considered  as  a  misfor- 
tune, and  the  circumcision  so  administered,  though  valid, 
was  not  deemed  equally  good  with  that  done  on  the  eighth 
day :  and  v/hen  this  ceremony  was  deferred,  it  was  never 
used  to  drive  away  the  Sabbath.  It  was  for  this  reason  that 
St.  Paul  accountea  it  no  small  privilege  to  have  been  circum- 
cised on  the  eighth  day.  Accordingly  John  the  Baptist  (Luke 
i.  59.)  and  Jesus  Christ  (Luke  li.  21.)  were  circumcised 
exactly  on  that  day.  There  was  a  peculiar  fitness  in  the 
circumcision  of  Jesus  Christ :  for,  as  the  Jews  reckoned  it 
dishonourable  to  associate  with  uncircumcised  persons  (Acts 
xi.  3.),  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  be  circumcised  in 
order  to  qualify  him  for  conversing  familiarly  with  them,  and 
also  for  discharging  the  other  duties  of  his  ministry.  Be- 
sides, as  the  Messiah  was  to  be  descended  from  Abraham, 
whose  posterity  were  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  mankind 
by  this  rite,  he  received  the  seal  of  circumcision  to  show  that 
he  was  rightly  descended  from  that  patriarch  :  and  as  every 
person  that  was  circumcised  was  "  a  debtor  to  the  whole  law 
(Gal.  V.  3.),  it  was  further  necessary,  that  Jesus  Christ  the 
true  Messiah  should  be  circumcised ;  because,  being  thus 
subjected  to  the  law  of  Moses,  he  was  put  into  a  condition  to 
fulfil  all  righteousness,  and  redeem  those  who  were  under  the 
law.'  (Gal.  iv.  4,  5.) 

At  the  same  time  that  the  child  was  circumcised,  we  learn 

'  1  Mace.  i.  63.    Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xii.  c.  7. 

«  See  Lev.  xxvi.  41,  42.  Deut.  x.  16.  sxx.  j).  Jer.  iv.  4.  ix.  25,  26.  Rom. 
ii.  2.5 — 29.  Col.  ii.  11.  Acts  vii.  51.  Circumcision  was  that  rite  of  the  law  by 
which  the  Israelites  were  taken  into  God's  covenant ;  and  (in  the  spirit  of 
it)  was  the  same  as  baptism  among  Christians.  For,  as  the  form  of  baptism 
expresses  the  putting  away  of  sin,  circumcision  was  another  form  to  the 
same  effect.  The  Scripture  speaks  of  a  "circumcision  made  without 
hands,"  of  which  that  made  with  hands  was  no  more  than  an  outward  sign, 
which  denoted  "  the  putting  off  the  body  of  the  sins  of  the  flesh,"  (Col.  ii. 
11.),  and  becoming  a  new  creature  ;  which  is  the  sense  of  our  baptism.  Of 
this  inward  and  spiritual  grace  of  circumcision  the  apostle  speaks  expressly 
in  another  place ;  "  He  is  not  a  Jew  which  is  one  outwardly,  neithei  is  that 
circumcision  wliich  is  outward  in  the  flesh ;  but  he  is  a  Jew  which  is  one 
inwardly,  and  circumcision  is  that  of  the  heart,  in  the  spirit,  and  not  in  the 
letter."  (Rom.  ii.  28.)  Some  may  suppose  that  this  spiritual  application  of 
circumcision,  as  a  sacrament,  was  invented  after  the  preaching  of  the  Gos- 
pel, when  the  veil  was  taken  from  the  law ;  but  this  doctrine  was  only  en- 
forced to  those  who  had  it  before,  and  had  departed  from  the  sense  of  their 
own  law ;  for  thus  did  Moses  instruct  the  Jews,  that  there  is  a  "  foreskin  of 
the  heart"  which  was  to  be  "  circumcised"  in  a  moral  or  spiritual  way, 
before  they  could  be  accepted  as  the  servants  of  God  ;  and  again,  that  the 
Lord  would  "circumcise  iheir  heart,  to  love  him  with  all  their  heart,  ajid 
with  all  their  soul,"  (Ueut.  x.  16.  and  xxx.  6.)  ;  which  was  the  same  as  to 
say,  that  he  would  give  them  what  circumcision  signified,  making  them 
Jews  inwardly,  and  giving  them  the  inward  grace  with  the  outward  sign ; 
without  which  the  letter  of  baptism  avails  no  more  now  than  the  letter  of 
circumci.sion  did  then  :  and  we  may  say  of  the  one  as  is  said  of  the  other, 
"  He  is  not  a  Christian  which  is  one  outwardly,  and  baptism  is  not  the  put- 
ting away  the  filth  of  the  flesh  by  washing  with  water,  but  the  answer  of 
a  good  conscience  towards  Ood."  (1  Pet.  iii.  21.)  Rev.  W.  Jones  on  the 
Figurative  Language  of  Scripture.  (Works,  vol  iii.  pp.  77,  78.)  On  this 
subject  Dr.  Graves  has  some  excellent  remarks,  in  his  Lectures  on  the 
Pentateuch,  vol  i.  pp.  241—250.  See  also  an  excellent  discourse  of  Bish^{» 
Beveridge,  entitled  "The  New  Creature  in  Christianity."  Works,  vol.  ii. 
Serm.  xix.  p.  417.  et  seq.  8vo  edit. 

I  Macknight  and  Whitby  on  Luke  ii.  21. 


Sect.  II.] 

from  the  Gospel,  that  it  was  usual  for  the  father,  or  some 
near  relation,  to  give  him  a  name.  Thus  Jolm  the  Baptist 
and  .Icsus  (Jhrist  both  received  their  names  on  tliat  day. 
(Luke  i.  59.  ii.  21.)  It  appears,  however,  that  tlie  Jews 
had  several  names  (Inriiig  ilw  period  eompriscd  in  liie  evan- 
gelical history.  Thus  it  was  customary  with  them,  when 
travelling  into  foreign  countries, or  familiarly  conversing  with 
the  GreeTis  and  Romans,  to  assume  a  Greek  or  Latin  name 
of  great  aflinity,  and  sometimes  of  tln^  very  same  significa- 
tion with  that  of  their  own  country,  hy  which  name  they 
were  usually  called  among  the  Gentiles.  So  Thomas  was 
called  Didymus  (.lohii  xi.  1C>.)  ;  the  one  a  Syriac  and  the 
other  a  Greek  word,  l)ul  i)olli  signifying  a  twin.  (See  Acts 
i.  23.  xii.  12.  2  Pet.  i.  I.  Col.iv.  11.  &c.)  Sometimes  the 
name  was  added  from  their  country,  as  Simon  the  Canaan- 
ite,  and  .ludas  Iscariot  (Matt.  x.  1.);  but  more  frequently 
from  their  assuming  a  new  and  dilTerent  name  upon  particu 


OF  THE  LEVITES. 


Ill 


lar  occurrences  in  life.  (See  2  Cliron.  xxxvi.  4.  2  Kings 
xxiv.  17.  .lohn  i.  42.)  The  same  practice  obtains  in  the 
East  to  this  day.' 

However  necessary  circumcision  was  while  the  ceremonial 
law  remained  in  force,  it  became  equally  indilTerent  and  im- 
necessary  on  the  abrogation  of  that  law  by  the  destruction 
of  the  temple.  Until  tiiat  time  the  apostles  allowed  it  to  be 
performed  on  the  .Tewish  converts  to  Christianity;  but  they 
expressly  j)rohibited  the  imposition  of  such  a  yoke  on  the 
necks  of  the  Gentile  converts  :  and  therefore  St.  Paul,  who 
has  fully  proved  how  unprofitable  and  unnecessary  it  is 
(1  Cor.  vii.  1'.).),  thought  it  proper  to  have  Timothy  circum- 
cised, because  his  mother  was  oi  Jewish  extraction  (Acts  xvi. 
1 — 3.)  ;  though  he  would  not,  on  the  other  hand,  allow  this 
ceremony  to  be  performed  on  Titus,  because  he  was  a  Greek 
(Gal.  ii.  3.)  : — thus  giving  to  the  church  in  all  ages  a  most 
excellent  pattern,  either  of  condescension  or  resolution,  in 
insisting  upon  or  omitting  things  indifferent  according  to  the 
difierence  of  times  and  circumstances. 


SECTION  XL 

ON  THE  MINISTERS  OF  THE  TEMPLE  AND  OTHER  ECCLESIASTICAL 
OR  SACRED  PERSONS. 

I.  Of  the  Levites. — II.  The  priests,  their  functions,  maiiite- 
nance,  ami  privileges. — III.  The  high-priest. — His  functions, 
dress,  anil  privileges. — Succession  to  the  pontifical  dignity. 
— IV.  Officers  of  the  Synagogue. — V.  The  j\'azarites  ;  na- 
ture of  their  vo~.vs. — VI.  The  Eechabites. — VII.  The  pro- 
phets. 

The  Jews,  on  the  establishment  of  their  republic,  had  no 
king  but  Jehovah  himself;  and  the  place  appointed  for  their 
sacrifices  and  praj'ers  was  at  the  same  time  Doth  the  temple 
of  their  God  and  the  palace  of  their  sovereign.  This  circum- 
stance will  account  for  the  pomp  and  splendour  of  their  wor- 
ship, as  well  as  the  number,  variety,  and  gradations  in  rank 
of  their  ministers ;  which  were  first  established  by  Moses, 
and  afterwards  renewed  by  David,  with  increased  splendour, 
for  the  service  of  the  temple.  To  this  service  the  tribe  of 
Levi  was  especially  devoted,  instead  of  the  first-born  of  the 
tribes  of  Israel,  and  was  disengaged  from  all  secular  labours. 
The  honour  of  the  priesthood,  however,  w?s  reserved  to  the 
family  of  Aaron  alone,  the  rest  of  the  tribe  being  employed 
in  the  inferior  offices  of  the  temple :  so  that  all  the  priests 
were  Levites,  but  all  the  Levites  were  not  priests. 

I.  Originally,  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  divided  into  the  three 
families  and  orders  of  Gershonitps,  Kohathites,  and  Mera- 
rites  (1  Chron.  vi.  IG,  &c.),  but  aftiTwards  the  Levites  were 
divided  by  David  (1  Chron.  xxiii.)  into  four  clases.  Their 
principal  oflice  was  to  wait  upon  llie  priests,  and  be  assisting 
to  them  in  the  service  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple;  so  that 
they  were  properly  the  ministers  and  servants  of  the  priests, 
and  obliged  to  obey  their  orders.  (Num.  iii.  9.  1  Chron. 
xxiii.  2ft.)  But  the  particular  duties  incumbent  upon  them 
were  different  in  the  time  of  Moses,  while  the  Israelites  were 
in  the  wilderness,  from  those  which  they  had  to  discharge 
afterwaPds,  in  the  days  of  David  and  Solomon.  In  tlie 
wilderness  the  tabernacle  was  always  in  a  moveable  con- 
dition as  well  as  the  Israelites  :  and  at  that  time  the  chief 
business  of  the  Levites  was,  when  the  Israelites  journeyed, 
to  take  down  the  tabernacle,  to  carry  it  about  as  the  host 

«  See  Harmer's  Obser\'aUons,  vol.  iv.  pp.  431—433. 


removed,  to  take  care  of  all  the  instruments  and  sacred  vessels 
belonging  to  it,  and  when  the  army  pitched  their  tents  to  set 
them  up  again. 

For  the  more  regular  performance  of  the  several  duties 
bejonging  to  the  tabernacle,  the  whole  business  was  divided 
between  the  Kohathites,  the  Gershonites,  and  the  Merarites. 
The  first  were  principally  concerned  in  carrying  the  ark  and, 
sacred  vessels  Belonging  to  the  tabernacle  under  the  conduct 
of  Elcazar  the  priest  (Num.  iv.  Hi.),  which  being  the  most 
iionourable  employment,  was  given  to  them  most  probably 
out  of  respect  to  Moses,  who  was  descended  from  this  family. 
Th(!  (Jersnonites  and  Merarites,  under  the  direction  of  Itha- 
mar,  had  the  burden  and  charge  of  every  thing  else  belong- 
ing to  the  tabernacle,  as  the  coverings,  hangings,  woodwork, 
cords,  pins,  &c.  (ver.  21 — 31.)  When  the  Israeliles  were 
encamped,  these  three  families  of  Levites  were  to  pitch  their 
tents  round  three  sides  of  the  tabernacle,  and  Moses  and 
Aaron  with  their  sons  round  the  fourth  quarter ;  by  which 
means  they  were  so  disposed,  as  to  be  each  of  them  as  near 
as  conveniently  they  could  to  their  respective  charges.  Such 
was  the  office  of  the  Levites  in  the  time  of  Moses.  After- 
wards, when  the  Israelites  were  settled  in  the  promised  land, 
this  employment  of  the  Levites,  in  carrying  the  tabernacle 
and  its  utensils,  ceased ;  and  therefore  David  and  Solomon 
appointed  them  to  new  offices.  They  were  chiefly  indeed 
employed  about  the  service  of  the  temple  :  hut  during  their 
recess,  while  they  were  not  in  attendance  there,  they  were 
dispersed  through  the  whole  country,  and  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  state  as  well  as  of  the  church.  David  made 
six  thousand  of  them  officers  and  judges  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  4.) ; 
they  also  took  care  to  instruct  tlie  people  where  they  resided 
in  the  Mosaic  law,  by  expounding  the  several  parts  of  it; 
and,  according  to  the  JTews,  they  kept  the  public  records  and 
genealogies  of  the  several  tribes. 

In  the  business  about  the  temple  some  of  the  chief  amongst 
them  had  the  charge  of  the  sacred  treasures.  (1  Chron.  xxiii. 
20.)  Others  of  a  lower  rank  were  to  prepare  the  shew-bread 
and  unleavened  cakes,  with  the  proper  quantity  of  flour  for 
the  morning  and  evening  service.  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  29.)  From 
which  text  it  appears  also  that  they  had  in  their  custody 
within  the  sanctuary  the  original  standard  for  weights  and 
measures,  liquid  and  dry,  according  to  which  every  thing  of 
this  kind  was  to  be  regulated.  Hence  it  is  we  often  read  in 
Scripture  of  the  shekel  of  the  sanctuary,  not  that  there  were 
two  sorts  of  shekels,  one  sacred  and  another  civil,  but  be- 
cause weights  and  measures,  being  reckoned  among  the 
sacred  things,  were  kept  in  the  sanctuary,  as  they  were  in 
the  temples  of  the  Pagans,  and  afterwards  in  Christian 
churches.2  Many  of  the  Levites  were  likewise  employed 
as  porters,  to  guard  the  gates  and  passages  into  the  temple. 
(1  Chron.  ix.  17.)  Others  were  more  honourably  employed 
as  singers,  and  were  to  stand  every  mornino;  to  thank  and 
praise  the  Lord,  and  likewise  in  the  evening  (1  Chron.  xxiii. 
30.)  ;  and  this  we  find  they  did  in  a  very  solemn  manner  at 
the  dedication  of  the  temple.  (2  Chron.  v.  12,  13.)  The 
whole  body  of  the  Levites  in  David's  time  amounted  to 
thirty-eight  thousand,  from  thirty  )-ears  old  and  upwards 
(1  Chron.  xxii.  3.),  of  which  number  he  appointed  four-and- 
twenty  thousand  to  attend  the  constant  duty  and  work  of  the 
temple;  and  these  being  divided  as  the  priests  were  into  four- 
and-twenty  courses  (as  appears  from  1  Chron.  xxiii.  21.  and 
2  Chron.  xxxi.  17.),  there  were  one  thousand  for  each  week. 
Six  thousand  again  were  to  be  officers  and  judges,  as  already 
mentioned,  four  thousand  for  porters,  and  four  thousand  for 
singers.  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  4,5.)  The  four-and-twenty  courses 
Qf  singers  are  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  xxv.  8 — 31.  This  dis- 
position of  them  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  Solomon  when 
the  temple  was  finished  (2  Chron.  viii.  14.)  ;  and  all  these 
had  their  chiefs  or  overseers  as  well  as  the  priests.  (Ezra 
viii.  29.)  The  duty  of  the  porters  was  not  only  to  be  a  mili- 
tary guard  upon  the  temple,  but  also  to  take  care  that  no 
person  who  was  unclean  or  uncircumcised  miglit  enter  the 
court  of  the  Israelites.  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  19.)  And  however 
mean  their  employment  was,  yet  it  was  the  pious  desire  of 
David,  rather  to  be  a  duor-keeper  in  the  house  of  God,  than  to 
du'fll  tJi  the  tents  of  wickedness.  (Psal.  Ixxxiv.  10.)  The 
order  of  singers  was  instituted  by  David,  and  it  appears  that 
the  whole  book  of  psalms  was  composed  for  this  kind  of 
devotion.  David  (by  whom  the  greatest  number  was  com- 
posed) directed  many  of  them  to  the  chief  musician,  for  this 
very  purpose,  that  they  might  be  used  in  the  service  of  the 
house  of  God.  And  we  have  one  particular  instance  in  which 

>  Novels  of  Justinian,  nov.  1^.  cap.  15. 


112 


SACRED  PERSONS. 


[Part  III.  Cuap.  n. 


it  is  said,  \hat  David  delivered  this  psalm  to  thank  the  Lord 
into  the  hand  of  Asaph  and  his  bretliren.  (1  Ciiron.  xvi.  7.) 
Tiie  principal  jjersons  of  this  order,  wlio  had  the  siiperinten- 
denc}^  over  all  \\w  rest,  were  Heman  and  Asaph  of  the  line 
of  Gcrshon,  and  Jeduthun  of  the  line  of  Merari,  of  whom 
we  have  an  account  in  1  Chron.  xxv. 

The  mere  circumstance  of  birtn  did  not  give  the  Levites  a 
title  to  officiate;  they  were  obliged  to  receive  a  sort  of  conse- 
cration, which  consisted  chiefly  in  sprinkling  them  with 
water,  in  washing,  and  in  offerino-  sacrifices.  (Num.  viii.  6, 
7,  8.)  The  usual  age,  at  which  the  Levites  were  to  enter  on 
their  office,  was  at  tivc-and-twenty  years,  and  they  continued 
till  fifty.  (Num.  viii.  21,  25.)     But  there  was  a  particular 

Erecept  which  restrained  the  Kohathites  (one  of  the  three 
ranches)  from  being  employed  to  carry  the  holy  things  be- 
longing to  the  sanctuary,  till  they  were  of  the  age  of  thirty 
(Num.  iv.  30.),  probably,  because  these  being  the  most  valu- 
able and  important  of  all  the  moveables  belonging  to  the 
tabernacle,  required  therefore  persons  of  greater  experience 
and  strength.  Afterwards,  when  David  new-moulded  the 
constitution  of  the  Levites,  he  (by  the  same  authority  which 
empowered  him  to  give  directions  about  the  building  and 
situation  of  the  house  of  God)  ordered  that  for  the  future  the 
Levites  should  be  admitted  at  the  age  of  twenty  years. 
(1  Chron.  xxiii.  21.)  It  does  not  appear  by  the  first  institu- 
tion of  the  Levites  that  they  had  any  peculiar  habit  in  the 
ceremonies  of  religion  by  which  they  were  distinguished 
from  other  Israelites.  None  of  the  Levites,  of  what  degree 
or  order  soever,  had  any  right  to  sacrifice,  for  that  was  the 
proper  duty  of  the  priests  only  :  the  Levites,  indeed,  were  to 
assist  the  priests  in  killing  and  flaying  the  sacrifices,  and, 
during  the  time  they  were  oflTered  up,  to  sing  praises  to  God  : 
and  in  this  sense  the  two  passages  in  1  Chron.  xxiii.  31.  and 
2  Chron.  xxxi.  2.  are  commonly  understood  ;  neither  had 
they  any  title  to  burn  incense  to  the  Lord ;  and  though  the 
speech  of  Hezekiah  (mentioned  in  2  Chron.  xxix.  particu- 
larly ver.  11.)  seems  to  imply  otherwise,  yet  we  ought  to 
consider  that  he  is  there  speakmg  to  the  priests  as  well  as  to 
the  Levites.  It  was  on  account  of  their  aspiring  to  the  priest's 
office  in  this  particular  of  burning  incense,  that  Korah  and 
his  company  (who  were  Levites)  were  miraculously  destroy- 
ed, and  their  censers  ordered  to  be  beaten  into  broad  plates, 
and  fixed  upon  the  altar,  to  be  perpetual  monuments  of  their 

fresumptuous  sacrilege,  and  a  caution  to  all  the  children  of 
srael,  that  none  presume  to  ofler  incense  before  the  Lord 
but  the  seed  of  Aaron,  who  alone  were  commissioned  to  the 
priestly  office. 

As  the  Levites  were  subordinate  to  the  priests,  so  they 
(the  Levites)  had  others  under  them,  called  Nethinims, 
whose  business  it  was  to  carry  the  water  and  wood  that  was 
wanted  in  the  temple  for  the  use  of  the  sacrifices,  and  to 
perform  other  laborious  services  there.  They  were  not 
originally  of  Hebrew  descent,  but  are  supposed  to  have  been 
chiefly  the  posterity  of  the  Gibeonites,  who  for  their  fraudu- 
lent stratagem  in  imposing  upon  Joshua  and  the  Hebrew 
princes  (Josh.  ix.  3 — 27.)  were  condemned  to  this  employ- 
ment, which  was  a  sort  of  honourable  servitude.  We  read 
in  Ezra,  that  the  Nethinims  were  devoted  by  David  and  the 
other  princes  to  the  service  of  the  temple  (Ezra  viii.  20.), 
and  they  are  called  the  children  of  Solomon's  servants  (Ezra 
ii.  58.),  being  probably  a  mixture  of  the  race  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites, and  some  of  the  remains  of  the  Canaanites,  whom  Solo- 
mon constrained  to  various  servitudes.  (1  Kings  ix.  20,  21.) 
They  had  a  particular  place  in  Jerusalem  where  they  dwelt, 
called  Ophel,  for  the  conveniency  of  being  near  the  service 
of  the  temple.  (Neh.  iii.  26.) 

In  order  to  enable  the  Levites  to  devote  themselves  to  that 
service,  forty-eight  cities  were  assigned  to  them  for  their 
residence,  on  the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan  ;  thirteen  of 
these  were  appropriated  to  the  priests,!  to  which  were  added 
the  tithes  of  corn,  fruit,  and  cattle.  The  Levites,  however, 
paid  to  the  priests  a  tenth  part  of  all  their  tithes ;  and  as 
they  were  possessed  of  no  landed  property,  the  tithes  which 
the  priests  received  from  them  were  considered  as  the  first- 
fruits  which  they  were  to  offer  to  God.  (Num.  xviii. 
21_24.)2 

II.  Next  to  the  Levites,  but  superior  to  them  in  dignity, 
were  the  ordinary  Priests,  who  were  chosen  from  the  family 
of  Aaron  exclusively.  They  served  immediately  at  the  altar, 
prepared  the  victims,  and  offered  the  sacrifices.  They  kept 
up  a  perpetual  fire  on  the  altar  of  the  burnt  sacrifices,  and 

'  See  p.  16.  supra. 

«  Home's  Script.  Hist,  of  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp.  214—221.  Schulzii  Archaeol. 
Hebr.  pp.  227—231. 


also  in  the  lamps  of  the  golden  candlestick  in  the  sanctuary  ; 
\hey  kneaded  the  loaves  of  shew-bread,  which  they  baked, 
and  offered  on  the  golden  altar  in  the  sanctuary  :  and  changed 
them  every  Sabbath-day.  Every  day,  morning  and  evening, 
a  priest  (who  was  appointed  at  the  beginning  of  the  week 
by  lot)  brought  into  the  sanctuary  a  smoking  censer  of 
incense,  which  he  set  upon  the  gofden  table,  and  which  on 
no  account  was  to  be  kindled  with  strange  fire,  that  is,  with 
any  fire  but  that  which  was  taken  from  the  altar  of  bunit 
sacrifice.  (Lev.  x.  1,2.)  And  as  the  number  and  variety  of 
their  functions  required  them  to  be  well  read  in  their  law,  in 
order  that  they  might  be  able  to  judge  of  the  various  legal 
uncleannesses,  &c.  this  circumstance  caused  them  to  be  con- 
sulted as  interpreters  of  the  law  (Hos.  iv.  G.  Mai.  ii.  7,  &c. 
Lev.  xiii.  2.  Num.  v.  14,  15.),  as  well  as  judges  of  contro- 
versies. (Deut.  xxi.  5.  xvii.  8 — 13.)  In  the  time  of  war, 
their  business  was  to  carry  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  to  sound 
the  holy  trumpets,  and  animate  the  army  to  the  performance 
of  its  diities.  To  them  also  it  belonged  publicly  to  bless 
the  people  in  the  name  of  the  Lord. 

The  priests  were  divided  by  David  into  twenty-four  classes 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  7 — 18.)  ;  which  order  was  retained  by  Solo- 
mon (2  Chron.  viii.  14.') ;  and  at  the  revivals  of  the  Jewish 
religion  by  the  kings  Hezekiah  and  Josiah.  (2  Chron.  xxxi. 
2.  XXXV.  4,  5.)  As,  however,  only  four  classes  returned 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  30 — 39.  Neh.  vii. 
39 — 42.  xii.  1.),  these  were  again  divided  into  twenty-four 
classes,  each  of  which  was  distinguished  by  its  original  ap- 
pellation. This  accounts  for  the  introduction  of  the  class  or 
order  of  Abiah,  mentioned  in  Luke  i.  5.,  which  we  do  not 
find  noticed  among  those  who  returned  from  the  captivity. 
One  of  these  classes  went  up  to  Jerusalem  every  week  to 
discharge  the  sacerdotal  office,  and  succeeded  one  another  on 
the  Sabbath-day,  till  they  had  all  attended  in  their  turn.  To 
each  order  was  assigned  a  president  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  6.  31. 
2  Chron.  xxxvi.  14.),  whom  some  critics  suppose  to  be  the 
same  as  the  chief  priests  so  often  mentioned  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, and  in  the  writings  of  Josephus.^  The  prince  or 
prefect  of  each  class  appointed  an  entire  family  to  offer  the 
daily  sacrifices :  and  at  the  close  of  the  week  they  all  joined 
together  in  sacrificing.  And  as  each  family  consisted  of  a 
great  number  of  priests,  they  drew  lots  for  the  different 
offices  which  they  were  to  perform.  It  was  by  virtue  of  such 
lot  that  the  office  of  burning  incense  was  assigned  to  Zacha- 
rias  the  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  when  he  went  into  the 
temple  of  the  Lord.  (Luke  i.  9.)  According  to  some  .Fewish 
writers,  there  were  three  priests  employed  in  the  offering  of 
the  incense  ;  one,  who  carried  away  the  ashes  left  on  the 
altar  at  the  preceding  service  ;  another,  who  brought  a  pan 
of  burning  coals  from  the  altar  of  sacrifice,  and,  having 
placed  it  on  the  golden  altar,  departed ;  a  third,  who  went 
in  with  the  incense,  sprinkled  it  on  the  burning  coals,  and, 
while  the  smoke  ascended,  made  intercession  for  the  people. 
This  was  the  particular  office  which  fell  by  lot  to  Zacharias  ; 
and  it  was  accounted  the  most  honourable  in  the  whole 
service.  This  office  could  be  held  but  once  by  the  same 
person.'' 

The  sacerdotal  dignity  being  confined  to  certain  families, 
every  one  who  aspired  to  it  wa%  required  to  establish  his 
descent  from  those  families  :  on  this  account  the  genealogies 
of  the  priests  were  inscribed  in  the  public  registers,  and  were 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  temple.*  Hence,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  sacerdotal  blood,  no  priest  was 
permitted  to  marry  a  harlot  or  profane  woman,  or  one  who 
had  been  divorced ;  and  if  any  one  laboured  under  any  bodily- 
defect,  this  excluded  him  from  serving  at  the  altar.  Purity 
of  body  and  sanctity  of  life  were  alike  indispensable  ;  nor 
could  any  one  undertake  the  priestly  office,  in  the  early 
period  of  the  Jewish  polity,  before  he  had  attained  thirty 
year^,  or,  in  later  times,  the  age  of  twenty  years.''  According 
to  Maimonides,  the  priest  whose  genealogy  was  defective  in 
any  respect  was  clothed  in  black,  and  veiled  in  black,  and 
sent  without  the  verge  of  the  court  of  the  priests  ;  but  every 
one  that  was  found  perfect  and  right  was  clothed  in  white, 
and  went  in  and  ministered  with  his  brethren  the  priests.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  St.  John  refers  to  this  custom  of  the 

3  See  Matt,  xxvii.  1.  Acts  iv.  23.  v.  24.  ix.  14.  21.  x.xii.  30.  xxiii.  14.  xxv. 
1.5.  xxvi.  10.  ;  andal.so  Josephus,  Ant.  Jiid.  lib.  xx.  c.  8.  §8.  De  Bell.  Jud. 
lib.  iv.  c.  3.  §  7.  c.  4.  §  3.  et  de  vita  sua,  §§  2.  5. 

«  Macliniglit,  and  Wetstein,  on  Luke  i.  9. 

'  Ezra  ii.  02.  Neh.  yii.  64.  Josephus  contra  Apion,  lib.  i.  §  7.  et  in  vita 
sua,  §  1. 

6  Lev.  xxi.  7. 17 — 23.      Num.  iv.  3.     2  Chron.  xxxi.  17.    Maimonides  has' 
enumerated  not  fewer  than  140  bodily  defects  which  disqualified  persons  - 
for  the  priesthood.     See  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  12.  §  2.  and  com- 
pare Carpzov's  Apparatus  Antiquitatum  Sacrarum,  p.  89.  etseq. 


ir.] 


OF  THE  HIGH-PRIEST. 


113 


Jewish  sanhcdrin  in  Rev.  iii.  5.    Those  priests,  whose  birth  ]  of  man  or  beast,  were  dedicated  to  God,  and  by  virtue  of  that 


was  pure,  livtul  in  certain  apartments  of  the  temple,  in  wliich 
was  deposited  wood  for  tlie  altar,  and  were  employed  in 
aplittinjT  and  prcparinir  it,  to  keep  up  tiie  sacred  lin\'  No 
particular  ceremony  ajjpcars  to  have  taken  |)lace  at  the  con- 
secration of  the  ordinary  pric^sts,  who  were  ailmilted  to  the 
exercise  of  their  functions  by  "//'/////i,'- ///'//• //«//r/.v,"  as  the 
Scri|)tures  term  it, — that  is,  by  makinir  tliem  perform  the 
offices  of  their  order.  Hut  when  tiie  jiriests  had  departed 
from  their  relijrion,  or  had  been  a  lonfj  time  witliout  dis- 
charfrintr  their  functions  (wliich  happened  under  some  of  the 
later  kinos  of  .ludah),  it  was  deeuifd  necessary  to  sanctify 
anew  such  priests,  as  well  as  those  who  had  never  exercised 
their  ministry.  ('2  (Miroii.  xxix,  .31.) 

'i'he  priests  were  not  distimruished  by  their  sacerdotal 
liabils,  uidess  when  engajied  in  the  service  of  the  altar.  Of 
these  varments  there  are  lour  kinds  mentioned  in  the  books 
of  Exodus  (xxviii.)  and  Leviticus  (viii.)  ;  viz. 

1.  Linen  Drawers.  These  were  ))rescrib(Hl  for  the  express 
purpose  of  cweriin;  their  nultednens ,-  that  is,  to  preserve  the 
priests  from  an  indecorous  and  ludicrous  appearance,  when 
they  stood  either  above  the  heads  of  the  peoj)le,  or  when  their 
office  required  a  variety  of  bodily  (jestures  in  the  view  of  the 
multitude.  Tiiis  garment  would  prevent  those  indecent 
exposures  of  their  persons,  which  some  heathen  idolaters 
esteemed  honourable,  and  even  religious  in  the  worship  of 
their  gods. 

2.  A  Linen  Tunic,  which  readied  down  to  the  ankles, 
fitting  closely  to  the  body,  and  the  sleeves  of  which  were 
tightly  drawn  round  the  arms :  it  was  without  seam,  and 
woven  from  the  top  throughout.  Such  was  the  tunic  worn 
by  Jesus  I'hrist,  for  which  the  soldiers  cast  lots.2 

3.  A  Girdle  or  long  sash,  made  of  linen  curiously  embroi- 
dered, and  intended  to  bind  the  coat  closely  around  them, 
and  thus  to  serve  at  once  the  purposes  of  warmth  and  strength, 
of  convenience  and  ornament. 

4.  The  Tiara  was  originally  a  pointed  kind  of  bonnet  or 
turban,  made  of  several  rolls  of  linen  cloth  twisted  round 
tlie  head ;  but  in  the  time  of  Josephus  it  approached  some- 
what to  a  globular  form.-* 

In  order  that  the  priests,  as  well  as  the  Levites,  might  be 
wholly  at  liberty  to  follow  their  sacred  profession,  they  were 
exempted  from  all  secular  burthens  or  labours.  Of  the  Le- 
vitical  cities  already  mentioned,  thirteen  were  assigned  for 
the  residence  of  the  priests,  with  their  respective  suburbs 
(Num.  XXXV.) ;  the  limits  of  which  were  confined  to  a  thou- 
sand cubits  beyond  the  walls  of  the  city,  wliich  served  for 
out-houses,  as  stables,  barns,  and  perhaps  for  gardens  of 
herbs  and  flowers.  Beyond  this  they  had  two  thousand  cubits 
more  for  their  pasture,  called  properly  the  fields  of  the  suburbs. 
(Lev.  XXV.  34.)  So  that  there  were  in  the  whole  three  thou- 
sand cubits  round  the  city  ;  and  in  this  sense  we  are  to  under- 
stand Num.  XXXV.  4,  5.  where  the  word  suburbs  compre- 
hends both  the  houses,  without  the  walls,  and  also  the  fields. 
But  thou<rh  the  tribe  of  Levi  had  no  portion  in  Canaan 
assigned  tnem  in  the  first  division  of  it,  yet  they  were  not 
prevented  from  purchasing  land,  houses,  goods,  or  cattle,  out 
of  their  own  proper  elfects.  Thus  we  read  that  Abiathar  had 
an  estate  of  his  own  at  Anathoth,  to  which  Solomon  banished 
and  confined  him  (1  Kings  ii.  20.) ;  and  the  proph(!t  Jeremiah, 
wiio  was  also  a  priest,  purchased  a  field  of  his  uncle's  son  in 
his  own  town.  (Jer.  xxxii.  8, 9.)  Such  were  the  residences 
allotted  to  the  priests.  Their  maintenance  was  derived  from 
the  tithes  offered  by  the  Levites  out  of  the  tithes  by  them 
received,  from  the  first-fruits,  from  the  first  clip  of  wool  when 
the  slieep  were  shorn,  from  the  olTerings  made  in  tiie  temple, 
and  from  their  share  of  the  sin-offerings  and  thanksgiving- 
offerings  sacrificed  in  the  temple,  of  which  certain  parts  were 
appropriated  to  the  priests.  Thus  in  the  peace-offerings, 
they  had  the  shoulder  and  the  breast  (Lev.  vii.  33,  3i.)  :  in 
the  sin-offerings,  they  burnt  on  the  altar  the  fat  that  covered 
certain  parts  of  the  victim  sacrificed  ;  the  rest  belonged  to  the 
priest.  (Lev.  vii.  6.  10.)  To  him  also  was  appropriated  the 
skin  or  fleece  of  every  victim ;  and  when  an  Israelite  killed 
an  animal  for  his  own  use,  there  were  certain  parts  assigned 
to  the  priest.  (Deut.  xviii.  3.)    All  the  first-born  also,  whetlier 

«  Lamy,  Apparatus  Biblicus,  vol.  i.  p.  213. 

«  Josephus,  Ant.  Jiid.  lit),  iii,  c.  7.  §2.  Soe  also  tho  Observations  of 
Ernesti,  Inst.  Inlerp.  Nov.  Test,  part  ii.  c.  10.  §SS.  pf).  371— 37J.  It  was  for 
along  time  supposed  that  the  an  of  making  siicli  vests  was  irrecoveraljly 
lost.  Braiinius,  however,  rediscovered  it,  and  procured  a  loom  to  be  made, 
in  whicti  tunics  were  woven  all  of  one  piece.  See  his  treatise  de  Vestitu 
Sacerdotum  Hebraeoruin,  lib.  i.  c.  16.  p.  264. 

?  Josephus,  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  7.  S  3.  Tappan's  Lect.  on  Jewish 
Antiquities,  pp.  135—157. 

Vol.  n.  P 


devotion  belonged  to  the  priests.  The  rnen  were  redeemed 
for  five  shekels  (Num.  xviii.  15,  16.)  :  the  first-born  of  im- 
pure animals  were  redeemed  or  exchanged,  but  the  clean 
animals  were  not  reileemed.  They  were  sacrificed  to  the 
Lord;  their  blood  was  sprinkled  about  the  altar, and  the  rest 
belonged  to  the  priest;  who  also  had  the  first-fruits  of  trees, 
tiiat  is,  those  of  the  fourth  year  (Num.  xviii.  13.  Lev.  xix. 
23,  2L),  as  well  as  a  share  in  the  tithes  of  tlie  spoils  taken 
in  war.  (Num.  xxxi.  28 — 41.)  Such  were  the  principal 
Hivenues  of  the  pritsts,  which,  though  they  were  sufficient  to 
ke(>p  them  above  want,  yet  were  not  (as  some  writers  have 
imagined)  so  ample  as  to  enable  them  to  accumulate  riches, 
or  to  impoverish  the  laity ;  thus  their  political  influence, 
arising  from  their  sacred  station,  as  well  as  from  their  supe- 
rior learning  and  information,  was  checked  by  rendering  tliem 
dependent  on  the  people  for  their  daily  bread.  By  this  wise 
constitution  of  Mose^s,  they  were  deprived  of  all  power,  by 
which  they  might  injure  the  liberty  of  the  other  tribes,  or  in 
any  way  endanger  tlie  Israelitish  polity,  by  any  ambitious 
views  or  prospects :  for  not  only  were  all  the  estates  of  the 
Levites  and  priests,  but  also  their  persons,  given  into  the 
hands  of  the  other  tribes,  as  so  many  hostages,  and  as  a 
security  for  their  good  behaviour.  They  were  so  separated 
from  one  another,  that  they  could  n-'t  assist  each  other  in  any 
ambitious  design  ;  and  they  were  so  dispersed  among  the 
other  tribes,  that  these  could  attach  the  whole  subsistence  as 
well  as  arrest  all  the  persons  of  the  Levites  and  priests  at 
once,  in  the  event  of  any  national  quarrel,  or  if  tney  were 
sns]iected  of  forming  any  evil  designs  against  the  other  tribes 
of  Israel.  Hence  we  may  perceive,  that,  whatever  power  or 
influence  the  Mosaic  constitution  gave  the  Levites  to  do  good, 
the  same  constitution  can^fuUy  provided,  that  they  should 
have  no  power,  either  to  disturb  the  peace,  or  to  endanger 
the  liberties  of  their  country.'' 

III.  Over  all  the  priests  was  placed  the  High-priest,  who 
enjoyed  peculiar  dignities  and  influence.  He  alone  could 
enter  the  Holy  of  Holies  in  the  temple  :  the  supreme  adminis- 
tration of  sacred  things  was  confined  to  him  ;  he  was  the 
final  arbiter  of  all  controversies  ;  in  later  times  he  presided 
over  the  sanhedrin,  and  held  the  next  rank  to  the  sovereign 
or  prince.  His  authority,  therefore,  was  very  great  at  all 
times,  especially  when  ne  united  the  pontifical  and  regal 
dignities  in  his  own  person.  In  the  Old  Testament  he  is 
sometimes  called  the  priest  by  way  of  eminence  (Exod. 
xxix.  30.  Neh.  vii.  65.),  and  sometimes  the  head  or  chief  of 
the  high-priests,  because  the  appellation  of  high-priests  was 
given  to  the  heads  of  the  sacerdotal  families  or  courses,  who 
were  members  of  the  sanhedrin.  This  appellation,  in  the 
New  Testament,  includes  not  only  the  jjerson  who  actually 
held  the  office  of  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  but  also  those  who, 
having  once  filled  that  office,  still  retained  the  name.  (Matt, 
xxvi.  57,  58.  Luke  xxii.  50.  54.  John  xi.  49.  51.)  When 
the  high-priest  became  old,  or  had  accidentally  been  ex- 
posed to  any  pollution,  a  UD  (strcf/N)  or  substitute  was  ap- 
pointed to  perform  his  duties.  Zephaniah,  the  second  priest, 
(Jer.  Iii.  24.)  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  sagan  or  deputy 
of  the  high-priest  Seraiah.  Such  an  officer  seems  to  be  in- 
tended in  John  xviii.  13.  and  Acts  iv.  6.;  in  which  passages 
Annas  is  called  a  chief  priest  either  as  having  formerly  been 
hi^h-priest,  or  as  then  being  actually  his  sagan.' 

In  order  that  the  person  of  the  high-priest  might  be  deemed 
more  holy,  he  was  inaugurated  with  great  splendour ;  being 
invested  (after  ablution  was  performed)  with  the  sacred 
habiliments  which  conferred  this  dignity,  and  anointed  with 
a  precious  oil  prepared  and  preserved  for  this  exclusive  pur- 
pose. (Exod.  xxix.  7.  xxx.  23.  et  seq.  Lev.  viii.  12.)  But, 
after  the  erection  of  the  second  temple,  this  anointing  ceased, 
and  the  inauguration  of  the  high-priest  was  accomplished  by 
arraying  him  with  the  pontifical  robes  worn  by  his  prede- 
cessor. 

Besides  the  garments  which  were  common  to  the  high- 
priest,  as  well  as  to  the  inferior  members  of  the  sacerdotal 
order,  there  were  four  peculiar  to  himself;  viz. 

1 .  The  Coat  or  Robe  of  the  Ephod,  which  was  made  of  blue 
wool ;  on  its  hem  there  were  seventy-two  golden  bells,^  sepa- 
rated from  one  another  by  as  many  artificial  pomegranates. 
As  the  pomegranates  added  to  the  beauty  of  the  robe,  so  the 

*  Schnlz.ii  ArchjeoIogia,Hebraica,  pp.  231— 236.  Lowman's  Civil  Govern- 
ment of  the  Hebrews,  p.  124. 

'  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron,  p.  13.  Lightfool's  HorK  Hebraicw,  and 
Kuiniiel,  on  Luke  iii.  2. 

«  Similar  hells  are  still  in  use  in  the  E3St.  Sec  Ha -s^olquist's  Travels, 
p.  58.,  and  D'Arvieux's  Travels  in  Arabia  the  Desert,  p.  235. 


114 


SACRED  PERSONS. 


[Part  III.  Chap.  U. 


sound  of  the  bells  gave  notice  to  the  people  in  the  outer  court  of 
the  high-priest's  entrance  into  the  holy  place  to  burn  incense  ; 
in  order  that  they  might  then  apply  themselves  to  their  devo- 
tions, as  an  expression  of  their  concurrence  with  him  in  his 
offering,  and  of  their  hope  that  their  prayers,  accompanied 
with  the  incense  offered  by  him,  would  ascend  as  a  fragrant 
odour  before  God. 

2.  The  Ephnd  was  a  vest,  which  was  fastened  on  the 
shoulders,  the  hinder  part  reaching  down  to  the  heels,  while 
tbe  fore  part  descended  only  a  little  below  the  waist.  It  was 
of  fine  twisted  linen,  splendidly  wrought  with  gold  and  pur- 
ple :  to  each  of  the  shoulder-straps  of  this  ephod  was  affixed 
a  precious  stone,  on  which  were  engraven  the  names  of  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 

3.  The  Breast  plate  of  Judi^menf,  or  oracle,  was  a  piece  of 
cloth  doubled,  one  span  square,  and  of  similar  texture  and 
workmanship  with  the  ephod  :  on  it  were  set  twelve  precious 
stones,  containing  the  engraved  names  of  the  twelve  sons  of 
Jacob,  and  also  the  words  Uriin  and  Thuminim,  signifying 
"  lights  and  perfections,"  and  emblematical  of  divine  illumi- 
nation. Concerning  the  nature  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim, 
learned  men  are  not  agreed.  All  that  we  know  with  cer- 
tainty is,  that  when  the  high-priest  went  to  ask  counsel  of 
Jehovah,  he  presented  himself  arrayed  with  this  breastplate, 
and  received  the  divine  cc;nmands.  This  mode  of  consulta- 
tion subsisted  under  the  tabernacle  erected  by  Moses  in  the 
wilderness,  and  until  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple.  As 
God  was  the  political  sovereign  of  the  Hebrews,  the  high- 
priest  was  of  course  his  minister  of  state :  the  names  of  the 
twelve  tribes  being  worn  at  his  breast,  when  he  went  to  ask 
counsel  of  his  sovereign,  were  a  fit  pledge  and  medium  of 
divine  direction.  At  the  same  time,  these  names  being  worn 
both  on  his  breast  and  shoulders  would  forcibly  instruct  him 
to  cherish  the  tenderest  affection,  and  to  exert  his  utmost 
power,  for  their  welfare.' 

4.  The  last  peculiarity  in  the  dress  of  the  high-priest  was 
a  Crown  or  Mitre,  on  the  front  of  which  was  tied,  by  a  blue 
riband,  a  plate  of  pure  gold,  on  which  were  engraven  nin>'7 
ipnp  (k'D  SH  LOjfHovaH),  or  Holiness  unto  the  Lord,  emble- 
matical of  that  holiness  which  was  the  scope  and  end  of  the 
law. 

With  all  these  vestments  the  high-priest  was  necessarily 
arrayed  when  he  mmistered  in  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  but 
at  other  times  he  wore  the  ordinary  dress  of  the  priests  ;  and 
this,  according  to  some  learned  persons,  was  the  reason  why 
St.  Paul  who  had  been  long  absent  from  Jerusalem,  knew 
not  that  Ananias  was  the  high-priest,  when  he  appeared  be- 
fore him  in  the  sanhedrin.2  (Acts  xxiii.  5.)  The  frequent 
and  violent  changes  in  the  pontifical  off.ce,  which  happened 
in  those  times,  confirms  the  probability  of  this  conjecture. 
The  supreme  pontiff  was  not  allowed  to  rend  his  garments, 
as  the  other  Jews  did,  on  any  occasions  of  domestic  calamity 
(Lev.  xxi.  10.);  but  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  it  had  be- 
come lawful,  or  at  least  was  tolerated  as  an  expression  of 
horror  at  hearing  what  was  deemed  blasphemy  against  God. 
This  will  explain  the  conduct  of  Caiaphas,  who  is  said  (Matt. 
xxvi.  65.)  to  have  rent  his  garments. ^ 

T^he  Jewish  writers  have  discovered  much  recondite  mean- 
ing in  the  pontifical  vestments.  According  to  Josephus  and 
Philo,  the  nigh-priest's  linen  garments  represented  the  body 
of  the  earth  ;  the  glorious  robe  which  encompassed  it,  heaven; 
the  bells  and  promegranates,  thunder  and  lightning.  Or,  the 
ephod  of  various  colours  is  the  universe ;  the  breastplate, 
the  earth  in  its  centre  ;  the  girdle,  the  sea ;  the  onyx-stone 
on  each  shoulder,  the  sun  and  moon ;  the  twelve  jewels  in 
the  breastplate,  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac  ;  the  mitre, 
heaven ;  and  the  golden  plate,  with  the  name  of  God  en- 
graven on  it,  the  splendour  of  Jehovah  in  heaven.  Some 
Christian  divines  have  allegorized  them  in  a  manner  equally 

'  Tappan's  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiq.  pp.  157—160. 

'  The  dress  and  ornaments  of  the  high-priest  above  noticed,  together 
with  the  mode  of  consecrating  him,  as  directed  by  Moses,  are  described  at 
length  in  Exod.  xxviii.  and  xxix.  1—37. 

•  Tappan'a  Lectures,  p.  164. 


extravagant ;  but  such  wild  comments  serve  no  other  purpose 
than  to  throw  an  air  of  romance,  of  uncertainty,  and  of  ridi- 
cule over  sacred  things.  It  is  sufficient  for  us  to  be  assured, 
that  these  minute  prescriptions  were  adapted  to  wise  and 
excellent  purposes,  in  the  comparatively  infant  state  of  the 
church ;  and,  particularly,  that  they  served  the  general  uses 
of  an  emblematical  and  typical  religion,  which  was  intended 
to  impress  moral  and  spiritual  truth  by  sensible  and  striking 
representations.'' 

The  high-priest,  who  was  the  chief  man  in  Israel,  and 
appeared  before  God  in  behalf  of  the  people  in  their  sacred 
services,  and  who  was  appointed  for  sacrifice,  for  blessing, 
and  for  intercession,  was  a  type  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  great 
high-priest,  who  offered  himself  a  sacrifice  for  sin,  who  blesses 
his  people,  and  who  evermore  liveth  to  make  intercession  for 
them.  The  Xexvcv  priest  is  also  applied  to  every  true  believer, 
who  is  enabled  to  offer  up  himself  a  spiritual  sacrifice  accept- 
able to  God  through  Christ.  (1  Pet.  li.  5.  Rev.  i.  6.V 

The  pontifical  dignity,  in  its  first  institution,  was  held  for 
life,  provided  the  high-priests  were  not  guilty  of  crimes  that 
merited  deposition.  For  we  read  that  Solomon  deprived 
Abiathar  of  this  office  for  being  concerned  in  treasonable 
practices  with  Adonijah,  who  aspired  to  the  throne  of  Israel. 
(1  Kings  ii.  27.)  At  its  first  institution,  also,  the  high-priest- 
hood was  made  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Aaron  (Num.  iii. 
10.),  who  was  the  first  person  invested  with  this  dignity. 
(Lev.  viii.  l.e<  sey.  Heb.v.4,5.)  From  Aaron  it  descended 
to  Eleazar,  his  eldest  son,  from  whom  it  passed  in  long  sucr 
cession  to  Eli ;  from  him,  on  account  of  the  wickedness  of 
his  sons,  the  dignity  subsequently  devolved  to  the  descendants 
of  Ithamar  the  second  son  of  Aaron.  (1  Sam.,  ii.  35,  36.)  In 
the  reign  of  Solomon,  however,  it  returned  again  into  the 
family  of  Eleazar  by  Zadok  (I  Kings  ii.  35.);  in  which  it 
remained  until  the  Babylonian  captivity.  During  this  period 
the  high-priest  was  elected  by  the  other  priests,  or  else  by 
an  assembly  partly  consisting  of  priests. 

The  first  high-priest,  after  the  return  from  the  captivity, 
was  Joshua  the  son  of  Josedek,  of  the  family  of  Eleazar ; 
whence  the  succession  went  into  a  private  Levitical  family. 
The  office  was  then  filled  by  some  of  the  princes  of  the 
Maccabaean  family.  According  to  the  law,  it  was  or  ought 
to  have  been  held  for  life ;  but  this  was  very  ill  obeyed  under 
the  Roman  government,  especially  during  the  time  of  our 
Saviour,  and  in  the  latter  years  of  the  Jewish  polity,  when 
election  and  the  right  of  succession  were  totally  disregarded. 
The  dignity,  sanctity,  and  authority  of  the  high-priest  were 
then  almost  annihilated  ;  and  this  office  was  not  unfrequently 
sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  to  persons  who  had  neither  age, 
learning,  nor  rank  to  recommend  them ;  nay,  even  to  indivi- 
duals who  were  not  of  the  sacerdotal  race;  and  sometimes 
the  office  was  made  annual. ^  This  circumstance  will  account 
for  the  variations  in  the  lists  of  the  succession  to  the  high- 
priesthood  contained  in  the  Scriptures,  in  Josephus,  and  in 
the  Talmudical  writers ;'  and  will  also  explain  the  circum- 
stance of  several  high-priests  being  in  existence  at  the  same 
time,  or,  rather,  of  there  being  several  pontifical  men  who, 
having  once  held  the  office  for  a  short  time,  seem  to  have 
retained  the  original  dignity  attached  to  the  name.^ 

4  Besides  the  anthorities  already  cited  in  the  course  of  this  article,  the 
reader  who  is  desirous  of  investigating  the  nature  and  functions  of  the 
.Jewish  priesthood  is  referred  to  Reland's  Antiquitates  veterum  Hebraeo- 
rum,  part  ii.  cc.  1 — 6.  pp.  141 — 238.;  Il^enius's  Aniiquitates  Hebraica;,  part 
i.  cc.  10,  11.  pp.105 — 128.;  and  to  Schaclit's  Aniniariversiones  ad  Ilienii 
Antiquitates,  pp.  471 — 544. ;  Dr.  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  i.  c.  5. 
pp.  95 — 174.  ;  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  Moses,  vol.  i.  pp. 
251—262.;  Dr.  Light  loot's  Worlds,  vol.  i.  pp.  401.  915—918.  and  vol.  ii.  pp. 
377—380.  397.  681.  ;  Carpzovii  Antiquitates  Hebr.  Gentis,  pp.64— 110. 

5  The  typical  nature  of  the  Jewish  priesthood,  especially  of  the  hieh- 
priest,  is  discussed  by  the  Rev.  W.  Jones,  in  his  Lectures  on  rhe  Figura- 
tive Language  of  Scripture,  and  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  (Worka, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  58—62.  22.3—227.) 

6  Josephus  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  3.  §§7,  8. 

1  That  this  was  the  case  with  Annas  and  Caiaphas,  is  fully  proved  by  Dr. 
Lardner,  Credibility,  book  ii.  c.  4.  §1.  (Works,  vol.  i.  pp.3«3— 386.)  The 
various  successions  of  the  higli-priests  are  given  at  length  by  Reland, 
Antiq.  Hebr.  partii.  c.  2  pp.  160—168.  Utrecht,  12mo.  1717;  and  by  Calmet, 
Dissertations,  tom.  i.  pp.  487 — 490.,  and  Diet,  voce  Priest,  from  whom  we 
have  copied  the  Table  in  the  following  pages. 

8  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  viii.  c  2.  §2.  c.4.  §3.  ' 


Skct.  II.] 


OF  THE  HIGH-PRIEST. 


Tbe  following  TABLE  exhibits  a  Chronological  Series  op  the  High- 
PBiEsra  OP  THE  Hebrews,  from  the  Cmnmenctinent  to  Ike  Subversion 
of  their  Utale  and  Gocernment. 


1.  Succtjsiojif  taken  from  tevc' 
rat  ptaces  of  the  Holy  Scriji- 
tura. 


Thrte 


Judge 


1.  Airon,  the  brother  of 
Muses,  created  high- 
priest,  A.M.  2514,  (lied 
V552. 

2.  Eleazar,  created  in 
2r>52,  and  died  about 
2571. 

3.  Phinehas,  A.  M.  2571, 
died  2590. 

4.  Abiezer,  or 
Abiijhua. 

6.  Rukki. 
e.  Uzzi. 

7.  Eli,  of  the  raceof  Itha- 
mar,  created  in  2tJ18, 
died  in  28SS. 

8.  Ahilub  I. 

9.  Ahiah.  He  lived  in 
2911,  or  2912. 

10.  Ahimelech,  or  Abia- 
tliar,  he  was  murdered 
by  Saul,  29-14. 

U.  Abiatliar,  .\himelech, 
or  Ahimelech,  under 
David,  from  2944  to 
2989. 

12.  Zadok  I.  under  Saul, 
David,  and  Solomon, 
from  2914  to  about 
3000. 

13.  Ahiinaaz,  under  Re- 
hoboam,  about  A.  m. 
3030. 

14.  Azariah,  under  Jc- 
hoshaphat ;  perhaps 
the  same  as  Amariah. 
C2Chron.  xi.x.  11.) 

15.  Johanan,  perhaps  Je- 
hoiada,  in  the  reign  of 
Joash,  2  Chron.  x.viv. 
15.  in  3126.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  130. 

16.  Azariah,  perhaps  the 
same  with  Zechariah, 
son  of  Jehoi.Hdali,  who 
was  icilled  in  31&1. 

17.  Amariah,  perhap 
Azariah,  under  Uzziali, 
in3-.21. 

18.  Ahitub  II.  )  Under  Jo 

>  Hiam,  kir.s 

19.  Zadok  II.  )  »'  Ju<1h1i. 

20.  Uriah,  under  Ahaz, 
32t)5. 

21.  Shalluin,  the  father 
of  Azariah,  and  grand 
father  to  Hilkiah 

22.  Azariah,  who  lived  in 
the  time  of  Hezekiah 
(2  Chron.  xx.\i.  10.), 
3278. 

23.  Hilkiah,  under  Heze 
kiah. 

Zi.  Eliakim,  or  Joakim 
under  Manasseh,  and 
at  the  time  of  the  siege 
of  Bethulia,  in  33  V 
lie  continued  to  live 
under  Josiah  to  3380, 
and  longer.  He  is  also 
called  Hilkiah.  (Ba- 
ruch  i.  7.) 

26.  Azariah,  perhaps  Ne- 
riah,  the  fatherof Sera- 
iah  and  of  Baruch. 

26.  Seraiah,  the  last  high 
priest  before  the  cap 
tivity  ;  put  to  death  in 
3114. 

27.  Jozadak,  during  the 
captivity  of  Babylon, 
from  3414  to  3469, 

26.  Joshua,  or  Jesus,  the 
son  of  lozadak  :  he  re 
turned  from  Babylon 
in  3168. 


Siucusi&n,  ta- 
ken    from 
Chron.  vi.  3— 


3.  Succetaion. 

'!*       J".    r""i  I  from  the  Jewiih  C'/iro- 

phut.  Ant.  Jud.  '                 ,  ,,  j  «  j„ 

1..     '        „    ,  I  >iic/e,    entitled  SrAtr 
lib.  X.  c.  8.  lib. 


2.  Eleazar. 

3.  Phinehas 

4.  Abishua. 

5.  Biikki. 
0.  IJzzi. 

7.  Zerahiah. 

8.  Meraloth. 

9.  Amariah. 
10.  Ahitub  I. 

U.  Zadok  I. 

12.  Ahiinaaz. 

13.  Azariah. 


14.  Johanan, 
1  Chron.  vi 
9,10. 

15.  Azariah. 


17.  Ahitub  II. 

18.  Zadok  II. 

19.  Shallum. 

20.  Hilkiah. 

21.  Azariah. 

22.  Seraiah. 

'23.  Jehzadak 
24.  Joshua. 


2.  Eleazar. 

3.  Phinehas. 

4.  Abiezer. 

5.  Bukki. 

6.  Uzzi. 

7.  Eli. 

8.  Ahitub. 

9.  Ahimelech 

10.  Abiathar. 

11.  Zadok. 

12.  Ahimaaz. 

13.  Azariah. 

14.  Joram. 

15.  Issus. 

16.  Axiora. 

17.  Phideus. 

18.  Sudeas. 

19.  Julus. 

20.  Jotham. 

21.  Uriah. 

22.  Neriah. 

23.  Odeas. 

24.  Saldam. 


25.  Hilkiah. 


■26.  Seraiah. 


27.  Jozadak. 


3.  Jesus,  or 
Joshua. 


2.  Eleazar. 

3.  Phinehas. 

4.  Eli. 

5.  Ahitub. 

6.  Abiathar 

7.  Zadok. 


8.  Ahimaaz,  under 
Rehoboam. 

9.  Azariah,  under 
Abiah. 

10.  Jehoachash,  un 
der  Jehoshaphat. 

11.  Jehoiarib,  under 
Jeboram. 


12.  Jehoshaphat,  un- 
der Ahaziah. 


l3.Jehoiadah, ' 

14.  Phadaiah,  J  ^ 


15.  Zedekiah,  under 
Amazlah. 


16.  Joel,  under  Uz- 
ziah. 


17.  Jotham,  under 
Joatham. 

18.  Uriah,     under 
Ahaz. 

10.    Neriah,    under 
Hezekiah. 

20.  Hosaiah,  under 
Manasseh. 

21.  Shallum,  under 
Amon. 

22.  Hilkiah,    imder 
Josiah. 


23.  Azariah,  under 
Jehoiakiui,  and 
Zedekiah. 

24.  Jehozadak,  after 
the  taking  of  Je- 
rusalem. 


25.  Jesus,  son  of  Jo- 
zadak, after  the 
captivity. 


7%«  ybllotoing  succession  is  collected  from  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and 
Josephtis. 

29.  Joachim,  under  the  reign  of        33.  Jaddua,  or  Jaddus,  whoreceiv- 
Xerxes,  Jos.  Ant.  I.  ii.  c.  5.  ed  Alexander  the  Great  at  Jerusa- 

30.  Eliasib,  Joasib,  or  Chasib,  un-    lem  in  3673,  and  died  in  3682. 

der  Nehemiah,  a.  m.  3550.  34.  Onias  I.   made  high-priest  in 

31.  Joiada,  or  Juda,  Neh.  xii.  10.       3681,  governed  21  yeara  and  died  in 

32.  Jonathan,  or  John.  3702. 


35.  Simon  1.  called  the  Just,  made 
high-priest  in  3702  or  3703,  and  died 
in  3711. 

36.  Eleazar,  made  in  3712.  Under 
this  pontifT,  the  translation  of  the 
Hi'pluaijinl  is  said  to  have  been 
made,  about  the  year  3727:  he  died 
in  3714. 

37.  Manasseh,  made  in  3745,  died 
in  3771. 

;)8.  Onias  II.  made  in  3771,  died  in 
3785. 

39.  Simon  II.  made  In  3785,  and 
died  in  3805. 

40.  Onias  IH.  made  in  3805,  deposed 
3S2;i,  died  in  3'«M. 

41.  Jesus,  or  Jason,  made  in  3830, 
deposed  in  38.31. 

42.  Onias  IV.  otherwise  called 
M.-nelaiis,  made  in  3832,  died  in  3812. 

43.  Lysimarhiis,  vicegerent  of 
Meiielaiis,  killed  in  3Ai4. 

44.  Alcimus,  or  Jariiiiiis,  or  Joa- 
chim, made  in  3^12,  died  in3SI4. 

45.  Onias  V.  He  did  not  exercise 
hi.s  pontificate  at  Jerusalem,  but  re- 
tired into  Egypt,  where  he  built  the 
temple  Onion  in  3RM. 

46.  Ju<lasMaccaba'us,  restored  the 
altar  and  the  aucrifii-es  in  3810,  died 
in  3813. 

47.  Jonathan,  the  Asinonsean,  bro- 
ther to  Judas  Maccabxus,  created 


115 

high  priest  in  3313,  and  died  in 
3StX). 

4S.  Simon  Maccabceus  made  in 
3W.0,  di.-d  in  3869. 

49.  Ji.bn  Hyrcanus,  made  in  3SC9, 
died  iii.3S9S. 

TpO.  Ari.si.jbiihi<i.  king  and  pontiff 
of  the  Jew.s,  died  .3S99. 

51.  Alexaiidir  Jaiineeus,  also  king 
and  pontitr  during  27  years,  from 
3^W  to  3926. 

52.  Hyrcanus  was  highpriest  for 
the  space  of  32  years  in  the  whole, 
from  3926  to  3958. 

53.  Aristobulii.s,  brother  to  Hyrca- 
nus, usurped  the  high-priesthood, 
and  held  it  three  years  and  three 
months,  from  .393')  to  3940. 

54.  Antigonus,  his  son,  also  usurp- 
ed the  priesthood  in  prejudice  to  the 
rights  of  Hyrcanus,  and  possessed 
it  for  three  years  and  seven  months, 
from  3964  to  3967,  when  he  was  taken 
by  Sosiiis. 

55.  Ananeel  of  Babvlon,  made  high- 
priest  by  Herod  in  39t»  till  3970. 

.'j6.  Aiistobiihis,  the  last  of  the 
A.'^iiiona'ans :  he  did  not  enioy  the 
poniificate  a  whole  year.  lie  died 
III  3970.  Ananeel  was  made  high- 
priest  a  second  time  in  3971. 

57.  Jesus,  the  son  of  Phabis,  de- 
posed in  3981. 


Succession  of  High-priesU  after  the  Captivity. 


58.  Simon,  son  of  Botheu.s,  made 
high-priest  in  3981,  deposed  in  3999. 

59.  Matthia.s,  son  of  Theophilus, 
made  high-priest  in  3999.  EUem  was 
substituted  in  his  place  for  a  day, 
because  of  an  accident  that  happen- 
ed to  Matthias,  which  hindered  him 
from  performing  his  ofhce  that  day. 

60.  Joazar,  son  of  Simon,  son  of 


70.  Simon,  siirnamed  Canlharus, 
and  son  of  Simon  Boethus,  waa 
made  high-priest  in  41. 

71.  Matthias,  son  of  Ananus,  made 
high-priest  in  42. 

72.  Elioneus,  made  in  44,  and  con- 
tinued till  45.  Simon,  son  ofCantha- 
riis,  was  a  second  time  made  high- 
priest,  A.  D.  45,   and    deposed   the 


Boethus,  made  high-priest  in  4000,  same  year, 
the  year  of  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,        73.   .loseph,  son  of  Caneus,  was 

four  years  before  the   commence-  made  high-priest  in  a.  d.  45,  till  57. 
ment  of  the  vulgar  era.  74.  Ananias,  the  son  of  Nebodeus, 

61.  Eleazar,  brother  to  .loazar,  was  made  high-priest  in  the  year  of 
made  high-priest  in  4004,  of  Christ  the  vulgar  era  47,  and  enjoyed  the 
4,  of  the  vulgar  era  1.  priesthood  till  63. 

62.  Jesus,  son  of  Siah,  made  high-  75.  Ismacl  was  ordained  high- 
priest  in  the  year  of  the  vulgar  era  priest,  a.  d.  63. 

6.     Joazar  was  made  a  second  time        76.  .Toseph,  sumamed  Cabci,  in  63. 
in  7,  and  deposed  in  13.  _  77.  Ananus,   the  son  of  Ananus, 


63.  Ananus,  son  of  Seth,  for  11 
years,  from  4016  to  4027,  of  the  vul- 
gar era  24. 

64.  Ishmael,  son  of  Phabi,  in  24. 

65.  Eleazar,  son  of  Ananus,  made 
in  24. 

C6.  Simon,  son  of  Camithus,  made 
high-priest  in  25. 

67.  .Joseph,  suniameii  Caiaphas, 
made  in  26,  and  continued  till  35. 

68.  Jonathan,  son  of  .\nanus,  made 
in  .3."),  and  contiimed  till 37. 

69.  Theopliilu.'J,  son  of  .Jonathan, 
made  in  37,  and  continued  till  41. 


in  63. 

78.  Jesus,  the  son  of  Ananus,  inC4. 

79.  Jesus,  the  son  of  Gamaliel,  in 
64. 

80.  JIatthias,  the  son  of  Theophi- 
lu.s,  was  made  high-priest  in  the  year 
of  the  vulgar  Christian  era  70. 

81.  Phannias,  the  son  of  Samuel, 
was  made  high-priest  in  the  year  70, 
in  which  year  Jerusalem  and  ihe 
temple  were  destroyed  by  the  Ro- 
ni.niis,  and  a  final  period  was  put  to 
the  Jewish  priestliood. 


Of  those  who  discharged  the  functions  of  hicrh-priest  dur- 
inor  the  decline  of  the  Jewish  polity,  there  are  two  particu- 
larly mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  namely,  Annas  (John 
xviii.  13.  Acts  iv.  6.),  and  Caiaphas.  (Matt.  xxvi.  3.  57. 
John  xviii.  13.  24.  28.)  The  former  is  by  Josephus  called 
Ananus,  of  which  name  Annas  is  an  abridgrment :  the  latter 
he  calls  Joseph,  intimating  also  that  he  was  known  by  the 
name  of  Caiaphas.'  Annas  enjoyed  the  singular  felicity 
(which  indeed  had  never  happened"  to  any  other  of  the  Jew- 
ish high-priests),  not  only  of  having  himself  held  the  supreme 
Eontifical  office  for  many  years,  but  also  of  seeing  it  filled 
y  several  successors  out  of  his  own  family,  five  of  them 
being  his  sons,  and  others  his  sons-in-law.  Hence,  although 
he  was  deprived  of  the  high-priesthood  by  the  Romans,  he 
afterward  continued  to  take' the  chief  sway,  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Jewish  affairs ;  and  is  represented  in  the  sacred 
histoids  together  with  Caiaphas,  as  being  chief  priest  ana 
exercising  supreme  authority. 

IV.  Next  to  the  Levites,  priests,  and  high-priests,  the 
Officers  of  the  Synagogue  may  be  mentioned  here,  as 
being  in  some  degree  sacred  persons;  since  to  them  was 
confided  the  superintendence  of  those  places  which  were  set 
apart  for  prayer  and  instruction.  Their  functions  and  powers 
have  been  fully  stated  in  p.  104.  supra. 

»  Luke  iii.  2.  Acts  iv.  6.  In  Uke  manner  Josephus  (de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii, 
c.  12.  §6.)  places  Jonathan,  who  had  been  high-priest  (Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  xviii. 
c.  4.  §3.),  and  who  still  continued  to  possess  great  authority,  before  Ananias, 
who  at  that  time  discharged  the  functions  of  sovereign  pontiff  (Ant.  Jud. 
lib.  XX.  c.  5.  §  2.)  See  also  Lardner's  Credibility,  book  i.  c.  7.  §  1  and  book 
ii.  c.  4.  (Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  143.  383— 339.) 


116 


SACRED  THINGS. 


[Part  IIL 


V.  The  Nazarites  (as  the  Hebrew  word  Nazir  implies) 
were  persons  separated  from  the  use  of  certain  ihing^s,  and 
sequestered  or  consecrated  to  Jehovah.  They  are  commonly 
regarded  as  sacred  persons  ;  a  notice  of  their  institute  will 
be  found  infra,  in  chapter  v.  sect,  i,  §  iii.  2. 

VI.  The  Rechabites  are  by  many  writers  considered  as 
a  class  of  holy  persons,  who,  like  the  Nazarites,  separated 
themselves  from  the  rest  of  the  .Tews,  in  order  that  they 
might  lead  a  more  pious  life.  But  this  is  evidently  a  mistake; 
for  they  were  not  Israelites  or  Jews,  but  Kenites  or  Midi- 
anites,  who  used  to  live  in  tents,  and  traversed  the  country 
in  quest  of  pasture  for  their  cattle,  as  the  Nabathaean  Arabs 
anciently  did,  and  as  the  modern  Arabians,  and  C rim-Tatars 
(or  Tartars)'  still  do.  Their  manner  of  living  was  not  the 
result  of  a  religious  institute,  but  a  mere  civil  ordinance, 
grounded  upon  a  national  custom.  They  derived  their  name 
from  Jonadab  the  son  of  Rechab,  a  man  of  eminent  zeal  for 
the  pure  worship  of  God  against  idolatry,  who  assisted  king 
Jehu  in  destroying  the  house  of  Ahab  and  the  worshippers 
of  Baal.  (2  Kings  x.  15,  16.  23.)  It  was  he  who  gave  the 
rule  of  life  to  his  children  and  their  posterity,  which  is 
recorded  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (xxxvi.  5 — 7.);  and  which 
consisted  of  tliese  three  articles:  1.  That  they  should  drink 
no  wine;  2.  That  they  should  neither  possess  nor  occupy 
any  houses,  fields,  or  vineyards ;  and,  3.  That  they  should 
dwell  in  tents.  In  these  regulations  he  appears  to  have  had 
no  religious,  but  merely  a  prudential  view,  as  is  intimated 
in  the  reason  assigned  for  them,  viz.  that  they  might  live 
manj'  days  in  the  land  where  they  were  strangers.  And 
such,  in  fact,  would  be  the  natural  consequence  of  their  tem- 
perate and  quiet  mode  of  living.  On  the  first  invasion  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  with  intent  to  besiege  Jerusalem,  these 
Rechabites,  apprehending  themselves  in  more  danger  in  the 
open  country,  came  to  Jerusalem  for  safety  ;  by  these  people 
God  intended  to  convince  the  Jews  of  their  disobedience  to 
him  ;  and,  therefore,  he  ordered  his  prophet  Jeremiah  to  bring 
them  to  an  apartment  of  the  temple,  and  there  otfer  them 
wine  to  drink,  which  when  they  refused,  on  account  of  its 
beintr  contrary  to  tlieir  institute,  which  tliey  never  had  vio- 
lated, the  prophet,  after  due  commendation  of  their  obedience, 
addressed  the  Jews,  and  reproached  them,  who  were  God's 
peculiar  people,  for  being  less  observant  of  his  laws  than 
these  poor  Rechabites  had  been  of  the  injunctions  of  their 
ancestor.  (Jer.  xxxv.)    Wherefore  Jehovah  declares  (ver.  18, 


19.)  that,  because  the  Eechabifes  had  obeyed  the  precepts  of 
Jonadab  their  father,  therefore  Jonadab  should  not  want  a  man 
to  stand  before  him  for  ever. ^  The  Rechabites  flourished  as  a 
community  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  years,  and  were  sup- 
posed to  have  been  dispersed  after  the  captivity;  but  modem 
travellers  have  discovered  their  descendants  in  a  tribe  of 
Bedouin  Arabs,  who  dwell  alone  in  the  vicinity  of  Mecca, 
and  are  called  Beni  Khaibr,  or  the  sons  of  Khaibr  (that  is, 
of  Heber).  They  continue  to  obey  the  injunctions  of  their 
ancestor  Rechab.  "To  this  moment  they  drink  no  wine,  and 
have  neither  vineyard,  nor  field,  nor  seed ;  but  dwell  like 
Arabs  in  tents,  and  are  wandering  nomades.  They  believe 
and  observe  the  law  of  Moses  by  tradition,  for  they  are  not 
in  possession  of  the  written  law.''^ 

V II.  The  Prophets  were  eminently  distinguished  among 
the  persons  accounted  holy  by  the  Jews :  they  were  raised 
up  by  God  in  an  extraordinary  manner  for  the  performance 
of  the  most  sacred  functions.  Originally  they  were  called 
Seers.-  they  discovered  things  yet  future,  declared  the  will  of 
God,  and  announced  their  divine  messages,  both  to  kings  and 
people,  with  a  confidence  and  freedom  that  could  only  be 
produced  by  the  conviction  that  they  were  indeed  autho- 
rized messengers  of  Jehovah.  The  gift  of  prophecy  was  not 
always  annexed  to  the  priesthood :  there  were  prophets  of 
all  the  tribes,  and  sometimes  even  among  the  Gentiles.  The 
office  of  a  prophet  was  not  confined  to  the  prediction  of  future 
events  ;  it  was  their  province  to  instruct  the  people,  and  they 
interpreted  the  law  of  God  :  hence  the  words  prophet  and 
proplieci/  are,  in  many  passages  of  the  Scriptures,  synony- 
mous with  interpreter  or  teacher,  and  interpretation  or  teach- 
ing. It  is  unanimously  agreed  both  by  Jews  and  Christians 
that  Malachi  was  the  last  of  the  prophets  under  the  Old 
Testament  dispensation  :  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  so 
long  as  there  were  prophets  among  the  Jews,  they  were  not 
divided  by  sects  or  heresies,  although  they  often  fell  into 
idolatry.  This  circumstance  may  thus  be  accounted  for : — As 
the  prophets  received  their  communications  of  the  divine 
will  immediatelfj  from  God  himself,  there  was  no  alternative 
for  the  Jews :  either  the  people  must  obey  the  prophets,  and 
receive  their  interpretations  of  the  law,  or  no  longer  acknow- 
ledge that  God  who  inspired  them.  When,  however,  the 
law  of  God  came  to  be  explained  by  weak  and  fallible  men, 
who  seldom  agreed  in  their  opinions,  sects  and  parties  were 
the  unavoidable  result  of  such  conflicting  sentiments.'' 


CHAPTER  III. 


SACRED      THINGS. 


ON    THE    SACRIFICES    AND    OTHER    OFFERINGS    OF    THE    JEWS.' 

General  Classification  of  Sacrifices  and  OJ^ering-s  ; — I.  Bloody  Offerings,  a7id  the  divine  Origin  of  Sacrifices  ; — 1.  Differ- 
ent Kinds  of  Victims  ; — 2.  Selection  of  Victims  ; — 3.  Manner  of  presenting  tliem  ; — 'i:.  Immolation  of  the  Sacrifice  ;— 5.  The 
Place  and  Time  appointed  for  sacrificing; — 6.  Different  Kinds  of  Fire-sacrifices  ; — i.  Brirnt-offerings  ; — ii.  Peace-offer- 
ings ; — iii.  Sin-offerings  ; — iv.  Trespass-offerings  ; — II.  JWitional,  regular,  iveeklij,  monthly,  and  annual-  Sacrifices. — III. 
UxBLOODY  Offerinos. — IV.  Drink-Offeri Jf Gs. — Y.  Other  Oblations  made  by  the  Jews: — 1.  ORniivART  Oblations; — (1.) 
The  Shexv-bread. — (2.)  Incense. — 2.  Voldntart  Oblations. —  Corban. — 3.  Prescribed  Oblations; — (1.)  First-fruits; 
— (2.)  Tltlies, — VI.  Fitness  and  Utility  of  the  Jewish  Sacrifices. 


A  SACRIFICE  is  an  offering  made  to  God  upon  his  altar  by 
the  hand  of  a  lawful  minister.  Sacrifice  differs  from  oblation 
in  this  respect,  viz.  in  a  sacrifice  there  must  be  a  real  change 

»  See  Mrs.  Holderness's  Notes  relating  to  the  Manners  and  Customs  of 
the  Crim-Tatars.   London,  18?!.  12mo. 

a  LaiTiy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  vol.  i.  p.  223.  Michaelis's  Commentaries 
on  the  Law  of  Moses,  vol.  i.  pp.  227,  228  Mede's  Works,  p.  127.  Calinet, 
Commentaire  Littferale,  tome  vi.  p.  xvii.  The  reader  will  lind  an  instructive 
discourse  on  the  history  of  the  Rechabites,  in  Dr.  Townson's  Works,  vol. 
ii.  pp.  215—225. 

3  Wolff's  Missionary  Journal  and  Memoir,  p.  257. ;  Carne's  Recollections 
of  the  East,  pp.  95,  96. 

<  For  a  more  particular  account  of  the  sacred  prophets,  see  part  i.  chap. 
jv.  sect.  i.  infra. 

s  General  authorities  from  which  this  chapter  is  compiled: — Schulzii 
Archreol.  Heb.  pp.  250 — 280.  Lamy,  Apparatus  Biblicus,  vol.  i.  pp-  187 — 
203.  Relandi  Antiq.  Sacr.  Hebraeorum,  part  iii.  cap.  1 — 5.  pp.  290 — 368. 
Ik^nii  Antiq.  Heb.  part  i.  cap.  13,  14.  pp.  152 — 191.  Beausobre  and  L'En- 
fant's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  (Bishop  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  196 — 
19J.)  .lennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  i.  chap.  v.  Michaelis's  Commen- 
taries, vol.  iii.  pp.  94—97.  109—115.  246—254.  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii. 
book  ii.  pp.  270—272.  Jahn,  Archaeol.  Biblica,  §§  373—390.  Dr.  Owen  on 
th.'  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,. vol.  i.  Exercit.  xxiv.  pp.  306—318.  Dr.  Light- 
loot's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  926—941.  folio  edition,  l§  373—385.    Ackermann, 


or  destruction  of  the  thing  offered  :  whereas,  an  oblation  is 
only  a  simple  offering  or  gift.^ 

The  sacrifices  and  oblations  of  the  Jews  demand  particular 
notice  in  this  sketch  of  their  ecclesiastical  state.  "  Such  a 
ritual  as  they  were  enjoined  to  observe,  the  multiplicity  of 
victinjs  they  were  appointed  statedly  to  offer,  together  with 
the  splendour  of  that  external  wors'hip  in  which  thiey  were 
daily  engaged, — all  tended  to  replenish  and  adorn  their  lan- 
guage with  numerous  allusions,  and  striking  metaphors 
derived  from  the  pomp  of  their  religion.  Hence  it  is  t^at 
the  writings  of  the  Jews,  more  than  of  any  other  people, 
abound  with  phrases  and  terms  borrowed  from  the  temple 
worship  and  service.  The  psalms  and  prophetical  writings 
may  in  particular  be  adduced  in  illustration  of  this  remark. 
Purge  me  with  hyssojy,  says  David,  and  I  shall  be  clean. 
Thou  shalt  be  pleased  with  the  sacrifices  of  righteousness.  (Psal. 

Archaeol.  Biblica,  §§  360—372.  Tappan's  Jewish  Anliq.  pp.  106—118.  Brun- 
ings,   Antiq.   Hebr.  pp.    172—192.     Carpzovii   Antiq.    Hebr.    Gentis    pp. 
699—725. 
e  Calmet's  Dictionary,  voce  Sacrifice. 


Chap.  III.] 


OF  BLOODY  OFFERINGS. 


117 


li.  7.  19.)  Let  my  prayer  come  hefore  thee  an  hicense,  and  the 
liflin<r  up  (if  my  hii/ids  «,v  the  evcnitij^  sacrifice.  (Psal.cxli.  2.) 
Tiienfyre  null  I  affcr  the  sacrifice  (f  joy.  (Psal.  cxvi.  17.) 
The  sin  (f  Jiuidh,  says  Jeremiah,  is  -  -  -  -  frraven  ujwn  the 
horns  of  yo'tr  altars,  (.ler.  xvii.  1.)  7\i/{e  away  all  our  iui- 
guily  and  receive  us  •graciously  ,■  so  will  we  render  thee  the 
calves  of  our  lips.  (Hos.  xiv.  2.)"  Nor  aro  similar  examples 
wanting  in  the  New  Testament,  whose  itispired  autliors, 
being  educated  in  the  Jewish  reliirlon,  retain  the  same 
phraseoh)<fy,  wliicli  has  enriched  their  wriliiiirs  with  nume- 
rous beautiful  and  expressive  allusions  to  the  national  sacri- 
fices and  ceremonies.' 

Michaelis  classes  the  offerings  prescribed  to  the  Israelites 
under  three  general  heads — namely,  bloody  off(>rings,  or 
sacrifices  strictly  so  called  ;  utdAitody  oflerings,  or  those 
taken  oidy  from  tlu;  vegetable  kingdom  ;  and  drink-offerivirs.^ 
or  libations,  which  were  a  kind  of  accompaniment  to  the 
two  preceding.  We  shall  follow  tiiis  classification,  as  ena- 
bling us  to  present  to  our  readers  the  most  compendious 
account  of  the  Jewish  sacrifices. 

I.  Bi.ooDV  OkI'-kiungs  were  sacrifices  properly  and  strictly 
so  called  ;  by  which  we  may  understand  the  infliction  of 
death  on  a  living  creature,  generally  hy  tiie  effusion  of  its 
blood  in  a  way  of  religious  worship,  and  the  presenting  of 
this  act  to  (lod  as  a  supplication  for  the  pardon  of  sin,  and  as 
a  supposed  mean  of  compensation  for  the  insult  and  injury 
offered  by  sin  to  his  majesty  and  government.  Sacrifices 
have  in  all  ages,  and  by  almost  every  nation,  been  regarded 
as  necessary  to  appease  the  divine  anger,  and  to  render  the 
Deity  pro])itious  :^  but  whether  this  universal  notion  derived 
its  origin  from  divine  revelation,  or  was  suggested  by  con- 
scious guilt  and  a  dread  of  the  divine  displeasure,  is  a  ques- 
tion that  cannot  be  easily  decided.  It  is,  however,  not 
improbable  that  it  originated  in  the  former,  and  prevailed 
under  the  influence  of  the  latter.  The  Scripture  account  of 
sacrifices  leads  us  to  conclude,  that  they  were  instituted  by 
divine  appointment,  immediately  after  the  entrance  of  sin  by 
the  fall  of  Adam  and  Eve,  to  be  a  type  or  significant  emblem 
of  the  great  atonement  or  all-sufficient  sacrifice  of  Christ.-'' 
Accordingly  we  find  Abel,  Noah,  Abraham,  Job,  and  others, 
offering  sacrifices  in  the  faith  of  the  Messiah  that  was  to  be 
revealed  ;  and  the  divine  acceptance  of  their  sacrifices  is 
particularly  recorded.  This  hypothesis,  and  this  only,  satis- 
factorily accounts  for  the  early  prevalence  of  religious  sacri- 
fices, not  only  among  the  worsnippers  of  the  true  God,  but 
also  among  Pagan  idolaters. 

1.  In  all  bloody  sacrifices  it  was  essential  that  the  animals 
slaughtered  should  be  clean ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  all 
clean  animals  were  to  be  offered  indiscriminately.  Fishes 
were  not  brought  to  the  altar;  and  hence  the  Israelites  are 
nowhere  prohibited  from  eating  their  blood,  but  only  that  of 
birds  and  quadrupeds.  (Lev.  vii.  26.)  It  would  seem  that 
ur// clean  birds  might  be  offered  (Lev.  xiv.  4 — 7.),  though  the 
dove  was  the  most  common  offering  of  this  class.  Of  quad- 
rupeds, oxen,  sheep,  and  goats  were  the  only  kinds  which 
were  destined  for  the  altar.  No  wild  beasts  were  admissi- 
ble :  and  hence  comes  the  expression  in  the  law  of  Moses 
f  Deut.  xii.  15,  22.  xv.  22.),  It  shall  be  eaten  like  the  roe  or  the 
hurt ;  by  which  he  means  to  intimate  that,  in  killing  a  beast, 
all  religious  intention  and  all  idea  of  sacrifice  was  to  be 
avoided. ' 

2.  In  the  selection  of  the  victims,  the  utmost  care  was 
taken  to  choose  such  only  as  were  free  from  every  blemish. 
Unless  it  were  pure  and  Immaculate,  it  was  to  be  rejected,  as 
a  sacrifice  unacceptable  to  Jehovah.  (Lev.  xxii.  22.)  In  a 
beautiful  allusion  to  this  circumstance,  St.  Paul  beseeches 
Christians,  by  the  mercies  of  God,  to  present  their  bodies  a 
living  sacrifice,  holy  and  acceptable,  which  is  their  reasonable 
service.  (Ilom.  xii.  I.)     Hence  also  Jesus  Christ  is  styled  a 

1  Harwood's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  216,  217. 

»  To  this  notion  of  sacrifice  our  Saviour  alluded  in  John  xvi.  2.  where  he 
tells  his  disciples  that  such  would  be  the  enmity  with  which  they  should 
be  pursued,  that  he  who  should  kill  them  would  be  deemed  to  have  slain  a 
sacrifice  highly  acce//ra/(/e  to  the  Almighty— "He  that  killeth  you  shall 
think  he  dueth  God  serric^.."  In  reference  also  to  this  notion  of  sacrifice, 
the  apostle  by  a  very  beautiful  and  expressive  figure  represents  Christ  as 
lovins!  us,  and  giving  himself  for  us,  are  offering  and  a  sacrifice  to  God  of 
a  stceel-sjiielling  savour.  (Eph.  v.  2.)  Ilarwood'a  Introd.  to  the  New 
Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  213. 

»  The  divine  origin  of  sacrifices  is  fully  proved  bv  Archbishop  Ma<ree, 
in  his  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  i.  pp.  44— W.  and  vol.  ii.  pp.  22— 
46.  1S4— 1S9.,  and  by  Mr.  Jeram  in  his  Treatise  on  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Atonement,  pp.  90 — 292.  Mr.  Davison  has  argued  on  the  contrary  side  in 
his  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  Sacrifice.  (London,  1825.  8vo.)  Mr.  Faber 
has  ably  vindicated  the  divine  origin  of  Sacrifices  in  a  treatise  published  at 
London  in  1327.  8\-o. 

*■  Mchaelis'a  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  p.  95, 


lamb  without  blemish  and  without  spot .  (I  Pet.  i.  19.)  Fur- 
ther, it  was  a  custom  among  nations  contiguous  to  Judaea,  and 
particularly  among  the  Egyptians,^  to  set  a  .v«//upon  a  victim 
that  was  deemed  pro])er  for  sacrifice.  With  this  custom  the 
Jews  could  not  Ix;  unacquainted  ;  and  it  is  possible  that  simi- 
lar precautions  were  in  use  among  th(>mselves,  especially  as 
they  were  so  strictly  enjoined  to  have  the  sacrifices  without 
spot  atid  without  blemifh.  To  such  a  usage  Jesus  Christ  is 
supposed  to  have  alluded,  when  sijcakiiig  of  the  sacrifice  of 
iiiniself,  h(^  says — //'///  h(dh  God  the  Father  skai.ed.  (Joiin 
vi.  27.  ."31. )  "Infinite  justice  f)und  Jesus  C'hrist  to  be  with- 
out spot  or  blemish,  and  therefore  sealed,  pointed  out  and  ac- 
cepted him  as  a  proper  sacrifice  and  atonement  for  the  sin  of 
tiie  whole  world.  Collate  Heb.  vii.  2(J — 2R.  Eph.  v.  27. 
2  Pet.  iii.  11.,  and  especially  Heb.  ix.  1.3,  14.  For,  if  the 
lihiod  of  livi.i.fi  and  of  goats,  and  the  ashes  of  an  heifer,  sprink- 
ling the  unclean,  sanctifuth, — how  much  more  shall  the  blood 
of  Christ,  who  through  the  Eternal  Spirit  offered  himself  with- 
out SPOT  to  God,  purge  your  consciences  from  dead  works  P"^ 

3.  The  victim  thus  chosen,  being  found  immaculate,  was 
led  up  to  the  altar  by  the  person  ofi"ering  the  sacrifice  ;  who 
laid  his  hand  upon  its  head,  on  which  he  leaned  witli  all  his 
strength  ;■  and,  while  the  sacrifice  was  oflering,  said  some 
particular  pray(;rs;  and  if  several  persons  imited  in  offering 
the  same  victim,  they  put  their  hands  upon  it  in  succession. 
(Lev.  iv.  13 — 15. )a  by  this  imposition  of  hands  the  person 
presenting  the  victim  acknowledged  the  sacrifice  to  nehis 
own:  that  he  loaded  it  with  his  iniquities;  that  he  offered  it 
as  an  atonement  for  his  sins ;  tliat  he  was  worthy  of  death 
because  he  had  sinned,  having  forfeited  his  life  by  violating 
the  law  of  God ;  and  that  he  entreated  (iod  to  accept  the  life 
of  the  innocent  animal  in  the  place  of  his  own.  In  this  re- 
spect the  victims  of  the  Old  Testament  were  types  of  Jesus 
Christ,  the  lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the 
world  (John  i.  29.),  and  on  whom  Jehovah  in  the  fulness 
of  time  laid  the  iniquity  of  us  all.'^  (Isa.  liii.  6.  with  1  Pet. 
ii.  2  t.) 

Further,  in  certain  cases  it  was  required  that  the  victim 
should  be  one,  wi  which  never  came  yoke  (Num.  xix.  2.  Deut. 
xxi.  3.  1  Sam.  vi.  7.)  ;  because  any  animal  which  had  been 
used  lor  a  common  purpose  was  deemed  improper  to  be 
offered  in  sacrifice  to  God.'o 

4.  The  animal  thus  conducted  to  the  altar  was  next  im- 
molated, by  cutting  the  throat  and  windpipe  entirely  through 
at  one  stroke  ;  the  blood  being  caught  in  a  vessel,  and  sprinTf- 
led  round  about  upon  the  altar.  By  this  sprinkling  the  atone- 
ment was  made,  for  the  blood  was  the  life  of  the  beast,  and 
it  was  always  supposed  that  life  went  to  redeem  life.  (Lev. 
i.  5 — 7.)  The  blood  remaining  after  these  aspersions  was 
poured  out  at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  either  all  at  once,  or  at 
different  times,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sacrifice  offered. 

»  The  following  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Egyptians  provided 
white  bulls  for  their  sacrifices,  will  materially  explain  the  custom  above 
alluded  to  : — "  They  sacrifice  white  bulls  to  Apis,  and  for  that  reason  make 
the  following  trial.  If  lliey  find  one  black  hair  upon  him,  they  consider 
him  as  unclean.  In  order  that  they  may  know  this  with  certainty,  the 
priest  appointed  for  this  purpose  views  every  part  of  the  animal  both 
standing  aiid  lying  on  the  ground  :  after  this,  he  draws  out  his  tongue,  to 
see  if  he  be  clean  by  certain  signs;  and  in  the  last  place  he  inspects  the 
liairs  of  his  tail,  that  he  may  be  sure  they  are,  as  by  nature  they  should  be. 
If,  after  this  search,  the  animal  is  found  unblemished,  he  signifies  it  by 
lying  a  laM  lo  his  horns  ;  then,  having  applied  wax,  he  seals  it  with  hia 
ling,  and  ihey  lead  him  away,  for  It  is  death  to  sacrifice  one  of  these  ani- 
iiial.s,  unless  he  has  been  marlitd  tcith  such  a  seal."  Herodotus,  lib.  ii.  c. 
33.  vol.  i.  p.  1 13.  edit.  Oxon. 

«  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  John  vi.  27. 

I  This  ceremony,  it  is  proper  to  remark,  was  omitted  In  respect  to  the 
turtle  doves,  and  young  pigeons,  which  were  allowed  to  be  offered  in  cer- 
tain cases. 

,8  The  nature  and  mystical  import  of  laying  hands  on  the  head  of  the 
victim  are  largely  considered  by  Archbishop  Magee  in  bis  Discourses  on 
tlie  Atonement,  vol.  i.  pp.  336 — .'JT?. 

9  On  the  vicarious  import  of  the  Mosaic  sacrifices,  see  Archbishop 
M;igee's  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  i.  pp.  3")2— 366. 

10  The  heathens,  who  appear  to  have  borrowed  nmch  from  the  Hebrews, 
were  very  scrupulous  in  this  particular.  Neither  the  Greeks,  nor  the  Ro- 
mans (who  had  the  same  religion,  and,  consequently,  the  same  sacrifices 
with  the  Greeks),  nor  indeed  the  Egyptians,  would  otTer  an  animal  in  sacri- 
fice that  had  been  employed  in  agriculture.  Just  such  a  sacrifice  as  that 
prescribed  here  does  Diomede  vow  to  ofl'er  to  Pallas.  Iliad,  x.  291 — 294. 
In  the  very  same  words  Nestor  promises  a  similar  sacrifice  to  Pallas; 
Odyss.  iii.  392. 

Thus  also  VnsGiL.    Georg.  iv.  550. 

Quatuor  eximios  praestanti  corpore  tauros, 
Bucil,  et  intacta  totidem  cervice  juvencas. 

From  his  herd  he  culls, 
For  slaughter,  four  the  fairest  of  his  bulls  ; 
Four  heifers  from  his  female  stock  he  look, 
All  fair,  and  all  unknowing  of  the  yoke.  Dryben. 

It  is  very  probable  that  the  Gentiles  learnt  their  first  sacrificial  rites  frem 
the  Patriarchs ;  and  on  this  account  we  need  not  wonder  to  find  so  many 
coincidences  in  the  sacrificial  system  of  the  patriarchs  and  Jews,  and  of 
all  the  neighbotiring  nations.  (Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Num.  xiz.  2.) 


118 


SACRED  THINGS. 


[Part  III, 


Around  the  altar  there  was  a  kind  of  trench  into  wliich  the 
blood  fell ;  whence  it  was  conveyed  hy  subterraneous  chan- 
nels into  lli(3  brook  Cedron.  This  altar,  being  very  high,  is 
considered  by  Lamy  as  a  type  of  tiie  cross  to  which  our 
Saviour  was  fixed,  and  which  he  washed  with  liis  precious 
blood.  Tlie  victim  being  thus  immolated,  the  skin  was 
stripped  from  the  neck;  its  breast  was  opened;  its  bowels 
were  taken  out,  and  the  back  bone  was  cleft.  It  was  then 
divided  into  quarters;  so  that,  both  externally  and  internally, 
it  was  fully  exposed  to  view.  To  this  custom  of  laying  onen 
the  victim,  St.  Paul  has  a  very  beautiful  and  emphatic  allu- 
sion in  one  of  the  most  animated  descriptions  ever  written, 
of  the  mighty  effects  produced  by  the  preached  Gospel. 
(Heh.  iv.  12,  13.)  The  word  of  God  is  quick  and  powerful, 
sharper  than  any  two-edged  sword,  piercing  even  to  the  dividing 
asunder  of  soul  and  spirit,  and  of  the  joints  and  marrow,  and 
is  a  discerner  of  the  thoughts  and  intents  of  the  heart.  JS/ either 
is  there  any  creature  that  is  not  manifest  in  his  sight ,-  for  all 
things  are  naked  and  opened  to  the  eyes  of  him  to  whom  we 
must  give  an  account.  Previously  to  laying  the  sacrifice  on 
the  altar,  it  was  salted /or  the  fire  (Lev.  ii.  13,  Ezek.  xliii. 
24.  Mark  ix.  46.) ;  the  law  prohibiting  any  thing  to  be  of- 
fered there  which  was  not  salted  :  and  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  sacrifice,  either  the  whole  or  part  of  the  victim  was 
consumed  upon  the  altar,  where  the  priests  kept  a  fire  per- 
petually burning.' 

5.  Before  the  building  of  the  temple,  sacrifices  were  offered 
at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle ;  but  after  its  erection  it  was  not 
lawful  to  offer  them  elsewhere,  (Deut.  xii.  14.)  This  pro- 
hibition took  from  the  Jews  the  liberty  of  sacrificing  in  any 
other  place.  The  victims  might  indeed  be  slain  in  any  part 
of  the  priest's  court,  but  not  without  its  precincts :  and  there 
they  were  also  obliged  to  sacrifice  the  paschal  lamb.  All 
the  victims  were  to  be  offered  by  daylight,  and  the  blood 
was  always  to  be  sprinkled  on  the  same  day  that  they  were 
slain ;  as  it  became  polluted  as  soon  as  the  sun  was  set.  If, 
however,  the  sprinkling  had  been  made  in  the  daytime,  the 
members  and  entrails  of  the  victim  might  be  consumed  during 
the  night.  Subsequently  to  the  time  of  Moses,  indeed,  altars 
were  multiplied,  but  they  fell  under  suspicion,  although  some 
of  them,  perhaps,  were  sacred  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 
Nevertheless,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  some  prophets, 
whose  characters  were  above  all  suspicion,  did  oner  sacri- 
fices in  other  places  than  that  prescribed  by  the  Mosaic  laws  ; 
as  Samuel  (1  Sam.  xiii.  8 — 14.  xvi.  1 — 5.),  and  Elijah. 
(1  Kings  xviii.  21 — 40.) 

6.  The  sacrifices  of  the  altar  were,  in  general,  called  by 
the  Hebrews  Korbanini,  that  is,  offerings  or  oblations  to  God, 
from  the  Hebrew  word  karab,  to  approach  or  bring  nigh. 
This  term  consequently  denotes  something  brought  nigh,  in 
order  to  be  dedicated,  or  offered  to  God,  to  whom  the  person 
offering  thus  had  access  in  the  way  appointed  by  the  law ; 
and,  therefore,  at  the  close  of  the  enumeration  of  all  offerings 

by  fire  it  is  added  (Lev.  vii.  37,  38.),   This  is  the  law 

which  the  Lord  commanded  Moses  in  Mount  Sinai,  in  the  day 
that  he  commanded  the  children  of  Israel  to  offer  or  briiig  nigli 
their  korbanim,  that  is,  offerings  or  sacrifices  of  all  sorts.^ 

The  Jewish  fire-sacrifices  were  of  three  kinds ;  viz. 

i.  The  BuRNT-OFFERiNGS,  or  Holocausts,  were  free-will- 
offerings  wholly  devoted  to  God,  according  to  the  primitive 
patriarchal  usage.  The  man  himself  was  to  bring  them  be- 
fore the  Lord,  and  they  were  offered  in  the  manner  described 
in  the  preceding  page.  The  victim  to  be  offered  was,  accord- 
ing to  the  person's  ability,  a  bullock  without  blemish,  or  a 
male  of  the  sheep  or  goats,  or  a  turtle-dove  or  pi^on.  (Lev. 
i.  3.  10.  14.)  If,  however,  he  was  too  poor  to  bring  either 
of  these,  he  was  to  offer  a  mincha  or  meat-offering,  of  which 
an  account  is  given  in  a  subsequent  page.^  The  Jews 
esteemed  the  burnt-offering  the  most  excellent  of  all  their 
sacrifices,  not  only  on  account  of  its  superior  antiquity,  but 
also  because  it  was  en</re((/ consecrated  to  God.  In  allusion 
to  this,  St.  Paul  exhorts  Christians  to  present  their  bodies,  or 
their  whole  selves,  a  living  sacrifice  to  God.  fRom.  xii.  1.) 
The  burnt-offerings  are  in  Hebrew  termed  rhy  (oLan),  which 
signifies  to  ascend ,-  because  this  offering,  as  being  wholly 
consumed,  ascended,  as  it  were,  to  God  in  smoke  or  vapour. 
It  was  a  very  expressive  type  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  as 
nothing  less  than  his  complete  and  full  sacrifice  could  make 
atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  world. 

'  Harwood's  Introd.  to  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  220.  Carpzov  has  assigned 
many  devout  and  some  fanciful  reasons  why  salt  was  used  in  the  Jewish 
sacrifices.    Antiq.  Heb.  Gent.  pp.  719—723. 

«  Dr.  Owen  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  Exercitat.  xxiv. 
p.  307.  »  See  p.  119.  infra. 


ii.  The  Peace-offerings  (Lev.  iii.  1.)  were  also  free- 
will-offerings, in  token  of  peace  and  reconciliation  between 
God  and  man  ;  they  were  either  eucharistical,  that  is,  offered 
as  thanksgivings  for  blessings  received,  or  votive,  that  is, 
offered  with  prayers  for  the  impetration  of  mercies.  These 
offerings  consisted  either  of  animals,  or  of  bread  or  dough  ; 
if  the  former,  part  of  them  was  burnt  upon  the  altar,  espe- 
cially all  the  fat,  as  an  offering  to  the  Lord  ;  and  the  remainder 
was  to  be  eaten  by  the  priest  and  the  party  offering.  To 
this  sacrifice  of  praise  or  thanksgiving  St.  Paul  alludes  in 
Heb.  xiii.  15,  16.  In  this  kind  of  sacrifices  the  victims 
might  be  either  male  or  female,  provided  they  were  without 
blemish.  The  parts  of  both,  which  were  appropriated  to  the 
priests  and  Levites,  were  called  heave  or  wave  offerings ,-  be- 
cause thejr  were  Aeaiw/ or  lifted  up  towards  heaven,  and  waved 
to  and  fro,  before  they  were  eaten,  in  acknowledgment  of 
the  goodness  and  kindness  of  God,  and  also  in  token  of  their 
being  consecrated  to  him.  (Lev.  iii.  1 — 6.  Exod.  xxix.  26, 
27.  Num.  xviii.  24—28.) 

The  peace-offerings  are  in  Hebrew  termed  Q^vhv  (sHeLo- 
mim),  from  ch^  (shwlgm),  to  complete  or  make  whole :  be- 
cause, by  these  offerings  that  whicn  was  deficient  was  consi- 
dered as  being  now  made  up ,-  and  that  which  was  broken, 
viz.  the  covenant  of  God,  by  his  creature's  transgression,  was 
supposed  to  be  made  whole :  so  that,  after  such  an  offering, 
the  sincere  and  conscientious  mind  was  authorized  to  consider 
itself  as  reconciled  to  God,  and  that  it  might  lay  confident 
hold  on  this  covenant  of  peace.  To  this  St.  Paul  alludes  in 
that  fine  passage  contained  in  Eph.  ii.  14 — 19. 

The  appointed  seasons  and  occasions  of  the  peace-offering 
were,  1.  At  the  consecration  of  a  priest.  (Exod.  xxix.  1 — 37.) 

2.  At  the  expiration  of  the  Nazarite  vow.  (Num.  vi.  13 — 21.) 

3.  At  the  solemn  dedication  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple; 
and,  4.  At  the  purification  of  a  leper. 

iii.  SiN-oFFERiNGS,  in  Hebrew  termed  n^an  (cHaroAH), 
(from  the  word  Nan  (chhta)  to  miss  the  mark),  were  offered 
for  sins  committed  through  ignorance,  or  wilfully  against 
knowledge ;  and  which  God  always  punished  unless  they 
were  expiated.  These  offerings  in  general  consisted  of  a 
sin-offering  to  God,  and  a  burnt-offering,  accompanied  with 
restitutioji  of  damage  (Lev.  v.  2 — 19.  vi.  1 — 7.),  conform- 
ably to  which  our  Lord  requires  previous  reconciliation  with 
an  injured  brother,  including  restitution,  before  the  burnt- 
offering  or  gift  would  be  acceptable  to  God.  (Matt.  v.  23, 24.) 
St.  Paul  (Eph.  V.  2.)  terms  Christ's  giving  himself  for  us  an 
offering  (/.  e.  a  peace-offering),  and  a  sacrifice  or  sin-offering 
to  God  for  a  sweet  smelling  savour.  (Compare  Lev.  iv.  31.) 
In  warm  climates  nothing  is  more  refreshing  than  fragrant 
odours :  and  as,  in  the  highly  figurative  language  of  the  an- 
cient Hebrews,  smelling  is  used  to  denote  the  perception  of  a 
moral  quality  in  another,  God  is  said  to  smell  a  sweet  savour 
from  sacrifice,  to  signify  that  he  perceived  with  pleasure  the 
good  disposition  which  the  offerer  expressed  by  such  an  act 
of  worship.  When,  therefore,  the  apostle  tells  us  that  Christ 
gave  himself  for  us,  an  offering  and  a  sweet-smelling  sacrifice 
to  God,  he  teaches  us  that  Christ's  sacrifice  for  us  was  highly 
acceptable  to  God,  not  only  as  a  signal  instance  of  obedience 
to  his  Father's  will,  but  also  on  account  of  its  happy  influ- 
ence in  establishing  the  moral  "government  of  God.^  The 
sacrifices  offered  for  the  purification  of  lepers,  as  well  as  of 
women  after  child-birth  (Lev.  xii.  Luke  li.  24.),  were  reck- 
oned among  the  sin-offerings,  inasmuch  as  leprosy  and  the 
pains  of  child-bearing  were  considered  as  punishments  for 
some  particular  sin ;  though  both  were  accompanied  by 
eucharistic  sacrifices  for  the  recovery  of  the  persons  offering 
them.  Maimonides  adds,  that  if  the  person  who  offered  this 
sacrifice  did  not  repent,  and  make  public  confession  of  his 
sins,  he  was  not  cleansed  or  purified  by  it.* 

iv.  The  Trespass-offerings  were  made,  where  the  party 
offering  had  just  reason  to  doubt  whether  he  had  violated  the 
law  of  God  or  not.  (Lev.  v.  17,  18.)  They  do  not  appear 
to  have  differed  materially  from  sin-offerings.^  In  both  these 
kinds  of  sacrifices,  the  person  who  offered  them  placed  his 
hands  on  the  victim's  head  (if  a  sin-offering),  and  confessed 
his  sin  over  it,  and  his  trespass  over  the  trespass-offering ; 
saying,  "  I  have  sinned,  1  have  done  iniquity,  I  have  tres- 
passed, and  have  done  thus  and  thus,  and  do  return  by 
repentance  before  thee,  and  with  this  I  make  atonement.'' 
The  animal  was  then  considered  as  vicariously  bearing  the 

*  Macknight  on  Eph.  v.  2. 

'  De  Ratione  Sacrificii,  c.  iii.  n.  13. 

s  Michaelis  is  of  opinion  that  sin-offerings  were  made  for  sins  of  com- 
mission, and  trespass-oiferings  for  sins  of  omission.  Commentaries,  vol, 
iii.  p.  96. 


Chap.  III.] 


OF  ORDINARY  AND  VOLUNTARY  OBLATIONS. 


119 


sins  of  the  person  who  brought  it.'  In  Isa.  liii.  10.  Jesus 
Christ  is  said  to  maite  his  soul  an  offoring  for  sin,  otfN 
(ash«m),  the  very  word  used  in  the  law  of  Moses  to  denote  a 
trespass-f)flcrin<r. 

II.  All  the  safrifices  were  occasional,  and  had  reference 
to  individuals :  l)Mt  there  were  others  which  were  national 
and  rejrular,  dailv,  weekly,  monthly,  and  annual. 

1.  The  Prrpeluiil  or  Duili/  Sacrifice,  was  a  hurnt-oflering, 
consistinjT  of  two  lanil)S,  whicli  wc^re  offered  every  day, 
morninjr  and  eveninj^f,  at  th(>  third  and  ninth  hours.  (Kxod. 
xxix.  3rt — 10.  Lev.  vi.  9 — IR.  Num.  xxviii.  1 — K.)  Tliey 
were  burnt  as  holocausts,  but  liy  a  small  fire,  that  they  niitrht 
continue  hurnirifr  ilie  innjrcr.  VVitii  each  of  thesis  vi(ttims 
was  offered  a  hread-offeriiijr  and  a  drink-offering  of  strontr 
wine.  'I'he  mornin<j  sacrifice,  accordinjr  to  the  .lews,  made 
atonement  for  the  sins  conunilted  in  llie  iii<jht,  and  the  eveu- 
inir  sacrifice  expiated  tliose  conunitted  durinir  tlii^  day.  This 
sacrifice  was  a  daily  expression  of  national  as  well  as  indi- 
vidual repentance,  prayer,  and  thankso^ivinj)^. 

2.  The  Weekly  Sacrifice  on  every  Sabbath-day  was  equal 
to  the  daily  sacrifice,  and  was  offered  in  addition  to  it.  (Num. 
xxviii.  9,  10.) 

3.  The  Miinthli/  Sacrifice,  on  every  new  moon,  or  at  the 
beiriniiinjr  of  each  month,  consisted  of  two  young  bullocks, 
one  ram,  and  seven  lambs  of  a  year  old,  to<jelher  with  a  kid 
for  a  sin-offering,  and  a  suitable  bread  and  drink  offering. 
(Num.  xxviii.  11 — 14.) 

4.  The  Yearhj  Sacrifices  were  those  offered  on  the  great 
annual  festivals,  viz.  (1.)  The  paschal  lamb  at  the  passover, 
which  was  celebrated  at  the  commencement  of  the  .Jewish 
sacred  yivar ;  (2.)  On  the  day  of  pentecost,  or  day  of  first- 
fruits  ;  (3.)  On  the  new  moon,  or  first  day  of  the  seventh  month, 
which  was  the  begiimingof  their  civil  year,  or  in-gathering 
of  the  fruits  and  vintage ;  and  all  these  stated  burnt-offerings 
were  to  be  accompanied  with  a  sin-offering  of  a  goat,  to  show 
their  insufficiency  to  "make  the  comers  thereunto  perfect" 
(Num.  xxviii.  Ileb.  x.  I.);  (4.)  Lastly,  on  the  day  of  expia- 
tion, or  great  day  of  atonement.  As  a  particular  account  is 
given  of  the  solemn  festivals  in  the  following  section,  we 
proceed  briefly  to  notice  the  second  general  class  of  sacri- 
nce,  viz. 

III.  The  Unbloody  Sacrifices  or  Meat-offerings  (Lev. 
ii.),  which  were  taken  solely  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
They  consisted  of  meal,  bread,  cakes,  ears  of  corn,  and 
parched  grain,  with  oil  and  frankincense  prepared  according 
to  the  divine  command.  Regularly  they  could  not  be  pre- 
sented as  sin-offerings,  except  in  the  single  case  of  the  person 
who  had  sinned  being  so  poor,  that  the  offering  of  two  young 
pigeons  or  two  turtle  doves  exceeded  his  means.  They 
were  to  be  free  from  leaven  or  honey :  but  to  all  of  them 
it  was  necessary  to  add  pure  salt,  that  is,  saltpetre. 

IV.  Dhink-okkerings  were  an  accompaniment  to  both 
•bloody  and  unbloody  sacrifices :  they  were  never  used  sepa- 
rately, and  consisted  of  wine,  which  appears  to  have  been 
partly  poured  upon  the  brow  of  the  victim  in  order  to  conse- 
crate it,  and  partly  allotted  to  the  priests,  who  drank  it  with 
their  portions  of  both  these  kinds  of  offerings.  The  Psalmist 
shows  how  the  use  of  drink-offerings  degenerated  amongst 
idolaters,  who  in  tlieir  superstitious  rage  made  use  of  the  blood 
of  living  creatures,  perhaps  of  men,  in  their  libations.  Their 
drink-offerings  of  blood,  says  he,  will  I  not  uffer.  (Psal. 
xvi.  4.^ 

V  Besides  the  various  kinds  of  sacrifices  above  described, 
there  were  some  oblations  made  by  tlie  .lews,  consisting  of 
incense,  bread,  and  other  things  :  which  have  been  divided  by 
Lamy  into  three  sorts,  viz.  such  as  were  ordinary  or  common  ,- 
voluntary  or  free  oblations ;    and  such,  as  were  prescribed. 

1.  Tiie  Ordinary  Oblations  were, 

(1.)  The  Shew-brend  (Heb.  bread  (if  the  face),  which  con- 
sisted of  twelve  loaves,  according  to  the  number  of  the  tribes 
of  Israel.  They  were  placed  hot,  every  Sabbath-day,  by  the 
priests,  upon  the  golden  table  in  the  sanctuary,  before  the 
Lord  ;  when  they  removed  the  stale  loaves  which  had  been 
exposed  for  the  whole  of  the  preceding  week.  The  priests 
alone  were  to  eat  the  bread  thus  removed.  David,  however, 
through  necessity  broke  through  this  restriction  (\  Sam.  xxi. 
3,  4.),  God  preferring  mercy  to  sacrifice,  or,  in  tne  collision 
of  duties,  allowing  a  positive  to  eive  way  to  a  natural  law. 
(Matt.  xii.  7.) 

(•2.)  Incense,  consisting  of  several  fragrant  spices,  pre- 
pared according  to  the  instructions  given  to  Moses  in  Exod. 

»  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Exod  xxix.  10. 


XXX.  34 — 36.  It  was  offered  twice  every  day,  morning  and 
evening,  by  the  officiating  priest,  upon  an  altar  of  gold,  where 
no  bloody  sacrifice  was  to  come,  during  which  solemn  rite 
the  ])eople  prayed  without  in  silence.  (Luke  i.  10.^  Hut  on 
tlie  great  day  of  expiation  the  high-priest  hirnsen  took  fire 
from  the  great  altar  in  a  golden  censer ;  and,  on  descending 
thence,  he  received  incense  from  one  of  the  priests,  which  he 
oflTered  on  the  golden  altar.  During  such  offering  the  people 
prayed  silently  without ;  and  to  this  most  solemn  silence 
St.  John  alludes  in  Uev.  viii.  1.,  where  he  says  that  lliere 
WU.1  silence  in  heaven  about  the  space  of  half  an  hour,^  To  this 
oblation  of  incense  the  Psalmist  refers  (cxii.  2.)  in  his  devo- 
tions, and  explains  iiis  meaning  by  his  application  of  it:  Let 
my  -prayer  be  set  forth  in  thy  si^ht  as  the  incense. — "  As  the 
smoke  and  odour  of  this  off^'ering  was  wafted  into  the  holy 
place,  close  by  the  veil  of  which  stood  the  altar  of  incense, 
so  do  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  ascend  upwards  and  find 
admission  to  the  highest  heaven."'   (Acts  x.  4.) 

2.  The  Voluntary  or  Free  Oblations  were  either  the 
fruits  of  promises  or  of  vows  ;  but  the  former  were  not  con- 
sidered so  strictly  obligatory  as  the  latter,  of  which  there 
were  two  kinds. 

(1.)  The  voiv  of  consecration, -when  any  thing  was  devoted 
either  for  sacrifice  or  for  the  service  of  the  temple,  as  wine, 
wood,  salt,  &c. ;  and 

(2.)  'I'he  vow  of  engasj^ement,  when  persons  engaged  to  do 
something  that  was  not  in  itself  unlawful,  as  not  to  eat  of 
some  particular  meat,  nor  to  wear  some  particular  habits,  not 
to  drink  wine,  nor  to  cut  their  hair,  &c.  When  the  Jews 
made  a  vow,  they  made  use  of  one  of  these  two  forms :  "/ 
charge  myself  with  a  burnt-offering ;''''  or,  "  I  charge  myself 
with  the  price  of  this  animal  for  a  burnt-rffering."  Besides 
these  they  had  other  shorter  forms ;  for  instance,  when  they 
devoted  all  they  had,  they  merely  said,  "  ./^/Z  1  have  shall 
he  corban,^^  that  is,  "  I  make  an  oblation  of  it  to  God." 
Among  other  false  doctrines  taught  by  the  Pharisees,  who 
were  the  depositaries  of  the  sacred  treasurj',  was  this,  that 
as  soon  as  a  person  had  pronounced  to  his  father  or  mother 
this  form  of  consecration  or  offering.  Be  it  corban  (that  is, 
devoted),  whatever  of  mine  shall  profit  thee  (Mark  vii.  II.), 
he  thereoy  consecrated  all  he  had  to  God,  and  must  not  thence- 
forth do  any  thing  for  his  indigent  parents  if  they  solicited 
support  from  him.  With  great  reason,  therefore,  does  Jesus 
Christ  reproach  them  with  having  destroyed,  by  their  tradi- 
tion, not  only  the  commandment  of  the  law  which  en- 
joins children  to  honour  their  fathers  and  mothers,  but  also 
another  divine  precept,  which,  under  the  severest  penalty, 
forbad  that  kind  of  dishonour  which  consists  in  contumelious 
words.  (Mark  vii.  9,  10.  13.)  They,  however,  proceeded 
even  further  than  this  unnatural  gloss  ;  for,  though  the  son 
did  not  directly  give,  or  mean  to  give,  any  thing  to  God  at 
that  time,  yet  if  ne  afterwards  should  repent  of  his  rashness, 
and  wish  to  supply  them  with  any  thing,  what  he  had  for- 
merly said  precluded  the  possibility  of  doing  so  ;  for  his  pro- 
perty became  eventually  devoted  to  God,  and,  according  to 
the  Pharisaic  doctrine,  the  sacred  treasury  had  a  claim  upon 
it,  in  preference  to  the  parents.  The  words  "  be  it  corban," 
or  devoted,  consequently  implied  an  imprecation  against  him- 
self, if  he  should  ever  afterwards  bestow  any  thing  for  the 
relief  of  his  parents  :  as  if  he  should  say  to  them,  "  May  I 
incur  all  the  infamy  of  sacrilege  and  perjury  if  ever  ye  get 
any  thing  from  me ;"  than  which  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive 
of  any  thing  spoken  by  a  son  to  his  parents  more  contemptu- 
ous or  more  barbarous,  and  therefore  justly  denominated 
ii.tx...\'.yix,  "  opprobrious  language."'' 

3.  The  Prescribed  Oblations  were  either  first-fruits  or 
tithes. 

(1.)  All  the  First-fntits,  both  of  fruit  and  animals,  were 
consecrated  to   God    (Exod.  xxii.  29.    Num.  xviii.  12,  13. 

«  Sir  Isaac  Newton  on  the  Apocalypse,  p.  264.  See  also  Woodhouse  on 
Rev.  viii.  1.  p.  199. 

'  Jones  on  the  Fig.  Lang,  of  Script.  Lect.  iv.  towards  the  close.  "The 
prayer  of  faith,"  adds  this  learned  and  pious  writer,  "is  acceptable  to 
God,  as  the  fragrance  of  incense  is  agreeable  to  llie  senses  of  man  ;  and, 
as  ttie  incense  was  offered  twice  a  day,  in  the  morning  and  evening,  the 
spirit  of  this  service  is  to  be  kept  up  at  those  times  lljruughout  all  genera- 
tions. Tlie  prophet  Malachi  (upon  n  forced  and  erroneous  interpretation 
of  whose  words  alone  the  churcli  of  Rome  has  founded  and  defended  the 
use  of  incense  in  her  worship)  foretoM  that  it  should  be  observed  through- 
out the  world  (Mai.  i.  11.),  and  in  the  Revelation  we  hear  of  this  incense 
as  now  actually  carried  up  and  presented  in  heaven.  (Rev.  v.  8.)  Happy 
are  they  who  fulfil  this  service ;  and  at  the  rising  and  going  down  of  the 
sun  send  up  this  offering  to  heaven,  as  all  Christians  are  supposed  to  do, 
at  least  twice  in  every  day."     Ibid.  (Works,  vol.  iii.  p.  66.) 

*  Dr.  Campbell's  Translation  of  the  Four  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  379—388: 
third  edition.  MichaeUs's  Commentaries,  vol.  iv.  p.  300. 


120 


SACRED  THINGS. 


Dent.  xxvi.  2.  Neh.  x.  35,  36.)  ;'  and  the  first-fruits  of  corn, 
wine,  oil,  and  sheep's  wool  were  offered  for  the  use  of  the 
Levites.  (Deut.  xviii.  4.)  The  amount  of  this  gift  is  not 
specified  in  the  law  of  Moses,  wliich  leaves  it  entirely  to  the 
pleasure  of  the  giver:  the  Talmudical  writers,  however,  in- 
form us,  that  liberal  persons  were  accustomed  to  give  the 
fortieth,  and  even  the  thirtieth  ;  while  such  as  were  covetous 
or  penurious  gave  only  a  sixtieth  part.  The  first  of  these 
they  called  an  oblation  with  a  good  eye,  and  the  second  an 
oblation  with  an  evil  eye.  To  this  traditional  saying  our  Lord 
is,  by  some  learned  iTien,  supposed  to  have  alluded  in  Matt. 
XX.  15.  Among  animals,  the  males  only  belong  to  (iod ;  and 
the  Jews  not  only  had  a  right,  but  were  even  obliged,  to  re- 
deem them  in  the  case  of  men  and  unclean  animals,  which 
could  not  be  offered  in  sacrifice.  These  first-fruits  were 
offered  from  the  feast  of  pentecost  until  that  of  dedication,  be- 
cause after  that  time  the  fruits  were  neither  so  beautiful  nor 
so  o-ood  as  before.  Further,  the  Jews  were  prohibited  from 
gathering  in  the  harvest  until  they  had  offered  to  God  the 
omer,  that  is,  the  new  sheaf,  which  was  presented  the  day 
after  the  great  day  of  unleavened  bread  :  neither  were  they 
allowed  to  bake  any  bread  made  of  new  corn  until  they  had 
offered  the  new  loaves  upon  the  altar  on  the  day  of  pentecost ; 
without  which  all  the  corn  was  regarded  as  unclean  and 
unholy.  To  this  St.  Paul  alludes  in  Rom.  xi.  16. ;  where 
he  says.  If  the  first-fruit  be  holy,  the  lump  also  is  holy. 
The  presentation  of  the  first-fruits  was  a  solemn  and  fes- 
tive ceremony.  At  the  beginning  of  harvest,  the  sanhe- 
drin  deputed  a  number  of  priests  to  go  into  the  fields  and  reap 
a  handful  of  the  first  ripe  corn;  and  these,  attended  by  great 
crowds  of  people,  went  out  of  one  of  the  gates  of  Jerusalem 
into  the  neighbouring  corn-fields.  The  first-fruits  thus 
reaped  were  carried  with  great  pomp  and  universal  rejoicing 
through  the  streets  of  Jerusalem  to  the  temple.  The  Jewish 
writers  say  that  an  ox  preceded  them  with  gilded  horns  and 
an  olive  crown  upon  his  head,  and  that  a  pipe  played  before 
them  until  they  approached  the  city:  on  entering  it  they 
crowned  the  first-fruits,  that  is,  exposed  them  to  sight  with 
as  much  pomp  as  they  could,  and  the  chief  officers  of  the 
temple  went  out  to  meet  them.  They  were  then  devoutly 
offered  to  God  in  grateful  acknowledgment  of  his  providen- 
tial goodness  in  giving  them  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  "  These 
first-fruits,  or  handful  of  the  first  ripe  grain,  gave  notice  to  all 
who  beheld  them  that  the  general  harvest  would  soon  be  ga- 
thered in.  How  beautiful  and  striking  is  St.  Paul's  allusion 
to  this  religious  ceremony  in  that  most  consolatory  and 
closely  reasoned  chapter,  the  fifteenth  of  his  first  Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians,  in  which,  from  the  resurrection  of  Jesus 
Christ,  he  argues  and  establishes  the  certainty  of  the  general 
resurrection ;  and  represents  Christ  as  the  first-fruits  of  a 
glorious  and  universal  harvest  of  all  the  sleeping  dead  !  Now 
IS  Christ  risen,  and  become  the  first-fruits  of  them  that  slept. ''^ 
(1  Cor.  XV.  20.)  The  use  which  the  apostle  makes  of  this 
image  is  very  extensive.  "  In  the  first  place,  the  growing 
of  grain  from  the  earth  where  it  was  buried  is  an  exact  image 
of  the  resurrection  of  the  body ;  for,  as  the  one  is  sown,  so  is 
the  other,  and  neither  is  quickened  except  it  first  die  and  be 
buried.  Then  the  whole  harvest,  from  its  relation  to  the  first- 
fruits,  explains  and  ensures  the  order  of  our  resurrection. 
For,  is  the  sheaf  of  the  first-fruits  reaped  1  then  is  the  whole 
harvest  ready.  Is  Christ  risen  from  the  dead  ?  then  shall  all 
rise  in  like  manner.  Is  he  accepted  of  God  as  a  holy  offer- 
ing'? then  shall  every  sheaf  that  has  grown  up  with  him  be 
taken  from  the  earth  and  sanctified  in  its  proper  order  : — 
Christ,  the  first-fruits,  and  afterwards  they  that  are  ChrisVs 
at  his  coming.^  (1  Cor.  xv.  23.) 

(2.)  Besides  the  first-fruits,  the  Jews  also  paid  the  Tenths 
or  Tithes  of  all  they  possessed.  (Num.  xviii.  21.)  They 
were  in  general  collected  of  all  the  produce  of  the  earth 
(Lev.  xxvii.  30.  Deut.  xiv.  22,  23.  ISleh.  xiii.  5.  10.),  but 
chiefly  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil,  and  were  rendered  every  year 
except  the  sabbatical  year.  When  these  tithes  were  paid, 
the  owner  of  the  fruits  further  gave  another  tenth  part,  which 
was  carried  up  to  Jerusalem,  and  eaten  in  the  temple  at  offer- 
ing feasts,  as  a  sign  of  rejoicing  aiid gratitude  to  God.  These 

«  From  the  Jewish  custom  of  offering  first-fruits  to  Jehovah,  the  hea- 
thens borrowed  a  similar  rite.  See  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  lib.  xviii.  c.  2.  Horace, 
Sat.  lib.  ii.  Sat.  v.  12.     TibuUus,  Eleg.  lib.  i.  El.  i.  13. 

»  Jones's  V/orks,  vol.  iii.  p.  64.  Harwood'.s  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol. 
ii.  p.  307.  Miciiaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  146 — 149.  Beausobre's 
Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  (vol.  iii.  p.  200.  of  Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of 
Tracts.)  Dr.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  9Sl.  vol.  ii.  pp.  184.  306,  307.  folio 
edit.  Lamy's  Apparatus,  vol.  i.  p.  204.  Ikenii  Aniif].  Hebr.  part  i.  c.  15. 
cp.  210—224.  Schulzii  Archaeol.  Hebr.  pp.  287—292.  Lamy's  Apparatus 
}Jiblicus,  vol.  i.  pp.  203—306. 


[Part  IIL 

are  called  second  tithes.^  The  Levites  paid  a  tenth  of  the 
tithes  they  received  to  the  priests.  Lastly,  there  were  tithes 
allotted  to  the  poor,  for  whom  there  was  also  a  corner  left  in 
every  field,  which  it  was  not  lawful  to  reap  with  the  rest 
(Lev.  xix.  9.  Deut.  xxiv.  19.);  and  they  were  likewise  al- 
lowed such  ears  of  corn,  or  grapes,  as  wvre  dropped  or  scat- 
tered about,  and  the  sheaves  that  might  be  accidentally  for- 
gotten in  the  field.  Field-tithes  might  be  redeemed  by  ihose 
who  desired  it,  on  paying  one-fifth  in  addition  :  but  all  con- 
version of  the  tithes  of  cattle  was  prohibited.  (Lev.  xxvii. 
32,  33.)  The  payment  and  appreciation  of  them  Moses  left 
to  the  consciences  of  the  people,  without  subjecting  them  to 
judicial  or  sacerdotal  visitations,  but  at  the  same  time  he 
did  not  prohibit  the  Levites  from  taking  care  that  they  duly 
received  what  was  their  own.  The  conscientious  accuracy 
of  the  people,  with  respect  to  the  second  tithe,  he  secured 
merely  by  the  declaration  which  they  made  every  three  years 
before  God.  From  trifling  articles  he  in  no  case  required 
tithes ;  though  we  learn  from  the  Gospel  that  the  Pharisees 
affected  to  be  scrupulously  exact  in  paying  tithes  of  every 
the  least  herb.  (Matt,  xxiii.  23.)  If,  however,  a  person  had 
committed  a  trespass  against  the  sanctuary,  that  is,  had  not 
paid  the  tithes  of  any  particular  things,  and  if,  at  any  time 
afterwards,  his  conscience  were  awakened  to  a  sense  of  his 
guilt,  he  had  it  in  his  power  to  make  an  atonement,  without 
incurring  any  civil  disgrace,  by  simply  paying  an  additional 
fifth,  with  his  tithe,  and  making  a  trespass-offering.''  (Lev. 
V.  14—16.) 

The  custom  of  giving  tithes  to  the  Deity  existed  long 
before  the  time  of  Moses.  Thus  Abraham  gave  to  Melchi- 
sedek  king  of  Salem  (who  was  at  the  same  time  the  priest 
of  the  Most  High  God)  the  tithe  of  all  that  he  had  taken 
from  the  enemy,  when  he  returned  from  his  expedition 
against  the  four  kings  who  were  in  alliance  with  Chedorlao- 
mer.  (Gen.  xiv.  20.)  And  Jacob  consecrated  to  God  the 
tenth  of  all  that  he  should  acquire  in  Mesopotamia.  (Gen. 
xxviii.  22.)  The  same  custom  obtained  among  various 
ancient  nations,  who  devoted  to  their  gods  the  tenth  part  of 
every  thing  they  obtained. 

VI.  From  the  preceding  sketch  of  the  Jewish  Sacrifices, 
we  may  strongly  infer  their  Fitness  and  Utilitv. 

According  to  the  refined  ideas  of  modern  times  animal 
sacrifices  are  a  very  absurd  and  savage  mode  of  expressing 
and  promoting  devout  sentiments  and  dispositions.  But,  u 
we  steadily  keep  in  view  the  genius  and  habits  of  ancient 
nations,  and  the  special  circumstances  of  the  Hebrews,  these 
objections  will  vanish ;  aud  the  propriety  as  well  as  expe- 
diency of  the  Jewish  institutions  will  forcibly  appear. 

"  When  the  practice  of  sacrificing  was  first  appointed,  the 
use  of  letters  was  probably  unknown :  consequently,  the 
mode  of  instruction  by  visible  emblems  or  symbols  was  both 
indispensable  and  highly  beneficial.  In  such  a  state  of 
things,  the  offering  of  animal  victims  was  made  to  answer 
for  that  more  simple  and  rational  devotion,  which  words  are 
now  happily  fitted  to  express.  When  we  consider  sacrifices, 
with  all  their  attendant  rites,  as  appointed  by  God  in  order 
to  assist  the  religious  instruction,  improvement,  and  consola- 
tion of  man,  we  must  conclude  that  the  Most  High  would, 
in  the  first  instance,  clearly  explain  every  part  of  this  insti- 
tution; otherwise  it  could  not  answer  its  proposed  ends. 
Now,  if  the  moral  import  of  sacrifices  were  thus  explained, 
the  utility  of  them  to  mankind  in  their  rude  and  simple  state 
is  beyond  calculation.  In  untutored  man,  reason  is  weak, 
the  mental  feelings  are  heavy  and  rough,  while  sense,  imagi- 
nation, and  passion  are  the  leading  avenues  both  to  the  un-. 
derstanding  and  heart.  To  man  thus  situated,  the  appoint- 
ment of  sacrifices  is  peculiarly  adapted :  for  these  convey 
a  most  pathetic  and  awful  address  to  his  very  senses,  and 
thus  rouse  him  to  the  most  serious  and  impressive  reflections. 
The. frequent  spectacles  of  bleeding  and  smoking  victims, 
suffering  and  atoning  for  the  guilty  offerers,  would  give  them 
the  deepest  impressions  of  the  purity,  justice,  and  majesty 
of  God,  of  the  evil  of  transgressions,  of  their  own  ill  desert, 
and  of  the  necessity  of  some  adequate  atonement,  and  of  the 
readiness  of  the  Deity  to  pardon  the  penitent.  The  nume- 
rous and  diversified  offerings  of  the  ancient  Jews,  with  the 
striking  pomp  which  preceded  and  attended  them,  were  fitted 
not  only  to  excite  and  express  the  most  reverential,  humble, 
and  grateful  devotion;  but  also  to  give  the  best  direction  to 
the  whole  temper  and  conduct.     The  many  washings  and 

'  On  the  application  of  these  second  tithes,  see  Michaelis's  Commenta-  - 
ries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  142,  143. 
*  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  141 — 145. 


Chap.  IV.] 


THE  SABBATH.— HOW  CBSERVED, 


121 


jMir'lH^iitioiis,  piijoincd  previous  to  tlie  oblation  of  sacrifice, 
were  not  only  physically  henoficial  in  the  eastern  countries, 
but  (iireetly  tenm^l  to  impress  a  sini|)l(!  peojjle  witii  a  scru- 
pulous retrard  to  inward  and  moral  purity,  es])ecially  ui  all 
tli(>ir  approaches  to  the  Deity,  That  this  was  tlu;  primary 
intention  of  these  ceremonies,  was  a  maxim  frecpieiitly  and 
solemnly  (Miforced,  In  those  early  ajres,  the  lan<rua<re  of 
these  well-cho.sen  emblems  could  not  fail  to  be  well  under- 
stood and  stronjrly  felt.  Above  all,  the  frecpient  sacrifices  of 
the  Jewish  law  W(!r(!  intended  to  prefiiriire,  and  (rradually  to 

Rrepare  men  for  the  jrreal  atoiiinir  sacrifice  of  the   promiscul 
lessiah."     Accordiii<r|y,  "our  Saviour,  in  allusion  to  those 
ancient  oblations,  is  called  by  way  of  einiucnce  a  sin-olfer- 


ing,  a  perfect  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  In  a  word, 
the  relitrion  of  the  Jews  and  that  of  ('hristians  form  o^e 
great  and  harmonious  plan.  The  Jews  saw  g^ospel-lruth  in 
Its  early  and  gradual  dawn ;  we  behold  in  it  its  meridian 
splendour.  When  Christ  appeared,  the  candid  and  pioua 
Jews  embraced  liim;  because  they  saw  in  hiin  a  (rlorious 
counterpart,  a  jjcrfect  accomplishment  of  their  ancient  rites 
and  i)redictions.  The  (Jentiles,  on  the  other  hand,  were  led 
to  venerate  and  believe  in  the  Hebrew  Law;  because  they 
behfdd  in  it  an  exact,  thoutrh  imperfi-ct  figure  and  prophecy 
of  the  (ios|)el.  What  i)eauty  and  fflory  do  these  observa- 
tions refleet  both  on  the  Jewisn  and  ('hrlstian  dispensations! 
Wiiat  adiiiirablc  depth  of  wisdom  do  they  discover  in  both !"' 


CHAPTER  IV. 


SACRED    TIMES    AND    SEASONS    OBSERVED    BY    THE    JEWS. 


I.  The  SABBATir. — 1.  Ifo^v  observed. — 2.  Jeivish  Jf'oisfiif)  on  that  Day  ;  particularly  their  Jlfaniier  of  -worshi/ipin^  in  the 
Temple. — II.  Ni;w  Moons. — III.  Jlnnual  Festivals. — Their  important  Desiifri. — IV.  The  Passoveii;  -when  celebrated,  and 
■xvith  what  Ceremo7iies  ;  its  mystical  or  typical  Reference. — V.  The  Day  of  Pentecost. — VI.  The  Feast  of  Tabeiinacles. 
— VII.  Other  aiimial  Festivals. — 1.  The  Feast  of  Trumpets. — 2,  The  Day  of  Expiatiox. — VIII.  Annual  Festivals  insti- 
tuted by  the  .Tews  in  later  Times. — I.  The  Feast  of  Pimor,  2.  The  Feast  of  Dedication. — IX.  Other  Festivals  observed 
at  stated  Intervals. — I.  The  Saujiatical  Year. — 2.  The  Year  of  Jubilee. 

Sabbath-day;^  and  how  much  its  observance  was  strained  by 
the  traditions  of  the  elders  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  is  sufll- 
ciently  manifest.  Hence,  we  find  it  was  deemed  unlawful 
to  pluck  cars  of  corn  (Matt.  xii.  2.)  to  satisfy  the  cravings 
of  nature,  because  that  was  a  species  of  reaping.  We  learn 
from  the  Talmudical  writers  that  it  was  unlawful  to  use  oil 
medicinally,  thoufrh  tht^y  allowed  it  as  a  luxury ;  the  anoint- 
ing of  the  body  with  fragrant  oils  being  then,  as  it  is  now, 
in  the  East,  one  of  their  highest  enjoyments.  It  was  a  tra- 
ditional rule  of  the  ancient  Jewish  doctors  that  "whatever 
could  possibly  be  done  on  the  day  before,  or  might  be  defer- 
red until  the  following  day,  ought  not  to  drive  out  the  Sab- 
bath ;"  an  excellent  maxim  when  rightly  understood,  but 
when  applied  to  cases  of  infirmity  or  sickness,  they  mani- 
festly showed  that  they  did  not  comprehend  the  meaning  of 
the  divine  declaration — /  will  have  mercy  and  not  mcrifice.  In 
chronical  diseases,  therefore,  of  which  description  were  those 
cured  by  Jesus  Christ  on  the  Sabbath-day,  they  conceived 
that  the  persons  who  had  so  long  struggled  with  them  might 
very  well  bear  them  a  day  longer,  rather  than  prepare  medi- 
cines or  in  any  way  attempt  to  be  cured  on  that  aay.  The 
knowledge  of  this  circumstance  will  greatly  illustrate  the 
conduct  of  our  Lord  in  healing  the  sick  on  the  Sabbath-day, 
and  particularly  the  man  who  had  been  born  blind.  (John 
ix.)  The  rule  above  stated  was  made  before  he  began  to 
teach,  and  he  gladly  availed  himself  of  the  first  opportunity 
to  refute  their  erroneous  notions,  and  expose  their  gross  pre- 
varication   in   interpreting   many    of   the    sabbatical   laws. 


In  order  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  numerous  won- 
ders God  had  wrought  in  favour  of  his  people,  Moses,  by 
the  Divine  command,  instituted  various  festivals,  which  they 
were  obliged  to  observe :  these  sacred  seasons  were  either 
weekly,  monthly,  or  annual,  or  recurred  after  a  certain  num- 
ber of  years. 

I.  Every  seventh  day  was  appropriated  to  sacred  repose, 
and  called  the  Sabbath  ;  although  this  name  is  in  some  pas- 
sages given  to  other  festivals,  as  in  Lev.  xxv.  4.,  and  some- 
times it  denotes  a  week,  as  in  Matt,  xxviii.  1.  Luke  xxiv.  1. 
Acts  XX.  7.  and  1  Cor.  xvi.  2.  (Cr.)  It  was  originally  insti- 
tuted to  preserve  the  memory  of  tlie  creation  of  the  world 
(Gen.  ii.  3.) ;  whether  it  continued  to  be  observed  by  the 
Israelites  as  a  day  of  rest  and  holy  convocation  during  their 
residence  in  Egypt,  is  a  question  concerning  which  learned 
men  are  no  means  agreed,^  When,  however,  God  gave  them 
rest  ill  the  land  of  Canaan,  he  gave  them  his  Sabbatb.s  to  be 
statedly  kept  (Exod.  xx.  10,  II.  and  xvi.  23.);  and  its 
ohservance  was  specially  enjoined  on  the  Israelites  in  Deut. 
V.  15.,  because  they  were  the  redeemed  people  of  God,  and 
they  were  to  make  the  Sabbath  a  day  of  peculiar  recognition 
of  their  deliverance  from  bondage.' 

'  1.  In  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  the  following  circum- 
stances were  enjoined  by  divine  command: — (1.)  This  day 
was  to  be  held  sacred  as  a  day  of  worship,  in  memory  of  the 
creation  of  the  world  by  Jehovah,  and  also  of  the  deliverance 
of  the  Jews  from  Egyptian  bondage,  as  well  as  a  day  of 
repose  both  for  man  and  beast,  that  they  mioht  be  refreshed, 
and  not  have  their  bodily  strength  exhausted  bj' uninterrupted 
labour  (Gen.  ii.  1—3.  Deut.  v.  13.  Exod.  xx.  10,  11.  Ezek. 
XX.  20.) ;  hence  the  celebration  of  the  Sabbath  was  the 
making  of  a  weekly  profession  that  they  received  and  revered 
the  Creator  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  was  closely  connected 
with  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Mosaic  law,  whose 
object  was  to  keep  the  people  from  idolatry,  and  to  maintain 
the  worship  of  the  one  true  God  ;  and  hence,  also,  the  pun- 
ishment of  death  was  denounced  against  the  wilful  profana- 
tion of  this  solemnity.  (2.)  On  this  day  they  were  most 
religiously  to  abstain  from  all  manner  of  work.  (Exod.  xx. 
10.  xxiii.  12.  xxxi.  12 — 17.  xxxv.  2.  Deut.  v.  11,  15.  Jer. 
xvii.  22.)  It  was,  therefore,  unlawful  to  gather  manna 
f  Exod.  xvi.  22 — 30.),  to  light  a  fire  for  culinary  purposes 
(Exod.  xxxv.  3.  Num.  xv.  32 — 36.),  and  to  sow  or  reap. 
(Exod.  xxxiv.  21.)  To  these  enactments  the  Jewish  doctors 
added  a  variety  of  other  regulations,  for  which  there  is  not 
the  slightest  foundation  in  the  law  of  Moses.  Thus,  it  was 
formerly  accounted  unlawful  to  repel  force  by  force  on  the 

<  Tappaii's  Lectures,  pp.  110.  IIS. 

•i  l-'or  a  ininuie  and  able  discussion  of  this  and  every  other  question  con- 
nocled  with  the  Sal)bath,  the  reader  is  referred  to  "The  Christian  Sab- 
balli ;  or,  an  Inquiry  into  the  religious  Oblisalion  of  keeping  holy  one  Day 
HI  Seven.     By  the  Rev.  Ceo.  Holden,  M.  A.''  London,  1825,  8vo.  , 

'  .Stuaii's  Hebrew  Chrestomathv.  p.  175. 
Vol.  II.  ■       Q 


Further,  seeing  it  was  prohibited  to  put  fasting  spittle  upon 
or  into  the  eyes  of  a  blind  man  on  the  Sabbath-day,  our  Sa- 
viour eflTected  a  cure  by  using  both  clay  and  spittle  (John  ix. 
G.  14.),  to  show  his  divine  authority,  in  emplojing  means  to 
human  reason  the  most  improper,  even  on  that  sacred  day, 
directly  in  opposition  to  the  above  rule;  which  was  good 
and  just  in  itself,  but  hypocritical,  superstitious,  and  cruel, 
when  applied  to  the  case  of  healin-g  on  the  Sabbath.*  The 
services  of  the  temple,  however,  might  be  performed  with- 
out profaning  the  Sabbath,  such  as  preparing  the  sacrifices 
(Lev.  vi.  8 — 13.  Num.  xxviii.  3 — 10.  I\Iatt.  xii.  5.) ;  and  it 
was  also  lawful  to  perform  circumcision  on  that  day.  (John 
vii.  23.)  (3.)  The  Sabbath  was  to  be  devoted  to  cheerful 
rest,  that  not  only  the  Israelites,  but  also  strangers  living 
with  them,  as  well  as  their  cattle,  mio-ht  be  refreshed. 
(Exod.  xxiii.  12.)     Hence,  it  is  not  improbable,  that  they 

j  celebrated  sacrificial  or  offering  feasts,  to  which,  from  the 
commencement  of  their  polity,  the  poor  were  invited.  In 
later  times,  at  least,  we  know  from  histoiy,  that  the  Jews 

i  purchased  and  prepared  the  best  viands  they  could  procure 

«  1  Mace.  ii.  31—38.     See  other  examples  in  Josei)hus,  Ant.  .lud.  lib.  xii. 
!  c.  6.  §2.  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  16.  Mhb.  iv.  c.2.  §  3.  and  de  vit;1  suA,  §  32. 
I      s  Dr.  VVotton's  Misna,  title  Shabbaih,  pp.  101— ia3.  123.    The  Sabbath, 
\  we  may  observe,  was  a  type  of  that  eternal  rest,  which  all  the  true  ser- 
vants of  God  will  hereafter  enjoy  in  heaven.    See  Jones's  Lectures  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  lect.  ii    (Works,  vol.  iii  pp  240—242.) 


122 


SACRED  TIMES  AND  SEASONS  OBSERVED  BY  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  III. 


for  the  Sabbath-day,  in  order  to  do  it  honour ;  and  that  they 
actually  had  Sabbath-feasts,  to  which  they  even  invited  per- 
sons with  whom  they  were  unacquainted.' 

The  Sabbath  commenced  at  sunset,  and  closed  at  the  same 
time  on  the  followinjr  day.  (Matt.  viii.  16.  Mark  i.  32.) 
Whatever  was  necessary  was  prepared  on  the  latter  part  of 
the  preceding  day,  that  is,  of  our  Friday :  hence,  the  day 
preceding  the  Sabbath  (TrpoirafCaTiv)  is  in  the  New-  Testament 
termed  the  preparation  (^ra^^a-xji/x),  in  Matt,  xxvii.  G2.  Mark 
XV.  42.  Luke  xxiii.  54.  and  John  xix.  14.  31.  42.^ 

2.  We  know  not  with  certainty  from  the  Mosaic  writings 
what  constituted  the  most  ancient  worship  of  the  Israelites 
on  the  Sabbath-day.  It  is  however,  evident  from  the  New 
Testament,  that  the  celebration  of  this  day  chiefly  consisted 
in  the  religious  exercises  which  were  then  performed :  though 
there  is  no  injunction  recorded,  except  that  a  burnt-offering 
of  two  lambs  should  on  that  day  be  added  to  the  morning 
and  evening  sacrifices  (Num.  xxviii.  9.);  and  that  the  shew- 
bread  should  be  changed.  (Lev.  xxiv.  8.)  In  the  syna- 
gogues'* the  Sacred  Writings  Avere  read  and  expounded,  to 
which  was  sometimes  added  a  discourse  or  sermon  by  some 
doctor  or  eminent  teacher.  (Luke  iv.  16.  Acts  xiii.  15.) 
Prayer  also  appears  to  have  formed  a  part  of  their  sacred 
worship  in  the  synagogue,  and  especially  in  the  temple. 
(1  Sam.  i.  9,  10.  1  Kings  viii.  29,  30.  33.  Psal.  xxvii.  2. 
Luke  xviii.  10.  Acts  ii.  15.  and  iii.  1.) 

AViih  what  reverence  the  Jews  regarded  their  temple,  we 
have  already  seen  :^  and  in  proportion  to  the  sanctity  of  the 
place  was  the  solemn  and  liolv  behaviour  required  of  all 
who  came  to  worship  there,  l^he  law,  indeed,  had  prohi- 
bited the  approach  of  all  uncleanness;  but  to  the  enactments 
of  Moses  the  great  masters  of  traditions  added  a  variety  of 
other  trifling  regulations,  which  the  law  had  not  named, 
while  they  scrapie  not  to  make  the  "  house  of  prayer"  a  den 
of  thieves.  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  collected  many  of  these  tra- 
ditions respecting  the  temple  worship ;  an  abridgmpnt  of 
which  will  form  a  proper  supplement  to  the  preceding  obser- 
vations. 

(1.)  No  man  might  enter  the  "  mountain  of  the  house,"  for 
so  they  called  the  temple,  with  his  staff ;  weapons  of  offence 
being  unsuited  to  the  house  of  peace ;  and  it  bein^  reputed 
indecorous  to  lean,  when  there,  on  any  other  staff  than  God. 
On  this  account  it  was,  that  our  Lord  expelled  the  buyers 
and  sellers  of  cattle  from  the  temple,  with  a  whip  of  cords. 
(Jolm  ii.  15.) — (2.)  No  man  was  permitted  to  enter  with 
shoes  on  his  feet,^  nor  dust  on  his  feet,  which  he  was  obliged 
to  wipe  or  wash  (thus  intimating  the  necessity  of  approaching 
the  Most  High  divested  of  all  worldly  cares  and  aliections) ; 
nor  with  money  in  his  purse,  nor  with  his  purse  about  him. 
— (3.)  Having  arrived  at  the  temple,  every  worshipper  was 
prohibited  from  spitting  there,  as  well  as  from  using  any 
irreverent  gestures,  or  making  it  a  thoroughfare  to  shorten  his 
distance  in  crossing  from  one  part  of  the  city  to  another ;  and 
on  entering  the  court,  he  must  walk  leisurely  and  gravely  to 
his  place,  and  there  demean  himself  as  in  the  presence  of  God. 
— (4.)  Having  now  entered  to  pray  and  attend  the  service, 
he  was  to  stand  with  his  feet  one  even  with  tiie  other;  and, 
casting  his  eyes  downward,  while  he  raised  his  heart  upward, 
must  cross  his  hands  upon  his  breast,  and  stand  as  a  servant 
before  his  master  with  all  reverence  and  fear.  The  practice 
of  lookinw  down  in  prayer  the  Jews  derived  from  those  pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  which  speak  of  being  ashamed  to  look 
up  towards  heaven,  on  account  of  their  sinfulness :  to  this 
position  of  looking  down  and  laying  his  hands  upon  his 
heart,  the  demeanour  of  the  devout  publican  (Luke  xviii.  13.) 
seems  to  be  parallel.  Even  the  priests,  when  they  pronounced 
the  blessing  upon  the  people,  neither  looked  up  towards 
heaven,  nor  level  upon  the  people,  but  down  upon  the  ground ; 
and  the  people  were  prohibited  from  looking  upon  them. — 
(5.)  However  weary  the  worshipper  might  be  with  standing, 

'  Luke  xiv.  1.  and  Lightfoot's  Horaj  HebraiccC  on  that  passage.  (Works, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  445,  446.)  See  also  Wctsleiii's  Notes,  vol.  i.  p.  750.  Michaelis 
remarks  that  our  Saviour's  observation  in  Luke  xiv.  12—14.  can  only  be 
fully  understood  in  reference  to  a  fea.st  that  formed  a  part  of  divine  wor- 
ship, and,  as  such,  might  look  for  a  recompense  from  God :  for  we  do  not 
in  ordinary  ca^es  expect  that  God  sliould  reward  us  in  anotlier  world  for 
every  entertainment  we  give.     Commenlarie.s,  vol.  iii.  p.  158. 

»  Sclmlzii  ArchsBologia  Ilebraica,  pp.  311—314.;  Leusdcn's  Philologus 
Hebruid-Mixtus,  pp.  2W—-Ji2.;  Beausobre's  and  L'Enfant's  Introduction 
(Up.  Watson's  Theol.  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pji.  22.5—2:34.);  the  Mosaic  statutes 
relative  to  the  Sabbath  are  fully  discussed  by  Michaelis,  (Jonmientaries, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  150— LSI. ;  vol.  ii.  pp.  3'J9,  400. 

3  See  pp.  lai— lUO.  supra.  *  Sec  pp.  100,  101. 

»  This  prohibition  was  derived  from  the  command  of  God  to  Moses 
(Exod.  iii.  5.),  and  Joshua,  (v.  15.)  The  same  usage  obtains  throughout  the 
tast  to  this  day. 


he  might  on  no  account  sit  down  either  in  the  Israelites'  or 

firiests'  court :  no  person  whatever  being  allowed  that  privi- 
ege,  except  the  kings  of  the  house  of  David, — (6.)  Having 
offered  their  prayers,  and  performed  the  services,  they  were 
to  depart  in  the  same  order  in  which  they  had  entered : 
and  as  they  were  prohibited  to  turn  their  backs  upon  the 
altar,  they  went  backward  till  they  were  out  of  the  court, 
and  departed  from  the  temple  by  a  different  gate  from  that 
by  which  they  had  entered.'' 

II.  The  Jewish  months  being  lunar  were  originally  calcu- 
lated from  the  first  appearance  of  the  moon,  on  which  the 
Feast  of  the  New  Moon,  or  the  beginning  of  the  month  (as 
the  Hebrews  termed  it),  was  celebrated.  (Exod.  xii.  2.  Num. 
X.  10.  xxviii.  11.  Isa.  i.  13,  14.)  It  seems  to  have  been  in 
use  long  liefore  the  time  of  Moses,  who  by  the  divine  com- 
naand  prescribed  what  ceremonies  were  then  to  be  observed. 
It  was  proclaimed  by  the  sound  of  trumpets  (Num.  x.  10. 
Psal.  Ixxxi.  3.)  ;  and  several  additional  sacrifices  were 
offered.  (Num.  xxviii.  11 — 15.) 

III.  Besides  the  Sabbath,  Moses  instituted  three  Annual 
Festivals,  viz.  the  passover,  the  feast  of  pentecost,  and  the 
feast  of  tabernacles  :  these,  which  are  usually  denominated 
the  Great  Festivals,  were  distinguished  from  the  Sabbath,  and 
indeed  from  all  other  holy  days,  by  the  circumstance  of  two 
of  them  lasting  seven,  and  one  for  eight,  successive  days; 
during  which  the  Jews  were  bound  to  rejoice  before  the  Lord 
for  all  their  deliverances  and  mercies.  (Dent.  xvi.  11 — 15.) 
All  the  males  of  the  twelve  tribes  were  bound  to  be  present 
at  these  grand  festivals  (Exod.  xxxiv.  23.  Deut.  xvi.  16.)  ; 
and  for  their  encouragement  to  attend  they  were  assured  that 
710  man  should  desire  their  land  during  their  absence  (Exod. 
xxxiv.  24.)  :  in  other  words,  that  they  should  be  secure  from 
hostile  invasion  during  their  attendance  on  religious  worship  : 
— a  manifest  proof  tlvs  of  the  divine  origin  of  their  religion, 
as  well  as  of  the  power  and  particular  providence  of  God 
in  working  thrice  every  year  an  especial  miracle  for  the  pro- 
tection of  his  people ;  for  it  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  the  Jews 
constantly  attended  these  ceremonies  without  any  fear  of 
danger,  and  that  their  most  vigilant  enemies  never  invaded 
or  injured  them  during  these  sacred  seasons.  The  design 
of  these  rneetings  was  partly  to  uiiite  the  Jews  among  them- 
selves, and,  teaching  them  to  regard  each  other  as  brethren 
and  fellow-citizens,  to  promote  mutual  love  and  friendship. 
To  this  the  Psalmist  probably  refers  in  Psal.  cxxii.  3,  4. ; 
and  it  was  partly  that,  as  one  church,  they  might  make  one 
congregation,  join  in  solemn  worship  together,  and  renew 
their  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  one  true  God,  and  to  their  ex- 
cellent constitution  and  religion.  Further,  so  large  a  con- 
course of  people  would  give  the  greater  solemnity  to  these 
festivals  :  ancf  as  no  Israelite  was  to  present  himself  before 
the  Lord  without  some  offering  (Deut.  xvi.  16,  17.),  ample 
provision  was  thus  made  for  the  support  of  the  ministers  of 
the  sanctuarjr.  On  these  occasions,  although  the  men  were 
required  to  attend,  it  does  not  appear  that  women  were  pre- 
vented from  going  if  they  chose,  at  least  to  the  passover. 
(See  1  Sam.  1.  3.  7.  Luke  ii.  41.)  For  greater  security, 
however,  against  the  attacks  of  robbers  on  the  road,  they 
used  to  travel  in  large  companies,  those  who  came  from  the 
same  city,  canton,  or  district,  forming  one  company.  They 
carried  necessaries  along  with  them,  and  tents  tor  their  lodg- 
ing at  night.''  It  was  among  such  a  "company"  that  Joseph 
and  Mary  sought  Jesus  Christ  (Luke  ii.  44.)  :  and  to  their 
journe3'ing  through  a  dreary  valley  on  one  of  these  festivals 
the  Psalmist  probably  alludes.  (Ixxxiv.  6.)  Further,  as  the 
Jewish  sanctuary  and  service  contained  in  them  a  shadow  of 
good  things  to  come,  and  were  typical  of  the  Christian 
church,  this  prescribed  concourse  from  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try might  be  intended  to  typify  the  gathering  of  the  people 
to  Christ  and  into  his  church,  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
undar  the  Christian  dispensation.  Hence  St.  Paul,  alluding 
to  these  general  assemblies  of  the  Israelites  on  the  three 

«  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  ii.  pp.  917— 950. 

■■  Nearly  similar  to  this  is  the  mode  of  travelling  in  the  East  to  this  hour. 
Such  coiinianioa  they  now  call  caravans;  and  in  many  places  therie  are 
buildings  tilted  up  for  their  reception,  called  caravanserais.  This  account 
of  the  IsraeUtes'  mode  of  travelling  furnishes  a  ready  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion, how  .loseph  and  Mary  could  make  a  day's  journey  without  discovering 
before  niyht,  that  Jesus  was  not  in  the  "company."  In  the  daytime,  as 
circumstances  might  lead  them,  the  travellers  would  probably  mingle  with 
their  friends  and  acquaintance  ;  but  in  the  evening,  when  they  were  about 
to  encamp,  every  one  would  join  the  family  to  which  he  belonged.  As 
Jesus  then  did  not  a{ipear  when  it  was  growing  late,  his  parents  first 
Sought  him,  where  they  supposed  he  would  most  probably  be,  among  liis^ 
relations  and  acquaintance;  and  not  finding  him,  returned  to  Jerusalem." 
Dr.  Campbell's  Translation  of  the  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  p.  419.  note  on  Luke  ' 
ii.  44. 


Chap.  IV.] 


THE  PASSOVER. 


123 


{rranrl  feasts,  says,  "  Wi^  are  come  to  the  general  assembly 
and  ciinrckiif  the  JirKt-bi/rn.''''  (Heb.  xii.  23.) 

Bui  besides  tlie  benefits  to  be  dpriv{><l  from  the  relinrions 
celebration  of  these  orili nances,  Miciraelis,  to  whom  we  are 
ind(;l)t(!d  tor  part  of  tiie  i)reecdin<r  remarks,  has  pointi-i!  out 
several  instances  in  which  they  produced  a  salutary  cllect  on 
the  community.  Not  only  would  their  meetinjr  totrether  in 
one  |)lace  for  the  purposes  of  rdiirion  and  social  intercourse 
tend  to  prevent  a  total  alienation  of  rival  tribes,  as  w(dl  as 
civil  war,  but  it  wo\ild  also  ufl'ord  liieni  an  oj)|)ortunily  of  be- 
in^  mutually  reconciled.  I'urther,  it  is  not  improbanle  that 
these  annual  meetinjrs  promoted  the  internal  commerce  of  thr; 
Israelites,  who  were  prohiliited  from  carryinjr  on  tralfic  with 
foreigners;  and,  lastly,  they  had  an  important  inlluencc  on 
the  Jewish  calendar,  inasmuch  as  the  year  was  arranired,  so 
that  the  various  festivals  should  fall  in  their  respective  months 
without  interferinjr  with  the  labours  of  the  field.' 

IV.  The  hrstand  most  eminent  of  these  festivals  was  the 
Passover,*  instituted  the  niijht  before  the  Israelites' deoarture 
from  Kirypt,  for  a  perpetual  memorial  of  their  sijrnal  deliver- 
ance, and  of  the  favour  which  (iod  sbow'ed  them  in  passinir 
over  and  sparincr  their  firsl-liorn,  when  he  slew  the  first-born 
of  the  Etryptians.  (Kxod.  xii.  1'2 — 1 1.  2i) — 51.)  This  fes- 
tival was  also  called  the  ftunt  or  the  diii/s  of  tai leavened  bread 
(Exod.  xxiii.  15.  Mark  xiv.  I.  Acts  xii.  3.) ;  because  it  was 
unlawful  to  eat  any  other  bread  during  the  seven  days  the 
feast  lasted.  The  name  was  also  by  a  metonymy  f^iven  to 
the  land)  that  was  killed  on  the  first  day  of  this  feast  (Ezra 
vi.  20.  Matt.  xxvi.  17.),  whence  the  expressions  to  eat  the 
passmer  (Mark  xiv.  12.  14. )2  and  to  sacrifice  the  passovcr.'' 
(iCor.  v.  7.)  Hence  also  St.  Paul  calls  Jesus  Christ  our 
passover  (ibid.),  that  is,  our  true  paschal  lamb.  But  the 
appellation,  passover,  belongs  more  particularly  to  the  second 
day  of  the  feast,  viz.  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  month  Nisan.^ 
It  was  ordained  to  he  celebrated  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
deliverance  of  the  Israelites.  This  was  an  indispensable 
rite  to  be  observed  by  every  Israelite,  except  in  particular 
cases  enumerated  in  Num.  ix.  1 — 13.,  on  pain  ot  death;'' 
and  no  uncircumcised  person  was  allowed  to  partake  of  the 

Sassover.'  On  this  festive  occasion,  it  was  the  custom  at 
erusalem  for  the  inhabitants  to  give  the  free  use  of  their 
rooms  and  furniture  to  strangers  at  tlie  passover. — This  usage 
will  explain  the  circumstance  of  our  5>avioiir's  sending  to  a 
man  to  prepare  for  his  eating  the  passover,  who,  by  the  rela- 
tion, appears  to  have  been  a  stranger  to  him.  Further,  in 
order  to  render  this  grand  festival  the  more  interesting,  a 
custom  was  introduceu  in  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  polity 
of  liberating  some  criminal.  By  whom  or  at  what  time 
this  practice  originated  it  is  now  impossible  accurately  to 
determine :  the  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  it  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Romans  themselves,  perhaps  by  Pilate  at  the 
commencement  of  his  procuratorship  of  Judasa,  with  the  per- 
mission of  Augustus,  \n  order  to  gratify  the  Jews  by  show- 
ing them  this  public  mark  of  respect.*  However  this  maj' 
be,  it  had  become  an  established  custom  from  which  Pilate 
could  not  deviate  (Matt,  xxvii.  15.  Lukexviii.  17.  John  xviii. 
39.),  and  therefore  he  reluctantly  liberated  the  malefactor 
Barabbas. 
As  the  very  interesting  history  of  this  most  solemn  of  all 

•  Coininontarics  on  the  Law  of  Moses,  vol.  iii.  pp.  1P2 — 189.  Jennings's 
Jewisli  Anlii|iiilies,  book  iii.  cli.  i.  pp.  448,  449.  Tajipan's  Lectures  on 
Jcwisli  Amiiiiiities,  pp.  127,  12S. 

••»  On  the  true  meaning  of  the  word  passover  Arclil)p.  Ma^ce  has  a 
learned  disquisition  in  vol.  i.  of  his  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  pp.  3()il 
— 3i21.  Tliat  it  was  a  liind  of  fa'deral  rite  (as  the  Eucharist  also  is)  between 
God  and  man,  Dr.  Cudwortli  has  solidly  proved  in  his  "True  Notion  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,"  chap.  vi.  pp.  28 — 36.  at  the  end  of  vol.  ii.  of  his  "  Intellect- 
ual System,"  4to.  edit. 

»  Schulzii  Archa?ologia  Hebr.  p.  318. 

«  That  the  passover  was  a  proper  and  real  sacrifice,  see  largely  proved 
by  Archbp.  Magce,  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  i.  pp.  297^309. 

»  Lev.  xxiii.  6.  Mark  xiv.  1.  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  10.  §  5. 

•  In  like  manner,  Ur.  Waterland  has  observed,  a  contempt  and  rejection 
of  at  least  the  thing  signified  by  the  sacrament  of  tlie  Lord's  supper, 
must  necessarily  exclude  every  man  from  the  benefits  of  Christ's  passion 
and  death. 

'  So,  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  no  person  was  permitted  to  come 
10  the  lA>rd's  supper  until  he  had  been  baptized.  As  soon,  however,  as  the 
passovcr  was  celebrated,  every  one  was  at  liberty  to  go  home  the  very 
next  morning  if  he  pleased  (Deut.  xvi.  7.),  of  course  while  the  festival 
lasted,  in  order  that  those  Jews,  who  cajiie  from  a  distance,  might  return 
in  time  for  getting  in  the  harvest.  MichaeUs's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  no. 
183,  l.<4.  ■•  >  1  f 

•  Hottinger  has  discussed  the  various  opinions  on  the  origin  of  this  usage 
in  a  dissertation  De  rilii  dimiltemli  reum  in  fisto  Paschatis,  Tempe  Hel- 
vetic, vol.  iv.  p.  2(>1.  From  the  Jews  the  custom  proceeded  to  the  Chris- 
tians ;  Valentinian  and  several  other  emperors  having  issued  their  edict, 
that  some  prisoners  should  be  hberatcd  from  their  bonds  at  the  annual 
commemoration  of  our  Saviour's  resurrection.  This  custom  obtained 
among  the  Venetians  till  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  (Schulzii 
Archaeol.  Hebr.  p.  321.)  j    ^.       ui 


the  Jewish  festivals,  is  copiously  related  in  the  twelfth  chapter 
of  Exodus,  it  is  unnecessary  to  detail  il  again  in  this  place: 
but  as  various  traditional  observances  were  in  after-times 
added  to  the  Mosaic  precepts  concerning  this  sacrifice,  to 
which  there  are  manifest  allusions  in  the  New  Testament, 
we  shall  trace  them,  as  briefly  as  the  important  nature  of  the 
sulijcct  will  admit,  under  the  following  heads : — 1.  'J'he  time 
whi^ti  it  was  to  be  kept; — 9.  The  ceremonies  with  which  it 
was  to  be  celebrated ; — 3.  The  mystical  signification  of  these 
rites. 

1,  Of  the  time  when  the  Pax.iover  wan  to  be  kept. — This  fes- 
tival commenced  on  the  evening  subsequent  to  the  fnurteenth 
day  of  the  month  Nisan,  the  first  in  the  Jewish  sacred  or 
ecclesiastical  year  (Exod.  xii.  G.  8.  18.  L(>v.  xxiii.  4 — 8. 
Num.  xxviii.  1  (! — 27.),  with  eating  what  was  cal  led  the  paschal 
lam!) ;  and  it  was  to  continue  seven  whole  days,  that  is,  imtil 
the  twenty-first.  The  day  preceding  its  commencement  was 
called  Xhc,  jmjiaration  of  the  payy<n'er.  (John  xix.  11.)  Dur- 
ing its  continuance  no  leavened  bread  was  allowed  to  be 
used;  hence  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  month  Nisan  might 
with  great  propriety  be  called  (as  we  find  it  is  in  Malt.  xxvi. 
17.  Mark  xiv.  12.)  the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread,  because 
the  passover  began  in  the  evening,  'l^ho  fifteenth  day,  how- 
ever, might  also  be  called  the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread  :^ 
since,  according  to  the  Hebrew  computation  of  time,  the 
evening  of  the  fourteenth  was  the  dawn  or  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth,  on  which  day  the  Jews  began  to  eat  unleavened 
bread.  (Exod.  xii.  18.)  But,  if  any  persons  were  prevented 
from  arriving  at  Jerusalem  in  time  tor  the  feast,  either  by  any 
uncleanness  contracted  by  touching  a  dead  body,  or  by  the 
length  of  the  journey,  he  was  allowed  to  defer  his  celebration 
of  the  passover  until  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  following 
month,  in  the  evening.  (Num.  ix.  10 — 12.)  As  it  is  not 
improbable  that  some  difference  or  mistake  might  arise  in  de- 
termining the  new  moon,  so  often  as  such  difference  recurred, 
there  w-ould  consequently  be  some  discrepancy  as  to  the  pre- 
cise time  of  commencing  the  passover.  Such  a  discordance 
might  easily  arise  between  the  rival  and  hostile  sects  of 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees ;  and  such  a  difference,  it  has  been 
conjectured,  did  exist  at  the  time  Jesus  Christ  celebrated  the 
passover  wilh  his  disciples,  one  whole  day  before  the  Phari- 
sees offered  their  paschal  sacrifice.'"  Sacrifices  peculiar  to  this 
festival  were  to  be  offered  every  day  during  its  continuance; 
but  the  first  and  last  days  were  to  be  sanctified  above  all  the 
rest,  by  abstaining  from  servile  labour,  and  holding  a  sacred 
convocation.  (Exod.  xii.  10.  Lev.  xxiii.  7,  8.) 

2.  Of  the  ceremonies  with  which  the  Passover  was  to  be  cele- 
fjratcd. — The  paschal  lamb  was  to  be  a  male,  without  blemish, 
of  the  first  year,  either  from  the  sheep  or  the  goats"  (Excd. 
xii.  5.)  :  it  was  to  be  taken  from  the  flocks  four  days  before 
it  -was  killed  ;  and  one  lamb  was  to  be  oflercd  for  each  family ; 
and  if  its  members  were  too  few  to  eat  a  whole  lamb,  two 
families  were  to  join  together.  In  the  time  of  Josephns  a 
paschal  society  consisted  at  least  of  ten  persons  to  one  lamb, 
and  not  more  than  twenty. '2  Our  vSaviour's  societ)^  was  com- 
posed of  himself  and  the  twelve  disciples.  (Matt.  xxvi.  20. 
Luke  xxii.  14.)  Next  followed  the  killing  of  the  passover: 
before  the  exoae  of  the  Israelites  from  Egj'pt,  this  was  done 
in  their  private  dwellings ;  but  after  their  settlement  in  Ca- 
naan, it  was  ordered  to  be  performed  "  in  the  place  which 
the  Lord  should  choose  to  place  his  name  there."  (Deut. 
xvi.  2.)  This  appears  to  have  been  at  first  wherever  the  ark 
was  deposited,  and  ultimately  at  Jenisalem  in  the  courts  of 
the  temple.'^  J] very  particular  person  (or  rather  a  delegate 
from  every  paschal  society)' '  slew  his  own  victim  :  according 
to  Josephus,  between  the  ninth  hour,  or  three  in  the  afternoon, 
and  the  eleventh,  that  is,  about  sunset;  and  within  that  space 

9  The  fifteenth  day  is  so  called  in  Lev.  xxiii.  6.  and  by  Josephus,  who 
expressly  terms  the  second  day  of  unleavened  bread  the  sixteenth  day  of 
the  month.    Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  10.  §5. 

10  .Schulzii  Archaeol.  Hebr.  pp.  318,  319.  That  a  difference  did  exist  as  fo 
the  lime  of  beginning  the  passover  is  intimated  in  John  xiii.  I,  2.  .xviii.  28. 
and  xix.  11.  31.  The  conjecture  above  noticed  was  made  by  .Schulze  ;  and 
if  it  could  be  substantiated,  it  would  reconcile  the  seeming  dilTerences 
occurring  in  the  evangelists,  respecting  the  time  when  Christ  actually  cele- 
brated the  passover.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  has  collected  tlie  nrincijial  opinionscui 
this  much  contested  point,  in  his  discourse  on  the  Eucharist,  pp.  5 — 24. 
See  also  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  iii.  c.  4.  pp.  455—458. 

«>  The  Hebrew  word  fits'  (sen)  means  either  a  Iamb  or  a  kid  :  either  was 
oqually  proper.    The  Hebrews,  however,  in  general  preferred  a  lamb. 

i'i  Dehell.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.  9.  §3. 

n  The  area  of  the  three  courts  of  the  temple,  besides  the  rooms  and  other 
places  in  it,  where  the  paschal  victim  might  be  offered,  contained  upwards 
of  43.5.000  square  cubits ;  so  that  there  was  ample  room  for  more  than 
500,000  men  to  be  in  the  temple  at  the  same  time.  Lamy,  De  Tabemacule. 
Ub.  vii.  c.  9.  5H,  5. 

i«  See  Lightfoot's  Temple  Service,  ch.  xii.  §  5.  (Works,  vol.  i.  pp. 
957—959.) 


124 


SACRED  TIMES  AND  SEASONS  OBSERVED  BY  THE  JEWS. 


[Pakt  III. 


of  time  it  was,  that  Jesus  Clirist,  our  true  paschal  lamh,  was 
crucified.  (Matt,  xxvii.  4G.)  The  victim  beiiiir  killed,  one 
of  the  priests  received  the  blood  into  a  vessel,  which  was 
handed  from  one  priest  to  another,  until  it  came  to  him  who 
stood  next  tlie  altar,  and  by  whom  it  was  sprinkled  at  the 
bottom  of  the  altar.  After  the  blood  was  sprinkled,  the  lamb 
was  Imng  up  and  flayed  :  this  being  done,  the  victim  was 
opened,  the  fat  was  taken  out  and  consumed  on^  the  altar, 
after  which  the  owner  took  it  to  his  own  house.  The  paschal 
lamb  was  to  be  roasted  whole,  which  might  be  commanded 
as  a  matter  of  convenience  at  the  first  passover,  in  order  that 
their  culinary  utensils  might  be  packed  up  ready  for  their 
departure  while  the  lamb  was  roasting;  no^part  of  it  was  to 
be  eaten  either  in  a  raw  state,  or  boiled.  (Exod.  xii.  9.) 

The  propriety  of  the  prohibition  of  eating  any  portion  of 
the  paschal  lamb  in  a  raw  state  will  readily  appear,  when  it 
is  known  that  raw  flesh  and  palpitating  limbs  were  used  in 
some  of  the  old  heathen  sacrifices  and  festivals,  particularly 
in  honour  of  the  Egyptian  deity  Osiris,  and  the  Grecian 
Bacchus,  who  were  the  same  idol  under  different  names. 
That  no  resemblance  or  memorial  of  so  barbarous  a  supersti- 
tion might  ever  debase  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  He  made 
this  early  and  express  provision  against  it.  On  the  same 
ground,  probably.  He  required  the  paschal  lamb  to  be  eaten 
privately  and  entire,  in  opposition  to  the  bacchanalian  feasts, 
in  which  the  victim  was  publicly  torn  in  pieces,  carried 
about  in  pomp,  and  then  devoured.  Further,  the  prohibition 
of  boiling  the  paschal  lamb  was  levelled  against  a  supersti- 
tious practice  of  the  Egyptians  and  Syrians,  who  were 
accustomed  to  boil  their  victims,  and  especially  to  seethe  a 
kid  or  lamb  in  the  milk  of  its  dam  ;  as  the  command  to  roast 
and  eat  the  wliole  of  the  lamb — not  excepting  its  inwards — 
without  leaving  any  portion  until  the  following  morning,  was 
directed  against  another  superstition  of  the  antient  heathens, 
whose  priests  carefully  preserved  and  religiously  searched 
the  entrails  of  their  victims,  whence  they  gathered  their 
pretended  knowledge  of  futurity.  Those,  likewise,  who 
frequented  pagan  temples,  were  eager  to  carry  away  and  de- 
vote to  supersUtious  uses  some  sacred  relics  or  fragments  of 
the  sacrifices.  In  short,  the  whole  ceremonial  of  the  pass- 
over  appears  to  have  iieen  so  adjusted  as  to  wage  an  open 
and  destructive  war  against  the  gods  and  idolatrous  ceremo- 
nies of  Egypt,  and  thus  to  form  an  early  and  powerful 
barrier  around  the  true  worship  and  servants  of  Jehovah.' 

After  the  lamb  was  thus  dressed,  it  was  eaten  by  each 
family  or  paschal  society.^  "  The  first  passover  was  to  be 
eaten  standing,  in  the  posture  of  travellers,  who  had  no  time 
to  lose;  and  with  unleavened  bread  and  bitter  herbs,  and  no 
bone  of  it  was  to  be  broken.  (Exod.  xii.  8.  11.  4G.)  The 
posture  of  travellers  was  enjoined  them,  both  to  enliven 
their  faith  in  the  promise  of  their  then  speedy  deliverance 
from  Egypt;  and  also,  that  they  might  be  ready  to  begin 
their  march  presently  after  supper.  Tiiey  were  ordered,  there- 
fore, to  eat  it  with  their  loins  girded  ;  for  as  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  wear  long  and  loose  garments,  such  as  are  generally 
used  by  the  eastern  nations  to  this  day,  it  was  necessary  to 
tie  them  up  with  a  girdle  about  their  loins,  when  they  eitjier 
travelled  or  engaged  in  any  laborious  employment.''^  Fur- 
ther, "  they  were  to  eat  the  passover  with  shoes  on  their  feet, 
for  in  those  hot  countries  they  ordinarily  wore  sandals,  which 
were  a  sort  of  clogs,  or  went  barefoot;  but  in  travelling  they 
used  shoes,  which  were  a  kind  of  short  boots,  reaching  a 
little  way  up  the  legs.  Hence,  when  our  Saviour  sent  his 
twelve  disciples  to  preach  in  the  neighbouring  towns,  design- 
in"-  to  convince  them  by  their  own  experience  of  the  extra- 
ordinary care  of  Divine  Providence  over  them,  that  they 
might  not  be  discouraged  by  the  length  and  danger  of  the 
journeys  they  would  be  called  toundertake; — on  this  account 
lie  ordered  them  to  make  no  provision  for  their  present  jour- 
ney, particularly,  not  to  take  shoes  on  their  feet,  but  to  be 
shod  with  sandals.  (Matt.  x.  lO.i^ompared  with  Mark  vi.  9.) 
Again,  they  were  to  eat  the  passover  with  staves  in  their 
hands,  such  as  were  always  used  by  travellers  in  those  rocky 
countries,  both  to  support  them  in  slippery  places,  and  de- 
fend them  against  assaults.  (Gen.  xxxii.  10.)^     Of  this  sort 

»  Tappan's  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities,  pp.  123, 124. 

»  Beausobre  says  tliat  tliese  sodalities  were  called  brotherhoods,  and  the 
gni'sts  companions  or  friends,  and  that  our  Saviour's  reproof  of  .Judas  by 
calling  him  friend  or  companion  (Matl.  .xxvi.  GO.)  was  both  just  and  cuUing, 
because  he  betrayed  liim  after  having  eaten  the  passover  with  him. 

"  Tlius  when  Elisha  sent  his  servant  Gehazi  on  a  message  in  haste,  he 
bnilo  him  "gird  up  his  loins,"  2 Kings  iv.  29. ;  and  when  our  Saviour  set 
about  wasliing  his  disciples'  feet,  "he  took  a  towel  and  girded  himself," 
John  ,\iii.  4.     . 

'  Uavid  beautifully  allude.s  to  this  custom  in  the  twenty-third  Psalm  ; 
where  (ver.  4.),  ex))ressing  his  trust  in  tlie  goodness  of  the  Almighty,  he 


was  probably  Moses's  rod  which  he  had  in  his  hand,  when 
God  sent  him  with  a  message  to  Pliaraoh  (Exod.  iv.  2.^,  and 
which  was  afterwards  used  as  an  instrument  in  working  so 
many  miracles.  So  necessary  in  these  countries  was  a  staff 
or  walking-stick  on  a  journey,  that  it  was  a  usual  thing  for 
persons  when  they  undertook  long  journeys  to  take  a  spare 
staff'  with  them,  for  fear  one  should  fail.  When  Christ, 
therefore,  sent  his  apostles  on  the  embassy  above  mentioned, 
he  ordered  them  not  to  take  staves  (Luke  ix.  3.  Mark  vi.  8.), 
that  is,  only  one  staff  or  walking-stick,  without  making  pro- 
vision of  a  spare  one,  as  was  common  in  long  journeys. 

"  The  paschal  lamb  was  to  be  eaten  with  unleavened  bread, 
on  pain  of  being  cut  off  from  Israel,  or  excommunicated ; 
though  some  critics  understand  this  of  being  put  to  death. 
The  reason  of  this  injunction  was,  partly  to  remind  them  of 
the  hardships  they  had  sustained  in  Egypt,  unleavened  being 
more  heavy  and  less  palatable  than  leavened  bread ;  on  which 
account  it  is  called  the  bread  of  affliction  (Deut.  xvi.  3.) ; 
and  partly  to  commemorate  the  speed  of  their  deliverance 
or  departure  from  thence,  which  was  such,  that  they  had  not 
sufficient  time  to  leaven  their  bread  ;  it  is  expressly  said,  that 
their  "  dough  was  not  leavened,  because  they  were  thrust  out 
of  Egypt  and  could  not  tarry  (Exod.  xii.  39.) ;  and  on  this 
account  it  was  enacted  into  a  standing  law,  '  Thou  shalt  eat 
unleavened  bread,  even  the  bread  of  affliction  ;  for  thou  camest 
forth  out  of  Egypt  in  haste.'  (Deut.  xvi.  3.)  This  rite, 
therefore,  was  not  only  observed  at  the  first  passover,  but  in 
all  succeeding  ages."*  But  from  the  metaphorical  sense  in 
which  the  term  leaven  is  used,^  this  prohibition  is  su])posed 
to  have  had  a  moral  view ;  and  that  the  divine  legislator's 
intention  was,  that  the  Israelites  should  cleans*  their  minds 
from  malice,  envy,  and  hypocrisy ;  in  a  word,  from  the  leaven 
of  Egypt.  In  consequence  of  this  injunction,  the  Hebrews, 
as  well  as  the  modern  Jews,  have  always  taken  particular 
care  to  search  for  all  the  leaven  that  might  be  in  their  houses, 
and  to  burn  it.'^ 

The  passover  was  likewise  to  be  eaten  "with  bitter  herbs  :" 
this  was  doubtless  prescribed  as  "  a  memorial  of  their  severe 
bondage  in  Egypt,  which  made  their  lives  hitter  unto  them; 
and  possibly  also  to  denote  that  the  haste,  in  which  they  de- 
parted, compelled  them  to  gather  such  wild  herbs  as  most 
readily  pre'sented  themselves.  To  this  sauce  the  Jews  after- 
wards added  another,  made  of  dates,  raisins,  and  several  in- 
gredients beaten  together  to  the  consistence  of  mustard,  which 
is  called  charuselh,  and  is  designed  to  represent  the  clay  in 
which  their  forefathers  wrought  while  they  were  in  bondage 
to  the  Egyptians. 

"It  was  further  prescribed,  that  they  should  eat  the  flesh 
of  the  lamb,  without  breaking  any  of  his  bones.  (Exod.  xii. 
46.)  This  the  latter  Jews  understand,  not  of  the  smaller 
bones,  but  only  of  the  greater  which  had  marrow  in  them. 
Thus  was  this  rite  also  intended  to  denote  their  being  in 
haste,  not  having  time  to  break  the  bones  and  suck  out  the 
marrow." 

Lastly,  "  it  was  ordered  that  nothing  of  the  paschal  lamb 
should  remain  till  the  morning;  but,  if  it  were  not  all  eaten, 
it  was  to  be  consumed  by  fire.  (P^xod.  xii.  10.)  The  same 
law  Was  extended  to  all  eucharistical  sacrifices  (Lev.  xxii. 
30.)  ;  no  part  of  which  was  to  be  l^ft,  or  set  by,  lest  it  should 
be  corrupted,  or  converted  to  any  prof\ine  or  common  use, — 
an  injunction  which  was  designed,  no  doubt,  to  maintain  the 
honour  of  sacrifices,  and  to  teach  the  Jews  to  treat  with 
reverence  whatever  was  consecrated  more  especially  to  the 
service  of  God."8 

Such  were  the  circumstances  under  which  the  first  passover 
was  celebrated  by  the  Israelites ;  for,  after  they  were  settled 
in  the  land  of  Canaan,  they  no  longer  ate  it  standing,  but  the 
guests  reclined  on  their  left  arms  upon  couches  placed  round 

exclaims,  Yea,  though  Iwallc  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death,  I 
wilt  fear  no  evil :  for  thou  art  tcith  ?ne,  thy  rod  and  thy  staff  they  comfort 
me. 

5  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  iii.  ch.  iv.  pp.468 — 470.  (London, 
1823,  8vo.) 

6  Lighlfont's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  0.'5.3,  9-54.     AUon'sModern  Judaism,  p.  381. 

•■  See  Matt.  xvi.  (5.  St.  Paul,  writing  to  the  Corinthians  a  short  time  be- 
fore the  passover,  exhorts  them  to  cleanse  out  tlie  old  leaven  of  lewdness 
by  casting  the  incestuous  person  out  of  the  church  ;  and  to  keep  the  feast 
(of  the  Lord's  supper)  7iot  witli  the  old  leaven  of  sensuality  and  unclean- 
noss,  with  which  they  were  formerly  corrupted,  neither  tcith  the  leaven 
of  mulIcK  and  wickedness,  hut  ivilh  the  unleavened  bread  (or  f|ualifies)  of 
sincerity  and  truth.  Macknighton  1  Cor.  v.  7,  S.  ;  who  observes,  that  it  is 
probaljle  from  thi.s  passage  that  the  disciples  of  Christ  began  very  early  to 
celebrate  the  Lord's  supper  with  peculiar  solemnity,  annually,  on  the  day 
tin  which  the  Redeemer  suffered,  which  was  the  day  of  the  Jewish  pass- 
over,  called  in  modern  language  Easter.  It  is  with  beautiful  propriety, 
therefore,  that  this  passage  of  Saint  Paul  is  introduced  by  the  Anglican 
Church  among  tlie  occasional  versicles  for  Easter  Sunday. 

8  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  iii.  ch.  iv.  pp.  470,  ill. 


CUAP.  IV.] 


THE  PASSOVER. 


125 


the  table.  (Joliri  xiii.  23.)  Tliis  posture,  accordinjr  to  the 
Talmudioal  writers,  was  an  ciiihli'iri  of  tlial  rest  and  freedom 
whieh  God  liad  (granted  to  tin;  cliildreii  of  Israel  !)>•  hrinjriiijr 
them  out  of  Eifypt.  This  custom  of  recliiiiiiir  at  table,  over 
one  another's  bosom,  was  a  sign  of  equality  and  strict  union 
amonir  the  fjuc^sts.' 

Dr.  liijrjitfoot  has  collected  from  the  Talmud  a  variety  of 
passajjes  relative  to  the  Jewish  mode  of  eelebratinir  the  pass- 
over;  Irom  whieh  W(!  have  aljridjred  tlu;  followinjr  particidars, 
as  they  are  ealeuialid  materially  to  illustrate  the  evaujielieal 
history  of  our  Lord's  last  |)assover,  recorded  in  Matt.  xxvi. 
Mark  xiv.  Luki;  xxii.  and  .loliu  xiii. 

( I .)  Tli(^  friu;sts  beiiicr  |)|;ieed  around  the  table,  they  mingled 
a  cup  of  wiiK!  with  water,  over  whieh  the  master  of  the  family 
Tor,  if  two  or  more  families  were  united,  a  )u>rson  deputed 
for  the  purpose)  <r;ive  thanks,  and  then  draidc  it  oil".  The 
tliaidvsiriviuii'  for  the  wine  was  to  this  ell'eet,  "  Hlrsscd  he  tlt<nt, 
U  Lord,  who  hu.sl  crculcd  thf  J'niit  (if  the  vine,-"  and  for  the 
day,  as  follows — "  likssed  he  Ikoil  for  this  good  dutf,  and  for 
this  hall/  conroattion,  which  thou  huxl  ixiren  iis  for  joy  and  rc- 
joicini^  !  BlcKxnl  Ije  thou,  O  Lord,  luho  hast  sanctified  Israel 
and  the  times .'"  Of  these  cups  of  wine  they  drank  four  in 
the  course  of  the  ordinance. 

(•J.)  They  then  washed  their  hands,  after  which  the  table 
was  furnished  with  the  paschal  land),  roastt^l  whole,  with 
bitter  herbs,  and  with  two  cakes  of  unleavened  bread,  toj^ether 
with  the  remains  of  llie  peace-otferinfrs  sacrificed  on  the  pre- 
cedintj  day,  and  the  charoseth,  or  tliick  sauce,  above  men- 
tioned. 

(3.)  The  ofliciatnr,  or  person  presiding^,  then  took  a  small 
piece  of  salad,  and  haviuo-  t)lessed  (jod  for  creating  the  fruit 
of  the  ground,  he  ate  it,  as  also  did  the  other  guests:  after 
■which  all  the  dishes  were  removed  from  the  table,  that  the 
children  might  itupiire  and  be  instructed  in  the  nature  of  the 
feast.  (Exod.  xii.  25, 2().)  The  text  on  which  they  generally 
discoursed  was  Dent.  xxvi.  5 — 11.  In  like  manner  our  Sa- 
viour makes  use  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper,  to 
declare  the  great  mercy  of  God  in  our  redemption ;  for  it 
.shows  forth  the  L(mPs  death  till  he  conie  to  judge  the  world. 
The  "continual  remembrance  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  death  of 
Christ,  and  of  the  benefits  we  receive  thereby,"  which  has 
been  observed  ever  since  the  time  of  the  apostles,  is  a  per- 
manent and  irrefragable  argument  for  the  reality  of  that 
full,  perfect,  and  suflicient  sacrifice;  oblation,  and  satisfaction 
for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world,"  which  was  made  by  Jesus 
Christ  "by  his  one  oblation  of  himself"  upon  the  cross;  in 
op])osition  to  the  ojiinion  of  those  who  deny  the  divinity  of 
our  Saviour,  and  the  vicarious  nature  of  his  death. 

(1.)  'I'heu  replacing  the  supper,  they  explained  the  import 
of  the  bitter  herbs  and  paschal  lamb ;  and  over  the  second 
cup  of  wine  repeated  the  hundred  and  thirteenth  and  hundred 
and  fourteenth  psalms,  with  an  eucharistic  prayer. 
'  (5.)  The  hands  were  again  washed,  accompanied  by  an 
ejacufatory  prayer;  after  which  the  master  of  the  house  pro- 
ceeded to  break  and  bless  a  cake  of  the  unleavened  bread, 
which  he  distributed  among  the  guests,  reserving  half  of  the 
cake  beneath  a  napkin,  if  necessary,  for  the  aphicomen,  or 
last  morsel ;  for  the  rule  was,  to  conclude  with  eating  a 
small  piece  of  the  paschal  lamb,  or,  after  the  destruction  of 
the  temple,  of  unleavened  bread.^  In  like  manner  our  Lord, 
upon  instituting  the  sacrament  of  the  eucharist,  which  was 
prefigured  by  the  passover,  took  bread  ;  and  having  blessed 
or  given  thanks  to  (iod,  he  brake  it,  and  gave  it  to  his  disci- 
ples, saying.  Take,  eat,  this  is  [that  is,  signifies]  my  body, 
which  is  gii-en  for  you.  This  do  in  remembrance  of  me.  (Matt, 
xxvi.  20.'  Mark  xiv.  22.  Lukexxii.  10,  1  Cor.  xi.  23,  21.)  In 
the  communion  service  of  the  Anglican  church,  the  spirit 
and  design  both  of  the  type  and  antitype  are  most  expres- 
sively condensed  into  one  point  of  view  in  the  following 
address  to  the  communicant : — "  Take  and  eat  this  in  re- 
membrance ///(//  Christ  died  for  thee,  and  feed  upon  him  in 
thy  heart  by  faith,  ivith  thanksgiving,^^ 

(G.)  They  then  ate  the  rest  of  the  cake  with  the  bitter 

«  This  custom,  Beausobre  well  observes,  will  explain  several  passages 
of  Scripture,  particularly  tliose  in  which  uienlion  is  maile  of  Abraliaiii's 
bosom  (Luke  xvi.  22.),  and  of  tlie  Son's  being  hi  the  hosum  of  the  Father. 
(John  i.  18^compare'J  with  Thil.  ii.  6.  and  John  xiii.  23.) 

9  In  this  part  of  the  paschal  ceremony,  among  the  modern  Jews,  after 
the  master  of  the  house  has  reserved  tiie  portion  for  the  aphicomen,  the 
bone  of  the  lamb  and  the  egg  are  taken  otT  the  dish,  and  all  at  table  lay 
hold  of  the  dish  and  say,— "  Z-o .'  this  is  [or  .dignities]  the  hread  of  afflic- 
tion, which  our  ancestors  ate  in  the  land  of  Egypt ;  let  all  those  trho  are 
huusry  eat  thereof;  and  all  trho  are  tiecessitoiis,  come,  and  celebrate  the 
Passover."  Form  of  Prayers  for  the  Festivals  of  Passover  and  Pente- 
cost, according  to  the  custom  of  ilie  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews,  trans- 
lated from  the  Hebrew  by  David  Levi,  p.  20. 


herbs,  dipping  the  bread  into  the  charoseth,  or  sauce.  To 
this  practice  the  evangeli.sts  Matthew  (xxvi.  21 — 25.)  and 
Mark  (xiv.  IH — 21.)  manifestly  allude;  and  into  this  satice 
our  Saviour  is  supposed  to  have  dipped  the  sop  which  he 
gave  to  Judas.  (John  xiii.  20.) 

(7.)  Next  they  ate  the  flesh  of  the  peace-offerings  which 
had  been  sacrificed  on  the  fourteenth  day,  and  then  the  flesh 
of  the  paschal  lamb,  which  was  followed  by  returning  thanks 
to  (iO(l,  and  a  second  washing  of  hands. 

(8.)  A  third  cup  of  wine  was  then  filled,  over  which  they 
blessed  (iod,  or  said  grace  after  meat  (^whence  it  was  called 
the  cup  rf  ble.tsing),  and  drank  it  off".  To  this  circumstance 
St.  Paul  particularly  alludes  when  he  says, —  The  cup  of  bless- 
ing which  we  bless,  is  it  not  the  conitnunion  of  the  blood  of  (Hirist? 
( 1  Cor.  x.  Ifi.)  It  was  also  at  this  part  of  the  paschal  supper 
that  our  Lord  took  the  cup,  saying.  This  is  the  tiKW  testament 
(rathi^r  covenant)  in  mv  blood,  which  is  shed  for  you,  and  for 
many ,  for  the  re.mission  of  sins.  (Luke  xxji.  20.  Matt.  xxvi. 
27.)  The  cup  here  is  put  for  wine ,-  and  covenant  is  put  for 
the  token  or  sign  of  the  covenant.  The  wine,  as  represent- 
itig  Christ's  blood,  answers  to  the  blood  of  the  passover, 
which  typified  it;  and  the  remission  of  sins  here,  answers  to 
the  ])assing  over  there,  and  preserving  from  death.' 

{'.).)  Lastly,  a  fourth  cup  of  wine  was  filled,  called  the  cup 
of  the  hallel :  over  it  they  completed,  either  by  singing  or 
recitation,  the  great  hallel,  or  hymn  of  praise,  consisting  of 
psalms  cxv.  to  cxviii.  inclusive,  with  a  prayer,  and  so  con- 
cluded.' In  like  manner  our  Lord  and  his  disciples,  when 
they  had  sung  a  hymn,  departed  to  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
(Matt.  xxvi.  30.    Mark  xiv.  2G.) 

3.  Jfntk  regard  to  the  mystical  signification  of  the  pass- 
over,  we  know  generally  from  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  v.  7.),  who 
calls  Jesus  Christ  our  passover,  that  this  Jewish  sacrament 
had  a  typical  reference  to  him :  but  concerning  the  points  of 
resemblance  between  the  type  and  anti-type,  learned  men 
are  not  agreed.  Godwin*  has  enumerated  thirteen  points  of 
coincidence;  Dr.  Lightfoot,*>  seventeen,-  and  Y.ec\ch,'  nineteen. 
The  most  judicious  arrangement  of  this  subject  which  we 
have  seen  is  that  of  Herman  Witsius,^  who  has  treated  it 
under  four  general  heads,  viz.  the  person  of  Christ, — the 
sufferings  he  bore  for  us, — the  fruits  of  those  sufferings, — 
and  the  manner  in  which  we  are  made  partakers  of  them. 
As,  however,  many  of  the  analotjies  which  Witsiushas  traced 
between  the  passover  and  the  oeath  of  Christ  are  very  fanci- 
ful, his  arrangement  only  has  been  adopted  in  the  followingr 
observations : — 

(1.)  The  Person  of  Christ  was  typified  by  the  Pas- 
chal Lamb. 

"  The  animal  sacrifice  at  the  passover  was  to  be  a  lamb 
without  blemish.  (Exod.  xii.  5.)  (Christ  is  styled  tlie  I^amb 
of  God,  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world  (John  i. 
29.  36.) ;  a  lamb  without  blemish  and  without  spot.  (1  Pet. 
i.  19.  See  Isa.  liii.  7.)  The  paschal  lamb  was  to  be  one 
of  the  flock.  Christ  the  Word  who  was  made  flesh,  and 
dwelt  among  us  (John  i.  14.),  was  taken  from  the  midst  of 
the  people,  being  in  all  things  made  like  unto  his  brethren." 
(Heb.  ii.  17.)9 

(2.)  The  Sufferings  and  Death  of  Christ  were  also 

TYPIFIED  BY  THE  PaSCHAL  LaMB  IN  VARIOUS  PARTICULARS. 

"  The  sacrifice  of  the  passover  differed  from  other  sacri- 

'  Clarke  on  the  Eucharist,  p.  .39.  On  this  part  of  the  institution  of  the 
Lord's  supper.  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  the  following  admirable  remarks: — "  This 
As-  my  blood  of  the  New  Testament.  Not  only  the  seal  of  the  covenant, 
l)ut  the  sanction  of  the  new  covenant.  The  end  of  the  Mosaic  economy, 
and  the  confirming  of  a  new  one.  The  confirmation  of  the  old  covenant 
was  by  the  blood  of  bulls  and  of  goats  (E.xod.  xxiv.  Heb.  ix),  because 
blood  was  slill  to  be  shed:  the  confirmation  of  the  new  was  by  a  cup  of 
wine;  because  under  the  new  covenant  there  is  no  further  shedding  of 
blood.  As  it  is  here  said  of  tlie  cup,  This  cup  is  the  New  Testament  in 
my  blood;  so  it  might  bo  said  of  the  cup  of  blood.  (Exod.  xxiv.)  That  cup 
was  the  Old  Teslamint  in  the  blood  of  Christ :  there  all  the  articles  of  that 
covenant  being  read  over,  Moses  sprinkled  all  the  people  with  blood,  and 
said,  7Viis  is  the  blood  of  the  covc7>ant  which  God  hath  made  with  you  ;  and 
thus  that  old  covenant,  or  testimony,  was  confirmed.  In  like  manner, 
Christ,  having  published  all  the  articles  of  the  new  covenant,  he  takes  the 
cup  of  wine,  and  gives  them  to  drink,  and  saith,  This  is  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  my  blood,  and  thus  the  new  covenant  was  established." — (Works, 
vol.  ii.  p.  2tJ0.)    Hor.  Ilcb.  on  Matt,  x.xvi.  27. 

*  I.ightfoot's  Temple  Service,  c.  xiii.  (Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  9.59—967.)  See 
also  Mr.  AinsworUi's  learned  and  interesUng  notes  on  Exod.  xii.  in  his 
Annotations  on  the  Pentateuch. 

'  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron,  pp.  114,  115. 

e  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  1008,  1009. 

1  Reach's  Key  to  Scripture  Metaphors,  pp.  979,  980.  2d  edit.  See  also 
M'Ewen  on  the  Types,  pp.  148 — 152. 

8  Witsius,  de  OEconomia  Foederum,  lib.  iv.  c.  9.  §§35 — 58.  or  vol.  ii.  pp. 
275 — 2S2.  of  the  English  translation.  Witsius's  View  of  the  Mystical  Im- 
port of  the  Passover  has  been  abridged  by  Dr.  Jennings.  Jewish  Antiq. 
Dookiii.  ch.  iv.  pp.  472—477. 

9  Chevallier's  Hulsean  Lectures,  on  the  Historical  Types  of  the  Old 
Testament,  p.  285. 


126 


SACRED  TIMES  AND  SEASONS  OBSERVED  BY  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IIL 


fices,  in  beinff  a  public  act  of  the  whole  people  :  it  was  to  be 
slain  by  '  the  whole  asseml)ly  of  the  cong-reiration  of  Israel.' 
(Exod.  xii.  6.)  The  chief  priests,  and  the  rulers,  and  the 
people,  were  consenting  to  the  death  of  Jesus.  (Luke  xxiii. 
13.)  The  blood  of  the  passover  was,  at  its  first  institution, 
to  be  sprinkled  upon  the  lintel,  and  the  two  side-posts  (Exod. 
xii.  7.  22.),  for  the  protection  of  the  people ;  and  in  the  sub- 
sequent celebration  of  the  paschal  sacrifice,  '  the  priests 
sprinkled  the  blood  which  they  received  of  the  hand  of  the 
Levites.'  (2  Chron.  xxx.  16.  xxxv.  11.)  It  is  by  the  sprink- 
ling of  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  our  consciences  are 
purged  (Heb.  ix.  14.),  and  protection  and  salvation  obtained, 
(Heb.  xii.  24.  1  Pet.  i.  2.)  The  passover  was  to  be  eaten 
by  the  Israelites,  in  the  character  of  travellers,  with  their 
loins  girded,  their  shoes  upon  their  feet,  and  their  staif  in 
their  hand.  (Exod.  xii.  11.)  They,  for  whonri  Christ  is  sa- 
crificed, are  compared  to  strangers  and  pilgrims  (1  Pet.  ii. 
11.),  and  are  commanded  to  stand,  having  their  loins  girt 
about  with  truth,  and  having  on  the  breastplate  of  righteous- 
ness, and  their  feet  shod  with  the  preparation  of  the  gospel 
of  peace.  (Eph.vi.  15.)  The  Israelites  were  to  eat  the  pass- 
over  in  haste.  (Exod.  xii.  11.)  We  are  to  give  diligence  to 
make  our  calling  and  election  sure  (2  Pet.  i.  10.)  ;  and  to 
flee  for  refuge  to  lay  hold  upon  the  hope  set  before  us.  (Heb. 
vi.  18.)  The  passover  was  to  be  sacrificed  only  in  the  taber- 
nacle, and  ai'terwards  only  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
(Deut.  xvi.  5,  6.)     Neither  could  it  be  that  Christ  should 

Serish  out  of  Jerusalem.  (Luke  xiii.  33.)  The  month,  and 
ay  of  the  month,  on  which  the  passover  was  to  be  sacrificed 
by  the  Israelites,  is  laid  down  with  accuracy.  And  on  the 
very  day  on  which  the  passover  ought  to  be  slain  (Luke 
xxii.  7.  'Ev  »  EAEi  St/s5-9a/  to  7rxa-^±\  and  on  which  Christ 
celebrated  the  paschal  feast  with  his  disciples,  he  endured 
his  agony  and  bloody  sweat ;  and  he  suffered  death  upon  the 
cross,  on  the  day  when,  at  least  the  scribes  and  Pharisees, 
and  some  of  the  principal  men  among  the  Jews,  did  '  eat  the 
passover.'  (John  xviii.  28.)  Further,  not  a  bone  of  the  pas- 
chal victim  was  to  be  broken,  (Exod.  xii.  4G.) — a  typical  cir- 
cumstance, which  the  evangelist  specially  notices  as  fulfilled 
in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ.  (John  xix.  32 — 36.) 

"  Another  peculiarity  in  the  paschal  offering  is  the  time  of 
the  day  at  which  it  was  appointed  to  be  slain.  '  The  whole 
assembly  of  the  congregation  shall  kill  it  in  the  evening,' 
(Exod.  xii.  6.)  ;  or,  as  the  expression  is  rendered  in  the  mar- 
gin, between  the  two  evenings. — Now  at  the  very  time  ap- 
pointed for  the  sacrifice  of  the  paschal  lamb,  between  the 
two  evenings,  Christ  our  passover  was  sacrificed  for  us.  The 
scene  of  suffering  began  at  the  third  hour  of  the  day.  (Mark 
XV.  25.)  And  at  the  sixth  hour  there  was  darkness  over  all 
the  land  until  the  ninth  hour.  (Matt.xxvii.  45.  Mark  xv.  33. 
Luke  xxiii.  44.)  And  about  the  ninth  hour,  Jesus  cried  with 
a  loud  voice,  and  gave  up  the  ghost.  (Matt,  xxvii.  46.  50. 
Mark  xv.  34.  37.)"' 

(3.)  Several  of  the  Fruits  of  Christ's  Death  were 

REMARKABLY   TYPIFIED    BY  THE    SACRIFICE  OF    THE  PaSCHAL 

Lamb. 

Such  are  "protection  and  salvation  by  his  blood,  of  which 
the  sprinkling  of  the  door-posts  with  the  blood  of  the  lamb, 
and  the  safety  which  the  Israelites  by  that  means  enjoyed 
from  the  plague  that  spread  through  all  the  families  of  the 
Egyptians,  was  a  designed  and  ilhistrious  emblem.  In  allu- 
sion to  this  type,  the  blood  of  Christ  is  called  the  blood  of 
sprinkling.  (1  Pet.  i.  2.  Heb.  xii.  24.)  Immediately  upon  the 
Israelites  eating  the  first  passover,  they  were  delivered  from 
their  Egyptian  slavery,  and  restored  to  full  liberty,  of  which 
they  had  been  deprived  for  many  years ;  and  such  is  the  fruit 
of  the  death  of  Christ,  in  a  spiritual  and  much  nobler  sense, 
to  all  that  believe  in  him  ;  for  he  hath  thereby  ''  obtained 
eternal  redemption  for  us,"  and  "  brought  us  into  the  glorious 
liberty  of  the  children  of  God."  (Heb.  ix.  12.  Rom.  viii. 
31. )2 

(4.)  The  Manner  in  which  we  are  to  be  made  Par- 
takers OF  THE  BLESSED  FrUITS  OF  THE  SACRIFICE  OF  ChRIST, 
WERE  ALSO  REPRESENTED  BY  LIVELY  EmBLEMS  IN  THE  PaSS- 
OVER. 

"  The  paschal  lamb  was  ordered  to  be  slain,  and  his  blood 
was  directed  to  be  sprinkled  upon  the  lintel  and  the  door- 
posts of  each  dwelling  occupied  by  God's  chosen  people ; 
that,  when  the  angel  smote  the  Egyptians,  he  mignt  pass 
over  the  houses  of  the  Israelites  and  leave  them  secure  from 
danger  :  in  a  similar  manner,  by  the  blood  of  Christ  alone, 

»  Chevallier's  Lectures,  pp.  287—289. 

_»  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  iii.  ch.  iv.  pp.  474, 475. 


shed  for  many  for  the  remission  of  sins,  can  the  impending 
wrath  of  heaven  be  averted  from  sinful  man.  Before  the 
blood  of  our  Lord  was  sprinkled  upon  his  church,  we  stood 
(as  it  were)  without,  exposed,  like  the  Egyptians,  to  the 
vengeance  of  a  justly  incensed  God  :  but  now  his  precious 
blood-shedding,  like  the  sprinkled  blood  of  the  paschal  lamb, 
is  our  safety  and  defence,  so  tliat  the  anger  of  Jehovah  may 
pass  over  us.  The  death  of  the  paschal  lamb  was  for  the 
deliverance  of  the  Levitical  church ;  yet,  if  any  negligent  or 
unbelieving  Israelite  availed  not  himself  of  the  proffered 
refuge,  he  perished  undistinguished  with  the  Egyptians  : 
thus  likewise  the  death  of  the  Lamb  of  God  was  for  the  de- 
liverance of  the  Christian  church  ;  but,  if  any  one  claims  to 
be  a  Christian  in  name,  while  yet  he  renounces  the  doc  trine 
of  pardon  and  acceptance  through  the  sprinkled  blood  of  the 
Messiah,  he  then  places  himself  without  the  doors  cf  the 
church,  and  will  be  strictly  judged  according  to  his  works 
by  a  law  which  pronounces  that  man  accursed  who  observes 
not  with  undevicding  punctuality  all  the  commandments 
which  it  has  enjoined.  (Gal.  iii.  10.)  From  the  creation  to 
the  day  of  judgment,  there  have  been,  and  are,  and  can  be, 
no  more  than  two  covenants ;  that  of  works,  and  that  of  grace. 
Under  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  compacts,  every  man 
must  arrange  himself."^ 

Lastly,  the  passover  was  to  be  eaten  with  unleavened 
bread  :  nor  is  it  in  vain  that  leaven  is  so  often  and  so  expressly 
forbidden  to  those  who  are  invited  to  eat  of  the  lamb  ;  for  in 
Scripture  leaven  is  the  symbol  of  corruption,  and  especially 
of  hypocrisy.  Hence,  St.  Paul,  speaking  of  Christ  the  tnie 
paschal  lamb,  exhorts  Christians  to  keep  the  feast,  not  with 
old  leaven,  neither  with  leaven  of  malice  and  wickedness,  but  with 
the  unleavened  hxead  of  sincerity  ind  truth.  (2  Cor.  v.  7,  8.)* 

On  the  second  day  of  the  festival  (the  sixteenth  of  the 
month  Nisan)  was  offered  the  sheaf  of  the  first-fruits  of  the 
barley  harvest,  which  was  usually  ripe  at  this  season,  as  a 
grateful  acknowledgment  of  the  goodness  of  God,  in  bestow- 
ing upon  them  both  the  former  and  the  latter  rains  (Jer.  v. 
24.),  and  also  of  his  right  to  confer  or  withhold  them  as 
he  pleases.  It  was  accompanied  with  a  particular  sacri- 
fice, the  circumstances  of  which  are  detailed  in  Lev.  xxiii. 
9—14, 

V,  The'secondof  the  three  great  Jewish  festivals  was  the 
Feast  of  Pentecost,  which  is  called  by  various  names  in 
the  Sacred  Writings  ;  as  ihe  feast  of  weeks  (Exod.  xxxiv.  22. 
Deut.  xvi.  10.  16.),  because  it  was  celebrated  seven  weeks 
or  a  week  of  weeks  after  the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread ; 
— \\\e  feast  of  harvest  (Exod,  xxiii.  16.),  and  also  the  day  of 
first-fruits  (Num.  xviii.  26.),  because  on  this  day  the  Jews 
offered  thanksgivings  to  God  for  the  bounties  of  harvest,  and 
presented  to  him  the  first-fruits  of  the  wheat  harvest,  in 
bread  baked  of  the  new  corn.  (Exod.  xxiii.  16.  Lev.  xxiii. 
14 — 21.  Num.  xxviii.  2G — 31.)  The  form  of  thanksgiving 
for  this  occasion  is  given  in  Deut.  xxvi.  5 — 10.  On  this  day 
also  was  commemorated  the  giving  of  the  law  on  Mount 
Sinai.  The  Greek  word  Pentecost,  risn-woo-rx  (Acts  ii.  1. 
XX.  16.),  is  derived  from  the  circumstance  of  its  being  kept 
on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  first  daj''  of  unleavened  bread. 
The  number  of  Jews  assembled  at  Jerusalem  on  this  joyous 
occasion  was  very  great.*  This  festival  had  a  typical  refer- 
ence to  the  miraculous  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  the 
apostles  and  first-fruits  of  the  Christian  church  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost  (corresponding  with  our  Whit-Sunday),  on  the 
fiftieth  day  after  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ.'^ 

VI.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  like  the  preceding  festi- 
val, continued  for  a  week.  It  was  instituted  to  commemo- 
rate the  dwelling  of  the  Israelites  in  tents  while  they 
wandered  in  the  desert.  (Lev.  xxiii.  34.  43.)  Hence  it  is 
called  by  St.  John  i\ie  feast  of  tents  {a-nw^TnyiA,  John  vii.  2.)' 
It  is  likewise  termed  the  feast  of  ingatherings.  (Exod.  xxiii. 
16.  xjcxiv,  22.)  Further,  the  design  of  this  feast  was,  to 
return  thanks  to  God  for  the  fruits  of  the  vine,  as  vvell  as  of 
other  trees,  which  were  gathered  about  this  time,  and  also  to 
implore  his  blessing  upon  those  of  the  ensuing  year.  The 
following  were  the  principal  ceremonies  observed  in  the  Qele- 
bration  of  this  feast : — 

3  Fabcr's  Horte  MosaicEe,  vol.  ii.  p.  273. 

•»  Witsiuson  the  Covenants,  book  vi.  cli.  ix.  §54.  vol.  ii.  p.  280. 

6  Acts  ii.  9—11.    Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  3.  §  1. 

«  Schulzii  Archajol.  Hebr.  pp.  321 — 323.  Lamy's  Apparatus  Biblicus, 
vol.  i.  p.  179.  Lighlfoot's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  960.  Michaelis's  Commentaries, 
vol.  iii.  p.  184.  Relanai^Antiq.  Hebi'.  p.  472.  Alber,  Inst.  Herm.  Vet.  test, 
torn.  i.  pp.  172,  173. 

I  A  similar  appellation  is  given  by  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xi.  c.  5.  §5. 
lib.  viii.  c.  4.  §  I. 


Chap.  IV.] 


THE  FEAST  OF  TRUMPETS.— DAY  OF  ATONEMENT. 


127 


1.  Durintr  tlie  whole  of  this  solemnity  tlu^y  were  ohlifjed 
to  dwell  in  tents,  which  anciently  were  pitched  on  the  flat 
terrace-like  roofs  of  their  houses.  (Neh.  viii.  IG.) 

2.  l}esides  the  ordinary  daily  sacrifices,  there  were  several 
extraordinary  ones  offered  on  this  occasion,  which  are  de- 
tailed in  Num.  xxix. 

.'J.  DnriiKr  the  continuance  of  this  feast,  they  carried  in 
their  han(l.sl)nuicli(s  of  |);dui  treses,  olives,  citrons,  myrtles, 
and  willows  (liOV.  xxiii.  10.  Neh.  viii.  15.  2  Mace.  x.  7.)  ;' 
sinfrinir  llumnna,  save  I  beseech  Ihct  (Psal.  cxviii.  iJ.'j.),  in 
which  words  they  prayed  for  the  coniinjr  of  the  Messiah. 
These  (tranches  also  here  the  name  of  Hosanna,  as  well  as 
all  the  days  of  the  feast.  In  the  same  manner  was  .lesus 
Christ  conducted  into  .lerusalem  hy  the  helievinjr  .lews,  who, 
Consid(!riu<T  him  to  he  the  jtromised  Messiah,  expn>ssed  their 
boundlt^ss  joy  at  lindinir  in  him  the  accomplishment  of  those 
petitions,  which  they  had  so  o/len  offered  to  God  for  his 
comiiijT,  at  the  f(!ast  of  tabernacles.  (Matt.  xxi.  8,  I>.)  Dur- 
intr  its  continuance,  they  walked  in  procession  round  tlu; 
altar  with  th(;  above-mentioned  branches  in  their  hands,  amid 
the  sound  of  trumpets,  sinj^inir  llosanna;  and  on  the  hist  or 
seviMith  day  of  the  ftmsl,  they  compassed  the  altar  seven 
times.  This  was  called  the  Great  Hosanna.  To  this  last 
ceremonv  St.  John  probably  alludes  in  Rev.  vii.  9,  10.,  where 
he  describes  the  saints  as  standin<r  before  the  throne,  "  clot/icd 
with  white  robcf!,  unci  palins  in  their  hands ,-  and  sai/in<r,  Sal- 
vulion  to  our  Gad  which  sitteth  upon  the  throne,  and  unto  the 
Lamb." 

4.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  ceremonies  performed  at 
tliis  feast  in  the  later  period  of  the  Jewish  polity,  was  the 
libation  or  pourin<r  out  of  water,  drawn  from  the  fountain  or 
pool  of  Siloam,  upon  the  altar.  As,  according  to  the  Jews 
themselves,^  this  water  was  an  emblem  of  the  Holy  SpmiT, 
Jesus  (Jhrist  aj)plied  the  ceremony  and  the  intention  of  it  to 
himself  when  he  "cried,  saying,  If  any  man  thirst,  let  him 
come  unto  me  and  drink."  (John  vii.  37.  39.) 

On  the  hint  daij,  that  great  day  of  the  feast  (John  vii.  37.), 
the  Jews  fetched  water  from  that  fountain  in  a  golden  pitcher, 
which  they  brought  through  the  water-gate  into  the  temple, 
with  great  rejoicing.  The  officiating  priest  poured  it,  mixed 
with  wine,  upon  the  morning  sacrifice,  as  it  lay  on  the  altar. 
The  Jews  seem  to  have  adopted  this  custom  (for  it  is  not 
ordained  in  the  law  of  Moses)  as  an  emblem  of  future  bless- 
ings, in  allusion  to  this  passage  of  Isaiah  (xii.  3.),  With 
joy  shall  ye  draw  water  out  of  the  wells  of  salvation :  expres- 
sions that  can  hardly  be  understood  of  any  benefits  afforded 
by  the  Mosaic  dispensation.  Water  was  otTered  to  God  this 
day,  partly  in  refi'rence  to  the  water  which  flowed  from  the 
rock  in  the  wilderness  (1  Cor,  x.  4.),  but  chiefly  to  solicit 
the  blessing  of  rain  on  the  approaching  seed-time.^ 

No  festival  was  celebrated  with  greater  rejoicing  than  this, 
■which  Josephus  calls  "  a  most  holy  and  most  eminent  feast."' 
,  Dancing,  music,  and  feasting  were  tiie  accompaniments  of 
this  festival,  together  with  such  brilliant  illuminations  as 
lighted  the  whole  city  of  Jerusalem.  These  rejoicings  are 
supposed  to  have  taken  place  in  the  court  of  the  women,  in 
order  that  they  might  be  partakers  of  the  general  hilarity.^ 
In  every  siiventh  year  the  law  of  Moses  was  also  read  in 
])ut)lic,  in  the  presence  of  all  the  people.  (Deut.  xxxi.  10 — 
1-J.    Neh.  viii.  18.) 

VII.  'i'o  the  three  grand  annual  festivals  above  described, 
Moses  added  two  others,  which  were  celebrated  with  great 
solemnity,  though  the  presence  of  every  male  Israelite  was  not 
absolutely  required. 

1 .  The  first  of  these  was  the  Feast  of  Trumpets,  and  was 
held  on  the  first  and  second  days  of  the  month  Tisri,  which 
was  the  commencement  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Hebrews : 
this  feast  derived  its  name  from  the  blowing  of  trumpets  in 

>  Lamy  adds,  that  tlie  Jews  tied  these  branches  witli  gold  and  silver 
slririjis,  or  with  ribands,  ami  did  not  lay  them  aside  the  whole  day  ;  carry- 
ing itiein  into  their  syna^iosuef!,  and  l<ppping  them  by  tlieui  while  tliey  were 
at  their  prayers.     App.  Uib.  vol.  i.  p.  183. 

»  The  sense  of  the  .lews  is  in  this  matter  plainly  shown  by  the  following 
passage  of  the  Jerusalem  Talmud: — "Why  is  it  called  the  place  or  house 
of  d  rawing  1  because  from  thence  they  draw  the  Holy  Spirit :  as  it  is  writ- 
ten, And  ye  shall  draw  water  with  joy  from  the  wells  of  Salvation."  Wolfii 
Cura'  I'hilol.  in  N.  T.  on  John  vii.  37.  39.     Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  117. 

'  Up.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  117.  Doyly's  and  Maut's  Bible,  on  John 
vii.  37. 

«  Ant.  .hid.  lib.  viii.  c.  4.  §1.  The  greatness  of  these  rejoicings,  and 
their  happmini!  at  the  time  of  vintage,  led  Tacitus  erroneously  to  suppose 
that  the  Jews  were  accustomed  to  sacrifice  to  Bacchus-  Tacit.  Hist.  Ub. 
V.  c.  5.  (torn.  iii.  p  2C3.  edit.  Bipont.) 

>  Scliulzii  An  luBol.  Heb.  pp.  323—326.  Relandi  Antiq.  Heb.  p.  477. 
Ilcenn  Aniui.  Ilcb.  pp.  1,34,  13o.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  9f>l.  vol.  ii. 
pp.t>4I-(i43.  I.eusden's  Philologus  Hebra'o-Mixtus,  p.  295.  Beaiisobre's 
Inlrod.  to  the  New  Test.  (Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  234,225.)  Uar- 
mer  s  Observations,  vol.  i.  p.  13. 


the  temple  with  more  than  usual  solemnity.  (Num.  xxix.  1. 
Lev.  xxiii.  24.)  On  this  fi  stival  they  abstained  from  all 
labour  (Lev.  xxiii.  25.),  and  oflered  particular  sacrifices  to 
God,  which  are  described  in  Num.  xxix.  1 — 6. 

2.  The  other  fi.ast  alluded  to  was  the  Fast  or  Feast  of 
Expiation,  or  Day  ok  At(jnement  ;  which  day  the  Jews 
observed  as  a  most  strict  fast,  abstaining  from  all  servile 
work,  taking  no  food,  and  afflicting  their  souls.  (Lev.  xxiii.  27 
— 30.)  Of  all  the  sacrifices  ordained  by  the  Mosaic  law,  the 
sacrifice  of  the  atonement  was  the  most  solemn  and  import- 
ant :  it  was  offered  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  month  Tisri,  by 
the  high-jtriest  alone,  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  nation. 

"On  this  day  only,  in  tlie  courseof  the  year,  was  the  high- 
priest  permitted  to  enter  the  sanctuary ,8  and  not  even  then 
without  due  preparation,  under  pain  of  death  ;  all  others 
being  excluded  from  the  tabernacle  during  the  whole  cere- 
mony. (Lev.  xvi.  2.  17.)  Previously  to  his  entrance  he  was 
to  wash  himself  in  water,  and  to  put  on  the  holy  linen  gar- 
ments, with  the  mitre  ;  and  to  bring  a  young  bullock  into  the 
outer  sanctuary,  and  present  it  before  the  Lord  to  be  a  sin- 
ofl'ering  for  himself  and  his  household,  including  the  priesta 
and  Levites,  and  a  ram  also  for  a  burnt-oOering.  (xvi.  3,  4.) 
Next,  he  was  to  take  two  young  goats,  and  present  them 
btifore  the  Lord,  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  to  be  a  sin- 
offering  for  the  whole  congregation  of  Israel,  and  a  ram  also 
for  a  burnt-offering,  (xvi.  5.)  He  was  then  to  cast  lots  upon 
the  two  goats,  which  of  tiietn  should  be  sacrificed  as  a  sin- 
offering  to  the  Lord-  and  which  should  be  let  go  for  a  scape- 
goat into  the  wilderness.  After  this,  he  was  first  to 
sacrifice  the  bullock  as  a  sin-offering  for  himself  and  his 
household,  and  to  take  some  of  the  blood  into  the  inner 
sanctuary, bearing  in  his  hand  accuser  with  incense  burning, 
kindled  at  the  sacred  fire  on  the  altar,  and  to  sprinkle  the  blood 
with  his  finger  upon  the  mercy-seat,  and  before  it,  seven 
times,  to  purify  it  from  the  pollution  it  might  be  supposed  to 
have  contracted  from  his  sins  and  transgressions  during  the 
preceding  year.  He  was  then  to  sacrifice  the  allotted  goat 
for  the  sins  of  the  whole  nation,  and  to  enter  the  inner  sanc- 
tuary a  second  time,  and  to  sprinkle  it  with  blood  as  before, 
to  purify  it  from  the  pollution  of  the  people's  sins  and  trans- 
gressions of  the  foregoing  year.  After  which,  he  was  to 
purify,  in  like  manner,  the  taoernacle  and  the  altar.  He  was 
next  to  bring  the  live  goat,  and  lay  both  his  hands  upon  its 
head,  and  confess  over  him  all  the  iniquities,  transgressions, 
and  sins  of  the  children  of  Israel,  putting  them  upon  the  head 
of  the  goat,  and  then  to  send  him  away  by  tiie  hand  of  a  fit 
person  into  the  wilderness,  to  bear  away  upon  him  all  their 
iniquities  to  a  land  of  separation,  where  they  should  be 
remembered  no  more.  After  this  atonement  he  was  to  put 
off  his  linen  garments,  and  leave  them  in  the  sanctuary,  and 
to  wash  himself  again  in  water,  and  put  on  his  usual  gar- 
ments ;  and  then  to  offer  burnt-offerings  for  himself  and  for 
the  people,  at  the  evening  sacrifice.  (Lev.  xvi.  3 — 28.)  The 
whole  of  this  process  seems  to  be  typical  or  prefigurative  of 
the  grand  atonement  to  be  made  for  the  sins  of  the  whole 
world  by  Jesus  Christ,  the  high-priest  of  our  profess' on  (Heb. 
iii.  1.),  and  a  remarkable  analogy  thereto  may  be  traced  in 
the  course  of  our  I-ord's  ministry.  He  began  it  with  per- 
sonal purification  at  his  ba|)tism,  to  fulfil  all  legal  righteous- 
ness. (iNlatt.  iii.  13 — 15.)  Immediately  after  his  baptism,  he 
was  led, by  the  impulse  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  into  the  wilder- 
ness, as  the  true  scape-goat,  who  Ijore  away  our  infirmities, 
and  airried  off  our  diseases.  (Isa.  liii.  4 — G.  Matt.  viii.  17.) 
Immediately  before  his  crucifixion,  he  was  afflicted,  and  his  soul 
was  exceeding  sorrowful  unto  death,  when  he  was  to  be  made 
a  sin-offering  like  the  allotted  goat  (Psal.  xl.  12.  Isa.  liii.  7. 
Matt.  xxvi.  38.  2  Cor.  v.  21.  Heb.  i.  3.) ;  and  his  sweat,  as 
great  drops  of  lluod,  falling  to  the  ground,  corresponded  to  the 
sprinkling  of  the  mercy-seat  (Luke  xxii.  44.)  ;  and  when,  to 
prepare  for  the  sacrifice  of  himself,  he  consecrated  himself  in 
prayer  to  God  (John  xvii.  1 — 5.  Matt.  xxvi.  39 — IG.)  ;  and 
then  praj'ed  for  his  household,  his  apostles,  and  disciples 
(John  xvii.  G — 9.\  and  for  all  future  believers  on  him  by 
their  preaching.  (.Tohn  xvii.  20 — 2G.)  He  put  off  his  gar- 
ments at  his  crucifixion,  when  he  became  the  sin-offering 
(Psal.  xxii.  18.  John  xix.  23,  24.)  ;  and,  as  ourspiritual  high- 
priest,  entered  once  for  all  into  the  most  holy  place,  heaven, 
to  make  intercession  with  God  for  all  his  faithful  followers. 
(Heb.  vii.  24 — 28.  ix.  7 — 15.)  IVho  died  for  our  sins,  and 
rose  again  fur  our  justification.''''^  (Rom.  iv.  25.) 

6  When  ihe  tabernacle  was  to  be  removed,  and  set  up  again,  the  inner 
sanctuary  might  sat^ly  he  entered,  but  not  at  oilier  times. 

■>  Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.274.  276.  See  also  Jennings's 
Jewish  Antiquities,  book  iii.  cli.  vii.  Alber,  Inst.  Herui.  Vet.  Test.  torn.  i. 
pp.  171—176.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  901, 902.  Relandi,  Antiq.  Uebr. 


128 


SACRED  TIMES  AND  SEASONS  OBSERVED  BY  THE  JEWS.         [Part  III.  Chap.  IV. 


VIII.  Besides  the  annual  festivals  above  described,  the 
Jews  in  later  times  introduced  several  fast  and  feast  days  in 
addition  to  those  instituted  by  Moses.  The  two  principal 
festivals  of  this  kind  were  the  Feast  of  Purim,  and  that  of  the 
Dedication  of  the  Second  Temple. 

1.  The  Feast  of  Purim,  or  oi  Lots,  as  the  word  signifies, 
is  celebrated  on  the  fourteenth  aud  fifteenth  days  of  the  month 
of  Adar  (or  of  Ve-Adar  if  it  be  an  intercalary  yeai-),  in  com- 
memoration of  the  providential  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from 
the  cruel  machinations  of  Haman,who  had  procured  an  edict 
from  Artaxerxes  to  extirpate  them.  (Esth.  iii. — ix.)  On  tliis 
occasion  the  entire  book  of  Esther  is  read  in  the  synagogues 
of  the  modern  Jews,  not  out  of  a  printed  copy,  but  from  a  roll 
which  o-enerally  contains  this  book  alone.  All  Jews,  of  both 
sexes,  and  of  every  age,  who  are  able  to  attend,  are  required 
to  come  to  this  feast  and  to  join  in  the  reading,  for  the  better 
preservation  of  the  memory  of  this  important  iact.  When  the 
roll  is  unfolded,  the  chazanor  reader  says,  "  Blessed  be  God, 
the  King  of  the  world,  who  hath  sanctified  us  by  his  precepts, 
and  confmanded  us  to  read  the  Megillah !  Blessed  be  God, 
who  in  those  days  worked  miracles  for  our  fathers !"  As 
often  as  the  name  of  Haman  occurs,  the  whole  congregation 
clap  their  hands,  stamp  with  their  feet,  and  exclaim,  "  Let 
his  name  be  blotted  out !  May  the  memory  of  the  wicked 
rot !"  The  children  at  the  same  time  hiss,  and  strike  loudly 
on  the  forms  with  little  wooden  hammers  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. When  the  reader  comes  to  the  seventh,  eighth,  and 
ninth  chapters,  where  the  names  of  Haman's  ten  sons  occur, 
he  pronounces  them  with  great  rapidity,  and  in  one  breath,  to 
intimate  that  they  were  all  hanged,  and  expired  in  the  same 
moment.  In  most  manuscripts  and  editions  of  the  book  of 
Esther,  the  ten  names  contained  in  the  chapters  just  men- 
tioned are  written  under  each  other  in  ten  lines,  no  other  word 
being  connected  with  them,  in  order  to  exhibit  the  manner  in 
which  they  were  hanged,  viz.  on  a  pole  fifty  cubits,  that  is, 
seventy-five  feet  high ;  each  of  the  brothers  being  immedi- 
ately suspended,  the  one  under  the  other,  in  one  perpendicular 
line. 

When  the  chazan  has  finished  the  reading,  the  whole  con- 
gregation exclaim — "  Cursed  be  Haman! — Blessed  be  Mor- 
decai! — Cursed  be  Zeresh! — Blessed  be  Esther! — Cursed 
be  all  idolaters ! — Blessed  be  all  the  Israelites  ! — And  blessed 
likewise  be  Harbonah,  at  whose  instance  Haman  was  hang- 
ed !"  In  order  to  heighten  the  general  joy  on  this  festival, 
Buxtorf  relates  that  some  Jews  wore  party-coloured  garments, 
and  young  foxes'  tails  in  their  hats,  and  ran  about  the  syna- 
gogue exciting  the  congregation  to  laughter!  Further,  to 
excite  and  increase  mirlh,  the  men  and  women  exchange 
apparel ;  this,  though  positively  forbidden  by  the  law,  they 
consider  innocent,  and  allowable  on  this  festive  occasion, 
which  is  a  season  of  peculiar  gayety.  Alms  are  given  to  the 
poor;  relations  and  friends  send  presents  to  each  other;  and 
all  furnish  their  tables  with  every  luxury  they  can  command. 
These  two  days  are  the  bacchanalia  of  the  modern  Jews ; 
who  think  it  no  sin  to  indulge  themselves  largely  in  their 
cups,  some  of  them  indeed  to  intoxication,  in  memory  of 
Esther's  banquet  of  wine;  at  which  she  succeeded  in  defeat- 
ing the  sanguinary  designs  of  Haman.' 

2.  The  Feast  of  Dedication  (mentioned  in  John  x.  22.) 
was  instituted  by  Judas  Maccabajus,  in  imitation  of  those  by 
Solomon  and  Ezra,  as  a  grateful  memorial  of  the  cleansing 
of  the  second  temple  and  altar,  after  they  had  been  profaned 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  (1  Mace.  iv.  52 — 59.)  It  com- 
menced on  the  twenty-fifth  of  the  month  Cisleu,  correspond- 
ing with  our  December,  and  lasted  eight  days.  This  festival 
was  also  called  the  feast  of  lights,  because  the  Jews  illumi- 
nated their  houses  in  testimony  of  their  joy  and  gladness  on 
this  very  important  occasion.^  The  whole  of  this  feast  was 
spent  in  singing  hymns,  offering  sacrifices,  and  every  kind 
of  diversion  :•*  it  was  celebrated  with  rnuch  solemnity  in  the 
time  of  Josephus. 

Besides  these  two  festivals,  we  find  several  others  inci- 
dentally mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  being  observed 

p.  491.  et  seq.  Schulzii  Arcliseol.  Hebr.  pp.  323— .334.  The  typical  refer- 
ence of  the  sacrifice  offered  on  this  day  is  discussed  at  considerable 
lenglli  by  Witsius,  de  CEcon.  Feed.  lib.  iv.  c.  6.  or  vol.  ii.  pp.  213 — 231.  of 
the  English  translation.  On  the  manner  in  which  this  fact  is  observed  by 
the  iiiodei-n  Jews,  see  Allen's  Modern  Judaism,  pp.  .391 — 399. 

I  Buxtorf  de  Synagog.  .Tud.  cap.  29.  Ilicn.  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  336—338. 
Schulzii  Archseol.  Hebr.  pp.  3.34, 335.  Allen's  Modern  Judaism,  p.  405.  Dr. 
Clarke's  Commentary  on  Esther. 

»  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xii.  c.  7.  §§  6,  7. 

=  Schulzii  Archaeol.  Hebr.  pp.  335,  336.  Lamy,  vol.  i.  p.  1P6.  Liffhtfoot's 
Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  246.  979.  vol.  ii.  pp.  576.  1033.  1039.  Rclandi  Antiq.  Heb. 
p.  534. 


by  the  Jews  in  later  ages,  tliough  not  appointed  by  Moses. 
.Sucli  are  the  fast  of  the  fourth  month,  on  account  of  the  tak- 
ing of  .Terusalem  by  the  (.haldaeans  (.ler.  Iii.  6,  7.);  the  fast 
of  the  fifth  month,  on  account  of  their  burning  the  temple  and 
city  (2  Kings  xxv.  8.) ;  and  that  of  the  seventh  month,  on 
account  of  the  murder  of  Gedaiiah  (2  Kings  xxv.  25.) ;  and 
the  fast  of  the  tenth  month,  when  the  Babylonian  army  com- 
menced the  siewe  of  Jerusalem.  (Jer.  Hi.  4.)  All  these  fasts 
are  enumerated  together  in  Zech.  viii.  19.;  and  to  them  we 
may,  perhaps,  add  the  xylaphoria,  or  feast  of  wood-offering, 
when  the  people  brought  and  offered  large  quantities  of  wood 
for  the  use  of  the  altar :  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  celebrated 
in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (x.  34.  xiii.  31.),  in  whose  praises, 
on  this  occasion,  the  Jews  largely  expatiated,  and  related 
several  wonderful  tales  concerning  him  and  the  fire  lighted 
upon  the  altar.  (2  Mace.  i.  18 — 22.)  Nine  days  were  appro- 
priated to  this  festival,  viz.  The  first  of  Nisan,  the  20th  of 
Tammuz,  the  5th,  7th,  10th,  15th,  and  20th  of  Ab,  the  20th 
of  Elul,  and  the  1st  of  Tebeth." 

IX.  The  preceding  are  the  chief  annual  festivals  noticed 
in  the  Sacred  Writings,  that  are  particularly  deserving  of 
attention :  the  Jews  have  various  others  of  more  modern  in- 
stitution, which  are  here  designedly  omitted.  We  therefore 
proceed  to  notice  those  extraordinary  festivals  which  were 
celebrated  only  after  the  recurrence  of  a  certain  number  of 
years. 

1.  The  first  of  these  was  the  Sabbatical  Year.  For,  as 
the  seventh  day  of  the  week  was  consecrated  as  a  day  of 
rest  to  man  and  beast,  so  this  gave  rest  to  the  land  ;  which, 
during  its  continuance,  was  to  lie  fallow,  and  the  "  Sabbath 
of  the  land,"  or  its  spontaneous  produce,  was  dedicated  to 
charitable  uses,  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  servants  of  the  family, 
by  the  way  faring  stranger,  and  by  the  cattle.  (Lev.  xxv.  1 
— 7.  Exod.  xxiii.  11.)  This  was  also  the  year  of  release 
from  personal  slavery  (Exod.  xxi.  2.),  as  well  as  of  the 
remission  of  debts.  (Deut.  xv.  1,2.)  Beausobre  is  of  opinion 
that  the  frequent  mention  made  in  the  New  Testament  of  the 
remission  of  sins  is  to  be  understood  as  an  allusion  to  the 
sabbatical  year.  In  order  to  guard  against  famine  on  this  and 
the  ensuing  year,  God  was  graciously  pleased  to  promise  a 
triple  produce  of  the  lands  upon  the  sixth  year,  sufficient  to 
supply  the'  inhabitants  till  the  fruits  or  harvest  sown  in  tiie 
eighth  year  were  ripe.  (Lev.  xxv.  2 — 22.)  This  was  a  sin- 
gular institution,  peculiar  to  a  theocracy.  And  the  breach 
of  it  was  among  the  national  sins  that  occasioned  the  captivity, 
that  the  land  niigJd  tvjoy  her  Sabbaths,  of  which  she  had  been 
defrauded  by  the  rebellion  of  the  inhabitants.*  (Lev.  xxvi.  34. 
2  Chron.  xxxvi.  21.) 

2.  The  Jubilee  was  a  more  solemn  sabbatical  year,  held 
every  seventh  sabbatical  year,  that  is,  at  the  end  of  every 
forty-nine  years,  or  the  fiftieth  current  year.  (Lev.  xxv.  8 — 
10.)  Concerning  the  etymology  of  the  Hebrew  word  jobel 
(whence  our  jubilee  is  derived)  learned  men  are  by  no  means 
agreed;  the  most  probable  of  these  conflicting  opinions  is 
that  of  Calmet,  who  deduces  it  from  the  Hebrew  verb  hobil, 
to  recall,  or  bring  back  ;  because  estates,  &c.  that  had  been 
alienated  were  then  brought  back  to  their  original  owners. 
Such  appears  to  have  been  the  meaning  of  the  word,  as  un- 
derstood by  the  Septuagint  translators,  who  render  the  He- 
brew word  jobel  hy  u(^i<n;,  remission,  and  by  Josephus,  who 
says  that  it  signified  liberty.^ 

This  festival  commenced  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  month 
Tisri,  in  the  evening  of  the  day  of  atonement  (Lev.  xxv. 
9.)  :  a  time.  Bishop  Patrick  remarks,  peculiarly  well  chosen, 
as  the  Jews  would  be  better  disposed  to  forgive  their  brethren 
their  debts  when  they  had  been  imploring  pardon  of  God  for 
their  own  transgressions.  It  was  proclaimed  by  the  sound 
of  trumpet  throughout  the  whole  land,  on  the  great  day  of 
atonement.  All  debts  were  to  be  cancelled ;  all  slaves  or 
captives  were  to  be  released.  Even  those  who  had  volunta- 
rily relinquished  their  freedom  at  the  end  of  their  six  years' 
service,  and  whose  ears  had  been  bored  in  token  of  their 
perpetual  servitude,  were  to  be  liberated  at  the  jubilee :  for 
then  they  were  to  proclaim  liberty  throughout  all  the  land,  unto 
all  the  inhabitants  thereof.  (Lev.  xxv.  10.)  Further,  in  this 
year  all  estates  that  had  been  sold,  reverted  to  their  original 
proprietors,  or  to  the  families  to  which  they  had  originally 

«  Schulzii  Archffiol.  Hebr.  p.  316.  Pictct.  Antiq.  Judaiques,  p.  37. 
(Theologie  Chrctienne,  torn,  iii.) 

5  Schulzii  Archa;ol.  Hebr.  pp.  3.37 — 339.    Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol. 
i.  pp.  387.  e^se/?.     Leusden,  Fhilol.  Hebr.  Mixt.  p.  307.    Roland's  Antiq. 
Hebr.  p.  524.    Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  278.    Beausobre  and  • 
L'Enfant,  in  Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.   p.   124-      Jennings's  Jewish 
Antiq.  book  iii.  ch.  9. 

8  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  12.  §  3. 


Chap.  V.  Sect.  I.] 


OF  VOWS. 


129 


belontred  this  provision  was  macJe,  tliat  no  family  should 
he  totally  ruineci,  and  doomed  to  perpouial  poverty  :  for  the 
family  estate  could  not  he  alienated  for  a  lonjrer  period  than 
fifiy  years.  The  value  and  purchase-money  f)f  estates  there- 
fore diminished  in  j)ro)>ortion  to  the  near  approach  of  the 
jiiliilee.  (Lev.  xxv.  15.)  From  this  privilej>e,  however, 
houses  in  walled  towns  were  excepted  :  these;  were  to  be 
redeemed  within  a  year,  otherwise  they  helonjred  to  the  pur- 
chaser, notwithstandinnr  the  jubilee,  (ver.  30.)  Durinjr  this 
year,  as  well  as  in  the  sabbatical  year,  the  yround  also  iiad 
its  rest,  and  was  not  cultivated.' 

'I'lie  law  concerninfr  the  sabbatical  year,  and  especially 
the  year  of  jubilee,  allbrds  a  decisive  proof  of  the  divine 
leiration  of  .\loses.  No  lejrislator,  unless  he  was  conscious 
that  he  was  divinely  inspired,  would  have  committed  himself 
by  enactintr  such  a  law  :  nor  can  any  thinjr  like  it  b<>  found 
anmnir  the  systems  of  jurisprudence  of  any  other  nations, 
whether  ancii'Ut  or  modern.  "  How  incredible  is  it  that  any 
leirislator  would  have  ventured  to  j)r<ipose  such  a  law  as 
this,  except  in  consecpience  of  the  fullest  conviction  on  both 
sides,  that  a  peculiar  providence  would  constantly  facilitate 
its  execution.  When  this  law,  therefore,  vvvis  j)roposed  and 
received,  such  a  conviction  must  have  existed  in  both  the 
.lewish  lejrislator  and  tin;  Jewish  people.  Since,  then, 
ni)tliin<r  could  have  produced  this  conviction,  but  the  expe- 
rience or  the  belief  of  some  such  miraculous  interposition  as 
the  history  of  the  Pentateuch  details,  the  very  existence  of 
this  law  is  a  standinor  monument  that,  when  it  was  given, 
the  Mosaic  miracles  were  fully  believed.  Now  this  law  was 
coeval  with  the  witnesses  themselves.  If,  then,  the  facts 
were  so  plain  and  public,  that  those  who  witnessed  them 
could  not  be  mistaken  as  to  their  existence  or  miraculous 
nature,  the  reality  of  the  Mosaic  miracles  is  clear  and  unde- 
niable."2 

The  reason  and  desio^n  of  the  law  of  the  jubilee  was  partly 
political  and  partly  typical.  "It  was  pulitical,  to  prevent 
the  too  great  oppression  of  the  poor  as  well  as  their  liability 
to  perjKHual  slavery.  By  this  means  the  rich  were  prevented 
from  accumulating  lands  upon  lands,  and  a  kind  of  equality 
was  preserved  through  all  the  families  of  Israel.  Never  was 
there  any  people  so  elTectually  secure  of  their  liberty  and 
property  as  the  Israelites  were :  God  not  only  engaging  so 
to  protect  those  invaluable  blessings  by  his  providence,  that 
they  should  not  be  taken  away  from  theln  by  others;   but 


providing,  in  a  particular  manner  by  this  law,  that  they 
should  not  be  thrown  away  through  their  own  folly  ;  since 
the  property,  which  every  man  or  family  had  in  their  divi- 
dend of  the  land  of  Canaan,  could  not  he  sold  or  any  way 
alienated  for  above  half  a  century.  ]{y  this  means,  also,  the 
distinction  of  tribes  was  preserved,  in  respect  both  to  theii 
families  and  possessions  ;  for  this  law  rendered  it  necessary 
for  them  to  keep  genealogies  of  their  families,  that  they 
might  be  able  when  there  was  occasion,  on  the  jubilee  year, 
to  prove  their  right  to  the  inheritance  of  their  ancestors.  By 
this  means  it  was  C(>rtainly  known  froiTi  what  tribe  and 
family  the  Messiah  spruntr.  Upon  which  i)r.  AUix  observes, 
that  (jod  (lid  not  suffer  them  to  continue  in  captivity  out  of 
their  own  land  for  the  s])ace  of  two  jubilees,  lest  by  that 
means  their  genealogies  should  be  lost  or  confounded.  A 
furlhfT  civil  use  of  the  jubilee  might  be  for  the  easier  com- 
putation of  time.  For,  as  the  Greeks  ompnted  by  olym- 
piads, the  {{omans  by  lustra,  and  we  by  centuries,  the  Jews 
pr'ibably  reckoned  by  jubilees;  and  it  might  be  one  design 
of  this  institution  to  mark  out  these  large  portions  of  time 
for  the  readier  computation  of  successive  ages. 

"  There  was  also  a  ti/plcul  design  and  use  of  the  jubilee, 
which  is  pointed  out  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  when  he  says,  in 
reference  to  the  Messiah,  '  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  God  is 
upon  me,  because  the  Lord  hath  anointed  me  to  preach  good 
tidings  unto  the  meek  :  he  hath  sent  me  to  bind  up  the 
broken-hearted,  to  proclaim  liberty  to  the  captives,  and  the 
opening  of  the  prison  to  them  that  are  bound,  to  proclaim 
the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord.'  Tlsa.  Ixi.  1,  2.)  Where 
'  the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord,'  when  '  liberty  was  pro- 
claimed to  the  captives,'  and  'the  opening  of  the  prison  to 
them  that  were  bound,'  evidently  refers  to  the  jubilee;  but, 
in  the  prophetic  sense,  means  the  Gospel  state  and  dispensa- 
tion, which  proclaims  spiritual  liberty  from  the  bondage  of 
sin  and  Satan,  and  the  liberty  of  returning  to  our  own  pos- 
session, even  the  heaveidy  inheritance,  to  which,  having 
incurred  a  forfeiture  by  sin,  we  had  lost  all  right  and  claim."^ 
That  our  Lord  began  his  public  ministry  on  a  jidiilee.  Dr. 
Hales  thinks,  is  evident  from  his  declaration  :  "  'I'he  Lord 
hath  anointed  me  (as  the  Christ)  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
the  poor:  he  hath  sent  me  to  heal  the  broken-hearted,  to 
proclaim  deliverance  to  the  captives,  and  restoration  of  sight 
to  the  blind  ;  to  set  at  liberty  the  bruised  ;  to  proclaim  the 
acceptable  year  of  the  Lord."-'  (Luke  iv.  18,  19.) 


CHAPTER  V. 


SACRED  OBLIGATIONS  AND  DUTIES. 


SECTION  I. 


I.  J\'ature  of  Vows. — Unio  far  acceptable  to  God. — II.  Requisites  essential  to  the  Validity  of  a  Voiu. — III.  Different  Sorts  of 
Vows: — I.   The  Cherim,  or  Irremissible  Vow. — 2.   Other  Vows,  that  might  be  redeemed, — Of  the  jVazareate. 


I.  A  vow  is  a  religious  engagement  or  promise  voluntarily 
undertaken  by  a  person  towards  Almighty  (iod.  "  I  nless 
the  Deity  has  expressly  declared  his  acceptance  of  human 
vows,  it  can  at  best  be  but  a  very  doubtful  point,  whether  they 
are  acceptable  in  his  sight;  and  if  they  are  not  so,  we  cannot 
deduce  from  them  the  shadow  of  an  obligation;  for  it  is  not 
from  a  mere  offer  alone,  but  from  an  offer  of  one  party,  and 
its  acceptance  by  another,  that  the  obligation  to  fulfil  an  en- 

Eagement  arises.  The  divine  acceptance  of  vows,  we  can 
y  no  means  take  for  granted  ;  considering  that  from  our 
vows  God  can  derive  no  benefit,  and  that,  in  generM,  they 
are  of  just  as  little  use  to  man."^     In  Matt.  xv.  4 — G.  and 

1  Leusden,  Philol.  HebraeoMixt.  p.  309.  Michaelis's  Commentaries, 
vol.  i.  pi>.  376—3^6. 

»  Dr.  Graves's  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch,  vol.  i.  p.  171. 

>  Jonnitias's  .lewish  .\ntiq.  book  iii.  rh.  x.  pp.  .'ill,  542.  Schulzii  Archaeol. 
Hebr.  pp.  341—314.     Rclandi  Antiq.  Ilebr.  p  5-..'9. 

«  Dr.  Hitles's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  279.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  ii 
p.  619.  Ttie  besi  practical  illuslralion  we  have  seen,  of  the  analosv  be- 
tween the  Mosaic  jubilee  and  the  Gospel,  is  to  be  found  in  the  late  'Rev. 
Dr.  Claudius  Buchanan's  "Three  Sermons  on  the  Jubilee,"  celebrated  on 
the  'i-'tli  October,  1S09,  on  the  occasion  of  King  George  III.'s  entering  on 
the  filtieth  year  of  his  reign. 

•  Micliaeiis's  Coiiuuentaries  on  the  I-aw  of  Moaee,  vol.  ii.  p.  S63. 

Vol.  II.  R 


Mark  vii.  9 — 13.  Christ  himself  notices  the  vow  of  Korban 
(already  considered),  which  was  common  in  his  time,  and 
by  which  a  man  consecrated  to  God  what  he  was  bound  to 
apply  to  the  support  of  his  parents ;  and  he  declares  it  to  be 
so  impious  that  we  cannot  possibly  hold  it  to  be  acceptable 
to  Goo.  In  the  New  Testament,  no  vows  whatever  are  obli- 
gatory, because  God  has  nowhere  declared  that  he  will  accept 
them  from  Christians.  But  the  people  of  Israel  had  such  a 
declaration  from  God  himself;  although  even  Iheij  were  not 
counselled  or  encouraged  to  make  vows.  In  consequence  of 
this  declaration,  the  vows  of  the  Israelites  were  binding;  and 
that  not  only  in  a  moral  view,  but  according  to  the  national 
law;  and  the  priest  was  authorized  to  enforce  and  estimate 
their  fulfilment.  The  principal  passages  relating  to  this 
point  are  Lev.  xxvii.  Num.  xxx,  and  Deut,  xxiii,  18,  21, 
22,  23, « 

II,  In  order  to  render  a  vow  valid,  Moses  requires, 
1.  "That  it  be  actualh/  altered  with,  the  mouth,  and  not 
merely  made  in  the  heart.     In  Num.  xxx.  3.  7.  9.  13,  and 
Deut.  xxiii,  24.  he  repeatedly  calls  it  the  expression  uf  the 

«  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  Moses,  vol.  ii.  pp.  264—266, 


130 


SACRED  OBLIGATIONS  AND  DUTIES. 


[Part  III.  Chap.  V, 


lips,  or  wliat  has  e:one  forth  from  the  mouth ,-  and  the  same 
phrase  occurs  in  Psal.  Ixvi.  14.  If,  therefore,  a  person  had 
merely  made  a  vow  in  his  heart,  without  letting  it  pass  his 
lips,  it  would  seem  as  if  God  would  not  accept  such  a  vow  ; 
rogardinjr  it  only  as  a  resolution  to  vow,  but  not  as  a  vow 
itself.  This  limitation  is  humane,  and  necessary  to  prevent 
much  anxiety  in  conscientious  people.  If  a  vow  made  in  the 
heart  be  valid,  we  shall  often  experience  difficulty  in  distin- 
guishing whether  what  we  thought  of  was  a  bare  intention, 
or  a  vow  actually  completed.  Here,  therefore,  just  as  in  a 
civil  contract  with  our  neighbour,  words — uttered  words — are 
necessary  to  prevent  all  uncertainty."' 

2.  The  party  making  the  vow  must  be  in  his  own  power, 
and  competent  to  undertake  the  obligation.  Therefore  the 
vows  of  minors  were  void,  unless  they  were  ratified  by  the 
express  or  tacit  consent  of  their  fathers.^  In  like  manner, 
neither  unmarried  daughters,  so  long  as  they  were  under  the 
parental  roof,  nor  married  women,  nor  slaves,  could  oblige 
themselves  by  vow,  unless  it  was  ratified  by  their  fathers, 
husbands,  or  masters  ;  the  authority  being  given  to  the  head 
of  the  family  in  every  thing  which  might  produce  advantage 
or  injury. 3 

3.  The  things  vowed  to  be  devoted  to  God  must  be  honestly 
obtained.  It  is  well  known,  that  in  ancient  times,  many 
public  prostitutes  dedicated  to  their  gods  a  part  of  their  im- 
pure earnings.  This  is  most  expressly  forbidden  by  Moses. 
(Deut.  xxm.  18.)« 

III.  There  are  two  sorts  of  vows  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  viz.  1.  The  oin  (cHCReiM),  which  was  the  most 
solemn  of  all,  and  was  accompanied  with  a  form  of  execra- 
tion, and  which  could  not  be  redeemed ;  and  2.  The  onj 
(NfDfR'M),  or  common  vows. 

1.  The  cherem  is  nowhere  enjoined  by  Moses  ;  nor  does 
he  specify  by  what  solemnities  or  expressions  it  was  distin- 
guished from  other  vows,  but  pre-supposes  all  this  as  already 
well  known.  The  species  of  cherem  with  which  we  are  best 
acquainted,  was  the  previous  devotement  to  God  of  hostile 
cities,  against  which  they  intended  to  proceed  with  extreme 
severity ;  and  that  with  a  view  the  more  to  inflame  the  minds 
of  the  people  to  war.  In  such  cases,  not  only  were  all  the 
inhabitants  put  to  death,  but  also,  according  as  the  terms  of 
the  vow  declared,  no  booty  was  made  by  any  Israelite ;  the 
beasts  were  slain  ;  what  would  not  burn,  as  gold,  silver,  and 
other  metals,  was  added  to  the  treasury  of  the  sanctuary  ; 
and  every  thing  else,  with  the  whole  city,  burnt,  and  an  im- 
precation pronounced  upon  any  attempt  that  should  ever  be 
made  to  rebuild  it.  Of  this  the  history  of  Jericho  (Josh.  vi. 
17 — 19.  21 — 24.  and  vii.  1.  12 — 26.)  furnishes  the  most  re- 
markable example  In  Moses's  lifetime  we  find  a  similar 
vow  against  the  king  of  Arad.  (Num.  xxi.  1 — 3.)  If  an  Is- 
raelitish  city  introduced  the  worship  of  strange  gods,  it  was 
(as  we  have  already  seen)  in  like  manner,  to  be  devoted  or 
consecrated  to  God,  and  to  remain  un-rebuilt  for  ever.  (Deut. 
xiii.  IG — 18.)-5  Jephthah's  dedication  of  his  daughter  is  gene- 
rally supposed  to  have  been  a  cherem  :  but  we  have  shown 
in  anollier  part  of  this  v.ork  that  he  did  not  sacrifice  her.s 
The  text(Judg.  xi.  30.)  says  i\int. Tcphthuh  vowed  a  vow  (-nj, 
NPoeR),  unto  tlie  Lord,  and  again,  (verse  39.)  that  he  did  with 
her  according  to  his  row  (iij).  Tliere  is  no  word  in  either  of 
these  passages  that  either  expresses  or  implies  a  cherem. 

2.  The  common  vows  were  divided  into  two  sorts,  viz.  i. 
Vows  of  dedication,  and,  ii.  Vows  of  self-interdiction  or 
abstinence. 

i.  Tlie  -nj  (NtDcn)  or  vow,  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  word, 
was  when  a  person  engaged  to  do  any  thing,  as,  for  instance, 
to  bring  an  offering  to  God ;  or  otherwise  to  dedicate  any 
thing  unto  him.  Things  vowed  in  this  way,  were,  1.  Un- 
clean beasts.  These  might  be  estiiuuted  by  the  priest,  and 
redeemed  by  the  vower,  by  the  addition  of  one  fifth  to  the 
value.  (Lev.  xxvii.  11 — 13.) — 2.  Clean  beasts  tised  for  offer- 
ings. Here  there  was  no  right  of  redemption  ;  nor  could  the 
hi^asts  be  exchanged  for  others  under  the  penalty  of  both 
l)eing  forfi'ited,  and  belonging  to  the  Ijord.  (Lev.  xxvii.  9, 
10.) — 3.  Lands  and  honsts.  These  had  the  privilege  of 
valuvition  and  redemption.   (Lev.  xxvii.  14 — 24.)— To  these 

'  Michaelis'sCuiiinientaiif's  oh  the  Law  of  Moses,  vol.  ii.  p.  269. 

•^  .\ll)(>r,  In.-fl.  Upi-jii.  Vet.  Test.  torn.  i.  p.  214. 

'  Muiinoniiles's  Rea.sons  of  the  Law  of  Mo.se.s,  by  Dr.  Townley,  p. 303. 

'  Schulzii  Ai<-,liccol.  Hebr,  p.  293. 

'  Micliaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  il.  pp.  272—275. 

e  See  vol.  i.  part  ii.  chap.  vii.  sect.  v.  §  13. 


we  have  to  add,  4.  The  person  of  the  vower  himself,  with  the 
like  privilege.  (Lev.  xxvii.  1 — 8.^  To  this  species  of  vow 
Michaelis  thinks  the  second  tentlis  may  have  belonged,  as 
Moses  nowhere  speaks  of  them  as  a  new  institution.'  They 
most  probably  derived  their  origin  from  the  vow  made  by 
Jacob,  which  is  recorded  in  Gen.  xxviii.  22. 

ii.  Vows  of  self-interdiction  or  self-denial  were,  when  a 
person  engaged  to  abstain  from  any  wine,  food,  or  any  other 
thing.  These  are  especially  distinguished  by  Moses  from 
other  vows  in  Num.  xxx.,  and  are  there  termed  idn  (ASsaR), 
or  B'OJ  hy  idn  (asswr  al  NfPHtsn),  that  is,  a  bond  upon  the 
soul  or  person,  a  self-interdiction  from  some  desire  of  nature,  or 
of  the  heart,  or,  in  other  words,  a  vow  of  abstinence,  particu- 
larly from  eating  and  drinking.  Among  this  species  of  vowS 
may  be  classed  those  of  the  Nazareute  or  Nazivritism  ,-  which, 
Michaelis  is  of  opinion,  was  not  instituted  by  Moses,  but 
was  of  more  ancient,  and  probably  of  Egyptian  origin  ;»  the 
Hebrew  legislator  giving  certain  injunctions  for  the  better 
regulation  and  performance  of  these  vows.  The  statutes 
respecting  the  Nazareate  are  related  in  the  sixth  chapter 
of  the  book  of  Numbers.  Lamy,  Calmet,  and  others,  have 
distinguished  two  classes  of  Nazarites  :  first,  those  who  ivere 
Nazaritcs  by  birth,  as  Samson  and  John  the  Baptist  were ; 
and,  secondly,  those  who  were  Nazarites  by  row  and  engage- 
ment ;  who  followed  this  mode  of  living  for  a  limited  time, 
at  the  expiration  of  which  they  cut  oflf  their  hair  at  the  door 
of  the  tabernacle,  and  offered  certain  sacrifices.  The  Naza- 
rites were  required  to  abstain  from  wine,  fermented  liquors, 
and  every  thing  made  of  grapes,  to  let  their  hair  grow,  and 
not  to  defile  themselves  by  touching  the  dead;  and  if  any 
person  had  accidentally  expired  in  their  presence,  the  Naza- 
rites of  the  second  class  were  obliged  to  recommence  their 
Nazariteship. 

Similar  to  the  Nazareate  was  the  vow  frequently  made  by 
devout  Jews,  on  their  recovery  from  sickness,  or  deliverance 
from  danger  or  distress ;  who,  for  thirty  days  before  they 
oflTered  sacrifices,  abstained  from  wine,  and  shaved  the  hair 
of  their  head.9  This  usage  illustrates  the  conduct  of  Paul, 
as  related  in  Acts  xviii.  18.  The  apostle,  in  consequence 
of  a  providential  deliverance  from  some  imminent  peril  not 
recorded  by  the  sacred  writer,  bound  himself  by  a  vow,  which 
the  law  in  this  case  required  him  to  pay  at  Jerusalem.  In 
consequence  of  this  transaction,  Luke  relates  that  he  shaved 
his  head  at  Cenchrea.  Paul,  in  his  intended  journey  after- 
wards to  Judsea,  says,  he  must  needs  go  to  Jenisalem:  for  the 
laws  respecting  the  Nazarite's  vow  required  the  person  who 
had  entered  into  this  engagement,  if  he  were  in  a  foreign 
country  when  he  first  laid  himself  under  this  solemn  obliga- 
tion, to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  to  accomplish  it.  Here  several 
appointed  sacrifices  were  offered,  and  a  certain  course  of 
purifications  and  religious  observances  was  prescribed  and 
performed.  This  appears  from  another  passage  in  the  same 
sacred  writer :  (Acts  xxi.  23,  24.  26,  27.)  "  We  have  four 
men  who  have  a  vow  on  them ;  them  take  and  purify  thyself 
with  them,  and  be  at  charges  with  them,  that  they  may  shave 
THEIR  HEADS.  The7i  Paul  took  the  men :  and  the  next  day 
purifying  himself  with  them,  entered  into  the  temple,  to  signify 
the  accomplishment  of  the  days  of  purification :  and  that  an 
offering  should  be  offered  for  every  one  of  them.  And  when  the 
SEVEN  days  were  almost  ended,''"'  &c.  Josephus  presents  us 
with  an  instance  parallel  to  this  of  Paul,  in  the  person  of 
Bernice,  who  went  to  Jerusalem,  in  order  to  perform  a  vow 
which  she  had  made  to  God.'" 

•■  Micbaclis's  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  280,  281. 

8  Ibid.  p.  284. 

s  An  usa?e  similar  to  the  vow  of  Nazariteship  exists  in  Persia  to  this 
day.  It  frequently  happens  after  tlie  birth  of  a  son,  that  if  the  parent  be 
indi-strcss,  or  the  child  be  sick,  or  that  there  be  any  canse  of  grief,  the 
mother  makrs  a  vow,  that  no  razor  shall  come  upon  the  child's  head  for  a 
certain  portion  of  tiuie,  and  sometimes  for  his  whole  life,  as  Samuel  was. 
(1  Sam.'  i.  11.)  If  the  child  recovers,  and  the  cause  of  grief  be.  removed, 
and  if  the  vow  be  but  for  a  time,  so  that  the  mother's  vow  be  fulfilled, 
then  she  shaves  his  head  at  the  end  of  the  time  prescribed,  makes  a  small 
enlcrlaininent,  collects  money  and  other  things  from  her  relations  and 
friends,  which  are  sent  as  Nelzers  or  offerings  to  th,e  mosque  at  Kerbelali, 
and  are  there  consecrated.    Morier's  .Second  Journey,  p.  109.  \ 

»o  See  Lamy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  vol.  i.  p.  221.  Calmet's  Dictionary, 
voce  Nazarile.  Flenry's  Manners  of  the  Israelites,  pp.  338,  339.  Lard- 
ner's  Credibility,  book  i.e.  9.  §7.  (Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  208— 212.)  Jennings's 
Jcwisli  .\utiquities,  book  i.  c.  8.  Ilarwood's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol. 
ii.  p.  298.  Ueland's  Antiq.  Ilebr.  part  i.  c.  10.  pp.  281—289.  Schulzii 
Archa?oI.  Hebr.  pp.  294,  295.  Brunings,  Antiq,  Hebr.  pp.  198—204.  Dr. 
Randolph's  Discourse  on  Jephthah's  Vow,  in  his  View  of  Christ's  Ministry, 
.&c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  1U6— 195., 


Sect.  II.] 


PRIVATE 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE  PRAYERS  AND  FEASTS  OF  THE  JEWS. 

I.  Various  appellations  given  to  praye'^s. — II.  Public  prayers. — 
III.  Private  prayers. — Attitiitles  of  the  Jews  dtirinir  prayer. 
— IV.  Forms  of  prayer  in  use  aiiioiiq-  the  Jews. — V.  Fasts  of 
the  Jews. —  1.  I'ublic  fasts. — 2.  Private  fasts. — :).  Solemni- 
ties of  the  Jewish  fasts. 

I.  Prayers,  or  petitions  addrossod  to  tlin  Alinitrhty,  aro 
closely  connocted  with  sacrifices  and  vows.  (l*sal.  i.  II,  15.) 
Various  appellations  an;  jjrivcn  to  tlio  prayers  incntionod  in 
tlie  Scriptures.  In  Pliii.  iv.  G.  and  I  Tim.  ii.  1.  five  dilTerent 
terms  are  employed,  viz.  ntT>'/u'j.Tu,  or  requests,  which  maj^  he 
considered  as  a  jreni^ic  term,  includiii<r  Trp'.rw^-jLi,  prayers  for 
obtaininir  those;  thinifs,  wiieliier  temporal  or  spiritual,  of 
wliicii  we  feel  our  need  ;  J's;ro-«c,  deprecations  of  evil  of  every 
kind;  ivrw^uc,  intercessions  or  prayers  in  behalf  of  others; 
and  w^tfKj-TiiLi,  thanksirivinifs  or  addresses  of  praise  to  CJoil 
for  all  the  i)]essinirs  conferred  tipon  us.  Tiie  nuxlo  of  ])ray- 
infj  was  two-fold;  1.  fnknuti,  in  which  mental  prayer  is 
oft'ered  from  the  iieart  alone  (such  was  the  pray(>r  of  Hannah, 
1  Sam.  i.  13.) ;  or,  2.  External,  beinjT  uttered  aloud  with  the 
voice:  hence,  in  Psal.  cxlv.  It),  it  is  termed  a  cri/. 

Prayers  were  either  public,  or  private,  or  stated,  that  is, 
performed  at  a  particular  time.  The  Stated  Hours  were  at 
the  time  of  ofTermfr  the  morning  and  evenincr  sacrifice,  or  at  the 
third  and  ninth  hours  (Acts  li.  15.  and  iii.  1.);  althouirh  it 
was  the  custom  of  the  more  devout  .lews,  as  David  (Psal. 
Iv.  17.)  and  Daniel  (vi.  10.),  to  pray  three  times  a  day. 
Peter  went  up  on  the  house-top  to  pray,  about  the  sixth  hour. 
(Acts  X.  9.)  A  similar  usage  obtains  among  the  Hindoos 
to  this  day.'  Previously  to  offering  up  their  siipplications 
they  washed  their  hands,  to  signify  that  they  had  put  away 
sin  and  purposed  to  live  a  holy  life.  As  the  .Tewish  pliyla- 
terical  prayers  were  long,  and  the  canonical  or  stated  hours 
obliged  them  to  repeat  these  prayers  wherever  they  happcncHl 
to  be,  the  proud,  vainglorious  Pharisees  contrived  to  be  over- 
taken in  the  streets,  in  order  that  they  might  be  observed  hy 
the  people,  and  be  Jipplauded  for  their  piet)r.  Against  this 
formal  spirit  Jesus  Christ  cautions  his  disciples  in  Matt, 
vi.  5,2 

II.  Public  Prayers  were  offered,  at  first,  in  the  taberna- 
cle, and  afterwards  in  the  temple  and  synagogues,  by  the 
minister  appointed  for  that  purpose,  the  people  answering 
(in  the  s]^nagogues  only)  at  the  conclusion  with  a  loud  Amen.^ 
(Neh.  viii.  6.) 

III.  Private  Prayers  were  oflTered  by  individuals  in  a 
low  tone  of  voice  with  the  head  covered;'  either  standin<f 
or  kneeling,  sor»etimes  bowing  the  head  towards  the  earth, 
and  at  others  with  the  whole  body  prostrate  on  the  ground. 
Sometimes  they  smote  upon  the  breast,  in  token  of  their  deep 
humiliation  and  penitence,  or  spread  forth  their  hands,  or 
lifted  them  up  to  heaven.  Of  these  various  postures  in  prayer 
many  instances  occur  in  the  sacred  writers.  Thus  Hannah, 
in  her  affliction,  spake  in  her  heart ,-  her  lips  only  moved,  but 
HER  VOICE  was  NOT  HEARD  (1  Sam.  i.  13.);  and  the  proud 
J'liarisee  stood*  and  prayed  with  (within)  himself,  (Luke 
xviii.  11. J  David  says,  I  stretch  forth  my  hands  unto  thee. 
(Psal.  cxliii.  6.)  Solomon  kneeled  down  upon  his  knees  before 
all  the  congregation  of  Israel,  and  spread  forth  his  hands 
towards  heave/i.  (2  Chron  vi.  13.)  Ezra/t7/«/;o«  Aw  knees, 
and  spread  out  his  hands  to  the  Lord  his  God.  (Ezra  ix. 
5.)  Our  adorable  Redeemer,  in  his  agony  in  the  garden  of 
Gethsemane,/e//o«A«s /ace  fprostratednimselfto  the  ground), 
KNEKhKD  down  and  prayed  (Matt.  xxvi.  30.  Lukexxii.  41.); 
and  the  protomartyr  Stephen  kneeled  down  and  prayed  for 
his  murderers.  (Acts  vii.  GO.)     Moses,  when  interceding  for 

«  Ward's  History,  &c.  of  the  nindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  342. 

»  I)rs.  Lightfoot  and  A.  Clarke  on  Matt.  vi.  5. 

3  The  Jews  attribute  a  wonderful  efficacy  to  this  word ;  and  have  an 
idle  tradition  that  the  gates  of  Paradise  will  be  open  to  him  who  says  Ainen 
with  all  his  might. 

*  The  reason  of  this  custom  was  to  profess  themselves  reverent  and 
ashamed  before  God,  and  unworthy  to  appear  before  him.  It  was  a  maxim 
of  the  Jews, — "Let  not  the  wise  men,  nor  the  scholars  of  the  wise  men, 
pray,  unless  they  be  covered."  It  appears  tliat  the  Corinthians,  though 
converted  to  the  Christian  faith,  in  tnis  respect  conformed  to  llie  Jewish 

£raclice;  and  therefore  St.  Paul  remonstrated  acainst  it.  1  Cor.  xi.  4. 
ightfoot's  Hor.  Heb.  inloc.  (Works,  vol.  ii.  pp.  709,  770.) 
'  The  practice  of  standing  tinr'ing  prayer  obtained  among  the  Arabs  in 
the  time  of  Mohammed,  who,  in  his  Koran,  repeatedly  commands  his  fol- 
lowers to  sta7id  when  they  pray.  C.  B.  Michaelis  de  ritualibus  S.  S.  ex 
Alcorano  illustrandis,  §  xiv.  in  vol.  ii.  pp.  108,  100.  of  Pott's  and  Uupeiti's 
gj'lloge  Commentationum  Theologicarum.  See  also  Dr.  Rrchardson's 
Travels  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  i.  pp.  103.  et  seg. 


PRAYERS.  131 

the  ungrateful  Israelites,  rowed  his  head  to  the  earth  ana 
worshipped.  (Exod.  xxxiv,  8.  Compare-  also  Exod.  ix.  29.) 
'I'he  humble  and  contrite  pub/icon,  standing  afar  off',  smote 
ON  HIS  iiitEAST,  and  supplicated  divine  mercy.  (Luke  xviii. 
l.'{.)  'i'lie  prophet  Isaiah,  when  reproving  the  hypocritical 
.lews,  denounces  that  .leiiovah  would  hide  his  eyes  from  them 
when  they  spread  forth  their  hu/uls  (Isa.  i.  15.);  and  the 
liftinct  up  ok  the  hands  to  heaven,  in  prayer,  is  expressly 
noted  by  the  Psalmist  (cxli.  2.)  and  by  the  prt-phet  Jeremiah. 
(I/un.  i^ii.  41.)" 

Similar  postures  were  adopted  by  most  of  the  heathen  na- 
tions that  pretended  to  any  kind  of  worship,  when  approach- 
ing Ihe  objects  of  tin  ir  adoralioii ;  which  it  i.s  highly  proba- 
bl(!  that  they  borrowed  from  the  people  of  God.  Kneeling  was 
ever  consiilered  to  be  the  proper  posture  of  supplication,  as 
it  expressed  humility,  contrition,  and  subjection.  If  the 
person  to  wlnjin  tht^  .'^upplication  was  addressed  was  within 
reach,  the  supplicant  caught  him  by  the  knees;  for  as,  among 
the  ancients,  Um  forehead  was  consecrated  to  genius,  tin;  ear 
to  memory,  and  the  right  hand  to  faith,  so  the  knees  \\  ere 
consecratfid  to  mercy.  Hence  those  who  entreated  favour, 
fell  at  and  caught  hold  of  the  knees  of  the  person  whose 
kindness  they  supplicated.  'I'his  mode  of  supplication  is 
particularly  referred  to  in  Homer.'  In  the  same  manner  we 
find  our  Lord  accosted.  Matt.  xvii.  14. — 7'here  came  to  him 
a  certain  man,  kneeling  down  to  him,  ynvreraiv  ttu^ct,  fulling 
down  at  his  knees. 

As  to  the  lifting  up,  or  stretching  out,  the  hands  (often 
joined  to  kneeling),  of  which  we  have  seen  already  st^veral 
instances,  and  of  whirdi  we  have  a  very  remarkable  one  in 
Exod.  chap.  xvii.  11.  where  the  lifting  up,  or  stretching  out 
of  the  hands  of  Moses  was  the  means  of  Israel's  prevailing 
over  Ainalek ;  we  find  many  examples  of  both  in  anci;>nt 
authors.'*  In  some  cases,  the  person  petitioning  came  for- 
ward, and  either  sat  in  the  dust  or  kneeled  on  the  groinid, 
placing  his  left  hand  on  the  knee  of  him  from  whom  he  ex- 
pected the  favour,  while  he  touched  the  person\i  chin  with  his 
''ighf.     We  have  an  instance  of  this  also  in  Homer,  '■> 

When  the  supj)licant  could  not  approach  the  person  to 
whom  he  prayed,  as  where  a  deity  was  the  object  of  the 
prayer,  he  washed  his  hands,  made  an  ofi['ering,  and  kneeling 
down,  either  stretched  out  both  his  hands  to  heaven  or  laid  them 
upon  the  offering  or  .sacrifice,  or  upon  the  altar.  In  this  mode 
Homer  represents  the  priest  of  Apollo  as  praying.'" 

The  practice  of  standing  with  their  hands  spread  out 
towards  heaven,  was  adopted  by  the  primitive  Christians 

6  Schulzii  ArchaeoL  Ilcbralca.  pp.  298,  299.  Brunings,  Antiquitates  He- 
brteai,  pp.  193—198. 

1  Ta)»  vMv  iii\i  ftvtirxrx.  Trxpe^so,  xiti  KatSs  youvtav.  Iliad  I.  407. 

Now,  therefore,  of  these  things  reminding  Jove, 
Embrace  his  knees.  Cowper. 

To  which  the  following  answer  is  made  : 

K»(  tot'  (TTiirx  Toi  iijui  AiO{  n-01     %x>.xijSaT  i(  Ju, 

K»i  litv  youv«(rO(M»4,  xai  fiiv  Trinririxi  oi».  Iliad  L  426,  427. 

Then  will  I  to  Jove's  brazen-floored  abode, 

That  I  may  clasp  his  knees ;  and  nmch  misdeem 

Of  my  endeavour,  or  my  pray'r  shall  speed.  Cowter. 

8  The  following  instances  are  taken  from  Virgil : — 
Curripio  e  sirulis  corpus,  tendoqce  srpiNAS 
Ad  ccelu.m  cum  voce  mancs,  ct  muncra  tibu.       jEneid  iii.  176, 177. 
I  started  from  my  bed,  and  raised  on  high 
My  /lands  and  voice  in  rapture  to  the  sky  ; 
And  pour  libations.  PrrT. 

Dixerat :  et  genua  ampusxcs,  gcnihusque  volulans 

Harebat.  JEncM  iii.  607,  6(B. 

Then  kneeled  the  wretch,  and  suppliant  clung  around 

My  knees,  with  tears,  and  grovelled  on  the  ground.    Prrr. 


-media  inter  numina  divum. 


Mulla  Jorem  manibus  si-pplex  orasse  svpinis.     Ibid.  iv.  301,  205. 

Amidst  the  statues  of  the  gods  he  stands, 

A?id  sprtading  forth  to  Jove  his  lifted  hands Id. 

Et  DtTPLiCEs  cum  voce  mands  ad  sidera  tendit.  Ibid.  x.  667. 

And  lifted  both  his  hands  and  voice  to  heaven.  Id. 

•    Kxi  px  :Txp3i5*  etvToto  xx^e^sto,  xxi  A.xb£  youvutv 

ixx.^-  Jf  J.Tjpn  S'  ap'  OS-"  xvisfi^vti;  iKCMirx.  Iliad  I  500,  501. 

Suppliant  the  goddess  stood  :  one  hand  she  plac'd 
Beneath  his  chin,  and  one  his  knee  embrac'd.  Pope. 

>0     XfpmJ/XWTO    y    85rSlTX,   XXl   0UX(1%UT«;   XViXOKTO. 

Toiiriv  Si  Xpu<rii,-  la-yxK'  (u%!to,  %S'px?  a.\ixirxiav.      Iliad  I.  449,  450. 

With  water  purify  their  hands,  and  take 

The  sacred  oJPr'ing  of  the  salted  cake, 

While  thus  with  arms  devoutly  rais'd  in  air, 

And  solemn  voice,  the  priest  directs  his  pray'r.  Pope. 

Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Exod.  ix.  29.  Other  illustrations  of  the  various  attitndea 
in  which  the  heathens  offered  up  prayer  to  their  deities  are  given  by  Bru- 
nings,  Compendium  Antiquitatmn  Grsecarum,  pp.  270—275. 


132 


PRIVATE  FASTS. 


[Paiit  III.  Chap.  V, 


when  offerinj  their  supplications  :  they  stood  up,  says  Ter- 
tullian,  and  directed  their  eyes  towards  heaven  with  expanded 
hands.'  A  similar  testimony  is  oiven  hy  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria :' — "  We  lift  up  our  head  and  elevate  our  hands 
towards  heaven."  So  also,  St.  Paul,  when  exhorting  Chris- 
tains  to  prny  for  all  classes  of  persons,  describes  the  gesture 
then  used  in  prayer  (1  Tim.  ii.  8.) : — whercfnre  lift  up  liolfi 
HANDS  w'fhnut  wrcilh  nr  duuhtins;.  Those  who  affected  supe- 
rior sanctity,  or  who  from  motives  of  ostentation  and  hypo- 
crisy, it  appears,  prayed  in  the  streets,^  and  mmle  long  prayers, 
were  severely  censured  hy  our  Lord  for  their  formal  and 
hypocritical  devotinn.  (Matt.  vi.  5.  and  xxiii.  14.)  When  at 
a  distance  from  the  temple,  the  more  devout  .tews  turned 
themselves  towards  it  when  they  prayed.  We  have  an 
instance  of  this  in  the  conduct  of  Daniel.''  (Dan.  vi.  10.) 
When  the  Orientals  pray  seriously,  in  a  state  of  grief,  they 
hide  their  faces  in  their  brsom.  To  this  circumstance  the 
Psalmist  alludes  (xxxv.  13.),  when  he  says,  Mi/  prayer 
retivned  into  mine  own  bofsoni.^ 

IV.  Various  Forms  of  Prayer  .were  in  use  among  the 
Jews  from  the  earliest  period  of  their  existence  as  a  distinct 
nation.  The  first  piece  of  solemn  worship  recorded  in  the 
Scripture  is  a  hymn  of  praise  composed  by  Moses,  on  occa- 
sion of  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  the  Egyptians, 
which  was  sung  by  all  the  congregation  alternately ;  by  Moses 
and  the  men  first,  and  afterwards  by  Miriam  and  the  women 
(Exod.xv.  1,  20,21.);  which  could  not  have  been  done  , unless 
it  had  been  a  precomposed  set  form.  Again,  in  the  expia- 
tion of  an  uncertain  murder,  the  elders  of  the  city  which  lay 
nearest  to  the  party  that  was  slain,  were  expressly  com- 
manded to  say,  and  consequently  to  join  in,  the  form  of 
prayer  appointed  by  God  himself  in  Deut.  xxi.  7,  8.  In  Num. 
vi.  23—26.  X.  35,  36.  Deut.  xxvi.  3.  5—11.  and  13—15. 
there  are  several  other  divinely  appointed  forms  of  prayer, 

Erescribed  by  Moses.  On  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy, 
•avid  appointed  the  Levites  to  stand  every  morning  io  Ihank 
and  praise  the  Lord,  andlikewlseut  even  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  30.)  ; 
which  rule  was  afterwards  observed  in  the  temple  erected  by 
Solomon,  and  restored  at  the  building  of  the  second  temple 
after  the  captivity.  (Neh.  xii.24.)  And  the  whole  book  of 
Psalms  was,  in  "fact,  a  collection  of  forms  of  prayer  and 
praise,  for  the  use  of  the  whole  congregation ;  as  is  evident 
from  the  titles  of  several  of  those  divinely  inspired  composi- 
tions," as  well  as  from  other  passages  of  Scripture." 

_What  the  stated  public  prayers  were  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord,  it  is  now  impossible  exactly  to  ascertain  :  it  is,  how- 
ever, probable  that  many  of  the  eighteen  prayers,  which  have 
heen  given  in  pp.  106,  107.  and  which  are  said  to  have  been 
collected  by  Rabbi  Gamaliel  the  Elder,  the  master  of  St.  Paul, 
were  then  in  use  ;  and  as  all  persons  were  not  able  to  com- 
mit them  to  memory,  it  is  also  probable  that  a  summary  of 
them  was  drawn  up.  But  we  know  certainly  that  it  was 
customary  for  the  more  eminent  doctors  of  the  .lews  to  com- 
pose forms  of  short  prayers,  which  they  delivered  to  their 
scholars.  Thus  .John  the  Baptist  gave  his  disciples  such  a 
form  ;  and  Jesus  Christ,  ^t  the  request  of  his  disciples,  gave 
them  that  most  perfect  model  emphatically  termed  The  Lord^s 
Prayer,  which,  the  very  learned  Mr.  Gregory  has  shown,  was 
collected  out  of  the  Jewish  euchologies  :^  he  has  translated 
the  whole  form  from  them  as  follows  : — 

«  Apolog.  c.  30. 

«  Stromala,  lib.  ii.  p  722.     Dr.  Harwood's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  p.  302.    The 

Sractice  of  extending  the  hands  in  prayer  still  obtains  in  the  East.  See 
[armer's  Observations,  vol.  ii.  pp.  511 — 513.  Fragments  supplementary 
to  Calmet,  No.  ccl.xxviii. 

3  This  practice  is  also  general  throughout  the  East.  Both  Hindoos  and 
Musulmauns  ofler  their  devotions  in  the  most  public  places;  as,  at  the 
landing  places  of  rivers,  in  the  public  streets,  and  on  the  roofs  of  boats, 
without  the  least  modesty  or  eflort  at  concealment.  Ward's  History  of 
the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  3.35.  See  also  Fragments,  No.  cv.  Morier's  Second 
Journey,  p.  208.  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  75.  and  Lightfoot's 
Horae  Hebraicceon  Matt.  vi.  5.    (Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  156.) 

*  Lamy  is  of  opinion  that  Hezekiah  did  so,  and  that  we  are  to  understand 
his  turning  his  face  to  the  wall  (2  Kings  xx.  2.)  of  his  turning  towards  the 
temple.    De  Tabernaculo,  lib.  vii.  c.  1.  §  5. 

»  Burder's  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  20. 

»  See  the  titles  of  Psalms  iv.  v.  vi.  xlii.  xliv.  xcii.  &c. 

'  See  I  Chron.  xvi.  7.  2  Chron.  xxix.  30.  and  Ezra  iii.  10,  11.  Wheatley 
on  the  Common  Prayer,  Introduction,  p.  2. 

8  See  the  Works  of  the  Rev.  and  learned  Mr.  .lohn  Gregorie,  p.  168. 
London,  1683.  See  also  Dr.  Lightfoot's  Hor.  Heb.  on  Matt.  vi.  9—13. 
Drusius,  in  Critici  Sacri.  vol.  vi.  col.  259,  200.  Whitby  and  other  com- 
mentators, in  loc.  Dr.  Hales  has  an  excellent  commentary  on  this  prayer, 
in  his  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ji.  bookii.  pp.  1005 — 1011.  The  forms,  «S:c. 
of  prayer  of  the  modern  Jews  are  described  oy  Mr.  Allen.  Modern  Juda- 
ism, pp.  326— 354. 


"  Our  Father,  which  art  in  heaven,  be  gracious  unto  us  ! 
O  Lord  our  God,  hallowed  be  thy  name,  and  let  the  remem- 
brance of  thee  be  glorified  in  heaven  above,  and  upon  earth 
here  below.  Let  thy  kingdom  reign  over  us,  now  and  for 
ever.  The  holy  men  of  old  said.  Remit  and  forgive  unto  all 
men  whatsoever  they  have  done  against  me.  And  lead  us 
not  into  temptation,  but  deliver  us  from  the  evil  thing.  For 
thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  thou  shalt  reign  in  glory  for  ever, 
and  for  evermore." 

V.  To  prayers  the  Jews  sometimes  added  Fasts,  or 
religious  abstinence  from  food  :  these  fasts  were  either  pub- 
lic or  private. 

1.  The  Public  Fasts  were  either  ordinary  or  extraordi- 
nary. Moses  instituted  only  one  ordinary  annual  public 
fast,  which  was  solenmized  on  the  day  of  atonement, ^  other 
public  fasts  being  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  nation.  Of 
extraordinary  fasts  appointed  by  authority  of  the  civil  magis- 
trate, several  instances  are  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament. 
See  1  Sam.  vii.  5,  6.  2  Chron.  xx.  3.  and  Jer.  xxxvi.  9. 
After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  captivity,  Ezra  proclaimed 
a  fast  at  the  river  Ahava,  in  order  to  implore  the  direction 
and  blessing  of  God  (Ezra  viii.  21.)  :  and  several  other  fasts 
were  subsequently  added,  to  commemorate  particular  melan- 
choly events,  of  which  we  read  in  Zech.  viii.  19.;  viz.  the 
fast  of  the  fourth  month,  which  was  instituted  in  memory  of 
the  famine  in  Jerusalem  (Jer.  Iii.  6.) ;  the  fast  of  the  fifth 
month,  for  the  destruction  of  the  temple  (Zech.  vii.  3.)  ;  the 
fast  of  the  seventh  month,  on  account  of  the  murder  of  Geda- 
liah  (2  Kings  xxv.  28.) ;  and  the  fast  of  the  tenth  month, 
when  Jerusalem  was  besieged.  (Jer.  Iii.  4.)  Extraordinary 
public  fasts  were  also  held  when  the  Jews  were  threatened 
with  any  imminent  danger.  (Joel  i.  14.  ii.  12.)  In  like 
manner  the  people  of  Nineveh,  on  hearing  the  prophetic 
message  of  Jonah,  whom  they  believed  to  be  truly  sent  bj 
God,  proclaimed  a  fast ;  and  by  a  decree  of  the  king  and  his 
nobles,  neither  man  nor  beast,  neither  herd  nor  flock,  was 
permitted  to  taste  any  food,  or  even  to  drink  any  water. 
(Jonah  iii.  6,  7.)  This  was  carrying  their  abstinence  to  a 
greater  degree  of  rigour  than  what  we  find  recorded  of  the 
Jews;  for  though,  during  seasons  of  public  calamity,  they 
made  theii;  children  to  fast  (as  may  be  inferred  from  Joel  ii. 
15,  16.),  yet  we  nowhere  read  of  their  extending  that  severity 
to  cattle. 

2.  Private  Fasts  were  left  to  the  discretion  of  individuals 
who  kept  them,  in  order  that  they  might  by  prayer  and  fast- 
ing avert  imminent  calamities,  and  obtain  the  favour  of  God. 
So  David  fasted  and  praj^ed  during  the  sickness  of  his  child 
I  y  Bathsheba  (2  Sam.  xii.  16.)  ;  Ahab,  when  he  heard  the 
divine  judgments  which  were  denounced  against  him  by  the 
prophet  Klijah  (1  Kings  xxi.  27.)  ;  and  the  pious  Jews, 
Ezra  (x.  6.),  and  Nehemiah  (i.  4.),  on  account  of  the  calami- 
ties of  their  country  and  of  the  Jews.  In  the  time  of  Jesus 
Christ,  private  fasts  appear  to  have  been  deemed  necessary, 
in  order  to  yield  an  acceptable  worship  to  God  :  such  at  least 
was  the  case  with  the  Pharisees  and  their  followers,  who 
affected  more  than  ordinary  devotion ;  and  who  fasted  twice 
in  the  week,  on  the  second  and  fifth  days  (Luke  xviii.  12.) 
to  which  acts  of  devotion  they  ascribed  a  marvellous  efficacy.'" 

3.  With  regard  to  the  Solemnpties  of  the  Jewish  Fasts, 
the  precept  of  the  law  simply  enjoined  that  they  should 
afflict  their  souls  (Lev.  xvi.  29.)  ;  conformably  to  which  the 
prophet  Joel  (ii.  13.)  exhorts  his  countrymen  to  rend  their 
hearts  and  not  their  garments.  From  various  passages  of 
Scripture,  it  appears  that  the  Jewish  fasts,  whether  public 
or  private,  were  distinguished  by  every  possible  mark  of 
grief;  the  people  being  clothed  in  sackcloth,  with  ashes 
strewed  on  their  heads,  downcast  countenances,  rent  gar- 
ments, and  (on  public  occasions)  with  loud  weeping  and 
supplication.  (2  Sam.  xiii.  19.  Psal.  xxxv.  13.  Isa.  Iviii.  5. 
Lam/  ii.  10.  Joel  i.  13,  14.  ii.  12,  13.)  At  these  times  they 
abstained  from  food  until  evening.  The  sanctimonious 
Pharisees  affected  the  utmost  humility  and  devotion,  disfigur- 
ing their  faces  and  avoiding  every  appearance  of  neatness ; 
against  this  conduct  our  Lord  cautions  his  disciples  in  Matt. 
VI.  16,  17." 

9  See  an  account  of  this  fast  in  p.  127.  supra. 

10  Lightfoot's  Hor.  Hebr.  on  Matt.  ix.  14.  Schulzii  ArchseologiaHebraica, 
pp.  301,  302.     Honje's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp.  279,  280. 

11  See  Lightfoot's  Hor.  Heb.  on  Matt.  vi.  9—13.  and  Luke  xviii.  12.  .Tose- 
phus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c  10.  §  3.     Schulzii  Archaeol.  Hebr.  pp.  301, 302. 


Sect.  III.] 


ON  THE  PURIFICATIONS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


133 


SECTION  III. 

ON   THE    PURIFICATIONS    OF   THE    JEWS. 

I.  J\Tuteriah  with  which  the  pnrificntinna  of  the  Jews  were  fier- 
fitrmrd. — II.  Ceremouies  nf  /inyifictitioii. — III.  Of  the  jievHons 
liistrated. — IV.  .fivcouut  of  the  different  kinds  of  leg-a/  impu- 
rities, particularly, — 1.  The  leprosy  of  the  person. — 2.  The 
leprosy  of  clothes. — 3.  The  house  leprosy. — V.  Jilinor  leffal 
impurities,  and  their  lustrations. 

It  was  requisite  tliat  every  one  wlio  was  about  to  make 
any  oflerinsf  to  .Icliovah  sliould  be  cleansed  from  all  impuri- 
lit  s,  or  lustrated — to  adopt  an  expression  in  common  use 
among  tlie  Romans.  Tlic  materials,  form,  and  ceremonies  of 
these  lustrations,  wliicli  were  prcscrilxnl  by  Moses,  were 
various,  accordin<r  to  different  circumstances.  'J'lie  desijrn 
of  llicm  all  was  not  only  to  preserve  both  the  health  and 
morals  of  tlie  Israelites,  hut  also  to  intimate  how  necessary 
it  was  to  preserve  inward  purity,  without  which  they  could 
not  be  acceptable  to  God,  though  they  might  approach  his 
sanctuary. 

I.  The  purifications  were  for  the  most  part  performed  with 
water,  sometimes  with  blood  (Heb.  ix.  21,  2'2^,  and  with 
oil.  (Exod.  XXX.  2(; — •29.  Lev.  viii.  10,  11.)'  The  water  of 
purification  was  to  be  drawn  from  a  spring  or  running  stream, 
and  was  either  pure,  or  mixed  with  blood  (Heb.  ix,  19.),  or 
with  the  ashes  of  the  red  heifer.  For  preparing  these  ashes, 
a  heifer  of  a  red  colour  was  burnt  with  great  solemnity. 
This  ceremony  is  described  at  length  in  the  nineteenth  chap- 
ter of  the  book  of  Numbers.  As  all  the  people  were  to  be 
interested  in  it,  the  victim  was  to  be  provided  at  their  charge. 
This  Jewish  rite  certainly  had  a  reference  to  things  done 
under  the  Gospel,  as  St.  Paul  has  remarked  in  his  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews — For  if  the  hluud  (f  bulk  and  of  troats  (allud- 
ing to  the  sin-oft'erings,  and  to  the  scape-goat),  and  the 
ASHES  OF  A  HEIFER,  spriii/iling  the  unclean,  .sanctifieth  to  the 
purifying  of  the  flesh,  how  much  more  .ikatl  the  blood  of 
Christ  ....  purge  (or  purify)  your  conscience  from  dead 
works  to  serve  the  l.'ving  God.  As  the  principal  stress  of  allu- 
sion in  this  passage  is  to  the  ordinance  of  tlie  red  heifer,  we 
may  certainly  conclude  that  it  was  designed  to  typify  the 
sacrifice  of  our  adorable  Redeemer. 

In  the  ordinance  of  the  red  heifer,  we  may  perceive  the 
wisdom  of  Moses  (under  the  guidance  of  Jehovah)  in  taking 
every  precaution  that  could  prevent  the  Israelites  from  falling 
into  idolatry.  The  animal  to  be  selected  was  a  heifer,  in  op- 
position to  the  superstition  of  the  Egyptians,  who  held  this 
animal  to  be  sacred,  and  worshipped  isis  under  the  form  of  a 
heifer : — it  was  also  to  be  a  red  heifer,  without  spot,  that  is, 
altogether  red,  because  red  bulls  were  sacrificed  to  appease 
'the  evil  demon  Typhon,  that  was  worshipped  by  the  Egyp- 
tians; wherein  was  no  blemish,  so  that  it  was  free  from  every 
imperfection ; — on  which  never  came  yoke,  because  any  animal 
that  had  been  used  for  any  common  purpose  was  deemed  im- 
proper to  be  offered  in  sacrifice  to  God.2 

1  he  animal  being  slain,  and  her  blood  sprinkled  as  directed 
in  Num.  xix.  3,  1.,  was  then  reduced  to  ashes,  which  were 
to  be  collected  and  mixed  with  running  water  (ver.  9.  17.), 
for  thejurpose  of  lustration. 

II.  The  Jews  had  two  sorts  of  washing ;  one, — of  the 
whole  body  by  immersion,  which  was  used  by  the  priests  at 
their  consecration,  and  by  the  proselytes  at  their  initiation ; 
— the  other,  of  the  hands  or  feet,  called  dipping,  or  pouring 
of  water,  and  which  was  of  daily  use,  not  only  for  the  hands 
and  feet,  but  also  for  the  cups  and  other  vessels  used  at  their 
meals.  (Matt.  xv.  2.  Mark  vii.  3,  4.)  The  six  water-pots 
of  stone,  used  at  the  marriage-feast  of  Cana,  in  Galilee  (John 
ii.  fi.),  were  set  for  this  purpose.-  To  these  two  modes  of 
purification  Jesus  Christ  seems  to  allude  in  John  xiii.  10. ; 

«  Jospphus,  Ant.  .lud.  lib.  iii.  c.  8.  §  G. 

»  This  opinion  obtained  ainons  t'ne  ancient  Greeks.  See  particularly 
Homer's  Iliad,  x.  291-293.  and  Odyssev,  iii.  382.,  and  Virgil's  Georeics,  iv 
S50,  551.     Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Num.  xix.  2. 

»  Wliile  Mr.  \V.  Rae  Wilson  (who  visited  Palestine  in  1819)  was  at  Cana, 
"six  women  having  their  faces  veiled  came  down  to  the  well,  each  carry- 
ing on  hei»head  a  pot  for  the  purpose  of  being  filled  with  water.  These 
vessels  were  formed  of  stone,  and  something  in  the  shape  of  the  bottles 
used  in  our  country  for  containing  vitriol,  having  great  bodies  and  small 
necks,  with  this  exception,  they  were  not  so  large;  many  had  handles 
attached  to  the  sides  ;  and  it  was  a  wonderful  coincidence  with  Scripture, 
that  the  vessels  appeared  to  contain  much  the  same  quantity  as  those, 
which  the  Evangehst  informs  (us]  had  been  employed  on  occasion  of  the 
nuptial  celebration,"  viz.  "three  firkins,"  that  is,  about  twelve  gallons 
e»ch.  (Wilson's  Travels  in  Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land,  p.  339.  first  edition.) 


where  the  being  wholly  washed  implies  one  who  had  become 
a  disciple  of  Christ,  and  consequently  had  renounced  the  sins 
of  his  former  life.  He  who  had  so"  done  was  supposed  to 
bo  wholly  washed,  and  not  to  need  any  immersion,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  ceremony  of  initiation,  which  was  never  repeated 
among  the  Jews.  All  that  was  necessary  in  such  case  was 
the  dipping  or  rinsing  of  the  hands  and  fc-et,  agreeably  to  the 
customs  of  the  Jews.  Sometimes  the  lustration  was  per- 
formed by  sprinkling  blood,  or  anointing  with  oil.  Sprink- 
ling was  performed  either  with  the  finger  or  with  a  branch 
of  cedar  and  hyssop  tied  together  with  scarlet  wool.  (Lev. 
xiv.  1.  (i.  Num.  xix.  18.  Psal.  li.  7.) 

III.  The  objects  of  lustration  were  either  persons  or  things 
dedicated  to  divine  worship.  The  Levites,  priests,  and  above 
all,  the  high-priest,  underwent  a  purification  previously  to 
undertaking  their  respective  offices.  In  like  manner  the  Is- 
raelites were  commanded  to  sanctify  themselves  by  ablutions 
both  of  their  persons  and  clothes,  &c.  previously  to  receiving 
the  law  (Exod.  xix.  10,  11.  IJ,  15.  Heb.  ix.  19.)  ;  and  after 
the  giving  of  tlie  law  and  the  people's  as.sent  to  the  book  of 
the  covenant,  Moses  sprinkled  them  with  blood.  (F^xod. 
xxiv.  5 — 8.  Heb.  ix.  19.)     So  also  were  the  tabernacle,  and 

all  its  sacred  vessels  anointed  with  oil  (Exod.  xxx.  26 28. 

xl.  9 — 11.  Lev.  viii.  10,  11.),  and  as  Saint  Paul  further  inti- 
mates, were  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  the  victims. 

Those  who  were  about  to  offer  sacrifice  unto  Jehovah  were 
also  to  be  lustrated  (1  Sam.  xvi.  5.)  ;  as  well  as  those  who 
w;ere  repairing  to  divine  worship  to  offer  their  prayers  (Judith 
xii.  7,8.)  ;  and  especially  the  priest  and  the  high-priest,  before 
they  executed  their  respective  offices.  (Exod.  xxx.  20.) 
Lastly,  all  who  according  to  the  Mosaic  law  were  adjudged 
impure,  were  to  be  purified  before  they  could  be  admitted  into 
the  congregation  of  the  Lord.  (Num.  xix.  20.) 

IV.  In  the  Mosaic  law,  those  persons  are  termed  unclean, 
whom  others  were  obliged  to  avoid  touching,  or  even  meeting, 
unless  they  chose  to  be  themselves  defiled,  that  is,  cut  off 
from  all  intercourse  with  their  brethren  ;  and  who,  besides, 
were  bound  to  abstain  from  frequenting  the  place  where  divine 
service  and  the  offering-feasts  were  held,  under  penalties  still 
more  severe. 

The  duration  and  degrees  of  impurity  were  different.  In 
some  instances,  by  the  use  of  certain  ceremonies,  an  unclean 
person  became  purified  at  sunset;  in  others,  this  did  not  take 
place  until  eight  days  after  the  physical  cause  of  defilement 
ceased.  Lepers  were  obliged  to  live  in  a  detached  situation, 
separate  from  other  people,  and  to  keep  themselves  actually 
at  a  distance  from  them.  They  were  distinguished  by  a  pe- 
culiar dress  ;  and  if  any  person  approached,  they  were  bound 
to  give  him  warning,  by  crying  out.  Unclean.'  unclean.' 
Other  polluted  persons,  again,  could  not  directly  touch  those 
that  were  clean,  without  defiling  them  in  like  manner,  and 
were  obliged  to  remain  without  u\ecamp,  that  they  mightnot 
be  in  their  way.  (Num.  v.  1 — 4.)  Eleven  different  s^pecies 
of  impurity  are  enumerated  in  the  Levitical  law,  to  which  the 
later  Jews  added  many  others.     But  the  severest  of  all  was, 

1.  The  Leprosy,  an  infectious  disease  of  slow  and  imper- 
ceptible progress,  beginning  very  insidiously  and  gently,  for 
the  most  part  with  one  little  bright  spot,  which  causes  no 
trouble,  though  no  means  will  make  it  disappear :  but  in- 
creasing with  time  into  furfiiraceous  scales  that  ultimately 
become  a  thick  scab,  it  imperceptibly  passes  into  a  disease, 
which,  thou<rh  divested  of  its  deadly  nature  in  our  temperate 
climates  and  by  our  superior  cleanliness,  is  in  the  East 
attended  with  the  most  formidable  symptoms :  such  as  morti- 
fication and  separation  of  whole  limbs,  and  when  arrived  at  a 
certain  stage,  it  is  altogether  incurable.  As  the  varieties  and 
symptoms  of  this  frightful  malady  are  discussed  at  length  in 
a  subsequent  part  of  this  work,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  remark, 
for  the  present,  that,  among  the  heathens,  the  leprosy  was 
considered  as  inflicted  by  their  gods,  by  whom  alone  it  could 
be  removed,  and  the  same  notion  appears  to  have  prevailed 
among  the  Israelites  ;  for  when  the  King  of  Syria  sent  Naa- 
nian,  his  commander-in-chief,  to  the  king  of  Israel,  to  heal 
him  of  his  leprosy,  the  latter  exclaimed, — im  I  God,  to  kill 
and  to  make  alive,  that  this  man  doth  send  unto  me,  to  recover 
a  man  of  his  leprosy?  (2  Kings  v.  7.)  Some  instances  are 
also  recorded  in  which  this  disease  is  represented  as  a  punish- 
ment immediately  inflicted  by  God  for  particular  sins ;  as  in 
the  cases  of  Miriam,  Gehazi,  and  kin^  Uzziah.  This  circum- 
stance, connected  with  the  extreme  foulness  of  the  disorder, 
rendered  it  a  very  striking  emblem  of  moral  pollution  ;  and 
the  exclusion  of  persons  infected  with  it  from  tne  worship  and 
people  of  God  was  fitted  not  only  to  humble  and  reform  the 


134 


SACRED  OBLIGATIONS  AND  DUTIES. 


[Part  IH.  Chap.   V. 


offenders,  but  also  to  impress  upon  the  mind  the  most  solemn 
and  useful  instructions. 

The  person  who  had  been  healed  of  leprosy  was  minutely 
examined  by  the  priest,  who  proceeded  to  perform  the  rites 
and  sacrifices  of  purification,  whicli  are  minutely  described 
in  Lev.  xiv.,  in  order  that  the  patient  might  be  readmitted 
into  society  and  to  the  privileges  of  the  Jewish  church. 
Among  these  sacrifices  and  ceremonies,  the  following  is  very 
remarkable  : — "  The  priest  was  required  to  take  two  small 
birds,  and  to  kill  one  of  them  over  an  earthen  vessel  filled 
with  river  water,  so  that  the  blood  might  be  mixed  with  the 
water.  He  was  then  to  dip  the  other  or  living  bird  into  the 
water,  and  sprinkle  the  leper  with  it  seven  times  with  a  stick 
of  cedar  wood,  upon  which  a  bunch  of  hyssop  was  tied  with 
a  scarlet  thread ;  after  which  the  priest  was  to  pronounce  him 
purified,  and  let  loose  the  living  bird  into  the  open  air.  (Lev. 
xiv.  2 — 7.)  This  ceremony  seems  to  be  typical  of  the  puri- 
fication of  our  sins  by  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood  of  Jesus 
Christ  (Isa.  lii.  15.  I  Pet.  i.  2.),  which  flowed  out  of  his 
wounded  side  mixed  with  water  (John  xix.  34.)  ;  while  the 
dismissal  of  the  living  bird  resembles  that  of  the  scape-goat 
into  the  wilderness,  with  the  sins  of  the  leper  upon  him. 
Our  Lord  expressly  commanded  the  lepers,  whom  he  healed, 
to  conform  to  the  law."  (Matt.  viii.  4.  Mark  i.  44.  Luke  v. 
14.  xvii.  14.)' 

Besides  the  leprosy  of  the  person,  Moses  mentions  two 
other  species  of  leprosy,  viz.  of  clothes  and  of  houses,  which 
are  in  a  great  measure  unknown  in  Europe. 

2.  The  Leprosy  of  Clothes  is  described  m  Lev.  xiii.  47 — 59. 
as  consisting  of  green  or  reddish  spots,  which  remain  in  spite 
of  washing  and  continue  to  spread ;  so  that  the  cloth  becomes 
bald  or  bare,  sometimes  on  one  side,  and  sometimes  on  the 
other.  From  the  information  which  Michaelis  received  from 
a  woollen  manufacturer,  he  supposes  this  disease  to  arise  in 
woollen  cloth,  from  the  use  of  the  wool  of  sheep  that  have 
died  of  disease ;  which  when  worn  next  the  skin  (as  in  the 
East)  is  very  apt  to  produce  vermin.  With  respect  to  leather 
and  linen,  he  could  obtain  no  information. 

Clothes  suspected  to  be  thus  tainted  were  to  be  inspected 
by  the  priest;  if  they  were  found  to  be  corroded  by  the 
leprosy,  they  were  to  be  burnt ;  but  if,  after  being  washed, 
the  plague  was  found  to  have  departed  from  them,  they  were 
to  be  pronounced  clean. 

3.  The  House  Leprosy  is  said  in  Lev.  xiv.  33 — 37.  to  con- 
sist of  greenish  or  reddish  spots  or  dimples,  that  appear  on 
the  walls,  and  continually  spread  wider  and  wider.  Michaelis 
considers  it  to  be  the  same  as  the  saltpetre,  which  sometimes 
attacks  and  corrodes  houses  that  stand  in  damp  situations. 
Although  in  Europe  unattended  with  any  injury  to  health,  in 
Palestine  it  might  be  hurtful ;  so  that  the  Mosaic  regulations 
in  this  respect  are  both  wise  and  provident. 

When  a  house  was  suspected  to  be  thus  tainted,  the  priest 
was  to  examine  it,  and  ordered  it  to  be  shut  up  seven  days. 
If  he  found  that  the  plague  or  signs  of  the  plague  had  not 
spread,  he  commanded  it  to  be  shut  up  seven  days  more.     On 

»  Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  273. 


the  thirteenth  day  he  revisited  it ;  and  if  he  found  the  infected 
place  dim,  or  gone  away,  he  took  out  that  part  of  the  wall, 
carried  it  out  to  an  unclean  place,  mended  the  wall,  and 
caused  the  whole  house  to  be  newly  plastered.  It  was  then 
shut  up  a  third  seven  days  :  he  once  more  inspected  it  on  the 
nineteenth  day ;  and  if  he  found  that  the  plague  had  broken 
out  anew,  he  ordered  the  house  to  be  pullea  down.  If  on 
the  other  hand  it  was  pronounced  to  be  clean,  an  offering  was 
made  on  the  occasion ;  in  order  that  every  one  might  certainly 
know  that  it  was  not  infected,  and  the  public  might  be  freed 
from  all  apprehensions  on  that  account. 

V.  Various  other  legal  impurities  are  enumerated  in  Lev. 
xii.  1 — 8.  and  xv.  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  detail.  To 
which  we  may  add,  that  all  human  corpses  and  the  carcasses 
of  beasts  that  died  in  any  other  way  than  by  the  knife,  were 
regarded  as  unclean.  Whoever  touched  ihe  former,  or  went 
into  the  tent  or  apartment  (after  the  Israelites  had  houses) 
where  a  corpse  lay,  was  unclean  for  seven  daj'^s  ;  and  who- 
ever touched  a  dead  body,  or  even  a  human  bone,  or  a  grave 
in  the  fields,  was  unclean  for  the  same  period.  The  body  of 
a  clean  beast  that  fell  not  by  the  knife,  but  died  in  any  other 
way,  defiled  the  person  who  touched  it,  until  the  evening 
(Lev.  xi.  39.)  ;  and  the  carcasses  of  unclean  beasts,  by  what- 
ever means  they  died,  did  the  same.  (Lev.  v.  2.  xi.  8.  11. 
24,  25.  27,  28.  31.  Dent.  xiv.  8.)  The  consequence  of  this 
law  was,  that  the  carcasses  of  beasts  were  not  suffered  to 
remain  above  ground,  but  were  put  into  the  earth,  that  pas- 
sengers might  not  be  in  danger  of  pollution  from  them. 

By  these  wise  enactments,  the  spreading  of  contagious 
diseases  would  be  effectually  prevented,  which  in  hot  cli- 
mates are  peculiarly  rapid  and  fatal.  For  the  same  reason, 
also,  Michaelis  is  of  opinion,  that  Moses  commanded  tlie 
Israelites  to  break  earthen  vessels,  which  were  liable  to  be 
defiled  by  being  left  uncovered  in  a  tent  or  apartment  where 
a  person  died,  or  a  corpse  lay  (Num.  xix.  15.),  or  by  an 
unclean  beast  falling  into  them  (Lev.  xi.  33.),  or  by  the  touch 
of  a  diseased  person.  (Lev.  xv.  12. )2 

Such  are  the  Mosaic  statutes  concerning  purifications  and 
impurities.  Profane  scoffers,  who  deride  those  things,  the 
reason  and  propriety  of  which  they  will  not  take  the  trouble 
to  investigate,  have  ridiculed  them  as  too  minute, — especially 
those  respecting  the  different  species  of  leprosy, — and  as 
unworthy  to  be  made  part  of  a  divine  law.  But  every  well 
regulated  mind  surely  must  discern  in  them  both  the  good- 
ness and  wisdom  of  Jehovah  towards  his  chosen  people,  in 
giving  them  precepts  which  were  calculated  not  only  to  pre- 
serve their  health  and  regulate  their  morals,  but  also  to 
accustom  them  to  obedience  to  his  will  in  every  respect. 
The  leprosy  has  ever  been  considered  as  a  lively  emblem  of 
that  moral  taint  or  "  corruption  of  the  nature  of  every  man 
that  naturally  is  engendered  of  the  offspring  of  Adam  ;''''^  as  the 
sacrifices,  which  were  to  be  offered  by  the  healed  leper,  pre- 
figured that  spotless  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of 
the  world. 

a  Schulzii  Archseologia  Hebraica,  pp.  303—310.     Michaelis's  Commen- 
taries, vol.  iii.  pp.  254 — 335. 
3  Article  ix.  of  the  Confession  of  the  Anglican  Church. 


Sect.  I.] 


CORRUPTIONS  OF  RELIGION  AMONG  THE  JEWS. 


135 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON    THE    CORRUPTIONS    OF    RELIGION    AMONG    THE    JEWS. 

SECTION  I. 


ON  THE  IDOLATRY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


Oriffin  and  Progress  of  idolatry. — Sketch  of  its  JFiatory  umonff  the  Israelites  and  Jews. — II.  Idols  worshipped  by  the 
hrueUtes  alone. — III.  Idnh  of  the  Ammonites,  luorshipped  by  the  Israelites. — IV.  Idols  of  the  Canaanitcs  or  Syrians. — 
V.  Plianician  Idols. — VI.  nahyhnian  and  .'issyriim  /do/.s. — VII.  Idols  -worshipped  in  Samaria  during-  the  Captivity. — 
Hieroglyphic  Stones,  luhy  prohibited  to  the  Jews. — VIII.  Idols  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  mentioned  ill  the  J\'eiu  Testament. 
— IX.  Allusions  in  the  Scriptures  to  the  idolatrous  Worship  of  the  Heathen  JVations. — X.  Different  Kinds  of  Divination. 


I.  Idolatry  is  the  superstitions  worship  of  idols  or  false 
gods.  From  (Jen.  vi.  5.  coinpiircd  with  Rom.  i.  23.  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  practised  before  the  flood  ; 
and  this  conjecture  is  confirmed  by  the  apostle  Jude  (ver.  4.), 
who,  describing  the  character  ot  certain  men  in  his  days 
that  dcnird  the  oiili/  Lord  God,  adds  in  the  eleventh  verse  of 
his  ej)istle,  IP'i)  unto  them,  fur  ihci/  are  irone  into  the  way  of 
Cain  ;  whence  it  may  l)e  interred  that  Cain  and  his  descend- 
ants were  the  first  who  threw  off  the  sense  of  a  God,  and 
worshipped  the  creature  instead  of  the  Creator.' 

The  heavenly  bodies  were  the  first  objects  of  idolatrous 
worship  ;  and  Mesopotamia  and  Chaldaaa  were  the  countries 
where  it  chiefly  prevailed  after  the  delnjre.^  Before  .leho- 
vah  vouchsafeci  to  reveal  himself  to  them,  both  Terah  and 
his  son  Abraiiam  were  idolaters  (Josh.  xxiv.  2.)  ;  as  also  was 
haban,  the  father-in-law  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxi.  10.  30.); 
thoufjh  he  appears  to  have  had  some  idea  of  the  true  God, 
from  his  mentionincr  the  name  of  Jehovah  on  several  occa- 
sions. (Gen.  xxiv.  31.  50,  51.)  Previously  to  Jacob  and  his 
sons  oroing;  into  En^rpt,  idolatry  prevailed  in  Canaan ;  and  while 
their  posterity  were  resident  in  that  country,  it  appears  from 
Josh.  xxiv.  14.  and  Ezek.  xx.  7,  8.  that  they  worshipped  the 
deities  of  Ewypt. 

On  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  although 
Moses  by  the  command  and  instruction  of  Jehovah  had  given 
them  such  a  religion  as  no  other  nation  possessed,  and  not- 
withstanding all  his  laws  were  directed  to  preserve  them 
from  idolatry;  yet,  so  wayward  were  the  Israelites,  that 
almost  immediately  after  their  deliverance  from  bondage  we 
find  them  worshipping  idols.  (Exod.  xxxii.  1.  Psal.cvi.  19, 
20.  Acts  vii.  41 — 43.)  Soon  after  their  entrance  into  the 
land  of  (/anaan,  they  adopted  various  deities  that  were 
worshipped  by  the  Canaanites,  and  other  neighbouring  na- 
tions (Judg.  ii.  13.  viii.  33.^;  for  which  base  ingratitude 
they  were  severely  punishea.  Shortly  after  the  death  of 
Joshua,  the  government  became  so  unsettled,  that  every 
7nan  did  thai  v)ltich  .leenied  right  /??,  his  own  eyes.     The  pro- 

f)het  Azariah  describes  the  infelicity  of  these  times,  when 
le  sa)'s,  Thry  ivere  without  the  true  God,  without  a  teaching 
priest,  and  without  the  htw  (2  Chron.  xv.  3.) ;  and  as  anarchy 

1»revailed,  so  did  idolatry,  which  first  crept  into  the  tribe  of 
']phraim  in  the  house  of  Micah,  and  then  soon  spread  itself 
amongst  the  Danites.  (Judg.  xvii.  xviii.)  Nor  were  the  other 
tribes  free  from  this  infection,  during  this  dissolution  of  the 
government;  for  it  is  said.  They  forsook  the  Lord  and  served 
Baal  and  .'ishtarolh,  and  followed  the  other  gods  of  the  people 
round  about  them.  (Judg.  ii.  13.  12.) 

Ihider  the  government  of  Samuel,  Saul,  and  David,  the 
worship  of  God  seems  to  have  been  purer  than  in  former  times. 
Solomon  is  the  first  king,  who,  out  of  complaisance  to  the 
strange  women  he  had  married,  caused  temples  to  be  erected 
in  honour  of  their  gods;  and  so  far  impiously  complied  with 
them  himself,  as  to  offer  incense  to  these  false  deities  (1  Kings 
xi.  5 — H.) ;  so  fatal  an  evil  is  lust  to  the  best  understand- 
ings, which  besots  every  one  it  overcomes,  and  reigns  over 
them  with  uncontrolled  power  Solomon,  it  is  true,  did  not 
arrive  at  thaloitch  of  audacity  which  some  of  his  successors 
afterwards  did  ;  but  his  giving  the  smallest  countenance  to  the 
breach  of  the  divine  law,  among  a  ])eople  so  prone  to  idola- 
try, co>ilfl  not  but  be  attended  with  the  worst  consequences  ; 
and  accordingly,  upon  his  death,  the  glory  of  his  kingdom 
was  speedily  eclipsed  by  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  and  the 
<  Thf  liistory  of  the  origin  and  progress  of  idolatry  arc  ably  traced  in 
Pr.  Graves's  Lectures  on  tlie  Pent;Ueiich,  vol.  i.  pp.  1^—190. 

»  On  the  subject  of  Zabianisin,  or  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  stars, 
there  is  an  interesting  dissertation  in  Dr.  Townlev's  Translation  of  Mai- 
mooides's  Reasons  of  the  Laws  of  Mose    pp.  38—47. 


division  of  his  kingdom.  Tliis  civil  defection  was  attended 
with  a  S])iritual  one,  for  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat,  who 
succeeded  liim  in  the  govermoent  of  the  ten  tribes  which 
had  revolted  (and  who  himself  had  probably  been  initiated 
in  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  neiglibouring  nations,  when 
he  took  refuge  from  Solomon's  jealousy  at  the  court  of  Shi- 
shak),  soon  introduced  the  worship  of  two  golden  calves, 
the  one  at  Dan  and  the  other  at  Bethel.  He  made  choice  of 
Bethel,  because  it  had  long  been  esteemed  as  a  place  sacred 
for  the  real  appearance  of  God  in  ancient  times  to  Jacob,  and 
might,  therefore,  induce  the  people  to  a  more  ready  belief  of 
the  residence  of  the  same  Deity  now ;  and  Dan  (as  already 
observed)  being  at  the  extremity  of  the  kingdom,  was  the 
place  whither  that  part  of  tiie  country  resorted  on  account  of 
Micah's  teraphim.  Idolatry  being  thus  established  in  Israel 
by  public  authority,  and  countenanced  by  all  their  princes, 
was  universally  adopted  by  the  people,  notwithstanding  all 
the  remonstrances  against  it  by  the  prophets  whom  God  sent 
to  reclaim  them  from  time  to  time,  and  who  stood  as  a  barrier 
against  this  growing  wickedness,  regardless  of  all  the  perse- 
cutions of  impious  Jezebel,  who  did  what  she  could  utterly 
to  extinguish  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  At  lengtii  this 
brought  a  flood  of  calamities  upon  that  kingdom,  and  was 
the  source  of  all  the  evils  with  which  that  people  were  after- 
wards afflicted ;  so  that,  after  a  continual  scene  of  tragical 
deaths,  civil  wars,  and  judgments  of  various  kinds,  they 
were  at  length  carried  away  captive  by  Shalmaneser  into 
Assyria. 

The  people  of  Judah  were  little  better.  One  might  justly 
have  expected,  that,  if  there  had  been  no  other  reason  than 
state  policy  for  preserving  the  true  religion  in  its  native  purity, 
that  alone  would  have  been  sufficient  to  prevent  any  other  false 
worship  from  being  set  up,  and  that  the  same  motives,  which 
induced  the  ten  tribes  to  establish  a  strange  worship,  would 
have  induced  Judah  to  be  jealous  for  the  true  one.  But  the 
event  proved  otherwise ;  for  notwithstanding  the  great  strength 
added  to  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  by  those  who  resorted  thither 
out  of  other  tribes  for  the  sake  of  religion,  prosperity  inflated 
Rehoboam  and  soon  ruined  him.  It  is  said  that  he  continued 
but  three  years  walking  in  the  ways  of  David  and  Solomon. 
(2  Chron.  xi.  17.)  After  which  these  idolatrous  inclinations 
began  to  appear,  which  probably  were  instilled  into  him  by 
his  mother  Naamah,  who  was  an  Ammonitess.  (1  Kings  xiv. 
21.)  In  short,  he  forsook  the  hiw  of  the  Lord,  and  all  Israel 
with  him  (2  Chron.  xii.  1.),  and  fell  into  the  grossest  idolatry 
above  all  inat  their  fathers  had  done.  (1  Kin^s  xiv.  22.)  But 
God  soon  corrected  him  and  his  people,  havintr  delivered  them 
into  the  hands  of  Shishak  king  of  Egypt,  \\\\o  with  a  vast 
army  entered  the  country,  took  their  cities,  and  plundered 
Jerusalem  and  the  temple  of  all  the  riches  which  David  and 
Solomon  had  treasured  up  there.  (2  Chron.  xii.  2.)  Upon 
their  repentance  and  humiliation,  the  anger  of  Jehovah  was 
soon  mitigated ;  and  we  do  not  find  that  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  fell  into  any  gross  acts  of  idolatrj'  till  the  reign  of  Ahaz, 
who  was  the  most  impious  prince  that  ever  sat  upon  that 
throne.  He  was  not  content  with  walking  in  the  ways  of  the 
kings  of  Israel,  and  making  molten  images  of  Baalim  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.  2.),  but  he  carried  his  wicked  inclinations  still  farther, 
and  imitated  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  land  in  their  cruel  and 
idolatrous  practices ;  for  it  is  said  of  him  that  he  burnt  incense 
in  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Uinnom,  and  burnt  his  children  in 
the  fire  (ver.  3.)  ;  or,  as  we  read  in  2  Kings  xvi.  3.,  He  made 
his  son  to  pass  through  the  fire,  which  doubtless  was  the 
passing  through  the  fire  to  Moloch,  so  expressly  prohibited  in 
Lev.  xviii.  21.  For  these  impieties  Ahaz  was  justly  punished 
by  God,  and  after  a  con&tant  course  of  all  manner  of  wicked- 


136 


CORRUPTIONS  OF  RELIGION  AMONG  THE  JEWS. 


[Paht  III.  Chap.  VI. 


ness,  died  in  the  flower  of  his  age ;  but  was  happily  succeeded 
by  his  sou  Hezekiah,  who,  among  other  reformations,  it  is 
said,  bruke  in  pieces  the  brazen  serpent  that  Moses  had  made,  to 
xohich  the  children  of  Israel  did  burn  incense.  (2  Kingsxviii.  4.) 
But  Hezekiah's  reformation  was  soon  overturned  upon  the 
succession  of  liis  wicked  son  Manasseh,  who  seems  to  have 
made  it  his  business  to  search  out  what  God  in  his  law  had 
forbidden,  and  to  make  the  practice  of  it  his  study.  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  3—8.) 

The  princes  who  succeeded  (Josiah  only  excepted)  and 
their  people  seem  to  have  lived  in  a  kind  of  competition  with 
one  another  in  wickedness  and  idolatry,  and  to  have  given 
a  loose  to  the  wildness  of  tlieir  imaginations  in  the  worship 
of  God,  which  brought  upon  Judah  and  her  people  the  utmost 
fury  of  God's  wrath,  and  those  judgments  which  had  been  de- 
creed, and  which  ended  in  the  captivity  of  king  and  people." 
At  length,  however,  become  wiser  by  the  severe  discipline 
they  had  received,  the  tribes  that  returned  into  their  native 
country  from  the  Babylonian  captivity  wholly  renounced 
idolatry;  and  thenceforth  uniformly  evinced  the  most  deeply- 
rooted  aversion  from  all  strange  deities  and  foreign  modes  of 
worship.  This  great  reformation  was  accomplished  by  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah,  and  the  eminent  men  who  accompanied  or 
succeeded  them  :  but,  in  the  progress  of  time,  though  the  ex- 
terior of  piety  was  maintained,  the  "  power  of  godliness"  was 
lost;  and  we  learn  from  the  New  Testament,  that,  during  our 
Saviour's  ministry,  the  .Tews  were  divided  into  various  reli- 
gious parties,  which  widely  differed  in  opinion,  and  pursued 
each  other  with  the  fiercest  animosity,  and  with  implacable 
hatred. 

Very  numerous  are  the  idols  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures, 
particularly  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  proposed  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  of  this  section  to  offer,  in  the  first  place,  a  short 
notice  of  the  idols  which  were  peculiar  to  the  Israelites;  and, 
secondly,  of  those  which  they  adopted  from  the  Ammonites, 
Syrians,  PhcEnicians,  Babylonians,  and  other  nations  of  anti- 
quity .2 

11.  Idols  worshipped  particularly  by  the  Israelites. — 
Scarcely,  as  we  have  already  observed,  had  the  children  of 
Israel  been  delivered  from  their  cruel  bondage  in  Egypt,  when 
they  returned  to  those  idols  to  which  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed. 

1.  The  first  object  of  their  idolatrous  worship  was  a  Golden 
Calf.  (Exod.  xxxii.  1 — 6.)  Having  been  conducted  through 
the  wilderness  by  a  pillar  of  cloud  and  fire,  which  preceded 
them  in  their  marches,  while  that  cloud  covered  the  mountain 
where  INIoses  was  receiving  the  divine  commands,  they  ima- 
gined that  it  would  no  longer  be  their  guide  ;  and  therefore 
they  applied  to  Aaron  to  make  for  them  a  sacred  sign  or  sym- 
bol, as  other  nations  had,  which  might  visibly  represent  God 
to  them.  With  this  request  Aaron  unhappily  complied :  the 
veople  offered  burnt-offerings,  arid  brought  peace-offerings,  and 
sat  down  to  eat  and  to  drink,  and  rose  up  to  play.  The  mate- 
rials of  this  idol  were  the  golden  ear-rings  of  the  people, 
worn  in  these  eastern  countries  by  men  as  well  as  women ; 
and  probably  they  were  some  of  the  jewels  which  they  had 
demanded  of  the  Egyptians.  They  were  cast  in  a  mould  by 
Aaron,  and  subsequently  chiselled  into  a  calf,  which  is  gene- 
rally supposed  to  have  been  an  exact  resemblance  of  the  cele- 
brated Egyptian  deity.  Apis,  who  was  worshipped  under  the 
form  of  an  ox.  This  ancient  Egyptian  superstition  is  still 
perpetuated  on  Mount  Libanus,  by  those  Druses  who  assume 
the  name  of  Okkals,  and  who  pay  divine  honours  to  a  ca/f.^ 

2.  In  imitation  of  this  were  the  two  Golden  Calves,  made 
by  Jeroboam,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  after  the  secession  of  the 
ten  tribes.  The  Egyptians  had  two  oxen,  one  of  which  they 
worshipped  under  the  name  of  Apis,  at  Memphis,  the  capital 
of  Upper  Egypt,  and  the  other  under  the  name  of  Mnevis,  at 
Hierapolis,  the  metropolis  of  Lower  Egypt.  In  like  manner, 
Jeroboam  set  up  one  of  his  calves  at  Bethel,  and  the  other  at 
Dan.  (I  Kings  xii.  28 — 32.)  Like  the  idolaters  in  the  wil- 
derness, this  leader  of  the  rebels  proclaimed  before  the  idols 
upon  the  feast  of  their  consecration,  7'Aese  are  thy  gods,  0 
Israel,  which  brought  thee  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt!  as  if  he 

'  Home's  Hist,  of  the  .Tews,  vol.  ii.  pp.  282 — 291. 

»  The  following  account  of  the  iiJols  worshipped  by  the  .lews  is  abridged 
riiicipally  from  Ijamy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  vol.  ii.  pp.  17G — 188.  Calmet's 
)issertations  in  liis  Commentaire  Lilttral,  torn.  i.  partii.  pp.  173 — 178.  and 
torn.  vi.  pp.  74-5—752.  and  his  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  under  the  several 
names  of  the  idol  deities.  Lewis's  Origines  Hebra^ae,  vol.  iii.  pp.  1 — 102. 
Jahn's  Archaeologia  Biblica,  §§  400 — tl-O.  Ackerinann's  Archojologia 
Biblica,  §§  387 — ^102.  Millar's  Hist,  of  the  Propagation  of  Christianity,  vol. 
i.  pp.  227—340.  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron,  book  iv.  pp.  140 — 178.  and 
Albcr,  Inst.  Herm.  Vet.  Test.  torn.  i.  pp.  394—406. 
»  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  2&i. 


K 


had  said,  "  God  is  every  where  in  his  essence,  and  cannot  be 
included  in  any  place :  he  dwells  among  you  here  as  well  as 
at  Jerusalem,  and  if  you  require  any  symbols  of  his  presence, 
behold  here  they  are  in  these  calves  which  I  have  set  up;" 
for  they  could  not  be  so  stupid  as  to  believe,  that  the  idols 
taken  just  before  out  of  the  furnace  had  l)een  their  di  liverers, 
so  iTiany  ages  before.  It  is  evident,  that  the  worship  of  these 
calves  was  not  regarded  by  the  sacred  writers  and  by  the  pro- 
phets, as  an  absolute  Pagan  idolatry,  but  only  as  a  schism, 
which  was  indeed  very  criminal  in  itself,  but  did  not  come 
up  to  the  degree  of  a  total  apostasy ;  for  the  history  of  the 
revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  introduces  Jeroboam  speakingiiot  like 
a  person  whose  intention  was  to  make  the  people  change  their 
religion,  but  as  representing  to  them  that  the  true  Gocf,  being 
every  where,  was  not  confined  to  any  certain  place,  and, 
therefore,  they  might  pay  their  devotions  to  him  as  well  in 
Dan  and  Bethel  as  at  .Jerusalem. 

The  worship  offered  before  these  images  is  supposed  to 
have  been  in  imitation  of  the  ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic  law. 

As  most  of  the  priests  of  the  family  of  Aaron,  and  the 
Levites  who  had  their  cities  and  abodes  among  the  ten  re- 
volted tribes,  retired  into  the  dominions  of  the  king  of  J  udah, 
to  avoid  joining  in  the  schism,  which  proved  a  great  addi- 
tional strength  to  the  house  of  David  ;  Jeroboam  seized  their 
cities  and  estates,  and  he  eased  the  people  of  paying  their 
tithes,  there  being  none  to  demand  them ;  so  he  gratified 
them  by  making  priests  out  of  every  tribe  and  family,  even 
in  the  extreme  part  of  the  country.  The  pontificate  and 
supremacy  over  this  schismatical  priesthood  he  reserved  in 
his  own  hands.  These  idols  were  at  length  destroyed  by 
the  kings  of  Assyria;  the  calf  in  Bethel  was  carried  to 
Babylon,  with  other  spoils,  by  Shalmaneser,  and  the  other  in 
Dan  was  seized  by  Tiglath-Pileser,  about  ten  years  before, 
in  the  invasion  which  he  made  upon  Galilee,  in  which  pro- 
vince the  city  stood. 

3.  The  Brazen  Serpent  was  an  image  of  polished  brass, 
in  the  form  of  one  of  those  fiery  serpents  (or  serpents  whose 
bite  was  attended  with  violent  inflammation)  which  were 
sent  to  chastise  the  murmuring  Israelites  in  the  wilderness. 
By  divine  command  Moses  made  a  serpent  of  brass,  or  copper, 
and  put  it  upon  a  pole ;  and  it  came  to  pass  that  if  a  serpent 
had  bitten'  any  man,  when  he  beheld  the  serpent  of  brass,  he 
lived.  (Num.  xxi.  6 — 9.)  This  brazen  serpent  was  preserved 
as  a  monument  of  the  divine  mercy,  but  in  process  of  time 
became  an  instrument  of  idolatry.  When  this  superstition 
began,  it  is  difficult  to  determine ;  but  the  best  account  is 
given  by  the  Jewish  rabbi,  David  Kimchi,  in  the  following 
manner.  From  the  time  that  the  kings  of  Israel  did  evil, 
and  the  children  of  Israel  followed  idolatry,  till  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  they  offered  incense  to  it ;  for,  it  being  ■written  in 
the  law  of  Moses,  whoever  looketh  upon  it  shall  live,  they 
fancied  they  might  obtain  blessings  by  its  mediMion,  and, 
therefore,  thought  it  worthy  to  be  worshipped.  It  had  been 
kept  from  the  days  of  Moses,  in  memory  of  a  miracle,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  pot  of  manna  was  :  and  Asa  and 
Jehoshaphat  did  not  extirpate  it  when  they  rooted  out  idola- 
try, because  in  their  reign  they  did  not  observe  that  the 
people  worshipped  this  serpent,  or  burnt  incense  to  it;  and, 
therefore,  they  left  it  as  a  memorial.  But  Hezekiah  thought 
fit  to  take  it  quite  away,  when  he  abolishgd  other  idolatry, 
because  in  the  time  of  his  father  they  adored  it  as  an  idol ; 
and  though  pious  people  among  them  accounted  it  only  as  a 
memorial  of^  a  wonderful  work,  yet  he  judged  it  better  to 
abolish  it,  though  the  memory  of  the  miracle  should  happen 
to  be  lost,  than  suffer  it  to  remain,  and  leave  the  Israelites  in 
danger  of  committing  idolatry  hereafter  with  it. 

On  the  subject  of  the  serpent-bitten  Israelites  being  healed 
by  looking  at  the  brazen  serpent,  there  is  a  good  comment  in 
the  book  of  Wisdom,  chap.  xvi.  ver.  4 — 12.  in  which  are 
thesQ  remarkable  words  : — "They  were  admonished,  having 
a  sign  of  salvation  (?'.  e.  the  brazen  serpent)  to  put  them  in 
remembrance  of  the  commandments  of  thy  law.  For  he  that 
turned  himself  towards  it,  was  not  saved  by  the  thing  that 
he  saw,  but  by  thee  that  art  the  saviour  of  all."  (ver.  6,  7.) 
To  the  circumstance  of  looking  at  the  brazen  serpent  in 
order  to  be  healed,  our  Lord  refers  (John  iii.  14,  15.),  Jls 
Moses  lifted  up  the  serpent  in  the  wilderness,  even  so  mu  t  the 
Son  of  man  be  lifted  up,  that  whosoever  believeth  in  him,  should 
not  perish,  but  have  eternal  life:  from  which  words  we  may 
learn,  1.  That  as  the  serpent  was  lifted  up  on  the  pole  or 
ensign  ,-  so  Jesus  Christ  was  lifted  up  on  the  cross.  2.  That 
as  the  Israelites  were  to  look  at  the  brazen  serpent ;  so  sin-' 
ners  must  look  to  Christ  for  salvation.     3.  That  as  God  pro- ' 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  IDOLATRY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


137 


vided  no  other  remedy  than  this  /ookinir,  for  tlw;  wovinded 
Israelites;  no  ho  has  provided  no  other  way  of  salvation  than 
fuil/i  in  the  lilood  of  iiis  Son.  4.  Tliat  u-s  lie  who  looked  at 
the  hrazen  serpent  was  cured  and  did  live  ,-  so  ho,  that  believeth 
on  the  Lord  Jesus  ('lirist  shall  no/  peri.s/i,  bnt  have  eternal 
Ife.  5.  That  as  neither  the  serpent,  nor  ljio/iin<(  at  it,  hut  the 
invisible  power  of  God,  healed  the  peoph;;  so  neither  the 
cross  of  Cnrist,  nor  his  merely  Ijeiit^  crucifud,  but  the  pardon 
he  has  houffht  by  his  blood,  conininnieated  by  the  powerful 
tner^y  of  his  Spirit,  saves  tin;  souls  of  men.  May  not  all 
these  things  be  plainly  seen  in  the  r/r«/;/i.v/«;(«-.'(of  this  trans- 
action, witliout  makinir  tin;  scr/ient  a  type  of  Jesus  ('lirist 
(the  most  exceptionable  that  could  possibly  be  chosen),  and 
running  the  parallel,  as  some  liave  done,  through  ten  or  a 
dozen  of  particulars'?' 

4.  In  Judg.  viii.  21 — 27.  we  read  that  fiideon  made  an 
Ephod  of  gold  from  the  spoils  of  the  Midianites.  'I'his 
ephod  is  sup|)osed  to  have  been  a  rich  sacerdotal  garment, 
made  in  imitation  of  that  worn  by  the  high-priest  at  Siiiloh. 
But  whether  (Jideon  meant  it  as  a  commemorative  trophy,  or 
had  a  Levitical  priest  in  his  house,  it  is  difhcull  to  determine. 
llbecame,  however,  a  stiure  to  all  Israel,  who  dwelt  in  Gilead, 
and  on  the  eastern  side  of  Jordan ;  who  thus  having  an  ephod 
and  worship  in  their  own  country,  would  not  so  readily  go 
over  to  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh,  and,  consequently,  fell  into 
idolatry,  and  worshipped  the  idols  of  their  neighbours  the 
Phoenicians.    (Judg.  viii.  27.  33.) 

5.  The  Teraphiim,  it  appears  from  1  Sam.  xix.  13.,  were 
carved  images  in  a  human  form,  and  household  deities,  like 
tJie  penates  and  lure.s  of  the  Romans  many  centuries  after- 
wards (Gen.  xxxi.  19.  31,  35.  1  Sam.  xix.  l5 — 17.),  of  which 
oracular  inquiries  were  made.  (Judg.  xvii.  .O.  xviii.  5,  fi.  14 
— 20.  Zech.  X.  2.  Hos.  iii.  4.)  This  is  confirmed  by  1  Sam. 
XV.  23.  (marginal  rendering),  where  the  worship  of  teraphim 
is  mentioned  in  conjunction  with  divination.  They  appear 
to  have  been  introduced  among  the  Israelites  from  Mesopo- 
tamia ;  and  continued  to  be  worshipped  until  the  Babylonish 
captivity. 

6.  The  Jews  were  accused  by  the  pagans  of  worshipjping 
the  Head  of  an  Ass;  but  from  this  calumny  they  have  been 
completely  vindicated  by  M.  Schumacher.^  "  Apion,  the 
grammarian,  seems  to  be  the  author  of  this  slander.  He 
aifirmed  that  the  Jews  kept  the  head  of  an  ass  in  the  sanc- 
tuary ;  that  it  was  discovered  there  when  Anticchus  Epi- 

fh.mes  took  the  temple  and  entered  into  the  most  holy  place. 
le  aded,  that  one  Zabidus,  having  secretly  got  into  the  tem- 
ple, carried  oft'  the  ass's  head,  and  conveyed  it  to  Dora. 
Suidas^  says,  that  Damocritus  or  Democritus  the  historian 
averred  that  the  Jews  adored  the  head  of  an  ass,  made  of 
gold,  &c.  Plutarch  and  Tacitus  were  imposed  on  by  this 
calumny.  They  believed  that  the  Hebrews  adored  an  ass, 
out  of  gratitude  for  the  discovery  of  a  fountain  by  one  of 
4hese  creatures  in  the  wilderness,  at  a  time  when  the  army 
of  this  nation  was  parched  with  thirst  and  extremely  fatigued. 
Learned  men  who  have  endeavoured  to  search  into  the  origin 
of  this  slander  are  divided  in  their  opinions.  The  reason 
which  Plutarch  and  Tacitus  gave  for  it  has  nothing  in  the 
history  of  the  Jews  on  which  to  ground  it.  Tanaquil  Faber 
has  attempted  to  prove  that  this  accusation  proceeded  from 
the  temple  in  Egypt  called  Onion  ,■  as  if  this  name  came  from 
onos,  an  ass ;  which  is,  indeed,  very  credible.  The  report  of 
the  Jews  worshipping  an  ass  might  originate  in  Egypt.  We 
know  that  the  Alexandrians  hated  the  Jews,  and  were  much 
addicted  to  raillery  and  defamation.  But  it  was  extremely 
easy  for  them  to  have  known  that  the  temple  Onion,  at  Heli- 
opolis,  was  named  from  Onias,  the  high-priest  of  the  Jews, 
who  built  it  in  the  reitrn  of  Ptolemy  Philomoter  and  Cleopatra. 
Others  have  asserted  that  the  mistake  of  the  heathen  pro- 
ceeded from  an  ambiguous  mode  of  reading  ;  as  if  the  Greeks, 
meaning  to  say  that  the  Hebrews  adored  heaven,  clpu.v'.Y,  might 
in  abbreviation  write  oi^viv ;  whence  the  enemies  of  the  Jews 
concluded  that  they  worshipped  ovof,  an  ass.  Or,  perhaps, 
reading  in  Latin  authors  that  tliey  worshipped  heaven,  caelum. 

'Nil  proeter  nubes  et  coeli  numen  adorant,' 

instead  of  ccelum,  they  read  cillum,  an  ass,  and  so  reported 
that  the  ^ews  adored  this  animal.  Bochart  is  of  opinion 
that  the  error  arose  from  an  expression  in  Scripture,  '  the 

'  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Num.  xxi.  9.  See  also  a  pleasing  and  instructive  con- 
teinplaliiin  of  Bishop  Hall  on  tliig  subject. 

»  De  Uiiitu  Aninialiuui  inter  jE^yptios  et  Judaeos  Cominentatio,  ex  re- 
condita  aniiqnilate  illtisirala  a  M.  Johann.  Heinr.  Schumacher,  sect.  viii. 
et  seq.   (Urun.svigiis,  1773.  4lo.) 

»•  In  Damocrito  et  in  Juda. 

Vol.  II  S 


mouth  of  the  Lord  hath  spoken  it;'  in  the  Hebrew,  Pi-Jeho- 
vah, or  Pi-Jio.  Now,  in  tht^  Egyptian  language,  pito  signifies 
an  ass;  the  Alexandrian  Egyptians  hearing  the  Jews  often 
pronounce  this  word  pieo,  believed  that  they  appealed  to 
their  (lod,  and  thence  inferred  that  they  adored  an  ass. 
These  explications  are  ingenious,  but  not  solid.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  any  one  can  assign  the  true  reason  for  the  calumny ; 
which  miiiht  have  arisen  from  a  joke,  or  an  accident.  JVI. 
Le  !\loine  seems  to  have  succeeded  best,  who  says  that  in 
all  probability  the  golden  urn  containing  the  manna  which 
was  preserved  in  the  sanctuary  was  taken  for  the  head  of  an 
ass  ;  and  that  the  onitr  of  manna  might  have  been  confounded 
with  the  Hebrew  humor,  which  signifies  an  ass."^ 

IlL  InoL  Gods  of  the  Ammonites,  worshipped  by  the 
Chii.dhen  ok  Israel. 

Moi.ocii.  also  called  Molech,  Milcom,  or  Melcom,  was  the 
principal  idol  of  the  Ammonites  (1  Kings  xi.  7.),  vet  not  so 
appropriated  to  them,  but  that  it  was  adopted  by  otlier  neigh- 
bouring nations  for  their  god.  Some  writers  have  supposed 
that  Moloch  was  the  same  as  Saturn,  to  whom  it  is  well 
known  that  human  victims  were  ofl'ered.  But  he  rather  ap- 
pears to  have  been  Baal  or  the  Sun  (Jer.  xxxii.  35.),  and 
was  the  Adrammelech  and  Anammelech  of  the  Sepharvaites, 
who  burnt  their  children  to  them  in  the  fire.  There  is  great 
reason  to  think  that  the  Hebrews  were  addicted  to  the  wor- 
ship of  this  deity  before  their  departure  from  Egypt,  since 
botn  the  prophet  Amos  (v.  26.)  and  the  protomartyr  Stephen 
(Acts  vii.  43.)  reproach  them  with  having  carried  the  taber- 
nacle of  their  god  Moloch  with  them  in  the  wilderness. 
Solomon  built  a  temple  to  Moloch  on  the  Mount  of  Olives 
(1  Kings  xi.  7.),  and  his  impiety  was  followed  by  other 
kings,  his  successors,  who  had  apostatized  from  the  worship 
of  .Tehovah.  The  valley  of  Tophet  and  Hinnom,  on  the  east 
of  Jerusalem,  was  the  principal  scene  of  the  horrid  rites  per- 
formed in  honour  of  INloloch  (Jer.  xix.  5,  6.),  who  it  is  pro- 
bable was  the  same  as  the  Baal,  Bel,  or  Belus  of  the  Car- 
thaginians, Sidonians,  Babylonians,  and  Assyrians. 

IV.  Idol  Gods  of  the  Canaanites  or  Syrians,  worshipped 
BY  THE  Israelites. 

1.  Mr.  Selden,  in  his  elaborate  treatise  on  the  Syrian  gods,* 
mentions  a  goddess,  w'hom  he  terms  Good  F'ortune,  as  the 
first  idol  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  and  worshipped  by  the 
Hebrews.  This  opinion  is  founded  on  the  exclamation  of 
Leah  (Gen.xxx.  11.),  when  her  handmaid  Zilpah  bore  a  son 
to  Jacob.  She  said,  I  am  prosperous  (or  as  some  in  the  pre- 
sent day,  who  ascribe  every  thing  to  chance,  would  saj' — 
Good,  luck  to  me)  ,■  and  she  culled  his  name  Gad,  that  is,  pra^- 
periii/.  Although  this  interpretation  has  been  questioned, 
yet  in  Isa.  Ixv.  11.  Gad  is  unquestionably  joined  with  Meni 
(or  the  Moon),  and  both  are  names  of  idols,  where  the  pro- 
phet says  — 

Ye  ... .  have  de8erted  Jehovah, 

And  liave  forgotten  mv  holy  mountain  ; 

Who  set  in  order  a  table  for  Gad, 

And  fill  out  a  libation  to  Mcni.  Bp.  Lowth's  Version. 

What  these  objects  of  idolatrous  worship  were,  it  is  now 
impossible  exactly  to  ascertain :  it  is  probable  that  the  latter 
was  an  Egyptian  deity.  Jerome,  as  cited  by  bishop  Lowth, 
gives  an  account  of  the  idolatrous  practice  of  the  apostate 
Jews,  which  is  alluded  to  by  the  prophet  of  making  a  feast, 
or  a  lectisternium,  as  the  liomans  called  it,  for  these  pre- 
tended deities.  "  It  is,"  he  says,  "  an  ancient  idolatrous  cus- 
tom in  every  city  in  Egypt,  and  especially  in  Alexandria, 
that  on  the  last  daj  of  the  last  month  in  the  year  they  set 
out  a  table  with  various  kinds  of  dishes,  and  with  a  cup  filled 
\\\ih  a  mixture  of  water,  wine,  and  honey,  indicating  the 
fertility  of  the  past  or  future  year.  This  also  the  Israelites 
did."-; 

2.  Ahad  or  Achad  is  the  name  of  a  Syrian  deity,  under 
which  the  sun  was  worshipped  :  it  is  mentioned  in  Isa.  Ixvi 
17.  where  the  rites  of  this  god  are  described : — 

They  who  sanctify  themselves,  and  purify  themselves 
lu  the  ganleijs,  after  the  riles  of  Achad  ; 
In  the  luidst  of  those  who  eal  swine's  flesh, 
And  the  abomination,  and  the  field  uiou.^e  ; 
Together  shall  they  perish,  sailh  Jehovah. 

Bp.  Lowth's  Version. 

3.  Baal-peor  (Num.  xxv.  1 — 5.)  was  a  deity  of  the 
Moabites  and  Midianites,  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the 
Priapus  of  the  Romans,  and  worshipped  with  similar  ob- 

♦  Pr.  Harris's  Nat.  Hist,  of  the  Bible,  pp.  24,  25.  (American  edit.)  or  pp. 
22,  23.  of  the  London  reprint. 
»  Dp  Diis  Syria,  Syntag.  i.  c  1.  (Works,  vol.  ii.  pp.  255,  268  ) 
«  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  375. 


138 


CORRUPTIONS  OF  RELIGION  AMONG  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  III.  Chap.  VI. 


scene  rites.  (Compare  Hos.  ix.  10.)  Selden  imagined  that 
this  idol  was  the  same  with  Pluto,  from  Psal.  cvi.  28.  They 
joined  themselves  unto  Baul-peor,  and  ate  the  sacrifices  of  the 
dead.  But  this  may  mean  nothing  more  than  the  sacrifices 
and  offerings  made  to  idols,  who  are  j)roperlv  termed  dead, 
in  opposition  to  the  true  God,  the  Creator  andt  Preserver  of 
all  things,  who  is  in  the  Scriptures  repeatedly  and  emphati- 
cally termed  the  living  God.  Chemosh,  the  uhominatiun  of 
Moab,  to  whom  Solomon  erected  an  altar  on  the  Mount  of 
Olives  (I  Kings  xi.  7.),  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  same 
deity  as  Baal-peor.  Servants  are  known  by  the  name  of 
their  lord.  As  the  Israelites  were  called  by  the  name  of  the 
true  God  (2  Chron.  vii.  14.),  so  the  Moabites  are  called 
(Num.  xxi.  29.)  by  the  name  of  their  god,  the  people  of  C he- 
mush, ■  and  other  idolatrous  nations  were  designated  in  a 
similar  manner.    (See  Mic.  iv.  5.) 

4.  RiMMON  was  an  idol  of  the  Syrians,  but  not  worship- 
ped by  the  Israelites :  it  is  mentioned  in  2  Kings  v.  8.  and 
IS  supposed  to  have  been  the  same  as  the  Jupiter  of  the 
ancients. 

5.  AsHTAROTH  or  AsTARTE  (Judg.  ii.  13.  1  Sam.  xxxi.  10. 
2  Kings  xxiii.  13.)  is  generally  understood  to  have  been  the 
moon ;  though  in  later  times  this  idol  became  identified 
with  the  Synan  Venus,  and  was  worshipped  with  impure 
rites.  Astarte  is  still  worshipped  by  the  Druses  of  Mount 
Lihanus.' 

V.  Phcenician  Idols  worshipped  by  the  Israelites. 

1.  None  of  the  heathen  deities,  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  is  more  celebrated  than  Baal. 

The  word  signifies  lord,  master,  and  husband ;  a  name 
which,  doubtless,  was  given  to  their  supreme  deity,  to  him 
whom  they  regarded  as  the  master  of  men  and  gods,  and  of 
the  whole  of  nature.  This  name  had  its  original  from  Phoe- 
nicia, Baal  beino-  a  god  of  the  Phoenicians  :  and  Jezebel, 
daughter  of  Ethl^aal  king  of  the  Zidonians,  brought  this 
deity  from  the  city  of  Zidou ;  for  he  was  the  god  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  and  was  certainly  the  Za/?  of  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Jupiter  of  the  Latins.  This  god  was  known  under  the  same 
name  all  over  Asia  :  it  is  the  same  as  the  Bel  of  the  Baby- 
lonians ;  and  the  same  name  and  the  same  god  went  to  the 
Carthaginians,  who  were  a  colony  of  the  Phoenicians  :2  wit- 
ness tlfe  name  of  Hannibal,  Asdrubal,  Adherbal,  all  con- 
sistinor  of  Bel  or  Baal,  being  the  name  of  the  deity  of  that 
country,  which  was  according  to  the  custom  of  the  East, 
where  the  kings,  and  great  men  of  the  realm,  added  to  their 
own  names  those  of  their  gods.  In  short,  it  seems  to  be  a 
name  common  to  all  idols,  to  whatever  country  they  belonged  ; 
and  when  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Holy  Writings  without  any 
explanatory  circumstance  annexed,  it  is  usually  understood 
to  be  the  principal  deity  of  that  nation  or  place  of  which  the 
sacred  writer  was  speaking. 

This  false  deity  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture  in 
the  plural  number,  Baalim  (1  Sam.  vii.  4.),  which  may  either 
signify  that  the  name  of  Baal  was  given  to  many  different 
gods,  or  may  imply  a  plurality  of  statues  consecrated  to  that 
idol,  and  bearing  several  appellations,  according  to  the  dif- 
ference of  places ;  just  as  the  ancient  heathens  gave  many 
surnames  to  Jupiter,  as  Olympian,  Dodonaean,  and  others, 
according  to  the  names  of  the  places  where  he  was  wor- 
shipped. 

The  false  gods  of  Palestine  and  the  neighbouring  nations 
were  called  Baal  in  general ;  but  there  were  other  Baals 
whose  name  was  compounded  of  some  additional  word,  such 
as  Baal-peor,  Baalberith,  Baalzebub,  and  Baalzephon.  The 
first  of  these  has  already  been  noticed  in  the  preceding 
page. 

2.  Baalberith  was  the  idol  of  the  Shechemiles  (Judg. 
viii.  33.) ;  and  the  temple  of  this  deity  was  their  arsenal  and 
public  treasury.  As  the  Hebrew  word  Berith  signifies  a 
covenant  or  contract,  this  god  is  supposed  to  have  had  his 
appellation  from  his  oihce,  which' was  to  preside  over  cove- 
nants, contracts,  and  oaths.  In  like  manner,  the  Greeks  had 
their  Zw;  Opx/oc ;  and  the  Romans,  their  Deus  Fidius. 

3.  Baalzebub  or  Belzebub  was  the  god  of  the  Ekronites 
(2  Kings  i.  3.),  but  the  origin  of  the  name  (which  in  Hebrew 
denotes  the  god  of  flies')  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain.  As  the 
vicinity  of  this  country  was  long  after  infested  with  minute 

1  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  v.  pp.  32.  453—450. 

*  May  it.  not  be  presumed  that  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Ireland  were  a 
Pha'uician  colony,  from  the  appropriation  of  the  round  towers,  found  in 
that  island,  to  the  preservation  of  the  Baal-Tkintir,  or  sacred  fire  of 
Baal  1  On  this  subject,  the  further  prosecution  of  which  is  foreign  to  the 
I  lai  of  the  present  work,  much  curious  and  antiquarian  information  is  col- 
iei'ted  in  the  notes  to  "The  Druid,"  a  Dramatic  Poem,  by  Tlioinas  Crom- 
well.    London,  1832,  8vo. 


flies  that  stung  severely  all  on  whom  they  settled,  it  is  not 
imnrobable  that  Ekron  was  infested  in  a  similar  manner, 
ana  that  its  inhabitants  had  a  deity  whom  they  supplicated 
for  the  prevention  or  removal  of  this  plague.-  The  Jews,  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  called  the  prince  of  the  devils  by  the  name 
of  Beelzebub.    (Matt.  xii.  24.  Luke  xi.  15.) 

4.  Baalzephon  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  idol,  erected 
to  guard  the  confines  oi  the  Red  Sea,  and  also  the  name  of 
a  place,  where  a  temple  was  erected  for  the  use  of  mariners. 

5.  Dagon,  the  tutelary  deity  of  the  people  of  Ashdod  or 
Azotus,  was  the  Dercetu  of  the  heathens.  Its  name  signifies 
a  fish;  and  its  figure  is  said  to  have  been  that  of  a  man  from 
the  navel  upwards,  and  that  of  a  fish  downwards.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  this  idol  was  commemorative  of  the  preserva- 
tion of  Noah  in  the  ark. 

6.  Tammuz  or  Thammuz,  though  an  Egyptian  deity,  is 
the  same  as  the  Adonis  of  the  Phoinicians  and  Syrians.  For 
this  idol  the  Jewish  women  are  said  to  have  sat  weeping 
before  the  north  gate  of  the  temple.  (Ezek.  viii.  14.)  Lucian' 
has  given  an  account  of  the  rites .oi  this  deity,  which  illus- 
trates the  allusion  of  the  prophet.  "1  saw,"  says  he,  "at 
Biblis,  the  great  temple  of  Venus,  in  which  are  annually 
celebrated  the  mysteries  of  Adonis  in  which  I  am  initiated  ; 
for  it  is  said,  that  he  was  killed  in  the  country  by  a  wild 
boar,  and  in  perpetual  remembrance  of  this  event,  a  public 
mourning  is  solemnized  every  year  with  doleful  lamenta- 
tions: then  follows  a  funeral  as  of  a  dead  body,  and  next 
day  is  celebrated  his  resurrection,  for  it  is  said,  he  flew  up 
into  heaven  :  one  of  the  ceremonies  is  for  women  to  have 
their  heads  shaved  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Egyptians  at 
the  death  of  Apis.  Those  who  refuse  to  be  shaved  are 
obliged  to  prostitute  themselves  a  whole  day  to  strangers, 
and  the  money  which  they  thus  acquire  is  consecrated  to  the 
goddess.  But  some  of  the  Biblians  say,  that  all  those  cere- 
monies are  observed  for  Osiris,  and  that  he  is  buried  in  their 
country,  not  in  Egypt.  In  order  to  which  there  comes  yearly 
a  head,  made  of  papyrus,  brought  by  sea,  from  Egypt  to 
Biblis,  and  I  myself  have  seen  it."  Procopius,  in  his  com- 
mentary on  Isaiah,  more  particularly  explains  this  rite,  and 
observes  that  the  inhabitants  of  Alexandria  annually  prepare 
a  pot  in  wjiich  they  put  a  letter  directed  to  the  women  of 
Biblis,  by  which  they  are  informed  that  Adonis  is  found 
again.  This  pot  being  sealed  up,  they  commit  it  to  the  sea, 
after  performing  some  ceremonies  over  it,  and  command  it  to 
depart ;  accordingly,  the  vessel  immediately  steers  its  course 
to  Biblis,  where  it  puts  an  end  to  the  women's  mourning. 

This  Syrian  Venus  had  a  temple  upon  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain, which  was  built  out  of  the  way  in  a  by-place,  in  the 
midst  of  a  wood  ;  it  was  demolished  by  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine,*  who  put  an  end  to  all  the  filthy  ceremonies  which 
had  been  performed  in  it.  The  image  of  this  goddess,  ac- 
cording to  Macrobius,6  represented  a  woman  in  mourning 
covered  with  a  veil,  having  a  dejected  countenance,  and  tears 
seeming  to  run  down  her  face. 

7.  The  Baithylia  or  Consecrated  Sotnes,  adored  by  the 
early  Phoenicians,  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  most  ancient 
objects  of  idolatrous  worship  ;  and,  probably,  were  after- 
wards formed  into  beautiful  statues,  when  the  art  of  sculp- 
ture became  tolerably  perfected.  They  originated  in  Jacob  s 
setting  up  and  anointing  with  oil  the  ston^  which  he  had 
used  for  a  pillow,  as  a  memorial  of  the  heavenly  vision  with 
which  he  had  been  favoured  (Gen.  xxviii.  18.),  and  also  to 
serve  as  a  token  to  point  out  to  him  the  place  when  God 
should  bring  him  back  again.'  The  idolatrous  unction  of 
stones,  consecrating  them  to  the  memory  of  great  men,  and 
worshipping  them  after  their  death,  must  have  prevailed  to  a 
great  extent  in  the  time  of  Moses,  who  therefore  prohibited 
the  Israelites  from  erecting  them.  (Lev.  xxvi.  1.)  The 
practice  of  setting  up  stones  as  a  guide  to  travellers  still 
exists -in  Persia  and  other  parts  of  the  East.s 

3  See  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  323 — .325. 

«  In  his  treatise  De  Dea  Syria.     Op.  torn.  ix.  pp.  89—91.  edit.  Bipont. 

'  Eusebiiisde  Laudibus  C'onstantini,  pp.  736,  737.  edit.  Reading. 

«  Saturnalia,  lib.  i.  c.  21.  ' 

■>  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Gen.  xxviii.  18. 

8  In  the  course  of  Mr.  Morier's  journey  in  the  interior  of  that  country, 
he  remarked  that  his  old  guide  "every  here  and  there  placed  a  stone  on  a 
conspicuous  bit  of  rock,  or  two  stones  one  upon  the  other,  at  the  same 
time  uttering  some  words  which"  (says  this  intelligent  traveller)  "  I  learnt 
were  a  prayer  for  our  safe  return.  This  explained  to  me,  what  I  had  fre- 
quently seen  before  in  the  East,  and  particularly  on  a  high  road  leading  to 
^  great  town,  whence  thq  town  is  first  seen,  and  where  the  eastern  traveller 
sets  up  his  stone,  accompanied  by  a  devout  exclamation,  as  it  were,  in 
token  of  his  safe  arrival.  The  action  of  our  guide  appears  to  illustrate  the 
vow  which  Jacob  made  when  he  travelled  to  Padan  Aram.  (Gen.  xxviii. 
18 — 22.)  In  seeing  a  stone  on  tlie  road  placed  in  this  position,  or  one  stone 
upon  another,  it  implies  that  some  traveller  has  there  made  a  vow  or  a 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  IDOLATRY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


139 


VI.  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Idols. 

1,2.  Bei,  and  Nkho -are  B;il)yloiii;ui  (Iritifs  mpntioned  in 
Isa.  xlvi.  1.     Bel  (tli(^  BpIus  of  profaiif  Iiistoriaiis')  was  most 

Rrobably  a  cnnlraclioii  of  Ba;il,   or   iIjc  Sim.      'J'lii'   planet 
lercury  has  (Ik;   name  of  Nel)0  or  Nchn  amoii<x  tlio  '/alii- 
ans  :  it  is  found  also  in  tiu;  com])osilioH  of  st-vcral  ('iialda-an 
names  of  persons,  as  Nebuchadnezzar,  Nehnzaratian.  ^'c.  &c.' 
.'}.  Mkiioda«'H    is    supposed  to  liave    been  a   Bal)ylonisli 
monarch,  who  was  deil'ied  alter  his  death. ' 

4.  NisiiocH  was  an  Assyrian  idol,  adored  by  Sennacherib. 

i2  Kiiiirs  xix.  37.  Isa.  xxxvii.  'AH.)  Perhaps  it  was  the  solar 
ire,  to  whose  anirer  he,  jjrobably  attributed  the  destruction 
of  his  army  before  .ler\isal(Uii ;  and  whom  he  was  in  the  act 
of  adoring,  when  he  was  assassinated  by  his  sons.'' 

VII.  Idols  woushii'pkd  in  Samaria  during  the  Cap- 
tivity. 

TUv  deities  noticed  in  the  preceding  papfes  are  the  chief 
idols  anciently  adored  in  Palestine ;  but  there  were  other 
false  (r(jds  wurshipped  there,  which  were,  imported  into 
Sanuiria,  aftiM'  .Shalmaueser  had  carried  tin;  ten  tiiiies  into 
captivity,  by  the  colony  of  forei<rners  which  he  sent  to 
occupy  their  country.  These  men  brouirht  their  idols  with 
them.  Tiie  iiu'U  of  liuhylini  had  their  Siiccof/i-henof/i,  which 
was  the  Babylonish  IMelitta,  in  honour  of  whom  younir 
women  prostituted  themselves.  'I'he  men  of  Cuth  or  Vutlni 
brought  their  iVin^ti/,  or  the  8un  :  it  was  re))resentpd  by  a 
cock,  which  animal  was  dedicated  to  Apollo,  or  the  Sun. 
The  men  of  Ilamuth  bad  Jlshlma  ,•  a  deity  of  w  hich  nothing 
certain  is  known.  The  rabbinical  writers  say,  that  it  was 
compounded  of  a  man  and  a  goat ;  consequently  it  answered 
to  the  Pan  of  the  (ircu-k  and  Koman  mythology.  The  peo- 
ple of  SiphariHtlin  brought  Jidrumrniltch  and  JInaiinneiec/i, 
already  noticed.  The  Jiviles  brought  Nibliaz  and  Turlak, 
which  probably  are  two  dilTerent  names  of  the  same  idol. 
As  Nibhaz  in  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  signifies  quick,  swiff, 
rapid;  and  I'niiuk  in  both  languages  denotes  a  chariot, 
these  two  idols  together  may  mean  the  sun  mounted  on 
his  ear. 

In  Lev.  xxvi.  1.  Moses  prohibits  the  Israelites  from  setting 
\ip  any  Imaok  of  Stone,  literally,  fifxured  sinne,  or  sfone  af 
a  picture,  in  their  land.  This  proiiibition  was  directed  against 
the  hieroglyphic  figures  or  stones  of  the  Egyptians,  the 
meaning  of  which  was  known  only  to  the  priests.  With 
these  stones  iilolatry  was  practised.  In  Egypt  they  were 
regarded  as  the  god  T/ia/h  ,  the  god  of  sciences,  and  so  late 
as  the  time  of  Lzekiel  (viii.  8 — 11.)  we  find  an  imitation  of 
this  species  of  idolatry  common  among  the  .Tews.  Accord- 
ing, therefore,  to  that  fundamental  principle  of  the  Mo- 
saic policy,  which  dictated  the  prevention  of  idolatry,  it 
became  absolutely  necessary  to  prohibit  stones  with  hiero- 
glyphic inscri|)tions.  Besides,  in  an  age  when  so  great  a 
propensity  to  idolatry  prevailed,  stones  with  figures  upon 
them  which  the  people  coidd  not  understand,  would  have 
been  a  temptation  to  idolatry,  even  though  they  had  not  been 
deified  fas  we  know  they  actually  were)  by  the  Egyptians.' 
The  walls  of  the  ancient  temples,  particularly  that  of  Ten- 
tyra,  and  also  the  tombs  of  the  kings  in  pjgypt,  are  covered 
with  such  hieroglyphics ;  which  it  is  impossible  to  see  ahd 
not  be  struck  with  the  necessity  of  the  injunction  contained 
in  Dent.  iv.  15 — 20.* 

VIII.  The  idols  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  are,  doubt- 
less, known  to  every  classical  reader.  It  will,  therefore, 
suffice  briefly  to  state  here,  that  .lu|)iter  was  the  supreme 
deity,  or  father  of  the  gods,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans; 
Mercury  was  the  god  of  elocpience,  and  the  messenger  of 
the  other  deities.  The  inhabitants  of  Lystra,  in  Lycaonia, 
struck  with  the  miracle  which  bad  been  wrought  by  St.  Paul, 
considered  him  as  Mercury,  from  his  eloquence,  and  Barnabas 
as  Jupiter,  probably  from  his  being  the  more  majestic  person  of 
the  two,  and  conse(}uentlj',  answ-ering  to  the  prevalent  notions 
which  they  had  imbibed  from  statues  concerning  him.  The 
Diana  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  was  worshipped  with 
most  solemnity  at  Ephesus,  where  she  is  said  to  have  been 

thanlcsgivin?.  Nothing  is  so  natural  in  a  journey  over  a  dreary  country, 
as  for  a  solitary  traveller  to  sit  down,  (atisued,  and  to  make  the  vow  that 
Jacob  did  : — If  God  trill  be  icith  mi'.,  and  keep  me  in  the  way  that  I  go, 
and  trill  gire  me  bread  to  eat  and  raiment  to  put  on,  so  that  I  reach  my 
,  father's  /ibuse  in  peace,  &c.  then  1  will  give  so  much  in  charity  : — or,  again, 
that  on  first  seeing  the  place  wliich  lie  has  so  long  toiled  to  reach,  the 
traveller  should  sit  down  and  make  a  thanksgiving  ;  in  both  cases  setting 
up  a  stone  as  a  memorial.-'    Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  84. 

1  C.'esenius's  Hebrew  Lexicon,  by  Gibbs,  p.  85.  col.  2.  p.  407.  col.  2. 

a  W.  Lowth,  on  Jer.  1.  2. 

»  Brown's  Aniiq.  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  p.  32. 

*  Michaelis's  Oommontaries,  vol.  iv.  pp.54 — .'i9. 

*  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  pp.  132.  134. 


represented  as  a  woman,  whose  upper  part  was  hung  rcund 
with  breasts,  emblematic  of  the  prolific  powers  of  nature. 
Her  image  is  said  to  have  fallen  down  from  Jupiter  (Acts 
xix.  .15.);  whence  some  expo.^itors  have  conjectured  tliat  it 
was  an  ii'crolUe  or  utniospheric  stone.  But  Pliny  describes  the 
image  as  having  been  made  by  one  Ganeti  as  from  the  wood 
of  the  vine."  This  notion  of  certain  statues  having  descended 
on  earth  from  the  clouds  to  represent  particular  divinities, 
and  to  insj)ire  devotion  in  their  tempi' s.  was  very  rommon 
in  the  heathen  world.  The  palladium  at  Troy,  and  the  st  ttue 
of  Minerva  at  Athens,  like  this  of  the  Kphesian  Diana,  are 
said  to  liavt!  dro))ped  from  the  skies.  The  avarice  of  priests 
forged  these  stories  to  du|io  and  fleece  a  blind  and  bigoted 
people.  The  same  ridiculous  tale  the  Romans  were  taught 
to  believe  concerning  their  .//"C'/V/  or  sacred  shields,  which 
their  history  re])resents  to  have  fallen  from  heaven  in  the 
reign  of  Numa  Poin|)ilius.' 

The  Romans,  also,  it  is  well  known,  worshipped  the  vir- 
tues and  affi^ctinns  of  the  mind,  as  Justice,  Fidtbty,  or  (iond 
Faith,  Ifiipe,  Fortune,  Faiiie,  <S:c.;  and  the  same  superstition 
prevailed  among  the  inhabitants  of  Malta,  on  wliich  isb.nd 
Paul  was  shipwrecked.  WIhmi  they  saw  a  venemous  serpent 
fasten  on  the  hand  of  Paul,  they  concluded  that  be  was  a 
murderer,  whom  vcnf^^eance — more  correctly  the  goddess  Aixm 
(^l)il;^  or  Vindictive  Justice) — had  not  permitted  tn live.  (Acts 
xxviii.4.)  We  learn  from  the  mythological  poetHesiod,  that 
the  Greeks  had  a  female  deity  of  this  name.8  Nay,  the 
superstition  of  the  Pagans  went  so  far  as  to  worship  the 
gods  and  goddesses  of  all  countries,  even  those  which  they 
knew  not.  Thus  there  was  at  Athens  an  altar  consecrated 
to  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  Europe,  Asia,  Libj'a,  and  to 
the  uuknoivn  God ,-  which  gave  St.  Paul  occasion  to  deliver 
that  admirable  discourse  in  the  Areopagus,  which  is  related 
in  Acts  xvii.  23—31.9 

IX.  Ver)^  numerous  are  the  allusions  in  the  Sacred  Writ- 
ings to  the  idolatrous  rites  of  the  heathen,  and  to  their  per- 
suasions concerning  their  power  and  influence.  A  few  only 
of  these  can  be  here  noticed. 

I.  With  regard  to  the  opinions  which  were  entertained 
concerning  their  gods  : — 

(1.)  The  heathens  had  generally  a  notion,  that  all  deifies 
were  local,  and  limited  to  a  certain  countr}'  or  place,  and 
had  no  power  any  where  else,  but  in  that  country  or  place ;  and 
thus  we  read  in  2  Kings  xvii.  20.  that  the  colonists  sent  by 
the  king  of  Assyria  to  Samaria  in  place  of  the  Israelites  attii- 
buted  their  iieing  plagued  with  lions  to  their  not  knowing 
the  manner  of  the  god  of  the  land.  In  conformity  with  this 
notion,  Jonah  (who  lived  in  the  midst  of  the  mixed  multi- 
tude of  Gentiles,  that  bad  forced  themselves  into  the  district 
of  Galilee,  with  their  various  forms  of  worship)  seems  to  have 
considered  Jehovah  as  the  local  god  of  Juda?a;  and  in  order 
to  escape  from  his  presence,  he  rose  ip  to  flee  unto  Turshish^ 
and  ivent  down  to  Joppa.  (Jonah  i.  3.)  So  also  in  1  Kings 
XX.  23.  it  is  said  that  the  servants  of  the  king  of  Syria  per- 
suaded their  master,  that  the  gods  of  the  Israelites  were 
gods  of  the  hills ;  hearing,  perhaps,  that  the  law  was  given 
on  Mount  Sinai,  that  the  temple  was  built  on  Mount  Sion, 
and  that  the)' delighted  to  worship  on  high  places;  and  there- 
fore they  imagined  that  they  would  have  the  advantage  by 
fighting  the  Israelites  in  the  plain.  It  is  not  unlikely  that 
such  of  the  Israelites  who  were  murmurcrs  in  the  wilder- 
ness (being  those  among  them  who  were  most  tninted  with 
idolatry)  entertained  the  same  opinion,  and  believed  that 
God  was  a  local  deity  and  his  power  limited  ;  for  in  this 
manner  it  is  that  the  Psalmist  represents  them  reasoning 
with  themselves, — Can  God  furnish  a  tahle  in  the  wilder- 
ness ?  Behold  he  smote  the  rock  thai  the  waters  gtished  out,  and 
the  streams  ox'erflnwed,  but  can  he  give  bread  also  ?  Can  he  pro- 
vide flesh  for  his  people?  (Psal.  xxviii.  19,  20.) 

(2.)  All  the  nations  of  antiquity,  esjiecially  in  the  East, 
supposed  the  Deity  to  be  surrounded  by  light  so  dazzling  as 
to  overpower  all  mortal  vision.  This  mode  of  speaking  was, 
in  a  later  age,  transferred  to  the  divine  majesty  and  perfec- 
tions, as  being  utterly  incomprehensible  to  the  human  facul- 
ties. (Psal.  civ.  1—3.  Ezek.  i.     1  Tim.  vi.  1G.)'° 

(3.)  "  Another  common  opinion  which  prevailed  among 
the  heathens,  was,  that  sometimes  the  immortal  gods,  dis- 
guised in  human  form,  deigned  to  visit  mortals,  and  con- 

«  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  lib.  xvi.  c.  40. 

■>  Harwood's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  p.  360.  See  also  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  L 
p.  307.  and  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  vii.  pp.  21,22. 

8  Opera  el  Dies,  v.  254— 2.58. 

9  On  the  subject  of  this  altar,  see  vol.  i.  pp.  196,  197. 

10  Robinson'sGr.  Lexicon  to  ihe  New  Test,  voce  An-fioo-JTo;.  Bloomfield's 
Annotations  on  the  New  Test.  vol.  viii.  pp.  286,  287. 


140 


ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  IDOLATROUS  RITES 


[Paut  III.  Chap,  \J. 


versed  with  them.  According  to  their  theology,  .Tupiter  and 
Mercury  accompanied  each  other  on  these  expeditions.  Agree- 
ably to  this  notion,  which  universally  obtained  among  the 
Pagans,  we  find  that  the  Lycaonians,  when  they  saw  a  mi- 
racle performed  upon  a  helpless  cripple,  immediately  cried 
out  in  the  last  astonishment, — The  god.s  are  come  dvwn  unfu 
us  in  the  likeness  of  men  !  (Acts  xiv.  11.)  Instantly  Paul 
and  Barnabas  were  metamorphosed,  by  their  imaginations, 
into  Jove  and  Mercury,  who,  according  to  their  creed,  were 
inseparable  companions  in  these  visits.  These  heathens  (as 
we  have  already  intimated)  recognised  Jupiter  in  Barnabas, 
because,  probably,  his  appearance  and  person  were  more 
specious  and  striking;  and  Paul,  whose  bodily  presence  w^as 
■weak,  but  whose  public  talents  and  rhetoric  were  distin- 
guished, they  persuaded  themselves  could  be  no  other  than 
Mercury,  the  eloquent  interpreter  of  the  gods."> 

(4.)  Further,  when  persons  were  wrongfully  oppressed 
and  afflicted,  the  heathens  believed  that  the  gods  interfered 
in  their  behalf.  The  tokens  of  their  presence  were  earth- 
quakes, the  opening  of  doors,  and  the  loosing  of  their  bonds.^ 
In  this  manner  God  bore  a  miraculous  testimony  of  his  ap- 
probation to  his  faithful  servants  Paul  and  Silas,  when  im- 
prisoned at  Philippi ;  and  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  will 
account  for  the  extreme  fright  of  the  gaoler,  which  termi- 
nated so  happily  for  his  salvation.  (Acts  xvi.  25 — 29.)' 

2.  Although  the  priesthood  constituted  a  distinct  class  of 
persons  among  the  Jews,  yet  among  the  Romans,  and  it 
should  seem  also  among  the  Greeks,  they  did  not  form  a 
separate  order.  Among  the  Romans  they  were  chosen  from 
among  the  most  honourable  men  in  the  state.  In  the  eastern 
provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  persons  were  annually 
selected  from  among  the  more  opulent  citizens  to  preside 
over  the  things  pertaining  to  religious  worship,  and  to  exhibit 
annual  games  at  their  own  expense  in  honour  of  the  gods,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  tediles  did  at  Rome.  These  officers 
received  their  appellations  from  the  districts  to  which  they 
belonged,  as  Syriarch  (^^upiup^nc),  Phceniciarch  {(I>otvMiupx»()^ 
and  the  like  :  of  course,  m  proconsular  Asia,  they  were  called 
Asiarchs  {A<rii^x.^i).  The  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  was 
erected  at  the  common  expense  of  all  the  Grecian  cities  in 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  evident  from  Acts  xix.  31.  that  at  that 
very  time  they  were  solemnizing  games'  in  honour  of  Diana, 
who  was  one  of  the  great  celestial  deities  (the  dii  niajorum 
gentium  of  the  Romans),  and  who  was,  therefore,  called  the 
GREAT  GODDESS,  by  the  recorder  or  town-clerk  of  Ephesus. 
(Acts  xix.  35. )5  This  circumstance  will  account  for  St. 
Paul's  being  hurried  before  the  tribunal  of  the  Asiarchs. 

3.  We  learn  from  various  profane  authors  that  High  Places, 
or  eminences,  were  considered  to  be  the  abode  of  the  heathen 
deities,  or  at  least  as  the  most  proper  for  sacrificing;  and, 
therefore,  sacrifices  were  offered  either  on  the  summits  of 
mountains  or  in  woods.  Thus  it  was  the  custom  of  the 
ancient  Persians  to  go  up  to  the  tops  of  the  loftiest  mountains, 
and  there  to  offer  sacrifices  to  Jupiter, — distinguishing  by 
that  appellation  the  whole  expanse  of  heaven.''  Further, 
as  most  of  these  sacrifices  were  accompanied  with  prostitu- 
tion, or  other  impure  rites,  they  seem  to  have  chosen  the 
most  retired  spots,  to  conceal  their  abominations.  On  this 
account,  and  also  to  obliterate  every  vestige  of,  or  temptation 
to,  idolatry,  the  Israelites  were  commanded  to  offer  sacrifices 
to  Jehovah,  only  and  exclusively  in  the  place  which  he  should 
appoint  (Deut.  xii.  14.) ;  and  were  also  prohibited  from 
sacrificing  in  high  places  (Lev.  xxvi.  30.),  and  from  placing 
a  grove  of  trees''  near  his  altar.  (Deut.  xvi.  21.)  The  profli- 
gate Manasseh,  however,  utterly  disregarded  these  prohibi- 
tions, when  he  built  up  again  the  high  places,  aim  reared 
up  altars  for  Baal,  and  made  a  grove.  (2  Kings  xxi.  3.)  Thus 
Isaiah  (Ivii.  4,  5.)  reproached  the  Israelites  with  the  like  pre- 
varication, when  he  said,  Jlre  ye  not  children  of  transgression, 
a  seed  of  falsehood,  inflaming  yourselves  with  idols  under  every 
^een  tree,  slaying  the  children  in  the  valleys  under  the  clefts  of 
the  rocks  ?     And  Jeremiah  (iii.  6.)  reproaclnes  them  with 

«  Dr.  Harwood'slntrod.  vol.  ii.  p.  359. 

^  Eisner,  in  his  notes  on  Acts  xvi.  26.  has  shown,  by  a  series  of  most 
appo.site  qaotations,  ttiat  each  of  these  things  was  accounted  a  token  of 
the  divine  appearance  in  behalf  of  those  who  suffered  unjustly,  and  who 
were  dear  to  the  gods. — Observaliones  Sacree,  vol.  i.  pp.  441 — 444. 

3  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  p.  313. 

«  Grotius,  Hammond,  Poole's  Synopsis,  Wetstein,  and  Doddridse  on 
Acts  xix.  31.  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  pp.  303,  304.  Robinson's  Greek 
Lexicon,  voce  A<rixpx>i?. 

'  See  Eisner's  Observationes  Sacrae,  vol.  i.  pp.  460,  461. 

«  Herodotus,  lib.  i.  c.  131. 

'  In  Sir  William  Ouseley's  Travels  in  the  East  (vol.  i.  pp.  359—401.)  the 
reader  will  find  a  very  learned  and  very  interesting  memoir  on  the  sacred 
trees  of  ttie  ancients,  which  illustrates  many  in)portant  passages  of  sacred 
writ 


having  played  the  harlot,  that  is,  worshipped  idols  on  every 
high  mountain,  and  under  every  green  tree.  Nor  were  only 
mountains,  woods,  and  valleys  appointed  for  the  worship  of 
false  gods;  almost  every  thing  else,  among  the  Pagans, bore 
the  marks  of  idolatry.  Herodotus^  says,  that  the  Phoeni- 
cians, who  were  the  greatest  seamen  in  the  world,  adorned 
the  heads  and  sterns  of  their  ships  with  the  images  of  their 
gods:  and  Luke  (Acts  xxviii.  11.)  has  observed,  that  the 
vessel  which  carried  St.  Paul  from  Malta  to  Syracuse  had 
the  sign  of  Castor  and  Pollux;  and  it  is  not  improbable,  that 
the  vessel  in  which  Europa  was  carried  away  had  the  sign 
of  a  bull,  which  gave  occasion  to  the  poets  to  say,  that  Jupi- 
ter carried  her  away  under  that  shape.^ 

4.  The  statues  of  the  deities  were  carried  in  procession, 
on  the  shoulders  of  their  votaries.  This  circumstance  is  dis- 
tinctly stated  by  Isaiah,  in  his  masterly  exposure  of  the 
insanity  of  idolatry,  (xlvi.  7.)  In  this  way  do  the  Hindoos 
at  present  carry  their  gods;  and,  indeed,  so  exact  a  picture 
has  the  prophet  drawn  of  the  idolatrous  processions  of  this 
people,  tnat  he  might  be  almost  supposed  to  be  sitting  among 
them,  when  he  delivered  his  prediction  to  the  Jews.*'^  It  was 
also  customary  to  make  shrines  or  portable  models  of  the 
temples  of  those  deities  which  were  the  principal  objects  of 
worship,  and  to  place  a  small  image  therein,  when  they  tra- 
velled or  went  to  war,  as  also  for  their  private  devotions  at 
home.  From  the  celebrity  of  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephe- 
sus, it  is  but  natural  to  suppose,  that  there  would  be  a  great 
demand  for  models  of  it,  which  would  become  a  kind  of  sub- 
stitute for  the  temple  itself,  to  such  of  her  votaries  as  lived 
in  distant  parts  of  Greece.  It  is  evident  from  Acts  xix.  24 
— 27.  that  the  manufacture  of  such  shrines  proved  a  source 
of  great  emolument  to  Demetrius,  and  the  artisans  employed 
by  him,  wiio  might  naturally  expect  a  brisk  demand  for  their 
models,  from  the  vast  concourse  of  worshippers  who  were 
present  at  the  annual  solemnization  of  the  games  in  honour 
of  Diana :  which  demand  not  equalling  their  expectations, 
Demetrius  might  ascribe  his  loss  to  St.  Paul's  preaching 
against  idolatry,  as  the  apostle  had  now  (Acts  xix.  8.  10.) 
been  more  than  two  years  at  Ephesus  ;  so  that  alt  they  which 
dwelt  in  Jlsia  heard  the  word  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  both  Jews  and 
Greeks.^i  The  tabernacle  of  Moloch  (Amos  v.  26.)  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  portable  temple  or  shrine,  made  after 
the  chief  temple  of  that  "  horrid  king,"  as  Milton  emphati- 
cally terms  him.'^ 

"  When  the  heathens  offered  a  sacrifice  to  any  of  those 
numerous  divinities  which  they  worshipped,  it  was  usual  on 
this  sacred  solemnity,  in  which  religion  and  friendship  were 
harmoniously  interwoven  and  united  with  each  other,  for  all 
the  sacrificers  to  have  their  temples  adorned  with  chaplets  oi 
flowers, — and  the  victims,  too,  that  were  led  to  the  altar, 
were  dressed  with  fillets  and  garlands.  Abundant  examples 
of  this  custom  are  found  in  almost  every  page  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  classics.  The  Lycaonians,  who  recognised  Ju- 
piter in  Barnabas,  and  Mercury  in  Paul,  and,  believing 
themselves  honoured  with  a  visit  from  these  divinities,  from 
the  miracle  which  Paul  had  wrought  in  restoring  a  cripple 
to  the  full  use  of  his  limbs,  intended  to  show  their  venera- 
tion of  this  illustrious  condescension  to  them  by  celebrating 
a  public  and  solemn  sacrifice,  and  decked  themselves,  and 
the  victims  they  intended  to  immolate,  in  thfs  manner."  The 
priest,  therefore,  of  Jove,  whom  it  seems  fliey  worshipped 
as  the  guardian  of  their  city,  and  whose  temple  stood  a  little 
way'^  out  of  the  town,  immediately  brought  victims  and 
chaplets  of  flowers  to  crown  the  apostles,  agreeably  to  the 
pagan  rites, — and  in  this  manner  advanced  towards  the  door 
of  the  house,  where  the  apostles  lodged,  designing  to  sacri- 
fice to  them.  This  custom,  here  mentioned,  was  in  conformity 
with  the  heathen  ritual.  All  wore  garlands  at  a  heathen 
sacrifice,  both  the  people  and  the  victims."'* 

5.  When  the  victim  devoted  to  the  sacrifice  was  brought 
before  the  altar,  the  priest,  having  implored  the  divine  favour 
and  acceptance  by  prayer,  poured  wine  upon  its  head  ;  and 
after  the  performance  of  this  solemn  act  of  religion,  which 

«  Hist.  1.  iii.  c.  37.  •  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  pp.  326, 327. 

>o  Ward's  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  330. 

11  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  pp.  301,  302.  304. 

i»  See  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  vi.  pp.  215—218.,  for  some  curious  infor- 
mation concerning  the  porlable  shrines  of  the  ancients. 

>3  Acts  xiv.  13.  Then  the  priest  of  Jupiter,  which  was  before  their  city, 
brought  oxen  and  garlands  unto  the  gates,  and  would  have  done  sacrifice 
unto  the  people. 

i«  llpo  Ti,,'  ,To\i«,c.  Ibid.  To  nPO  THS  nOAEP.s  Ao-xx^TTiE.oi/.  The  tem- 
ple of  .Ilsculapius  which  was  before  the  town,  or  a  little  way  out  of  the 
city.     Polybius,  lib.  i.  p.  17.  edit.  Hanov.  1619. 

16  Dr.  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii,  p.  301.  Wetstein  and  Dr.  A  Clarke 
,  on  Acts-xiv.  11—15. 


Sect.  I.] 


OF  THE  HEATHENS. 


141 


was  termed  a  lllmtinn,  the  victim  was  instantly  led  to  the 
slautrhlcr.  To  this  circumstance  .St.  Paul,  iiiiowinir  the  time 
of  his  martyrdom  to  he  very  near,  has  a  very  strikiiijr  aihi- 
eion ;  rrprcscntintr  this  rite,  \yhich  immediati'ly  ])rece(h'(i 
the  dealli  of  the  victim,  as  already  nerfoiiind  u|)on  himself, 
implyinor  that  he  was  now  (Unvoted  to  dealli,  and  that  his 
dissohiiron  would  speedily  follow.  /  am  now  reiu/ij  to  he 
offered,  says  he  ('2  Tim.  iv.  G.) :  literally,  I  am  already  poured 
out  an  a  lihdtion ,-  (he  iiiiie  uf  ini/  dipurture  in  at  hand.  A 
similar  expressive  sacrificial  allusion  occurs  in  Phil.  ii.  17. 
Yea,  says  the  holy  apostle,  and  if  /  l)e  poured  ol'T  up<m  the 
sacrifice  and  semire  of  i/nur  faith,  I  j»i/  and  rejoire  with  i/nu 
all.  In  this  passaije  he  represents  the  faith  of  the  Philip- 
pians  as  the  sacrilicial  victim,  and  compares  his  hlood,  will- 
ingly and  joyfully  to  he  shed  in  martyrdom,  to  the  libation 
poured  out  on  occasion  of  the  sacrifice." 

After  the  usual  portions  of  the  victims  had  hecn  burnt  on 
the  altar,  or  ijiven  to  the  officiatinfr  priests,  the  remainder 
was  either  exposed  by  the  owner  for  sale  in  the  market,  or 
became  the  occasion  of  giving  a  feast  to  his  friends,  either 
in  the  temple  or  at  his  own  house.  Meat  of  this  description, 
termed  (Ja-Ki^ura,  or  meats  ofi'ered  to  idols,  in  Acts  xv.  29., 
was  an  abomination  to  the  .lews ;  who  held  that  not  only  those 
who  partook  of  such  entertainments,  hut  also  those  who 
purchased  such  meat  in  tiie  market,  subjected  themselves  to 
the  pollution  of  idolatry.  The  apostle  .Tames,  therefore, 
recommends,  that  the  Gentile  Christians  should  abstain  from 
all  meats  of  this  kind,  out  of  respect  to  this  prejudice  of 
Jewish  Christians  ;  and  hence  he  calls  these  meats  uxtiryxu-xT^, 
pollution  of  idols,  that  is,  meats  polluted  in  consequence  of 
their  being  sacrificed  unto  idols.  (Acts  xv.  20.,  compare  also 
1  Cor.  viii.  1.  4.  7.  10.  x.  19.  2R.)  It  appears  from  Judg. 
ix.  27.  that  feasting  after  sacrifice  in  the  temples  of  idols 
was  not  unknown  to  the  Shechemites. 

6.  Singing  and  dancing  were  the  general  attendants  of 
some  of  these  idolatrous  rites :  thus,  the  Israelites  danced 
before  the  golden  calf.  HOxod.  xxxii.  19.)  To  this  day,  dancing 
before  the  idol  takes  place  at  almost  every  Hindoo  idolatrous 
feast.  But  their  sacrifices  were  not  confined  to  irrational 
victims  :  it  is  well  known  that  the  practice  of  offerino;  human 
victims  prevailed  to  a  great  extent;'^  and  among  the  Ammon- 
ites ana  Phoenicians  they  were  immolated  to  propitiate 
Moloch  and  Baal ;  and  children  were  in  some  manner  dedi- 
cated and  devoted  to  them.  The  idolatrous  worshippers  are 
said  to  make  them  pass  through  the  fire  ;  denoting  some  rite 
of  dedication  and  purification.  This  was  most  expressly 
forbidden  to  the  Israelites.  (Lev.  xviii.  21.)  In  this  manner 
Ahaz  devoted  his  son  (2  Kings  xvi.  3.) ;  but  as  Hezekiah 
afterwards  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne  of  Judah,  it  is 
evident  that  he  was  not  put  to  death.  From  the  declarations 
of  the  psalmist  (cvi.  36 — 10.),  and  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel 
(xvi.  21.  XX.  26.  31.),  it  is  however,  certain  that  many  hu- 
-man  victims  were  thus  barbarously  sacrificed. 

The  adoration  or  worship  which  idolaters  paid  to  their  gods 
did  not  consist  barely  in  the  sacrifices  whicti  they  offered  to 
them,  but  likewise  in  prostrations  and  bowings  of  the  body  ; 
thus  Naaman  speaks  of  bowing  in  the  house  of  Rimmon. 
(2  Kings  V.  18.)  It  was  also  a  religious  ceremony,  to  ////  tip 
the  hand  to  the  mouth  and  kiss  it,  and  then,  stretching  it  out,  to 
throw  as  it  were  the  kiss  to  the  idol :  both  this  and  the  former 
ceremony  are  mentioned  in  1  Kings  xix.  18.  And  so  Job,  in 
order  to  express  his  not  having  fallen  into  idolatry,  very  ele- 
gantly says,  If  I  beheld  the  sun  while  it  shined,  or  the  moon 
walking  in  brightness,  and  my  heart  had  been  secretly  enticed, 
or  my  mouth  hath  kissed  my  hand,  &c.  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27.)  ; 
for  to  kiss  and  to  worship  are  synonymous  terms  in  Scripture, 

>  Parkhiirsl's  Gr.  Lexicon,  p.  621.  Harwood,  vol.  ii.  pp.  219,  220.  Drs. 
Clarke  and  Mac  knight  on  the  passages  cited. 

»  The  Kgypiians  liad  several  cities,  which  were  termed  Typhonian, — 
such  as  lleliopohs,  Idjthya,  Abarei,  and  Busiris, — where  at  particular  sea- 
«ons  they  immolated  men.  The  objects  tlius  devoted  were  persons  of 
bright  hair  and  a  par'icular  complexion,  such  as  were  seldom  to  be  found 
among  that  people.  Hence  we  may  conclude  thai  they  were  foreigners ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  while  the  Israelites  resided  in  Egypt,  the  victims 
were  chosen  from  their  body.  They  were  burnt  alive  upon  a  high  altar, 
and  thus  sacrificed  for  the  good  of  the  people  :  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
sacrifice,  the  priests  collected  their  ashes,  and  scattered  them  upwards  in 
the  air,— most  likely  with  this  view,  that,  where  any  of  the  dust  was  wafted, 
a  blessing  might  be  entailed.  By  a  just  retril)Ution,  Moses  and  Aaron  were 
Commanded  to  take  ashes  of  the  furnace  (which  in  the  Scriptures  is  used 
as  a  type  of  the  slavery  of  the  Israelites,  and  of  all  the  cruelty  which  they 
experienced  in  Egypt),  and  to  scatter  them  abroad  toteards  the  /leaven 
(Exod.  X.  8,  9.),  but  with  a  ditferent  intention,  viz.  that  where  any  the 
smallest  portion  alighted,  it  might  prove  a  plague  and  a  curse  to  the  un- 
grateful, cruel,  and  infatuated  Egyptians.  Thus  there  was  a  designed  con- 
tra-t  in  these  workings  of  Providence,  ami  an  apparent  opposition  to  the 
superstition  of  the  limes.  Bryant,  on  the  Plagues  of  Egypt,  p.  116.  On 
the  prevalence  of  human  sacrifices  in  ancient  times,  see  vol.  i.  p.  5.  and 


as  appears  from  Psal.  ii.  12.  There  is  an  idolatrous  rite  men- 
tioned by  Ezekiel,  called  the  putting  the  branch  to  the  nose 
(Ezek.  viii.  17.),  by  which  interpreters  understand,  tliat  the 
worshipper,  with  a  wand  in  his  hand,  touched  the  idol,  and 
then  ap])lied  the  wand  to  his  nose  and  mouth,  intoken  of 
worship  and  adoration.  There  appears  to  be  this  difference, 
however,  between  the  idolatry  oi  the  Jews  and  that  of  other 
nations,  viz.  that  the  Jews  did  not  deny  a  divine  power  and 
|)rovid(^nce  ;  only  they  imagined  that  their  idols  were  the  in- 
termediate causes,  by  which  the  blessings  of  the  supreme 
(io(\  nii<;ht  be  conveyed  to  them;  whereas  the  heathens 
believed  that  the  idols  they  worshijjped  were  true  gods,  and 
had  no  higher  conceptions,  having  no  notion  of  one  eternal, 
almighty,  and  independent  Being.^ 

In  the  account  otthe  decisive  triumph  of  true  religion  over 
idolatry,  related  in  1  Kings  xviii.,  we  have  a  very  striking 
delineation  of  the  idolatrous  rites  of  Baal ;  from  wliich  it 
appears  that  his  four  hundred  and  fifty  priests,  or  pronliets,  as 
they  are  termed,  employed  tlie  whole  day  in  their  aesperate 
rites.  The  time  is  tlivided  into  two  periods,  1.  From  morn- 
ing until  noon,  which  was  occupied  in  preparing  and  offering 
the  sacrifice,  and  in  earnest  su|)plication  for  the  celestial  fire, 
(for  Baal  was  unquestionably  the  god  of  fire  or  the  sun, 
and  had  only  to  work  in  his  own  element),  vociferating,  I), 
Baal,  hear  us  (1  Kings  xviii.  26.)  ;  and,  2.  They  continued 
from  noon  tint i I  the  time  of  offering  eveniiig  sacrifice  (tlie  time 
when  it  was  usually  offered  to  Jehovah  in  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem), performing  their  frantic  rites. 

They  leaped  up  and  down  at  the  altar,'^  that  is,  they  danced 
around  it  with  strange  and  hideous  cries  and  gesticulations, 
tossing  their  heads  to  and  fro,  with  a  great  variety  of  bodily 
contortions,  precisely  as  the  Ceylonese  do  to  this  day.^  In 
like  manner  the  priests  of  Mars  among  the  Romans  danced 
and  leaped  around  the  altars  of  that  divinity,  from  which  cir- 
cumstance they  derived  their  name, — Salii.*  -^nd  it  came  to 
pass  at  noon  that  Elijah  mocked  them  :  had  not  the  intrepid 

Erophet  of  the  Lord  been  conscious  of  the  divine  protection, 
e  certainly  would  not  have  used  such  freedom  of  speech, 
while  he  was  surrounded  by  his  enemies :  And  said.  Cry 
aloud/  Oblige  him,  by  your  vociferations,  to  attend  to  your 
suit. — Similar  vain  repetitions  were  made  by  the  heathen  in 
the  time  of  our  Saviour,  who  cautions  his  disciples  against 
them  in  Matt.  vi.  7.' — For  he  is  a  god — the  supreme  God ;  you 
worship  him  as  such  ;  and,  doubtless,  he  is  jealous  of  his  own 
honour,  and  the  credit  of  his  votaries.  Either  he  is  talking — 
he  may  be  giving  audience  to  some  others  :  or,  as  it  is  ren- 
dered in  the  margin  of  our  larger  Bibles, — he  meditateth — he 
is  in  a  profound  reverie,  projecting  some  godlike  scheme—or 
he  is  pursuing — taking  his  pleasure  in  the  chase — or  he  is  on 
a  journey — having  left  his  audience  chamber,  he  is  making 
some  excursions — or  peradventure  he  sleepeth  and  must  be 
awaked, — Absurd  as  these  notions  may  appear  to  us,  they  are 
believed  by  the  Hindoos,  to  each  of  whose  gods  some  parti- 
cular business  is  assigned,  and  who  imagine  that  Vishnoo 
sleeps  for  months  in  the  year,  while  others  of  their  deities  are 
often  out  on  journeys  or  expeditions.^  Accordingly  the 
priests  of  Baal  cried  aloud,  and  cut  themselves,  after  their  man- 
ner. This  was  not  only  the  custom  of  the  idolatrous  Israel- 
ites, but  also  of  the  Syrians,  Persians,  Indians,  Greeks, 
Romans,  and,  in  short,  of  all  the  ancient  heathen  world. 
Hence  we  may  see  the  reason  why  the  Israelites  were  for- 
bidden to  cut  themfclves,  to  make  any  cuttings  in  their  flesh  for 
the  dead,  and  to  print  any  marks  upon  themselves.  (Deut.  xiv.  1. 

'  On  the  subject  of  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  heathens,  the  editor 
of  Calmet's  Uiclionary  has  accumulated  much  interestmg  information. 
See  the  Fragments,  particularly  Nos.  107.  185.  212,213. 
■  *  This  is  the  margmal  rendering,  and  most  correct,  of  1  Kings  xviii.  26. 

»  From  the  statement  of  a  Ceylonese  convert  to  Christianity  (who  wag 
formerly  one  of  the  principal  high-priests  of  Budhoo)  Dr.  A.  Clarke  has 
<lescribed  the  manner  and  invocations  of  the  pagan  inhabitants  of  that 
islan<l  (Comment,  on  1  Kings  xviii.),  to  which  we  are  indebted  for  part  of 
the  present  elucidation  of  the  rites  of  Baal ;  and  his  account  is  confirmed 
by  Dr.  John  Davy,  in  his  Travels  in  Ceylon. 

«  Jam  dederat  Saliis  (a  saitu  nomina  ducimt) 

Armaque  et  ad  certos  verba  canenda  modos. — Ovid.  Fast.  iii.  387,  388. 

On  the  custom  of  dancing  around  the  altars  of  the  gods,  the  reader  will 
find  much  curious  information  in  Lomeier's  treatise  De  veterum  Gentilium 
Lustrationibus,  cap.  33.  pp.413,  et  spq. 

■■  The  infuriated  worshippers  of  Diana  all  leitti  one  voice  about  tfie  space 
of  tiro  hours  cried  out,  "  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians."  (Acts  xix.  34.) 
Sot  to  multiply  unnecessary  examples,  see  an  illustration  of  these  vain, 
repetitions  in  the  Heaulontiinoreumenos  of  Terence,  act  v.  scene  1.  We 
are  informed  by  Servius  that  the  ancient  heaUiens,  after  supplicating  the 
particular  deity  to  whom  they  offered  sacrifice,  used  to  invoke  all  the  gods 
and  goddesses,  lest  any  one  of  them  should  be  adverse  to  the  suppliant. 
Sen'ius  in  Virgil.  Georg.  lib.  i.  21.  (vol.  i.  p.  178.  of  Burmann's  edition, 
Amst.  1746.  4to.)  For  a  remarkable  in.stanceof  the  "vain  repetitions"  of 
the  modern  Mohammedans,  see  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, &c.  vol.  i.  pp.  462 — 164. 

•  Ward's  Histor/,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  33J. 


142 


ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  IDOLATROUS  RITES 


[Paht  III.  Chap.  VI. 


Lev.  xix.  28.)  For  the  heathens  did  these  things  not  onl^ 
in  honour  of  their  gods,  but  also  in  testimony  of  their  grief 
for  the  loss  of  any  of  their  neighbours.  The  Sc5rthians,  as  we 
are  informed  by  Herodotus,  were  accustomed  to  slash  their 
arms  on  '.he  death  of  their  kings ;'  and  it  is  not  improlvable 
that  some  similar  custom  obtained  among  some  one  of  the 
neighbouring  nations.  The  moaern  Persians  to  this  day  cut 
and  lacerate  themselves,  when  celebrating  the  anniversary 
of  the  assassination  of  H ossein,  whom  they  venerate  as  a 
martyr  for  the  Moslem  failh.2 

7.  The  heathens  showed  their  veneration  for  their  deities 
in  various  ways,  the  knowledge  of  which  serves  to  illustrate 
many  passages  of  Scripture.  Thus  nothing  was  more  fre- 
quent than  prostitution  of  women,  with  examples  of  which 
the  ancient  writers  abound.  According  to  Jastin,^  the  Cy- 
prian women  gained  that  portion  which  their  husbands  re- 
ceived with  them,  on  m.arnage,  by  previous  public  prostitu- 
tion. And  the  Phoenicians,  as  we  are  informed  by  Augustine, 
made  a  gift  to  Venus  of  the  gain  acquired  by  the  same  dis- 
gusting means.'*  Hence  we  may  account  for  Moses  prohi- 
biting the  Israelites  from  committing  any  such  atrocities. 
(Lev.  xix.  29.) — Others  dedicated  to  them  the  spoils  of  war  ; 
others,  votive  tablets  and  other  offerings  in  commemoration 
of  supposed  benefits  conferred  on  them.^ 

A  more  frequent  and  indeed  very  general  custom  was  the 
carrying  of  marks  on  their  body  in  honour  of  the  object  of 
their  worship.  This  is  expressly  forbidden  iu  Lev.  xix.  28. 
To  this  day,  all  the  castes  of  the  Hindoos  bear  on  their  fore- 
heads, or  elsewhere,  what  are  called  the  sectarian  marks, 
which  not  only  distinguish  them  in  a  civil,  but  also  in  a  re- 
ligious point  of  view,  from  each  other.^  Most  of  the  barba- 
rous nations  lately  discovered  have  their  faces,  arms,  breasts, 
&c.  curiously  carved  or  tatooed,  probably  for  superstitious 
purposes.  Ancient  writers  abound  with  accounts  of  marks 
made  on  the  face,  arms,  &c.  in  honour  of  different  idols, — 
and  to  this  the  inspired  penman  alludes  (Rev.  xiii.  16,  17. 
xiv.  9.  11.  XV.  2.  xvi.  2.  xix.  20.  xx,  4.),  where  false  wor- 
shippers are  represented  as  receiving  in  their  hands,  and  in 
their  forehead,  tne  marks  of  the  beast. 

The  prohibition  in  Lev.  xix.  27.  against  the  Israelites 
rounding  the  corners  of  their  heads,  and  marring  the  corners  of 
their  beards,  evidently  refers  to  customs  which  must  have 
existed  among  the  Egyptians,  during  their  residence  among 
that  people ;  though  it  is  now  difficult  to  determine  what 
those  customs  were.  Herodotus  informs  us,  that  the  Arabs 
shave  orc«/  their  hair  roundin  honour  of  Bacchus,  who  (they 
say)  wore  his  hair  in  this  way ;  and  that  the  Macians,  a  peo- 
ple of  Libya,  cut  their  hair  round,  so  as  to  leave  a  tuft  on  the 
top  of  the  head  ;'  in  this  manner  the  Chinese  cut  their  hair 
to  the  present  day.  This  might  have  been  in  honour  of  some 
idol,  and,  therefore,  forbidden  to  the  Israelites. 

The  hair  was  much  used  in  divination  among  the  ancients ; 
and  for  purposes  of  religious  superstition  among  the  Greeks  ; 
and  particularly  about  the  time  of  the  givino' of  this  law,  as 
this  IS  supposed  to  have  been  the  lera  of  the  Trojan  war.  We 
learn  from  Homer,  that  it  was  customary  for  parents  to  dedi- 
cate the  hair  of  their  children  to  some  god  ;  which,  when  they 
came  to  manhood,  they  cut  off  and  consecrated  to  the  deity. 
Achilles,  at  the  funeral  of  Patroclus,  cut  off  his  golden  locks, 
which  his  father  had  dedicated  to  the  river  goa  Sperchius, 
and  threw  them  into  the  flood.s  From  Virgil's  account  of 
the  death  of  Dido,^  we  learn  that  the  topmost  lock  of  hair  was 
dedicated  to  the  infernal  gods.  If  the  hair  was  rounded,  and 
dedicated  for  purposes  of  this  kind,  it  will  at  once  account 
for  the  prohibition  in  this  verse.'" 

A  religion  so  extravagant  as  that  of  pagaism  could  not 
have  subsisted  so  long,  had  not  the  priests  hy  whom  it  was 
managed  contrived  to  secure  the  devotion  of  the  multitudes 

«  Herodotus,  lib.  iv.  c.  71. 

a  Mr.  Morier  has  given  a  long  and  interesting  narrative  of  this  anni- 
versary. "It  is,"  he  says,  "necessary  to  have  witnessed  the  scenes  that 
are  exhibited  in  their  cities,  to  judge  of  tlie  degree  of  fanaticism  wliich 
possesses  them  at  this  time.  I  have  seen  some  of  the  most  violent  of  them, 
as  they  vociferated  Ya  Hossein!  vvallc  about  the  streets  almost  naked, 
with  only  their  loins  covered  and  their  bodies  streaming  with  blood,  by 
the  voluntary  cuts  which  they  had  given  to  themselves,  either  as  acts  of 
love,  anguish,  or  mortification.  Such  must  have  been  the  cuttings  of  which 
we  read  in  Holy  Writ."     Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  176. 

'  Hist.  lib.  xviii.  c.  5. 

■•  Calmet  on  Lev.  xix.  29.  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iv.  pp.  183 — 
185. 

s  See  much  curious  information  on  this  subject  in  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels, 
vol.  vi.  pp.  444—448.  8vo.  and  IVIr.  Dodwell's  Classical  Tour  in  Greece,  vol. 
i.  pp.  341,  342. 

«  See  Forbes'8  Oriental  Memoirs,  vol.  iii.  p.  15. 

•>  Herod,  lib.  iii.  c.  8.  and  hb.  iv.  c.  175. 

«  Iliad,  xxiii.  142,  .fee.  s  .aUneid.  iv.  698. 

««  Calmet,  and  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Lev.  xix.  27. 


by  pretending  that  certain  divinities  uttered  oracles.  The 
researches  of  enlightened  travellers  have  laid  open  the  con- 
trivances by  which  these  frauds  were  managed,  at  least  in 
Greece."  Various  were  the  means  by  wliich  the  credulity 
of  the  people  was  imposed  upon.  Sometimes  they  charmed 
serpents, — extracted  tlieir  poison,  and  thus  rendered  them 
harmless ; — a  practice  to  which  there  are  frequent  allusions  in 
the  Old  Testament,  and  it  must  have  been  a  gainful  and  an 
established  traffic. 

X.  Moses  has  enumerated  seven  different  sorts  of  Divi- 
ners into  futurity,  whom  the  Israelites  were  prohibited  from 
consulting  (Deut.  xviii.  10,  11.),  viz.  1.  Those  who  used 
divination, — that  is,  who  endeavoured  to  penetrate  futurity 
by  auguries,  using  lots,  &c. ; — 2.  Observers  of  times,  those 
who  pretended  to  foretell  future  events  by  present  occur- 
rences, and  who  predicted  political  or  physical  changes  from 
the  aspects  of  the  planets,  eclipses,  motion  of  the  clouds,  &:c. ; 
— 3.  Enchanters,  either  those  who  charmed  serpents,  or  those 
who  drew  auguries  from  inspecting  the  entrails  of  beasts, 
observing  the  flights  of  birds,  &c. ; — 4.  Witches,  those  who 
pretended  to  bring  down  certain  celestial  influences  to  their 
aid  by  means  of  herbs,  drugs,  perfumes,  &c. ; — 5.  Charmers, 
those  who  used  spells  for  the  purposes  of  divination  ; — 6.  Con- 
suiters  with  familiar  spirits, — Pythonesses,  those  who  pre- 
tended to  inquire  by  means  of  one  spirit  to  get  oracular 
answers  from  another  of  a  superior  order ; — and,  7.  Wizards 
or  necromancers,  those  who  (like  the  witch  at  Endor)  pro- 
fessed to  evoke  the  dead,  in  order  to  learn  from  them  the 
secrets  of  the  invisible  world. 

Four  kinds  of  divination  are  particularly  mentioned  in 
sacred  history,  viz.  by  the  cup, — by  arrows, — -by  inspecting 
the  livers  of  slaughtered  animals, — and  by  the  staff. 

1.  Divination  by  the  cup  appears  to  have  been  the  most 
ancient :  it  certainly  prevailed  in  Egypt  at  the  time  of  Joseph 
(Gen.  xliv.  5.), '2  and  it  has  from  time  immemorial  been  pre- 
valent among  the  Asiatics,  who  have  a  tradition  (the  origin 
of  which  is  lost  in  the  lapse  of  ages)  that  there  was  a  cup 
which  had  passed  successively  into  the  hands  of  diflferent 
potentates,  and  which  possessed  the  strange  property  of  re- 
presenting in  it  the  whole  world,  and  all  the  things  which 
were  then  doing  in  it.  The  Persians  to  this  day  call  it  the 
Cup  of  Jemsheea,  from  a  very  ancient  king  of  Persia  of  that 
name,  whom  late  historians  and  poets  have  confounded  with 
Bacchus,  Solomon,  Alexander  the  Great,  &c.  This  cup 
filled  with  the  elixir  of  immortality,  they  say,  was  discovered 
when  digging  the  foundations  of  Persepolis.  To  this  cup 
the  Persian  poets  have  numerous  allusions ;  and  to  the  intel- 
ligence supposed  to  have  been  received  from  it  they  ascribe 
the  great  prosperity  of  their  ancient  monarchs,  as  by  it  they 
understood  all  events,  past,  present,  and  future.  Many  of 
the  Mohammedan  princes  and  governors  affect  still  to  have 
information  of  futurity  by  means  of  a  cup.  Thus  when  Mr. 
Norden  was  at  Dehr  or  Derri  in  the  farthest  part  of  Egypt, 
in  a  very  dangerous  situation,  from  which  he  and  his  com- 
pany endeavoured  to  extricate  themselves  by  exerting  great 
spirit,  a  spiteful  and  powerful  Arab  in  a  threatening  way 
told  one  of  their  people,  whom  they  had  sent  to  him,  that  he 
knew  what  sort  of  people  they  were,  that  Ae  had  consulted  his 
cup,  and  had  found  by  it  that  they  were  those  of  whom  one 
of  their  prophets  had  said,  that  Franks  would  come  in  dis- 
guise, and  passing  every  where,  examine  the  state  of  the 
country,  and  afterwards  bring  over  a  great  number  of  other 
Franks,  conquer  the  country,  and  exterminate  all.'^  It  was 
precisely  the  same  thing  that  Joseph  meant  when  he  talked 
oi  divining  by  his  cup .^"^ 

Julius  Serenus  tells  us,  that  the  method  of  divining  by  the 
cup  among  the  Abyssinians,  Chaldees,  and  Egyptians,  was 
to  fill  it  first  with  water,  then  to  throw  into  it  their  plates  of 
gold  and  silver,  together  with  some  precious  stones,  whereon 
were  engraven  certain  characters  :  and  after  that  th^  persons 
who  came  to  consult  the  oracle  used  certain  forms  of  incan- 
tation, and  so  calling  upon  the  devil,  received  their  answers 
several  ways ;  sometimes  by  articulate  sounds,  sometimes 
by  the  characters,  which  were  in  the  cup,  arising  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  by  this  arrangement  forming  the 
answer ;  and  many  times  by  the  visible  appearing  of  the  per- 
sons themselves  about  whom  the   oracle  was    consulted. 

'«  See  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  vi.  pp.  479,  480. ;  also  vol.  iii.  p.  298. 

»»  We  have  no  reason  to  infer  that  Joseph  practised  divination  by  the 
cup ;  although,  according  to  the  superstiUon  of  those  times,  supernatural 
inlluence  might  be  attributed  to  his  cup.      And  as  the  whole  transaction" 
related  in  Gen.  xliv.  was  merely  intended  to  deceive  his  brethren  for  a  . 
short  time,  he  might  as  well  aifect  divination  by  his  cup  as  affect  to  believe 
that  they  had  stolen  it. 

1'  Trav.  vol.  ii.  p.  150.  "  Harmer,  vol.  ii.  p.  475. 


Sect.  II.] 


OF  THE  HEATHENS. 


143 


Cornelius  Agfnppa'  tells  us  likewise,  that  the  manner  of 
some  was  to  pour  melted  wax  into  a  cup  containin|T  water, 
which  wax  would  ranfre  itself  into  order,  and  so  lorm  an- 
swers, accordiiiff  to  the  (luestious  pro|)oscd.'^ 

2.  Divination  by  arrows  was  an  ancient  method  of  presag- 
ing future  events.  Ezekiel  (xxi.  21.)  informs  us  that  Nehu- 
chadnezzar,  whcm  marching  against  /edekiah  and  the  king 
of  the  Anmioiiites,  and  coming  to  the  head  of  two  ways, 
mingled  his  arrows  in  a  ([uivcr,  that  he  niiglil  thence  divine 
in  \\-lrat  direction  to  pursue  his  march;  and  that  he  consulted 
terapliim,  and  insp(>cted  the  livers  of  beasts,  in  order  to  de- 
termine his  resolution.  .I(;rome,  in  his  counnentary  on  this 
passage,  says  that  "  the  manner  of  divining  by  arrows  was 
thus : — they  wrote  on  several  arrows  the  names  of  the  cities 
against  which  they  intended  to  make  war,  and  then  putting 
them  promiscuously  all  togetlur  into  a  imiver,  they  caused 
them  to  be  drawn  out  in  the  manner  of  lots,  and  that  city, 
whose  name  was  on  th(>  arrow  first  drawn  out,  was  the  first 
they  assaulted."^  This  method  of  divination  was  practised 
by  the  idolatrous  Arabs,  and  prohibiu^d  by  Mohammed,'' 
and  was  likewise  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  other 
nations.' 

3.  Divinalinn  by  inspecting  the  liver  of  slaughtered  ani- 
mals was  anolluT  mode  of  ascertaining  future  events,  much 
practised  by  the  (j  reeks  and  Romans,  by  the  former  of  whom 
It  was  termed  'HTraTsa-KOTw,  or  loukinu;  into  the  liver.  This 
word  subsequently  became  a  general  term  for  divination  by 
inspecting  tne  entrails  of  sacrifices,  because  the  liver  was 
the  first  and  ])riiicii)al  part  observed  for  this  purpose.  To 
this  method  of  divination  there  is  an  allusion  in  Ezekiel 
xxi.  21.« 

4.  Ilubdomancy,  or  divination  by  the  staff,  is  alluded  to  by 
the  prophet  Hosea  (iv.  12.) ;  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  thus 
performed  :  The  person  consulting  measured  his  staff  by 
S|)ans,  or  by  the  length  of  his  finger,  saying,  as  he  measurecl, 
"  1  will  go,  or,  1  will  not  go ;  1  will  do  such  a  thing,  or,  I 
will  not  do  it ;"  and  as  the  hist  span  fell  out  so  he  determined. 
Cyril  and  Theophylact,  however,  give  a  different  account  of 
the  matter.  They  say  that  it  was  performed  by  erecting  two 
sticks,  after  which  they  murmured  forth  a  certain  charm,  and 
then,  according  as  the  sticks  fell,  backwards  or  forwards, 
towards  the  right  or  left,  they  gave  advice  in  any  affair.^ 

In  the  later  period  of  the  Jewish  history,  we  meet  with 
many  persons  among  the  Jews,  who  pretended  to  be  sorce- 
rer.i.»  This  class  of  persons  dealt  in  mcantations  and  divi- 
nations, and  boasted  of  a  power,  in  consequence  of  their  deep 

1  De  occult.  Philos.  1.  i.  cap.  57. 

«  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Gen.  xliv.  5.  Burdcr's  Oriental  Customs,  vol.  i. 
p.  M. 

•  On  this  subject  see  some  curious  information  in  the  Fragments  sup- 
plementary to  Caluiet,  No.  179. 

«  Koran,  ch.  v.  4.  (Sale's  translation,  p.  94.  4to.  edit.)  In  his  preliminary 
discourse,  Mr.  Sale  states  that  the  arrows,  used  by  the  idolatrous  Arabs 
4br  this  purpose,  were  destitute  of  heads  oi  feathers,  and  were  kept  in  the 
temple  of  some  idol,  in  whose  presence  they  were  consulted.  Seven  such 
arrows  were  kept  in  the  temple  of  Mecca,  but  generally  in  divination  they 
made  use  of  three  only,  on  one  of  which  was  written,  My  Lord  halh  com- 
mandcd  me, — on  another,  My  Loud  hath  forbidden  iiie, — and  the  third 
was  blank.  If  the  first  was  drawn,  they  re>j;arded  it  as  an  approbation  of 
the  enterprise  in-question  ;  if  the  second,  they  made  a  contrary  conclu- 
Bion  ;  but  if  the  third  happened  to  be  drawn,  they  mixed  them  anfl  drew 
over  again,  till  a  decisive  answer  was  given  by  one  of  the  others.  These 
divining  arrows  were  generally  consulled  before  any  thing  of  moment  was 
undertaken— as  when  a  man  was  abiMil  to  marry,  to  imdertake  a  journey, 
or  the  like.   (Sale's  Prel.  Disc.  pp.  1^,  127.) 

>  Potter's  Antiquities  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp.  359,  3C0. 

•  Ibid.  vol.  i.  pp.  330,  340.  The  practice  of  "divination  from  the  liver  is 
very  old,  and  was  practised  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  till  Christianity 
banisheil  it,  together  with  the  gods  of  Olympus.  In  jEschylus,  Prome- 
theus boasts  of  having  taught  man  the  division  of  the  entrails,  if  smooth, 
and  of  a  clear  colour,  to  be  agreeable  to  the  gods  ;  also  the  various  forms 
of  the  gall  and  the  liver."  (.Stolbcrg's  History  of  Religion,  vol.  iii.  p.  43t;.) 
Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  soon  as  a  .victim  was  sacrificed,  the 
entrails  were  examined.  They  began  with  the  liver,  which  was  considered 
the  chief  seat;  or,  as  Philostralus  expresses  himself  (Life  of  Apollonius, 
viii.  7.  §15.),  as  the  prophesying  tripod  of  all  divination.  If  it  had  a  fine, 
natural,  red  colour  ;  if  it  was  healthy,  and  without  spots  ;  if  it  was  large 
and  double  ;  if  the  lobes  turned  outwards;  they  promised  themselves  the 
best  success  in  their  undertakings ;  but  it  portended  evil  if  the  liver  was 
dry,  or  had  a  band  between  the  parts,  or  had  no  lobes.  It  was  also  con- 
sidered an  untbrtunateomen  if  tile  liver  was  injured  by  a  cut  in  killing  the 
victim.  (Malern.  of  Cilano,  Roman  Antiquities,  vol.  ii.  p.  1G4.)  Rosen- 
niiiiler.     Burder's  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  185. 

■>  Seldcn  de  diis  Syris.  Synt.  I.  cap.  2.  p.  28.  Godwin's  Moses  and 
Aaron,  p.  216.  Pococke  and  Newcome,  in  loc.  Potter's  Anliq.  of  Greece, 
vol.  i.  p.  359.   (Edinb.  IStU.) 

«  Josephits  relates  that,  at  the  period  above  referred  to,  there  were 
numerous  sorcerers  and  deceivers ;  who,  pretending  to  show  womiers 
and  prodigies,  seduced  great  numbers  of  people  after  them  into  the  wil- 
derness. (Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xx.  c.  8.  §  6.    Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  13.  §  4.) 


science,  and  by  means  of  certain  rites,  to  evoke  the  spirits 
of  the  dead  from  their  gloomy  abodes,  and  compel  them  to 
disclose  information  on  subjects  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
human  powers  :  of  this  description,  probably,  was  the  sorce- 
rer Bar-Jesus,  mentioned  in  Acts  xiii.  6 — 11.  There  also 
were  others,  such  as  Simon  the  sorcerer  (Acts  viii.  9.)  ;  who 
havin<r  some  knowledge  of  natural  philosophy  and  astrology, 
ahnsetl  that  knowledge  and  deceived  the  common  people  by 
pretending  to  foretell  future  events,  from  the  motions  and  ap- 
pearances of  the  planets  and  stars,  and  to  cure  certain  dis- 
eases by  repeating  certain  phrases,  &c.9  So  prevalent  was 
the  practice  of  sorcery  among  the  Jews,  that  many  of  their 
elders,  jtidges,  or  rabbles,  are  said  to  have  attained  such  a 
proficiency  in  magic  or  sorcery,  as  to  surpass  even  those  who 
niadt!  it  their  profi'ssion.'" 

'J'be  prevalence  of  magic  among  the  heathen  is  too  well 
known  to  retinire  any  proofs.  Pythagoras  and  other  distin- 
guished Greek  philoso|)liers  took  no  small  pains  to  attain 
The  knowledge  of  this  art:  the  inhabitants  of  Ephesus  in  par- 
ticular were  distinguished  for  their  magical  skill.  And  it 
was  no  small  triinii|)h  of  the  (Jospel  that  many  of  the  (chris- 
tian converts  at  Ephesiis,  who  had  previously  used  curious 
aria  (t*  yrtfiifiyu,  which  word  is  used  by  Greek  writers  to  de- 
note magical  arts,  incantations,  &c.),  brought  their  fjooks  to- 
gether and  burned  them  bejitre  all  men.  (Acts  xix.  19.)  So 
celebrated  was  the  city  ot  Ephesus  for  the  magic  art,  that 
some  particular  forms  of  incantation  derived  their  names  from 
thence,  and  were  called  E<pia-tct  Tp^/u/a^uta,  or  Kphesian  Letters.^^ 
They  appear  to  have  been  amulets  inscribed  with  strange 
characters,  which  were  worn  about  the  person  for  the  ))ur- 
pose  of  curing  diseases,  expelling  demons,  and  preserving 
individuals  from  evils  of  aifferent  kinds.  The  "  books 
above  mentioned  were  such  as  taught  the  science,  mode  ot 
forming,  use,  &c.  of  these  channs.'^ 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE  STATE  OF  RELIGION  AMONG  THE  JEWS,  IN  THE  TIME  OF 
JESUS  CHRIST. 

Previously  to  the  Babylonish  captivity  there  are  no  ves- 
tiges of  the  existence  of  any  sect  among  the  Jews.  Devoted 
to  the  study  of  their  law  and  to  the  ceremonies  of  their  re- 
ligion, they  neglected  those  curious  studies  which  were 
esteemed  among  other  nations.  Tlie  temple  of  Jehovah  and 
the  houses  of  the  prophets  were  their  principal  schools  ;  in 
which  they  were  taught  how  to  serve  the  Lord  and  to  observe 
the  ordinances  which  he  had  commanded.  After  the  cap- 
tivity, we  do  not  meet  with  any  traces  of  any  sects  among 
them  until  the  time  of  the  ftiaccabsean  princes  ;  when  it 
should  seem  that  the  Jewish  literati,  in  imitation  of  the  sects 
of  the  Grecian  philosophers,  became  divided  in  their  opinions, 
and  composed  the  three  celebrated  sects  of  the  Pharisees, 
Sadducees,  and  Essenes.  As  these  sects  are  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  it  is  proposed  in  this  sec- 
tion to  give  an  account  of  their  origin  ana  tenets,  together 
with  those  of  the  Herodians,  who  are  repeatedly  mentioned 
by  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  some  other  minor  denominations  of 
religious  parties  which  were  in  existence  during  the  period 
of  tune  comprised  in  the  New  Testament  history. '^ 

'  Robinson's  Gr.  Lex.  voce  Mxyo;. 

">  If  anv  credit  may  be  given  to  theTalmuds,  twenty-four  of  the  school 
of  rabbi  .^udah  were  killed  by  sorcery  ;  and  eighty  women  sorcere.s.<ies 
were  hanged  in  one  day  by  Simon  ben  shetah.  So  greatly  did  the  practice 
of  this  art  prevail  among  them,  that  skill  in  it  was  required  as  a  necessary 
qu'alificalion  for  a  per.soii  to  be  chosen  a  member  of  their  councils,  whether 
that  of  seventy-one  or  those  of  twenty-three;  in  order  that  he  might  be 
the  better  able  to  try  and  judge  the  accused;  whether  they  were  really 
guilty  of  sorcery  or  not.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  :?7I.  vol.  ii.  p.  244. 
(folio  edit.)  where  the  passages  from  the  Talmuds  are  given. 

"  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  pp.  290—293. 

'»  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Acts  viii.  17.  where  some  curious  information  rela- 
tive to  the  Ephesian  letters  is  collected  from  the  lexicographers,  Suidas  and 
Ilesvchius. 

"'The  authorities  principally  consulted  for  this  section  are  Pritii  Intro- 
duclio  in  Lectionem  Novi  Testament!,  cc.  33,  34.  De  Statu  Religionis 
Jud<eorum  tempore  Cbrisli,  pp.  446 — 171.  Calniet's  Dissertation  sur  les 
Sectes  des  Juifs  Dissert,  tom.  i.  pp.  711—743.  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron, 
and  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  i.  ch.  10—13.  Schulzii  Archae- 
olosia  Bihlica,  pp.  170—180.  Carpzovii  Aniiquitales  Hebr.  Gentis,  pp.  173 
—217.  Pictet's  Thcologie  Chntienne,  tom.  i.  pp.  *>27— 630.  and  tom.  iii. 
pp.  10.3—117.  Jahn,  Archffiol.  Bibl.  S§316— .320.  and  Ackermann,  Archceol. 
Bibl.  §§  305—311.  Beausobrc's  and  L'Enfant's  Introd.  (Bp.  Watson's 
Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  181—192.) 


144 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  JEWISH  SECTS 


[Part  HI.  Chap.  VI. 


§  1.    ACCOUNT    OF    THE    JEWISH  SECTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  NEW 
TESTAMENT. 

I.  The  Pharisees. — II.  The  Sadducees. — III.  The  Essenes. — 
IV.  The  Sci^ibes. — V.  The  Lmvyers. — VI.  The  Samari- 
tans.— VII.    The    Herodiuns. — VIII.     The    Galilaeajis IX. 

The  Zealots. — X.   The  Sicari:. 

I.  The  Pharisees  were  the  most  numerous  and  powerful 
sect  of  the  Jews.  The  precise  time  when  they  first  appeared 
is  not  known:  but,  as  Josephus'  mentions  the  Pharisees, 
Sadducees,  and  Essenes,  as  distinct  sects,  in  the  reign  of 
Jonathan  (b.  c.  144 — 139),  it  is  manifest  that  they  must  have 
been  in  existence  for  some  time.  Calmet  is  of  opinion  that 
their  origin  cannot  be  carried  higher  than  the  year  of  the 
world  3820,  corresponding  with  the  year  184  before  the 
Christian  ajra.  They  derived  their  name  from  the  Hebrew 
verb  ir-iQ  (pHaRflSH)  to  separate ;  because  they  professed  an 
uncommon  separation  from  the  apparel  and  customs  of  the 
world  to  the  study  of  the  law,  and  an  extraordinary  devotion 
to  God  and  sanctity  of  life,  beyond  all  other  men.  Hence 
one  of  them  is  represented  as  thanking  God,  that  he  was  not 
as  other  men  are  ,■  and  St.  Paul,  in  his  masterly  apology  be- 
fore king  Agrippa,  terms  them  aKf.^id-TXTn  a/^sa-^?,  the  most 
rigorous  sect,  in  our  version  rendered  the  most  straitest  sect. 
(Acts  xxvi.  5.)  They  were  not  restricted  to  any  particular 
family  or  class  of  men  :  there  were  Pharisees  of  every  tribe, 
family,  and  condition.  The  credit  which  they  had  acquired 
by  their  reputation  for  knowledge  and  sanctity  of  life  early 
rendered  them  formidable  to  the  Maccabaean  sovereigns  ; 
while  they  were  held  in  such  esteem  and  veneration  by  the 
people,  that  they  may  be  almost  said  to  have  given  what 
direction  they  pleased  to  public  affairs.^  They  boasted  that, 
from  their  accurate  knowledge  of  religion,  they  were  the  fa- 
vourites of  heaven  ;2  and  thus,  trusting  in  themselves  that 
they  were  righteous,  despised  others.  (Luke  xi.  52.  xviii. 
9.  11.) 

Amonff  the  tenets  inculcated  by  this  sect,  we  may  enume- 
rate the  following ;  viz. 

1.  They  ascribed  all  things  to  fate  or  providence,  yet  not 
so  absolutely  as  to  take  away  the  free  will  of  man,  though 
fate  does  not  co-operate  in  every  action.''  They  also  believed 
in  the  existence  of  angels  and  spirits,  and  in  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead  (Acts  xxiii.  8.)  :  but,  from  the  account  given  of 
them  by  Josephus,  it  appears  that  their  notion  of  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  was  the  Pythagorean  metempsychosis  ;■'' 
that  the  soul,  after  the  dissolution  of  one  body,  winged  its 
flight  into  another  ;  and  that  these  removals  were  perpetuated 
an3  diversified  through  an  infinite  succession,  the  soul  ani- 
mating a  sound  and  healthy  body,  or  being  confined  in  a 
deformed  and  diseased  frame,  according  to  its  conduct  in  a 
prior  state  of  existence.  From  the  Pharisees,  whose  tenets 
and  traditions  the  people  generally  received,  it  is  evident  that 
the  disciples  of  our  Lord  had  adopted  this  philosophical  doc- 
trine of  the  transmigration  of  souls  ;  when,  having  met  with 
a  man  who  had  been  born  blind,  they  asked  him  whether  it 
were  the  sins  of  this  man  in  a  pre-existent  state  which  had 
caused  the  Sovereign  Disposer  to  inflict  upon  him  this 
punishment.  To  this  inquiry  Christ  replied,  that  neither  his 
vices  or  sins  in  a  pre-existent  state,  nor  those  of  his  parents, 
were  the  cause  of  this  calamity.  (John  ix.  1 — 4.)  From 
this  notion,  derived  from  the  Greek  philosophy,  we  find  that 
during  our  Saviour's  public  ministry,  the  Jews  speculated 
variously  concerning  him,  and  indulged  several  conjectures, 
which  of  the  ancient  prophets  it  was  whose  soul  now  ani- 
mated him,  and  performed  such  astonishing  miracles.  Some 
contended  that  it  was  the  soul  of  Elias  ;  others  of  Jeremiah  ; 
while  others,  less  sanguine,  only  declared  in  general  terms 
that  it  must  be  the  soul  of  one  ot  the  old  prophets  by  which 
these   mighty  deeds  were   now   wrought.    (Matt.  xvi.  14. 


:!' 


Luke  ix.  19 

1  Ant.  .lud.  lib.  xiii.  c.  5.  §  9. 

*  The  high  reputation  and  influence  of  the  Pharisees  are  strikingly 
illustrated  by  the  following  anecdote: — When  Alexander  Janna-us  lay  on 
his  death-bed,  about  eighty  years  before  the  Christian  fera,  his  queen 
Alexandra  having  expressed  great  anxiety  on  account  of  the  exposed  state 
in  which  herself  and  sons  would  be  left,  the  dying  monarch  recommended 
her  to  court  the  Pharisees,  and  delegate  part  of  her  power  to  them. 
Alexandra  followed  this  advice  ;  and  the  Pharisees,  availing  themselves  of 
the  opportunity,  made  themselves  masters  of  the  government,  and  dis- 
posed of  every  thing  as  they  pleased.  Josephus,  Ant.  .lud.  lib.  xiii.  c.  15. 
§  5.  c.  16.  §  1.    Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.  4.  3  An(.  Jud.  hb.  xvii.  c.  2.  §4. 

«  Ibid.  lib.  xiii.  c.  5.  §9.  hb.  xviii.  c.2.  §3.  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  8.  §  14. 
Acts  V  38  39 

'  Ibid.  lib.  xviii.  c.  1.  §  3.  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  r,.  8.  §  14.  lib.  iii.  c.  8.  §  5. 
The  author  of  the  Book  of  Wisdom  (ch.  viii.  20.)  seems  to  allude  to  the 
same  doctrine,  when  he  tells  us,  that,  being  good,  he  cameinto  a  body  un- 
defUed. 

•  Dr.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  ii.  pp.  56S,  569.    Dr.  Havwood's  Introd.  to 


2.  The  Pharisees  contended  that  God  was  in  strict  justice 
bound  to  bless  the  Jews,  and  make  them  all  partakers  of  the 
/«Tes/r/«/ kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  to  justify  them,  to  make 
them  eternally  happy,  and  that  he  could  not  possibly  damn 
any  one  of  them  !  The  ground  of  their  justification  they  de- 
rived from  the  merits  of  Abraham,  from  their  knowledge  of 
God,  from  their  practising  the  rite  of  circumcision,  and  from 
the  sacrifices  they  offered.  And  as  they  conceived  works  to 
be  meritorious,  they  had  invented  a  great  number  of  supere- 
rogatory ones,  to  which  they  attached  greater  merit  than  to 
the  observance  of  the  law  itself.  To  this  notion  St.  Paul 
has  some  allusions  in  those  parts  of  his  Epistle  to  the  Uomans 
in  which  he  combats  the  erroneous  suppositions  of  t!ie  Jews.' 

3.  The  Pharisees  were  the  strictest  of  the  three  principal 
sects  that  divided  the  Jewish  nation  (Acts  xxvi.  5.),  and 
affected  a  singular  probity  of  manners  according  to  their 
system,  which  however  was  for  the  most  part  both  lax  and 
corrupt.  Thus,  many  things  which  Moses  had  tolerated  in 
civil  life,  in  order  to  avoid  a  greater  evil,  the  Pharisees  de- 
termined to  be  morally  right ;  for  instance,  the  law  of  retalia- 
tion, and  that  of  a  divorce  from  a  wife  for  any  cause.  (Matt. 
V.  31.  et  seq.  xix.  3 — 12.)  During  the  time  of  Christ  there 
were  two  celebrated  philosophical  and  divinity  schools  among 
the  Jews,  that  of  Schammai  and  that  of  Hillel.  On  the 
question  of  divorce,  the  school  of  Schammai  maintained,  that 
no  man  could  legally  put  away  his  wife  except  for  adultery  : 
the  school  of  Hillel,  on  the  contrary,  allowed  a  divorce  for 
any  cause  (from  Deut.  xxiv.  1.),  even  if  the  wife  found  no 
favour  in  the  eyes  of  her  husband, — in  other  words,  if  he  saw 
any  woman  who  pleased  him  better.  The  practice  of  the 
Jews  seems  to  have  gone  with  the  school  of  Hillel.  Thus 
we  read  (in  Ecclus.  xxv.  26.),  "  If  she  go  not  as  thou 
wouldest  have  her,  cut  her  off"  from  thy  flesh  ;  give  her  a  bill 
of  divorce  and  let  her  go  ;"  and  in  conformity  with  this  doc- 
trine, Josephus,8  who  was  a  Pharisee,  relates  that  he  repu- 
diated his  wife  who  had  borne  him  three  children,  because 
he  was  not  pleased  with  her  manners  or  behaviour. 

4.  Further,  they  interpreted  certain  of  the  Mosaic  laws 
most  literally,  and  distorted  their  meaning  so  as  to  favour 
their  own  philosophical  system.  Thus,  the  law  of  loving 
their  neighbour,  they  expounded  solely  of  the  love  of  their 
friends,  that  is,  of  the  whole  Jewish  race  ;  all  other  persons 
being  considered  by  them  as  natural  enemies  (Matt.  v.  43. 
compared  with  Luke  x.  31 — 33.),  whom  they  were  in  no 
respect  bound  to  assist.  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  cited  a  striking 
illustration  of  this  passage  from  Maimonides.s  An  oath,  in 
which  the  name  of  Goa  was  not  distinctly  specified,  they 
taught  was  not  binding  (Matt.  v.  33.),  maintaining  that  a 
man  might  even  swear  with  his  lips,  and  at  the  same  mo- 
ment annul  it  in  his  heart !  So  rigorously  did  they  under- 
stand the  command  of  observing  the  Sabbath-day,  that  they 
accounted  it  unlawful  to  pluck  ears  of  corn,  and  heal  the 
sick,  &c.  (Matt.  xii.  1.  et  seq.  Luke  vi.  6.  et  seq,  xiv.  1.  ct  seq.) 
Those  natural  laws  which  Moses  did  not  sanction  by  any 
penalty  they  accounted  among  the  petty  commandments, 
inferior  to  the  ceremonial  laws,  which  they  preferred  to  the 
former,  as  being  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law  (Matt.  v. 
19.  XV.  4.  xxiii.  23.),  to  the  total  neglect  of  mercy  and 
fidelity.  Hence  they  accounted  causeless  anger  and  impure 
desires  as  trifles  of  no  moment  (Matt.  v.  21,  22.  27 — 30.)  ; 
they  compassed  sea  and  land  to  make  proselytes'"  to  the  Jew- 
ish religion  from  among  the  Gentiles,  that  they  might  rule 
over  their  consciences  and  wealth  :  and  these  proselytes, 
through  the  influence  of  their  own  scandalous  examples  and 
characters,  they  soon  rendered  more  profligate  and  abandoned 

the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  3.55.  To  this  popular  notion  of  a  transmigration 
of  souls,  Dr.  H.  ascribes  the  alarm  of  Herod,  who  had  caused  John  the 
Baptist  to  be  beheaded,  when  the  fame  of  Christ's  miracles  reached  his 
court;  birt,  on  comparing  Matt.  xvi.  ti.  with  Mark  viii.  15.,  it  appears  that 
Herod  was  a  Sadducee,  and,  consequently,  disbelieved  a  future  state.  His 
alarm,^ therefore,  is  rather  to  be  attributed  to  the  forceof  conscience  which 
haunted  his  guilty  mind  in  despite  of  his  libertine  principles.    • 

■>  See  Rom.  i. — xi.  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvii.  c.  2.  §4.  De  Bell.  Jud. 
lib.  ii.  c.  8.  §  4.     Justin.  Dialog.  cumTryphon.    Pirke  Aboth. 

8  Life  of  himself,  §  76.  Grotius,  Calmet,  Drs.  Lightfoot,  Whitby,  Dod- 
dridge, and  A.  Clarke  (on  Matt.  v.  30.  et  seq.  and  Matt.  xix.  3.  et  sen.)  have 
all  given  illustrations  of  the  Jewish  doctrine  of  divorce  from  rabWnical 
writers.  See  also  Selden's  Uxor  Hebraica,  lib.  iii.  c.  22.  (Op.  torn.  ii.  col. 
782—786.) 

9  "A  Jew  sees  a  Gentile  fall  into  the  sea,  let  him  by  no  means  lift  him 
out :  for  it  is  written,  '  Thou  shalt  not  rise  up  against  the  blood  of  thy 
neighbour.'     But  this  is  not  thy  neighbour."     Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  152. 

11  Justin  Martyr  bears  witness  to  the  inveterate  malignity  of  the  prose- 
lytes of  the  Pharisees  against  the  name  of  Christ,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century.  "  Your  proselytes,"  says  he  to  Trypho  the  Jew  (p.  350.), 
"not  only  do  not  beheve  in  Christ,  but  blaspheme  liis  name  with  twofold^ 
more  virulence  than  yourselves.  They  are  ready  to  show  their  malicious 
zeal  against  us ;  and,  to  obtain  merit  in  your  eyes,  wish  to  us  reproach,  and  ' 
torment,  and  death."  See  further  Dr.  Ireland's  Paganism  and  Christianity 
compared,  pp.  21—23. 


Sect.  II.  §  1.]  MENTIONED  IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

than  ever  they  were  hefore  thrir  conversion,  (Matt,  xxiii 


145 


15.)  Estneniinir  temporal  happiness  and  riches  as  the 
nis'iest  good,  tliey  scrui)led  not  to  accinrnilat<!  wealth  iiy 
2very  moans,  le<ral  or  illeiral  (Matt.  v.  1 — 12.  xxiii.  4.  Luke 
xvi.  14.  .lames  11.  1 — 8.)  ;  vain  and  andjltlous  ol' popular  ap- 
plause, they  offered  up  lonir  prayers'  in  public  places,  hut  not 
without  a  self-suiriciency  oi'  their  own  holiness  (Matt.  vi. 
2 — 5.  Luke  xviii.  U.)  ;  mider  a  sanctimonious  appearanct; 
of  respect  for  the  memorit^s  of  tin;  ])ro|)hets  whom  their  an- 
cestors had  slain,  they  repaired  and  i)eantifif^(l  their  sepul- 
chres (Matt,  xxiii.  21).)  ;  and  such  was  their  idea  of  their 
own  sanctity,  that  they  thoufjlit  themselves  defiled  if  they 
hut  touch(!d.  or  conversed  with  siniiem,  that  is,  with  ))uhli- 
cans  or  tax-iratherers,  and  persons  of  loose  and  irregular  lives. 
(Lidie  vii.  lii).  xv.  1.  cl  .sry.) 

But,  above  all  their  other  tenets,  the  Pharisees  were  con- 
spicuous for  their  reverential  ohsc^rvance  of  the  traditions  or 
decrees  of  the  elders:  these  traditions,  they  pretendcHl,  had 
been  handed  down  from  Moses  throuirh  every  jreneration,  but 
were  not  committed  to  writinp^ ;  and  they  were  not  merely 
considered  as  of  equal  authority  with  the  divine  law,  but 
even  preferable  to  it.  "The  words  of  the  scribes,"  said 
they.  "  ani  lovely  above  the  words  of  the  law ;  for  the 
words  of  the  law  are  weiohty  and  li<>"ht?  hut  tiie  words  of 
the  scribes  are  all  weiiihty."^  Amoufr  the  traditions  thus 
sanctimoniously  observed  by  the  Pharisees,  we  may  briefly 
notice  the  foUowincr: — 1.  T/ie  washini/r  of  hands  up  to  the 
wrist  before  and  after  meat  (Matt.  xv.  2.  Mark  vii.  3.),  which 
they  accounted  not  merely  a  reli<!fious  duty,  but  considered 
its  omission  as  a  crime  equal  to  foriucation,  and  punishable 
by  exconnnunication.  2.  The  piirifiai/ion  of  the  cups,  ves- 
sels, and  couches  used  at  their  meals  by  ablutions  or  wash- 
intrs  (Mark  vii.  4.)  ;  for  which  purpose  the  six  larije  water- 
pots  mentioned  by  St.  .John  (ii.  6.)  were  destined.  But 
these  ablutions  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  those  symboli- 
cal washings  mentioned  in  Psal.  xxvi.  6.  and  Matt,  xxvii. 
24.  3.  Their  punctilious  pai/mcnt  of  fit/ies  (temple-offer- 
ings), even  of  the  most  trifling  thing.  (Luke  xviii.  12.  Matt, 
xxiii.  23.)  4.  Their  wearimr  broader  plii/lrirferies  and  larger 
frinires  to  their  garments  than  the  rest  of  the  .lews.  (Matt. 
xxiii.  5.)  He,  who  wore  his  phylactery  and  his  fringe  of 
the  largest  size,  was  re})uted  to  be  the  most  devout.  5. 
Tiieir  fti.^finir  twice  a  week  with  great  appearance  of  austerity 
(liidie  xviii.  12.  Matt.  vi.  16.);  thus  converting  that  exercise 
into  religion  which  is  only  a  help  towards  the  performance 
of  its  hallowed  duties.  The  .lewish  days  of  fasting  were 
the  second  and  fiftii  days  of  the  week,  corresponding  with 
our  Mondays  and  Thursdays:  on  one  of  these  days  they 
commemorated  Moses  going  up  to  the  mount  to  receive  the 
law,  which,  according  to  their  traditions,  was  on  the  fifth  day 
or  Thursday  ;  and  on  the  other  his  descent  after  he  had  re- 
ceived the  two  tables,  which  they  supposed  to  have  been  on 
the  second  day,  or  Monday, 

Very  surprising  effects  are  related  concerning  the  mortifi- 
cations of  the  Pharisees,  and  the  austerities  practised  by  some 
of  them  in  order  to  ])reserve  the  purity  of  the  body.  Some- 
times they  imposed  these  painful  exercises  for  four,  eight,  or 
even  ten  years,  before  they  married.  They  deprived  them- 
selves almost  entirely  of  sleep,  lest  they  should  involunta- 
rily become  unclean  or  polluted  during  sleep.  Some  of  them 
are  said  to  have  slept  on  narrow  planks,  not  more  than  twelve 
fingers  broad  ;  in  order  that,  if  they  should  sleep  too  soundly, 
they  might  fall  upon  the  ground  and  awake  to  prayer.  Others 
slept  on  small  and  sharp-pointed  stones,  and  even  on  thorns, 
in  order  that  they  might  be  laid  under  a  kind  of  necessity  to 
be  always  awake. ^  As,  however,  none  of  these  austerities 
were  legally  commanded,  and  as  the  Pharisees  were  not 
bound  to  practise  them  by  any  law  or  other  obligation,  each 
seems  to  have  followed  his  own  inclination  and  the  impulse 
or  ardour  of  his  devotion.  The  Talmuds  mention  seven 
sorts  of  Pharisees,  two  of  whom  appear  to  be  alluded  to, 
though  not  specified  by  name,  in  the  New  Testament,  viz. 

'  Bucher,  after  a  very  ancient  Hebrew  manuscript  ritual,  has  given  a 
long  and  curious  speciirien  of  Uie  "  vain  repetitions"  used  by  the  Pharisees. 
See  his  Antiqnitates  Biblicae  ex  Novo  Testamento  selectae,  pp.  2iO — 244. 
Vi<euii)ergae,  17'29.  4to. 

«  Jei'iisalHui  Horachoth.  fol.  .3.  2.  as  cited  bv  Dr.  I-ightfoot  in  his  IToroe 
HebraiccB  on  Malt.  xv.  The  v  hole  of  his  Hebrew  and  Talinudical  Exer- 
citatinns  on  tlial  ctiapter  is  singuladv  instructive.  The  collection  of  these 
traditions,  by  which  the  Jews  made  the  law  of  God  of  none  effect,  is 
t.riiied  the  Talmud:  of  which,  and  of  its  use  in  illustraling  the  Holy 
!?cripturps,  an  account  has  alreai.ty  been  given.  On  the  traditions  of  the 
1111  idem  Jews  (which  illustrate  very  nianv  passaires  of  the  New  Testament), 
I  lie  reader  may  consult  Mr.  Allen's  Modern  Judaism,  chap.  viii.  lo  xv.  pp. 

»  Kpiphanius,  Hreres.  p.  16. 

Vol.  U.  T 


1.  The  Shechemite  Pharisees,  or  those  who  entered  into  the 
sect  only  from  motives  of  gain;  just  as  the  Shechemites 
suffered  themselves  to  be  circumcised.  This  order  of  Phari- 
sees is  most  probably  alliuled  to  in  Matt,  xxiii.  5.  14. ;  and 

2.  The  Pharisees  who  said,  "  Let  me  know  what  my  duty 
is,  and  I  will  do  it." — "I  have  done  my  duty,  that  the  com- 
mand may  be  performed  according  to  it."  Of  this  sort  the 
young  man  in  the  Gos])el  appears  to  have  been,  who  came 
to  .lesus  ('hrist,  saying,  "  Good  mafter,  what  c;<«.d  thing 
SHALL  I  DO,  that  I  may  have  eternal  lifrV  and  who  at  lemrth 
replied, — All  iheae  have  I ktpl  {ox  observed)  from  my  ijoulh 
up.  (Matt,  xix,  IG,  20,)< 

With  all  their  pretensions  to  piety,  the  Pharisees  enter- 
tained the  most  sovereign  contempt  for  the  people;  whom, 
being  ignorant  of  the  law,  they  pronounced  to  be  accursed. 
(.John  vii.  4!).)  It  is  unquestionable,  as  Mosheim  has  well 
remarked,  that  the  religion  of  the  Phari.sees  was,  for  the 
most  part,  founded  in  consummate  hypocrisy;  and  tliat,  in 
general,  they  were  the  slaves  of  every  vicious  appetite, 
proud,  arrogant,  and  avaricious,  consulting  only  the  gratifica- 
tion of  their  lusts,  even  at  the  very  moment  when  they  pro- 
fessed themselves  to  be  engaged  in  the  service  of  their 
Maker.  These  odious  features  in  the  character  of  the  Pha- 
risees caused  them  to  be  reprehended  by  our  Saviour  with 
the  utmost  severity,  even  more  than  he  rebuked  the  Saddu- 
cees;  who,  although  they  had  departed  widely  from  the 
genuine  principles  of  religion,  y(>t  did  not  impo.se  on  man- 
kind by  pretended  sanctity,  or  devote  themselves  with  insa- 
tiable greediness  to  the  acquisition  of  honours  and  riches.^ 
Jill  the  Pharisees,  however,  were  not  of  this  description. 
Nicodemus  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  great  probity  and 
piety :  and  the  same  character  is  ap])licable  to  Gamaliel.  If 
oaul  persecuted  the  church  of  Christ,  he  did  it  out  of  a  blind 
zeal;  but,  not  to  insist  on  the  testimony  which  he  bears  of 
himself,  it  is  evident,  from  the  extraordinary  favour  of  God 
towards  him,  that  he  was  not  tainted  with  the  other  vices 
common  to  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees.  What  he  says  of  it, 
that  it  was  the  strictest  of  all,  cannot  admit  of  any  other 
than  a  favourable  construction.*' 

II.  The  sect  of  the  Sadducees  is  by  some  writers  considered 
as  the  most  ancient  of  the  Jewish  sects ;  though  others  have 
supposed  that  the  Sadducees  and  Pharisees  gradually  grew 
up  together.  This  sect  derives  its  appellation  from  Sadok, 
or  Zadok,  the  disciple  and  successor  of  Antigonus  Sochwus, 
who  lived  above  two  hundred  (Dr,  Prideaux  says  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty-three)  years  before  Christ;  and  who  taught 
his  pupils  to  "  be  not  as  servants,  who  wait  upon  their  mas- 
ter for  the  sake  of  reward,  but  to  be  like  servants  who  wait 
upon  their  master,  not  for  the  sake  of  reward ;"  but  that 
they  should  let  the  fear  of  the  Lord  be  in  them.'  Unable  to 
conjprehend  a  doctrine  so  spiritual,  Sadok  deduced  from  it 
the  inference  that  neither  reward  nor  punishment  is  to  be 
expected  in  a  future  life.  The  following  arc  the  principal 
tenets  of  the  Sadducees  : — 

1.  That  there  its  7io  remirrecfior},  neither  angel  nor  spirit 
(Matt,  xxii,  23,  Acts  xxiii.  8.),  and  that  the  soul  of  man 
perishes  together  with  the  body.^* 

2.  That  there  is  no  fate  or  overruling  providence,  but  that 
all  men  enjoy  the  most  ample  freedom  of  action;  in  other 
words,  the  absolute  power  of  doing  either  good  or  evil,  accord- 
ing to  their  own^  choice ;  hence  they  were  very  severe  judges.'" 

3.  They  paid  no  regard  whatever  to  any  tradition,  adher- 
ing strictly  to  the  letter  of  Scripture,  but  preferring  the  five 

«  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Beracholh.  fol.  13.  2.  Sotah,  fol.  20.  3.  Babylonish 
Talmud,  lol.  22.  2.  Dr.  Ligtitluol  has  translated  the  entire  passages  in  his 
HoVw  HebraicK  on  Matt.  iii.  7. 

»  Mosheim's  Commentaries  on  the  Affairs  of  Christians,  vol.  i.  p.  83. 

«  Beausobre's  and  L'Enfani's  Introd.  (Bp.  Watson's  Tracts}  vol.  iii. 
p.  100. 

1  I.iirhtfoot's  Horae  Hebraica;  on  Matt.  iii.  7. 

»  Josephus  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.  8.  in  fine.  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  1.  §  4. 
Some  learned  men  have  expressed  their  surprise,  that  ll)e  !5addue(es 
should  deny  the  existence  of  angels,  since  they  acknowledjrcd  the  live 
books  of  Moses,  in  which  such  frequent  and  express  menjioii  is  made  of 
the  appearance  and  ministry  of  angels.  To  this  it  is  answered,  that  Ihey 
believed  not  the  angels,  spoken  ofin  the  books  of  Moses,  to  be  of  any  dura- 
tion, but  looked  on  them  as  being  rreaied  only  for  the  service  they  per- 
formed, and  existing  no  longer.  (Grolius  on  Matt.  xxii.  x.xiu.  Arc.  Light- 
foot's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  702.  Whitby  on  Acts  xxiii.  8  and  Malt.  xxii.  23.) 
There  seem  to  have  been  hercliisin  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr  (the  secimd 
century),  who  entertained  a  similar  opinion.  (Justii:.  Dial,  cum  Ti-ypl.one, 
p.  35.'^.  b.)  And  it  is  evident  that  this  notion  was  entertained  by  some  an.ong 
the  Jews,  so  lately  as  the  emperor  Justinian's  lime  (the  sixth  century) ;  tor 
there  is  a  law  of  his  extant  (Novel.  1J6.  c  2.)  published  against  lliose  Jews, 
who  should  presume  either  to  deny  the  resurrection  and  judgnient,  or  that 
angels,  the  workmanship  and  creatures  of  God,  did  subsist.  Biscoe  on  tht) 
Acts,  vol.  i.  p.  99.  ,        ,  ,     .         o  , 

».Iosepbus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiii.  c.  •'.  §  9.     De  EcU.  Jud.  lib.  ii   c  8.  5  4. 

10  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  10.  §  5. 


146 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  JEWISH  SECTS 


[Part  HI.  Chap.  VI. 


books  of  Mosps  to  the  rest.  It  has  besn  conjectared  by 
some  writers  that  they  rej'>cted  all  the  sncred  hooks  hut  those 
of  Moses.  But  this  hypothesis  is  no  proof:  for,  in  the  first 
place,  tiiis  sect  took  its  rise  at  a  time  when  the  Jewish 
canon  had  been  closed  ;  and  it  was  just  as  easy  f  jr  the  Sad- 
ducees  to  make  their  opinions  harmnnize  with  the  other 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  with  the  books  of  Moses. 
Secondly,  how  could  any  of  the  Saddacees  have  sustained  the 
office  of  hiirh-priest,  if' they  had  dennrted  in  so  important  a 
point  from  The  belief  of  the  nation  1  Thirdly,  althoutrli  Jose- 
phus  frequently  mentions  their  rejectinor  the  traditions  of  the 
elders,  yet  he  nowhere  charges  them  with  rcjectintr  any  of 
the  sacred  books ;  and  as  he  was  himself  a  Pharisee,  and 
their  zealous  antagonist,  he  would  not  have  passed  over  such 
a  crime  in  silence.  It  is  further  worthy  of  remark,  that  our 
Saviour,  who  so  severely  censured  the  Sadducees  for  their 
other  corruptions,  did  not  condemn  them  for  such  rejection.' 

In  point  of  numbers,  the  Sadducees  were  an  inconsiderable 
sect;  but  their  numerical  deficiency  was  amply  compensated 
by  the  dignity  and  eminence  of  those  who  embraced  their 
tenets,  and  who  were  persons  of  the  first  distinction.  Several 
of  them  were  advanced  to  the  hiffh-priesthood.^  They  do  not, 
however,  appear  to  have  aspired,  generally,  to  public  offices. 
Josephus  affirms  that  scarcely  any  business  of  the  state  was 
transacted  by  them :  and  that,  when  they  were  in  the  magis- 
tracy, they  generally  conformed  to  the  measures  of  the  Phari- 
sees, though  unwillincrly,  and  out  of  pure  necessity ;  for  other- 
wise they^would  not  have  been  endured  by  the  multitude. ^ 

III.  Concerning  the  origin  of  the  Essenes,  who  were  the 
third  principal  sect  of  the  Jews,  there  is  a  considerable  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  By  some  writers  of  the  Jewish  antiqui- 
ties they  have  been  identified  with  the  fraternity  of  Assi- 
daeans,  who  are  mentioned  in  1  Mace.  ii.  42.  as  being  zeal- 
ously devoted  to  the  law ;  while  others  trace  their  (fescent 
to  the  Rechabites.  But  the  latter  were  -a.  family  only,  and 
not  a  sect.  Most  probably  they  derived  their  origin  from 
Egypt,  where  the  Jewish  refugees,  who  fled  for  security 
after  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  were  compelled,  on  the  caj)- 
tivity  of  the  greater  part  of  their  body,  to  lead  a  recluse  life, 
out  of  which  the  Essene  institute  might  have  grown.  They 
were  dispersed  chiefly  through  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Egypt, 
though  they  were  to  be  met  with  in  other  countries.'  The 
Essenes  differed  in  many  respects  from  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees,  both  in  doctrines  and  in  practice.  They  were 
divided  into  two  classes  : — 1.  The  practical^  who  lived  in 
society,  and  some  of  whom  were  married,  though  it  appears 
with  much  circumspection.  These  dwelt  in  cities  and  their 
neighbourhoods,  and  applied  themselves  to  husbandry  and 
other  innocent  occupations.  2.  The  coniemplative  Essenes, 
who  were  also  called  Therapeutaj  or  Physicians,  from  their 
application  principally  to  the  cure  of  the  diseases  of  the  soul, 
devoted  themselves  wholly  to  meditation,  and  avoided  living 
in  great  towns  as  unfavourable  to  a  contemplative  life.  But 
both  classes  were  exceedingly  abstemious,  exemplary  in  their 
moral  deportment,  averse  from  profane  swearing,  and  most 
rigid  in  their  observance  of  the  Sabbath.  They  held,  among 
other  tenets,  the  immortality  of  the  soul  (though  they  denied 
the  resurrection  of  the  body  V  the  existence  of  angels,  and  a 
state  of  future  rewards  ana  punishnients.  They  believed 
every  thing  to  be  ordered  by  an  eternal  fatality  or  chain  of 
causes.  Although  Jesus  Christ  censured  all  the  other  sects 
of  the  Jews  for  their  vices,  yet  he  never  spoke  of  the  Essenes; 
neither  are  they  mentioned  by  name  in  any  part  of  the  New 
Testament.  The  silence  of  the  evangelical  historians  con- 
cerning them  is  by  some  accounted  for  by  their  eremitic  life, 
which  secluded  them  from  places  of  public  resort ;  so  that 
they  did  not  come  in  the  way  of  our  Saviour,  as  the  Pharisees 
and  Sadducees  often  did.  Others,  liowever,  are  of  opinion, 
that  the  Essenes  being  very  honest  and  sincere,  without  guile 
or  hypocrisy,  gave  no  room  for  the  reproofs  and  censures 
which  the  other  Jews  deserved ;'  and,  therefore,  no  mention 
is  made  of  them. 

But  though  the  Essenes  are  not  expressly  named  in  any 
of  the  sacred  books,  it  has  been  conjectured  that  they  are 
alluded  to  in  two  or  three  passages.  Thus,  those  whom  our 
Lord  terms  eunuchs,  who  have  made  themselves  such  for 
the  kinadom  of  heaven's  sake  (Matt.  xix.  12.),  are  supposed 
to  be  the  contemplative  Essenes,  who  abstained  from  all 

>  Schmucker's  Biblical  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  264.  The  reader  will  find 
several  additional  proofs  in  coiifirniatiun  of  the  preoedins  account  of  the 
book.s  received  by  the  Sadducees,  in  Pr.  Jortin's  Remarks  on  Eccl.  Hist. 
Appendix,  No.  II.  vol.  i.  pp.  368—374.  Kdit.  ISOfi. 

»  Acts  V.  17.  xxiii.  6.  Josephus,  Anl.  Jud.  lib.  xiii.  c.  10.  §§  6,  7.  lib.  xviii. 
c.  1.  §  4. 

3  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  1.  §  4. 


intercourse  with  women,  in  the  hope  of  acquiring  a  greater 
degree  of  purity,  and  becoming  the  better  fitted  for  the  king- 
dom of  God.  St.  Paul  is  generally  understood  to  have 
referred  to  them,  in  Col.  ii.  18.  2.3.,  where  "  voluntary  humi- 
lity," and  "neglecting  the  body,"  are  peculiarly  applicable 
to  the  Essenes;  who,  when  they  received  any  persons  into 
their  number,  made  them  solem'nly  swear  that  they  w'ould 
keep  and  observe  the  books  of  the  sect  and  the  names  of  the 
angels  with  care.^  What  is  also  said  in  the  above-cited 
passage,  of  "intruding  into  things  not  seen,"  is  likewise 
agreeable  to  the  character  of  the  Therapeutic  Essenes;  who, 
placing  the  excellence  of  their  contemplative  life  in  raising 
their  minds  to  invisible  objects,  pretended  to  such  a  degree 
of  elevation  and  abstraction  as  to  be  able  to  penetrate  into 
the  nature  of  angels,  and  assign  them  proper  names,  or  rightly 
interpret  those  already  given  them;  and  also  to  pry  into 
futurity  and  predict  future  events.  On  these  accounts  it  is 
highly  probable  that  they  were  "  vainly  puffed  up  by  their 
fleshly  mind."  Further,  the  tenets  referred  to  by  St.  Paul 
(Col.  ii.  21.  "touch  not,  taste  not,  handle  not")  are  such  as 
the  Essenes  held,  who  would  not  taste  any  pfedsant  food, 
but  lived  on  coarse  bread  and  drank  nothing  but  water,  and 
some  of  whom  would  not  taste  any  food  at  all  till  after  sun- 
set :  if  touched  by  any  that  were  not  of  their  own  sect,  they 
would  wash  themselves,  as  after  some  great  pollution.  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  there  might  be  a  sodality  of  Essenes 
at  Colosse,  as  there  were  in  many  other  places  out  of  Judaea; 
and  that  some  of  the  Christians,  being  too  much  inclined  to 
Judaism,  might  also  affect  the  peculiarities  of  this  sect ;  which 
might  be  the  reason  of  the  apostle's  so  particularly  caution- 
ing the  Colossians  against  them.* 

IV.  There  is  in  the  Gospels  frequent  mention  of  a  set  of 
men  called  Scribes,  who  are  often  joined  with  the  chief- 
priests,  elders,  and  Pharisees.  They  seem  to  have  been  men 
of  learning,  and  on  that  account  to  have  had  great  deference 
paid  to  them  (Matt.  ii.  4.  vii.  29.) ;  but,  strictly  speaking, 
they  did  not  form  any  distinct  sect.  The  Scribes  generally 
belonged  to  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  in  whose  traditions 
and  explanations  of  the  law  they  were  profoundly  skilled ; 
and  on  the  Sabbath-days  "they  sat  in  Moses'  seat"  and 
instructed 'the  people.  Originally,  they  had  their  name  from 
their  employment,  which  at  first  was  transcribing  the  law  : 
but  in  progress  of  time  they  exalted  themselves  into  the 
public  ministry  and  became  teachers  of  it,  authoritatively 
determining  what  doctrines  were  or  were  not  contained  in  the 
Scriptiwes,  and  teaching  the  common  people  in  what  sense 
to  understand  the  law  and  the  prophets.  In  short,  ihey  were 
the  oricles  which  were  consultea  in  all  difficult  points  of 
doctrine  and  duty ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  were, 
for  the  most  part,  Levites,  wliose  peculiar  business  it  was  to 
study  and  read  the  law."  The  Scribes  were  of  different 
families  and  tribes,  and  therefore  of  different  sects  :  hence 
we  read,  that  there  were  Scribes  of  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees 
and  also  of  the  vSadducees.  (Acts  xxiii.  9.)  In  the  New 
Testament,  the  Scribes  are  frequently  identified  with  the 
Pharisees,  because  they  held  both  these  titles.  They  were 
Scribes  by  office,  and  Pharisees  by  religious  profession. 
This  explanation  will  account  for  the  Pharisees  in  Matt.  xxii. 
35.  being  called  Scribes  in  Mark  W\.  2SJ 

V.  The  Lawyers  {yo/xiwA)  or  Teachers 'of  the'Law  and 
Scribes  appear  to  be  synonymous  terms,  importing  one  and 
the  same  order  of  men;  as  &t.  Matthew  (xxii.  3.5.)  calls  him 
a  lawyer  whom  St.  Mark  (xii.  28.)  terms  one  of  the  Scribes. 
Dr.  Macknight  conjectures  the  Scribes  to  have  been  the  pub- 
lic expounders  of  the  law,  and  that  the  lawyers  studied  it  in 
private  :  perhaps,  as  Dr.  Lardner  conjectures,  they  taught  in 
the  schoois.8  But  M.  Basnage  is  of  opinion  that  they  were 
a  distinct  class  or  sect  of  men,  who  adhered  closely  to  the 

«  Josephus,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  8.  §  7. 

'  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  i.  c.  13.  Encyclopaedia  Metropoli- 
tana,  vol.  x.  p.  .592.  Michaelis  thinks  that  Saint  Paul  alludes  to  the  tenets 
and  practices  of  the  Essenes  in  his  Epistle  to  the  B^.phesians,  and  in  his  first 
Epistle  to  Timothy.  Introd.  to  the  New  Test,  vol,  iv.  pp.  79—85.  Dr.  Pri- 
deaux  has  collected  with  great  industry  and  fi<lelily  all  that  Philo,  Jossphus, 
and  Pliny  have  recorded  concerning  the  Essenes.  Connection,  vol.  ii 
book  v.  sub  anno  107  b.  c.  pp.  343 — 363.  Bill  edit.  There  is  a  very  interest- 
ing description  of  the  institute  of  the  Essenes  in  vol.  ii.  pp.  I'il — l.'O.  of 
"Ilelon's  Pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,"  which  contains  an  admirable  and  gra- 

Ehic  delineation  of  Jewish  manners  and  custoiiis,  Ei:ch  as  they  most  pro- 
ably  were  at  the  time  when  the  advent  of  the  Messiah  was  at  hand.     For 

the  translation  of  this  very  pleasing  and  instructive  \vi>rk  from  the  German 

of  Frederick  Strauss,  the  lover  of  sacred  literature  is  indebted  to  the  Rev. 

John  Kenrick,  M.  A.  oT  York. 
«  Dr.  Burton's  Papists  and  Pharisees  compared,  p.  6.  (Oxford,  1766.  Svo.)' 
■<  Stranheim's  Ecclesiastical  AnnaKs,  by  the  n.i'\.  G.  Wright,  p.  178. 
«  Prideaux,  vol.  ii.  p.  343.    Lardner's  Credibility,  part  i.  book  i.  ch.  4.  §3. 

(Works,  vol.  i.  p.  126.)    Macknight's  Harmony,  sect.  87.  vol.  ii.  p.  472.  8vo. 

edit.    . 


Sect.  IT.  §  1.] 


MENTIONED  IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


147 


text  of  the  law,  and  totally  disrrn^arded  all  traditions,  and 
that  they  were  the  same  as  th(^  uiodoni  Karaites.' 

VI.  The  Samaritans,  nienliont'd  in  liie  New  Testament, 
are  sjenerally  considered  as  a  stcl  of  the  .lews. 

This  appellation  is,  in  the  New  Testament,  g^iven  to  a 
race  of  people  wiio  sprana  ori<>:iiially  from  an  inlermixture 
of  the  ten  tribes  with  (ientile  nations.  V\  hen  llie  inhaliitants 
of  Samaria  and  of  tiu?  adjacent  comitry  were  carriivl  into 
captivity  by  Shahnaneser  kiii[r  of  Assyria,  he  sent  in  thfir 

£  laces  coloides  from  Hahyloni.i,  (Jtithah,  Ava,  Hamath,  and 
epharvaim ;  with  which  the  Israelites  who  remained  in  the 
land  became  intermin!iled,an(l  werenlliinately  amalgamated 
into  one  people.  (2  Kinirs  xvii.  '21.)  An  orijrin  like  this 
would,  of  course,  render  the  nation  odious  to  tlu^  .lews;  and 
the  Samaritans  further  aviirinented  this  cause  of  hatred  by 
rejectintj  all  th(>  sacred  hooks  of  the  .lews,  except  the  Penta- 
teuch, which  they  had  received  from  the  Jewisli  priest  who 
had  been  sent  to  them  from  Assyria  to  instruct  them  in  the 
true  religion.  (*2  Kinjjs  xvii.  27,  2H.)  On  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  the  IJabylonish  captivity,  when  they  be<ran  to 
rebuild  .lenisalem  and  the  tcmi)le,  the  Samaritans  requested 
to  be  acknowledped  as  Jewish  citizens,  and  to  be  permitted 
to  assist  in  the  work  ;  but  their  ap()lication  was  rejected. 
(Ezra  iv.  1 — 1.)  In  consequence  of  this  refusal  and  the  sub- 
sequent state  of  enmity,  the  Samaritans  not  only  took  occasion 
to  calumniate  the  .lews  before  the  Persian  kinjrs  (Ezra  iv.  5. 
Neh.  iv.  1 — 7,  8.)  ;  but  also,  recurrinjr  to  the  directions  of 
Moses  (Deut.  xxvii.  11 — 13.),  that  onenterintrthe  promised 
land  the  He'  rews  should  offer  sacrifices  on  Mount  Gerizim, 
they  erected  a  temple  on  that  nioimtain,  and  instituted  sacri- 
fices according  to  the  prescriptions  of  the  Mosaic  lavv.^ 
From  all  these  and  other  circumstances,  the  national  hatred 
between  the  Samaritans  and  Jews  increased  to  such  a  hcijrht, 
that  the  Jews  denounced  the  most  bitter  anathemas  against 
them  (Kcclus.  1.  26.),  and  for  many  ages  refused  them 
every  kind  of  intercourse.  Hence  the  woman  of  Samaria 
was  astonished  that  Jesus  Christ,  who  was  a  Jew,  should 
ask  drink  of  her.  (John  iv,  9.)  Hence  also  the  Jews,  when 
they  would  express  the  utmost  aversion  to  Christ,  said  to 
him — Thou  art  a  Samaritan,  and  luist  a  devil.  (John  viii. 
48.)  The  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  was  destroyed  by  Hyr- 
canus,  B.  c.  129  -.^  but  the  Samaritans,  in  the  time  of  Jesus, 
esteemed  that  mountain  sacred,  and  as  the  proper  place  of 
national  worship.  (John  iv.  20,  21.)  At  that  time,  also,  in 
common  with  the  Jews,  they  expected  the  advent  of  a  INIes- 
siah  (John  iv.  25.),  and  many  of  them  afterwards  became 
the  followers  of  Jesus  (yhrist,  and  embraced  the  doctrines  of 
his  religion.     (Acts  viii.  1.  ix.  31.  xv.  3.)' 

Towards  the  close  of  the  Jewish  polity,  the  Samaritans 
sulTered  much  from  the  Romans ;  and  though  they  received 
a  little  favourable  treatment  from  one  or  two  of  the  pagan 
emperors,  yet  they  suffered  considerably  under  some  of  the 

Jrofessing  Christian  emperors,  particularly  Valentinian  and 
ustinian.*  At  present,  the  Samaritans  are  very  much  re- 
duced in  point  ot  numbers.  Their  principal  residence  is  at 
Sichem  or  Shechem,  now  called  iV«/w/o.se  or  Nublous.  In 
1823,  there  were  between  twenty  and  thirty  houses,  and 
about  sixty  males  paid  the  capitation-tax  to  the  Mohamme- 
dan government.''  They  celebreited  divine  service  every 
Saturday.  Formerly  they  went  four  limes  a  year,  in  solemn 
procession,  to  the  old  synagogue  on  Mount  Gerizim  :  and  on 
these  occasions  they  ascended  before  sunrise,  and  read  the 
law  till  noon ;  but  of  late  years  they  have  not  been  allowed 
to  do  this.     The  Samaritans  have  one  school  la  Napolose, 

•  Basnage's  History  and  Religion  of  the  Jews,  boolt  i.  ch.  8,  9.  pp.  101 — 
114.  Tlie  Karaites  claim  a  vory  remote  antiquity,  some  pietendin?  that 
ttiey  are  descemletl  from  ttic  Ion  trihes  who  were  cari'ied  into  captivity  by 
Slialmaneser,  whilo  otliprs  iilory  in  tlicir  do.^eent  from  Ezra.  Tliis  sect  was 
reformed  by  Rabbi  Annn  iii  llie  eiglith  century.  They  are  fouiKl  in  diffe- 
rent parts  of  Russia,  Poland,  Lithuania,  Austria,  the  Cauca.'ius,  Turkey, 
Egypt,  Abyssinia.  India,  and  the  Holy  Land;  btU  their  numbers  are  not 
known.  The  principal  point  of  ditierence  between  them  and  the  rabbi- 
nists  or  Pharisaical  Jews  consists  in  their  rejection  of  the  oral  law,  and 
their  rigid  appeal  to  the  te.xt  of  Scripture,  as  the  exclusive  and  only  infalli- 
ble source  and  test  of  religious  truth.  On  this  account  they  are  called 
Karaites  (D'NIp  Khraim)  or  Scriptiirists,  from  Nnp  Kara  or  Scripture. 
Dr.  Henderson's  Biblical  Researches  and  Travels  in  Rus.sia,  p.  319.  In 
pp.  315 — 339.  he  has  given  a  very  interesting  account  of  ll>e  principles,  «fcc. 
of  the  Karaites  in  the  Crimea.  Carpzov  lias  given  an  abstract  of  the 
earlier  writers  coaceniing  this  sect  in  his  AiitiquitatesHebraese  Geutis,  pp. 

»  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xi.  c.  8,  §  4. 

»  Ibid.  lib.  xiii.  c.  10.  §§  2,  3. 

«  Robinson's  Gr.  Lex.  voce  Sauxp-ir^;.  Tappan's  Lectures  on  Jewish 
Antiq.  pp.  224—227.     Kuinbel,  oil  John  iv.  9.  25. 

»  Basnage's  History  of  the  Jews,  pp.  73—77.  In  pp.  63—96.  he  has  given 
minute  details  respecting  the  history,  tenets,  and  practices  of  this  sect  or 
people. 

•  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  195. 


where  their  language  is  taught.  The  head  of  this  sect  is 
stated  to  reside  at  Paris."  The  Samaritans  at  Napolose  are 
in  possession  of  a  very  ancient  mamiscript  Pentateuch,  whicli 
they  assert  to  be  nearly  3500  years  old  ;  l)ut  they  reject  the 
vowel  points  as  a  rabbinical  invention.  In  order  to  complete 
our  notice  of  this  sect,  we  have  subjoined  their  conf»>ssion  of 
faith,  sent  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  lOlcazar  their  high- 
priest  to  the  illustrious  critic  Scalitrer,  who  had  applicd^to 
them  for  that  purpose ;  together  with  a  few  additional  par- 
ticulars from  the  naron  de  Sacy's  Memoir  on  the  Samaritans, 
and  the  Rev.  W.  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria. s 

1.  The  Samaritans  observe  the  Sabbath  with  all  the  ex- 
actness ref]uired  in  Kxodus  ;  for  not  one  of  them  goes  out  of 
the  place  where  he  is  on  the  S;il)bath-day,  exce])t  to  the 
synagogue,  where  they  read  the  law,  and  sing  the  prai.ses  of 
(Jod.  They  do  not  lie  that  night  with  their  wives,  and  nei- 
ther kindle  nor  order  fire  to  be  kindled  :  whereas  the  Jews 
transgress  the  Sabbath  in  all  these  points  ;  for  they  go  out 
of  town,  have  fire  made,  lie  with  their  wives,  and  even  do 
not  wash  themselves  after  it. — 2.  They  hold  the  passover  to 
be  their  first  festival  ;  they  begin  at  sunset,  by  the  sacrifice 
enjoined  for  that  purpose  in  Exodus  ;  but  they  sacrifice  only 
on  Mount  Gerizim,  where  they  read  the  law,  and  offer 
prayers  to  God,  after  which  the  priest  dismisses  the  whole 
congregation  with  a  blessing.  [Of  late  years,  however,  hav- 
ing been  prohibited  from  ascending  INIount  Gerizim  by  their 
oppressors  the  Turks,  they  offer  the  paschal  sacrifice  within 
their  city,  which  they  consider  to  be  within  the  precincts  of 
the  sacred  place.] — 3.  They  celebrate  fcr  seven  days  to- 
gether the  feast  of  the  harvest,  but  they  do  not  agree  with  the 
Jews  concerning  the  day  when  it  ought  to  beorin  ;  for  these 
reckon  the  next  day  after  the  solemnity  of  the  passover ; 
whereas  the  Samaritans  reckon  fifty  days,  beginning  the  next 
day  after  the  Sabbath,  which  happens  in  the  week  of  the 
unleavened  bread,  and  the  next  day  after  the  seventh  Sabbath 
following,  the  feast  of  the  harvest  beirins. — 4.  They  observe 
the  fast  of  expiation  on  the  tenth  of  the  seventh  month  :  they 
employ  the  four-and-twenty  hours  of  the  day  in  prayers  to 
God,  and  singing  his  praises,  and  fasting.  All  fast,  except 
children  at  the  breast,  whereas  the  Jews  except  children 
under  seven  years  of  age. — 5.  On  the  fifteenth  of  the  same 
month,  they  celebrate  the  feast  of  tabernacles. — 6.  They 
never  defer  circumcision  beyond  the  eighth  day,  as  it  is  com- 
manded in  Genesis,  whereas  the  Je^vs  defer  it  sometimes 
longer. — 7.  They  are  obliged  to  wash  themselves  in  the 
morning,  when  tney  have  lain  with  their  wives,  or  have  been 
sullied  in  the  night  by  some  uncleanness ;  and  all  ves.'^els 
that  may  become  unclean,  become  defiled  when  they  touch 
them  before  they  have  washed. — 8.  They  take  away  the  fat 
from  sacrifices,  and  give  the  priests  the  shoulder,  the  jaws, 
and  the  belly. — 9.  They  never  marry  their  nieces  as  the 
Jews  do,  and  have  but  one  wife,  whereas  the  Jews  may  have 
many. — 10.  They  believe  in  God,  in  Moses,  and  in  Mount 
Gerizim.  Whereas,  say  they,  the  Jews  put  their  trust  in 
others,  we  do  nothing  but  what  is  expressly  commanded  in 
the  law  by  the  Lord  who  made  use  of  the  ministry  of  Moses  ; 
but  the  Jews  swerve  from  what  the  Lord  hath  commanded 
in  the  law,  to  observe  what  their  fathers  and  doctors  have 
invented. — 11.  They  receive  the  Torah  or  Pentateuch,  and 
hold  it  as  their  only  sacred  book  ;  they  reverence  the  books 
of  Joshua  and  Judges,  but  do  not  account  them  sacred  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Torah,  considering  Joshua  not  to  have 
been  a  prophet,  but  only  the  disciple  of  a  prophet,  that  is,  of 
Moses. — 12.  They  expecta prophet,  whom  they  term  Halhah ; 
but,  say  they,  "  there  is  a  great  mystery  in  regard  to  IIatl:ab, 
who  is  yet  to  ccme.  We  shall  be  hajipy  when  he  comes." 
When  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett,  in  Novemm  r,  1823,  intenogated 
the  officiating  .Samaritan  priest  concrrning  their  expectation 
of  a  Messiah,  the  latter  replied  that  thev  were  all  in  expecta- 
tion of  him  ; — "  that  the  Alessiah  would  be  a  man,  not  the 
Son  of  God, — and  that  this"  (NaposloeJ  "  was  to  be  the 
place  which  he  would  make  the  metropolis  of  his  kingdom; 
this  was  the  place,  of  which  the  l^crd  had  promised,  he 
would  place  his  namt;  there."  The  report  of  the  Samaritans 
worshipping  a  dove  is  groundless  ;  nor  is  it  true  that  they 
deny  the  resurrection  of  tlie  dead,  or  the  existence  of  angels. 
They  admit,  however,  tliat  they  recite  hymns  and  prayers 

1  Visit  of  the  Rev.  James  Connor,  in  1819  and  1820,  to  Candia,  Rhodes, 
Cyprus,  and  various  parts  of  .Syria  and  Palestine,  annexed  to  the  Rev.  W. 
Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  p.  4.S. 

9  Memoire  sur  I'Eiat  actuel  des  Saiiiaritains,  par  M.  Silvestre  de  Sacy- 
Paris,  1812.  8vo.  Jowett's  Chrii^tian  Researches  in  Syria,  pp.  196— 19a 
See  also  Joan.  Christoph.  Friedrich,  Discussionmn  de  Christologia  .Sama- 
rilanorum  Liber.  Accedit  Appendicula  de  Coluuiba  Dea  Saiiiaritanoruiu. 
Lipsix,  1321.  8vo. 


148 


ON  THE  EXTREME  CORRUPTION  OF  THE 


[Part  III.  Chap  VI. 


that  Jehovah  would  pardon  the  dead,  and  the  priest  purifies 
them  b}'  prayer. 

The  Samaritans  have  a  catalogue  of  the  succession  of  their 
hiorh-priests  from  Aaron  to  the  j)resent  time.  They  believe 
themselves  to  be  of  the  posterity  of  Joseph  by  Ephniim,  and 
that  all  their  high-priests  descend-^d  from  Phinehas  ;  vv'hereas 
the  Jews  have  not  one  of  that  family.  They  boast  that  they 
have  preserved  the  Hebrew  characters  which  God  made  use 
of  to  promulgate  his  law ;  while  the  Jews  have  a  way  of 
writing  from  Ezra,  which  is  cursed  for  ever.  And,  indeed, 
instead  of  looking  upon  Ezra  as  the  restorer  of  the  law,  they 
curse  him  as  an  impostor,  who  has  laid  aside  their  old  charac- 
ters to  use  new  ones  in  their  room,  and  authorized  several 
books  that  were  written  to  support  the  posterity  of  David. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  convert  these  Samari- 
tans ;  but  they  have  been  oppressed  instead  of  being  made 
Christians,  and  they  are  reduced  to  a  small  number  rather  by 
misery  than  by  the  multitude  of  those  who  have  been  con- 
verted. Nay,  they  seem  more  stubbornly  wedded  to  their 
sect  than  the  Jews,  though  these  adhere  rigorously  to  the  law 
of  iMoses.  At  least  Nicon,  who  lived  after  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, when  setting  down  the  formalities  used  at  the  reception 
of  heretics,  observes,  that  if  a  Jew  had  a  mind  to  be  converted, 
in  order  to  avoid  punishment  or  the  payment  of  what  he  owed, 
he  was  to  purify  himself,  and  satisfy  his  creditors  before  he 
was  admitted.  But  the  Samaritans  were  not  received  before 
they  had  been  instructed  two  years,  and  were  required  to  fast 
ten  or  fifteen  days  before  they  professed  the  Christian  reli- 
gion, to  attend  at  morning  and  evening  prayers,  and  to  learn 
some  psalms ;  others  were  not  used  with  so  much  rigour. 
The  term  of  two  years  which  was  enjoined  to  the  Samaritan 
proselytes  is  an  argument  that  they  were  suspected,  and  the 
reason  why  they  were  so  was,  that  they  had  often  deceived 
the  Christians  by  their  pretended  conversion.' 

VII.  The  Herodians  were  rather  a  political  faction  than  a 
religious  sect  of  the  Jews  :  they  derived  their  name  from 
Herod  the  Great,  king  of  Judeea,  to  whose  family  they  were 
strongly  attached.  They  were  distinguished  from  the  other 
Jewish  sects,  first,  by  their  concurring  in  Herod's  plan  of 
subjecting  himself  and  his  people  to  the  dominion  of  the  Ro- 
mans ;  and,  secondly,  in  complying  with  the  latter  in  many 
of  their  heathen  practices,  such  as  erecting  temples  with 
images  for  idolatrous  worship,  raising  statues,  and  instituting 
grames  in  honour  of  Augustus ;  which  symbolizing  with 
idolatry  upon  views  of  interest  and  worldly  policy  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  part  at  least  of  the  leaven  of  Herod, 
against  which  Jesus  Christ  cautioned  his  disciples  (Mark  viii. 
15.)  ;  consequently  they  were  directly  opposed  to  the  Phari- 
sees, who,  from  a  misinterpretation  of  Dent.  xvii.  15.  main- 
tained that  it  was  not  lawful  to  submit  to  the  Roman  emperor, 
or  to  pay  taxes  to  him.  But  Herod  and  his  followers,  under- 
standing the  text  to  exclude  only  a  voluntary  choice,  and  not 
a  necessary  submission  where  force  had  overpowered  choice, 
held  an  opinion  directly  ccntrary,  and  insisted  that  in  this 
case  it  was  lawful  both  to  submit  to  the  Roman  emperor,  and 
also  to  pay  taxes  to  him.  How  keen  then  must  have  been 
the  malice  of  the  Pharisees  against  Christ,  when  they  united 
with  their  mortal  enemies  the  Herodians,  in  proposing  to  him 
the  ensnaring  question,  whether  it  was  lawful  to  give  tribute 
to  Csesar  or  not?  (Matt,  xxii.  IG.)  If  our  Redeemer  had 
answered  in  the  negative,  the  Heroaians  would  have  accused 
him  to  the  Roman  power  as  a  seditious  person  ;  and  if  in  the 
affirmative,  the  Pharisees  were  equally  ready  to  accuse  him 
to  the  people,  and  excite  their  indignation  against  him,  as 
betraying  the  civil  liberties  and  privileges  of  his  country. 
Christ  by  his  prudent  reply  defeated  the  malice  of  both,  and 
at  the  same  time  implicitly  justified  the  Herodians  in  paying 
tribute  to  Caesar.  It  is  further  probable  that  the  Herodians, 
in  their  doctrinal  tenets,  were  cniefly  of  the  sect  of  the  Sad- 
ducees,  who  were  the  most  indiffgrent  to  religion  among  the 
whole  Jewish  nation ;  since  that  which  is  by  one  evangelist 
called  the  kaven  of  Herod  (Mark  viii.  15.j,  is  by  another 
termed  (Matt.  xvi.  G.)  the  leaven  of  the  Hadducees? 

VIII.  The  Gaul^eans  were  a  political  sect  that  originated 

>  Lewis's  Origines  Hebrseee,  vol.  iii.  pp.  57—59.  In  pp.  59—65.  he  has 
printed  a  letter,  purporting  to  have  been  written  by  the  Samaritans  at  She- 
chein  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  sent  by  them  to  their  brethren  in 
Enjiland,  by  Dr.  Huntington,  some  time  chaplain  to  the  Turkey  company 
at  Aleppo,  and  afterwards  Bishop  of  Raphoe,  in  Ireland. 

»  Prideaux's  Connection,  part  ii.  book  v.  (vol.  ii.  pp.  36.t — 368.)  Jennings's 
Jewish  Antirpjities,  book  i.  ch.  xii.  Calmet,  Dissertations,  torn.  i.  pp.  737 
— ^743.  where  the  different  opinions  of  former  writers  concerning  the  Hero- 
dians are  enumerated;  as  also  in  Elsley's  Annotations  on  the  Gospels,  vol. 
i.  pp.  342 — 346.  vol.  ii.  p.  15.  Parkhurst's  Greek  Lexicon,  voce  ;  Lardner's 
Credibility,  part  i.  book  i.  ch.  iv.  §  4.  (Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  126,  127.)  Tappan's 
Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiq.  p.  239. 


from  the  Pharisees,  a.  d.  12,  when  Archelaus  was  banished, 
Juda;a  reduced  into  a  Roman  province,  and  a  census  taken  by 
Quirinius  or  Cyrenitis,  president  of  Syria  (to  which  province 
Judwa  was  attached).  On  this  occasion,  .ludas  the  Galilean, 
or  Gaulonite,  as  he  is  also  called, ^  exhorted  the  people  to 
shake  off  this  yoke,  tellhig  them,  that  tribute  was  due  to  God 
alone,  and,  consequently,  ought  not  to  be  paid  to  the  Romans; 
and  that  religious  liberty  and  the  authority  of  the  divine  laws 
were  to  be  defended  by  force  of  arms.  In  other  respects  his 
doctrines  appear  to  have  been  the  same  as  those  of  the  Phari- 
sees. The  tumults  raised  by  these  pernicious  tenets  were  in- 
deed suppressed  (Acts  v.  37.) ;  but  his  followers,  who  were 
called  Galilaeans,  continued  secretly  to  propagate  them,  and 
to  make  proselytes,  whom  they  required  to  be  circumcised. 
As  the  same  restless  disposition  and  seditious  principles  con- 
tinued to  exist  at  the  time  when  the  apostles  Paul  and  Peter 
wrote  their  Epistles,  they  took  occasion  thence  to  inculcate 
upon  Christians  (who  were  at  that  time  generally  confounded 
with  the  Jews),  the  necessity  of  obedience  to  civil  authority, 
with  singular  ability,  truth,  and  persuasion.  See  Rom.  xiii. 
1.  ei  seq.    I  Tim.  ii.  1.  et  seq.   1  Pet.  ii.  13.  et  seq^ 

IX.  The  Zealots,  so  often  mentioned  in  Jewish  history, 
appear  to  have  been  the  followers  of  this  Judas.  Lamy  is 
of  opinion  that  the  just  men  whom  the  Pharisees  and  Hero- 
dians sent  to  entangle  Jesus  in  his  conversation  were  mem- 
bers of  this  sect,  (Matt.  xxii.  15,  16.  Mark  xii.  13,  14*  Luke 
XX.  20.)^  Simon  the  Canaanite,  one  of  the  apostles  of  Jesus 
Christ,  is  called  Zelotes  (Luke  vi.  15.)  ;  and  in  Acts  xxi.  20. 
and  xxii.  3.  (Gr.)  we  find  that  there  were  certain  Christians 
at  Jerusalem,  who  were  denominated  Zealots.  But  these 
merely  insisted  on  the  fulfilment  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  by 
no  means  went  so  far  as  those  persons,  termed  Zelota;  or 
Zealots,  of  whom  we  read  in  Josephus's  history  of  the  Jew- 
ish war. 

X.  The  Sicarii,  noticed  in  Acts  xxi.  38.  were  assassins, 
who  derived  their  name  from  their  using  poniards  bent  li-ke 
the  Roman  sicx,  which  they  concealed  under  their  garments, 
and  which  was  the  secret  instrument  of  assassination. '^  The 
Egyptian  impostor,  also  mentioned  by  the  sacred  historian, 
is  noticed  by  Josephus,  who  says  that  he  was  at  the  head  of 
30,000  men,  though  St.  Luke  notices  only  4000  ;  but  both 
accounts  are  reconciled  by  supposing  that  the  impostor  (who 
in  the  second  year  of  Nero  pretended  to  be  a  prophet)  led  out 
4000  from  Jerusalem,  who  were  afterwards  joined  by  others 
to  the  amount  of  30,000,  as  related  bjr  Josephus.  They  were 
attacked  and  dispersed  by  the  Roman  procurator  Felix.^ 

§  2.  ON  THE  extreme  CORRUPTION  OF  THE  JEWISH  PEOPLE, 
BOTH  IN  RELIGION  AND  MORALS,  AT  THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST's 
BIRTH. 

General  corruption  of  the  leaders  of  the  Je-wish  nation — of  their 
chief  priests,  and  other  7ninisters  of  religion — its  deplorable 
effects  on  the  people. — Slate  of  the  Jews  not  resident  in  Pa- 
lestine. 

The  preceding  chapters^  will  have  shown  that  the  political 
state  of  the  Jews  was  truly  deplorable.  Although  they  were 
oppressed  and  fleeced  by  various  ^governors,  who  exercised 
the  most  rigorous  authority  over  them,  in  many  instances 
with  peculiar  avarice,  cruelty,  and  extortion,  yet  they  were 
in  some  measure  governed  by  their  own  laws,  and  were  per- 
mitted to  enjoy  their  religion.  The  administration  of  their 
sacred  rites  continued  to  be  committed  to  the  high-priest  and 
the  Sanhedrin  ;  to  the  former  the  priests  and  Levites  were 
subordinate  as  before  :  and  the  form  of  their  external  wor- 
ship, except  in  a  very  few  points,  had  suffered  no  visible 
change.     But,  whatever  comforts  were  left  to  them  by  the 

3  He  was  a  native  of  Gamala,  in  the  province  of  Gaulonitis. 

«  Jose*phus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  I.  §§  1.  6.  lib.  xx.  c.  5.  §  2.  De  Bell.  Jnd. 
lib.  ii.  c.  17.  §§  7—9.  lib.  vii.  c.  8.  §  1.  The  Thendas  mentioned  in  Acts  v.  36. 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Thendas  or  Judas  referred  to  by  Jose- 
phus. (Ant.  lib.  .XX.  c.  5.  §  1.)  Theudas  was  a  very  common  name  among 
the  Jews  ;  and  the  person  mentioned  by  the  sacred  historian  was  probably 
one  of  the  many  leaders  who  took  up  arms  in  defence  of  the  public  liber- 
ties, at  the  time  of  Cyreniu;?'s  enrolment,  at  least  seven,  if  not  ten  years 
before  the  speech  delivered  by  Gamaliel.  (Acts  v.  34 — 40.)  He  seems  to 
have  been  supponed  by  smaller  numbers  than  the  second  of  that  name, 
and  (as  Ihe  second  afterwards  did)  perished  in  the  attempt ;  but  as  his  fol- 
lowers were  dispersed,  and  not  slaughtered,  like  those  of  the  second  Judas, 
survivors  might  talk  much  of  him,  and  Gamaliel  might  have  been  particu- 
larly informed  of  his  history,  though  Josephus  only  mentions  it  in  general 
terms.  See  Dr.  Lardnei's  Credibility,  part  i.  book  ii,  ch.  vii.  (Works,  vol.  i. 
pp.  40.5—113.)     Dr.  Doddridge  on  Acts  v.  36. 

'  Apparatus  BIblicus,  vol.  i.  p.  ^39. 

6  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xx.  c.  8.  §  10. 

1 1bid.  lib.  x.x.  c.  8  §  6.  De  Bell.  .lud.  lib.  ii.  c.  13.  §  5.  Dr.  Lardner's 
Credibility,  part  i.  book  ii.  ch.  viii.  (Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  414 — 419.) 

8  See  particularly  pp.  50—53.  of  the  present  volume. 


Sect.  II.  §  1.] 


JEWISH  PEOPLE  AT  THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST'S  BIRTH. 


149 


Roman  mairislratos,  thoy  were  not  allow(;(l  to  enjoy  them  by 
their  chief  prit^sts  and  popular  headers,  wliom  .lcjs('j)hns  cha- 
racterizes as  proflijrate  wretclies,  who  had  purchased  their 
places  by  brlbi^s  or  hy  acts  of  iiu{iiiity,  and  nniintaiiicd  their 
lll-ac(|uircd  autiiority  l)y  the  most  flairitioiis  and  al)oniinable 
crimes.  Nor  were  the  n^lij^ions  creeds  of  tliese  men  more 
pure  :  havinir  espoused  tlie  principh-s  of  various  sects,  they 
suHered  themselves  to  be  led  away  by  all  the  prejudice  and 
animosity  of  party  (thoiiirh,  as  in  the  case  of  our  Saviour, 
they  would  sometimes  ai)andon  tiiem  to  promote  some  fa- 
vourite measure);  and  were  commonlv  more  inlent  on  the 
gratification  of  |)rivate  enniily,  than  studious  of  advanein<r  the 
cause  of  reliirinii,  or  ])roniotinir  tlie  piil)lic  welfare.  The 
sul)or(liiiate  and  inf(>rior  members  were  infected  with  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  head  ;  the;  priests,  and  the  other  ministers  of 
religion,  were  become  dissolute  and  abandoned  in  the  lii<rhpst 
degree  ;  while  the  connnon  ])eople,  instigated  by  exam])les 
so  dei)raved,  ruslied  lieadlong  into  every  kind  of  ini(|uity, 
and  by  their  incessant  seditions,  robberies,  and  extortions, 
armed  against  themselves  both  the  justice  of  God  and  the 
vengeance  of  men. 

Owing  to  thf'se  various  causes,  the  great  mass  of  the  Jew- 
ish people  were  sunk  into  the  most  deplorable  ignorance  of 
Gott  antl  of  divine  things.  Hence  proceeded  that  dissolute- 
ness of  manners  and  tiiat  profligate  wickedness  which  pre- 
vailed among  tiie  Jews  during  (Christ's  ministry  upon  earth; 
in  allusion  to  which  the  divine  Saviour  compares  the  people 
to  a  multitude  of  lost  sheep,  straying  without  a  shepherd 
(Matt.  X.  6.  XV.  24.),  and  their  teachers,  or  doctors,  to 
blind  guides,  who  professed  to  instruct  others  in  a  way  with 
which  they  were  totally  unacquainted  themselves.'  (Matt. 
XV.  14.  John  ix.  39,  40.) 

More  narticularly,  in  the  New  Testament,"  "  the  Jews  are 
described  as  a  most  superstitious  and  bigoted  people,  at- 
tached to  the  Mosaic  ritual  and  to  the  whimsical  traditions 
of  tiieir  elders,  with  a  zeal  and  fanaticism  api)roaching  to 
madness.  They  are  represented  as  a  nation  ot  hypocrites, 
assuming  the  most  sanctimonious  appearance  before  the 
world,  at  the  corners  of  crowded  streets  uttering  loud  and 
fervent  strains  of  rapturous  devotion,  merely  to  attract  the 
eyes  of  a  weak  and  credulous  multitude,  ana  to  be  noticed 
and  venerated  by  them  as  mirrors  of  mortification  and  hea- 
venly-mindedness ;  devoured  with  ostentation  and  spiritual 
pride ;  causing  a  trumpeter  to  walk  before  them  in  the 
streets,  and  make  proclamation  that  such  a  rabbi  was  going 
to  distribute  his  alms  ;  publicly  displaying  all  this  show'y 
parade  of  piety  and  chanty,  yet  privately  guilty  of  the  most 
unfeeliug  cruelty  and  oppression ;  devouring  widows'  houses, 
stripping  the  helpless  widow  and  friendless  orphan  of  their 
property,  and  exposing  them  to  all  the  rigours  of  hunger  and 
nakedness  ;  clamouring.  The  temple  of  the  Lord  !  The  temple 
of  the  Lord!  making  conscience  of  paying  tithe  of  mint, 
'anise,  and  cummin,  to  the  support  of  its  splendour  and 
priesthood,  but  in  practical  life  violating  and  trampling  upon 
the  first  duties  of  morality, — justice,  fidelity,  and  mercy, — as 
being  vulgar  and  heathenish  attainments,  and  infinitely  be- 
low the  regard  of  exalted  saints  and  spiritual  perfectionists. 
Their  great  men  were  to  an  incredible  degree  depraved  in 
their  morals,  many  of  them  Sadducees  in  principle,  and  in 
practice  the  most  profligate  sensualists  and  debauchees ; 
their  atrocious  and  abandoned  wickedness,  as  Josephus  tes- 
tifies,' transcended  all  the  enormities  which  the  most  corrupt 
age  of  the  world  had  ever  beheld  ;  they  compassed  sea  and 
land  to  make  proselytes  to  Judaism  from  the  Pagans,  and, 
when  they  had  gained  these  converts,  soon  rendered  them, 
by  their  immor;il  lives  and  scandalous  examples,  more  de- 
praved and  profligate  than  ever  they  were  betore  their  con- 
version. Tne  apostle  tells  them,  that  by  reason  of  their 
notorious  vices  their  religion  w'as  become  the  object  of  ca- 
lumny and  satire  among  the  heathen  nations.  The  name  of 
God  IS  blasphemed  among  the  Gentiles  through  you  /^  (Rom. 

•  Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist,  book  i.  part  i.  chap,  ii.,  and  also  his  Commenta- 
ries on  the  Affairs  of  Christians  before  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
vol.  i.  Introd.  ch.  ii.  Pritii  Introductio  ad  Leclionem  Novi  Tesfamenti,  c.  35. 
De  siimina  Populi  Judaici  corruplione,  tempore  Chrisli,  pp.  471 — 473. 

»  For  the  following  picture  of  the  melanclioly  corruption  of  the  Jewish 
church  and  people,  the  author  is  indebted  to  Dr.  Harvvood's  Introduction 
to  the  Ne\^  Testament,  (vol.  ii.  pp.  58.  (31.) 

3  .los'^phiis,  BeU.  Jud.  lib.  vii.  p.  1314.  Hudson.  Again,  says  this  histo- 
rian, "They  were  universally  corrupt,  both  publiclyand  privately.  They 
vied  which  should  surpass  each  other  in  impiety  against  God  and  injustice 
towards  men."    Ibid. 

♦  The  superstitious  credulity  of  a  Jew  was  proverbial  among  the  hea- 
thens. Credat  Jada?us  Apella.  Horat.  Epictetus  mentions  and  exposes 
their  greater  attachment  to  their  ceremonies  than  to  the  duties  oj"  morality. 
Pissertationes,  lib.  i.  p.  115.  edit.  Upton.  See  also  Josephus  contra  Anion. 
p.  480.  Havercamp. 


ii.  24.)  And  in  his  Epistle  to  Titus,  he  informs  us  that  the 
Jews  in  speculation,  indeed,  acknowledged  a  God,  but  in 
practice  tiiey  were  atheists  ;  for  in  their  lives  tliey  were  abo- 
minally  iiunioral  and  abandoned,  and  the  contemjstupus 
despisers  of  everj'  thing  that  was  virtuous.  'Thei/  prnfc.s.s 
that  they  km.w  God,  Ijut  in  wor/tn  they  deny  him,  being  aliomi- 
nnhle  and  disobedient,  and  unto  every  good  work  reprobate. 
(Titus  i.  !().)  This  testimony  to  the  religious  and  moral 
character  of  the  Jewish  people,  by  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  is  amply  corroborated  by  Josephus,  who  has  given 
us  a  true  estimate  of  th(>ir  jirineiples  and  manners,  and  is 
also  confirmed  by  other  contemporary  historians.^  The  cir- 
cumstance of  their  nation  having  been  favoured  with  an  ex- 
plicit revelation  from  the  Deity,  instead  of  enlarging  their 
minds,  miserably  contracted  and  soured  them  with  all  the 
bitterness  and  leaven  of  theological  odium.  They  regarded  un- 
circumcised  heathens  with  sovereign  contempt,''  and  believed 
them  to  be  hated  by  (Jod,  merely  because  they  were  born 
aliens  from  the  commonwealth  of  Israel,  and  lived  strangers 
to  their  covenant  of  promise.  They  would  not  eat  with 
them  (Acts  xi.  3.),  do  the  least  friendly  office  for  them,  or 
maintain  any  social  correspondence  ana  mutual  intercourse 
with  them.  The  apostle  comprises  their  national  character 
in  a  few  words,  and  it  is  a  just  one  :  They  were  amtrary  to 
all  men.''  (1  Thess.  ii.  15.)  The  supercilious  insolence, 
with  which  the  mean  and  selfish  notion  of  their  being  the 
only  favourites  of  heaven  and  enlightened  by  God  inflated 
them  as  a  people,  and  the  haughty  and  scornful  disdain  in 
which  they  held  the  heathens,  are  in  a  very  striking  manner 
characterized  in  the  following  spirited  address  of  St.  Paul  to 
them  : — Betiold  !  thou  art  culled  a  Jew,  and  rest  est  in  the  law, 
and  makest  thy  boast  of  God:  and  knowest  his  will,  and  ap- 
provest  the  things  that  are  more  excellent,  being  instructed  out 
of  the  law,  and  art  confident  that  thou  thyself  art  a  guide  of  the 
blind,  a  light  of  them  ivhich  are  in  darkness,  an  instructor  of 
the  foolish,  a  teacher  of  babes,  which  ha.tt  the  form  of  knowledge 
and  of  the  truth  in  the  law.  (Rom.  ii.  17 — 20.)  This  passage 
exhibits  to  us  a  fiiithful  picture  of  the  national  character  of 
this  people,  and  shows  us  how  much  they  valued  themselves 
upon  their  wisdom  and  superior  knowleage  of  religion,  arro- 
gating to  themselves  the  cliaracter  of  lights  and  guides,  and 
instructors  of  the  whole  world,  and  contemptuously  regard- 
ing all  the  heathen  as  blind,  as  babes,  and  as  fools. 

"  Another  ever  memorable  instance  of  the  national  pride 
and  arrogance  of  this  vain  and  ostentatious  people  is,  that 
when  our  Lord  was  discoursing  to  them  concerning  their 
pretensions  to  moral  liberty,  and  representing  the  ignoble 
and  despicable  bondage  in  which  sin  detains  its  votaries, 
they  imagined  this  to  be  an  indirect  allusion  to  the  present 
condition  of  their  country :  their  pride  w-as  instantly  in 
flames  ;  and  they  had  the  effrontery  and  impudence  openly  to 
assert,  that  they  had  always  been  free,  and  were  never  in 
bondage  to  any  man  (John  viii.  33.)  ;  though  every  child 
must  know  the  history  of  their  captivities,  must  know  that 
Judaea  was  at  that  very  time  a  conquered  province,  had  been 
subdued  by  Pompey,  and  from  that  time  had  paid  an  annual 
tribute  to  Rome.  Another  characteristic  which  distinguishes 
and  marks  this  people,  was  that  kind  of  evidence  which  they 
expected  in  order  to  their  reception  of  truth.  Except  they 
saw  signs  and  wonders  they  would  not  believe!  (John  iv.  48.) 
If  a  doctrine  proposed  to  their  acceptance  was  not  confirmea 
by  some  visible  displays  of  preternatural  power,  some  strik- 
ing phenomena,  the  clear  and  indubitable  evidences  of  an 
immediate  divine  interposition,  they  would  reject  it.     In  an- 

"«  "I  cannot  forbear,"  says  Josephus,  "declaring  my  opinion,  though  the 
doclaration  fills  me  with  great  emotion  and  regret,  that  if  the  Romans  had 
delayed  to  come  against  these  wretches,  the  city  would  either  have  been 
ingulfed  by  an  earthquake,  overwhelmed  by  a  deluge,  or  destroyed  by  fire 
from  heaven,  as  Sodom  was :  for  that  generation  was  far  more  enormously 
wicked  than  those  who  suffered  these  calamities."  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  13. 
p.  1236.  "These  things  they  suffered,"  says  Origen,  "as  being  the  most 
abandoned  of  men."    Origen  contra  Celsum,  p.  t)2.    Cantab.  1677. 

8  "  The  Jews  are  the  only  people  who  refuse  all  friendly  intercourse  with 
every  other  nation,  and  esteem  all  mankind  as  enemies."  Diod.  Siculus, 
torn.  ii.  p.  521.  edit.  Wesseling,  Amstel.  1746.  "  Let  him  be  to  thee  as  an 
heathen  man  and  a  publican."  (Matt,  xviii.  17.)  Of  the  extreme  detesta- 
tion and  abhorrence  which  the  Jews  had  for  the  Gentiles  we  have  a  very 
striking  e.xample  in  that  speech  which  St.  Paul  addresses  to  them,  telling 
them  in  the  course  of  it,  that  God  had  commissioned  him  to  go  to  the  Gen- 
tiles. The  moment  he  had  pronounced  the  word,  the  whole  assembly  was 
in  confusion,  tore  off  their  clothes,  rent  the  air  with  their  cries,  threw 
clouds  of  dust  into  it,  and  were  transported  into  the  last  excesses  of  rage 
and  madness.  "He  said  unto  me.  Depart,  for  I  will  send  thee  far  hence 
unto  the  Gentiles:  they  gave  him  audience,"  says  the  sacred  hi.storian, 
"  until  Uiis  word,  and  then  lifted  up  their  voice  and  said.  Away  with  such 
a  fellow  from  the  earth ;  for  it  is  not  fit  that  he  should  live."  (Acts  xxii.  21.) 

■<  This  character  of  the  Jewish  nation  is  confirmed  by  Tacitus,  and  ex- 
pressed almost  in  the  very  words  of  the  AposUe,  "  Adversus  omnes  alios 
hostile  odium."    Tacit.  Hist.  lib.  v.  §  5.  vol  iii.  p.  261.  edit.  Bipont 


150 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Pabt  rv 


cient  times,  for  a  series  of  many  years,  this  people  had  been 
favoured  with  numerous  signal  manifestations  from  heaven  : 
a  cloud  had  conducted  them  by  day,  and  a  pillar  of  fire  by 
night ;  their  law  was  given  them  accompanied  by  a  peculiar 
display  of  solemn  pomp  and  magnificence  ;  and  the  glory  of 
God  had  repeatedly  filled  their  temple.  Habituated  as  their 
understandings  had  been,  for  many  ages,  to  receive  as  truth 
only  what  should  be  attested  and  ratified  by  signs  from  hea- 
ven, and  by  some  grand  and  striking  phenomena  in  the  sky, 
it  was  natural  for  them,  long  accustomed  as  they  had  been 
to  this  kind  of  evidence,  to  ask  our  Saviour  to  give  them 
some  sign  from  heaven  (Matt.  xvi.  1.),  to  exhibit  before  them 
some  amazing  and  stupendous  prodigy  in  the  air  to  convince 
them  of  the  dignity  and  divinity  of  his  character.  The  Jews, 
says  St.  Paul,  require  a  sign  (1  Cor.  i.  22.)  ;  it  was  that 
species  of  evidence  to  which  their  nation  had  been  accus- 
tomed. Thus  we  read  that  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  came 
to  John,  desiring  him  that  he  would  show  them  a  sign  from 
heaven.  Again,  we  read  that  the  Jews  came  and  said  to 
Jesus,  Wliat  sign  showest  thou  unto  us,  seeing  that  thou  dost 
these  things  ?  Jesus  answered  aiid  said  unto  them.,  Destroy  this 
temple,  and  in  th^ee  days  I  will  raise  it  up  !  (John  ii.  18,  19.) 
What  kind  of  signs  these  were  which  they  expected,  and 
vrhat  sort  of  preternatural  prodigies  they  wanted  him  to  dis- 
play in  order  to  authenticate  his  divine  mission  to  them,  ap- 
pears from  the  following  passages  :  They  said,  therefore,  unto 
him.  What  sign  showest  thou  then,  that  we  -may  see  and  believe 
thee  ?  What  dost  thou  work  ?  Our  fathers  did  eat  manna  in 
the  desert ,-  as  it  is  written.  He  gave  them  bread  from  heaven  ! 
(John  vi.  30,  31.)  This  mel;hod,  therefore,  of  espousing 
religious  doctrines,  only  as  they  should  be  confirmed  by  some 
signal  and  indubitable  interposition  of  the  Deity,  and  their 
cherishing  the  vanity  and  presumption  that  heaven  would 
lavish  its  miraculous  si^ns  whenever  they  called  for  them, 
constitute  a  striking  and  very  distinguishing  feature  in  the 
national  character  of  this  people." 

So   exceedingly  great  was   the  fecundity  of  the  Jewish 
people,  that  multitudes  of  them  had  occasionally  been  con- 


strained to  emigrate  from  their  native  country ;  hence,  at  the 
time  of  our  Saviour's  birth,  there  was  scarcely  a  province  in 
the  Roman  empire  in  which  ihey  were  not  to  be  found,  either 
serving  in  the  army,  engaged  in  the  ]»ursuits  of  commerce, 
or  exercising  some  lucrative  arts.  They  were  maintained, 
in  foreign  countries,  against  injurious  treatment  and  violence, 
by  various  special  edicts  of  the  emperors  and  magistrates  in 
their  favour;'  though  from  the  peculiarities  of  their  religion 
and  manners,  they  were  held  in  very  general  contempt,  and 
were  not  unfrequenlly  exposed  to  much  vexation  and  annoy- 
ance, from  the  jealousy  and  indignation  of  an  ignorant  and 
superstitious  populace.  Many  of  them,  in  consequence  of 
their  long  residence  and  intercourse  with  foreign  nations,  fell 
into  the  error  of  endeavouring  to  make  their  religion  accom- 
modate itself  to  the  principles  and  institutions  of  some  of  the 
different  systems  of  heathen  discipline;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  clear  that  the  Jews  brought  many  of  those  among 
whom  they  resided  to  perceive  the  superiority  of  the  Mosaic 
religion  over  the  Gentile  superstitions,  and  were  highly  in- 
strumental in  causing  them  to  forsake  the  worship  of  a  plu- 
rality of  gods.  Although  the  knowledge  which  the  Gentiles 
thus  acquired  from  the  Jews  respecting  the  only  true  God, 
the  Creator  and  Governor  of  the  universe,  was,  doubtless, 
both  partial  and  limited,  yet  it  inclined  many  of  them  the 
more  readily  to  listen  to  the  subsequent  arguments  and  ex- 
hortations of  the  apostles  of  our  Saviour,  for  the  purpose  of 
exploding  the  worship  of  false  deities,  and  recalling  men  to 
the  knowledge  of  true  religion.  All  which,  Mosheim  ob- 
serves, with  equal  truth  and  piety,  appears  to  have  been  most 
singularly  ancf  wisely  directed  by  the  adorable  hand  of  an 
interposing  Providence :  to  the  end  that  this  people,  who 
were  the  sole  depository  of  the  true  religion  and  of  the  know- 
ledge of  the  one  supreme  God,  being  spread  abroad  through 
the  whole  earth,  might  be  every  where,  by  their  example,  a 
reproach  to  superstition,  contribute  in  some  measure  to  check 
it,  and  thus  prepare  the  way  for  that  fuller  display  of  divine 
truth  which  was  to  shine  upon  the  world  from  the  ministry 
and  Gospel  of  the  Son  of  God.2 


PART  IV. 

DOMESTIC    ANTIQUITIES    OF    THE    JEWS,    AND    OF    OTHER    NATIONS    INCIDENTALLY 

MENTIONED    IN   THE    SCRIPTURES. 

CHAPTER  I. 


ON    THE    DWELLINGS    OF    THE    JEWS. 

I.   Caves. — II.  Tents. — III.  Houses — Their  Arrangement — JMaterials — and  Conveniences. — IV,  Furniture. — V.   Cities, 

JUarhets,  and  Gates. 


I.  As  men,  in  the  primitive  condition  of  society,  were  un- 
acquainted with  the  arts,  they,  of  course,  were  not  able  to 
build  themselves  houses  ;  they  abode,  therefore,  necessarily 
under  the  shade  of  trees.  It  is  probable  that  w^hen  mankind 
began  to  multiply  on  the  earth,  they  dwelt  in  Caves,  many 
of  which,  in  the  Holy  Land,  are  both  capacious  and  dry,  and 
still  afford  occasional  shelter  to  the  wandering  shepherds  and 
their  flocks.  Thus,  Lot  and  his  daughters  abode  in  a  cave, 
after  the  destruction  of  Sodom.  (Gen.  xix.  30.)  Ancient 
historians^  contain  many  notices  of  troglodytes,  or  dwellers 
in  caves,  and  modern  travellers  have  met  with  them  in  Bar- 

« In  proof  of  this  observation,  Mosheim  refers  to  Jacobi  Gronovii  De- 
creta  Romana  et  Asiatica  pro  Judeeis  ad  cultiim  divinum  per  Asise  Minoris 
urbes  secure  obeunduin.  Lugd.  IJat.  1712.  8vo.  See  also  Dr.  Lardner's 
Credibility,  part  i.  book  i.  ch.  8.  (Works,  vol  i.  pp.  164^201.)  where  nu- 
merous valuable  testimonies  are  adduced. 

"Mosheim's  Commentaries,  vol  i.  p.  106.  Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  52.  edit. 
1806.  Besides  the  authorities  cited  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  Jewish 
sects,  &c.  are  largely  discussed  by  Prideaux,  Connection,  book  v.  vol.  ii. 
pp.  335 — 368.  Relandi  Antiq.  Sacr.  Hebraeorum,  pp.  276.  et  seq.  Ikenius, 
Ajitiq.  Hebr.  pp.  33 — 42.  Schachtii  Dictata  in  Ikenium,  pp.  241.  et  seq.  Dr. 
Macknight's  Harmony,  vol.  i.  disc.  1.  Lamy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  vol.  i. 
pp.  225—243.  Dr.  Lardner's  Credibility,  part  i.  book  i.  ch.  4.  Leusden's 
Philologus  Hebraeo-lVIixtus,  pp.  138—170.  Buddei  Hist.  Philosophioe  Hebra;- 
orum,  pp.  86.  et  seg. 

»  Herodotus,  lib.  iii.  c.  74.  Diod.  Sic.  lib.  iii.  c.31.  Quintus  Curtius,  lib. 
V.  c.  6.    Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xv.  c.  4.  §  1. 


bary  and  Egypt,  as  well  as  in  various  other  parts  of  the 
East."*  The  Horites,  who  dwelt  on  Mount  Seir,  the  Zarn- 
zummim,  and  the  Emims  or  Anakim,  are  supposed  to  have 
resided  in  caves. 

II.  In  succeeding  ages,  they  abode  generally  in  Tents,  as 
the  Arabs  of  the  Desert  do  to  this  day.  The  invention  of 
these  is  ascribed  to  Jabal  the  son  of  Lamech,  who  is,  there- 
fore, termed  the  father  of  such  as  dwell  in  tents.  (Gen.  iv.  20.) 
The  patriarchs  pitched  their  tents  where  they  pleased,  and, 
it  should  seem,  under  the  shade  of  trees  whenever  this  was 
practicable.  Thus,  Abraham's  tent  was  pitched  under  a  tree 
m  the  plains  of  Mamre  (Gen.  xviii.  4.),  and  Deborah  the 
prophetess  dwelt  under  a  palm  tree  between  Ramah  and 
bethel,  in  Mount  Ephraim.  (Judg.  iv.  5.)  In  the  East,  to 
this  day,  it  is  the  custom  in  many  places  to  plant  about  and 
among  their  buildings  trees,  which  grow  ooth  high  and 
broad,  and  afford  a  cooling  and  refreshing  shade.  It  appears 
from  1  Kings  iv.  25.  that  this  practice  anciently  obtained  in 
Judaea,  and  that  vines  and  fig  trees  were  commonly  used  for 
this  purpose.  These  trees  furnished  two  great  articles  of 
food  for  their  consumption,  and  the  cuttings  of  their  vines 

<  The  inhabitants  of  Anab,  a  town  on  the  east  of  the  river  Jordan  (lat.  32. 
long.  35.  E.),  all  live  in  grottoes  or  caves  excavated  in  the  rock.  Bucking- 
ham's Travels  among  the  Arab  Tribes,  p.  61. 


Chap.  I.] 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


151 


would  be  useful  to  them  for  fuel.  The  tents  of  the  emirs 
and  sovereiirns  of  the  East  are  hotli  larse  and  mairnificent, 
and  furnished  with  costly  haiifrings.  'J'hosc  of  tlic  Turco- 
mans are  said  to  he  blaek  ;>  and  those  of  tlie  Turks  {rrecn  : 
but,  acoordinfr  to  D'Arviiux,  Dr.  Shaw,  and  M.  Volney,  the 
tents  of  the  Bedouins,  or  Arabs  of  the  Desert,  an;  univer- 
sally black,^  or  of  a  very  dusky  brown.  To  these  the  bride 
in  the  Canticles  conipares  herself  (i.  5.) — f  am  hl<ick  (or, 
iawnei/)  as  the  tents  of  Ket/ar,  hut  conicli/,  or  biautifal  as  the 
curtains  of  Solomon.  In  the  Kast,  those  who  lead  a  ])astoral 
life  frtHjuently  sit  (as  Abraham  did)  in  tlie  tint-door  in  tlu^ 
heat  of  the  day.  ((ien.  xviii.  1.)  The  Arabian  tents  are  of 
an  oblonjr  fiirnre,  supported  accordiiifr  t(j  their  size,  sonn; 
with  one  pillar,  others  with  tw'o  or  three,  while  a  curtain  or 
carpet,  occasionally  let  down  from  each  of  these  divisions, 
converts  the  whole  into  so  many  separate  ajjartments.  These 
tents  are  kept  firm  and  steady  by  bracinir  or  stretchinir  down 
their  eaves  with  cords,  tie<l  to  hookeu  wooden  pins,  well 
pointed,  which  they  drive  into  the  irround  with  a  mallet : 
one  of  these  pins  answeriiiir  to  the  nail,  as  the  mallet  does 
to  the  hammer,  which  Jael  used  in  fasteninnr  the  tein|iles  of 
Sisera  to  the  jrround.  (,lud^.  iv.  iM.)  In  these  dwellinjjs 
the  Arabian  shepherds  and  their  families  repose  upon  the 
bare  frround,  or  with  only  a  mat  or  carpet  beneath  them. 
Those  who  arc  married  have  each  of  them  a  portion  of  the 
tent  to  themselves  separated  by  a  curtain.^  Tlie  more  opu- 
lent Arabs,  however,  always  have  two  tents,  one  for  them- 
selves, and  another  for  their  wives,  besides  others  for  their 
servants;  in  like  manner,  a  particular  tent  was  allotted  to 
Sarali.  (G(>n.  xxiv.  r>7.)  When  travelling,  they  were  care- 
ful to  pitch  their  tents  near  some  river,  fountain,  or  well. 
(I  Sam.  xxix.  I.  xxx.  21.)  In  countries  subject  to  violent 
teinjjests  as  well  as  to  intolerable  heat,  a  portable  tent  is  a 
necessary  part  of  a  traveller's  ba<r<ja(re,  l)oth  for  defence  and 
shelter.  To  this  the  prophet  Isaiah  appears  to  allude, 
(iv.  (•,.)' 

III.  In  progfress  of  time  men  erected  Houses  for  their  habi- 
tations :  those  of  the  rich  were  f)rmed  of  stone  or  bricks,  but 
the  dwellings  of  the  poor  were  formed  of  wood,  or  more  fre- 
quently of  mud,  as  they  are  to  this  day  in  the  East  Indies;* 
which  material  is  but  ill  calculated  to  resist  the  efYects  of  the 
impetuous  torrents,  that  descended  from  the  mountains  of 
Palestine.^  Our  Lord  alludes  to  this  circumstance  at  the 
close  of  his  sermon  on  the  mount.  (Matt.  vii.  26,  27.)   In  the 

«  Emerson's  Lettors  from  the  j'Egean,  vol.  i.  p.  102. 

»  From  Hit,  a  town  on  the  banks  of  the  Knplirates,  to  Ililla,  the  site  of 
ancient  Uabylon,  "l\\6  Mack  tpnt  of  Ihc  Bodoiiin,  formed  of  strong  clotli 
made  of  goal's  hair  and  wool  mi.xed,  supported  by  low  poles,  is  almost  the 
only  kind  of  habitation  met  with."  ((^upt.  Chcsney'sKeportson  tlie  Navi- 
gation of  the  Euphrates,  p.  3.  London,  ISi?.  foho.)  The  lllyauts,  a  wan- 
dering tribe  of  Arabs,  have  black  tents.  (Hon.  Capt.  Keppel's  Narrative 
of  Travels  from  India  io  England,  vol.  i.  p.  KXI.) 
>  Sliaw'sTravels,  vol.  i.  pp.  398,  3".t9.    Tlie  description  given  by  the  intelli- 

-pent  traveller  Mr.  Buckingtiam  of  the  lent  of  the  Sheik  Barak,  who  was  at 
the  head  of  a  tribe  of  Turcomans,  wandeiing  in  llie  vicinity  of  Aleppo, 
will  enable  us  to  form  some  idea  of  the  shape  and  arrangement  of  the  tent 
of  the  patriarch,  Abraham.  "The  tent  occupied  a  space  of  about  thirty 
feet  square,  and  was  formed  by  one  largo  awning,  supjiorled  by  twenty-four 
small  poles  in  four  rows  of  si.v  each,  the  ends  of  the  awning  licing  drawn 
oul  by  cords  fastenci^to  pegs  in  the  ground.  Each  of  tliese  poles  givini;  a 
pointed  form  to  the  part  of  the  awning,  whicli  it  supported,  the  outside 
looked  like  a  number  of  umbrella  tops,  or  small  Chinese  spires.  The 
half  of  this  square  was  open  in  front  and  at  the  sides,  having  two  rows  of 
poles  clear,  and  the  third  was  closed  by  a  reeded  partition,  behind  which 
was  the  aparlment  for  females,  surrounded  entirely  by  the  same  kind  of 

matting." "When  the  three  angels  are  said  to  have  appeared  in  Ihe 

plains  of  Mamre,  he  is  represented  as  sitting  in  the  tent-door  in  the  heat 
of  the  day."  (Gen.  x\'iii.  1—10.)  "  'And  when  he  saw  them,  he  ran  to 
meet  them  from  the  tent-iloor,  and  bowed  himself  towards  the  ground.  • . . 
And  Abraham  hastened  into  the  tent  unto  Sarah,  and  said.  Make  ready 
quickly  three  measures  of  fine  meal,  knead  it,  and  make  cakes  upon  the 
hearth.  And  he  look  butter,  and  milk,  and  the  calf  which  he  had  dressed, 
and  set  it  before  them,  and  he  stood  hy  them,  under  the  tree,  and  they  did 
eat.'  When  inquiry  was  niaile  alter  his  wife,  he  replied,  'Behold,  she  is 
in  Ihe  tent.'    And  when  it  was  promised  him  that  Sarah  should  have  a  son, 

it  is  sai<l,  '  And  Sarah  heard  in  the  tent-door  which  was  behind  him.' 

The  form  of  Abraham's  tent,  as  thus  described,  seems  to  have  been  ex- 
actly like  Ihe  one  in  which  we  sit:  for  in  both  there  was  a  shaded  open 
front  in  which  he  could  sit  in  the  heat  of  the  day.  and  yet  be  seen  from  afar 
olf ;  and  the  apartment  of  Ihe  females,  where  Sarah  was,  when  he  staled 
her  to  be  within  the  tent,  was  immediately  Ae/i)>irf  this,  wherein  she  pre- 
pareil  Ihe  meal  for  the  guests,  and  from  whence  she  li-stened  to  Iheir  pro- 
jihetic  cieclaralion."     Travels  in  Me.-sopotamia,  vol.  i.  pp.  30.  .3.'?,  31. 

♦     Hp.  l.owih  on  Isaiah  iv.  6.     Pareau,  Aniiq.  Hebr.  pp.  3.")3— 356.     Brii- 

nma.  .\niiq  Ih^br.  p.  273.     Jahn  el  Ackermann,  Archajol.  Biblica,  §5  26 — 31. 

»  In  Beniial  ami  Ceylon,  as  well  as  in  Egypt,  houses  are  constructed  with 

.  this  frail  i^lalerial.  Dr.  Davy's  Account  of  the  Interior  of  Ceylon,  p.  2ri6. 
See  also  Harmer's  Observations,  rol.  i.  pp.  205.  "285.     The  houses  at  Mousul 


"  are  mostly  construc.leil  of  small  unhewn  stones,  cemented  by  mortar,  i  329,  3.30, 


Indies,  also,  nothing  is  more  common  than  for  thieves  to  dig 
or  break  through  these  mud  walls,  while  the  unsuspecting 
inhabitants  are  overcome  by  slec]),  and  to  plunder  them.^  To 
similar  depredations  Jesus  Clirist  appears  to  allude,  when  he 
exhorts  his  disciples  not  to  lay  up  their  treasure  where 
thieves  bki;ak  through  and  steal.  (Matt.  vi.  19,20.)  Job  also 
seems  to  refer  to  the  same  practice,  (xxiv.  16.)  In  the  holes 
and  chinks  of  these  walls  serpents  sometimes  concealed 
themselves.  (Amos  v.  19.)  In  Egypt,  it  appears  from  Exod. 
V.  7.  that  straw  ancietitly  entered  into  the  composition  of 
bricks  ;  and  some  expositors  have  imagined  that  it  was  used 
(as  with  us)  merely  for  burning  them  ;  but  this  notion  is  un- 
founded. The  Egyi)lian  bricks  were  a  mixture  of  clay,  mud. 
and  straw,  slightly  blended  and  kneaded  together,  and  after- 
wards baked  in  the  sun.  Philo,  in  bis  life  of  Moses,  says, 
that  they  used  straw  to  bind  their  bricks. s  The  straw  still 
preserves  its  original  colour,  and  is  a  proof  that  these  bricks 
were  never  burnt  in  stacks  or  kilns.'-'  Part  of  the  bricks  of 
the  celebrated  tower  of  Babel  (or  of  Beliis,  as  the  Greeks 
termed  it)  were  made  of  clay  mixed  with  chopped  straw,  or 
broken  reeds,  to  com|)act  it,  and  then  dried  in  the  sun.  Their 
solidity  is  equal  to  that  of  the  hardest  stone.'"  Among  the 
ruins  discovered  on  the  site  of  ancient  Niiu^veh,  are  houses, 
built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  cemented  with  mud  ;  and  similarly 
constructed  dwellings  were  ol)served  by  Mr.  Buckingham  in 
the  village  of  Karagoosh,  near  Mousul  m  Mesopotamia."  At 
this  day  the  town  of  Busheher  (or  Bnshire^,  like  most  of  the 
towns  in  Persia,  is  built  with  sun-dried  nricks  and  mud,'^ 
There  is  an  allusion  to  this  mode  of  building  in  Nahum 
iii.  14. 

At  first,  houses  were  small  ;  afterwards  they  were  larger, 
especially  in  extensive  cities,  the  capitals  of  empires.  The 
art  of  inulti|)lying  stories  in  a  building  is  very  ancient,  as  we 
may  conclude  from  the  construction  of  Noah's  ark  and  the 
tower  of  Babel.  The  houses  in  Babylon,  according  to  Hero- 
dotus," were  three  and  four  stories  high  ;  and  those  in  Thebes 
or  Diospolis,"  in  Egypt,  were  four  or  five  stories.  In  Pales- 
tine they  appear  to  have  been  low,  during  the  time  of  Joshua; 
an  upper  story,  though  it  mat/  have  existed,  is  not  mentioned 
till  a  more  recent  age.  The  houses  of  the  rich  and  powerful 
in  Palestine,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  were  splendid,  and  were 
built  according  to  the  rules  of  Grecian  architecture.'* 

Of  all  modern  travellers,  no  one  has  so  happily  described 
the  form  and  structure  of  the  eastern  buildings  as  Dr.  Shaw, 
from  whose  account  the  following  particulars  are  derived, 
which  admirably  elucidate  several  interesting  passages  of 
Holy  Writ. 

"The  streets  of  the  cities,  the  better  to  shade  them  from 

■■  Ward's  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  325. 

9  Ptiilonis  Opera,  tom.  ii.  p.  86.  (edit.  Mangey.) 

0  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  250.  Mr.  Bel/.oni,  in  his  Researches  in  Egypt, 
found  similar  bricks  in  an  ancient  arch  which  he  discovered  at  Thebes,  and 
which  he  has  engraved  among  ihe  plates  illustrative  of  his  Researches  in 
Egypt,  Niibia,  &c.  Plate  xliv.  No.  2.  In  and  near  Ihe  ruins  of  Ihe  ancient 
Teiityra,  Dr.  Richardson  also  found  huts  built  of  sun-dried  brick,  made  of 
straw  and  clay.  (Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  185.  2."9.)  They  are  thus  described  by 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett,  as  they  appeared  in  Febniary,  1S19. — Speaking  of  ihe 
remains  of  ancient  buildings  in  that  part  of  Egypt,  he  says, — "These  mag- 
nificent edifices,  while  they  display  the  grandeur  of  former  times,  exhibit 
no  less  the  iiuanness  of  the  present.  This  temple,  buill  of  massive  slone, 
with  a  portico  of  twenty-four  pillars,  adorned  with  innumerable  hieroglyph- 
ics, and  painted  with  beautiful  colours,  the  brightness  of  which  in  many 
parts  remains  to  this  day,  is  choked  up  with  dn.sly  earth.  Village  after  vil- 
lage, built  of  uiibiirnt  brick,  crumbling  into  ruin.s,  and  giving  place  to  new 
habitations,  have  raised  Ihe  earth,  in  some  parts,  nearly  to  the  level  of  the 
summit  of  the  temple  ;  anil  fragments  of  Ihe  walls  of  these  mud  huts  appear 
even  on  Ihe  roof  of  the  temple.  In  every  part  of  Egypt,  we  find  the  towns 
built  in  this  manner,  upon  the  ruins,  or  rather  Ihe  rubbish,  of  the  former 
habitation.  The  expression  in.Ieremiah  xxx.  18.  literally  applies  to  Egypt 
in  the  very  meanest  sense — 7'Ae  cili/  shall  he  builded  tijion  her  oicn  heap  ; 
and  the  expression  in  Job  xv.  28.  might  be  illustrated  by  many  of  these 
rieserted  hovels — He  direlleth  in  desolate  cities,  and  in  hmises  trliich  no 
man  inhahitelh,  trhirh  are  ready  to  become  heaps.  Still  more  touching  is 
the  allusion  in  Job  iv.  19.  ;  where  the  perishing  generations  of  men  are 
fitly  compared  to  habitalions  of  the  frailest  materials,  built  upon  the  heap 
of  similar  dwelling  places,  now  reduced  to  rubbish — ffoir  much  less  in  thfm, 
that  dwell  iti  houses  of  clay,  rchose foundation  is  in  the  dust .'" — (Jowetl's 
Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  pp.  131,  132.)— In  one  place,  says  the 
same  intelligent  traveller,  "the  people  were  making  bricks,  with  straw  cut 
into  small  pieces,  and  mingled  with  the  clay  to  bind  it.  Hence  it  is,  that, 
when  villiiges  built  of  these  brick.s  fall  into  riibbisli,  which  is  often  the 
ca.se,  Ihe  roads  are  full  of  small  particles  of  straws  extremely  offensive  to 
Ihe  eyes  in  a  high  wind.  They  were,  in  short,  eiigagr  rl  ..xactly  as  the  Israel- 
ites used  to  be,  making  bricks  wilh  straw;  and  for  a  .■similar  purpose — to 
build  extensive  granaries  for  the  bashaw;  treasure-cities  for  Pharaoh." 
E.\od.  i.  11.     (Ibid.  p.  167.) 

ir  11.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Georgia,  Persia,  Babylonia,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp. 


and  plastered  over  wilh  mud,  though  some  are  built  of  burnt  and  unburnt 
bricks  "     Buckingham's  Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  ii.  p.  28. 

«  See  instances  of  Ihe  frailty  of  these  tenements  in  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels, 
vol.  i  p.  i'lO.  Bel/.oni's  Researches  in  Egypt,  p.  299.,  and  Ward's  View  of 
Uic  History,  <fcc.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p/335. 


Buckingham's  Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  ii.  p.  71. 
•»  Price's  Journal  of  the  British  Embassy  to  Persia,  part 
1825.  folio. 
i»  Herodot.  lib.  i.  c.  ISO.  «*  Diod.  Sic.  lib. 

«*  Jatin  et  Ackermann,  Archseol.  Bibl.  §  33. 


p.  6.  LonA 
.c.  45. 


152 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


the  sun,  are  usually  narrow,  sometimes  with  a  range  of  shops 
on  rach  side.     If  from  these  we  enter  into  any  of  the  princi- 
pal houses,  we  shall  first  pass  througfh  a  porch'  or  gateway, 
with  benches  on  each  side,  where  the  master  of  the  family 
receives  visits,  and  despatches  business ;  few  persons,  not 
even   the  nearest  relations,   having  admission    any   farther, 
except  vipon  extraordinary  occasions.     From  hence  we  are 
received  mto  the  court,  which  lying  open  to  the  weather,  is, 
according  to  the  ability  of  the  owner,  paved  with  marble,  or 
such  proper  materials  as  will  carry  off  tlie  water  into  the  com- 
mon sewers."    This  court  corresponded  to  the  cseva  adiuni  or 
impluvium  of  the  Romans ;  the  use  of  which  was  to  give  light 
to  the  windows  and  carry  oft"  the  rain.    "  When  much  people 
are  to  be  admitted,  as  upon  the  celebration  of  a  marriage,  the 
circumcising  of  a  child,  or  occasions  of  the  like  nature,  the 
company  is  seldom  or  never  admitted  into  one  of  the  cham- 
bers.    The  court  is  the  usual  place  of  their  reception,  which 
is  strewed  accordingly  with  mats  or  carpets,  for  their  more 
commodious  entertainment.     The  stairs  which  lead  to  the 
roof  are  never  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  house  in  the  street, 
but  usually  at  the  gateway  or  passage  room  to  the  court; 
sometimes  at  the  entrance  within  the  court.     This  court  is 
now  called  in  Arabic  el  ivoost,  or  the  middle  of  the  house, 
literally  answering  to  the  TO  ^'(Tcv  of  St.  Luke.  (v.  19.)  In  this 
area  our  Saviour  probably  taught.    In  the  summer  season,  and 
upon  all  occasions  when  a  large  company  is  to  be  received, 
the  court  is  commonly  sheltered  from  the  heat  and  inclemen- 
cies of  the  weather  by  a  vellum  umbrella  or  veil,  which,  being 
expanded  upon  ropes  from  one  side  of  the  parallel  wall  to  the 
other,  may  be  folded  or  unfolded  at  pleasure.     The  Psalmist 
seems  to  allude  either  to  the  tents  of  the  Bedouins,  or  to  some 
covering  of  this  kind,  in  that  beautiful  expression,  of  spreading 
out  the  lieavens  like  a  veil  vr  curtain.''''  (f'sal.  civ.  2.    See  also 
Isaiah  xl.  22. )2     The  arrangement  of  oriental  houses  satis- 
factorily explains  the  circumstances  of  the  letting  down  of 
the  paralytic  into  the  presence  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  order  that 
he  might  heal  him.  (Mark  ii.  4.  Luke  v.  19.)     The  paralytic 
vv^as  carried  by  some  of  his  neighbours  to  the  top  of  the  house, 
either  by  forcing  their  way  through  the  crowd  by  the  gateway 
and  passages  up  the  staircase,  or  else  by  conveying  him  over 
some  of  the  neighbouring  terraces  ;  and  there,  after  they  had 
drawn  away  the  o-Ttym  or  awning,  they  let  him  down  along 
the  side  of  the  roof  through  the  opening  or  impluvium  intu 
the  midst  of  the  court  before  Jesus.     2ts},»,  Dr.  Shaw  remarks, 
may  with  propriety  denote  no  less  than  tatlilo  (the  corres- 
ponding word  in  the  Syriac  version),  any  kind  of  covering ; 
and,  consequently,  aTrco-nyci.^uv  may  signify,  the  removal  of 
such  a  covering.     'E^^/;y?xvTEc  is  in  the  Vulgate  Latin  version 
rendered  pafeficieiites,  as  if  further  explanatory  of  uTna-Tiyx^^v. 
The  same  in  the  Persian  version  is  connected  with  x.p'jfi0u.rcv, 
and  there  implies  making  holes  in  it  for  the  cords  to  pass 
through.     That  neither  aTn^niryrt^aiv  nor  i^cfv^nvn;  imply  any 
force  or  violence  offered  to  the  roof,  appears  from  the  parallel 
passage  in  St.  Luke ;  where,  though  Sia  t:;)-  x.ift/ua>v  ku^Hhav 
hItov,  per  tegulas  dnniseruid  illu/ii,  is  rendered  by  our  trans- 
lators, they  let  him  down  through  the  tiling,  as  if  that  had  been 
previously  broken  up,  it  should  be  rendered,  they  Itt  him  down 
over,  along  the  side,  or  by  the  way  of  the  roof  as  in  Acts  ix. 
25.  and  2  Cor.  xi.  33,,  where  the  like  phraseology  is  observed 
as  in  St.  Luke :  Si^  is  rendered  in  both  places  by,  that  is, 
along  the  side,  or  by  the  way  of  the  wall.     'E^ofju^^vTis  may 
express  the  plucking  away  or  removing  any  obstacle,  such  as 
awiung  or  part  of  a  parapet,  which  might  be  in  their  way. 
Kv=';wc<  was  first  used  for  a  roof  of  tiles,  but  afterwards  came 
to  signify  any  kind  of  roof.^ 

The  following  diagram  will  perhaps  give  the  reader  a 
tolerably  accurate  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  an  eastern 
house  : — 

_  »  In  Bengal,  servants  and  otliers  generallv  sleep  in  the  veranrlab  or  porch, 
m  front  of  their  master's  house.  (Warti's  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos, 
vol.  ii.  p.  3-2.3.)  The  Aral)  servants  in  Egypt  do  the  same.  (Wilson's  Tra- 
vels in  Euypt  and  the  Holy  Land,  p.  55.)  In  this  way  Uriah  slniH  at  the 
(Ivor  of  the  /cing's  house,  with  all  Iha  servants  of  his  lord.  (2  Sam.  xi.  9.) 

■^  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp,  374—376. 

3  Shaw's  Travels  in  Barbary,  &c.  vol.  i.  pp.  382— 3Si.  8vo.  edition.  Val- 
py's  Gr.  Test,  on  IVTark  ii.  4.  "If  tlie  circumstances  related  by  the  evange- 
list had  happened  in  India,  nothirig  could  be  easier  tlian  the  mode  of  leiling 
down  the  paralytic.  A  plank  or  two  might  be  started  from  the  top  bal- 
cony or  viranda  in  the  back  court,  where  the  congregation  was  probably 
assembled,  and  the  man  [bej  let  down  in  his  hammock."  Callaway's 
Oriental  Observations,  p.  71. 


[Pakt  IV, 


.\,  A,  the  street. 

B,  the  outer  porch. 

C,  C,  C,  the  gallery. 


D,  the  porch  at  the 
entrance  into  the 
main  building. 


Now,  let  it  be  supposed,  that  Jesus  was  sitting  at  D  in  the 
porch,  at  the  entrance  into  the  main  building,  and  speaking 
to  the  people,  when  the  four  men  carrying  the  paralytic  came 
to  the  front  gate  or  porch,  B,  Finding  the  porch  so  crowded 
that  they  could  not  carry  him  in  and  lay  him  before  Jesus, 
they  carried  him  up  the  stairs  at  the  porch  to  the  top  of  the 
gallery,  C,  C,  C,  and  along  the  gallery  round  to  the  place 
where  Jesus  was  sitting,  and  forcing  a  passage  by  removing 
the  balustrade,  they  lowered  down  the  paralytic,  with  the 
couch  on  which  he  lay,  into  the  court  before  Jesus.  Thus  we 
are  enabled  to  understand  the  manner  in  which  the  paralytic 
was  brought  in  and  laid  before  the  compassionate  Redeemer.'' 

"  The  court  is  for  the  most  part  surrounded  with  a  cloister, 
as  the  cava  sedium  of  the  Romans  was  with  a  peristylium  or 
colonnade,  over  which,  when  the  house  has  one  or  more 
stories  (and  they  sometimes  have  two  or  three),  there  is  a 
gallery  erected  of  the  same  dimensions  with  the  cloister, 
having  a  balustrade,  or  else  a  piece  of  carved  or  latticed 
work  going  round  about  it,  to  prevent  people  from  falling 
from  it  into  the  court.  From  the  cloisters  and  galleries  we 
are  conducted  into  large  spacious  chambers  of  the  same 
length  of  tlie  court,  but  seldom  or  never  communicating  with 
one  another.  One  of  them  frequently  serves  a  whole  fomily, 
particularly  when  a  father  indulges  his  married  children  to 
live  with  him ;  or  when  several  persons  join  in  the  rent  of  the 
same  house.  Hence  it  is  that  the  cities  of  these  countries, 
which  are  generally  much  inferior  in  size  to  those  of  Eu- 
rope, are  so  exceedingly  populous,  that  great  numbers  of  the 
inhabitants  are  swept  away  by  the  plague,  or  any  other 
contagious  distemper.  In  houses  of  better  fashion,  these 
chambers,  from  the  middle  of  the  wall  downwards,  are  co- 
vered and  adorned  with  velvet  or  damask  hangings,  of  white, 
blue,  red,  green,  or  other  colours  (Esth.  i.  6.),  suspended 
upon  hooks,  or  taken  down  at  pleasure.*  But  the  upper 
part  is  embellished  with  more  permanent  ornaments,  being 
adorned  with  the  most  ingenious  wreathings  and  devices  in 
stucco  and  fret-work.  The  ceiling  is  generally  of  wainscot, 
either  very  artfully  painted,  or  else  thrown*  into  a  variety  of 
panels,  with  gilded  mouldings  a«d  scrolls  of  their  Koran 
intermixed.     The  prophet   Jeremiah    (xxii,    14.)   exclaims 

*  Mr.  Hartley  has  dissented  from  the  interpretation  above  given  by  Dr. 
Shaw.  "  When  I  lived  in  ^gina"  (he  relates),  "I  used  to  look  up  not  un- 
frequently  above  my  head,  and  contemplate  the  facility  with  whicli  the 
whole  transaction  might  take  place.  The  roof  was  constructed  in  this 
manner  : — A  layer  of  reeds,  of  a  large  species,  was  placed  upon  the  rafters. 
On  these  a  quantity  of  heather  (heath)  was  strewed  ;  upon  the  heather 
earth  was  deposited,  and  beat  down  into  a  compact  mass.  Now  what  diffi. 
culty  could  there  be  in  removing,  first  the  earth,  then  the  heather,  next 
the  reeds'?  Nor  would  the  difficulty  be  increased,  if  the  earth  had  a  pave- 
ment of  tiling  (xepxyuioi)  laid  ujion  it.  No  inconvenience  could  result  to 
the  persons  in  the  house  from  the  removal  of  the  tiles  and  earth  ;  for  the 
heather'and  reeds  would  intercept  any  thing  which  might  otherwise  fall 
down,  and  would  be  removed  last  of  all."  (Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece, 
p.  240.) 

s  Similar  costly  hangings  appear  to  have  decorated  the  pavilion  or  state 
tent  of  Solomon,  alluded  to  in  Cant.  i.  5.  ;  the  beauty, and  elegance  of  which 
would  form  a  striking  contrast  to  the  black  tents  of  the  nomadic  Arabs. 
The  state  tents  of  modern  oriental  sovereigns,  it  is  welt  known,  are  very 
superb :  of  this  gorgeous  splendour,  Mr.  Harmer  has  given  some  instances 
from  the  travels  of  Egmont  and  Hayman.  The  tent  of  the  Grand  Seignior 
was  covered  and  lined  with  silk.  Nadir  Shah  had  a  very  superb  one, 
covered  on  the  outside  with  scarlet  broad  cloth,  and  lined  within  with  violet 
coloured  satin,  ornamented  with  a  great  variety  of  animals,  flowers,  <fec 
formed  entirely  of  pearls  and  precious  stones.  (Harmer  on  Sol.  Song, 
p.  186.)  , 


Chap.  I.] 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


153 


agiinst  the  eastern  liouses  that  were  ceiled  with  cedar,  and 
painted  with  vermilion.  The  (lonrs  are  laid  witli  painted 
tiles,  or  plaster  of  ti^rrace.  I?iit  as  these  people  make  little 
or  no  use  ot"  chairs  (either  sittinqr  cross-le<rued  or  lyingf  at 
length),  they  always  cover  and  spread  them  over  with  car- 
pets, which,  for  the  most  part,  are  of  the  richest  materials. 
Alonnf  the  sides  of  the  wall  or  floor,  a  ranpe  of  narrow  heds 
or  mattresses  is  often  placed  njxin  these  carpets  :  and  for 
their  farther  ease  and  convenience,  several  velvet  or  damask 
bolsters  are  placed  \\]um  tliese  carpets  or  mattresses  ;  indul- 
gences which  seem  to  hc!  alluded  to  liy  f/tfir  xtretchinir  (hent- 
selves  upon  couchen,  and  hi/  Ihv  grwiriir  dJ"  pilluws  to  //if.  arm- 
holes,  as  we  have  it  expressed  in  Amos  vi.  \.  and  Kzek.  xiii, 
18.  At  one  end  of  the  cliamher  there  is  a  little  p^allerj', 
raised  three,  four,  or  five  feet  ahove  the  floor,  with  a  balus- 
trade in  the  front  of  it,  with  a  few  stcjis  likewise  leadiuij  up 
to  it.  Here  they  j)lace  tiicir  heds;  a  situation  frecpiently 
alluded  to  in  the  Holy  Scrij)tiires ;  which  may  liki-wise  illus- 
trate the  circumstance  of  Ilezekiah's  tiirniva:  his  fuct:  whenhe 
prai/ed  tnnHirds  t/in  ivall,  i.  e.  from  his  attcMidants  (2  Kings 
XX.  2.),  that  the  fervency  of  his  devotion  might  be  the  less 
taken  notice  of  and  observed.  The  like  is  related  of  Ahab 
(1  Kings  xxi.  4.),  though  probably  not  upon  a  religious  ac- 
count, but  in  order  to  conceal  from  bis  att(Mulants  the  anguish 
he  felt  for  his  late  disappointments.  The  stairs  are  some- 
times placed  in  the  porch,  sometimes  at  the  entrance  into  the 
court.  When  there  is  one  or  more  stories,  they  are  after- 
wards continued  through  one  corner  or  other  of  the  gallery  to 
the  top  of  the  house,  whither  they  cemlnct  ns  through  a  cioor 
that  is  constantly  kept  shut  to  jirevent  their  domestic  animals 
from  daubing  the  terrace,  and  thereby  s])oiling  the  water 
which  falls  from  thence  into  the  cisterns  below  the  court. 
This  door,  like  most  others  we  meet  with  in  these  countries, 
is  hiuig,  not  with  hinges,  but  by  having  the  jamb  formed  at 
each  end  into  an  axle-tree  or  pivot,  whereof  the  uppermost, 
which  is  the  longest,  is  to  be  received  into  a  correspondent 
socket  in  the  lintel,  while  the  other  falls  into  a  cavity  of  the 
same  fashion  in  the  threshold."'  Anciently,  it  was  the  cus- 
tom to  secure  the  door  of  a  bouse,  by  a  cross-bar  or  holt, 
which  by  ni^ht  was  fastened  by  a  little  button  or  pin  :  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  door  was  left  a  round  hole,  through  which 
any  person  from  without  might  thrust  his  arm,  and  remove 
the  bar,  unless  this  additional  security  were  superadded.  To 
such  a  mode  of  fistening  the  bride  alludes  in  Cant.  v.  4.^ 

"  The  top  of  the  house,  which  is  always  flat,  is  covered 
with  a  strong  plaster  of  terrace,  whence  in  the  Frank  lan- 
guage it  has  obtained  the  name  of  f/ie  terrace.'  This  is 
usually  surrounded  by  two  walls,  the  outermost  whereof  is 
partly  built  over  the  street,  and  pnrtly  mikes  the  partition 
with  the  contiguous  houses,  being  frequently  so  low  that  one 
may  easily  climb  over  it.  The  other,  whicli  may  be  called 
the  parapet  wall,  hangs  immediately  over  the  court,  being 
always  breast  high,  and  answers  to  the  nfiyn,  or  lorica,  Dent. 
xxii.  8.,  which  we  render  the  baftlemenfs.  Instead  of  this 
parapet  wall,  some  terraces  are  guarded,  like  the  galleries, 
with  balustrades  only,  or  latticed  work;  in  which  fashion, 
probably,  as  the  name  seems  to  import,  was  the  riD^ti',  or  net, 
or  lattice,  as  we  render  it,  that  Ahaziah  (2  Kings  i.  2.)  might 
be  carelessly  leaning  over,  when  he  fell  down  from  thence 
into  the  court.  For  upon  those  terraces  several  ofliices  of  the 
family  are  performed,  such  as  the  drying  of  linen  and  flax 
(.losh.  ii.  (}.),  the  preparing  of  figs  or  raisins,  where  likewise 
they  enjoy  tne  cool  refreshing  breezes  of  the  evening,  con- 
verse with  one  another,  and  offer  up  their  devotions. "^     At 


Tiberias,  we  are  informed  that  the  parapet  is  commonly  made 
of  wicker-work  and  sometimes  of  green  branches  ;  which 
mode  of  constructing  booths  seems  to  be  as  ancient  as  the 
days  of  Nehemiah,  when  the  people  irent  forth,  at  the  feast  of 
tahernacles,  and  brought  branches  and  mode  theinsefces  booths, 
evcTji  one  upon  the  top  of  his  house.  (Neb.  viii.  16.)*  "  As 
these  terraces  are  thus  frequently  used  and  trampled  upon, 
not  to  mention  the  solidity  of  the  materials  with  which  they 
are  made,  they  will  not  easily  permit  any  vegetable  sub- 
stances to  take  root  or  thrive  upon  them ;  which  perhaps  may 

'  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  i.  pp.  37-1— 379. 

»  Up.  Percy's  Translation  of  S  ilomon's  Sons.  p.  "6. 

»  On  these  terraces,  the  inhabitants  of  tlie  East  sleep  in  the  open  air 
'during  the  hot  sea.son.  See  instances,  illustraiins  various  passages  of  the 
Scriptures,  in  the  Travels  of  Ali  Boy,  vol.  ii.  p.  293.  Mr.  Kinneir's  Travels 
in  Armenia,  &c.  p.  1-34.  Mr.  Morie'r's  Second  Journey  in  Persia,  p.  230., 
where  a  wood-cut  is  given  explanatory  of  this  practice ;  and  Mr.  Ward's 
History,  Jcc.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  323. 

'  Thus  we  read  that  Samuel  communed  with  Saul  \ipon  the  house-top 
(ISam.  ix.  25.);  David  walked  upon  the  roof  of  the  liing's  house  C^Sain. 
xl  ?.);  and  Peter  went  up  upon  the  house-top  to  pray.  (Acts  x.  9.) 

»  Madden's  Travels  in  Turkev   Esvpt,  ic.  vol.  ii.  p  314. 

voL.n.  V 


illustrate  the  prophet  Isaiah's  comparison  of  the  Assyrians 
to  the  i^rass  upon  the  houte-tops.  (Isa.  xxxvii.  27.)  When 
any  of  these  cities  are  built  upon  level  ground,  one  may  pass 
along  the  tops  of  houses  from  one  end  of  them  to  the  other, 
without  coming  down  into  the  street. ''s  In  the  mountainous 
parts  of  modern  Palestine  these  terraces  are  composed  of 
««•///,  spread  evenly  on  the  roof  of  the  house,  and  rolled  hard 
anil  flat.  On  the  top  of  every  house  a  large  stone  roller  is 
kept,  for  the  purpose  of  harneniiig  and  flattening  this  layer 
f>f  rud(!  soil,  to  prevent  the  rain  from  penetrating  ;  hut  upon 
this  surface,  as  nniy  be  supposed,  grass  and  weeds  grow 
freely.  Similar  tr-rract^s  appear  to  have  been  anciently  con- 
structed in  that  country  :  it  is  to  such  grass  that  the  Psalmist 
alludes  as  useless  and  bad — Ae/  them  be  as  the  iiross  upon  the 
hoii.ye-loj)s,  which  withereth  afire  it  groweth  up.  (Psal.  cxxix. 
G.)  These  low  and  flat-roofed  houses  afl'ord  e])portunities  to 
s|)e'ak  to  many  on  the  house  as  well  as  to  many  in  the  court- 
yard below  :  this  circinnstance  will  illustrate  the  meaning 
of  our  Lord's  command  to  his  apostles,  l^hat  ye  hear  in  tlie 
car,  that  preach  ye  upon  the  house-topy.  (Matt.  x.  27.)'  On 
these  terraces  incense  was  anciently  burnt  (.ler.  xix.  13. 
xxxii.  21).),  and  the  host  of  heaven  was  worshipped.  (Zeph. 
i.  5.) 

In  Barbary,  the  hills  and  valleys  in  the  vicinity  of  Algiers 
are  beautified  with  numerous  coimtry  seats  and  gardens, 
whither  the  opulent  resort  during  the  intense  heats  of  sum- 
mer. In  all  probability,  the  summer-houses  of  the  Jews, 
mentioned  by  the  prophet  Amos  (iii.  15.),  were  of  this  de- 
scription; though  these  have  been  supposed  to  mean  difTer- 
ent  apartments  of  the  same  house,  the  one  exposed  to  a 
northern  and  the  other  to  a  southern  aspect. 

During  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett's  residence  at  Haivali,  in  May, 
1818,  he  relates  that  the  house,  in  which  he  abode,  gave  him 
a  correct  idea  of  the  scene  of  Eutychus's  falling  from  the 
upper  loft,  while  Paul  was  preaching  at  Troas.  (Acts  xx. 
6 — 12.)  "According  to  our  idea  of  houses,"  he  remarks, 
"  the  scene  of  Eutychus's  falling  from  the  upper  loft  is  very 
far  from  intelligible;  and,  besides  this,  the  circumstance  of 
preaching  generally  leaves  on  the  mind  of  cursory  readers 
the  notion  of  a  church.  To  describe  this  house,  which  is 
not  many  miles  distant  from  the  Troad,  and  perhaps,  from 
the  unchanging  character  of  oriental  customs,  nearly  resem- 
bles the  houses  then  built,  will  fully  illustrate  the  narrative. 

"On  entering  my  host's  door,  we  find  the  ground  floor 
entirely  used  as  a  store :  it  is  filled  with  large  barrels  of  oil, 
the  produce  of  the  rich  country  for  many  miles  round  :  this 
space,  so  far  from  being  habitable,  is  sometimes  so  dirty  with 
the  dripping  of  the  oil,  that  it  is  difficult  to  pick  out  a  clean 
footing  from  the  door  to  the  first  step  of  the  staircase.  On 
ascending,  we  find  the  first  floor,  consisting  of  a  humble 
suite  of  rooms,  not  very  high ;  these  are  occupied  by  the 
family,  for  their  daily  use.  It  is  on  the  next  story  that  all 
their  expense  is  lavished  :  here,  my  courteous  host  has  ap- 
pointed my  lodging:  beautiful  curtains,  and  mats,  and  cush- 
ions to  the  divan,  display  the  respect  with  which  they  mean 
to  receive  their  guest :  here,  likewise,  their  splendour,  being 
at  the  top  of  the  house,  is  enjoyed,  by  the  poor  Greeks,  with 
more  retirement  and  less  chance  of  molestation  from  the 
intrusion  of  Turks :  here,  when  the  Professors  of  tlie  Col- 
lege waited  upon  me  to  pay  their  respects,  they  were  received 
in  ceremony  and  sat  at  the  window.  The  room  is  both 
higher  and  also  larger  than  those  below :  it  has  two  project- 
ing windows ;  and  the  whole  floor  is  so  much  extended  in 
front  beyond  the  lower  part  of  the  building,  that  the  project- 
ing windows  considerably  overhang  the  street.  In  such  an 
upper  room — secluded,  spacious,  and  commodious — Paul 
was  invited  to  preach  his  ])arting  discourse.  The  divan,  or 
raised  seat,  with  mats  or  cushions,  encircles  the  interior  of 
each  projecting  window :  and  I  have  remarked,  that  when 
company  is  numerous,  they  sometimes  place  large  cushions 
behind  the  company  seated  on  the  divan ;  so  that  a  second 
tier  of  company,  with  their  feet  upon  the  seat  of  the  divan, 
are  sitting  behind,  higher  than  the  front  row.  Eutj-chus,  thus 
sitting,  would  be  on  a  level  with  the  open  window ;  and,  being 
overcome  with  sleep,  he  would  easily  fall  cut  from  the  third 
loft  of  the  house  into  the  street,  and  "be  almost  certain,  from 
such  a  height,  to  lose  his  life.  Thither  St.  Paul  went  down ; 
and  comforted  the  alarmed  company,  by  bringing  up  Eut3'chi;3 
alive.  It  is  noted,  that  there  were  many  lights  in  the  upper 
chamber.  The  very  great  plenty  of  oil  in  this  neighbourhood 
would  enable  them  to  afford  many  lamps  :  the  heat  of  these 

e  This  is  particularly  the  case  at  Aleppo.    Irby's  and  Mangle's  Traveto, 
p.  238.    Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  360,  331. 
'  Jowetl'9  Chris'aanResearcheb  in  Syria,  &c.  pp.  69.  95. 


154 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IV. 


and  so  much  company  would  cause  the  drowsiness  of  Euty- 
chus  at  that  late  hour,  and  be  the  occasion,  likewise,  of  the 
windows  being  open."' 

In  most  houses,  some  place  must  have  been  appropriated 
to  the  preparation  of  food  ;  but  kitchons  are  for  the  first  time 
mentioned  in  Ezek.  xlvi.  23,  21.  The  hearth  or  fire-place 
appears  to  have  been  on  the  orround.  (chimneys,  such  as  are 
in  use  among  us,  were  unknown  to  the  Hebrews,  even  in  the 
latest  times  of  their  polity.  The  smoke,  therefore,  escaped 
through  large  openings  left  for  that  purpose,  which  in  our 
version  of  Hos.  xiii.  3.  are  rendered  by  the  equivalent  term, 
chimneys.2 

It  was  common,  when  any  person  had  finished  a  house, 
and  entered  into  it,  to  celebrate  the  event  with  great  rejoicing, 
and  to  perform  some  religious  ceremonies  to  obtain  the  divine 
blessing  and  protection.  Tlie  dedication  of  a  neiuly-built 
house  was  a  ground  of  exemption  from  military  service. 
(Deut.  XX.  5.)  The  xxxth  Psalm,  as  appears  from  the  title, 
was  composed  on  occasion  of  the  dcdicauan  of  the  house  of 
David  ;  and  this  devout  practice  obtained  also  among  the  an- 
cient Romans.'  In  Deut.  vi.  9.  Moses  directs  the  Israelites 
to  write  certain  portions  of  his  laws  on  the  doors  of  their 
houses  and  the  gates  of  their  cities.  This  direction  Michaelis 
understands  not  as  a  positive  injunction,  but  merely  an  exhor- 
tation, to  inscribe  his  laws  on  the  door-posts  of  their  houses. 
"In  Syria  and  the  adjacent  countries,  it  is  usual  at  this  day 
to  place  inscriptions  above  the  doors  of  the  houses,  consist- 
ing of  passages  from  the  Koran  or  from  the  best  poets. 
Among  us,  where,  by  the  aid  of  printhig,  books  are  so  abun- 
dantly multiplied,  and  may  be  put  into  the  hands  of  every 
c^'.ld,  such  measures  would  be  quite  superfluous;  but,  if  we 
would  enter  into  the  ideas  of  Moses,  we  must  place  ourselves 
in  an  age  when  the  book  of  the  law  could  only  come  into  the 
hands  of  a  few  opulent  people."^ 

IV.  The  Furniture  of  the  oriental  dwellings,  at  least  in  the 
earliest  a^s,  was  very  simple  :  that  of  the  poorer  classes  con- 
sisted of  but  few  articles,  and  those  such  as  were  absolutely 
necessary.  The  interior  of  the  more  common  and  useful 
apartments  was  furnished  with  sets  of  large  nails  with  square 
heads  (like  dice),  and  bent  at  the  head  so  as  to  make  them 
cramp-irons.  In  modern  Palestine,  the  plan  is  to  fix  nails  or 
pins  of  wood  in  the  walls,  while  they  are  still  soft,  to  suspend 
such  domestic  articles  as  are  required ;  since,  consisting  alto- 
gether of  clay,  they  are  too  frail  to  admit  of  the  operation  of 
the  hammer.*  To  this  custom  there  is  an  allusion  in  Ezra 
ix.  8.  and  Isa.  xxii.  23.  On  these  nails  were  hung  their 
kitchen  utensils  or  other  articles.  Instead  of  chairs  tney  sat 
on  mats  or  skins;  and  the  same  articles,  on  which  they  laid  a 
mattrass,  served  them  instead  of  bedsteads,  while  their  upper 
garment  served  them  for  a  covering,  and  sovereigns  had  chairs 
ofstate  or  thrones  with  footstools."  (Exod.  xxii.  26, 27.  Deut. 
xxiv.  12.)  This  circumstance  accounts  for  our  Lord's  com- 
manding the  paralytic  to  take  up  his  bed  and  go  unto  his 
house.  fMatt.  ix.  6.)^  The  more  opulent  had  (as  those  in  the 
East  still  have)  fine  carpets,  couches,  or  divans,  and  sofas, 
on  which  they  sat,"^  lay,  and  slept.  (2  Kings  iv.  10,  2  Sam. 
xvii.  28.)  In  later  times  their  couches  were  splendid,  and  the 
frames  inlaid  with  ivory  (Amos  vi.  4.),  and  the  coverlids  rich 
and  perfumed.  (Prov.  vii.  IG,  17. )3  On  these  sofas,  in  the 
latter  ages  of  the  .Tewish  state  (for  before  the  time  of  Moses 
it  appears  to  have  been  tlie  custom  to  sit  at  table.  Gen.  xliii. 
33.),  they  universally  reclined,  when  taking  their  meals 
(Amos  vi.  4.  Luke  vii.  3G — 38.)  :  resting  on  their  side  with 
their  heads  towards  the  table,  so  that  their  feet  were  accessi- 

«  .lowett's  Christian  Rpsearciies  in  the  Mediterranean,  po.  66,  67. 
9  I'arcau,  Aniiquilas  Heljraica,  p.  363. 
a  Bruning,  Anli(i.  llobr.  p.  303. 
•     *  Mictiaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  .371,  372. 
»  Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  118.  M  edit. 

•  Bp.  Lowth  on  Isa.  Iii.  2. 

■>  "  A  mat  and  pillow  form  all  the  bed  of  the  common  people  in  the  East ; 
and  the  rolling  up  the  one  in  the  oihfi-  has  often  struck  me  as  iilustraling 
the  command  to  rise,  Inke.  up  thy  bed,  and  walk.  (I.uke  v.  19.  Mark  ii.  4. 
11.)  In  .^I'ts  ix.  31.  Peter  .said  to  -I'lneas,  Arise  and  spread  thy  bed  for 
thi/self.  David's  bed  (1  Sam.  xix.  15.)  was  i)robably  the  duan"  (divan)  ''  or 
raised  bench  witli  two  quills,  one  doubled  and  serving  for  a  mattrass,  and 
the  other  as  a  covering.  It  was  proiiably  not  unlike  a  sailor's  hammock, 
laid  on  the  Hoor  or  bench."     Call  iway's  Oriental  Observations,  p.  21. 

8  A  passa;!;e  in  Jeremiah  xiii.  22.  may  in  some  degree  be  explained  by 
the  oriental  mode  of  sitting^i^o;-  f/ir  ,!rrcalncss  of  thine  iniquity  are  tliy 
skirts  discovered,  and  Ihy  lieels  made  hare.  "1  have  often  been  struck," 
says  Mr.  Jowett,  "willi  the  manner  in  which  a  great  man  sits;  for  ex- 
ample, when  I  visited  the  basliaw,  I  never  saw  his  feet :  they  were  entirely 
drawn  up  imder  hiui,  and  covered  by  his  dress.  This  was  dignified.  To 
see  his  feet  his  skirls  must  have  been  discovered  :  still  more  so,  in  order 
to  see  tlie  heels,  wliich  often  servo  as  the  actual  seat  of  an  Oriental." — 
JoweU's  Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  p.  109. 

•  Jahn  ct  Ackcrinani),  Aroli<Bologia  liiblica,  %  10. 


ble  to  one  who  came  behind  the  couch,  as  in  the  annexed 
diagram : — 


B 


In  which  A  denotes  the  table,  and  c,  c,  c,  the  couches  on 
which  the  guests  reclined.  B  is  the  lower  end,  open  for  ser- 
vants to  enter  and  supply  the  guests.  The  knowledge  of  this 
custom  enables  us  to  understand  the  manner  in  which  John 
leaned  on  the  bosom  of  his  Master  (John  xiii  23.),  and  Mary 
anointed  the  feet  of  Jesus  and  wiped  them  with  her  hair ;  and 
also  the  expression  of  Lazarus  being  carried  into  Abraham's 
bosom  (Luke  xvi.  22.)  :  that  is,  he  was  placed  next  to  Abra- 
ham at  the  splendid  banquet,  under  the  image  of  which  the 
Jews  represented  the  happy  state  of  the  pious  after  death. i" 

Anciently,  splendid  hangings  were  used  in  the  palaces  of 
the  eastern  monarchs,  and  ample  draperies  were  suspended 
over  the  openings  in  the  sides  of  the  apartments,  for  the  two- 
fold purpose  of  affording  air,  and  of  shielding  them  from  the 
sun.  Of  this  description  were  the  costly  hangings  of  the 
Persian  sovereigns  mentioned  in  Esth.  i.  6. ;  which  passage 
is  confirmed  by  the  account  given  by  Quintus  Curtius  of  their 
superb  palace  at  Persepolis. 

Other  articles  of  necessary  furniture  were,  at  least  in  the 
more  ancient  periods,  both  few  and  simple.  The  principal 
were  a  hand-mill,  with  which  they  ground  their  corn,  a 
kneading-trough,  and  an  oven.  The  Hand-mill  resembled 
the  querns,  which,  in  early  times,  were  in  general  use  in  this 
country,  and  which  still  continue  to  be  used  in  some  of  the 
more  remote  northern  islands  of  Scotland,  as  well  as  in  the 
East.  So  essential  were  these  domestic  utensils,  that  the 
Israelites  were  forbidden  to  take  them  in  pledge.  (Deut.  xxiv. 
6.)  The  Kneading-troughs  (at  least  those  which  the  Israel- 
ites carried  with  them  out  of  Egypt,  Exod.xii.  34.)  were  not 
the  cumbersome  articles  now  in  use  among  us,  but  compara- 
tively small  wooden  bowls,  like  those  of  the  modern  Arabs, 
who,  after  kneading  their  flour  in  them,  make  use  of  them  as 
dishes  out  of  which  they  eat  their  victuals.  The  Oven  was 
sometimes  only  an  earthen  pot  in  which  fire  was  put  to  heat 
it,  and  on  the  outside  of  which  the  featter  or  dough  was  spread, 
and  almost  instantly  baked.  Cakes  of  bread  were  also  baked 
by  being  placed  within  the  oven.  Besides  these  two  articles, 
they  must  have  had  different  kinds  of  earthenware  vessels, 
especially  pots  to  hold  water  for  their  various  ablutions. 
While  sitting  upon  the  shattered  wall  which  enclosed  "the 
Well  of  Cana"  in  Galilee,  in  February,  1820,  Mr.  Rae  Wil- 
son observed  six  females,  having  their  faces  veiled  (Gen.  xxiv. 
66.  Cant.  v.  7.),  come  down  to  the  well,  each  carrying  on  her 
head  a  pot  (John  ii.  6 — 10.),  for  the  purpose  of  being  filled 
with  water:  one  of  whom  lowered  her  pitcher  into  the  well 
and  offered  him  water  to  drink,  preciesly  in  the  same  manner 
in  which  Rebekah,  many  centuries  before,  had  offered  water 
to  Abraham's  servant.  (Gen.  xxiv.  18.)  These  water-pots 
are  formed  of  clay,  hardened  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  are 
of  a  globular  shape,  large  at  the  mouth,  not  unlike  the  bottles 
used  in  our  country  for  holding  vitriol,  but  not  so  large. 
Many  of  them  have  handles  attached  to  the  sides  :  and  it  was 
a  wonderful  coincidence  with  Scripture  that  the  vessels 
appeared  to  contain  much  about  the  same  quantity  as  those 
which,  the  evangelist  informs  us,  were  employed  on  occasion 
,of  the  marriage  which  was  honoured  by  the  Saviour's  pre- 
sence ;  namely,  three  firkins,  or  twelve  gallons  each."   About  - 

>»  Robinson's  Greek  Lexicon,  voce  KoXtto;, 

"  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  3,  i.  3d  editioiv 


Chap.  TI.] 


ON  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


155 


twenty  years  before,  the  Rev.  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  whileexplor- 
ing  the  ruins  of  Cana  in  Galilee,  saw  several  lar^e  massy 
stone  water-pots,  answerin^r  the  description  piven  of  the 
ancient  vessels  of  the  country  (.lohn  ii.  fi.)  ;  not  preserved  nor 
exhibited  as  relics,  but  lyiujl  aliout,  disresrardcd  liy  the  pre- 
sent inhabitants  as  anli(iuitics  with  whos(!  orijriiial  use  tney 
were  acqnaintiMl.  From  their  appearance,  anrl  the  number  of 
them,  it  was  (piite  evident  that  tiie  praclire  of  keepintj  water 
in  larjre  stone  pols,  each  lioldiiiir  Irom  eijrbteen  to  twenty- 
seven  grallons,  was  once  coninioii  intbe  country.'  Intiie  hiti-r 
timers  oi'  the  Jewisb  polity,  Haskkts  formed  a  necessary  arlich" 
of  furniture  to  tbe  .lews  ;  wbn,  when  traveliinjr  either  amonjr 
the  (Jentiii's  or  tbe  Samaritans,  were  accustomed  to  carry 
their  provisions  witli  them  in  K'.(pivoi,  baskets,  in  order  to  avoid 
defilement  by  eatinjr  with  stranijers.^  Lar<re  sacks  are  still, 
as  they  anciently  were  (.John  ix.  11.  (Jen.  xliv.  1 — 3.),  em- 
ployea  for  carrying  provisions  and  baggage  of  every  descrip- 
tion.^ 

Howls,  cups,  and  drinking  vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  it 
appears  from  I  Kings  x.  21.  were  used  in  the  courts  of 
princes;  but  tiie  modern  Arabs,  as  tbe  Jewish  people  an- 
ciently did,  keep  tlieir  water,  milk,  w^ine,  and  otiier  liquors, 
in  Bottles  made  of  skins,  wliicli  an^  ciiiefly  of  a  red  colour 
(lOxod.  XXV.  ,'>.);  and  their  mouths  are  closed  by  slips  of 
wood,  that  they  may  contain  milk  or  other  licjuids.'  These 
bottles,  when  old,  are  frequently  rent,  but  are  capable  of  be- 
ing repaired,  by  being  bound  up  or  pieced  in  various  ways. 
Of  this  descrijjtion  were  tbe  wine  bottles  of  the  Gibeonitex,  old 
and  rent,  and  Inntnd  up.  (Josh.  ix.  4.)  As  new  wine  was 
liable  to  ferment,  and,  conseuuently,  would  burst  the  old 
skins,  all  prudent  persons  would  ])ut  it  into  new  skins.  To 
this  usage  our  Lord  alludes  in  Matt.  ix.  17.  Markii.  22.  and 
Luke  V.  .37,  38.  Bottles  of  skin,  it  is  well  known,  are  still 
in  use  in  Spain,  where  they  are  called  Borrachas.^  As  the 
Arabs  make  fires  in  their  tents,  which  have  no  chimneys, 
they  must  be  greatly  incommoded  by  the  smoke,  which 
blackens  all  their  utensils  and  taints  their  skins.  David, 
when  driven  from  tbe  court  of  Saul,  compares  himself  to  a 
bottle  in  the  snwke.  (Psal.  cxix.  83.")  He  must  have  felt 
acutely,  when  he  was  driven  from  the  vessels  of  gold  and 
silver  in  the  palace  of  Saul,  to  live  like  an  Arab,  and  drink 
out  of  a  smoky  leathern  bottle.  His  language  is,  as  if  he  had 
said. — "  My  present  appearance  is  as  different  from  what  it 
was  when  1  dwelt  at  court,  as  the  furniture  of  a  palace  ditfers 
from  that  of  a  poor  Arab's  tent."  Apartments  were  lighted 
by  means  of  Lamps,  which  were  fed  with  olive  oil,  and  were 
commonly  placed  upon  elevated  stands.  (Matt.  v.  15.)  The 
lamps  of  Gideon's  soldiers  (Judg.  vii.  16.),  and  those  of  the 
wise  and  foolish  virgins  (Matt.  xxv.  1 — 10.),  were  of  a  dif- 
ferent sort.  They  were  a  kind  of  torches  or  flambeaux  made 
of  iron  or  earthenware,  wrapped  about  with  old  linen, 
moistened  from  time  to  time  witn  oil.^ 


V.  In  progress  of  time,  as  men  increased  upon  tbe  earth, 
and  founci  themselves  less  safe  in  their  detached  tents,  they 
began  to  live  in  society,  and  fortified  their  simple  dwellings 
by  surrounding  them  with  a  ditch,  and  a  rude  breastwork, 
or  wall,  whence  theycf)ul(l  hurl  stoTies  against  their  enemies. 
Hence  arose  villages,  towns,  and  CiriKs,  of  which  Cain  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  builder.  In  the  time  of  Moses, 
the  cities  of  the  (^anannites  were  both  numerous  and  strongly 
fortified.  (Num.  xiii.  28.)  In  tlie  time  of  David,  when  the 
number  of  tiie  Israelites  was  greatly  increased,  their  cities 
must  have  proportionably  increased  ;  and  the  vast  population 
which  (we  have  already  seen)  Palestine  maintained  in  the 
tinu'  of  the  Romans  is  a  ])roof  both  of  the  size  and  number 
of  their  cities.  The  ])rincipal  strength  of  the  cities  in  Pales- 
tine consisted  in  their  situation  :  they  were  for  tbe  most  part 
erected  on  mountains  or  other  eminences  which  were  oifli- 
cult  of  access;  and  the  weakest  places  were  strengthened  by 
fortifications  and  walls  of  extraordinary  thickness. 

The  streets  in  tbe  Asiatic  cities  do  not  exceed  from  two  to 
four  cubits  in  breadth,  in  order  that  the  rays  of  the  sun  may 
be  kept  otT;  but  it  is  evident  that  they  must  have  formerly 
been  wider,  from  the  fact  that  carria'jres  were  driven  through 
them,  which  are  now  very  seldom,  if  ever,  to  be  seen  in  the 
East.  The  houses,  however,  rarely  stand  together,  and 
most  of  them  have  spacious  gardens  annexed  to  them.  It  is 
not  to  be  supposed  that  the  almost  incredible  tri:ct  of  land, 
which  Nineveh  and  Babylon  are  said  to  have  covered,  could 
have  been  filled  with  houses  closely  standino- together :  an- 
cient writers,  indeed,  testify  that  almosta  third  partof  Babv- 
lon  was  occupied  by  fields  and  gardens. 

In  the  early  ages  of  the  world  the  Markets  were  held  at 
or  near  the  Gates  of  the  Cities  (which,  we  have  alieaiiy 
seen,'  were  the  seats  of  justice),  generally  within  t!ie  walls, 
though  sometimes  without  them.  Here  commodities  were 
exposed  to  sale,  either  in  the  open  air  or  in  tents  (2  Kings 
vii.  18.  2  Chron.  xviii.  9.  Job  xxix.  7.)  :  but  in  the  time  of 
(-hrist,  as  we  learn  from  Josephus,  the  markets  were  en- 
closed in  the  same  manner  as  the  modern  eastern  bazars, 
which  are  shut  at  night,  and  where  the  traders'  shops 
are  disposed  in  rows  or  streets;  and  (in  large  towns)  the 
dealers  in  particular  commodities  are  confined  to  particular 
streets. 

The  Gates  of  the  Cities,  and  the  vacant  places  next  ad- 
jncent  to  them,  must  have  been  of  considerable  size;  for  we 
read  that  Ahab  king  of  Israel  assembled  four  hundred  false 
prophets  before  himself  and  Jehoshaphat  kinor  of  Judah,  in 
the  Gate  of  Samaria.  (1  Kings  xxii.  10.)  And  besides  these 
prophets,  we  may  readily  conclude  that  each  of  these  mo^ 
narchs  had  numerous  attendants  in  waiting.  Over  or  by  the 
side  of  many  gates  there  were  towers,  in  which  watchmen 
were  stationed  to  observe  what  was  goincr  on  at  a  distance. 
(2  Sam.  xviii.  24.  33.)8 


CHAPTER  II. 


ON    THE    DRESS    OF    THE    JEWS.^ 


I.  Dress  in  the  early  ..^j-es. — IT.  Tunic. — III.  Upper  Garment. —  Other  .Articles  of  .apparel. — IV.  CoveHn^x  for  the  Head. — 
Mode  of  dressing  the  Hair. — V.  Sandals. — Y\.  Seals  or  Signets,  and  Hings. — VII.  Some  Articles  of  Female  Apparel 
elucidated. —  Complexion  of  the  Jfomeii. — VIII.  Rending  of  Garments,  a  Sign  of  Mourning . — IX.  A'umeroua  Changes  of 
Apparel  deetned  a  necessary  Part  of  their  Treasure. 


I.  In  the  early  ages,  the  dress  of  mankind  was  very  sim- 
ple. Skins  of  animals  furnished  the  first  materials  (Gen. 
lii.  21.  Heb.  xi.  37.),io  which,  as  men  increased  in  numbers 
and  civilization,  were  exchanged  for  more  costly  articles, 
made  of  wool  and  flax,  of  which  they  manufactured  woollen 
and  linen  garments  (Lev.  xiii.  47.    Prov.  xxxi.  13.)  ;  after- 

«  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  445.  «  Kuinoel,  on  Malt.  xiv.  19. 

s  Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  175, 176.       ♦  Ibid.  vol.  i.  p.  176. 

'  Harnier's  Observalions,  vol.  i.  p.  217.  See  also  vol.  ii.  pp.  13.">— 138.  for 
various  reniarivs  illustrative  of  the  nature  of  the  drinking  vessels  anciently 
in  use  anion;!  the  Jews. 

0  Jahn  ct  Ackermann,  Archaeol.  Bibl.  §  40.  Calmet's  Dictionary,  voce 
Lamps.       ., 

■>  bee  p.  54.  supra. 

•  Briinins,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  279—281.  Calmet,  Dissertations,  toni.  i.  pp. 
313—315.  Jahn  et  Ackermann,  Archajol.  Bibl.  §  41.  Pareau,  Ant.  Hebr. 
pp.  367—371. 

»  The  principal  authorities  for  this  chapter  are  Calmet's  Dis-'ertation  sur 
les  Habits  des  Hebreux,  Oissert.  torn.  i.  pp.  337—371. ;  and  Pareau, 
Antiquitas  Hebraica,  pp.  371—385. 

to  Mr.  Rae  Wilson  met  with  some  Arabs,  residing  near  the  ('so  called) 
villaite  of  Jeremiah,  who  were  clothed  in  sheep  and  goat  skins,  open  at 
the  neck.    Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  &c.  vol.  i.  p.  189.  3d  edition. 


\Vards  fine  linen,  and  silk,  dyed  with  purple,  scarlet,  and 
crimson,  became  the  usual  apparel  of  the  more  opulent. 
(2  Sam.  i.  24.  Prov.  xxxi.  22.  Luke  xvi.  10.)  In  the  more 
earl)"  ages,  garments  of  various  colours  were  in  great  esteem  : 
such  was  Joseph's  robe,  of  which  his  envious  brethren  strip- 

Sed  him,  when  they  resolved  to  sell  him."  (Gen.  xxxvii.  23.) 
obes  of  various  colours  were  likewise  appropriated  to  the 
virgin  daughters  of  kings  (2  Sam.  xiii.  18.),  who  also  wore 
richly  embroidered  vests.  (Psal.  xlv.  13,  14. V^  It  appears 
that  the  Jewish  garments  were  worn  pretty  long ;  for  it  is 
mentioned  as  an  aggravation  of  the  affront  done  to  David's 
ainbassadors  by  the  king  of  Ammon,  that  he  cut  off  their 
garments  in  the  middle,  even  to  their  buttuckt.  (2  Sam.  x.  4.) 
The  dress  of  the  Jews,  in  the  ordinar)"  ranlcs  of  life,  was 
simple  and  nearly  uniform.     John  the  Baptist  had  his  raiment 

"  A  coat  of  many  colours  is  as  much  esteemed  in  som^  parts  of  Pales- 
tine at  this  day  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  Jacob,  and  of  Sisera.  Bucking- 
ham's Travels  among  the  Ai-ab  Tribes,  p.  31.  Emerson's  Letters  from  -the 
iEgean,  vol.  ii.  p.  31. 

I'  Jahn  et  Ackermann,  55  US,  119. 


156 


ON  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Paht  IV. 


of  camels^  hair  (Matt.  iii.  4.), — not  of  the  fine  hair  cf  tliat 
animal  which  is  wrought  into  camlets  (in  imitation  of 
which,  though  made  of  wool,  is  the  Enolish  camlet),  but  of 
the  long  and  shaggy  hair  of  camels,  which  in  the  East  is 
manufactured  into  a  coarse  stuff  like  that  anciently  worn  by 
monks  and  anchorets.* 

It  is  evident,  from  the  prohibition  against  changing  the 
dresses  of  tlie  two  sexes,  that  in  the  time  of  Moses  there  was 
a  difference  between  the  g-arments  worn  respectively  by  men 
and  women  ;  but  in  what  that  difference  consisted  it  is  now 
impossible  to  determine.  The  fashion,  too,  of  their  apparel 
does  not  appear  to  have  continued  always  the  same  ;  for, 
before  the  first  subversion  of  the  Jewish  monarchy  by  Nebu- 
chadnczz;ir,  there  were  some  who  delighted  to  wear  strange 
(thiit  is,  foreign)  apparel.  In  every  age,  however,  there 
were  certain  garments  (as  there  still  are  in  the  East)  which 
were  common  to  both  sexes,  though  their  shape  was  some- 
what different. 

II.  The  simplest  and  most  ancient  was  the  Tunic,  or  inner 
garment,  which  was  worn  next  the  body.  At  first,  it  seems 
to  have  been  a  large  linen  cloth,  which  hung  down  to  the 
knees,  but  which  was  afterwards  better  adapted  to  the  form 
of  the  body,  and  was  sometimes  furnished  with  sleeves.  The 
tunics  of  the  women  were  larger  than  those  worn  by  men. 
Ordinarily  they  were  composed  of  two  breadths  of  cloth 
sewed  together ;  hence  those  which  were  woven  whole,  or 
without  seam  on  the  sides  or  shoulders,  were  greatly 
esteemed.  Such  was  the  tunic  or  coat  of  Jesus  Christ  men- 
tioned in  John  xix.  23.  A  similar  tunic  was  worn  by  the 
liigh-priest.2  This  garment  was  fastened  round  the  loins, 
whenever  activity  was  required,  by  a  girdle.  (2  Kings  iv.  29. 
John  xxi.  7.  Acts  xii.  8.)  The  prophets  and  poorer  class 
of  people  wore  leathern  girdles  (2  Kings  i.  8.  Matt.  iii.  4.), 
as  IS  still  the  case  in  the  East ;  but  the  girdles  of  the  opulent, 
especially  those  worn  by  women  of  quality,  were  composed 
of  more  precious  materials,  and  were  more  skilfully  wrought. 
(Ezek.  xvi.  10.  Isa.  iii.  24.)  The  girdles  of  the  Inhabitants 
of  the  East,  Dr.  Shaw  informs  us,  are  usually  of  worsted, 
very  artfully  woven  into  a  variety  of  figures,  such  as  the  rich 
jrirdles  of  the  virtuous  virgins  may  be  supposed  to  have  been. 
(Prov.  xxxi.  24.)  They  are  made  to  fold  several  times  about 
the  body  ;  one  end  of  which  being  doubled  back,  and  sown 
along  the  edges,  serves  them  for  a  purse,  agreeably  to  the 
acceptation  of  ^mvm  in  the  Scriptures  (Matt.  x.  9.  Mark  viii. 
6.  where  it  is  rendered  a  purse).  The  Turks  make  a  further 
use  of  these  girdles,  by  fixing  therein  their  knives  and 
poniards  :  whilst  the  Hojias,  /.  c.  the  writers  and  secretaries, 
suspend  in  the  same  their  inkhorns  ;  a  custom  as  old  as  the 
prophet  Ezekiel,  who  mentions  (ix.  2.)  a  person  clothed  in 
white  linen,  with  an  inlthorn  upon  his  loinsj 

III.  Over  the  tunic  was  worn  a  larger  vest,  or  Upper 
Garment.  It  was  a  piece  of  cloth  nearly  square,  like  the 
hykes  or  blankets  woven  by  the  Barbary  women,  about  six 
yards  long,  and  five  or  six  feet  broad.  The  two  corners, 
which  were  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  were  called  the 
skrt.^,  literalljs  the  wings  of  the  gannent.  (1  Sam.  xv.  11. 
xxiv.  4,  5.  11.  Hag.  ii.  12.  Zech.  viii.  23.)  This  garment 
serves  the  Kabyles  or  Arabs  for  a  complete  dress  in  the  day  ; 
and  as  they  sleep  in  their  raiment  (as  the  Israelites  did  of 
eld,  Deut.  xxiv.  13.)  it  likewise  serves  them  for  their  bed 
and  covering  in  the  night.  "  It  is  a  loose,  but  troublesome 
kind  of  garment,  being  frequently  disconcerted  and  falling  to 
the  ground,  so  tliat  the  person  Avho  wears  it  is  every  moment 
obliged  to  tuck  it  up,  and  fold  it  anew  around  his  body. 
This  shows  the  great  use  of  a  girdle  whenever  they  are 
engaged  in  anj"^  active  employment,  and  the  force  of  the 
Scripture  injunction  alluding  to  it,  of  having  our  lo'ns  girded, 
in  order  to  set  about  it.  The  method  of  wearing  these  gar- 
ments, with  the  use  to  which  they  are  at  other  times  put,  in 
servinof  for  coverlids  to  their  beds,  leads  us  to  infer  that  the 
finer  sort  of  them  (such  as  are  worn  by  the  ladies  and  by 
persons  of  distinction)  are  the  peplus  of  the  ancients.  Ruth's 
veil,  which  held  six  measures  of  barley  (Kuth  iii.  15.), 
might  be  of  the  like  fashion,  and  have  served  extraordinarily 
for  the  same  use  ;  as  were  also  the  clothes  {ta  i/^iT/a,  the 
upper  garments)  of  the  Israelites  (Exod.  xii.  34.),  in  which 
they  folded  up  their  kneading-troughs  :  as  the  Moors,  Arabs, 
ana  Kabyles  do,  to  this  day,  things  of  the  like  burden  and 

«  On  this  subject  see  Capt.  Light's  Travels  in  Eiypf,  &o.  p.  135.  and  Mr. 
Mi.irier's  Second  Journey  in  Persia,  p.  44.  Chartlin  assures  us,  tliat  the 
mod'.'rn  Dervises  wear  garments  of  coarse  camels'  hair  and  also  great 
leathern  {lirclles.     Harme'r's  Obs.  vol.  ii.  p.  487. 

»  .Tosephus,  Ant.  .lud.  lilj.  iii.  c.  7.   §  4. 

'■>  Siiaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  400,  410.  8vo.  edit. 


incumbrance  in  their  hykes.  Instead  of  the  ^hula  that  was 
used  by  the  Romans,  the  Arabs  join  together  with  thread  or 
a  wooden  bodkin  the  two  upper  corners  of  this  garment ;  and 
after  having  placed  them  first  over  one  of  their  shoulders, 
they  then  fold  the  rest  of  it  about  their  bodies.  The  outer 
fold  serves  them  frequently  instead  of  an  apron,  wherein  they 
carry  herbs,  leaves,  corn,  &c.,  and  may  illustrate  several 
allusions  made  thereto  in  Scripture  ;  as  gathering  the  lap  full 
of  wild  gourds  (2  Kings  iv.  39.),  rendering  seven-fo\A,giving 
good  measure  into  the  liosnm  (Psalm  cxxix.  7.  Luke  vi.  38.), 
and  shaking  the  lap.''''  (Neh.  v.  13.)'  It  was  these  I/xiti^, 
or  upper  garments,  which  the  Jewish  populace  strewed  in  the 
road  during  Christ's  triumphant  progress  to  Jerusalem. 
(Matt.  xxi.  8.)  A  person  divested  of  this  garment,  conforma- 
bly to  the  Hebrew  idiom,  is  said  to  be  naked.  (2  Sam.  vi.  20. 
John  xxi.  7.)  By  the  Mosaic  constitution,  in  Num.  xv. 
37 — 40.,  the  Israelites  were  enjoined  to  put  fringes  on  the 
borders  of  their  upper  garments  that  they  might  nmember  ah 
the  conimundments  of  the  Lwd  to  do  them.  A  similar  exhorta- 
tion is  recorded  in  Deut.  vi.  8.  compared  with  Exod.  xiii.  16. 
But,  in  succeeding  ages,  these  injunctions  were  abused  to 
superstitious  purposes ;  and  among  the  charges  alleged 
against  the  Pharisees  by  Jesus  Christ,  is  that  of  enlarging 
their  Phylacteries,  and  the  fringes  of  their  garments  (Matt. 
xxiii.  5.),  as  indicating  their  pretensions  to  a  more  studious 
and  perfect  observance  of  the  law.  These  phylacteries  con- 
sisted of  four  strips  or  scrolls  of  parchment,  or  the  dressed 
skin  of  some  clean  animal,  inscribed  with  four  paragraphs  of 
the  law,  taken  from  Exod.  xiii.  1 — 10.  and  xiii.  11 — 16. 
Deut.  vi.  4 — 9.  and  xi.  13 — 21.  all  inclusive, ;  which  the 
Pharisees,  interpreting  literally  (as  do  the  modem  rabbins) 
Deut.  vi.  8.  and  other  similar  passages,  tied  to  the  fronts  oi 
their  caps  and  on  their  arms,  and  also  inscribed  on  their  door- 
posts. These  phylacteries  were  regarded  as  amulets,  or,  at 
least,  as  efficacious  in  keeping  off  evil  spirits,  whence  their 
Greek  name  <l>ij\tiLT»ptu.,  from  <piiK!tTTai,  to  guard  or  preserve. 
The  practice  of  inscribing  passages  of  the  Koran  upon  the 
door-posts  of  their  houses  is  said  to  be  still  continued  by  the 
Mohammedans  in  Judaea  and  Syria. ^  The  Kita-mSov,  hem,  or 
border  of  Christ's  garment,  out  of  which  a  healing  power 
issued  to  t|ie  diseased  who  touched  it  (Matt.  ix.  20.  xiv.  36. 
Mark  vi.  56.  Luke  viii.  44.),  was  the  fringe  which  he  wore, 
in  obedience  to  the  law. 

The  XKUfAv;,  chlamys,  or  scarlet  robe  with  which  our  Sa- 
viour was  arrayed  in  mock  majesty  (Matt,  xxvii.  28.  31.), 
was  a  scarlet  robe  worn  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  The  2tca« 
was  a  flowing  robe  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  worn  by  persons 
of  distinction.  (Mark  xii.  38.  xvi.  5.  Luke  xv.  22.  xx.  46. 
Rev.  vi.  11.  vii.  9.  13,  14.)  The  'XnSaiv  was  a  linen  upper 
garment,  worn  by  the  Orientals  in  summer  and  by  niglit,  in- 
stead of  the  usual  iju'j.tiov.  (Mark  xiv.  51,  52.)  It  was  also 
used  as  an  envelope  for  dead  bodies.  (Matt,  xxvii.  59.  Mark 
XV.  46.  Luke  xxiii.  53.)  The  <l>u.tKov>i,'''  or  cloak  (2  Tim.  iv. 
13.),  was  the  same  as  the  penula  of  the  Romans,  viz.  a  tra- 
velling cloak  with  a  hood  to  protect  the  wearer  against  the 
weather.'  The  l.'^vS^piov,  or  handkerchief,  corresponded  to  the 
Ka-^iSfiantov  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  sudarium  of  the  Romans, 
from  whom  it  passed  to  the  Chaldasans  and  Syrians  with 
greater  latitude  of  signification,  and  was  used  to  denote  any 
linen  cloth.  (Joiin  xi.  44.  xx.  7.  Acts  xix.  12.)  The  Si^w/v- 
Tiov  (semicinctium),  or  apron,  passed  also  from  the  Romans  : 
it  was  made  of  linen,  surrounded  half  the  body  (Acts  xix. 
12.),  and  corresponded  nearly  to  the  Uipi^ai/ux  o{  the  Greeks.* 
Whenever  the  hien  journeyed,  a  staff  was  a  necessary  accom- 
paniment. (Gen.  xxxii.  10.  xxxviii.  18.  Matt.  x.  10.  Mark 
vi.  8.) 

IV.  Originally,  men  had  no  other  Covering  for  the  Hear 
than  that  which  nature  itself  supplied, — the  hair.  Calmet 
is  of  opinion,  that  the  Hebrews  never  wore  any  dress  or 
covering  on  their  heads  :  David,  when  driven  froni  Jerusa- 
lem (he  urges),  fled  with  his  head  covered  with  his  upper 
garment ;  and  Absalom  would  not  have  been  suspended  among 
the  boughs  of  an  oak  by  his  hair,  if  he  had  worn  a  covering. 
(2  Sam.  xvi.  30.  xviii.  9.)     But  may  not  these  have  been 

«  Shaw'.s  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  404 — 406. 

'  Calinet's  Dictionary,  voce  Phylacteries.  Robinson's  Greek  Lexicon. 
voce  'fvAxx-T-^pi-x.  Respecting  the  phylacteries  of  the  modern  Jews,  Mr. 
Allen  has  cnllecled  much  curious  information.  Modern  Judaism,  pp.  304 
— 318.  In  the  Bibliolheca  Sussexiana  there  isa  description  of  three  Jewish 
phylacteries,  which  are  preserved  among  the  MSS.  in  the  library  of  his 
Royal  Highness  the  Du"ko  of  Sussex.  Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  i.  pp.  xxxvi. 
— -xx.xix. 

8  Robinson's  Lexicon,  vocibus. 

1  Adam's  Roman  Antiouities,  p.  386. 

•  Valpy's  Gr.  Test,  on  Luke  xix.  20.  and  Acts  xix.  12. 


Chap.  II.] 


ON  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


157 


particular  cases  1  David  went  up  the  Mount  of  Olives,  as  a 
inouriior  and  a  fii<ritive;  and  Absalom,  fleeinfr  in  battle, 
might  have  lost  his  cap  or  bonnet.  It  is  certain,  that  tlio 
ci'jx  (rsaNiPii),  or  turban,  was  coniuion  botli  to  men  and  wo- 
men, (.lob  xxix.  11.  Isa.  iii.  2.3.) 

Ijon<)  hair  was  in  {jreat  estccun  among  the  Jews.  Tlie  hair 
of  Absalom's  head  was  of  such  prodiirions  icnirtji,  that  in  his 
flight,  when  defeated  in  battle,  as  hi;  was  ridiiiir  with  irreat 
speed  under  the  trees,  it  cauirht  hold  of  one  of  the  i)on<rhs; 
inconsequence  of  wliich  he  was  lil'icd  olfiiis  saddh',  and  his 
mule  runninir  from  beneatii  him,  left  him  suspcndcul  in  tin- 
air,  nnabl(!  to  extricate;  himself.  {'2  Sam.  xviii.  !).)  The 
plucking  olftlie  hair  was  a  irreal  disgrace  among  tlie  Jews; 
and,  therefore,  Nehemiah  punished  in  this  manner  those 
Jews  who  had  i)e(Mi  jfuilt)'  of  irrcfrnlar  marriaijes,  in  order  to 
put  them  to  the  jrreater  shame.  (Neii.  xiii.  2").)  Baldness 
was  also  conside^red  as  a  dis^ract>,  (2  Sam.  xiv.  2(i.  2  Kintrs 
ii.  23.  Isa.  iii.  21.)  On  festive  occasions,  the  more;  opulent 
perfumed  their  hair  with  fragrant  unguents.  (Psal.  xxiii.  5. 
Eccl.  ix.  8.  Matt.  vi.  17.  xxvi.  7.)  And  it  should  seem, 
from  Cant.  v.  11.,  that  black  hair  was  considered  to  be  the 
mo:-.t  beautiful. 

The  Jews  wore  their  beards  very  lonjj,  as  we  may  see 
from  the  example  of  the  ambassadors,  whom  David  sent  to 
the  king  of  the  Ammonites,  and  whom  that  ill-advised  king 
caused  to  be  shaved  by  way  of  atfroiit.  (2  Sam.  x.  4.)  And 
as  the  shavintr  of  them  was  accounted  a  great  indijrnity,  so 
the  cutting  off  half  their  bc^ards,  which  mach;  them  still  more 
ridiculous,  was  a  great  addition  to  the  affront,  in  a  country 
where  beards  were  held  in  such  great  veneration. 

In  the  East,  especially  among  the  Arabs  and  Turks,  the 
beard  is  even  now  reckoned  tlie  greatest  ornament  of  a  man, 
and  is  not  trimmed  or  shaven,  except  in  cases  of  extreme 
grief:  the  hand  is  almost  constantly  employed  in  smoothing 
the  beard  and  keeping  it  in  order,  and  it  is  often  perfumed  as 
if  it  were  sacred.  Thus,  we  read  of  the  fragrant  oil,  which 
ran  down  from  Aaron's  beard  to  the  skirts  of  his  garment. 
(Psal.  cxxxiii.  2.  Exnd.  xxx.  30. )'  A  shaven  beard  is  re- 
puled  to  be  more  unsightly  than  the  loss  of  a  nose;  and  a 
man  who  possesses  a  revennid  beard  is,  in  their  opinion,  in- 
capable of  acting  dishonestly.  If  they  wish  to  affirm  any 
thing  with  ueculiar  solemnity,  they  swear  by  their  beard ; 
and  when  tney  express  their  good  wishes  for  any  one,  they 
make  use  of  the  ensuing  formula — God  preserve  thy  blessed 
beard !  Erom  these  instances,  which  serve  to  elucidate 
many  other  passages  of  the  Bible  besides  that  above  quoted, 
we  may  readily  understand  the  full  extent  of  the  disgrace 
wantonly  inflicted  by  the  Ammonitish  king,  in  cutting  off 
half  the  beards  of  David's  ambassadors.  Niebuhr  relates, 
that  if  any  one  cut  off  his  beard,  after  having  recited  a /«//<», 
or  prayer,  which  is  considered  in  the  nature  of  a  vow  never 
to  cut  it  off,  he  is  liable  to  be  severely  punished,  and  also  to 
become  the  laughing-stock  of  those  wlio  profess  his  faith. 
The  same  traveller  has  also  recorded  an  instance  of  a  modern 
Arab  prince  having  treated  a  Persian  envoy  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  Hanun  treated  David's  ambassadors,  which  brought  a 
powerful  army  upon  him  in  the  year  1705.^  The  not  trim- 
ming of  the  beard  was  one  of  the  indications  by  which  the 
Jews  expressed  their  mourning.  (2  Sam.  xix.  21.) 

"  All  the  Grecian  and  Roman  women,  without  distinction, 
wore  their  hair  long.  On  this  they  lavished  all  their  art, 
disposing  it  in  various  forms,  aiid  embellishing  it  wiih  divers 
ornaments.  In  the  ancient  medals,  statues,  and  basso-re- 
lievos, we  behold  those  plaited  tresses  which  the  apostles 
Peter  and  Paul  condemn,  and  see  those  expc-nsive  and  fan- 
tastic decorations  which  the  ladies  of  those  times  bestowed 
upon  their  head-dress.  This  pride  of  braided  and  plaited 
tresses,  this  ostentation  of  jewels,  this  vain  display  of  finery, 
the  apostles  interdict,  as  proofs  of  a  light  and  little  mind,  and 
inconsistent  with  the  modesty  and  decorum  of  Christian 
women.  St.  Paul,  in  his  first  Epistle  to  Timothy,  in  the 
passage  where  he  condemns  it,  shows  us  in  what  the  pride 
of  female  dress  then  consisted.  I  will,  szys  he,  that  women 
adorn  themselves  in  modest  apparel,  ivitk  shamefacedness  and 
sobriety,  not  with  broidered  hair,  or  gold,  or  pearls,  or 
COSTLY  array:  but  (^which  becometh  women  professins;  godli- 
ness)  witb,  good  works.  (\  Tim.  ii.  9.)  St.  Peter  in  like  man- 
ner ordains,  that  the  adorning  of  the  fair  sex  should  not  be 
so  much  that  outward  adorning  of  plaiting  the  hair,  and  of 
wearing  of  gold,  or  putting  on  of  apparel  :  but  let  it  be  the 
hidden  man  of  the  heart,  in  that  which  is  not  corruptible,  even 
tlie  ornament  of  a  meek  and  quiet  spirit,  which  is  in  the  sight 

>  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  ic-  vol.  i.  p.  147. 3d  edition. 
»  Descript  de  I'Arabie,  p.  61. 


of  God  of  great  price.  (I  Pet.  iii.  3.)'  On  the  contrary,  the 
men  in  those  times  universally  wore  their  hair  short,  as  ap- 
pears from  all  the  books,  medals,  and  statues  that  have  been 
transmitted  to  us.  This  circumstance,  which  formed  a  prin- 
cipal distinction  in  dress  between  the  sexes,  happily  illus- 
trates the  ibllowing  passage  in  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  xi.  11,  15.)  : 
Doth  not  even  nature  itself  teach  you,  that  if  a  man  have  long 
HAIR  it  is  a  shame  to  him.  But  if  a  woman  have  long  hair 
it  is  a  GLORY  to  her :  for  her  hu'-i-  is  given  her  fir  a  covering. 

"TIh!  Jewish  and  (jrecian  ladies,  moreover,  never  ap- 
peared ill  public  without  a  veil.  Hence  St.  Paul  severely 
censures  the  Corinthian  women  for  appearing  in  the  church 
without  a  veil,  and  praying  to  Cod  uncovered,  by  which  they 
threw  off  the  decency  and  modesty  of  the  sex,  and  exposed 
themselves  and  their  religion  to  the  satire  and  calumny  of 
the  heathens.  The  whole  passage  beautifully  and  clearly 
exhibits  to  the  reader's  ideas  the  distinguishing  customs 
whicii  then  prevailed  in  the  different  dress  and  appearance 
of  the  sexes."  (Compare  1  Cor.  xi.  13 — UJ.)' 

V,  Their  legs  were  bare,  and  on  the  feet  they  wore  San- 
dals, or  soles  made  of  leather  or  of  wood,  and  fastened  around 
the  feet  in  various  ways,  after  the  oriental  fashion.  (Gen. 
xiv.  2.3.  Exod.  xii.  11.  Isa.  v.  27.  Mark  vi.  9.  John  i.  27. 
Acts  xii.  8.)  /  s  luxury  increased,  magnificent  sandals  con- 
stituted, in  the  East,  a  part  of  the  dress  of  both  males  and 
females,  who  could  afford  such  a  luxury.  (Cant.  vii.  1. 
Ezek.  xvi.  10.)  The  sandals  of  Judith  were  so  brilliant, 
that,  notwithstanding  the  general  splendour  of  her  bracelets, 
rings,  and  necklaces,  these  principally  succeeded  in  capti- 
vating the  ferocious  Holofernes.  (Judith  x.  4.  xvi.  9.)*  On 
entering  a  sacred  place  it  was  usual  to  lay  them  aside  (Exod. 
iii.  5.  Josh.  v.  15.),  as  is  the  practice  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans in  the  East  to  this  day.  When  any  one  entered  a  house, 
it  was  customary  to  take  off  the  sandals,  and  wash  the  feet. 
(Gen.  xviii.  4.  xix.  2.)  A  similar  custom  obtains  in  India 
at  the  present  time.^  Among  persons  of  some  rank  it  was 
the  office  of  servants  to  take  off  the  sandals  of  guests,  and 
(after  washing  their  feet)  to  return  them  to  the  owners  on 
their  departure.  (Matt.  iii.  11.  Mark  v.  7.  Luke  iii.  16.  John 
xiii.  4,  5.  14 — 16.  1  Tim.  v.  10.)  Persons,  who  were  in 
deep  aflliction,  went  barefoot  (2  Sam.  xv.  30.  xix.  24.  Isa. 
XX.  2 — 1.);  which,  under  other  circumstances,  was  consi- 
dered to  be  ignominious  and  servile.  (Deut.  xxv.  9,  10.  Isa. 
xlvii.  2.  Jer.  ii.  25.) 

VI.  Seals  or  Signets,  and  Rings,  were  commonly  worn 
by  both  sexes. 

Pliny'  states  that  the  use  of  Seals  or  Signets  was  rare  at  the 
time  ot  the  Trojan  war  ;  but  among  the  Hebrews  they  were 
of  much  greater  antiquity,  for  we  read  that  Judah  left  his 
signet  as  a  pledge  with  Tamar.  (Gen.  xxxviii.  25.)  The 
ancient  Hebrews  wore  their  seals  or  signets,  either  as  rings 
on  their  fingers,  or  as  bracelets  on  their  arms,  a  custom  which 
still  obtains  in  the  East.  Thus  the  bride  in  the  Canticles 
(viii.  6.)  desires  that  the  spouse  would  wear  her  as  a  seal  on 
his  arm.  Occasionally,  they  were  worn  upon  the  bosom  by 
means  of  an  ornamental  chain  or  ligature  fastened  round  the 
neck.  To  this  custom  there  is  an  allusion  in  Prov.  vi.  21. 
The  expression  to  set  as  a  seal  upon  the  heart,  as  a  seal  upon 
the  arm  (^Cant.  viii.  6.),  is  a  scriptural  expression  denoting 
the  cherisning  of  a  true  affection  ;  with  the  exhibition  of  those 
constant  attentions  which  bespeak  a  real  attachment.     Com- 

»  Mr.  Einorson's  account  of  the  dress  of  the  younger  females  In  the 
house  of  the  liiitish  consul  in  the  Isle  of  Milo,  in  the  Levant,  strikingly 
illu~itrates  the  above-cited  jiassages  of  St.  Peter.  He  describes  their  hair 
as  biMug  PLAITED  into  long  triple  banils,  and  then  twisted  round  the  head, 
iiilrrlaced  with  strings  of  zcchins,  mahiiioudis,  and  other  colden  coins, 
or  left  to  flow  gracefully  behind  them.  They  also  wore  four  or  five  gowns 
and  other  GARMENTS,  heaped  on  with  less  taste  than  profusion,  and  all  are 
secured  at  the  waist  by  a  velvet  stomacher,  richly  embroidered,  and  glit- 
tering with  gilded  spangles.  (Emerson's  Letters  from  the  jEgean,  vol.  ii. 
p.  23A.) 

«  Harwood's  Inlrod.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  101 — 103. 

'  Dr.  Good's  Sacred  Idyls,  pp.  147.  172.  In  ihe  East  generally,  and  in 
tlie  island  of  Ceylon  in  particular,  "the  shoes  of  brides  are  made  of  velvet, 
richly  ornamented  with  gold  and  silver,  not  unlike  a  pair  in  the  tower  [of 
London]  worn  by  queen  Elizabeth."    Callaway's  Oriental  Observ.  p.  47. 

«  An  intelligeni  oriental  traveller  has  the  following  instinctive  observa- 
tions on  this  subject : — "I  never  understood  the  full  meaningof  our  I.ord'g 
words,  as  reconled  in  John  xiii.  10.,  until  1  beheld  the  belter  sfjrt  of  natives 
return  home  after  perfonning  their  customary  ablutions.  The  passage 
reads  thns:  'He  that  is  washed  ncedeth  not  save  to  wash  his  feet,  but  is 
clean  every  whit.'  Thus,  as  they  return  to  their  habitations  barefoot,  they 
necessarily  contract  in  their  progress  some  portion  of  dust  on  their  feet; 
and  this  is  universally  the  case,  however  nigh  their  dwellings  may  be  to 
the  river  side.  When  therefore  they  return,  the  first  thing  they  do  is  to 
mount  a  low  stool,  and  pour  a  small  vessel  of  water  over  their  feet,  to 
cleanse  them  from  the  soil  they  may  have  contracted  in  their  journey 
homewards  ;  if  they  are  of  the  higher  order  of  society,  a  servant  performs 
it  for  them,  and  then  they  are  'clean  every  whit.'"  Statham's  Lidian 
Recollections,  p.  81.  London,  1832. 12ffiO. 

^  Nai.  Hist.  lib.  xxxiii.  c.  1. 


158 


ON  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Paht  IV. 


pare  also  Hag.  ii.  23.  Jer.  xxxii.  24.  The  Ring  is  men- 
tioned in  Isa.  lii.  21.,  and  also  in  the  parble  of  the  prorligil, 
where  the  f.ither  orders  a  ring  for  his  returning  son  (Luke 
XV.  22.),  and  also  by  the  apostle  James,  (ii.  2.)  The  com- 
pliment of  a  royal  ring  was  a  token  that  the  person,  to  whom 
It  was  given,  was  invested  with  power  and  hcn^  ur :  thus 
Pharaoh  took  oif  his  ring  from  his  hand,  and  put  it  on  Jo- 
seph's. (Gen.  xli.  42.)  And  Ahasuerus  plucked  off'  his  ring 
from  his  finger,  and  bestowed  it  on  Haman  (Esther  iii.  10.), 
and  afterwards  on  Mordecai.  (viii.  2.) 

VII.  Although  the  garments  anciently  worn  by  the  Jews 
were  few  in  number,  yet  their  ornaments  were  many,  espe- 
cially those  worn  by  the  women.  The  prophet  Isaiah,  when 
reproaching  the  daughters  of  Sion  with  their  luxury  and 
vanity,  giv'es  us  a  particular  account  of  their  female  orna- 
ments. (Isa.  iii.  16 — 24.)'  The  most  remarkable  were  the 
following : — 

1.  The  Nose  Jewels  (ver.  21.),  or,  as  Bishop  Lowth 
translates  them,  the  jewtk  of  the  noslril.  They  were  rings  set 
with  jewels,  pendent  from  the  nostrils,  like  ear-rings  from  the 
ears,  by  holes  bored  to  receive  them.  Ezekiel,  enumerating 
tlie  common  ornaments  of  women  of  the  first  rank,  distinctly 
mentions  the  nose  jewel  (Ezek.  xvi.  12.  marg.  rendering)  ; 
and  in  an  elegant  Proverb  of  Solomon  (Prov.  xi.  22.)  there 
is  a  manifest  allusion  to  this  kind  of  ornament,  which  shows 
that  it  was  used  in  his  time.  Nose  jewels  were  one  of  the 
love-tokens  presented  to  Rebecca  by  the  servant  of  Abraham 
in  the  name  of  his  master.  (Gen.  xxiv.  22.  where  the  word 
translated  ear-ring  ought  to  have  been  rendered  nose  jewel.y 
However  singular  this  custom  may  appear  to  us,  modern 
travellers  attest  its  prevalence  in  the  East  among  women  of 
all  ranks. ^ 

2.  The  Ear-ring  was  an  ornament  worn  by  the  men  as 
well  as  the  women,  as  appears  from  Gen.  xxxv.  4.  and 
Exod.  xxxii.  2. ;  and  by  other  nations  as  well  as  the  Jews, 
as  is  evident  from  Num.  xxxi.  50.  and  Judg.  viii.  24.  It 
should  seem  that  this  ornament  had  been  heretofore  used  for 
idolatrous  purposes,  since  Jacob,  in  the  injunction  which  he 
gave  to  his  household,  commanded  them  to  put  away  the 
strange  gods  that  were  in  their  hands,  and  the  ear-rings  that 
were  in  their  ears.  (Gen.  xxxv.  2.  4.)''  It  appears  that  the 
Israelites  themselves  in  subsequent  times  were  not  free  from 
this  superstition  ;  for  Hosea  (ii.  13.)  represents  Jerusalem  as 
having  decked  herself  with  ear-rings  to  Baalim. 

3.  Perfume  Boxes  (in  our  version  of  Isa.  iii.  20.  rendered 
tablets)  were  an  essential  article  in  the  toilet  of  a  Hebrew 
iady.  A  principal  part  of  the  delicacy  of  the  Asiatic  ladies 
consists  in  the  use  of  baths,  and  the  richest  oils  and  per- 
fumes :  an  attention  to  which  is  in  some  degree  necessary  in 
those  hot  countries.  Frequent  mention  is  made  of  the  rich 
ointments  of  the  bride  in  the  Song  of  Solomon,  (iv.  10,  11.) 
The  preparation  for  Esther's  introduction  to  king  Ahasuerus 
was  a  course  of  bathing  and  perfuming  for  a  whole  year  :  six 
months  with  oil  of  myrrh,  ana  six  months  with  sweet  odours. 
(Esth.  ii.  12.)  A  diseased  and  loathsome  habit  of  body, 
which  is  denounced  against  the  women  of  Jerusalem — 

And  there  shall  be,  instead  of  perfume,  a  putrid  ulcer— 

Isa.  iii.  ^i.    Bp.  Lowth's  version. 

instead  of  a  beautiful  skin,  softened  and  made  agreeable  with 
all  that  art  could  devise,  and  all  that  nature,  so  prodigal  in 
those  countries  of  the  richest  perfumes,  could  supply, — must 
have  been  a  punishment  the  most  severe,  and  the  most  morti- 
fying to  the  delicacy  of  these  haughty  daughters  of  Sion.* 

4.  The  Transparent  Garments  (in  our  version  of  Isa.  iii. 
23.  rendered  glasses)  were  a  kind  of  silken  dress,  transparent 
like  gauze,  worn  only  by  the  most  delicate  women,  and  by 
such  as  dressed  themselves  more  elegantly  than  became 
women  of  good  character.  This  sort  of  garments  was  after- 
wards in  use  both  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans-i^ 

«  Schroeder  has  treated  at  great  length  on  the  various  articles  of  female 
apparel  mentioned  in  Isa.  iii.  16 — 24.  in  his  Conimentarius  Philologico- 
Criticus  de  Vestitu  Mulierum  Hebraeaum.  Lug.  Bat.  1735.  4to. 

»  Bp.  Lowth  on  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  47. 

3  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  48.  Ilarmer's  Observations,  vol.  iv.  pp.  316—320.  In  the 
East  Indies,  a  small  jewel,  in  form  resembling  a  rose,  ornaments  one 
nostril  of  even  the  poorest  Malabar  woman.  Callaway's  Oriental  Obser- 
vations, p.  48. 

*  It  is  probable  that  the  ear-rings,  or  jewels,  worn  by  Jacob's  house- 
hold, had  been  consecrated  to  superstitious  purposes,  and  worn,  perhap.s, 
as  a  kind  of  amulet.  It  appears  that  rings,  whether  on  the  ears  or  nose, 
were  first  superstitiously  worn  in  honour  of  false  gods,  and  probably  of 
the  sun,  whose  circular  form  they  might  be  designed  to  represent.  Mai- 
nionidcs  mentions  rings  and  vessels  of  this  kind,  with  the  imago  of  the 
sun,  moon,  &c.  impressed  on  them.  These  superstitious  objects  were 
concealed  by  Jacob  in  a  place  known  only  to  himself.  Grotius  on  Gen. 
xxxv.  4.    Calmet's  Dictionary,  vol.  ii.  voce  Ring. 

*  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  pp.  49,  50.  •  Ibid.  p.  49. 


5.  Another  female  ornament  was  a  Chain  about  the  neck 
(Ezek.  xvi.  11.),  which  appears  to  have  been  used  also  by 
the  men,  as  may  be  inferred  from  Prov.  i.  9.  This  was  a 
gener.tl  ornament  in  all  the  eastern  countries  :  thus  Pharaoh 
is  said  to  have  put  a  chain  of  gold  about  Joseph's  neck  (Gen. 
xli.  42.)  ;  and  Belshazzar  did  the  same  to  Daniel  (Dan.  v. 
29.)  ;  and  it  is  mentioned  with  several  other  things  as  part 
of  the  Midianitish  spoil.  (Num.  xxxi.  50.)  Further,  the 
arms  or  wrists  were  adorned  with  bract  lets  .■  these  are  in  the 
catalogue  of  the  female  ornaments  used  by  the  Jews  (Ezek. 
xvi.  11.),  and  were  part  of  Rebecca's  present.  They  were 
also  worn  by  men  of  any  considerable  figure,  for  we  read  of 
Judah's  bracelets  (Gen.  xxxviii.  18.),  and  of  those  worn  by 
Saul.  (2  Sam.  i.  10.) 

6.  We  read  in  Exod.  xxxviii.  8.  of  the  women's  Looking 
Glasses,  which  were  not  made  of  what  is  now  called 
glass,  but  of  polished  brass,  otherwise  these  Jewish  women 
could  not  have  contributed  them  towards  the  making  of  the 
brazen  laver,  as  is  there  mentioned.  In  later  times,  mirrors 
were  made  of  other  polished  metal,  which  at  best  could  only 
reflect  a  very  obscure  and  iinperfect  image.  Hence  St.  Paul, 
in  a  very  apt  and  beautiful  simile,  describes  the  defective 
and  limited  knowledge  of  the  present  state  by  that  opaque 
and  dim  representation  of  objects,  which  those  mirrors  exhi- 
bited. JVow  we  see  St  i<ro7rTgc,v  by  means  of  a  mirror,'  darfch/,- 
not  through  a  glass,  as  in  our  version  of  1  Cor.  xiii.  12. ;  for 
telescopes,  as  every  one  knows,  are  a  very  late  invention. 

7.  To  the  articles  of  apparel  above  enumerated  may  be 
added  Feet  Rings.  (Isa.  iii.  8.  in  our  version  rendered  tink- 
ling ornaments  about  the  feet.)  Most  of  these  articles 
of  female  apparel  are  still  in  use  in  the  East.  The  East 
Indian  women,  who  accompanied  the  Indo-Anglican  army 
from  India  to  Egypt,  wore  large  rings  in  their  noses,  and  sil- 
ver cinctures  about  their  ankles  and  wrists,  their  faces  being 
painted  above  the  eyebrows.  In  Persia  and  Arabia,  also,  it  is 
well  known  that  the  women  paint  their  faces  and  wear  gold 
and  silver  rings  about  their  ankles,  which  are  full  of  little 
bells  that  tinkle  as  they  walk  or  trip  along.  Cingalese  chil- 
dren often  wear  rings  about  their  ankles  ;  Malabar  and  Moor 
children  wear  rings,  hung  about  with  hollow  balls,  which 
linkle  as  -they  run.s  The  licensed  prostitutes  whom  Dr. 
Richardson  saw  at  Gheneh  (a  large  commercial  town  of 
Upper  Egypt)  were  attired  in  a  similar  manner.^ 

8.  As  large  black  eyes  are  greatly  esteemed  in  the  East, 
the  oriental  women  have  recourse  to  artificial  means,  in  order 
to  impart  a  dark  and  majestic  shade  to  the  eyes.  Dr.  Shaw 
informs  us,  that  none  of  the  Moorish  ladies  think  themselves 
completely  dressed,  until  they  have  tinged  their  eyelids  with 
al-ka-hol,  that  is,  with  stibium,  or  the  powder  of  lead  ore. 
As  this  process  is  performed  "  by  first  dipping  into  this  pow- 
der a  small  wooden  bodkin  of  the  thickness  of  a  quill,  and 
then  drawing  it  afterwards  through  the  eyelids,  over  the  ball 
of  the  eye,  we  have  a  lively  image  of  what  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah (iv.  30.)  may  be  supposed  to  mean  by  renting  the  eyes 
(not  as  we  render  it,  with  painting,  but)  with  -[lo,  lead  ore. 
The  sooty  colour  which  in  this  manner  is  communicated  to 
the  eyes  is  thought  to  add  a  wonderful  gracefulness  to  per- 
sons of  all  complexions.  The  practice  of  it,  no  doubt,  is  of 
great  antiquity ;  for,  besides  the ''instances  already  noticed, 
we  find,  that  when  Jezebel  is  said  to  have'  painted  her  face 
(2  Kings  ix.  30.),  the  original  words  are  n^jp  iioa  aivn,  i.  e. 
she  adjusted,  or  set  off,  her  eyes  with  the  powder  of  lead  ore.  So 
likewise  Ezek,  xxiii.  40,  is  to  be  understood.  Keren-hap- 
puch,  i.  e.  the  horn  of  pouk  or  lead  ore,  the  name  of  Job's 

■■  The  'ErojT-xpoi/,  or  metallic  mirror,  is  mentioned  by  the  author  of  the 
apocryphal  book  of  the  V/isdom  of  Solomon  (vii.  26.) ;  who,  speaking  of 
Wisdom,  says  that  she  is  the  brightness  of  the  everlasting  light  and 
'Ei;oilTroN  i.AxKiS<uTov  the  unspotted  ■mnaoR  of  the  power  of  God  and  the 
iwage  of  his  goodness.  The  author,  also,  of  the  book  of  Ecclesiaslicus, 
exhorting  to  put  no  trust  in  an  enemy,  says.  Though  he  Itmnble  himself 
and  go'crouching,  yet  talte  goud  heed  and  beware  of  him  ;  and  thou  shall 
be  unto  him  u;  ex^t/^ax""!  'EiJOIlTPON,  as  if  thou  hadst  wiped  a  mirror, 
and  thou  shall  know  that  his  rust  hath  not  altogether  been  wiped  auay. 
(Ecclus.  xii.  11.)  The  mention  of  rust  in  this  place  manifestly  indicates  the 
metallic  composition  of  the  mirror;  which  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
ancient  classic  writers.  See  particularly  Anacreon,  Ode  xi.  3.  and  ix.  5, 
6.     Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  1  Cor.  xiii.  12. 

«  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  v.  p.  320.  8vo.  edit.  Morier's  Second  .Tour- 
ney in  Persia,  p.  145.  Ward's  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
329.  333.     Callaway's  Oriental  Observations,  pp.  47,  48. 

9  "This  is  the  only  place  in  Egypt  where  wesawthe  women  of  the  town 
decked  out  in  all  their  finery.  They  were  of  all  nations  and  of  all  com- 
plexions, and  regularly  licensed,  as  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  to  exercise 
their  profession.  Some  of  them  were  highly  painted,  and  gorgeously 
attired  with  costly  necfclaces,  rings  in  their  noses  and  in  their  ears,  and  - 
bracelets  on  their  wrists  and  arms.  They  sat  at  the  doors  of  the  houses, 
and  called  on  the  passengers  as  they  went  by,  in  the  same  manner  as  we 
read  in  the  book  of  Proverbs."  [vii.  6 — 23  ]  (Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  i. 
p.  260.)  The  same  custom  was  observed  by  Pitts,  a  century  before,  at 
Cairo.  ■  See  his  account  of  the  Mahometans,  p.  99. 


CllAP.    11.] 


ON  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  JEWS, 


159 


i; 


youngest  daughter,  was  relative  to  this  custom  or  practice."' 
The  modern  Persian,  Eiryptian,  and  Arab  women,  continue 
the  practice  of  tinffin<f  their  eyelashes  and  eyelids.^ 

It  was  a  particular  injunction  of  the  Mosaic  lasv  that  the 
women  .shall  not  wear  Ihal  which  pertuinrlh  unli)  a  ?iinii,  nei- 
ther .shall  a  man  put  on  a  wonani'.s  garnn:nt.  (l)eut.  xxii.  5.) 
This  precaution  was  very  necessary  ajrainst  the  ahuses  which 
are  the  usual  consequences  of  such  disijuises.  For  a  woman 
drest  in  a  man's  clothes  will  not  l)e  restrained  so  readily  by 
that  modesty  which  is  the  |)eculiarornani('nt  of  her  sex  ;  and 
a  man  drest  in  a  woman's  liahil  may  without  fear  and  shame 
;o  into  companies  wln^re,  without  this  dis<ruis(>,  shame  and 
'jar  would  hinder  his  admittance,  and  prevent  his  appearin<r. 

In  hot  countries,  like  a  considerable  part  of  Palestine, 
travellers  inform  us,  that  the  <r''<''''Pst  ditlerence  imatrinable 
subsists  itetween  the  comph-xions  of  the  women.  'I'liose  of 
any  condition  seldom  go  abroad,  and  are  t!ver  accustomed  to 
be  shaded  from  the  sun,  with  the  jrreatest  att(Mition.  'I'heir 
skin  is,  conseuucntly,  f.iir  and  beautiful.  But  women  in  the 
lower  ranks  ot  life,  especially  in  the  country,  bein^  from  the 
nature  of  their  employnuMits  more  exposed  to  the  scorchinjj 
rays  of  the  sun,  are,  in  their  complexions,  remarkably  tawny 
and  swarthy.  Under  such  circumstances,  a  hi<rn  value 
would,  of  course,  be  set,  by  the  eastern  ladies,  upon  the  fair- 
ness of  their  complexions,  as  a  distintruishinw  mark  of  their 
superior  quality,  no  less  than  as  an  enhancement  of  their 
beauty. .  vVe  perceive,  therefore,  how  natural  was  the  bride's 
self-abasing  reflection  in  Cant.  i.  5,  6.  respecting  her  tawny 
complexion  (caused  by  exposure  to  servile  employments), 
among  the  fair  daughters  of  Jerusalem  ;  who,  as  attendants 
on  a  royal  marriage  (we  may  suppose),  were  of  the  highest 
rank.' 

V'lII.  To  change  habits  and  wash  one's  clothes  were  cere- 
monies used  by  the  Jews,  in  order  to  dispose  them  for  some 
holy  action  which  required  particular  purity.  Jacob,  after 
his  return  from  Mesopotamia,  required  his  household  to  change 
the.'r  i(urnient.s-,  and  (ro  with  hitn.  to  sacrifice  at  Bethel,  (Gen. 
XXXV.  2,  .3.)  Moses  commanded  the  people  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  the  reception  of  the  law  by  purifying  and  washing 
their  clothes.  (Exod.  xix.  10.)  On  the  other  hand,  the 
RENDiNo  OF  OHc's  CLOTHES  is  an  expressiou  frequently  used 
in  Scripture,  as  a  token  of  the  highest  grief.  Reuben,  to 
denote  his  great  sorrow  for  Joseph,  rent  his  clothes  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  20.);  Jacob  did  the  like  (ver.  .31.);  and  Ezra,  to 
express  the  concern  and  uneasiness  of  his  mind,  and  the 
apprehensions  he  entertained  of  the  divine  displeasure,  on 
account  of  the  people's  unlawful  marriages,  is  said  to  rend 
his  garments  and  his  mantle  (Ezra  ix.  3.) ;  that  is,  both  his 
inner  and  upper  garment:  this  was  also  an  expression  of 
indignation  and  holy  zeal ;  the  high-priest  rent  his  clothes, 
pretending  that  our  Saviour  had  spoken  blasphemy.  (Matt, 
xxvi.  tifi.)  And  so  did  the  apostles,  when  the  people  intended 
-to  pay  them  divine  honours.  (Acts  xiv.  14.)  The  garments 
of  mourners  among  the  Jews  were  chiefly  sackcloth  and 
haircloth.  The  last  sort  was  the  usual  clothing  of  the  pro- 
phets, for  they  were  continual  penitents  by  profession ;  and 
therefore  Zechariah  speaks  of  the  rough  garments  of  the  false 

Jrophcts,  which  they  also  wore  to  deceive.    (Zech.  xiii.  4.) 
acob  was  the  first  we  read  of  that  put  sackcloth  on  his  loins, 


<  Dr.  Shaw's  Tiavrls,  vol.  i.  p.  413. 

•>  llanner's  OI).-!prvalions,  vol.  iv.  p.  334.  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  414 
Miirier's  Secoml  Joiinu'v,  pp.  01.  H-i.  The  eyes  of  ihe  wife  of  a  Greek 
.prii'st,  whom  Mr.  Rae  Wil.son  saw  at  Tiberias,  were  staiiu'd  with  black 
powder.     (Travels  in  Ihe  Holy  Land,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  17.)     "The  Palmyrcnc 

women are  the  finest  lookins  women  of  all  Ihe  Arab  tribes  of  Syria. 

Like  other  Orientals  of  their  sex,  they  dye  the  tips  of  Ihe  finjiers  and 

the  p:dms  of  their  hands  red.  and  wear  gold  rings  in  their  ears:  and  the 
jet-black  dye  of  the  hennah  for  the  eyelashes. is  never  forsotten  ;  they 
innaiiie,  and,  perhaps,  with  trnlh,  that  its  blackness  eives  the  eye  an  addi- 
tional lanniinr  and  inlere.sl."     C'arne's  Letters  from  the  East,  p.  592. 

a  Fry's  TranslaUon  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,  p.  36. 


as  a  token  of  mourning  for  Joseph  (Gen.  xxxvii.  .34.),  signi- 
fying thereby  that  since  he  had  lost  his  beloved  son  he  con- 
sidered himself  as  reduced  to  the  meanest  and  lowest  condi- 
tion of  life. 

IX.  A  prodigious  number  of  sumptuous  and  magnificent 
habits  was  in  ancient  times  regarded  as  a  necessary  and  in- 
dispensable part  of  tlunr  treasures.  Horace,  speaking  of 
[iucullus  (who  had  pillaged  Asia,  and  first  introduced  Asiatic 
refinements  among  l\\('.  Romans),  says,  that,  some  persons 
having  waited  U|)oii  him  to  recpiest  the  loan  of  a  hundred  suits 
out  of  his  wardrobe  for  the  Roman  stage,  he  exclaimed — "A 
hundred  suits!  how  is  it  possible  for  me  to  furnish  such  a 
number]  However,  I  will  look  over  them  and  send  you  what 
I  have." — After  some  time,  he  writes  a  note,  and  tells  them 
he  had  five  thousand,  to  the  whole  or  part  of  which  they 
were  welcome.' 

This  circumstance  of  amassing  and  ostentatiously  display- 
ing in  wardrobes  numerous  aiirl  superb  suits,  as  indispensa- 
ble to  the  idea  of  wealth,  and  forming  a  principal  part  of  the 
opulence  of  those  times,  will  elucidate  several  passages  of 
Scriptur(>.  The  patriarch  Job,  speaking  of  riches  in  his  time, 
says, —  Tlmuirh  tliey  heap  tip  .viver  as  the  dust,  and  prepare 
ra  nient  ustheclay.  (Jobxxvii.  16.)  Joseph  gave  his  brethren 
changes  of  raiment,  but  to  Benjamin  he  gave  three  hundred 

K'eces  of  silver,  ^wAfive  cham^es  of  raiment.  (Gen.  xlv.  22.)-' 
aaman  carried  for  a  present  to  the  prophet  FJlisha  ten  changes 
of  raiment,  that  is,  according  to  Calmet,  ten  tunics  and  ten 
upper  garments.  (2  Kings  v.  5.)  In  allusion  to  this  custom 
our  Lord,  when  describing  the  short  duration  and  perishing 
nature  of  earthly  treasures,  represents  them  as  subject  to  the 
depredations  of  moths.  Lai/  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures 
<ni  earth,  tvhere  moth  and  rust  do  corrupt.  (Matt.  vi.  19.)  The 
illustrious  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  when  appealing  to  the  in- 
tegrity and  fidelity  with  which  he  had  discharged  his  sacred 
office,  said, — I  have  coveted  no  man''s  gold,  or  silver,  or  apparel. 
(Acts  XX.  33.)  The  apostle  James,  likewise  (just  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  when  they 
are  particularizing  the  opulence  of  those  times),  specifies 
gold,  silver,  and  garments,  as  the  constituents  of  riches : — 
Go  to  now,  ye  rich  men ,-  weep  and  howl  for  your  miseries  that 
shall  come  upon  you.  Your  gold  and  silver  is  cankered,  and 
your  garments  are  moth-eaten.  (James  v.  1.  3.  2.)^  The 
fashion  of  hoarding  up  splendid  dresses  still  subsists  in  Pa- 
lestine. It  appears  from  Psal.  xlv.  8.  that  the  wardrobes  of 
the  East  were  plentifully  perfumed  with  aromatics  ;  and  in 
Cant.  iv.  11.  the  fragrant  odour  of  the  bride's  garments  is 
compared  to  the  odour  of  Lebanon."  With  robes  thus  per- 
fumed Rebecca  furnished  her  son  Jacob,  when  she  sent  nim 
to  obtain  by  stratagem  his  father's  blessing,  .ind  he  (Isaac) 
sniflled  the  smell  (or  fragrance^  of  his  raiment  and  blessed  him, 
and  said.  See  !  the  smell  of  my  son  is  as  the  smell  of  a  field 
which  the  Lord  hath  blessed.  (Gen.  xxvii.  27. )8  In  process 
of  time,  this  exquisite  fragrance  was  figuratively  applied  to 
the  moral  qualities  of  the  mind  ;  of  which  we  have  an  exam- 
ple in  the  Song  of  Solomon,  i.  3. 

Like  the  <raarance  of  thine  own  sweet  perfumes 
Is  thy  name, — a  perfume  poured  forth.' 


«  Horat.  Epist.  lib.  i.  ep.  6.  ver.  40 — 44. 

'  Presenting  garments  is  one  of  the  modes  of  complimenting  persons  in 
the  East.  See  several  illustrative  instances  in  Burder's  Oriental  Literature, 
vol.  i.  pp.  93,  94. 

8  Ilarwood's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  pp.  247,  348. 

I  Dr.  Good's  Sacred  Idyls,  p.  122.  In  p.  123.  he  has  quoted  the  following 
passage  from  Moschus,  in  which  the  same  idea  occurs  with  singular  exact' 
ness : — 

T!\o?i  xai  Ktiftiiiai;  ixxivuro  >.apow  «ut«i)i'.  Idyl.  B.  91. 

Whose  heavenly  fragrance  far  exceeds 

The  fragrance  of  the  breathing  meads. 

Dr.  Good's  translation  of  Solomon's  Song,  p.  123. 
«  Jewell's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  pp.  97,  98. 
»  Dr.  Good's  version. 


160 


JEWISH  CUSTOMS  RELATING  TO  MARRIAGE. 


[Paht  IV. 


CHAPTER  III. 


JEWISH  CUSTOMS  RELATING  TO  MARRIAGE. 

I.  Marriage  accounted  a  sacred  Obligation  by  the  Jetvs. — II.  Pohjg-amy  tolerated. —  Condition  of  Concubines. — III,  J\iuptial 
Contract,  and  Espousals. — IV.  JVnptial  Ceremonies. — V.  Divorces. 


I.  Marriage  was  considered  by  the  Jews  as  a  matter  of 
the  strictest  obligation.  They  understood  literally  and  as  a 
precept  these  words  uttered  to  our  first  parents,  Be  fruitful, 
and  multiply,  and  replenish  the  earth.  (Gen.  i.  28.)  Their 
continual  expectation  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  added 
great  weight  to  this  obligation.  Every  one  lived  in  the  hopes 
that  this  Giessing  should  attend  their  posterity ;  and  therefore 
they  thought  themselves  bound  to  further  the  expectance  of 
him,  by  adding  to  the  race  of  mankind,  of  whose  seed  he  was 
to  be  born,  and  whose  happiness  he  was  to  promote,  by  that 
temporal  kingdom  for  which  they  looked  upon  his  appear- 
ance. 

Hence  celibacy  was  esteemed  a  great  reproach  in  Israel ; 
for,  besides  that  they  thought  no  one  could  live  a  single  life 
without  great  danger  of  sin,  they  esteemed  it  a  counteracting 
of  the  divine  counsels  in  the  promise,  that  ihe  seed  of  ike 
woman  should  bmife  Ihe  heed  (fthe  serpent.  On  this  account 
it  was  that  Jephthah's  daughter  deplored  her  virginity,  be- 
cause she  thus  deprived  her  father  of  the  hopes  which  he 
might  entertain  from  heirs  descended  from  her,  by  whom  his 
name  might  survive  in  Israel,  and,  consequently,  of  his  ex- 
pectation of  having  the  Messiah  to  come  of  his  seed,  which 
was  the  general  desire  of  all  the  Israelitish  women.  For 
the  same  reason  also  sterility  was  regarded  among  the  Jews 
(as  it  is  to  this  day  amon^  the  modern  Egyptians)'  as  one  of 
the  greatest  misfortunes  that  could  befall  any  woman,  inso- 
much that  to  have  a  child,  though  the  woman  immediately 
died  thereupon,  was  accounted  a  less  affliction  than  to  have 
none  at  all ;  and  to  this  purpose  we  may  observe,  that  the 
midwife  comforts  Rachel  in  her  labour  (even  though  she 
knew  her  to  be  at  the  point  of  death)  in  these  terms,  Fear 
not,  for  thuu  shall  bear  this  son  aha.   (Gen.  xxxv.  17.) 

From  this  expectation  proceeded  their  exactness  in  causing 
the  brother  of  a  husband,  who  died  without  issue,  to  marry  the 
widow  he  left  behind,  and  the  disgrace  that  attended  his  refii«> 
incr  so  to  do  ;  for,  as  the  eldest  son  of  such  a  marriage  became 
the  adopted  child  of  the  deceased,  that  child  and  the  posterity 
flowino'  from  him  were,  by  a  fiction  of  law,  considered  as  the 
real  oifspring  and  heirs  of  the  deceased  brother.  This  ex- 
plains the  words  of  Isaiah,  that  seven  women  should  take  Imld 
of  one  man,  saying.  We  will  cat  our  own  bread,  and  wear  our 
own  apparel  ,■  only  Id  us  be  culled  by  thy  name,  1o  lake  away 
our  reproach.  (Isa.  iv.  1.)  This  was  the  reason  also  why  the 
Jews  commonly  married  very  young.  The  age  prescribed  to 
men  by  the  Rabbins  was  eighteen  years.  A  virgin  was 
ordinarily  married  at  the  age  of  puberty,  that  is,  twelve  years 
complete,  whence  her  husband  is  called  the  guide  of  her 
youtli  (Prov.  ii.  17.),  and  the  husband  of  her  youth  (Joel  i. 
8.) ;  and  the  not  giving  of  maidens  in  marriage  is  in  Psal. 
Ixxviii.  63.  represented  as  one  of  the  elTects  of  the  divine 
anger  towards  Israel.  In  like  manner,  among  the  Hindoos, 
the  delaying  of  the  marriage  of  daughters  is  to  this  day  re- 
garded as  a  great  calamity  and  disgrace.^ 

II.  From  the  first  institution  of  marriage  it  is  evident  that 
God  gave  but  one  woman  to  one  man  ;  and  if  it  be  a  true,  as 
it  is  a  common,  observation,  that  there  are  every  where  more 
males  than  females  born  in  the  world,  it  follows  that  those 
men  certainly  act  contrary  to  the  laws  both  of  God  and  na- 
ture who  have  more  than  one  wife  at  the  same  time.  But 
though  God,  as  supreme  lawgiver,  had  a  power  to  dispense 
with  his  own  laws,  and  actuallydid  so  with  the  Jews  for  the 

»  The  most  importunate  applicants  to  Dr.  Richardson  for  medical  advice 
were  those  who  consulted  tiim  on  account  of  sterility,  which  in  Egypt  (lie 
says)  is  still  considered  the  greatest  of  all  evils.  "The  unfortunate  couple 
believe  that  they  are  bewitched,  or  under  the  curse  of  heaven,  which  they 
fancy  the  physician  has  the  power  to  remove.  It  is  in  vain  that  he  declares 
the  insufficiency  of  the  healin*  art  to  take  away  their  reproach.  The  par- 
ties hang  round,  dunning  and  importuning  him  for  the  love  of  God,  to  pre- 
scribe for  them,  that  they  may  have  children  like  other  people.  'Give  me 
children,  or  I  die,'  said  the  fretful  Sarah  to  her  husband  ;  'Give  me  child- 
ren, or  I  curse  you,'  say  the  barren  Egyptians  to  their  physicians."  Dr. 
Richardson's  Travels  along  the  Mediterranean,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  106.  A  nearly 
similar  scene  is  described  by  Mr.  R.  R.  Madden,  who  travelled  in  the  East 
betvfeen  the  years  1824  and  "1827.     Travels  in  Turkey,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  51. 

»  Ward's  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  327.  Maurice's  Indian 
Antiquities,  vol.  vii.  p.  329.  Home's  History  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
350,351. 


more  speedy  peopling  of  the  world,  yet  it  is  certain  there  is 
no  sucri  toleration  under  the  Christian  dispensation,  and, 
therefore,  their  example  is  no  rule  at  this  day.  The  first  who 
violated  this  priinitive  law  of  marriage  was  Lamech,  who 
took  unto  him  two  wives.  (Gen.  iv.  19.)  Afterwards  we  read 
that  Abraham  had  concubines.  (Gen.  xxv.  6.)  And  his 
practice  was  followed  by  the  other  patriarchs,  which  at  last 
grew  to  a  most  scandalous  excess  in  Solomon's  and  Reho- 
boam's  days.  The  word  concubine  in  most  Latin  authors, 
and  even  with  us  at  this  day,  signifies  a  woman,  who,  though 
she  be  not  married  to  a  man,  yet  lives  with  him  as  his  wife  ; 
but  in  the  Sacred  Writings  it  is  understood  in  another  sense. 
There  it  means  a  lawful  wife,  but  of  a  lower  order  and  of  an 
inferior  rank  to  the  mistress  of  the  family  ;  and,  therefore, 
she  had  equal  right  to  the  marriage-bed  with  the  chief  wife  ; 
and  her  issue  was  reputed  legitimate  in  opposition  to  bas- 
tards :  but  in  all  other  respects  these  concubines  were  inferior 
to  the  primary  wife  :  for  they  had  no  authority  in  the  family, 
nor  any  share  in  household  government.  If  they  had  been 
servants  in  the  family  before  they  came  to  be  concubines, 
they  continued  to  be  so  afterwards,  and  in  the  same  subjec- 
tion to  their  mistress  as  before.  The  dignity  of  these  primary 
wives  gave  their  children  the  preference  in  the  succession,  so 
that  the  children  of  concubines  did  not  inherit  their  father's 
fortune,  except  upon  the  failure  of  the  children  by  these  more 
honourable  wives ;  and,  therefore,  it  w^as,  that  the  father 
commonly  provided  for  the  children  by  these  concubines  in 
his  own  lifetime,  by  giving  them  a  portion  of  his  cattle  and 
goods,  which  the  Scripture  calls  gifls.  Thus  Sarah  was 
Abraham's  primary  wife,  by  whom  he  had  Isaac,  who  was 
the  heir  of  his  wealth.  But  besides  her,  he  had  two  concu- 
bines, Hagar  and  Keturah  ;  by  these  he  had  other  children 
whom  he  distinguished  from  Isaac,  for  it  is  said.  He  gave 
them  gifts,  and  sent  them  away  while  he  yet  lived.  (Gen.  xxv. 
5,  6.)  In  Mesopotamia,  as  appears  from  Gen.  xxix.  26.,  the 
younger  daughter  could  not  be  given  in  marriage  "  before  the 
first-born"  or  elder,  and  the  same  practice  continues  to  this 
day  among  the  Armenians,  and  also  among  the  Hindoos, 
with  whom  it  is  considered  criminal  to  give  the  younger 
daughter  in  marriage  before  the  elder,  or  for  a  younger  son 
to  niTarrv  while  his  elder  brother  remains  unmarried.' 

III.  No  formalities  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the 
Jews — at  least  none  were  enjoined  to  them  by  Moses — in 
joining  man  and  wife  together.  Mutual  consent,  followed 
by  consummation,  was  deemed  sufficient.  The  manner  in 
which  a  daughter  was  demanded  in  marriage  is  described  in 
the  case  of  Shechem,  who  asked  Dinah  the  daughter  of  Jacob 
in  marriage  (Gen.  xxxiv.  6 — 12.)  ;  and  the  nature  of  the  con- 
tract, together  with  the  mode  of  solemnizing  the  marriage,  is 
described  in  Gen.  xxiv.  50,  51.  57.  67.  Tliere  was,  indeed, 
a  previous  espousal'  or  betrothing,  which  was  a  solemn  pro- 
mise of  marriage,  made  by  the  man  and  woman  each  to  the 
other,  at  such  a  distance  of  time  as  they  agreed  upon.  This 
was  sometimes  done  by  writing,  sometimes  by  the  delivery 
of  a  piece  of  silver  to  the  bride  in  presence  of  witnesses,  as  a 
pledge  of  their  mutual  engagements.  We  are  informed  by 
the  Jewish  writers  that  kisses  were  given  in  token  of  the 
espousals  (to  which  custom  there  appears  to  be  an  allusion 
in  Canticles  i.  2.),  after  which  the  parties  were  reckoned  as 
man  and  wife.^     After  such  espousals  were  made  (which 

3  Home's  History  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  p.  3.59.  Paxton's  Illustrations  of 
Scripture,  vol.  iii.  p.  129.  2d  edit.  Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece  and  the 
Levant,  pp.  229,  230. 

*  "  Before  the  giving  of  the  law  (saithMaimonides),  if  the  man  and  whman 
had  agreed  about  marriage,  he  brought  her  into  his  house  and  privately 
married  her.  But,  after  the  giving  of  (he  law,  the  Israelites  were  com- 
manded, that  if  any  were  minded  to  take  a  woman  for  his  wife,  he  should 
receive  her,  first  before  witnesses,  and  henceforth  let  her  be  to  him  to 
wife, — as  it  is  written,  'If  any  one  take  a  wife.'  This  taking  is  one  of  the 
affirmative  precepts  of  the  law,  and  is  called  'espousing.'"  Lightfoot's 
Hora;  Hebr.  on  Matt.  i.  18.    (Works,  vol.  xi.  p.  18.  8vo.  edit.  1823.) 

'  Dr.  Gill's  Comment,  on  Sol.  Song  i.  2.  The  same  ceremony  was  prac- 
tised among  the  primitive  Christians.  (Bingham's  Antiquities,  book  xxii. » 
c.  3.  sect.  6.)  By  the  civil  law,  indeed,  the  kiss  is  made  a  ceremony,  in 
some  respects,  of  importance  to  the  validity  of  the  nuptial  contract.  (Cod. 
Justin,  lib.  v.  tit.  3.  de  Donation,  ante  Nuptias,  leg.  16.)  Fry's  Translation 
of  the  Canticles,  p.  33. 


CaAP.  III.]  JEWISH  CUSTOMS  RELATING  TO  MARRIAGE 

was  gonerally  whon  tlio  parties  were  yonngf)  the  woman  con 


161 


tinued  with  lier  parents  several  months,  if  not  some  years  (at 
least  till  stu'  was  arrived  at  th(!  mro,  of  twelve),  b.-fore  she 
was  hroufjlit  lioine,  ami  her  marri  uw  eonsiimmatcd.'  That 
if  was  th(!  |ir,ietice  to  l)etrotii  tlie  hri.it^  some  tinn'  before  the 
consummution  if  tlie  marri  iire  is  evident  from  Deiit,  xx.  7. 
Thus  we  find  that  Samson's  wife  remained  with  her  parents 
a  considerable  time  after  espousals  (.lud^.  xiv.  ft.)  ;  and  we 
are  told  tliat  the  V' ir<rin  Mary  was  visil)ly  with  (diild  I)efore 
siie  and  her  intended  liusband  came  to-.j-ether.  (Matt.  i.  18.) 
If,  durintr  tlie  time  between  tlie  espousals  and  the  marriaire, 
the  bride  was  tinilty  of  any  criminal  eorrespondeiice  wilii 
another  person,  contrary  to  the  fidelity  she  owed  to  her  bride- 

?Toom,  she  was  treaUul  as  an  adulteress  ;  and  thus  the  holy 
'^irgin,  after  she  was  betrothed  to  .Foseph,  haviiifr  coneeive'd 
our  blessed  Saviour,  mi'^ht,  aecordinfr  to  the  ri<ro\ir  of  the 
law,  have  been  punished  as  an  adulteress,  if  the  antrel  of  the 
Lord  had  not  acquainted  Joseph  with  the  mystery  of  the 
incarnation.-' 

Amonjr  the  Jews,  and  generally  throughout  the  East,  mar- 
ria<Te  was  considered  as  a  sort  of  purchase,  which  the  man 
made  of  the  woman  he  desired  to  marry;  and,  therefore,  in 
coiitraetin<r  marriatifes,  as  thi!  wife  bronjjht  a  jiortion  to  the 
husband,  so  the  husband  was  oblicred  to  give  her  or  her  parents 
money  or  presents  in  lieu  of  this  portion.  This  was  the  case 
between  Ilamor,  the  father  of  Slieebem,  and  the  sons  of 
Jacob,  with  relation  to  Dinah  (Gen.  xxxiv.  12.);  and  Jacob, 
havintr  no  money,  offered  his  uncle  Laban  seven  years'  ser- 
vice,' which  must  have  been  equivalent  to  a  largre  sum.  (Gen. 
xxix.  18.)  Saul  did  not  give  his  daunrhter  Micbal  to  David, 
till  after  he  had  received  a  hundred  foreskins  of  the  Philis- 
tines. (1  Sam.  xviii.  25.)  Hosea  bought  his  wife  at  the  price 
of  fifteen  pieces  of  silver,  and  a  measure  and  a  half  of  barley. 
f  Hos.  iii.  2.)  The  same  custom  also  obtained  among  the 
Greeks  and  other  ancient  nations;'  and  it  is  to  this  day  the 

Eractice  in  several  eastern  countries,  particularly  among  the 
•  ruses,  Turks,  and  Cliristians,  who  inhabit  the  country  of 
Haouran,and  also  among  the  modern  Scenite  Arabs,  or  those 
who  dwell  in  tents.'' 

TV.  It  appears  from  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
that  the  Jews  celebrated  the  nuptial  solemnity  with  great  fes- 
tivity and  splendour.  Many  of  the  rites  and  ceremonies, 
observed  by  them  on  this  occasion,  were  common  both  to  the 
Greek  and  Romans.  We  learn  from  tlie  Misna,  that  the  Jews 
were  accustomed  to  put  crowns  or  garlands  on  the  heads  of 
newly  married  persons;  and  it  should  seem  from  the  Song  of 
Solomon  (iii.  11.),  that  the  ceremony  of  putting  it  on  was 
performed  by  one  of  the  parents.  Among  the  Greeks  the 
bride  was  crowned  by  her  mother;''  and  amon<rthem, as  well 
as  among  the  Orientals,  and  particularly  the  Ilebrows,  it  was 
customary  to  wear  crowns  or  garlands,  not  merely  of  leaves 
or  flowers,  but  also  of  gold  or  silver,  in  proportion  to  the  rank 
-of  the  person  presenting  them ;  but  those  prepared  for  the 
celebration  of  a  nuptial  banquet,  as  being  a  festivity  of  the 
first  consequence,  were  of  peculiar  splendour  and  magnifi- 
cence. Chijilets  of  flowers  only  constituted  the  nuptial 
crowns  of  the  Romans.  Some  writers  have  supposed  that 
the  nuptial  crowns  and  other  ornaments  of  a  bride  are  alluded 
to  in  Ezek.  xvi.  8 — 12. 

We  may  form  some  idea  of  the  apparel  of  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  from  Isa.  Ixi.  10.,  in  widen  the  yet  future  pros- 
perous and  happy  state  of  Jernsalem  is  compared  to  the  dress 
of  a  bride  and  bridegroom.  The  latter  was  attended  by  nu- 
merous companions  :  Samuel  had  thirty  youn?  men  to  attend 
him  at  his  nuptials  (Judg.  xiv.  11.),  who  in  Matt  ix.  15.  and 
Mark  ii.  19.  are  termed  children  of  the  bridr-chantber.  "  At 
every  wedding  two  persons  were  selected,  who  devoted  them- 
selves for  some  time  to  the  service  of  the  bride  and  bride- 
groom.    The  offices  assigned  to  the  paranymph,  or  jOi'ic', 

'  Ttip  same  practice  olitains  in  the  East  Indies  to  this  day.  Ward's  His- 
tory of  the  HiiiilDos,  vbl.  ii.  p.  3;tl. 

«  raliiiet,  Dissertations,  torn.  i.  p.  279.    Pareaii,  Antiq.  Hebr.  p.  440. 

'  Tlie  Crim  Tartars,  who  are  in  poor  circumstances,  serve  an  appren- 
ticeship for  their  wives,  and  arc  then  admitted  as  part  of  tlie  family.  Mrs. 
Hdlderness's  Notes,  p.  8.  first  edit. 

•  Potter's  Greek  Aniiquilios,  vol.  ii.  p.  279. 

•  Burctjhardl's  Travels  in  Syria,  6cc.  pp.  298.  38-5.  De  la  Roque,  Voyage 
dans  la  Palestine,  p.  2».  See  several  additional  instances  in  Burder's 
Oriental  I4terature,   vol.    i.   pp.  56—59.     Young  girls,   Mr.    Buckingham 

•  informs  us,  are  given  in  marriage  for  certain  sums  of  money,  varying 
from  !iOO  to  lOUO  piastres,  among  the  belter  order  of  inhabitants,  accor'dins 
to  their  coiuie.xions  or  beauty  ;  though  anions  the  labouring  classes  it 
descenils  as  low  as  100  or  even  50.  This  sum  beins  paid  by  the  bridesroom 
to  the  bride's  father  adds  to  his  wealth,  and  makes  girls  (particularly  when 
handsome)  as  protilable  to  their  parents  as  bovs  are  bv  the  wages  they 
earn  by  their  labour.     Buckingham's  Travels  aui'ong  the  Arab  Tribes,  pp. 


49.  143. 
•Dr.  Good's  translation  of  Solomon's  Son" 

Vol.  II.  X 


p.  106. 


numerous  and  important;  and,  on  account  of  those,  the  Bap- 
tist compares  himself  to  the  friend  of  the  bridegroom.'  (John 
iii.  29.)  The  offices  of  tlie  paranympb  were  threefold — before 
— at — and  after  the  marriage,  liefure  the  marriage  of  his 
friend  it  was  his  duty  to  select  a  ciiaste  virgin,  and  to  be  the 
medium  of  communication  between  tlie  parties,  till  the  day  of 
marriage.  At  that  time  he  continued  with  them  during  the 
seven  days  allotted  for  the  weriding  festival,  rejoicing  in  the 
happiness  of  his  friend,  and  contributing  as  much  as  possible 
to  tlie  hilarity  of  the  occasion.  Afu^r  liie  marriage,  the  para- 
nymph was  considered  as  the  patron  and  friend  of  the  wife 
and  her  liusiiand,  and  was  called  in  to  compose  any  differ- 
ences that  might  take  place  between  them.  As  the  torerun- 
ner  of  Christ,  the  Baptist  may  be  well  compared  to  the  para- 
nympb of  the  Jewish  marriages.  One  of  the  most  usual  com- 
parisons adopted  in  Scripture  to  describe  the  uninn  between 
Christ  and  iiis  (Church  is  that  of  a  marriatre.  'I'lie  Baptist 
was  the  paranymph,*  who,  by  the  preaching  of  repentance  and 
faith,  presented  the  church  as  a  youthful  bride  and  a  chaste 
virgin  to  Christ.  He  still  continued  with  the  bridegroom,  till 
the  wedding  was  furnished  with  guests.  His  joy  was  ful- 
filled when  his  own  followers  came  toinf"rm  him  that  (Christ 
was  increasing  the  number  of  his  disciples,  and  that  all  men 
came  unto  him.  This  intelligence  was  as  the  sound  of  the 
bridegrootn's  voice,  and  as  the  pledge  that  the  nuptials  of 
heaven  and  earth  were  completed.  From  this  representation 
of  John  as  the  paranymph,  of  Christ  as  the  bridegroom,  and 
the  Church  as  the  bride,  the  ministers  and  stewards  of  the 
Gospel  of  God  may  learn,  that  they  also  are  required,  by  the 
preaching  of  repentance  and  faith,  to  present  their  hearers  in 
all  purity  to  the  head  of  the  Christian  church.  It  is  for  them 
to  find  their  best  source  of  joy  in  the  blessing  of  the  most 
Highest  on  their  labours — their  purest  happiness  in  the  im- 
provement and  perfecting  of  the  Church  confided  to  their 
care."9 

Further,  it  was  castomary  for  the  bridegroom  to  prepare 
gannents  for  his  guests  (Matt.  xxii.  11.),  which,  it  appears 
from  Rev.  xix.  8.,  were  white;  in  th(  se  passages  the  wed- 
ding-garment is  emblematical  of  Cliristian  holiness  and  the 
righteousness  of  the  saints.  It  was  also  usual  for  the  bride- 
groom, attended  by  the  nuptial  guests,  to  conduct  the  bride  to 
his  house  by  night,  accompanied  by  her  virgin  train  of 
attendants,  with  torches  and  music  and  every  demonstration 
of  joy.  To  this  custom,  as  well  as  to  the  various  ceremonies 
just  stated,  our  vSaviour  alludes  in  the  parables  of  the  wise  and 
foolish  virgins  (Malt.  xxv.  1 — 12.),  and  of  the  wedding-fi  ast, 
given  by  a  sovereign,  in  honour  of  his  son's  nuptials.  (Matt, 
xxii.  2.)  In  the  first  of  these  parables  ten  virgins  are  repre- 
sented as  taking  their  lamps  to  meet  the  bridegroom  ;  five  of 
whom  were  prudent,  and  took  with  them  a  supply  of  oil, 
which  the  others  had  neglected.  In  the  mean  time,  they  all 
slimbered  and  slept,  until  the  procession  approached  ;  but,  in 
the  middle  of  the  night,  there  ivas  a  cry  made.  Behold,  the 
bridf groom  cometh  !  Go  ye  out  to  meet  hirii.fo  On  this,  all  the 
virgins  arose  speedily  to  trim  their  lamps.  The  wise  were 
instantly  ready  ;  but  the  imprudent  virgins  were  thrown  into 
great  confusion.  Then,  first,  they  recollected  their  neglect: 
their  lamps  were  expiring,  and  they  had  no  oil  to  refresh 
them.  While  they  were  gone  to  procure  a  supply,  the  bride- 
groom arrived  :  they  that  were  ready  went  in  with  him  to  the 

'  "Smaller  circumstances  and  coincidences  sometimes  demonstrate 
the  truth  of  an  assertion,  or  the  authenticity  of  a  book,  more  effeclually 
than  more  important  facts.  May  not  one  of  those  unimportant  yet  convinc- 
ing coincidences  be  observed  in  this  passage  (  The  B.iptist  calls  himself 
the  friend  of  the  bridegroom,  without  alluding  to  any  other  paranymph,  or 
y'iifVff.  As  the  Jews  were  accustomed  to  have  two  paranyinph.s,  there 
seems,  at  first  sight,  to  be  something  defective  in  the  Baptist's  comparison. 
But  our  Lord  was  of  Galilee,  and  there  the  custom  was  ditTerent  from  thiit 
of  any  other  part  of  Palestine.  The  Galileans  had  one  paranymph  only." 
Townsend's  Harmony  of  the  New  Testament,  vr>l.  i.  p.  132. 

«  Exempio  et  vitA,  says  Kuinfiel,  communi  depromto  Johannes  Baptista 
oslendit,  quale  inter  ipsiim  et  Christum  discriuien  interccdat.  Se  ipsiim 
comparat  cum  paranympho,  Christum  cum  sponso ;  quocum  ipse  Chri^lus 
se  quoque  comparavil,  ut  patet  e  locis,  MaU.  ix.  15.  and  .\xv.  1.  Scilicet, 
5  iiKz;  r»  wu.n^.n,  est  sponsi  socius,  ei  peculiariter  addictus,  qui  Grajcis 
dicebalur  n-apxru.ucio,-.  Matt.  ix.  15.  -"o,-  ts-j  h,ju?»v5s.  Heb.  pciC  filius 
l.TEtitije.— Com.  in  lib.  N.  T.  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p.  227. 

9  Townsend's  Harmony  of  the  New  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  132. 

10  The  Rev.  Mr.  Hartley,  describing  an  Armenian  wedding,  says,— "The 
larse  number  of  young  females  who  were  present  naturally  reminded  me 
of  the  wise  and  foolish  vir;:ins  in  our  Saviour's  parable.  These  being 
Iriends  of  the  bride,  the  virgins,  her  cnmpun inns  (Psal.  xiv.  14.),  had  come 
to  m'el  the  bridegroom.  It  is  usual  for  the  bridegroom  to  come  at  mid- 
night;  so  that,  literally,  at  midnishi  Ih  cry  is  luadc,  Behold,  the  bride- 
groom conieih  !  Go  ye  out  to  meet  him.  But,  on  this  occnsion,  the  bride- 
groom tarried :  it  was  t\vo  o'clock  before  he  arrived.  The  whole  pany 
then  proceeded  to  the  Armenian  church,  where  the  bishop  was  waiting  to 
receive  them;  and  there  the  ceremony  was  completed."  Research&e  in 
Greece  and  the  Levjmt,  p.  231. 


162 


JEWISH  CUSTOMS  RELATING  TO  MARRIAGE. 


[Part  IV. 


marriage  ,•  and  the  door  was  sZtw/,'  and  all  admittance  was  re- 
fused to  the  imprudent  virgins.^  The  solemnities  here  de- 
scribed are  still  practised  by  the  Jews  in  Podolia,^  and  also  by 
the  Christians  iu  Syria/  and  in  Egypt.*  These  companions 
of  the  bridegroom  and  bride  are  mentioned  in  Psal.  xlv.  9. 
11.,  and  Cant.  v.  1.  8.  John  the  Baptist  calls  them  the 
friends  of  ike  bridegroom.    (John  iii.  29.) 

From  the  parable,  "  in  which  a  great  king  is  represented  as 
making  a  most  magnificent  entertainment  at  the  marriage  of 
his  son,  we  learn  that  all  the  guests,  who  were  honoured  with 
an  invitation,  were  expected  to  be  dressed  in  a  manner  suit- 
able to  the  splendour  of  such  an  occasion,  and  as  a  token  of 
just  respect  to  the  new-married  couple — and  that  after  the 
procession  in  the  evening  from  the  bride's  house  was  con- 
cluded, the  guests,  before  they  were  admitted  into  the  hall 
where  the  entertainment  was  served  up,  were  taken  into  an 
apartment  and  viewed,  that  it  might  be  known  if  any  stranger 
had  intruded,  or  if  any  of  the  company  were  apparelled  in 
raiments  unsuitable  to  the  genial  solemnity  they  were  going 
to  celebrate;  and  such,  if  found,  were  expelled  the  Rouse 
with  every  mark  of  ignominy  and  disgrace.  From  the  know- 
ledge of  this  custom  the  following  passage  receives  great  light 
and  lustre.  When  the  king  came  in  to  see  the  guests,  he  dis- 
covered among  them  a  person  who  had  not  on  a  wedding- 
garment. — He  called  him  and  said,  Friend,  how  earnest  thmi 
in  hither,  not  having  a  wedding-garment  ?  and  lie  was  speech- 
less : — he  had  no  apology  to  offer  for  this  disrespectful  neglect. 
The  kinff  then  called  to  his  servants,  and  bade  them  bind  him 
hand  and  foot — to  drag  him  out  of  the  room — and  thrust  him 
out  into  midnight  darkness."   (Matt.  xxii.  12. )s 

"  The  Scripture,  moreover,  informs  us  that  the  marriage- 
festivals  of  the  Jews  lasted  a  whole  week ;"  as  they  do  to  tKis 
day  among  the  Christian  inhabitants  of  Palestine.''  ^''  Laban 
said.  It  must  not  be  so  done  in  our  country  to  give  the  younger 
befwe  the  Jirst-born.  Fulfil  her  weett,  and  we  will  give  thee 
this  also.  (Gen.  xxix.  26,  27.)  And  Samson  said  unto  them, 
I  will  now  put  forth  a  riddle  unto  you  .•  if  you  can  certainly 
declare  it  me  within  the  seven  days  of  the  feast,  and  find  it 
out,  then  I  will  give  you  thirty  sheets,  and  thirty  change  of 
garments.  (Judg.  xiv.  12.)  This  week  was  spent  in  feast- 
ing, and  was  devoted  to  universal  joy.  To  the  festivity  of 
this  occasion  our  Lord  refers: — Can  the  children  of  the  bride- 
chamber  mourn,  as  long  as  the  bridegroom  is  with  them?  but 
the  days  will  come,  when  the  bridegroom  shall  be  taken  from 
them,  and  then  shall  they  fast.''"'  (Mark  ii.  19,  20. )3 

The  eastern  people  were  very  reserved,  not  permitting  the 
young  women  at  marriages  to  be  in  the  same  apartments  with 
the  men ;  and,  therefore,  as  the  men  and  women  could  not 

«  Mr.  Ward  has  given  tUe  following  description  of  a  Hindoo  wedding, 
whicli  furnishes  a  striking  parallel  to  the  parable  of  the  wedding-feast  in 
the  Gospel.  "  At  a  marriage,  the  procession  of  which  I  saw  some  years 
ago,  the  bridegroom  came  from  a  distance,  and  the  bride  lived  at  Seram- 
pore,  to  which  place  the  bridegroom  was  to  come  by  water.  After  waiting 
two  or  three  hours,  at  length,  near  miriniglit,  it  was  announced,  as  if  in  the 
very  words  of  Scripture,  '  Behold,  the  brideoroom  cometh  !  Go  ye  out  to 
meet  him.'  All  the  persons  employed  now'lighled  their  lamps,  and  ran 
with  them  in  their  hands  to  till  up  their  stations  in  the  procession  ;  some  of 
them  had  lost  their  lights,  and  were  unprepared,  but  it  was  then  too  late  to 
seek  them,  and  the  cavalcade  moved  forward  to  the  house  of  the  bride,  at 
which  place  the  comjiany  entered  a  largo  and  .splendidly  illuminated  area, 
before  the  house,  covered  with  an  awning,  where  a  great  multitude  of 
friends,  dressed  in  their  best  apparel,  were  seat'ed  upon  mats.  The  bride- 
groom was  carried  in  the  arms  of  a  friend,  and  placed  on  a  superb  seat  in 
the  midst  of  the  company,  where  he  sat  a  short  time,  and  then  went  inio 
the  house,  the  door  of  which  was  inmiedialely  shut,  and  guarded  by  Se- 
poys. I  and  others  expostulated  with  the  door-keepers,  but  in  vain.  Never 
was  I  so  struck  with  our  Lord's  beautH'ul  i)arable,  as  at  this  moment:— 
And  the  door  teas  shut .'"  (Ward's  View  of  the  History,  &c.  of  the  Hin- 
doos, vol.  ill.  pp.  171,  172.) 

»  Allier,  Hermeneut.  Vet.  Test.  pp.  200,  201.  Bruning,  Antiq.  Gr»c.  p. 
95.     Gilpin  on  the  New  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  lOO. 

3  At  Kamenet/.  Podolskoi,  Dr.  Henderson  relates,  "we  were  stunned 
by  the  noise  of  a  procession,  led  on  by  a  band  of  musicians  playing  on 
.tambourines  and  cymbals,  which  passed  our  windows.  On  iiiquiry,  we 
learned  that  it  consisted  of  a  Jewish  bridegroom,  accompanied  bv  his 
young  friends,  proceeding  to  the  house  of  the  bride's  father,  in  order  to 
convey  her  home  to  her  future  residence.  In  a:  sliort  time  they  returned 
with  such  a  profusion  of  lights,  as  quite  ifluminated  the  street.  The  bride, 
deeply  veiled,  was  led  along  in  triumph,  accompanied  by  her  virgins,  each 
with  a  candle  in  her  hand,  who,  with  the  young  men,  sang  and  danced  be- 
fore her  and  the  bridegroom.  The  scene  presented  us  with  an  ocular 
illustration  of  the  important  parable  recorded  in  the  twenty-fifth  chapter 
of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew ;  and  we  were  particularly  reminded  of  the  ap- 
propriate nature  of  the  injunction  which  our  Saviour  gives  us  to  watchand 
be  ready;  for  the  re-processiori  mu^t  have  commenced  immediately  on 
the  arrival  of  the  bridegroom"     Biblical  Researches,  p.  217. 

*  See  Mr.  .lowetl's  ChristiH.n  Researches  in  Syria,  pp.  87,  88. 

'  See  Mr.  Rac  Wilson'.s  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  Egypt,  &c.  vol.  i.  p. 


335  third  edition 

6  Ilarwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  p.  122. 

■■  .lowelt's  fihristiau  Researches  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  p.  95. 

«  Ilarwood's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  p.  1-23.  Brunings  states  that  the  Jews  dis- 
tinguish between  a  bride  who  is  a  virgin  and  one  who  is  a  widow;  and 
that  the  nuptial  feast  of  the  former  lasted  a  whole  week,  but  for  the  latter 
It  was  limited  to  three  day.s.    Antiq.  Hebr.  p.  71. 


amuse  themselves  with  one  another's  conversation,  the  men 
did  not  spend  their  time  merely  in  eating  and  drinking;  for 
their  custom  was  to  propose  questions  and  hard  problems,  by 
resolving  which  they  exercised  the  wit  and  sagacity  of  the 
company.  This  was  done  at  Samson's  marriage,  where  he 
proposed  a  riddle  to  divert  his  company.  (Judg.  xiv.  12.) 
At  nuptial  and  other  feasts  it  was  usual  to  appoint  a  person 
to  superintend  the  preparations,  to  pass  around  among  the 
guests  to  see  that  they  were  in  want  of  nothing,  and  to  give 
the  necessary  orders  to  the  servants.  Ordinarily,  he  was  not 
one  of  the  guests,  and  did  not  recline  with  them  ;  or,  at  least, 
he  did  not  take  his  place  among  them  until  lie  hadperfonued 
all  that  was  required  of  him.  (Ecclus.  xxxii.  1.)  This  officer 
is  by  St.  John  (ii.  8,  9.)  termed  'Ap;^;/TpmAivof,  and  'HycvfAivoc  by 
the  author  of  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus:  as  the  latter  lived 
about  the  year  190  b.  c,  and  while  the  Jews  had  intercourse 
with  the  Greeks,  especially  in  Egypt,  it  is  most  probable 
that  the  custom  of  choosing  a  governor  of  the  feast  passed 
from  the  Greeks  to  the  Jews.^  Theophylact's  remark  on 
John  ii.  8.  satisfactorily  explains  what  was  the  business  of 
the  dp^irpix.Kivo'; : — "  That  no  one  might  suspect  that  their  taste 
was  so  vitiated  by  excess  as  to  imagine  water  to  be  wine, 
our  Saviour  directs  it  to  be  tasted  by  the  governor  of  the  feast, 
who  certainly  was  sober;  for  those,  who  on  such  occasions 
are  intTusted  with  this  office,  observe  the  strictest  sobriety, 
that  every  thing  may,  by  their  orders,  be  conducted  with 
regularity  and  decency. "i" 

At  a  marriage-feast  to  which  Mr.  Buckingham  was  invited, 
he  relates  that  when  the  master  of  the  feast  came,  he  was 
"seated  as  the  stranger  guest  immediately  beside  him  :  and 
on  the  ejaculation  of  '  B'  Ism  Allah'  being  uttered,  he  dipped 
his  fingers  in  the  same  dish,  and  had  the  choicest  bits  placed 
before  him  by  his  own  hands,  as  a  mark  of  his  being  consi- 
dered a  friend  or  favourite ;  for  this  is  the  highest  honour  that 
can  be  shown  to  any  one  at  an  eastern  feast." 

"  Two  interesting  passages  of  Scripture  derive  illustration 
from  this  trait  of  eastern  manners.  Tne  first  is  that,  in  which 
the  Saviour  says,  '  When  thou  art  bidden  of  any  man  to  a 
wedding,  sit  not  down  in  the  highest  room  [that  is,  place  or 
station],  lest  a  more  honourable  man  than  thou  be  bidden  of 
hiiTi ;  and  he  that  bade  thee  and  him  come  and  say  to  thee, 
Give  this  man  place :  and  thou  begin  with  shame  to  take  the 
lowest  room.  But  when  thou  art  bidden,  go  and  sit  down  in 
the  lowest  room ;  that  when  he  that  bade  thee  cometh,  he  may 
say  unto  thee.  Friend,  go  up  higher :  then  shalt  thou  have 
worship  in  the  presence  of  them  that  sit  at  meat  with  thee.' 
(Luke  xiv.  8 — 10.)  In  a  country  where  the  highest  import- 
ance is  attached  to  this  distinction,  the  propriety  of  this  ad- 
vice is  much  more  striking  than  if  applied  to  the  manners  of 
our  own ;  and  the  honour  is  still  as  much  appreciated  through- 
out Syria,  Palestine,  and  Mesopotamia,  at  the  present  day,  as 
it  was  in  those  of  the  Messiah.  The  other  passage  is  that, 
in  which,  at  the  celebration  of  the  passover,  Jesus  says  (Matt. 
xxvi.  2.3.),  'He  that  dippeth  his  hand  with  me  in  the  dish, 
the  same  shall  betray  me.'  As  there  are  but  very  few,  and 
these  always  the  dearest  friends,  or  most  honoured  guests, 
who  are  seated  sufficiently  near  to  the  master  of  the  feast  to 
dip  their  hands  in  the  same  dish  with  him  (probably  not  more 
than  three  or  four  out  of  the  tw*lve  disciples  at  the  last 
supper  enjoyed  this  privilege),  the  baseness  of  the  treachery 
is  much  increased,  when  one  of  those  few  becomes  a  betrayer ; 
and  in  this  light  the  conduct  of  Judas  was,  no  doubt,  meant 
to  be  depicted  by  this  pregnant  expression."" 

V.  Marriage  was  dissolved  among  the  Jews  by  Divorce 
as  well  as  by  death. '^  Our  Saviour  tells  us,  tliat  Moses  suf- 
fered this  because  of  the  hardness  of  their  heart,  but  from  the 
beginning  it  ivns  not  so  (Matt.  xix.  8.)  ;  meaning  that  they 
were  accustomed  to  this  abuse,  and  to  prevent  greater  evils, 
such  as  murders,  adulteries,  &c.  he  permitted  it :  whence  it 
should  seem  to  have  been  in  use  before  the  law;  and  we  see 
that  Abraham  dismissed  Hagar,  at  the  request  of  Sarah.  It 
appears  tliat  Samson's  father-in-law  understood  that  his 
daughter  had  been  divorced,  since  he  gave  her  to  another. 
(Judg.  XV.  2.)  The  Levite's  wife,  who  was  dishonoure^l  at 
Gibeah,  had  forsaken  her  husband,  and  never  would  have 
returned,  if  he  had  not  gone  in  pursuit  of  her.  (Judg.  xix.  2, 3.) 

9  Robinson's  Greek  Lexicon,  voce  'AfjiiTfix^ivo;.     Alber,  Interpretatio 
Sacrae  Scripturae,  torn.  ix.  p.  83. 
'0  Theophylact  as  cited  in  Parkhurst's  Greek  Lexicon,  voce  'AfX'-^f- 

xXivoc. 

.  »i  Buckingham's  Trav.els  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  i.  pp.  406,  407. 

'a  Among  the  ISedouin  Arabs,  a  brother  finds  himself  more  dishonoured  , 
by  the  seduction  of  his  sister  than  a  man  by  the  infidelity  of  his  wife. 
This  will  account  for  the  sanguinary  revenge  taken  by  Simeon  and  Levi    ' 
upon  the  Shechemites  for  the  defilement  of  their  sister  Dinah.    (Gen. 
xxxiv.  25—31.)  See  D'Arvieux's  Travels  in  Arabia  the  Desart,  pp.  213,  244. 


Chap.  IV.] 


BIRTH,  NURTURE,  ETC.  OF  CHILDREN. 


163 


Solomon  speaks  of  a  libertine  woman,  who  had  forsaken  her 
husband,  the  director  of  her  youth,  and  (by  doing  so  contrary 
to  her  nii|)ti;d  vows)  had  forirotteii  the  covenant  of  iier  (iotu 
(Prov.  ii.  17.)  E/ra  and  Neheiniah  obli<red  a  <rreat  iiunilier 
■of  the  .lews  to  dismiss  the  foreicru  women,  whom  tiiey  had 
married  contrary  to  the  hnv  (^Kzra  x.  11,  12.  I'J.);  but  our 
Saviour  has  limited  tlie  ])ermission  of  divorce  to  the  sin<^le 
case  of  adultery.  (Malt.  v.  31,  3'2.)  Nor  was  this  limitation 
imnecessary  ;  for  at  that  time  it  was  common  for  the  Jews  to 
dissolve  tliis  sarrcd  union  upon  very  siiiriit  and  trivial  jire- 
tences.  A  short  time  belong  the  birth  of  Christ,  a  (jrcat  dis- 
pute arose  among  Uie  .lewish  doctors  concernincr  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  Mosaic  statutes  relative  to  divorce;  the  school 
of  Shammai  contending  tiiat  it  was  allowable  only  for  gross 
misconduct  or  for  violation  of  imptial  fidelity,  while  the  school 
of  Hillel  taught  that  a  wife  might  be  repudiated  for  the 
slightest  causes.    To  this  last-mentioned  school  belonged 


the  Pharisees,  who  came  to  our  Lord,  iempting  kim,  ana 
sayinij;  uniu  him,  h  it  liiirful  for  a  man  to  put  away  fils  wife 
fir  evny  cause — for  any  thing  whatever  that  may  be  dis- 
agreeable in  herl  (Malt.  xix.  .'{.)  I'pnn  our  Lord's  answer 
to  this  inquiry,  that  it  was  not  lawful  for  a  man  to  repudiate 
his  wife,  except  for  her  violation  of  the  conjugal  honour,  the 
disciples  (who  had  been  educated  in  .lewish  prejudices  and 
princi|)les)  hearing  this,  said — If  the  case  if  the  man  be  so 
with  his  wife,  if  he  be  not  allowed  to  divorce  her  except  only 
for  adultery,  //  is  not  ^ood  to  marry  !  (Matt.  xix.  10.)  This 
facility  in  procuring  divorces,  and  this  caprice  and  levity 
among  the  Jews,  in  dissolving  the  matrimonial  connexion, 
is  confirmed  by  Josephus,  and  unhappily  verified  in  his  own 
example:  for  ne  tells  us  that  he  repudiated  his  wife,  thriugh 
she  was  the  mother  of  three  children,  because  he  was  not 
pleased  with  her  behaviour.' 


CHAPTER  IV. 


BIRTH,  NURTURE,  ETC.   OF  CHILDREN.' 

L    Child-birth. —  Circumcision. — JS^amiiiff   of  the  Chihl. — II.   Privile/rcs    of  the  First-bom. — III.  J\'urttire   of  Children. — IV. 
2'oiver  of  the  Father  over  his  Children. — Disposition  of  his  Property. — V.  Jldoption. 


\.  In  the  East  (as  indeed  in  Switzerland  and  some  other 
parts  of  Europe,  where  the  women  are  very  robust),  child- 
feirth  is  to  this  day  an  event  of  but  little  difficulty  ;■'  and  mo- 
thers were  originally  the  only  assistants  of  their  daughters, 
as  any  further  aid  was  deemed  unnecessary.  This  was  the 
case  of  the  Hebrew  women  in  Egypt.  (Exod.  i.  19.)  It  is 
evident  from  Gen.  xxxv.  17-  and  xxxviii.  '28.  that  midwives 
were  employed  in  cases  of  difficult  parturition  ;  and  it  also 
appears  that  in  Egypt,  from  time  immemorial,  the  care  of 
delivering  women  was  committed  to  female  midwives. 
(Exod.  i.  15.  et  seq.)  From  Ezek.  xvi.  4.  it  seems  to  have 
been  the  custom  to  wash  the  child  as  soon  as  it  was  born, 
to  rub  it  with  salt,  and  to  wrap  it  in  swaddling-clothes 
(The  Armenians,  to  this  day,  wash  their  new-born  infants  in 
salt  and  water,  previously  to  dressing  them.)  The  birth- 
day of  a  son  was  celebrated  as  a  festival,  which  was  solem- 
nized every  succeeding  year  with  renewed  demonstrations 
of  festivity  and  joy,  especially  those  of  sovereign  princes. 
(Gen.  xl.  20.  Job  i.  4.  Matt.  xiv.  6.)  The  birth  of  a  son  or 
of  a  daughter  rendered  the  mother  ceremonially  unclean  for 
a  certain  period  :  at  the  expiration  of  which  she  went  into 
the  tabernacle  or  temple,  and  offered  the  accustomed  sacri- 
-fice  of  purification,  viz.  a  lamb  of  a  year  old,  or,  if  her  cir- 
cumstances would  not  afford  it,  two  turtle-doves,  or  two 
young  pigeons.  (Lev.  xii.  1 — 8.  Luke  ii.  22.) 

On  the  eighth  day  after  its  birth  the  son  was  circumcised,  by 
which  rite  it  was  consecrated  to  the  service  of  the  true  God 
(Gen.  xvii.  10.  compared  with  Rom.  iv.  11.)  :  on  the  nature 
of  circumcision,  see  pp.  110,  111.  supra.  At  the  same  time 
the  male  child  received  a  name  (as  we  have  already  re- 
marked in  p.  111.)  :  in  many  instances  he  received  a  name 
from  the  circumstance  of  his  birth,  or  from  some  peculiari- 
ties in  the  history  of  the  family  to  which  he  belonged  (Gen. 
xvi.  11.  XXV.  25,  2().  Exod.  ii.  10.  xviii.  3,  4.)  ;  and  some- 
times the  name  had  a  prophetic  meaning.  (Isa.  vii.  14.  viii. 
3.  Hos.  i.  4.  6.  9.  Matt.  i.  21.  Luke  i.  13.  60.  63.) 

«  .Tosephus  de  Vita  sua,  c.  76.  Home's  History  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  p. 
358.  Harwood's  Inlrod.  vol.  ii.  p.  125.  Calinet's  Dissertation  siir  le  Divorce. 
Dissert,  torn.  i.  pp.  390,  391.  The  following  are  some  of  the  principal 
causes  for  which  the  Jews  were  accustomeil  to  put  away  their  wives,  at 
the  period  referred  to: — 1.  "It  is  commanded  to  divorce  a  wife,  that  is  not 
of  good  behaviour,  and  is  not  modest,  as  becomes  a  daughter  of  Israel." — 
2.  "  If  any  man  liate  his  wife,  let  hliii  put  her  away." — 3.  "  The  school  of 
Hillel  sailh,  If  the  wife  cook  her  husband's  food  illy,  by  over-salting  it,  or 
over-roasting  it,  she  is  to  be  put  away."^.  Yea,  "  If,  by  any  stroke  from 
the  hand  of  God,  she  become  dumb  or  sottish,"  &c. — 5.  R.  Akibah  said, 
"  If  any  man  sees  a  woman  handsomer  than  his  own  wife,  he  may  put  her 
away  ;  because  it  is  said,  'If  she  find  not  favour  in  his  eyes.'  " — (Lighl- 
foot's  Ilorqp  Hebraica,  on  Matt.  v.  31.— Works,  vol.  xi.  p.  118.  8vo.  edit.) 
This  last  was  the  cause  assigned  by  Josephus  for  repudiating  his  wife  in 
the  passage  above  cited. 

«  This  chapter  is  compiled  from  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  voL  i.  pp 
427—130.  413 — 117.  Lewis's  Origines  Hebrsfe,  vol.  ii.  pp.  210—310.  Cal- 
met's  Dictionary,  article  Adoption.  Bruning,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  1—11. 
Pareau,  Antiquitas  Hebraica,  part  iv.  c.  6.  de  liberorum  procreatione  et 
educatinne,  pp.  442 — 146. 

»  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iv.  p.  433.  Morier's  Second'  Joumev. 
p.  IOC.  ■" 


n.  "  The  First-born,  who  was  the  object  of  special  affec- 
tion to  his  parents,  was  denominated,  by  way  of  eminence, 
the  opening  of  the  womb.  In  case  a  man  married  a  widow 
who  by  a  previous  marriage  had  become  the  mother  of  chil- 
dren, the  first-born  as  respected  the  second  husband  was  the 
child  that  was  eldest  by  the  second  marriage.  Before  the 
time  of  Moses,  the  father  might,  if  he  chose,  transfer  the 
right  of  primogeniture  to  a  younger  child,  but  the  practice 
occasioned  much  contention  (Gen.  xxv.  31,  32.),  and  a  law 
was  enacted  overruling  it.  (Dent.  xxi.  15 — 17.)  The  first- 
born inherited  peculiar  rights  and  privileges. — 1.  lie  received 
a  double  portion  of  the  estate.  Jacob  in  the  case  of  Reuben, 
his  first-born,  bestowed  his  additional  poriifjn  upon  Joseph, 
by  adopting  his  two  sens.  (Gen.  xlviii.  5 — 8.)  This  was 
done  as  a  reprimand,  and  a  punishment  of  his  incestuous 
conduct  (Gen.  xxxv.  22.);  but  Reuben,  notwithstanding, 
was  enrolled  as  the  first-born  in  the  genealogical  registers. 
(1  Chron.  v.  1.) — 2.  The  fin-t-born  was  the  priest  of  the 
whole  family.  The  honour  of  exercising  the  priesthood  was 
transferred,  by  the  command  of  God  communicated  through 
Moses,  from  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  to  whom  it  belonged  by 
right  of  primogeniture,  to  that  of  Levi,  (Num.  iii.  12 — 18. 
viii.  18.)  In  consequence  of  this  fact,  that  God  had  taken 
the  Levites  from  among  the  children  of  Israel,  instead  of  all 
the  first-born,  to  serve  him  as  priest,  the  first-born  of  the 
other  tribes  were  to  be  redeemed,  at  a  valuation  made  by  the 
priest  not  exceeding  five  shekels,  from  serving  God  in  that 
capacity.  (Num.  xviii.  15,  IG.  compared  with  Luke  ii.  22. 
et  seq.) — 3.  The  fir&t-horn  enjoyed  an  authority  over  those 
who  were  younger,  similar  to  that  possessed  by  a  father 
(Gen.  xxv.  23.  et  seq.  2  Chron.  xxi.  3.  Gen.  xxvii.  29.), 
which  was  transferred  in  the  case  of  Reuben  by  Jacob  their 
father  to  Judah.  (Gen.  xlix.  8 — 10.)  The  tribe  of  Judah, 
accordingly,  even  before  it  gave  kings  to  the  Hebrews,  was 
every  where  distinguished  from  the  other  tribes.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  authority  which  was  thus  attached  to  the  first- 
born, he  was  also  made  the  successor  in  the  kingdom.  There 
was  an  exception  to  this  rule  in  the  case  of  Solomon,  who, 
though  a  younger  brother,  was  made  his  successor  by  David 
at  the  special  appointment  of  God.  It  is  very  easy  to  see  in 
view  of  these  facts,  how  the  word  first-born  came  to  express 
sometimes  a  great,  and  sometimes  the  highest  dignity."^  (Isa. 
xiv.  30.  Psal.  Ixxxix.  27.  Rom.  viii.  29.  Col.  L  15— 18. 
Heb.  xii.  23.  Rev.  i.  5.  11.  Job  xviii.  13.) 

III.  In  the  earliest  ages,  mothers  suckled  their  offspring 
themselves,  and,  it  should  seem  from  various  passages  of 
Scripture,  until  they  were  nearly  or  quite  three  years  old  :  on 
the  day  the  child  was  weaned,  it  was  usual  to  make  a  feast. 
(2  Mace.  vii.  27.  1  Sam.  i.  22—24.  Gen.  xxi.  8.)  The  same 
custom  of  feasting  obtains  in  Persia  to  this  day.^  In  case 
the  mother  died  before  the  child  was   old   enough  to  be 

«  Jah'n's  Archteologia  Biblica,  by  Mr.  Uphain,  §  165. 
»  Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  107. 


164 


BIRTH,  NURTURE,  ETC.  OF  CHILDREN. 


[Paut  IV. 


weaned,  or  was  unable  to  rear  it  herself,  nurses  were  em-    wishes  or  will  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  and  probably  in 


S loved  ;  and  also  in  later  ages  when  matrons  became  too 
elicate  or  too  infirm  to  perform  the  maternal  duties.  These 
nurses  were  reckoned  among  the  principal  members  of  the 
family  ;  and,  in  consequence  of  the  respectable  station  which 
they  sustained,  are  frequently  mentioned  in  sacred  history. 
See  Gen.  xxxv.  8.  2  Kings  xi.  2.  2  Chron.  xxii.  11. 

"T//e  diniglders  rarely  departed  from  the  apartments  appro- 
priated to  the  females,  except  when  they  went  out  with  an 
urn  to  draw  water,  which  was  the  practice  with  those  who 
belonged  to  those  humbler  stations  in  life,  where  the  ancient 
simplicity  of  manners  had  not  lost  its  prevalence.  (Exod.  ii. 

16.  Gen.  xxiv.  16.  xxix.  10.  1  Sam.  ix.  11,  12.  John  iv.  7.) 
They  spent  their  time  in  learning  those  domestic  and  other 
arts,  which  are  befitting  a  woman's  situation  and  character, 
till  they  arrived  at  that  period  in  life,  when  they  were  to  be 
sold,  or  by  a  better  fortune  given  away,  in  marriage.  (Prov. 
xxxi.  13.  2  Sam.  xiii.  7.)  The  daughters  of  those  who  by 
their  wealth  had  been  elevated  to  hig-li  stations  in  life,  so  far 
from  going  cut  to  draw  water  in  urns,  might  be  said  to  spend 
the  whole°of  their  time  within  the  walls  of  their  palaces.  In 
imitation  of  their  mothers,  they  were  occupied  with  dressing, 
with  singing,  and  with  dancing  ;  and,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  representations  of  modern  travellers,  their  apartments 
were  sometimes  the  scenes  of  vice.  (Ezek.  xxiii.  18.)  They 
went  abroad  but  very  rarely,  as  already  intimated,  and  the 
more  rarely,  the  higher  they  were  in  pomt  of  rank,  but  they 
received  with  cordiality  female  \asitants.  The  virtues  of  a 
good  woman,  of  one  that  is  determined,  whatever  her  station, 
to  discharge  each  incumbent  dutA^  and  to  avoid  the  frivolities 
and  vices  at  which  we  have  briefly  hinted,  are  mentioned  in 
terms  of  approbation  and  praise  in  Prov.  xxxi.  10 — 31. 

"  The  sons  remained  till  the  fifth  year  in  the  care  of  the 
women  ;  then  they  came  into  the  father's  care,  and  were 
taught  not  only  the  arts  and  duties  of  life,  but  were  instructed 
in  the  Mosaic  law,  and  in  all  parts  of  their  country's  religion. 
(Deut.  vi.  20 — 25.  xi.  19.)  These  who  wished  to  have 
them  further  instructed,  provided  they  did  not  deem  it  pre- 
ferable to  employ  private  teachers,  sent  them  away  to  some 
priest  or  Levite,  who  sometimes  had  a  number  of  other  chil- 
dren to  instruct.  It  appears  from  1  Sam.  i.  24 — 28.  that 
there  was  a  school  near  tne  holy  tabernacle,  dedicated  to  the 
instruction  of  youth. 

IV.  "  The  authority  to  which  a  father  was  entitled  ex- 
tended not  only  to  his  wife,  to  liis  own  children,  and  to  his 
servants  of  both  sexes,  but  to  his  children's  children  also.  It 
was  the  custom  anciently  for  sons  newly  married  to  remain 
at  their  father's  house,  unless  it  had  been  their  fortune  to 
marry  a  daughter,  who,  having  no  brothers,  was  heiress  to 
an  estate  ;  or  unless  by  some  trade,  or  by  commerce,  they 
had  acquired  sufficient  property  to  enable  them  to  support 
their  own  family.  It  might  of  course  be  expected,  while 
they  lived  in  their  father's  house,  and  were  in  a  manner  the 
pensioners  on  his  bounty,  that  he  would  exercise  his  autho- 
rity over  the  children  of  his  sons  as  well  as  over  the  sons 
themselves."  In  this  case  the  power  of  the  father  "  had  no 
narrow  limits,  and,  whenever  he  found  it  necessary  to  resort 
to  measures  of  severity,  he  was  at  liberty  to  inflict  the  ex- 
tremity of  punishment.  (Gen.  xxi.  14.  xxxviii.  24.)  This 
power  was  so  restricted  by  Moses,  that  the  father,  if  he 
judged  the  son  worthy  of  death,  was  bound  to  bring  the 
cause  before  a  judge.  But  he  enacted,  at  the  same  time,  that 
the  judge  should  prmounce  sentence  of  death  upon  the  son, 
if  on  inquiry  it  could  be  proved,  that  he  had  beaten  or  cursed 
his  fcither  or  mother,  or  that  he  was  a  spendthrift,  or  saucy, 
CT  crntumacious,  and  could  not  be  reformed.  (Exod.  xxi.  15. 

17.  Lev.  XX.  9.  Deut.  xxi.  18 — 21.)  The  authority  of  the 
parents,  and  the  service  and  love  due  to  them,  are  recognised 
m  the  most  prominent  and  fundamental  of  the  'niorul  laws 
of  the  Jewisn  polity,  viz.  the  Ttn  Commandments.  (Exod. 
XX.  12.) 

"  The  son,  who  had  acquired  property,  was  commanded  to 
exhibit  his  gratitude  to  bis  parents,  not  only  by  words  and 
in  feeling,  but  by  gifts.  (Matt.  xy.  5,  6.  Mark  vii.  11—13.) 
The  power  of  the  father  over  his  offspring  in  the  ancient 
times  was  not  only  very  great  for  the  time  being,  and  while 
he  sojourned  with  them  in  the  land  of  the  living  ;  but  he  was 
allowed  also  to  cast  his  eye  into  the  future,  and  his  prophetic 
curse  or  blessing  possessed  no  little  efficacy."'  (Gen.  xlix. 
2—28.) 

It  nppears  from  1  Kings  xx.  1.  (marginal  rendering)  that,  in 
the  disposition  of  his  effects,  the  father  expressed  his  last 

'  Jahn's  Archfeologia  Bibliea,  by  Mr.  llpliam,  §§  166,  167. 


the  presence  of  the  future  heirs,  as  Jacol)  did,  in  Cif 
xlviii. ;  and  this,  INIichaelis  is  of  opinion,  seems  to  be  what 
is  called  giving  the  inheritance  to  his  sens,  in  Drut.  xxi.  16. 
Testaments  were  not  written  until  long  after  that  period. 
The  following  regulations  obtained  in  the  disposition  of  pro- 
perty :— 

1.  "As  it  respected  sons .- — The  property  or  estate  of  the 
father,  after  his  decease,  fell  into  the  possession  of  his  sons, 
who  divided  it  among  themselves  equally  ;  with  this  excep- 
tion, that  the  eldest  son  received  two  portions."  It  appears, 
however,  from  Luke  xv.  12.  that  sons  might  demand  and 
receive  their  portion  of  the  inheritance  during  their  father's 
lifetime  ;  and  that  the  parent,  though  aware  of  the  dissipated 
inclinations  of  the  chila,  could  not  legally  refuse  the  applica- 
tion. 

9.  "As  it  respected  the  sons  of  concubines.- — The  portion, 
which  was  given  to  them,  depended  altogether  upon  the  feel- 
ings of  the  father.  Abraham  g-ave  presents,  to  what  amount 
is  not  known,  both  to  Ishmael  and  to  the  sons  whom  he  had 
by  Keturah,  and  sent  them  away  before  his  death.  It  does 
not  appear  that  they  had  any  other  portion  in  the  e?tate ;  but 
.Tacob  made  the  sons,  whom  he  had  by  his  concubines,  heirs 
as  well  as  the  others.  (Gen.  xxi.  8 — 21.  xxv.  1 — 6.  xlix.  1 — 
27.)  Moses  laid  no  restrictions  upon  the  choice  of  fathers  in 
this  respect;  and  we  should  infer  that  the  sons  of  concubines 
for  the  most  part  received  an  equal  share  with  the  other  sons, 
from  the  fact,  that  Jephthah,  the  son  of  a  concubine,  com- 
plained, that  he  was  excluded  without  any  portion  from  his 
father's  house,    (Judg.  xi.  1 — 7.) 

3,  "  As  it  respected  c?(WD-A/frs  .-^The  daughters  not  only 
had  no  portion  in  the  estate,  but,  if  they  were  unmarried, 
were  considered  as  making  a  part  of  it,  and  were  sold  by  their 
brothers  into  matrimony.  In  case  there  were  no  brothers,  or 
they  all  had  died,  they  took  the  estate  (Num.  xxvii.  1 — 8.)  : 
if  any  one  died  intestate,  and  without  any  offspring,  the  pro- 
perty was  disposed  of  according  to  the  enactments  in  Num. 
xxvii,  8—11, 

4,  "  As  it  respected  servants .- — The  servants  or  the  slaves 
in  a  family  could  not  claim  any  share  in  the  estate  as  a  right, 
but  the  person  who  made  a  will  might,  if  he  chose,  make  them 
his  heirs.  (Comp.  Gen,  xv,  3.)  Indeed,  in  some  instances, 
those  who  had  heirs,  recognised  as  such  by  the  law,  did  not 
deem  it  unbecoming  to  bestow  the  whole  or  a  portion  of  their 
estates  on  faithful  and  deserving  servants,  (Prov,  xvii,  2,) 

5,  "  As  it  respected  widows  .■ — The  widow  of  the  deceased, 
like  his  daughters,  had  no  legal  right  to  a  share  in  the  estate. 
The  sons,  however,  or  other  relations,  were  bound  to  affiird 
her  an  adequate  maintenance,  unless  it  had  been  otherwise 
arranged  in  the  will.  She  sometimes  returned  back  again  to 
her  father's  house,  particularly  if  the  support,  which  the  heirs 
gave  her,  was  not  such  as  had  been  promised,  or  was  not  suffi- 
cient, (Gen,  xxxviii,  11,  compare  also  the  story  of  Ruth,) 
The  prophets  very  frequently,  and  undoubtedly  not  without 
cause,  exclaim  against  the  neglect  and  injustice  shown  to 
widows. "2  (Isa.  i.  17,  x.  2,  Jer,  vii.  6.  xxii.  3,  Ezek.  xxii. 
7,  comp,  Exod,  xxii,  22—24,  Deut.  x,  18.  xxiv.  17,) 

V,  Where  there  were  no  sons  to  inherit  property,  it  appears 
from  various  passages  of  the  New»Testament,  that  Adoi'tion, 
— or  the  taking  of  a  stranger  into  a  f;imily,-in  order  to  make 
him  a  part  of  it,  acknowledging  him  as  a  son  and  heir  to  tiie 
estate, — was  very  generally  practised  in  the  East,  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour,  Ado])tion,  however,  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  used  by  the  elder  Hebrews :  Moses  is  silent  concerning 
it  in  his  law  ;  and  Jacob's  adoption  of  his  two  grandsons, 
Ephraiin  and  Manasseh  (Gen.  xlviii.  1.),  is  rather  a  kind  of 
suDstitution,  by  which  he  intended,  that  the  two  sons  of 
Jrseph  should  have  each  his  lot  in  Israel,  as  if  they  had  been 
his  own  sons.  17iJ/  two  so?Js,  Ephraim  and  Munasseh,  are 
mine  ,-,  as  Reuben  and  Simeon  they  shall  be  mine.  But  as  he 
gave  no  inheritance  to  their  father  Joseph,  the  eflfect  of  this 
adoption  extended  only  to  their  increase  of  fortune  and  inhe- 
ritance ;  that  is,  instead  of  one  part,  giving  them  (or  Joseph, 
by  means  of  them)  two  parts.  Two  other  kinds  of  adoption 
among  the  Israelites  are  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  ;  viz. 

1.  The  first  consisted  in  the  obligation  of  a  surviving 
brother  to  marry  the  widow  of  his  brother,  who  had  died  with- 
out children  (Deut,  xxv,  5,  Ruth  iv,  5.  Matt,  xxii,  24,) ;  so 
that  the  children  of  this  marriage  were  considered  as  beh  ng- 
ing  to  the  deceased  brother,  and  went  by  his  naine ;  a  practice 
more  ancient  than  the  law,  as  appears  in  thehistory  of  Tamar;, 
but  this  manner  of  adopting  was  not  practised  among  the . 

'  Jahn's  Archxologia  Bibliea,  by  Mr.  Upham,  I  168. 


Chap.  V.] 


ON  THE  CONDITION  OF 'SLAVES  AND  OF  SERVANTS. 


165 


Grerks  and  Romans  :  neitlipr  was  that  kind  of  adoption  in-  :  cViildren  of  God.     Thus  St.  Paul  writes  (Rom.  viii.  15.),  Ye 

tended  hy  S;ir;ili,  lifati,  and    l^achcl  ;   vvlii-ii   thry  oave  their  , /"/re  received  l/ie  spiril  of  (/(/ajitioii,   ir/irrdii/  ice   cry,  .Ibha, 

'    "  "^  Falhcr.    ll'e  iL'tiit  for  the  (idojiliiiii  of  llie  cliildrtn  of  Gvd.    And 

((ial.  iv.  4,  5.)    God  sent  forth  his  Son  to  redeem  them  that 

were  under  the  law,  that  we  mi<^hl  receive  the  adoption  of  tons. 

Amonor  the  Mohammedans  the  ceremony   of  adoj)lion  is 

performed, hy  causinirthe  ado])ted  to  pass  tliroujrh  the  shirtof 

the  person  wiio  adopts  iiim.     Fortiiis  reason,  to  adopt  amonc 
.1.,   'p.  ..1,  .  :  . 1  1...  „      ■  •  ■  ' 


handmaidens  to  their  hiishands.  (Gen.  xvi.  2.  xxx.  3.) 

2.  Various  instances  of  another  l<ind  of  adoption  are  re- 
corded in  the  OKI  Testament,  vix.  that  of  a  fatiier  havingr  a 
daughter  only,  and  adoptinjr  her  chiUlren.  Thus,  in  1  ('hron. 
ii.  21,  22.,  \lachir  the  grandson  of  .loseph,  wIk)  is  c.aHed 
father  (f  G I li ad {lh;\l  is,  cliief  of  lliat  town),  gave  iiis  daugh 


ter  to  liezron,  who  married  her  when  h(!  was  llireescore  years  '  tiie  Turks  is  ex|)ress(  d  hy  saying — to  draw  any  one  through 
old,  and  sh(!  hare  him  Seguh.  And  Seguh  hegat  Jair,  wiio  .  one's  sliirt;  aiul  an  adopted  son  is  called  hy  tliem  Ji/tietoi^li, 
had    three-and-twenty  cities  in    the   land  of  Gilead.      Jair  !  the  son  of  another  life — hecause  he  was  not  begftten  in  this.* 

1  .  A    .1  •.•  1-1  1  1  !  -  I  c .1  • i:i.„   .1  ■,.  :,.   ,1 1.1 .u„  IJ„I .    i.-'i: 


acquired  a  number  ot  other  ciiies,  which  made\ij)  his  posses- !  Something  like  this  is  ohservalile  among  the  Hebrews:  Eli 
sions  to  threescore  cities.    (.losh.  xiii.  ."JO.    1  Kings  iv.  1.3.)  |  jah  adopted  the  prophet  Klisha,  by  throwing  his  mantle  oye: 

However,  both  he  and  his  posterity,  instead  of  being  reckoued    ' ......  .     ™- 

t'j  the  family  of  .ludah  as  they  ou^ht  to  liav(!  been  by  their 


Ki 


^a/e/v((;/ descent  from  liezron,  are  reckont^d  as  sons  of  .Ma- 
chir  thefatherof  (iilead.  It  further  appears  from  Num.  xxxii. 
41.  that  this  very  Jair,  who  was  in  fact  the  son  of  vSegub,  the 
son  of  liezron,  the  son  of  ,/ii(/iih,  is  expressly  called  Jair  the 
son  of  Manasseh,  br-cause  his  maternal  great-grandfather  was 
Machir,  the  son  of  Manasseh.  In  like;  manner,  we  read  that 
Mordecai  adopted  lOsther  his  niece :  when  her  father  and 
mother  were  dead,  he  took  \wv  fa-  hl.i  own  daughter.  So  the 
daughter  of  Pharaoh  adopted  Moses,  and  he  hecaine  her  son. 
(Exod.  ii.  10.)  So  we  read  in  Ruth  iv.  17.  that  Naomi  had 
a  son  :  a  son  is  born  to  Naomi :  when,  indeed,  it  was  the  son 
of  Ruth,  and  only  a  distant  relation  (or,  in  fact,  none  at  all) 
to  Naomi,  who  was  merely  the  wife  of  Elimelech,  to  whom 
Boaz  was  kinsman 


iim  (1  Kings  xix.  !!>.);  and  when  Elijah  was  carried  off  in 
a  fiery  chariot,  his  mantle,  which  he  It  t  (all,  was  taken  up  by 
Elislia  his  disciple,  his  spiritual  son,  and  adopted  successor 
in  the  oflice  of  prophet,  (2  Kings  ii.  15.) 

This  circumstance  seems  to  be  illustrated  by  the  conduct 
of  Moses,  who  dressed  Eleazar  in  Aaron's  sacred  vestments, 
when  that  high-priest  was  about  to  be  gathered  to  his  fathers ; 
indicating  thereby,  that  Eleazar  succeeded  in  the  functions  of 
the  jiriesthood,  and  was,  in  some  sort,  adopted  to  exercise 
that  dignity.  The  Lord  told  Shebna,  the  captain  of  the  tem- 
ple, that  he  would  deprive  him  of  his  honourable  station,  and 
substitute  Eliakim,  tne  son  of  Hilkiah,  in  his  room.  (Isa. 
xxii.  21.)  /  will  CLOTHE  HIM  WITH  THY  ROBE,  and  strengthen 
him  ivith  thi/  girdle,  and  I  will  commit  thy  government  into  his 
hand.  St.  Paul,  in  several  places,  says,  that  real  Christians 
put  on  the  Lord  Jesus  ;  and  that  they  put  on  the  new  man,  in 


By  the  propitiation  of  our  Saviour,  and  the  communication    order  to  denote  their  adoption  as  sons  of  God.  (Rom.  xiii.  14. 
of  the  merits  of  his  death,  penitent  sinners  become  the  adopted  i  Gal,  iii.  26,  27.) 


CHAPTER  V. 


ON    THE    CONDITION    OF    SLAVES    AND    OF    SERVANTS,    AND    THE    CUSTOMS    RELATING    TO    THEM, 
MENTIONED    OR    ALLUDED    TO    IN    THE    NEW    TESTAMENT 

I.  Slaves,  hoiP  acffuired. — II.  Their  Condition  awo7}g  the  Ilebreivs. — III.  ^Ind  among  other  J\'ations. — IV.  Of  hired  Servanta 
—  Customs  relating  to  them  and  to  Slaves  alluded  to  in  the  jXeto  Testament. — V.  Different  Kinds  of  Slaves  or  Servantt 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. 


I.  Si.AVEiiv  is  of  very  remote  antiquitj^;  and  when  Moses 
gave  his  laws  to  the  Jews,  finding  it  already  established, 
though  he  could  not  abolish  it,  yet  he  enacted  various  salutary 
laws  and  regulations.  The  Israelites,  indeed,  might  have 
Hebrew  servants  or  slaves,  as  well  as  alien-born  persons,  but 
these  were  to  be  circumcised,  and  were  required  to  worship 
*he  only  true  God  (Gen.  xvii.  12, 13.),  with  the  exception  oi 
the  Canaanites. 

Slaves  were  acquired  in  various  waj's;  l.By  Captivity, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  origin  of  slavery 
(Gen.  xiv.  11.  Deut.  xx.  11.  xxi.  10,  11.);  2,  By  A6/,  when 
persons  being  poor  were  sold  for  payment  ot  their  debts 
(2  Kings  iv.  1.  Matt,  xviii.  25.)  ;  .3.  By  committing  a  Theft, 
without  the  power  of  making  restitution  (Exod.  xxii,  2,  3. 
Neh.  v,  4,  5.) ;  4,  By  Birth,  when  persons  were  born  of 
married  slaves.  These  are  termed  born  in  the  house  (Gen.  xiv. 
14.  XV.  3.  xvii.  23.  xxi.  10.),  home-born  (Jer.  ii,  14,),  and  the 
sons  or  children  oi  handmaids.  (Psal.  Ixxxvi,  16,  cxvi,  16.) 
Abraham  had  three  hundred  and  eighteen  slaves  of  this  de- 
scription ;  5,  Man-stealing  was  another  mode  by  which  persons 
were  reduced  into  slavery .^  The  seizing  or  stealing  of  a  free- 
born  Israelite,  either  to  treat  him  as  a  slave  or  to  sell  him  as 
a  slave  to  others,  was  absolutely  and  irremissibly  punished 
with  death  by  the  law  of  Moses.  (Exod.  xxi.  16.  Deut,  xxiv, 
7.)  Although  the  Gospel  is  intended  to  make  no  change  or 
difference  in  the  civil  circumstances  of  mankind  who  are  con- 
verted from  paganism  to  Christianity,  the  master  and  the 
slave  being  equally  called,  as  St,  Paul  argues  at  length  in 
1  Cor,  vii.  17 — 24, ;  yet  the  same  apostle  (1  Tim.  i.  9,  10,), 
when  enumerating  various  classes  of  offenders  who  are  obnox- 
ious to  law,  expressly  denounces  men-steakrs,  ovcfgiTcsf/TTs/f, 
those  who  kidnap  men,  to  sell  them  for  slaves :  in  other 
words  slave-traders, 5 

1  D'Herbelol  Bibl.  Orient,  p.  47. 

»  Piireau,  Aiuiq.  llebr.  pp.  418,  449.  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i. 
pp.  1")8— 164. 

■  '  '"^''«  ^ew  Testament,"  says  Bishop  Horsley,  in  one  of  his  speeches 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  ''contains  an  express  reprobation  oi  ihe  slave- 


II.  Slaves  received  both  food  and  clothing,  for  the  most 
part  of  the  meanest  quality,  but  whatever  property  they 
acquired  belonged  to  their  lords :  hence  they  are  said  to  be 
worth  double  the  value  of  a  hired  servant.  (Deut,  xv.  18.) 
They  formed  marriages  at  the  will  of  their  master,  but  their 
children  were  slaves,  who,  though  they  could  not  call  him  a 
father  (Gal.  iv.  6.  Rom.  viii.  15.),  yet  were  attached  and 
faithful  to  him  as  to  a  father,  on  which  account  the  patriarchs 
trusted  them  with  arms,  (Gen.  xiv,  14,  xxxii.  6,  xxxiii.  1.) 
If  a  married  Hebrew  sold  himself,  he  w'as  to  serve  for  six 

trade  by  name,  as  sinful  in  a  very  high  degree.  The  apostle,  St.  Paul, 
having  spoken  of  persons  that  were  lawless  and  disobedient,  ungodly  and 
sinners,  unholy  and  profane,  proceeds  to  specify  and  distinguish  the  seve- 
ral characters  and  descriptions  of  men  lo  whom  he  applies  those  very 
general  epithets ;  and  they  are  these, — '  murderers  of  fathers,  murderers 
of  mothers,  man-slayers,  they  that  defile  themselves  wilb  mankind,  men- 

stealers.'  " "  This  te.xt  condemns  and  prohibits  ihe  slave-trade  in  one 

al  least  of  its  most  productive  modes.  But  1  go  further  ;  1  maintain  that 
lliis  text,  rightly  interpreted,  condenmsaiid  prohibits  the  slave-trade  gene- 
rally in  all  its  modes:  it  rank.s  Ihe  slave-trade  In  the  descending  scale  of 
crime,  next  alter  parricide  and  honiiciile.  The  original  word,  which  the 
Enelish  Bible  gives  men-s-tealers,  is  xvipxs-jj.im;;.  Our  translators  have 
taken  the  word  in  its  restricted  sense  which  it  bears  in  the  Attic  law  ;  in 
which  the  S'«r  ii^oa-cS.o-^cu  was  a  criminal  prosecution  for  Ihe  specific 
crime  of  kidnapping,  Ihe  penalty  of  which  was  death.  But  Ihe  phrase- 
ology of  the  Holy  Scripture,  especially  in  the  preceptive  part,  is  a  popular 
phraseology  ;  and  ivifxs-oJ.o-Tnf,  in  its  popular  sense,,  is  a  person  who 
'  deals  in  men,'  literally,  a  slave-trader.  That  is  the  English  word  literally 
and  exactly  corresponding  to  the  Greek." "The  Greek  word  is  so  ex- 
plained by  the  learned  grammarian  Eustathius,  and  by  other  grammarians 
of  the  first  authority.  Although  the  Athenians  scrupled  not  to  jwssess 
themselves  of  slaves,  yet  the  trade  in  slaves  among  them  was  infamous." 
(Speeches  in  Parliament,  p.  539.)  The  following  observation  of  a  learned 
modern  critic  is  too  important  to  be  withheld  from  the  reader: — "By 
UiAfx^roi'irruK;  the  best  commentators  are  agreed  is  meant,  those  who 
kidnapped  and  sold  into  slavery  free  persons.  Now  this  was  regarded  by 
the  law  as  felony  of  the  deepest  dye,  and  was  always  punished  with  death. 
.\nd  as  all  the  crimes  here  mentioned  are  of  the  most  heinous  kind,  and  aa 
robbery  does  not  elsewhere  occur  in  Ihe  list,  so  ifipa^oJio-xai?  seems  as 
put  for  robbery  of  the  worst  sort.  Let  then  the  slave-traders  (Christians, 
alas  !)  of  our  times  tremble  :  for  all,  who  in  arty  leay  participate  m  that  abo- 
minable traffic,  are  ii  Jp»^3;^"rT»' ;  since  they  thereby  uphold  a  system, 
which  perpetually  engenders  manslealing."  (Bloomfield's  Annotations 
on  the  New  Test.  vol.  viii.  p.  301.)— By  the  act  of  parliament  3  <fe4  Gul.  iv. 
chap.  73.  slavery  was  abolished  throughout  the  British  Colonies. 


166 


ON  THE  CONDITION  OF  SLAVES  AND  OF  SERVANTS, 


[Part  IV. 


years,  and  in  the  seventh  he  was  to  go  out  free,  together  with 
his  wife  and  children  ;  but  if  his  master  had  given  one  of  his 
slaves  to  him  as  a  wife,  she  was  to  remain,  with  her  children, 
as  the  property  of  his  master.  (Exod.  xxi.  2 — 4.)  The  duty 
of  slaves  was  to  execute  their  lord's  commands,  and  they 
were  for  the  most  part  employed  in  tending  cattle  or  in  rural 
affairs ;  and  though  the  lot  of  some  of  them  was  sufficiently 
hard,  yet  under  a  mild  and  humane  master  it  was  tolerable. 
(Job  xxxi.  13.)  When  the  eastern  people  have  no  maleissue, 
they  frequently  marry  their  daughters  to  their  slaves ;  and  the 
same  practice  appears  to  have  obtained  among  the  Hebrews, 
as  we  read  in  1  Chron.  ii.  34,  35.  Now  S/iesfian  had  no  sons, 
but  daughters ;  and  Sheshan  had  a  servant  (slave),  an  Egyp- 
tian, whose  name  was  Jarha ,-  and  Sheshan  gave  his  daughter  to 
Jaruha  his  servant  to  ivife.  In  Barbary,  the  rich  people  when 
childless  have  been  known  to  purchase  young  slaves,  to  edu- 
cate them  in  their  own  faith,  and  sometimes  to  adopt  them  for 
their  own  children.  The  greatest  men  of  the  Ottoman  empire 
are  well  known  to  have  been  originally  slaves  brought  up  in 
the  seraglio:  and  the  Mameluke  sovereigns  of  Egypt  were 
originally  slaves.  Thus  the  advancement  of  the  Hebrew  cap- 
tive Joseph  to  be  viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  of  Daniel,  another 
Hebrew  captive,  to  be  chief  minister  of  state  in  Babylon, 
corresponds  with  the  modern  usages  of  the  East. 

In  order  to  mitigate  the  conditions  of  slaves,  various  sta- 
tutes were  enacted  by  Moses.  Thus,  1.  They  were  to  be 
treated  with  humanity  :  the  law  in  Lev.  xxv.  39 — 53.,  it  is 
true,  speaks  expressly  of  slaves  who  were  of  Hebrew  de- 
scent ;  but,  as  alien-born  slaves  were  engrafted  into  the  He- 
brew church  by  circumcision,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  it 
applied  to  all  slaves. — 2.  If  a  man  struck  his  servant  or  maid 
with  a  rod  or  staff,  and  he  or  she  died  under  his  hand,  he 
was  to  be  punished  by  the  magistrate ;  if,  however,  the  slave 
survived  for  a  day  or  two,  the  master  was  to  go  unpunished, 
as  no  intention  of  murder  could  be  presumed,  and  the  loss 
of  the  slave  was  deemed  a  sufficient  punishment.  (Exod. 
xxi.  20,  21.) — 3.  A  slave  who  lost  an  eye  or  a  tooth  by  a 
blow  from  his  or  her  master,  acquired  his  or  her  liberty  in 
consequence.  (Exod.  xxi.  26,  27.) — 4.  All  slaves  were  to 
rest  from  their  labours  on  the  Sabbath,  and  on  the  great  fes- 
tivals. (Exod.  XX.  10.  Deut.  v.  14.) — 5.  They  were  to  be 
invited  to  certain  feasts.  (Deut.  xii.  17,  18.  xvi.  11.) — 6.  A 
master  who  had  betrothed  a  female  slave  to  himself,  if  she 
did  not  please  him,  was  to  permit  her  to  be  redeemed,  and 
was  prohibited  from  selling  her  to  a  strange  nation,  seeing  he 
had  dealt  deceitfully  ivith  her.  If  he  had  betrothed  her  to  his 
son,  he  was  to  deal  with  her  after  the  manner  of  daughters. 
If  he  took  another  wife,  her  food,  raiment,  and  duty  of  mar- 
riage, he  was  not  to  diminish.  .And  if  he  did  not  these  three 
unto  her,  then  she  was  to  go  out  free  without  money.  (Exod. 
xxi.  7 — 11.) — 7.  Hebrew  slaves  were  to  continue  in  slavery 
only  till  the  year  of  jubilee,  when  they  might  return  to  liberty, 
and  their  masters  could  not  detain  them  against  their  wills. 
If  they  were  desirous  of  continuing  with  their  masters,  they 
were  to  be  brought  to  the  judges,  before  whom  they  were  to 
make  a  declaration  that  for  this  time  they  disclaimed  the  pri- 
vilege of  this  law  ;  and  had  their  ears  bored  through  with  an 
awl  against  the  door-posts  of  their  master's  house,'  after 
which  they  had  no  longer  any  power  of  recovering  their 
liberty  until  the  next  year  of  jubilee,  after  forty-nine  years. 
(Exod.  xxi.  5,  6.)  This  very  significant  ceremony  implied 
that  they  were  closely  attached  to  that  house  and  family ;  and 
that  they  were  hound,  to  hear,  and  punctually  to  obey,  all  their 
master's  orders. — 8.  If  a  Hebrew  by  birth  was  sold  to  a  stran- 
ger or  alien  dwelling  in  the  vicinity  of  the  land  of  Israel,  his 
relations  were  to  redeem  him,  and  such  slave  was  to  make 
good  the  purchase-money  if  he  were  able,  paying  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  years  that  remained,  until  the  year  of 
jubilee.  (Lev.  xxv.  47 — 55.)  Lastly,  if  a  slave  of  another 
nation  fled  to  the  Hebrews,  he  was  to  be  received  hospitably, 

«  Boring  of  the  ear  was  an  ancient  custom  in  the  East  i  it  is  thus  refer- 
red to  by  Juvenal : — 

....  Libertinus  prior  est :  "  Prior,"  inquit,  "  Ego  adsum, 

Cur  timeam,  dubitemve  locum  defenders 'i  quamvis 

Natus  ad  Euphratem,  molles  quod  in  aure  penestile 

Arguerint,  licet  ipse  negeni."  Sat.  i.  102 — 105. 

The  freedman,  bustling  through,  replies,  "First  come  is  still 

First  served  ;  and  I  may  claim  my  right,  and  will, 

Though  born  a  slave — ('t  were  bootless  to  deny 

What  t/iese  bored  ears  betray  to  every  eye.y  Gifford. 

Calmet,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  this  fact,  quotes  a  saying  from  Petro- 
nius  Arbiter,  as  attesting  the  same  thing  ;  and  another  of  Cicero,  in  which' 
he  rallies  a  Libyan  who  pretended  he  did  not  hear  him. — "  It  is  not,"  said 
the  philosopher,  "because  your  ears  are  not  sufficiently  bokbd." — Com- 
mentaire  Litt6ral,  sur  I'Exode  xjti.  6.  torn.  i.  p.  501. 


and  on  no  account  to  be  given  up  to  his  master.  (Deut.  xxiii. 
15,  16.)2 

111.  Although  Moses  inculcated  the  duty  of  humanity  to- 
wards slaves,  and  enforced  his  statutes  by  various  strong 
sanctions,  yet  it  appears  from  Jer.  xxxiv.  8 — 22.  that  their 
condition  was  sometimes  very  wretched.  It  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  denied  that  their  situation  was  much  more  tolerable 
among  the  Hebrews  than  among  other  nations,  especially 
the  Greeks  and  Romans. ^  Nor  is  this  a  matter  of  astonish- 
ment :  for  the  Israelites  were  bound  to  exercise  the  duties 
of  humanity  towards  these  unhappy  persons  by  weighty  sanc- 
tions and  motives,  which  no  other  nation  had,  whose  slaves 
had  no  Sabbath,  no  day  of  rest,  no  legal  protection,  and  who 
were  subject  to  the  cruel  caprice  of  their  masters,  whose  ab- 
solute property  they  were,  and  at  whose  mercy  their  lives 
every  moment  lay.''  "For  the  slightest  and  most  trivial 
offences  they  were  cruelly  scourged  and  condemned  to  hard 
labour ;  and  the  petty  tyrant  of  his  family,  when  exasperated 
by  any  real  or  apprehended  injury,  could  nail  them  to  a  cross, 
and  make  them  die  in  a  lingering  and  most  miserable  man- 
ner. These  slaves,  generally,  were  wretched  captives,  who 
had  been  taken  prisoners  in  unfortunate  battles,  or  had  fal- 
len into  their  enemies'  hands  in  the  siege  of  cities.  These 
miserable  captives,  ancient  history  informs  us,  were  either 
butchered  in  cold  blood,  or  sold  by  auction  for  slaves  to  the 
highest  bidder.  The  unhappy  prisoners  thus  bought  and 
enslaved  were  sometimes  thrust  into  deep  mines,  to  be 
drudges  through  life  in  darkness  and  despair :  sometimes 
were  pent  up  in  private  workhouses,  and  condemned  to  the 
most  laborious  and  ignoble  occupations  :  frequently  the  toils 
of  agriculture  were  imposed  upon  them,  and  the  severest  task 
unmercifully  exacted  from  them:^  most  commonly  they 
were  employed  in  the  menial  offices  and  drudgery  of  domes- 
tic life,  and  treated  with  the  greatest  inhumanity.  As  the 
last  insult  upon  their  wretchedness,  they  were  branded  in 
the  forehead,  and  a  note  of  eternal  disgrace  and  infamy  pub- 
licly and  indelibly  impressed  upon  them !  One  cannot  think 
of  this  most  contumelious  and  reproachful  treatment  of  a 
fellow-creature  without  feeling  the  acutest  pain  and  indigna- 
tion. To  the  above-mentioned  customs  in  the  treatment  of 
slaves,  which  obtained  among  the  ancients,  there  are  several 
allusions  in  the  New  Testament.  Thus  St.  Paul,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  custom  of  purchasing  slaves,  on  whose  heads  a 
price  was  then  fixed,  just  as  upon  any  other  commodity,  and 
who,  when  bought,  were  the  entire  and  unalienable  property 
of  the  purchaser,  by  a  very  beautiful  and  expressive  simili- 
tude represents  Christians  as  the  servants  of  Christ;  informs 
them  tliat  an  immense  price  had  been  paid  for  them  :  that 
they  were  not  at  their  own  disposal;  but  in  every  respect, 
both  as  to  body  and  mind,  were  the  sole  and  absolute  pro- 
perty of  God.  Ye  are  not  your  own  .•  for  ye  are  bought  with 
a  price  .■  therefore  glorify  God  in  your  body  and  in  your  spirit, 
which  are  God''s,  (1  Cor.  vi.  20.)  So  also  again:  Ye  are 
bought  with  a  price :  be  not  ye  the  servants  of  men.  (1  Cor.  vii. 

"^  .Tahn,  Archceol.  Bibhca,  §  171. 

»  Among  the  Romans  more  particularly,  slaves  were  held — pro  mdlis — 
pro  mortuis — pro  quadrupedihus — for  no  men — for  dead  men — for  beasts  ; 
nay,  .were  in  a  much  worse  state  than  any  cattle  whatever.  They  had  no 
head  in  the  state,  no  name,  no  tribe  or  register.  They  were  not  capable 
of  being  injured,  nor  could  they  take  by  purchase  or  descent ;  they  had 
no  heirs,  and  could  make  no  will.  Exclusive  of  what  was  called  their 
pecuHum,  whatever  they  acquired  was  tlieir  masler'-s ;  they  could  neither 
plead  nor  be  pleaded,  but  were  entirely  excluded  from  all  civil  concerns; 
were  not  entitled  to  the  rights  of  matrimony,  and,  therefore,  had  no  relief 
in  case  of  adultery  ;  nor  were  they  proper  objects  of  cognation  nor  affinity. 
They  might  be  sold,  transferred,  or  pawned,  like  other  goods  or  personal 
estate;  for  goods  they  were,  and  as  such  they  were  esteemed.  Taylor's 
Elements  of'the  Roman  Civil  Law,  p.  429. 4to.  Adam's  Summary  of  Roman 
Antiquities,  pp.  38,  39. 

i  .Tahn,  Archffiol.  Bibl.  §  172. 

'  The  following  passage  from  Mr.  .lowett's  Christian  Researches  in  the 
Mediterranean  will  give  an  idea  of  the  rigour  with  which  slaves  are  treated 
to  this  day  in  the  East.  The  conductor  of  a  nitre  factory  for  the  Pasha  of 
Egypt  having  received  commands  to  prepare  a  large  quantity  of  nitre  in 
great  iiaste, — "for  this  purpose  he  was  building  small  reservoirs  and 
ducts,  with  old  picked  bricks,  galViered  from  ruins  ;  and  which  are  better 
than  the  modern  baked  bricks.  A  great  number  of  young  persons  of  both 
sexes  were  engaged  in  the  work,  carrying  burdens.  To  give  vivacity  to 
their  proceedings,  they  are  required  to  si7ig:  and  to  keep  them  diligent, 
there  were  task-masters  standing  at  intervals  of  about  ten  feet,  icilh 
whips  in  their  hands,  which  they  used  very  freely.  We  seemed  to  behold 
the  manners  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Exodus  v."  Jowett's  Researches, 
p.  130.  May  not  the  command  to  sing  also  explain  Psal.  cxxxvii.  3,  i.  1 
"  Tlie  M;illems"  (or  heads  of  districts  of  Coptic  Christians  in  Egypt),  the 
same  traveller  elsewhere  remarks,  "transact  business  between  the 
bashaw  and  the  peasants.  He  punishes  them,  if  the  peasants  prove  that 
they  oppress  ;  and  yet  he  requires  from  them  that  the  work  of  those  who 
are  under  them  shall  be  fulfilled.  They  strikingly  illustrate  the  case  of 
the  officers,  placed  by  the  Egyptian  task-masters  over  the  children  of 
Israel ;  and,  like  theirs,  the  Mallems  often  find  that  their  case  is  evil 
See  Exod.  v.  6 — 29."  Ibid.  p.  168.  See  also  Mr.  Game's  Letters  from  the 
East,  pp.  71,  72. 


Chap.  V.] 


AND  THE  CUSTOMS  RELATING  TO  THEM. 


167 


St.  Paul  usually  styles  himself  the  servant  of  Christ ; 
in  a  passage  in  his  epistle  to  the  (ialatiaiis,  alluding  to 
sinrnatures  with  which  slaves  in  those  days  were  hrandod, 


23.) 
and  in 

the  signatures  with  which  slaves  in  those  aay 
he  tells  them  that  he  carried  about  with  him  plain  and  indcli 
ble  characters  impress<ul  in  his  body,  wiiich  evinced  iiiiii  to 
be  the  servant  of  his  master  Jesus.  From  henaforlk  let  n» 
man  trouble.  >ne,  for  J  hear  in  my  bodif  tlie  marku  of  the  lArrd 
Jesus."  (Cal.  vi.  17.)'  It  was  a  doctrine  of  the  pharisaic 
Jews,  that  proselytes  were  released  from  all  antecedent, 
civil,  and  ev(>ii  natural  relations  ;  and  it  is  not  improl)ai)lc 
that  some  of  the  Jewish  converts  might  carry  the  same  jjrin- 
ciple  into  the  Christian  community,  and  ttv.ich  tiiat,  by  the  pro- 
fession of  ('hristianily,  slaves  were  emaucinated  from  linir 
Christian  masters.  In  opposition  to  this  false  notion,  the 
same  great  ai)ostle  refpiires  that  all  who  are  under  the  yoke 
of  servitude  be  taught  to  yield  due  obedience  to  their  mas- 
ters, and  animadverts  with  great  severity  upon  those  fals(^ 
teachers,  who,  from  mercenary  views,  taught  a  dilVenMit  doc- 
trine. (iTiiii.  vi.  1  — 10.)  Against  this  principle  of  the 
judaizing  zealots,  St.  Paul  always  enters  his  strong  protest, 
and  teaches  that  the  profession  of  Christianity  makes  no  dif- 
ference in  the  civil  relations  of  men.  See  1  Cor.  vii.  17 — 24. 
IV.  Though  slavery  was  tolerated  and  its  horrors  were 
mitigated  by  the  wise  and  humane  enactments  of  Moses,  yet 
in  the  progress  of  time  as  hired  servants  would  be  necessary, 
various  regulations  were  in  like  manner  made  by  him,  to 
ensure  them  from  being  oppressed.  Like  slaves,  hired 
labourers  were  to  partake  of  tne  rest  of  the  Sabbath,  and  also 
to  share  in  the  produce  of  the  sabbatical  year:  their  hire  was 
to  he  paid  every  day  before  sunset  (Lev.  xix.  1.3.  Dent.  xxiv. 
14,  15.) ;  but  what  that  hire  was  to  be,  the  Hebrew  legisla- 
tor has  not  determiiuHl,  b(>cause  the  price  of  lal)our  must 
have  varied  according  to  circumstances.  From  the  parable 
of  the  proprietor  of  a  vineyard  and  his  labourers,  which  is 
related  in  Matt.  xx.  1 — 15.,  "  we  learn  these  three  particu- 
lars concerning  the  servants  in  Juda;a,  or  at  least  in  Jerusa- 
lem : — That  early  in  the  morning  they  stood  in  the  market 
place  to  be  hired — that  tlie  usual  wages  of  a  day-labourer 
were  at  that  time  a  denarius,  or  about  seven-pence  halfpeimy 
of  our  money — and  that  the  customary  hours  of  working 
were  till  six  in  the  evening.  Early  in  the  morning  the  mas- 
ter of  a  family  rose  to  hire  day-labourers  to  work  in  his  vine- 
yard.2  Having  found  a  number  he  agreed  to  pay  them  a 
DENARIUS  for  the  WAGES  of  the  day,  and  sent  them  into  his 
vineyard.  About  nine  o'clock  he  went  again  into  the  market- 
place, and  found  several  others  unemployed,  whom  he  also 
ordered  into  his  vineyard,  and  promised  to  pay  them  what 
was  reasonable.  At  twelve  and  three  in  the  afternoon,  he 
went  and  made  the  same  proposals,  which  were  in  the  same 
manner  accepted.  He  went  likewise  about  five  o'clock,  and 
found  a  number  of  men  saunterin<T  about  the  market  in  idle- 
ness, and  he  said  to  them.  Why  do  you  consume  the  whole 
day  in  this  indolent  manner  ]  There  is  no  one  hath  thought 
fit  to  give  us  any  employment,  they  replied.  Then  go  you 
into  the  vineyard  among  my  other  labourers,  and  you  shall 
receive  what  is  iust.  In  the  evening  the  proprietor  of  the 
vineyard  ordered  his  steward  to  call  the  workmen  together, 
begiiuiing  from  the  hast  to  the  first,  to  pay  them  their  wages 
without  any  partiality  or  distinction.  When  those,  therefore, 
came,  who  had  been  employed  about  five  in  the  afternoon, 
they  received  a  denarius  a  piece.  When  those,  who  had  been 
hired  in  the  morning,  saw  them  return  with  such  great  wages, 
they  indulged  the  most  extravagant  joy,  imagining  that  their 
pay  would  vastly  exceed  that  of  the  others;  hut  how  great 
was  their  disajipointment,  when  they  received  from  the  stew- 
ard each  man  a  denarius  !  This  supposed  injurious  treatment 
caused  them  to  raise  loud  clamours  against  the  master.  And 
they  complained  to  him  of  his  usage  of  them,  sayintr,  the  last 
labourers  you  hired  only  worked  a  single  hour, amlyou have 

fiven  them  the  same  wages  as  you  have  given  us,  who  have 
een  scorched  with  excessive  heat,  and  sustained  the  long 
and  rigorous  toil  of  the  whole  day.  He  turned  to  one  who 
appeared  the  most  petulant  of  them,  and  directed  this  reply, 

'  Harwood's  Inlroduclion,  vol.  ii.  pp.  114 — 146. 

»  The  same  custom  obtains  to  this  day  in  Persia.  In  the  city  of  Haraa- 
dan  there  is  a  maidanor  square  in  front  of  a  large  mosque.  "  Here,"  says 
Mr.  Morier,  "we  ohserved  every  inornins  before  the  sun  rose,  that  a 
numerous  band  of  pi-asanls  were  collected  with  spades  in  their  liand.s, 
Wiiilina,  as  tliey  informed  us,  to  be  hired  for  the  day  to  work  in  the  sur- 
rounding tield.-i.  This  custom,  which  I  have  never  seen  in  any  other  part 
Of  Asia,  forcibly  struck  me  as  a  most  happy  illustration  of  our  Saviour's 
parable  of  the  labourers  in  the  vineyard  in  the  'JOtli  chapter  of  iMatthew, 
particularly  when  passin?by  the  same  place  late  in  the  dav,  we  still  found 
others  standinii  idle,  and  remembered  his  words.  Why  stand  ye  here  all 
the  day  idlel  as  most  applicable  to  their  situation  ;  for,  in  putting  the  very 
same  question  to  them,  they  answered  us,  Because  no  man  hath  hired 
us."    Morier's  Second  Journey  through  Persia,  p.  263 


Friend,  I  do  thee  no  injustice ;  wai3  not  our  agreement  for  a 
denarius  1  Take  what  justice  entitles  thee  to,  without  re- 
pining, and  calmly  actiuiesce  in  tiie  faithful  performance  of 
our  original  agreement — a  principle  of  benevolence  disposes 
me  freely  to  bestow  upon  the  last  persons  1  hired  what  equity 
obliged  me  to  give  to  you. 

"  It  has  been  observed  that  slaves  were  condemned  to  the 
mines,  where  their  uncomfortable  lives  were  consumed  in  the 
most  rigorous  and  servile  drudgery.  It  is  natural  to  suppose 
tiiat  these  wretches,  born  to  better  hopes,  upon  their  first 
entrance  into  these  dismal  subterraneous  abodes  of  darkness 
and  despair,  with  such  dideful  prospects  before  them,  would 
be  transfixed  with  the  acutest  distress  and  anguish,  shed 
bitter  unavailing  tears,  gnash  their  teeth  for  extreme  misery, 
and  fill  these  gloomy  caverns  with  piercing  cries  and  loud 
lamentations.  Our  liord  seems  to  allude  to  this,  and,  con- 
sidered in  this  view,  the  imagery  is  jwculiarly  beautiful  and 
ex|)ressive,  when  he  represents  the  wicked  servant  and  un- 
fiiithfiil  steward  bound  hand  and  foot  and  cast  into  utter 
darkness,  where  there  would  be  weeping,  wailing,  and 
gnashing  of  teeth  !  (Matt.  viii.  12.  xxii.  1.3.)  Tlie  reader  will 
he  pleased  with  the  ingenious  remarks  of  the  learned  and  judi- 
cious Dr.  Macknight  on  this  passage  : — '  In  ancient  times  the 
stewards  of  great  families  were  slaves  as  well  as  tlie  sers'ants 
of  a  lower  class,  being  raised  to  that  trust  on  account  of  their 
fidelity,  wisdom,  sobriety,  and  other  good  qualities.  If  any 
steward,  therefore,  in  the  absence  of  his  lord,  behaved  as  is 
represented  in  the  parable,  it  was  a  plain  proof,  that  the  vir- 
tues on  account  of  which  lie  was  raised  w'ere  counterfeit,  and 
by  consequence  that  he  was  a  hypocrite.  Slaves  of  this 
character,  among  other  chastisements,  were  sometimes  con- 
demned to  work  in  the  mines.  And  as  this  was  one  of  the 
most  grievous  punishments,  when  they  first  entered,  nothing 
was  heard  among  them  but  weeping  and  gnashing  of  teeth, 
on  account  of  the  intolerable  fatigue  to  which  they  were  sub- 
jected in  these  hideous  caverns  without  hope  of  release. 
There  shall  be  weeping  and  gnashing  of  teeth. '^ 

"  Crucifixion  was  a  servile  punisliment,  and  usually  in- 
flicted on  the  most  vile,  worthless,  and  abandoned  of  slaves. 
In  reference  to  this  it  is  that  St.  Paul  represents  our  Lord 
takinop  upoji  him  the  form  of  a  servant,  and  tiecoming  subject  to 
death,  even  the  death  of  the  cross  (Phil.  ii.  8.)  ;  crucifixion 
was  not  only  the  most  painful  and  excruciating,  but  the  most 
reproachful  and  ignominious  death  that  could  be  suffered. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  apostle  so  highly  extols  the  unexampled 
love  for  man  and  magnanimity  of  Jesus,  w/io  for  the  joy  set 
before  him  endured  trie  cross,  despising  the  shame  (Heb.  xii. 
2.)  and  infamy  even  of  such  a  death.  It  was  this  exit  which 
Jesus  made,  that  insuperably  dis^sted  so  many  among  the 
heathens;  who  could  never  prevail  with  themselves  to  believe 
that  religion  to  be  divine,  whose  founder  had  suflfered  such 
an  opprobrious  and  infamous  death  from  his  countrymen. 
And  for  men  to  nreach  in  the  world  a  system  of  truths  as  a 
revelation  from  tne  Deity,  which  were  first  delivered  to  man- 
kind by  an  illiterate  and  obscure  Jew,  pretending  to  a  divine 
mission  and  character,  and  who  was  for  such  a  pretension 
crucified,  appeared  to  the  heathens  the  height  of  infatuation 
and  religious  delusion.  The  preaching  of  the  cross  was  to 
them  foolishness  (1  Cor.  i.  23.)  ;  and  the  religion  of  a  crucified 
leader,  who  had  suffered  in  the  capital  of  his  own  country 
the  indignities  and  death  of  a  slave,  carried  with  it,  in  their 
estimation,  the  last  absurdity  and  folly,  and  induced  them  to 
look  upon  the  Christians,  and  the  wretched  cause  in  which 
they  were  embarked,  with  pity  and  contempt.  Hence  St. 
Paul  speaks  of  the  offence  of  the  cross,^  the  great  and  invin- 
cible disgust  conceived  by  the  men  of  those  times  against  a 
religion  whose  founder  was  crucified  !  Hence  he  speaks  of 
not  being  ashamed  of  the  Gospel  from  the  circumstance 
which  made  such  numbers  ashamed  of  it,  nay,  of  glorying 
in  the  cross^  of  Christ;  though  the  consideration  of  tlie  igno- 
minious and  servile  death  he  suffered  was  the  very  obstacle 
that  made  the  heathens  stumble  at  the  very  threshold  of 
Christianity,  and  filled  them  with  insurmountable  prejudices 
against  it.'  i* 

V.  Among  the  Greeks  slaves  were  commonly  termed  J'cv\oi, 
in  opposition  to  the  6\«u3-^s/,  or  those  who  were  free  born ;  and, 
by  some  of  the  comic  writers,  oinerrui.  They  were  also  fre- 
quently termed  ttsuSi;.  These  appellations  also  occur  in  the 
New  Testament,  where  we  find  them  characterized  by  dif- 
ferent names,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  services  which 

3  Dr.  Macknight's  Harmony,  p.  P29.  2d  edit.  1763.^ 

4  y:xxvSx\ov  Tcu  o-Txupiu.     Gal.  V.  11. 

'  God  forbid  that  I  should  glory  save  in  the  cross  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  Gal.  vi.  14.  •  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  147—152. 


1G8 


DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS  AND  USAGES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IV. 


they  performed.  Thus  in  Acts  xii.  20.  we  meet  with  a  cham-  j  xx.  9,  10.),  ' h  fxTnxcvfrya,  or  Arine-dressers  (Luke  xiii.  7.)  ;  or 
beriiin;  .  .  .  Blastus,  o  st/  tou  KUTmv'.c,  who  had  chartje  of  the  ©umfA,  or  door-keepers.  (Mark  xiii.  31.  John  xviii.  16,  17.) 
royal  bedchamber,  or,  in  modern  languaoe,  the  royal  cham-  j  But,  whatever  was  the  nature  of  their  service,  each  WoS  re- 
berlain.     Th^se  persons  often  had  jrreat  influence  with  their  j  quired  to  prosecute  that  particular  work  which  was  deemed 


masters.'  Those,  who  had  large  flocks  of  sheep  and  herds 
of  cattle,  which  they  intrusted  to  mifj.i^i:,  inferior  shepherds, 
appointed  a  chief  shepherd,  cf;^;l',c;^>.^  to  sunerintend  them. 
In  1  Pet.  V.  4.  this  appellation  is  applied  to  the  chief  teacher 
of  religion,  that  is,  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  to  come  as  judge. 
Kings  are  often  termed  a  5r.///?i'sc  tu^v  K-^m,  because  they  watch 
for  tke  safety  and  weltare  of  their  subjects ;  and  the  same 
figure  is  transferred  to  religious  teachers,  who  strive  by  their 
m'structions  and  exhortations  to  promote  the  highest  interests 
of  mankind.  The  JTr.T/ioTrcc  and  oikovc^x  appear  to  be  synony- 
mous terms  for  him  who  had  the  chief  charge  or  oversight 
of  the  property  or  domestic  affairs  of  any  one.  This  class 
of  men  had  authority  over  the  slaves  of  a  family,  and  seem 
to  have  sometimes  been  slaves  themselves.  (Luke  xii.  42. 
1  Cor.  iv.  2.)  Besides  the  general  care  of  affairs,  the  boys 
of  a  f  imily  also  appear  to  have  been  intrusted  to  their  charge ; 
at  least  in  regard  to  pecuniary  matters.  (Gal.  iv.  4.) 
Schleusner  considers  the  iTrnf^TrK  in  this  passage  as  the 
ffuardi-in  appointed  by  the  law  or  by  the  magistrate,  and  the 
6(jcovo^oc  as  one  who  was  appointed  by  will.  Opposed  to 
slaves  were  the  'Ep}/«T*<  or  lured  labourers  (Matt.  xx.  1.), 
whether  they  were  reafjo/,  or  cultivators  of  the  soil  (Luke 


most  suitable  for  him  by  his  master  or  lord,  whether  the 
latter  was  at  home  or  abroad  (Mark  xiii.  34.  Luke  xii.  42. 
xiv.  17.  xvii.  7,  8.),  with  all  honesty  and  fidelity.  (Tit.  ii. 
9,  10.)2 

Among  the  Greeks  those  slaves  who  had  cond.ucted  them- 
selves well  were  manumitted,  or  released  from  bondage. 
The  Greeks  termed  those  who  were  thus  liberated  u»-sa«/3-£^!w, 
or  freed  men  ;  which  word  is  applied  by  St.  Paul  to  him  who 
is  called  into  the  church  of  Christ,  while  a  slave,  in  order  to 
denote  that  he  is  free  indeed,  as  being  made  by  Christ  a  par- 
taker of  all  the  privileges  of  the  children  of  God.  (1  Cor.  vii. 
23.)  In  some  of  the  Grecian  states,  the  son  and  heir  was 
permitted  to  adopt  brethren,  and  communicate  to  them  the 
same  privileges  which  he  himself  enjoyed.  To  this  some 
commentators  have  supposed  that  Jesus  Christ  refers  in  John 
viii.  32. 

Lastly,  when  slaves  proved  ungrateful  to  their  former  mas- 
ters or  patrons,  they  might  be  again  reduced  into  bondage, 
both  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  To  this  usage  St. 
Paul  may  refer  when  he  exhorts  the  Galatian  believers  in 
Christ  not  to  suffer  the  judaizin^  teachers  again  to  entangle 
them  in  the  yoke  of  bondage.  (Gal.  v.  1.)^ 


CHAPTER  VI. 


DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS  AND  USAGES  OP  THE  JEWS. 

I.  Forms  of  Salutation  and  Politeness. — Reverence  to  Superiors. — II.  Jlfode  of  receiving  Guests  or  Visitors. — III.  Conversation 
and  Bathing. — IV.  Food  and  Entertainments. — V.  Mode  of  Travelling. — VI.  Hospitality  a  sacred  Duty  among  the  Je-uis.— 
Account  of  the  Tesserse  Hospitales  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 


I.  "  Various  are  the  modes  of  address  and  politeness 
which  custom  has  established  in  different  nations.  The 
Orientals  were  very  exact  in  the  observances  of  outward  de- 
corum :  and  we  may  collect,  from  several  passages  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  that  their  salutations  and  expres- 
sions of  regard  on  meeting  each  other  were  extremely  tedious 
and  tiresome,  containing  many  minute  inquiries  concerning 
the  person's  welfare,  and  the  welfare  of  his  family  and 
friends  ;  and  when  they  parted,  concluding  with  many  reci- 
procal wishes  of  happiness  and  benediction  on  each  other."^ 
The  ordinary  formulae  of  salutation  were — The  Lord  be  with 
thee  ! — Tue  Lord  bless  thee  ! — and  Blessed  be  thou  of  the  Lord! 
but  the  most  common  salutation  was  Peace  (that  is,  may  all 
manner  of  prosperity)  be  with  thee  !  (Ruth  ii.  4.  Judg.  xix. 
20.  1  Sam.  xxv.  6.  Psal.  cxxix.  8.)  In  the  latter  ages  of 
the  Jewish  polity,  much  time  appears  to  have  been  spent  in 
the  rigid  observance  of  these  ceremonious  forms,  for  which 
the  modern  inhabitants  of  the  East  continue  to  be  remark- 
able.' "  When  our  Lord,  therefore,  in  his  commission  to  the 
seventy,  whom  he  despatched  into  the  towns  and  villages  of 
Judsea  to  publish  the  Gospel,  strictly  ordered  them  to  salute 

»  See  Adam's  Roman  Antiquities,  p.  488. 

»  Robinson's  Gr.  Lexicon,  in  vocitus ;  Stosch's  Compenciium  ArchiEO- 
logice  Novi  Testanienli,  pp.  4.5,  4b. 

»  Brnning,  Compendium  GrsBcarum  a  profanis  Sacrarum,  p.  86.  Kuinoel, 
on  Jolin  viii.  32. 

*  Of  the  minute,  not  to  say  frivolous,  inquiries  anrl  salutations  above 
mentioned,  the  following  is  a  strilcing  illustration: — "  Every  passer  by," 
says  tlie  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett,  "has  his  'Alia  ybaralcek,'— 'God  bless  you' 
Conversation  is  sometimes  among  strangers  made  up  of  a  very  large  pro- 
portion of  these  phrases ;  for  example, — 'Good  morning.'  Answer,  'May 
your  day  be  enriched!' — 'By  seeiug..you.' — 'You  have  enlightened  the 
house  by  your  presence.'— '  Are  you  happy  l'—' Happy  ;  and  you,  also. '— 
'  You  are  comfortable,  I  am  comforlable  ;'  meaning  'I  am  comfortable,  if 
you  are.'  These  sentences  are  often  repeated ;  and,  after  any  pause,  it  is 
usual  to  turn  to  your  neighbour  and  resume  these  courtesies  many  times." 
Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  90. 

»  Serious  and  taciturn  as  tlie  natives  of  the  East  usually  are,  they  grow 
talkative  when  they  meet  an  acquaintance,  and  salute  liim.  This  custom 
has  come  from  Asia  with  the  Arabs,  and  spread  over  the  north  coast  of 
Africa.  A  modern  traveller  relates  the  reciprocal  salutations  with  which 
those  are  received  who  return  with  the  caravans.  "  People  go  a  great 
way  to  meet  them:  as  soon  as  they  are  perceived,  the  questioning  and 
salutation  begins,  and  continues  with  the  repetition  of  the  same  phrases : 
'  How  do  you  do  1  God  be  praised  that  you  are  come  in  peace  !  God  give 
you  peace  !  How  fares  it  with  you  V  The  higher  the  ranlc  of  the  person 
returning  home,  the  longer  does  the  salutation  last."  See  Horneman's 
.Tournal.  Stolberg's  History  of  Religion,  vol.  iii.  p,  133.  Burder's  Oriental 
Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  486. 


no  man  by  the  way  (Luke  x.  4.),  he  designed  only  by  this 
prohibition  that  they  should  employ  the  utmost  expedition ; 
that  they  should  suffer  nothing  to  retard  and  impede  them  in 
their  progress  from  one  place  to  another ;  and  should  not 
lavish  those  precious  moments,  which  ought  to  be  devoted 
to  the  sacred  and  arduous  duties  of  their  office,  in  observing 
the  irksome  and  unmeaning  modes  of  ceremonious  inter- 
course. Not  that  our  Lord  intended  that  his  disciples  should 
studiously  violate  all  common  civility  and  decency,  and  in- 
dustriously offend  against  all  the  rules  of  courtecusness  and 
decorum,  since  he  commanded  them  upon  their  entrance  into 
any  house  to  salute  it  (Matt.  x.  12.),  and  observe  the  cus- 
tomary form  of  civility  in  wishing  it  peace  (Luke  x.  5.)  or 
universal  happiness.  This  injunction,  to  salute  no  one  on  the 
road,  means  only  that  they  should  urge  their  course  with 
speed,  and  not  suffer  their  attention  to  be  diverted  from  the 
duties  of  their  commission.  There  is  a  passage  in  the  Old 
Testament  parallel  to  this,  and  which  beautifully  -illustrates 
it.  Elisha,  despatching  his  servant  Gehazi  to  recover  the 
son  of  the  Shunamite,  strictly  enjoins  him  to  make  all  the 
expedition  possible,  which  is  thus  expressed  :  Gird  up  thy 
loins  and  take  my  staff  in  thine  hand,  and  go  thy  way.  Jj 
thou,  meet  any  man,  salute  him  not,  and  if  any  salute  thee,  an- 
swer him  not  ctgain.  (2  Kings  iv.  29.) 

"  In  all  countries  these  modes  of  address  and  politeness, 
though  the  terms  are  expressive  of  the  profbundest  respect ' 
and  iiomage,  yet  through  constant  use  and  frequency  of  repe- 
tition soon  degenerate  into  mere  verbal  forms  and  words  of 
course,  in  which  the  heart  has  no  share.  They  are  a  frivo- 
lous-unmeaning  formulary,  perpetually  uttered  without  the 
mind's  ever  annexing  any  idea  to  them.  To  these  empty, 
insignificant  forms,  which  men  mechanically  repeat  at  meet- 
ing or  taking  leave  of  each  other,  there  is  a  beautiful  allusion 
in  the  following  expression  of  our  Lord  in  that  consolatory 
discourse  which  he  delivered  to  his  apostles  when  he  saw 
them  dejected  and  disconsolate,  on  his  plainly  assuring  them 
that  he  would  soon  leave  them  and  go  to  the  Father.  Peace 
I  leave  with  you  :  my  peace  I  give  unto  you  .• — not  as  the  world 
giveth,  give  I  unto  you.  (John  xiv.  27.)  Since  I  must  shortly 
be  taken  from  you,  I  now  bid  you  adieu,  sincerely  wishing 
you  every  happiness ;  not  as  the  world  giveth,  give  1  unto 
you ;  not  in  the  unmeaning  ceremonial  manner  the  world 
repeats  this  salutation :  for  my  wishes  of  peace  and  happiness 


Chap.  VI.] 


FORMS  OF  SALUTATION  AND  POLITENESS. 


169 


to  j'oii  arc  sincere,  and  my  blessinir  and  benediction  will  de- 
rive upon  you  every  snbst<inti;il  felicity.  This  sheds  lij^lit 
and  lustre  upon  one  of  the  finest  and  most  beautiful  pieces  of 
iniiii^ery  which  llie  (renins  and  jud<rnient  of  a  writer  ever  cre- 
ated. In  tlic  elcveiitii  chapter  of  tlic  I'lpistle  U)  the  Hebrews, 
the  autlior  iufnnns  us  with  wiiat  warm,  antici|)atin<r  bo])(;s  of 
the  iMcssi.ih's  future  kiujrilom  tlmse  ({reat  and  <rood  men,  who 
adorruHl  llii^  annals  of  I'nrmer  aiies,  were  animated.  These; 
all,  says  he,  died  in  faith,  they  clostui  their  eyes  u])on  the 
world,  but  they  closed  tlnfin  m  the  transportin<r  assurance 
that  («od  would  accomnlish  his  promises.  They  had  the 
fiiniest  persuasion  that  llu!  IVIessiali  would  bless  the  world. 
]}y  faith  they  antedated  thest!  hap|)y  times,  and  placed  them- 
selves, in  idea,  ill  thii  midst  of  all  their  fancied  hl(>ssedness. 
They  hailed  this  most  auspicious  period:  saluted  it,  as  one 
s  dutes  a  friiMid  whose  pi^rson  we  recofjnise,  at  a  distance;. 
'I'iiese  all  died  in  faith,  died  in  the  firm  persuasion  that  God 
would  accomplish  these;  mairnificiMit  promises,  tliou<rh  they 
tluMiiselves  had  not  eiijoyed  them,  hut  only  had  seen  tlwm 
af.ir  oil':  (Joil  had  only  blessed  them  with  a  remote;  prosjiect 
of  tlie'iu.  They  we're,  the;re'f 're,  ])e'rsuaeleel  ejf  tlie'in,  tbey  had 
the;  streinire-sl  e-onviclion  of  their  re-alily — the-y  embrace;el 
them — with  transport  salutenl'  them  at  a  elistance,  confessinf;^ 
that  tlie'y  we^e  i)ut  stran<j;i'is  aiiel  pilirrims  upon  earth,  but 
were  all  trave'llinjr  towarels  a  e;iTV  which  had  founddtions, 
whose  builde;r  and  maker  is  Cieiel."^ 

Respe;ct  was  shown  to  jjersons  on  meeting^,  by  the  saluta- 
tion of  I'l'iice  he  wilh  jitiu  !  anel  layiner  the  ri<jht  hand  upon  the 
bosom:  but  if  the  pi>rson  adelressed  was  of  the  hierhest  rank, 
they  bowed  to  the  earth.  Thus  Jncnh  bowed  to  Ike  ground 
seven  limes  until  lie  came  near  to  Ids  brotlter  Enau.  f  Gen.  xxxiii. 
3.)  Suc;h  was  the  piety  of  ancient  times,  that  masters 
salutenl  their  labourers  with  '•'■  The  Lord  be  wilh  you!''''  to 
which  the>y  answered,  "  Tlie  Lord  blc^s  //iee.'"^  Sometimes 
the;  hem  of  the  person's  {r-arinent  was  kissed,  and  even  the 
dust  on  which  he  had  to  tri;ad.  (Zecb.  viii.  23.  Luke  viii.  41. 
Acts  X.  20.  Psal.  Ixxii.  9.)  Near  relations  and  intimate 
aciiuaintances  kissed  each  other's  hands,  head,  neck,  beard 
(which  on  such  occasions  only  could  be  tenicheel  without 
alVront),  or  shoulders.  (Gen.  xxxiii.  4.  xlv.  14.  2  Sam.  xx.  9. 
Luke'  XV.  20.  Acts  XX.  37.)  The  modern  Arabs  salute  their 
chiefs  by  kissinir  either  cliee'k  alternately. '  Whenever  the 
common  people  approach  their  prince,  or  any  person  of 
superie)r  rank,  it  was  customary  for  them  to  prostrate  them- 
selves before  him.  "  In  particular,  this  homa<re  was  univer- 
sally paid  to  the  monarchs  of  Persia  by  those  who  were  adniit- 
te'd  into  tlu'ir  presence;  a  be)maire,  in  which  some  of  the  Grce'k 
commanders,  possessed  of  a  truly  liberal  and  manly  sjiirit, 
peremptorily  refused'  to  jjratify  them.  In  imitation  of  these 
proud  sovereierns,  Alexander  the  Great  exacted  a  similar  pros- 
tration. This  mode  of  address  obtaine^d  also  among  the  Jews. 
When  bonouivd  with  aelmittance  to  their  sovereign,  or  intro- 
duceel  to  illustrious  personages,  they  fell  down  at  their  feet, 
nnd  continued  in  this  servile  posture  till  they  were  raised. 
Tlu're  occur  many  instances  of  this  custom  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. The  wise  men  who  came  from  the  East,  when 
they  saw  the  child  Jesus  with  his  mother  INIary,  fell  down 
andn'orx/iijipid  /lim.  Great  numhers  of  those  who  approached 
our  Swv'iouT  fell  down  at  his  feet.  We  read  of  several  of  the 
common  people  who  prostrated  themselves  before  him  and 
worshipjied  him.  Cornedius,  at  his  first  interview  with 
Peter,  when  he  met  h\m,  ftll down  before  him  and  worshippeel 
him,  and  remained  in  this  submissive  attitude  till  Peter  took 
liim  up;  saying.  Stand  up.-  I  also  am  a  man.  In  the  Old 
Testament  we  read  that  VjSthex  fell  down  at  the  feet  of  Aha- 
suerus.  These  prostrations  among  the  eastern  people  appear 
to  us  to  the  last  degree  unmanly  and  slavish ;''  but  it  seems 
«  'Aa-^xTx/iivoi.  The  woril  always  eisenl  in  saliHaiions.  S(?p  Romans 
xvi.  passim.  »  Harwooirs  Iiitroiliicliori,  vol.  ii.  pp.  279— 2Si. 

>  Not  iiJililje  the  above,  are  tlie  salutations  in  use  at  this  lime  among  the 
Tiirlo.  "Say  to  aTurl<,  acconhnu  to  cusroui,  'May  your  niornina  be  pro- 
pitious!' he  replies,  'May  you  be  the  plecige  of  God  !'  Ask  a  Turk,  'Is 
your  health  good  !'  he  answers,  '  Glory  be  to  God !'  Salute  hiin  as  you 
pass  hiiM  rapidly  in  travelling,  he  exclaims,  'May  God  be  merciful  to  you  !' 
A'  parlina  he  addresses  you,  '  To  God  I  commend  you  !'  and  is  answered, 
'May  God  be  wilh  you.'"— Itartley's  Researches  in  Greece,  p.  233. 
«  Irby's  and  Manj-les'  Travels,  p.  2t>2. 

»  Vereor  ne  civitati  mea;  sit  oiiprobrio,  si  quum  e.\  ei\  sim  profectus, 
qua;  cn'teris  geiitibus  iriiperare  consueverit,  polius  barbarorum  epiam 
lllius  more  fimsHr  !  C.  Mepos.  Conon.  p.  IM.  The  Athenians  punished  a 
person  wifh^deaih  for  subinitling  to  this  slavish  prostration.  Athenienses 
autein  Timagoram  inter  otfiriuin  salulationis  Uarium  regem  more  gcntis 
illius  adiilatum.  capitali  supplicio  affecerunt ;  uuius  civis  humilibus  blan- 
oillis  tolius  urhis  sua;  decus  Persica;  ilominalioni  summissuin  graviter  fe- 
rentes.    Valerius  Ma.\imus,  lib.  vi.  cap.  3.  p.  5(31.    Torrenii,  Leid<e,  172G. 

«  Qui  uhi  in  casira  Roniana  et  prretoriuin  pervenerunt,  more  adulantium, 
accepto,  credo,  ritu  ex  e;\  regione  ex  qua  oriundi  erant,  procubuerunt. 
Conveniens  oralio  tain  humili  aUulationi.  Livius,  lib.  xsx.  cap.  16.  torn.  iii. 
p.  130.  edit.  Ruddiinan. 

Vol.  II.  Y 


that  the  inhabitants  of  the  oriental  countries  have  always 
use^d  more  illib(;ral  and  humiliating  forms  of  address  and 
homage  than  ever  obtained  in  Kurone. 

"  It  was  also  customary  in  those  times,  whenever  a  popular 
harangue  was  ahout  to  he  delivered,  and  the  people  stooei 
convened,  for  the  orator,  before  he  entereel  on  his  discourse, 
to  stretch  forth  his  hand  louuird.s  the  multitude'  as  a  token  of 
respect  to  his  aueliene-e,  and  to  e-ngage  the;ir  caiuliel  attention. 
Freijuent  instances  of  this  j)olite  address  of  an  orator  to  the 
assemhied  inullitude  occur  in  the  classics.  In  like  manner 
we  reail  that  St.  Paul,  before-  he  commenceel  his  public  apology 
to  the;  multitude',  be-spoke  their  respect  and  canile)ur  b)'  beckon- 
ini^  with  his  hand  to  them.  Paul  said,  '  I  am  a  man  who 
am  a  Jew  of  Tarsus,  a  city  of  ('i-lie-ia,  a  citi/.i  n  of  no  mean 
city;  and  i  beseech  the;e  sutfer  me  to  speak  unto  the  people.' 
And  when  he  bad  given  him  license,  Paul  stood  on  the  stairs 
and  beckoned  with  his  hand  unto  the  people.  Thus,  also,  in 
the;  account  of  the  tumult  whie-h  happeni'd  at  K])hesus,  when 
the  whole  city  was  filleel  with  contusion,  some  clamouring 
one  thing,  some  anotlie;r,  and  the  mob  which  Deme-trius  had 
raisetl  we;re  instigated  to  the  last  excesses  of  violence  and 
iury,  though,  as  is  usual  in  mobs,  the  majority  of  them,  as 
the  sacred  historian  tells  us,  knew  not  w'hat  it  was  that  had 
brought  them  together;  in  the  midst  of  this  confused  scene 
\vc  read  that  the  Jews  pusheel  forward  and  jilaced  one  Alex- 
ander on  an  eminence.  He,  being  exalteel  above  the  crowd, 
intende;d  in  a  formal  harangue  to  exculpate  the  Jews  from 
any  concern  in  the  present  disturbance.  Accordingly  he 
Ijeckoned  to  them  with  his  hand — making  use  of  this  respectful 
customary  adelress  to  ensure  their  favourable  regard,  before 
he  delivered  his  designed  apology.  But  this  specious  and 
popular  artifice,  it  seems,  did  not  avail  the  orator;  for  the 
moment  the  mob  understood  he  was  a  Jew,  they  pierced  the 
air  with  their  confused  cries,  repeating,  for  two  hours  together. 
Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians .' 

"From  time  immemorial  it  has  also  been  the  universal 
custom  in  the  East  to  send  presents  one  to  another.  No  one 
waits  upon  an  eastern  prince,  or  any  person  of  distinction, 
without  a  present.  This  is  a  token  of  respect  which  is  never 
dispensed  wilh.  How  mean  and  inconsiderable  soever  the 
gift,  the  intention  of  the  giver  is  accepted.  Plutarch  informs 
us  that  a  peasant  happening  to  fall  in  the  way  of  Artaxerxes 
the  Persian  monarch  in  one  of  his  excursions,  having  nothing 
to  present  to  his  sovereign,  according  to  the  oriental  custom, 
the  countryman  immediately  ran  to  an  adjacent  stream,  filled 
both  his  hands,  and  offered  it  to  his  prince.  The  monarch, 
says  the  philosopher,  smiled  anel  graciously  received  it,  highly 
pleased  with  the  good  dispositions  this  action  manifested.^ 
All  the  books  of  modern  travellers  into  the  East,  Sandys, 
Thevenot,  Maundrell,  Shaw,  Pococke,  Norden,  Hasselquist," 
Light,  Clarke,  Morier,  Ouseley,  Buckingham,  and  others, 
"  abound  with  numberless  examples  of  this  universally  pre- 
valent custom  of  waiting  upon  great  men  with  presents — 
unaccompanied  with  which,  should  a  stranger  presume  to 
enter  their  houses,  it  would  be  deemed  the  last  outrage  and 
violation  of  politeness  and  respect.  It  was,  therefore,  agree- 
ably to  this  oriental  practice  which  obtains  in  all  these  coun- 
tries to  this  day,s  that  the  wise  men,  when  thej'  entered  the 
house  to  which  the  star  had  directed  them,  and  saw  the  child 
and  his  mother,  after  they  had  prostrateel  themselves  before 
him,  and  paid  him  the  profoundest  homage,  as  the  evangelist 
informs  us,  opened  their  treasures,  and  testified  their  sense 
of  the  dignity  of  his  person,  by  respectfully  making  him  rich 
presents,  consisting  of  gold,  Irankmcense,  and  myrrh. "^ 

II.  When  any  person  visited  another,  he  stood  at  the  gate 
(as  is  still  usual  in  India)'"  and  knocked,  or  called  aloud,  until 
the  person  on  whom  he  called  admitted  him.  (2  Kings  v.  9 
— 12.  Prov.  viii.  34.  Acts  x.  17.  xii.  13.  10.)  If  the  visitor 
was  a  person  of  extraordinary  dignity,  it  was  customary  to 
send  persons  of  rank,  who  were  followed  by  others  of  still 
greater  rank,  to  meet  him,  and  do  him  honour.  Thus  Balak 
sent  princes  more  and  more  honourable  to  meet  Balaam  (Num. 
xxii.  15.),  and  the  same  custom  obtains  to  this  day  in  Persia." 
Visitors  were  always  received  and  dismissed  with  great 
respect.  On  their  arrival  water  was  brought  to  wash  their 
feet,  water  was  also  poured  upon  their  hands  (2  Kings  iii. 

'  Plutarch's  Morals,  vol.  p.  i.  290.  edit.  Gr.  Stephani. 

«  The  common  present  now  made  to  the  great  in  these  countries  is  a 
horse  :  an  ass  might  formerly  answer  the  same  purpose,  and  to  this  Mose.s 
probably  alludes  in  Num.  .\vi.  1.5.  as  well  as  Samuel  (1  Sam.  xii.  3.),  par- 
ticularly as  asses  were  then  deemed  no  dishonourable  beasl  for  the  saddle- 
See  Hurder's  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  243. 

s  llarwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  5^ — 289. 

">  Statham's  Indian  Recollections,  p.  113. 

«»  Morier's  Second  Journ»y,  p.  129, 


170 


DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS  AND  USAGES  OF  THE  JEWS, 


[Paet  IV. 


11.'  Gen.xviii.  4.  xix.  9.),  and  the  (Quests  were  anointed  with 
oil.  David  alludes  to  this  in  Psal.  xxiii.  5.  The  same  prac- 
tice obtained  in  our  Saviour's  time.  Thus  we  find  Mary 
Magdalene  approaching  him  at  an  entertainment,  and,  as  a 
marlv  of  the  hiohest  respect  and  honour  she  could  confer, 
breaking  an  alabaster  vase  full  of  the  richest  perfume  and 
pouring-  it  on  his  head.^  Our  Lord's  vindication  to  8imon, 
of  the  behaviour  of  this  woman,  presents  us  with  a  lively 
idea  of  the  civilities  in  those  times  ordinarily  paid  to  guests 
on  iheir  arrival,  but  which  marks  of  friendship  and  respect 
had  (it  seems)  been  neglected  by  this  Pharisee,  at  whose 
house  Jesus  Christ  then  was.  He  turned  to  the  woman,  and 
said  unto  Simon,  Seest  thou  this  looman?  I  entered  into  thine 
house,  and  thou  gavest  me  no  water  for  my  feet,  hut  she 
hath  WASHED  MY  FEET  with  her  tears,  and  wiped  them  iviih  the 
hairs  of  her  head.  Thou  gavest  me  no  kiss  :  but  this  woman, 
since  1  came  in,  hath  not  ceased  to  kiss  my  feet.  Mine  head 
with  OIL  thou  didM  not  anoint ,-  but  this  woman  halh  anointed 
MY  FEET  with  ointment.  (Luke  vii.  44 — 46.)  To  this  prac- 
tice of  anointing,  Solomon  alludes  (Prov.  xxvii.  9.);  and 
among  the  Babylonians  it  was  usual  to  present  sweet  odours. 
(Dan.  ii.  46.)  It  is  still  the  custom  in  Egypt,  among  the 
Arabs  and  other  nations,  thus  to  treat  their  guests,  and, 
when  they  are  about  to  depart,  to  burn  the  richest  perfumes.-* 
The  ceremony  of  washing  the  feet  is  still  observed  among  the 
Christians  of  Assalt  in  Palestine,  towards  all  strangers  who 
come  amongst  them  as  guests  or  visitors.''  An  elevated  seat, 
ill  the  corner  of  the  room,  was  considered  as  the  post  of 
honour.  (Isa.  xxxviii.  2.)-'^  Among  the  Asiatic  sovereigns 
it  is  a  common  custom  to  give  both  garments  and  money  to 
ambassadors,  and  persons  of  distinction  whom  they  wish  to 
honour :  hence  they  keep  in  their  wardrobes  several  hundred 
changes  of  raiment  ready  for  presents  of  this  kind.  This 
usage  obtained  in  Egypt,  where  Joseph  g-ave  changes  of 
raiment  to  his  brethren,  and  to  his  brother  Benjamin  three 
hundred  pieces  of  silver,  besides  five  changes  of  raiment. 
(Gen.  xlv.  22.)  That  such  were  given  by  way  of  reward 
and  honour,  see  Judg.  xiv.  12.  19.  Rev.  vi.  11.  and  vii.  9. 14.6 

in.  "  Conversation,  in  which  the  ancient  Orientals  indulged 
like  other  men,  in  order  to  beguile  the  time,  was  held  in  the 
gate  of  the  city.  Accordingly,  there  was  an  open  space  near 
the  gate  of  the  city,  as  is  the  case  at  the  present  day  in  Mau- 
ritania, which  was  fitted  up  with  seats  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  people.  (Gen.  xix.  1.  Psal.  Ixix.  12.)  Those  who 
were  at  leisure  occupied  a  position  on  these  seats,  and  either 
amused  themselves  with  witnessing  those  who  came  in  and 
those  who  went  out,  and  with  any  trifling  occurrences  that 
might  offer  themselves  to  their  notice,  or  attended  to  the  ju- 
dicial trials,  which  were  commonly  investigated  at  public 
places  of  this  kind,  viz.  the  gate  of  the  city.  (Gen.  xix.  1. 
xxxiv.  20.  Psal.  xxvi.  4,  5.  Ixix.  12.  cxxvii.  5.  Ruth  iv.  11. 
Isa.  xiv.  31.)  Intercourse  by  conversation,  though  not  very 
frequent,  was  not  so  rare  among  the  ancient  Orientals,  as 
among  their  descendants  of  modern  Asia,  except  perhaps  in 
Palestine.'     Nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  since  the  fathers 

1  "The  oriental  rrietlind  of  washing  is  universally  different  from  that 
practised  in  the  West.  Nowhere  is  water  poured  previously  into  a  basin  ; 
t)Ut  the  servant  pours  water  from  a  pitclier  upon  the  hands  of  his  master. 
Tlie  custom  of  washiii.!;  hands  prevails  also  to  this  day.  The  servant  goes 
round  to  all  the  guests,  with  a  pitcher  and  with  a  vessel  to  receive  (he 
water  falling  from  the.  hands,  and  performs  the  office  attributed  to  Elisha," 
in  2  Kings  iii.  11.  "  Tlie  same  service  is  repeated  when  the  repast  is 
ended."    Hartley's  Researclies  in  Greece,  pp.  233,  234. 

"^  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Oi:o  of  Roses,  which  is  the  finest  perfume 
imported  from  the  East  at  this  time,  is  contained  in  pots  or  vases,  with 
covers  so  firmly  luted  to  the  top,  that  it  requires  force  and  breal<ing  to 
separate  them,  before  llie  perfume  can  be  poured  out.  Does  not  this  ex- 
plain the  action  of  Mary  Magdalene  1 

3  See  several  instances  of  this  custom  in  Ilarmer's  Observations,  vol  ii. 
pp.  378—392. 

*  Buckingham's  Travels  among  the  Arab  Tribes,  p.  24. 

«  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  pp.  242,  243. 

e  Jahn,  Archa!<)l.  Bilil.  §§  17G,  177.    Harwood,  vol.  ilp.  117. 

■>  "It  is  no  uncommon  thing,"  says  tlie  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett,  "to  see  an 
individual,  or  a  group  of  persons,  even  when  very  well  dressed,  sitting 
with  their  feet  drawn  under  them,  upon  the  bare  earth,  passing  whole 
hours  in  idle  conversation.  Europeans  would  retjuire  a  chair ;  but  the  na- 
tives here  prefer  the  ground  :  in  the  heat  of  sunnncr  and  autumn  it  is 
pleasant  to  them  to  while  away  their  time  in  this  manner,  under  the  shade 
of  a  tree.  Richly  adorned  females,  as  well  as  men,  may  often  be  seen 
thus  amusing  themselves.  As  may  naturally  be  expected,  with  whatever 
care  they  may  at  first  sitting  down  choose  their  place,  yet  the  flowing  dress 
by  degrees  gathers  up  the  dnst:  as  this  occurs,  they  from  time  to  time 
arise,  adjust  themselves,  shake  off  the  dust,  and  then  sit  down  again." 
This  usage  beautifully  illustrates  Isa.  Iii.  2.  Shake  thyself  from  the  dust- 
arise — sit  down, O  Jerusalem.  The  sense  of  these  expressions,  loan  Ori- 
ental, is  extremely  natural.  "The  captive  daughter  of  Zion,  brought  down 
to  the  dust  of  suffering  and  oppression,  is  commanded  to  arise  and  shake 
herself  from  that  dust ;  and  then,  with  grace  and  dignity,  and  composure 
and  security,  to  sit  down:  to  lake,  as  it  were,  again,  her  seat  and  her  rank 
amid  the  company  of  the  nations  of  the  earth,  which  had  before  afflicted 
her,  and  trampled  her  to  the  earth."  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in 
Syria,  pp.  28-2,  2S3. 


drank  wine,  while  the  descendants  are  obliged  to  abstain  from 
it;  and  we  are  well  assured,  that  the  effect  of  this  exhilarating 
beverage  was  to  communicate  no  little  vivacity  to  the  cha- 
racters of  the  ancient  Asiatics,  at  least  to  that  of  the  Hebrews. 
(Seelsa.  XXX.  29.  Jer.  vii.  34.  xxx.  19.  Amos  vi.  4,  5.)  The 
ancient  Asiatics,  among  whom  we  include  the  Hebrews,  were 
delighted  with  singiiitr,  with  dancing,  and  with  instruments 
of  music.  Promenading,  so  fashionable  and  so  agreeable  in 
colder  latitudes,  was  wearisome  and  unpleasant  in  the  warm 
climates  of  the  East,  and  this  is  probably  one  reason  why 
the  inhabitants  of  those  climates  preferred  holding  intercourse 
with  one  another,  while  sitting  near  the  gate  of  the  city,  or 
beneath  the  shade  of  the  fig  tree  and  the  vine.  (1  Sam.  xxii. 
6.  Micah  iv.  4.)  It  is  for  the  same  reason  also  that  we  so 
frequently  hear  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  of  persons  sitting 
down,  as  in  the  following  passage :  '  Blessed  is  the  man  that 
standeth  not  in  the  way  of  sinners,  nor  sitteth  in  the  seat  of  the 
scornful.^  (See  Psal.  i.  1.  cvii.  32.  Ixxxix.  7.  cxi.  1.  Ixiv.  2. 
1.  20.  xxvi.  5.) 

"  The  bath  was  always  very  agreeable  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  East  (Ruth  iii.  3.  2  Sam.  xi.  2.  2  Kings  v.  10.);  and 
it  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  it  should  have  been  so,  since  it 
is  not  only  cooling  and  refreshing,  but  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary in  order  to  secure  a  decent  degree  of  cleanliness  in  a  cli- 
mate where  there  is  so  much  exposure  to  dust.  The  bath  is 
frequently  visited  by  eastern  ladies,  and  may  be  reckoned 
among  their  principal  recreations.  Those  Egyptians,  who 
lived  at  the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have  any  account, 
were  in  the  habit  of  bathing  in  the  waters  of  the  Nile.  (Exod. 
ii.  5.  vii.  13 — 25.)  It  was  one  of  the  civil  laws  of  the  He- 
brews, that  the  bath  should  be  used.  The  object  of  the  law, 
without  doubt,  was  to  secure  a  proper  degree  of  cleanliness 
among  them.  (Lev.  xiv.  2,  xv.  1 — 8.  xvii.  15,  16.  xxii.  6. 
Num.  xix.  7.)  We  may,  therefore,  consider  it  as  probable, 
that  public  baths,  soon  after  the  enactment  of  this  law,  were 
erected  in  Palestine,  of  a  construction  similar  to  that  of  those 
which  are  so  frequently  seen  at  the  present  day  in  the  East. 

"  The  Orientals,  when  engaged  in  conversation,  are  very 
candid  and  mild,  and  do  not  feel  themselves  at  liberty  di- 
rectly to  contradict  the  person  with  whom  they  are  conversing, 
although  they  may  at  the  same  time  be  conscious  that  he  is 
telling  them  falsehoods.  The  ancient  Hebrews,  in  particular, 
very  rarely  used  any  terms  of  reproach  more  severe  than 
those  of  }t3B'  (saTflN),  adversary  or  opposer,  nfi"\  (Racan),  con- 
temptibk,  and  sometimes  '72:  (nobol),  fool,  an  expression 
which  means  a  wicked  man  or  an  atheist.  (Job  ii.  10.  Psal. 
xiv.  1.  Isa.  xxxii.  6.  Matt,  v.  22.  xvi.  23.)  When  any  thing 
was  said,  which  was  not  acceptable,  the  dissatisfied  person 
replied,  kt  it  suffice  thee  (Deut,  iii.  26.),  or,  it  is  enough. 
(Luke  xxii.  38.)  In  addressing  a  superior,  the  Hebrews  did 
not  commonly  use  the  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  per- 
sen ;  but,  instead  of  /,  they  said  thy  servant,  and  instead  of 
thou,  they  employed  the  words  my  lord.  Instances  of  this 
mode  of  expression  occur  in  Gen,  xxxii.  4.  Ixiv,  16,  19.  xlvi. 
34,  Dan,  x.  17.  and  Luke  i.  38. 

"  The  formula  of  assent  or  affirmation  was  as  follows  : 
Thou  hast  said,  or  thou  hast  rightly  said.  We  are  informed 
by  the  traveller  Aryda,  that  this  is  the  prevailing  mode  of  a 
person's  expressing  his  assent  or^affirmation  to  this  day,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Mount  Lebanon,  especially  -vvhere  he  does  not 
wish  to  assert  any  thing  in  express  terms.  This  explains  the 
answer  of  the  Saviour  to  the  high-priest  Caiaphas  in  Matt. 
xxvi.  G4,,  when  he  was  -asked,  whether  he  was  the  Christ  the 
Son  of  God,  and  replied,  <xu  httu;,  thou  hast  said. 

"  To  spit  in  conqiany  in  a  room,  which  was  covered  with  a 
carpet,  was  an  indication  of  great  rusticity  of  manners;  but  in 
case  there  was  no  carpet,  it  was  not  accounted  a  fault  in  a 
person,  provided  he  spat  in  the  corner  of  the  room.  The 
expression,  therefore,  in  Deut.  xxv.  7 — 9.,  viz.  he  shall  spit 
in  his  face,  is  to  be  understood  literally,  the  more  so  on  this 
account,  because  in  other  places,  where  spitting,-  buffeting, 
&c,  are  mentioned,  they  occur  under  circumstances,  where 
there  existed  a  gre-at  excitement  of  feeling,  and  because  there 
are  not  wanting  instances  of  even  greater  rudeness  and  vio- 
lence, than  that  of  spitting  in  one's  face,  (Matt,  xxVi,  67. 
Mark  xiv.  65,  comp.  1  Kings  xxii.  24.  Isa.  Ivii.  4,  Ezek,  ii. 
6,  xxv.  6.  2  Sam.  xvi,  6,  7.)  The  Orientals,  as  is  very  well 
known,  are  fond  of  taking  a  nap  at  noon,  to  which  they  are 
strongly  invited  by  the  oppressive  heat  of  their  climate. 
(2  Sam.  iv.  5.  xi,  2,  Matt,  xiii,  25,)  The  phrase,  to  cover 
one's  feet,  is  used  in  certain  instances  to  express  the  custom 
of  retiring  to  rest  or  sleeping  at  this  time.  (Judg.  iii.  24. 
1  Sam,  xxiv.  4,)"8 

8  Mr.  Upham's  translation  of  Jalm's  Archoeologia  Biblica,  pp.  194—196. 


Chap.  VL] 


IV. 


FOOD  AND  ENTERTAINMENTS." 


171 


Tlie  .lews  rose  early,  about  the  dawn  of  day,  when 
tliey  breakfasted.  They  dined  about  eleven  in  tlie  forenoon, 
and  supped  at  five  in  the  afti^rnooii.  Kroin  tliis  cireurn- 
stance  of  iUc.'iT  l)r(val<fastin<>;so  earl}',  J)r.  Lii^litloot  (Mui(!avours 
to  account  I'or  the  lanjruajrc;  of  tlie  evanjrelisis  .John  (xix.  14.) 
and  Mark  (xv.  ii5.)  coneiirninir  our  liord's  cnicilixiun.  Thi' 
foriiH^r  notices  the  time  from  tin;  prei)arati(jn  of  the  passover ; 
and  tli(^  latter,  the  time  of  the  day.  'i"h<!  preparation  befran  at 
the  dawn  or  eock-crowinir.  From  this  custom,  too,  the  term 
to  rise  eurl//  denotes  diligence,  either  in  doin<r  prood  or  evil 


Supjier  appears  to  have  heen  the  princiiial  meal  among  the 
Jews,  as  it  was  amon(r  the  (inM'kaaiid  uoirians.' 

From  the  whole  of  the  sacred  history,  it  is  evident  that  the 
food  of  the  .li^ws  was  of  the  sim])lest  nature,  consistinjr  prin- 
cipally of  milk,  honey,-  rice?,  veiretabhis,-'  and  sometimes  of 
locusts,  (except  at  the  -apiioinled  festivals,  or  when  they  ollered 
their  feast-olb'rinirs ;  at  these  times  they  ate  animal  food,  of 
which  they  appear  to  have  been  very  fond  (Num.  xi.  4.), 
when  (as  is  done;  at  tiiis  day  throuirhout  tin;  JOast)  the  jruests 
dipped  tlu'ir  hands  in  tlie  disii.  (Ruth  ii.  11.  Matt.  xxvi.  2.'J. 
Joim  xiii.  'Jd.)'  'I'lie  jiottajre  of  lentiles  and  bread,  which 
Jacob  had  prepared,  and  which  was  so  tcmptiiifr  to  the  im- 
|)ati(!nl  Fsau  as  to  make  him  sell  his  birthrij^ht,  shows  the 
6imj)licity  of  tiie  ordiiiuri/  diet  of  the  patriarchs.  (Gen.  xxv. 
31.)  Tlie  same  diet  is  in  use  amonir  the  modern  Arabs,^  and 
in  the  Levant. >'  Is'aac  in  his  old  age  longed  for  savoury  meal, 
which  was  accordingly  prepared  for  him  (Gen.  xxvii.  4. 17.)  ; 
but  this  was  an  unusual  thing.  The  feast  with  which  Abra- 
ham ent(!rtained  the  three  angels  was  a  calf,'  new  cakes 
baked  on  the  hearth,  together  with  butter  (ij'Aee)  and  milk.s 
(Gen.  xviii.  6,  7.)  We  may  form  a  correct  idea  of  their 
ordinary  articles  of  food  by  those  which  were  presented  to 
David  on  various  occasions  by  Abigail  (1  !Sam.  xxv.  18.), 
by  Ziba  (2  Sam.  xvi.  1.),  ana  by  Uarzillai.  (2  Sam.  xvii. 
28,  2!).) 

The  most  useful  and  strengthening,  as  well  as  the  most 
common,  article  of  food,  was,  doubtless,  bread.  Frequent 
mention  is  made  of  this  simple  diet  in  the  Holy  Scriptures," 
which  do  not  often  mention  the  flesh  of  animals :  though  this 
is  sD/iit  times  included  in  the  eating  of  bread,  or  making  a  meal, 
as  in  Matt.  xv.  2.  Mark  iii.  20.  vii.  2.  Luke  xiv.  1.  and  John 
vi.  23.  Sometimes  the  ears  were  gathered  and  the  grain 
eaten,  before  the  corn  was  reaped ;  in  the  earliest  times,  after 
it  had  been  threshed  and  dried,  it  was  eaten  without  any  fur- 
ther preparation.  This  was  called  parched  corn.  Subse- 
quently, the  grain  was  pounded  in  a  mortar,  to  which  prac- 
tice Solomon  alludes.  (Prov.  xxvii.  22.)  In  later  times, 
however,  it  was  in  general  ground  into  Hour,  fermented  with 
leaven,  and  made  into  breacf;  though  on  certain  occasions,  as 
at  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  they  baked 
unleavened  bread.  (Exod.  xii.  34 — 39.)  In  the  East  the 
grinding  of  corn  was,  and  still  is,  the  work  of  female  slaves  : 
It  is  extremely  laborious,  and  is  esteemed  the  lowest  employ- 

'  Compare  Mark  vi.  21.  Luke  xiv.  16.  and  Jolin  xii.  2.  ;  and  see  Abp. 
Potter's  Aiitifiuities  of  Greece,  vol.  ii.  p.  'Xii.  and  Dr.  Adam's  Summary  ol' 
Roman  Antiquities,  p.  433. 

»  Tlie  ancients  used  honey  instead  of  sug:ar,  and  seem  to  have  relished 
it  mucli.  Hence  it  is  figuratively  used  as  an  image  of  pleasure  and  happi- 
ness in  Psal.  cxix.  103.  Pruv.  xxiv.  13,  11.  and  Sol.  Song  iv.  11.  When  taken 
in  great  (piantilius  it  causes  vomiting,  and  is  conseiiuontly  used  by  a  figure 
(Prov.  x.w.  16.)  to  express  fa.'lidiousness,  or  any  nau.seating  sensation, 
(.lahn's  JJiblical  Archa;ology,  §  77.)  In  consequence  of  tlie  loo  liberal  use 
of  honey,  as  a  substitute  lor  sugar,  by  tlie  modern  inhabilanls  of  the  (/'y- 
clados  Islands  in  the  Levant,  many  of  them  are  afToctetl  with  scrofulous 
diseases.  May  not  this  effect  be  alluded  to  in  Prov.  xxv.  27. 1  (Emerson's 
Letters  from  the  ^Egean,  vol.  ii.  p.  233.) 

»  In  later  times,  when  the  Jews  were  dispersed  among  the  heathen 
nations,  they  often  abstained  from  eating  tlosh,  as  it  might  have  been 
offered  to  idols  and  sold  in  shambles  ;  they  therefore  sub.sisted  entirely  on 
vegetables.    To  this  circumstance  Saint  Paul  alludes  in  Kom.  xiv.  2. 

•  See  examples  in  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  418.  and  Jowelt's  Christian 
Researches  in  Syria,  p.  2^1. 

'  Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  275. 

•  111  the  island  of  Sanlorin,  Mr.  Emerson  speaks  of  soup  made  oi lentils; 
which,  when  stewed,  are  of  a  reddish  tinge,  and  so  far  agree  with  the  red 
pottfii;e  of  Jacob,  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxv.  30.  31.  (Letters  from  the  ./Egean, 
vol.  ii.  p.  127.) 

'  A  young  kid  seethed  in  milk  is  to  this  day  a  delicacy  set  before 
strangers  by  Uie  liedouiu  Arabs.  Buckingham's  Travels  among  the  Arab 
Tribes,  p.  7. 

•  Milk  and  honey  were  the  chief  dainties  of  the  ancients,  as  they  still  are 
among  the  Arabs,  and  especially  the  Bedouins.  Hence  the  landof  (Janaan 
IS  described  as  a  Itindjlutriiig  with  milk  and  honey.  (Exod.  iii.  8.)  Butter 
IS  also  an  article  nmch  in  use,  as  is  attested  by  all  modern  travellers.  Sec 
pariicularly"'Burckhardt's  Travels  in  Syria,  p.  3S5.  Irby's  and  Mangles' 
Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  pp.  263.  4S1,  482. 

9  Thus,  in  Gen.  xviii.  5.  and  1  Sam.  x\-viii.  22.  we  read,  I  will  fetch  a  mor- 
sel of  BREAD.— Gen.  x.'d.  14.  Abraham  took  bread,  and  a  bottle  of  water, 
and  gare  it  unto  Jfagar.— Gen.  xxxvii.  25.  T/iey  sat  dotcn  to  eat  bread. 
—Gen.  xhii.  31.  Joseph  said,  Set  on  bread.— Exod.  ii.  20.  Call  him  that  he 
may  eat  bread.— E.xod.  xvi.  3.  We  did  eat  bread  to  the  full.— Dcut.  ix.  9. 
/  neither  did  eat  bread,  nor  drink  icater.—l  Sam.  xxviii.  20.  Saul  had 
EATEN  MO  BREAD  oU  IM  day,  &c. 


ment  in  the  house.""  The  liirhtest  bread,  which  was  made  of 
the  finest  flour,  and  was  tnade  r/nickli/  upon  t/.e  hearth,  they 
called  cakes  ((ien.  xviii.  6.)  ;  the  larger  and  coarser  sort  were 
called  loaves.  (1  Sam.  xxi.  3.)  The  cakes  were  anciently 
baked  upon  the  hearth  (Gen.  xviii.  (J.J :  afterwards,  this  was 
done  upon  the  coals,  being  nrobably  laid  upon  sdme  grate. 
( 1  Kings  xix.  (J.J  J3ut  the  Iloly  Hread  was  baked  in  an  oven. 
(l..ev.  11.  4.)  'Ihefuel,  used  fur  this  and  other  culinary  pur- 
poses, consisted  of  thorns,  wood  of  all  kinds,  and  in  general, 
as  their  sure  supidy,  the  dung  of  cows,  asses,  or  camels," 
dried  and  collected  into  heaps  (Lam.  iv.  5.) :  grass,  also,  was 
employtul  for  the  same  purpose.  (Matt.  vi.  ^(?.)  The  know- 
ledge of  this  circiiinslanee  illustrates  Eccles.  vii.  6.  Psal. 
Iviii.  9.  Amos  iv.  11,  Zech.  iii.  2.  Isa.  vii.  4.  and  espt'cially 
E/.ek.  iv.  12.  In  order  to  show  the  extremity  of  distress,  to 
which  the  Jews  would  be  reduced  in  the  captivity,  the  |)ro- 
phet  was  to  prepare  the  most  common  provisions  and  to  bake 
the  bread  with  human  dung.  Nothing  could  paint  more 
stronirly  a  ca.se  of  extreme  necessity  than  this;  and  the  Jews 
would  so  understand  this  sign.'^ 

'I'he  H(  brews  were  forbidden  to  eat  many  things  which 
were,  and  are,  eaten  by  other  nations;  some  animals  beintr 
unclean  according  to  the  Mosaic  Law  f  those,  for  instanc*^, 
which  were  either  actually  itnpure  and  abominable,  or  were 
esteemed  so) ;  others  being  set  apart  for  the  altar,  certain 
parts  of  which  it  was,  consequently,  not  lawful  to  eat. 

The  regulations  concerning  clean  and  unclean  animals  are 
principally  recorded  in  Lev.  xi.  and  Deut.  xiv.;  and  accord- 
mg  to  them,  the  following  articles  are  reckoned  unclean,  and, 
consequently,  are  interdicted  to  the  Hebrews;  viz.  1.  Quadru- 
peds, which  do  not  ruminate,  or  which  have  cloven  feet ; 

2.  Serpents  and  creeping  insects;  also  certain  insects  which 
sometimes  fly,  and  sometiines  advance  upon  their  feet;  but 
locusts,  in  all  their  four  stages  of  existence,  are  accounted 
clean; — 3.  (Certain  species  of  birds,  many  of  the  names  of 
which  are  obscure ; — 1.  Fishes  without  scales,  and  also  those 
without  fins ; — 5.  All  food,  all  liquids,  standing  in  a  vessel, 
and  all  wet  seed  into  which  the  dead  body  of  any  unclean 
beast  had  fallen ; — G.  All  food  and  lianids,  which  stood  in 
the  tent  or  chamber  of  a  dying  or  dead  man,  remaining 
meanwhile   in   an   uncovered   vessel    (Num.   xix.    15.) ; 

7.  Every  thing  which  was  consecrated  by  any  one  to  idols 
(Exod.  xxxiv.  15.)  :  it  was  this  prohibition,  that  in  the  pri- 
mitive church  occasioned  certain  dissensions,  upon  which 
Paul  frequently  remarks,  especially  in  I  Cor.  viii.   10. ; 

8.  A  kid  boiled  in  the  milk  of  its  mother.  (Exod.  xxiii.  19. 
xxxiv.  26.  Deut.  xiv.  21.)  This  was  prohibited  either  to 
enforce  the  duty  of  humanity  to  animals,  or  to  guard  the 
Hebrews  against  some  idolatrous  or  superstitious  practice  of 
the  heathen  nations. 

The  consecrated  animal  substances  interdicted  to  the  He- 
brews were,  1.  Blood  (Lev.  xvii.  10.  xix.  26.  Deut.  xii. 
16 — 23,  24.  XV.  23.)  ; — 2.  Animals  which  had  either  died  of 
disease  or  had  been  torn  by  wild  beasts,  though  strangers 
might  eat  them  if  they  chose  (Exod.  xxii.  31.  Deut.  xiv. 
26.)  ; — 3.  The  fat  coveriuCT  the  intestines,  termed  the  net  or 
caul; — 4.  The  fat  upon  the  intestines,  called  the  mesentery, 
&c. ;— 5.  The  fat  of  the  kidneys  ;— 6.  The  fat  tail  or  rump 
of  certain  sheep.  (F]xod.  xxix.  13 — 22.  Lev.  iii.  4 — 9,  10.  ix. 

19.)'3 

Many  ingenious  conjectures  have  been  assigned  for  these 
prohibitions  ;  but  the  Scriptures,  which  are  our  safest  guide 
in  inquiries  of  this  kind,  expressly  inform  us,  that  the  design 
of  them  was  both  moral  and  political.  This  is  declared  In 
Lev.  XX.  24 — 26.  /  am  the  Lord  your  God,  who  have  sepa- 
rated you  from  other  people ,-  ye  shall  therefore  put  difference 
between  clean  beasts  and  unclean  ,-  and  ye  shall  not  make  your- 
selves abominable  by  beast  or  by  fowl,  or  by  any  living  thing 
that  creepeth  on  the  ground,  tohich  I  have  separated  from  you  as 
unclean  .-  and  ye  shall  be  holy  unto  me,  for  I  the  Lord  am  holy, 
and  have  severed  you  from  other  people  that  ye  should  be  mine. 
As  if  the  Almighty  had  said,  "  I  have  selected  you  from,  and 
have  exalted  you  far  above,  the  heathen  and  idolatrous  world. 
Let  it  be  your  care  to  conduct  yourselves  worthy  of  this  dis- 
tinction.  Let  the  quality  of  your  food,  as  well  as  the  rites  of 

10  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  294. 

"  "Mahomet,  our  camel-driver,  made  bread:  he  kneaded  the  dough  in 
a  leathern  napkin  ;  and,  mixing  a  good  deal  of  salt  with  it,  made  a  Hat  round 
cake,  about  half  an  inch  thick,  and  baked  it  on  dried  camels'  dung." 
Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  172.  A  similar  mode  of  preparing  cakes  is 
described  by  Mr.  Rae  Wilson.  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  <kc.  vol.  ii.  p. 
156.  3d  edition. 

i»  Boothroyd's  translation  of  the  Bible,  vol.  i.  p.  60. 

'3  Jahn,  Archaeol.  Bibl.  §  143.  The  Mosaic  ordinances  respecting  clean 
and  unclean  beasts  are  fully  considered  by  Michaelis,  Commentaries 
vol.  ii,  pp.  219—254. 


172 


DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS  AND  USAGES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Paut  IV. 


your  worship,  display  your  peculiar  and  holy  character.  Let 
even  your  manner  of  eating  be  so  appropriate,  so  pure,  so 
nicely  adjusted  by  my  law,  as  to  convince  yourselves  and  all 
the  world,  that  you  are  indeed  separated  from  idolaters,  and 
devoted  to  me  alone."  Agreeably  to  this  declaration  Moses 
tells  the  Israelites  (Deut.  xiv.  2,  3.  31.),  Tlie  Lord  hath 
chosen  you  to  be  a  peculiar  people  unto  himself,  above  all  the 
nations  that  are  upon  the  earth.  Thou  shall  not  eat  any  abomi- 
nable, thing.  Ye  shall  not  eat  any  thing  that  dieth  of  itself;  ye 
shall  give  it  to  a  stranger  or  sell  it  to  an  alien,  for  ye  are  a  holy 
people.  In  other  wofds,  "  vSince  God  has  invested  you  with 
singular  honour  and  favour,  you  ought  to  reverence  your- 
selves: you  ought  to  disdain  the  vile  food  of  heathen  idola- 
ters. Such  fooS  you  may  lawfully  give  or  sell  to  foreigners, 
but  a  due  self-respect  forbids  you  to  eat  it."  The  immediate 
and  primary  intention  of  these  and  other  similar  regulations 
was  to  break  the  Israelites  of  the  ill  habits  to  which  they  had 
been  accustomed  in  Egypt,  or  which  they  had  indulpjed  while 
in  that  country ;  and  to  keep  them  for  ever  distinct  from  that 
corrupt  people,  both  in  principles  and  practices,  and  by  parity 
of  reason  from  all  other  idolatrous  nations.  Another  reason 
for  the  distinction  was,  that,  as  the  .Tews  were  peculiarly 
devoted  to  God,  they  should  be  reminded  of  that  relation  by 
a  particularity  of  diet,  which  should  serve  emblematically  as 
a  sign  of  their  obligation  to  study  moral  purity.  Further, 
it  has  been  suggested,  as  a  reason  for  the  distinctions  be- 
tween clean  and  unclean  food,  not  only  that  the  quality 
of  the  food  itself  is  an  important  consideration  {clean  animals 
affording  a  copious  and  wholesome  nutriment,  while  unclean 
animals  yield  a  gross  nutriment,  which  is  often  the  occasion 
of  scrofulous  and  scorbutic  disorders)  ;  but  also,  that  to  the 
eating  of  certain  animals  may  be  ascribed  a  specific  influence 
on  the  moral  temperament.' 

Their  ordinary  beverage  was  water,  which  was  drawn  from 
the  public  wells  and  fountains  (John  iv.  6,  7.),  and  which 
was  to  be  refused  to  no  one.  (Matt.  xxv.  35.)  The  water  of 
the  Nile,  in  Egypt,  after  it  has  been  deposited  in  jars  to 
settle,  all  modern  travellers  attest,^  is  singularly  delicious  as 
well  as  extraordinarily  wholesome,  and  is  drunk  in  very  large 

Siantities  ;  while  that  of  the  few  wells,  which  are  found  in 
at  country,  is  not  potable,  hein^  both  unpleasant  and  insalu- 
brious. When  the  modern  inhahitants  depart  thence  for  any 
time,  they  speak  of  nothing  but  the  pleasure  they  shall  find 
on  their  return,  in  drinking  the  water  of  the  Nile.  The 
knowledge  of  this  circumstance  gives  a  peculiar  energy  to 
those  words  of  Moses,  when  he  denounced  to  Pharaoh,  that 
the  waters  of  the  Nile  should  be  turned  into  blood,  even  in 
the  very  filtering  vessels;  and  that  the  Egyptians  should 
loathe  to  drink  of  the  water  of  the  river.  (Exod.  vii.  17 — 19.) 
That  is,  they  should  loathe  to  drink  of  that  water  which  they 
used  to  prefer  to  all  the  waters  of  the  universe,  and  so  eagerly 
to  long  for,  and  should  prefer  to  drink  of  well-water,  which 
in  their  country  is  so  detestable. ^  After  the  settlement  of  the 
Israelites  in  Canaan,  they  drank  wine  of  different  sorts, 
which  was  preserved  in  skins.  Red  wine  seems  to  have  been 
the  most  esteemed.  (Prov.  xxiii.  31.  Rev.  xiv.  20.)  In  the 
time  of  Solomon,  spiced  wines  were  used,  mingled  with  the 
juice  of  the  pomegranate.  (Songviii.  2.)'  When  Judcea  was 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  medicated  wines  (as  we 
have  seen)  were  given  to  those  who  were  to  be  crucified,  in 
order  to  blunt  the  edge  of  pain,  and  stun  the  acuteness  of 
sensibility.^  The  strong  drink  ■i33»  (sneceR),  mentioned  in 
Lev.  x.  9.,  and  many  other  passages  of  Holy  Writ,  means 
any  kind  of  fermented  liquors,  whether  prepared  from  corn, 
dates,  apples,  or  any  other  kind  of  fruits.  One  of  the  four 
prohibited  drinks  among  the  Mohammedans  is  called  sakar, 

«  Tappan's  Lectures  on  Heb.  Antiq.  pp.  260— 2G4.  Dr.  Harris's  Nat. 
Hist,  of  the  \i\h\e,  pp.  xxxi. — xxxvii.  (American  edit.)  or  pp.  xxiv. — xxx.  of 
the  London  edition.  See  also  the  Rev.  W.  Jones's  Zoologia  Ethica. 
(Worlts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  1 — 116.) 

»  See  particularly  Belzoni's  Researches  in  Egypt,  p.  325.  4to.  edit.  Tur- 
ner's Tour  in  the  Levant,  vol.  ii.  p.  511.  and  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels 
along  the  Shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  vol  i.  p.  33. 

a  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  564 — 566.  See  also  a  Narrative  of 
the  Pacha  of  Egypt's  Expedition  to  Dongola  and  Sennaar,  by  an  American, 
pp.  1-50,  151.     (London,  1822.  8vo.) 

*  Spiced  wines  were  not  peculiar  to  the  Jews.  The  celebrated  Persian 
poet,  Hafiz,  speaks  of  wine — "richly  bitter,  richly  sweet."  The  Romans 
lined  their  vessels  {amphoren)  with  odorous  gums,  to  give  the  wine  a  warm 
bitter  flavour;  and  it  is  said  that  the  Poles  and  Spaniards  adopt  a  similar 
method,  in  order  to  impart  to  their  wines  a  favourite  relish.  (Odes  of 
Hafjz,  translated  by  NotI,  p.  30.  note.)  The  juice  of  the  pomegranate  tree  is 
often  employed  in  the  East,  to  give  a  pleasant  sub-acid  flavour  to  a  variety 
of  beverages  ;  and  where  the  laws  of  the  Koran  are  not  allowed  to  inter- 
pose, or  their  prohibitions  are  disregarded,  a  delicious  wine  is  frequently 
manufactured  from  this  juice  alone.  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
145,  H6.  "^  ^ 

*  See  p.  71.  of  this  volume. 


which,  though  it  has  the  same  general  meaning  as  the  He- 
brew word,  especially  signifies  palm  wine." 

The  patriarchs,  like  the  moclern  inhabitants  of  the  East, 
were  accustomed  to  take  their  meals  under  the  shade  of  trees. 
Thus  Abraham  stood  by  the  angfels  under  the  tree,  and  they 
did  eat.  (Gen.  xviii.  8.)  The  ancient  Hebrews  did  not  eat 
indifferently  with  all  persons;  they  would  have  been  polluted 
and  dishonoured  in  their  own  opinion,  by  eating  with  people 
of  another  religion,  or  of  an  odious  profession.  In  Joseph's 
time,  they  neither  ate  with  the  Egyptians  nor  the  Egyptians 
with  them  (Gen.  xliii.  32.)  ;  nor  in  our  Saviour's  time  with 
the  Samaritans  (John  iv.  9.)  ;  and  the  Jews  were  scandalized 
at  Jesus  Christ's  eating  with  publicans  and  sinners.  (Matt, 
ix.  11.)  As  there  were  several  sorts  of  meats,  whose  use 
was  prohibited,  they  could  not  conveniently  eat  with  those 
who  partook  of  them,  fearing  some  pollution  by  touching 
them,  or  if  by  accident  any  part  of  them  should  fall  upon 
them.  The  ancient  Hebrews  at  their  meals  had  each  his 
separate  table.  When  Joseph  entertained  his  brethren  in 
Egypt,  he  seated  each  of  them  at  his  particular  table,  and  he 
himself  sat  down  separately  from  the  Egyptians  who  ate 
with  him:  but  he  sent  to  his  brethren,  out  of  the  provisions 
which  were  before  him.  (Gen.  xliii.  31.  et  seq.)  Elkanah, 
Samuel's  father,  who  had  two  wives,  distributed  their  por- 
tions to  them  separately.  (1  Sam.  i.  4,  5.)  In  Homer,  each 
of  the  guests  has  his  little  table  apart ;  and  the  master  of  the 
feast  distributes  meat  to  each.  We  are  sure  that  this  is  still 
practised  in  China ;  and  many  in  India  never  eat  out  of  the 
same  dish,  nor  on  the  same  table,  and  they  believe  they  can- 
not do  so  without  sin ;  and  this,  not  only  in  their  own  country, 
but  when  travelling,  and  in  foreign  lands."  The  antique 
manners  which  we  observe  in  Homer  we  likewise  perceive 
in  Scripture,  with  regard  to  eating,  drinking,  and  entertain- 
ments. We  find  great  plenty,  but  little  delicacy ;  great 
respect  and  honour  paid  to  the  guests  by  serving  them  plen- 
tifully :  thus  Joseph  sent  his  brother  Benjamin  a  portion  five 
times  larger  than  his  other  brethren  ;  and  Samuel  set  a  whole 
qiiarter  of  a  calf  before  Savil.  From  Neh.  viii.  10.  12.  and 
Lsth.  ix.  19.  22.  it  appears  to  have  been  customary  to  send  a 
portion  of  what  remained  from  their  public  feasts  to  those  for 
whom  nothing  was  prepared,  or  who  were  by  any  circum- 
stances prevented  from  being  present  at  them.  The  worr>en 
did  not  appear  at  table  in  entertainments  with  the  men.  This 
would  have  been  then,  as  it  is  at  this  day  throughout  the 
East,  an  indecency.  Thus  Vushfi  the  queen  inade  a  feast  for 
the  women  in  the  royal  house,  which  belonged  to  Jihasuerus 
(Esth.  i.  9.),  while  the  Persian  monarch  was  feasting  his 
nobles. 

In  India,  feasts  are  given  in  the  open  halls  and  gardens, 
where  a  variety  of  strangers  are  admitted,  and  much  fami- 
liarity is  allowed.  This  easily  accounts  for  a  circumstance 
in  the  history  of  Christ  which  is  attended  with  considerable 
difficulty ; — the  penitent  Mary  coming  into  the  apartment 
where  he  was,  and  anointing  his  feet  with  the  ointment,  and 
wiping  them  with  the  hairs  of  her  head.  (Luke  vii.  44.) 
This  familiarity  is  not  only  common,  but  is  far  from  being 
deemed  either  disrespectful  or  displeasing.^  From  the  para- 
bles of  tho  nuptial  feast  (Matt.  xxii.  2 — 4.)  and  of  the  great 
supper  (Luke  xiv.  16,  17.)  it  appears  anciently  to  have  been 
the  custom  for  the  parties  invitecTnot  to  go  to  the  entertain- 
ment until  it  was  announced  to  be  ready.  A  similar  usage 
obtains  in  modern  Persia;  when  Sir  Harford  Jones,  during 
his  political  mission  thither  in  1808-9,  dined  with  the  Khan 
of  Bushire,  the  envoy  and  his  suite  did  not  go  to  the  khan's 
residence,  until  the  latter  had  sent  a  messenger  to  say  that 
the  entertainment  was  ready  for  his  reception.^  From  1  Sam. 
xvi.  11.  (marginal  rendering)  and  Psal.  cxxviii.  3.  it  should 
seem  that  the  ancient  Hebrews  sat  down  round  about  a  mat 
or  low  table,  cross-legged,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  still 
practised  in  the  East:  afterwards,  however,  they  imitated 
the  Persians  and  Chaldaeans,  who  reclined  on  table-beds  wiiile 
eating ;  some  traces  of  which  are  observable  in  the  Book  of 
Proverbs  (xxiii.  1.),  in  Amos  (vi.  4.  7.),  Ezekiel  (xxiii.  41.), 
and  Tobit  (ii.  4.);  but  this  practice  was  not  general.  ^  We 
see  expressions  in  the  sacrecl  authors  of  those  times,  Avhich 
prove  that  they  also  sat  at  table.     At  Ahasuerus's  banquet 

«  C.  B.  Michaelis,  Dissertatio  Philologica  naturalia  quEedam  et  artificilia 
codicis  sacri  ex  Aicorano  illustrans,  §  12.  In  Pott's  and  Ruperli's  Sylloge 
Commentationem  Theologicarum,  tom.  ii.  pp.  49,  50. 

'  See  examples  in  Ward's  View  of  the  History,  Sec.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol. 
ii.  p.  315.  Renaudot,  'Notes  sur  le  Voyage  des  deux  Arabes  a  la  Chine, 
pp.  123,  124. 

8  Forbes's  Oriental  Memoirs,  vol.  iii.  pp.  183.  190. 

9  Morier's  Journey  through  Persia  in  the  Years  1808-9,  p.  73.  London, 
1812.  4to. 


CiiAP.  VT.] 


HOSPITALITY,  A  SACRED  DUTY  AMONG  THE  JEWS. 


173 


(Esth.  i.  r>.)  tlio  company  lay  on  bods,  and  also  at  that  wliich 
Esther  <rav(!  tilt' kiii<r  and  iJanian.  (Esth.  vii.  H.)  Our  Sa- 
viour in  liko  HianiKT  rw^liiicd  at  tahh;  (as  alroady  described 
in  p.  151.),  when  Mary  Mairdalene  anointed  his  feet  witli 
perfume  (.Matt.  xxvi.  7.),  and  when  John,  at  tlie  last  supper, 
rested  iiis  liead  on  liis  l)osom.  (John  xiii.  ^.O.)  Previously 
to  takiiijr  food,  it  was  usual  to  iniploni  ibe  divine  blcssinir, 
as  we  see  by  the  (ixampie  of  Samuel,  wliich  is  aliudc^l  to  in 
1  Sam.  ix.  i'.i.;  and  it  should  seem  from  1  'i'im.  iv.  1.  that 
the  same  laudable  practice  obtained  in  the  time  of  the  apostle 
Paiil. 

The  modern  Jews,  before  they  sit  down  to  table,  after  the 
exampleof  their  ancestors,  carefully  wash  their  hands.  'J'liey 
speak  of  iliis  ceremony  as  being  essiMitial  and  obli(r;itory. 
After  meals  tiiey  wash  them  an;aiu.  When  they  sit  down  to 
table,  the  master  of  the  house,  or  chief  person  in  tlie  company, 
takinor  bnaii,  breaks  it,  but  does  not  divide  it;  then  puttiritr  his 
hand  on  it,  he  recites  this  blessiufr;  Blcsned  bp  t/ioii,  0  Lord 
our  God,  the  klnir  of  the  world,  who  producest  /he  bread  of  ihe 
earth.  Those  present  answer,  .'iiiieii.  Havinjj  distributed 
the  bread  amoiijr  tiie  {juests,  he  takes  the  vesselof  the  wine 
in  his  ri<rlit  hand,  saying,  Blexsed  art  thou,  0  Lord  our  God, 
kiiiix  of  the  tvorld,  who  hont  produced  the  fruit  of  the  vine. 
They  then  repeat  the  '23d  Psalm.'  They  take  care,  that  after 
meals  there  shall  be  a  piece  of  bread  remaiuitig  on  the  table : 
the  master  of  the  house  orders  a  ^lass  to  be  washed,  fills  it 
with  wine,  and  elevating  it,  says,  I>et  us  bless  him  of  whose 
benefits  we  have  been  partaking;  the  rest  answer,  Blessed 
be  he,  who  has  heaped  his  favours  on  us,  and  by  his  good- 
ness lias  now  fed  us.  Then  he  recites  a  pretty  long  prayer, 
wherein  he  thanks  (Jod  for  his  many  benefits  vouchsafea  to 
Israel :  beseeches  him  to  pity  Jerusalem  and  his  temple,  to 
restore  the  throne  of  Davici,  to  send  Elias  and  the  Messiah, 
to  deliver  them  out  of  their  long  captivity.  All  present 
answer,  .Imcn.  They  recite  Psal.  xxxiv.  9,  10.;  ana  then, 
aflc^r  passing  the  glass  with  a  little  wine  in  it  round  to  those 
present,  he  drinks  what  is  left,  and  the  table  is  cleared. 2 

V.  When  persons  journeyed,  they  provided  themselves 
with  every  necessary,  as  there  were  no  inns  for  the  reception 
of  travellers.  Women  and  rich  men  frequently  travelled  on 
asses  or  camels,  which  carried  not  only  their  merchandise, 
but  also  till  ir  household  goods  and  chattels,  and  queens  were 
carried  in  palanquins  (Cant.  iii.  7.)  ;^  and  it  appears  that  the 
Jews  often  travelled  in  caravans  or  companies  (as  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  East  do  to  this  day),  especially  when  they  went 
np  to  Jerusalem  at  the  three  great  annual  festivals.  7'hc 
Psalms  of  .hceiifiion.'',  or  of  Dti^rees,  as  they  are  commonly 
entitled  (cxx. — cxxxiv.),  are  supposed  to  have  received  this 
appellation  from  the  circumstance  of  their  being  sung  by  the 
nn^re  devout  Jews,  when  they  were  mcendini;  or  travelling 
up  to  the  Moly  City  on  these  occasions.  The  cotnpani/, 
among  which  Joseph  and  Mary  supposed  Jesus  to  have  been 
on  their  return  from  the  passover,  when  he  was  twelve  years 
old  (Luke  ii.  \-2. — 11.),  was  one  of  these  caravans.''  The 
Ceylonese  travel  in  a  similar  way  at  festivals  to  particular 
places  of  worship.* 

VI.  In  the  East,  anciently,  as  well  as  in  modern  times, 
there  were  no  inns,  in  which  the  traveller  could  meet  with 
refreshment.  Shade  from  tiie  sun,  and  protection  from  the 
plunderers  of  the  night,  is  all  that  the  caravansaries  afford. 
Hence  iiosi)itality  was  deemed  a  sacred  duty  incumbent  upon 
every  one.  The  Sacred  Writings  exhibit  several  instances 
of  hospitality  exercised  by  the  patriarchs,  and  the  writings 
of  mooern  travellers  show  that  similar  hospitality  still  exists 
in  the  East."*  Abraham  received  three  angels,  invited  them, 
served  them  himself,  and  stood  in  their  presence  ;  Sarah  his 
wife  took  care  of  the  kitchen,  and  baked  oread  for  his  guests. 
(Gen.  xviii.  2,  3,  &c.)^      Lot  waited  at  the  city-gates  to 

•  See  BuxtorCs  Syn.-ur.  and  Leo  of  Modcna,  part  ii.  c.  10. 

«  Caliuel's  Uisserlations,  toiii.  i.  pp.  312— 3o0. 

'  In  our  comuion  version  iTJD  (>\aiau)  is  rendered  bed.  Mr.  Ilarmer 
first  suggested  that  a  palanquin  was  intended ;  and  he  has  been  followed 
by  Dr.  Uood  in  his  version  of  Solomon's  Siing.  The  mode  of  travelling  or 
taking  the  air  in  a  couch,  liner,  or  vehicle  of  this  name,  supporlcd  on  the 
shoulders  of  slaves  or  servants,  is  extremely  common  all  over  the  East  at 
the  present  day^  and  is  unquestionably  of  immemorial  dale.  These  palan 
quins  are  often  of  most  elegant  and  superb  manufacture,  as  well  as  mo.st 
Moluptuously  soft  and  easy.  Of  this  description  was  the  couch  or  palan- 
quin of  Soloninn.    Good's  translation  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,  p.  103. 

»  See  th«  various  passages  of  Uarmer's  Obsenalions,  referred  to  in  bis 
Index,  article  Caravans.  Ward's  History  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  333. 
Fragments  supplementary  to  Calmet,  No.  I. 

»  t;allaway's  Oriental  Observations,  p.  74. 

•  See  Liaht's  Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  p.  82.  Mr.  Belzoni's  Researches  in 
Egypt,  p.  01.     Burckhardt's  travels  in  Syria,  pp.  21.  295. 

1  Mr.  Buckingham  has  described  an  interesting  trait  of  oriental  hospi- 
tality in  an  Arab  sheik  of  Barak,  the  chief  of  a  Turcoman  tribe  dwelling 
in.the  vicinity  of  Aleppo,  on  the  plain  of  Barak,  which  is  very' similar  to 


receive  guests.  ((Jen.  xix.  1.)  When  the  inhabitants  of  So- 
dom meant  to  insult  his  guests  he  wer>t  out,  he  spoke  to 
them,  he  exposed  himself  to  their  fury,  and  offered  rather  to 
give  up  his  own  daughters  to  their  brutality  than  his  guests, 
((ien.  xix.  5 — 9.)  The  same  is  observable  in  the  old  man 
of  Gibeaii,  who  iiad  received  the  yoimg  Levite  and  his  wife. 
(Judg.  xix.  l(j,  17.)  St.  Paul  (lleb.  xiii.  2.)  uses  Abra- 
ham's and  Lot's  examph;  to  encourage  the  faithful  to  the 
exercise  of  hospitality,  saying,  that  they  who  have  practised 
it  have  merited  the  honour  of  receiving  angels  under  the  fornn 
of  men.  In  the  East,  on  account  of  the  intense  heat  of  the 
weather  during  summer,  they  were  accustomed  to  travel  by 
night.  The  circumstance  will  explain  the  panible  of  the  im- 
portunate guest  who  arrived  at  midnight  (Luke  xi.  5* — S.)  ; 
111  which  the  rites  of  hospitality,  common  among  the  Orien- 
tals, are  generally  recognised  and  supposed  to  be  acted  upon, 
though  not  in  so  prompt  a  manner  as  was  usual.» 

The  primitive  Christians  made  one  principal  part  of  their 
duty  to  consist  in  the  exercise  of  hospitality,  (hir  Saxiour 
tells  his  apostles,  that  whoever  received  tiiem  received  him- 
self; and  that  wliosoever  should  give  them  even  a  glass  of 
water,  should  not  lose  his  reward.  (Matt.  xxv.  41.  45.)  At 
the  day  of  judgment,  he  will  say  to  the  wicked,  Depart,  ye 
cursed,  info  everlasting  fire :  I  was  a  strani^er,  and  ye  received 

me  nut ,- inasmuch  as  ye  have  not  dune  it  unto  the  least 

(f  these,  ye  havenot  done  it  unto  me.  vSt.  Peter  (1  Eph.  iv.  9.) 
requires  the  faithful  to  use  hospitality  to  their  brethren  with- 
out murmuring  and  complaint.  St.  Paul  in  several  of  his 
Epistles  recommends  hospitality,  and  especially  to  bishops. 
(iTim.  iii.  2.  Tit.  i.  8.)  The  primitive  Christians  were  so 
ready  in  the  discharge  of  this  duty  that  the  very  heathens  ad- 
mired them  for  it.  They  were  hospitable  to  all  strangers, 
but  especially  to  those  of  the  same  faith  and  commu^lion. 
Believers  scarcely  ever  travelled  without  letters  of  recom- 
mendation, which  testified  the  purity  of  their  faith  ;  and  this 
Srocured  them  a  hospitable  reception  wherever  the  name  of 
esus  Christ  was  known.  Calmtn  is  of  opinion,  th'atthetwo 
last  E])istles  of  St.  John  may  be  such  kind  of  letters  of  com- 
munion and  recommendation  as  were  given  to  Christians  who 
travelled. 

Instances  of  hospitality  among  the  early  Greeks  abound  in 
the  w'ritings  of  Homer,  whose  delineations  of  manners  and 
customs  reflect  so  much  light  on  the  Old  Testament,  espe- 
cially on  the  Pentateuch;  and  that  ancient  hospitality,  which 
the  Greeks  considered  as  so  sacred  and  inviolable,  is  still  par- 
tially preserved.  When  the  traveller  makes  a  second  tour 
through  the  country,  he  can  hardly  do  any  thing  more  offen- 
sive to  the  person  by  whom  he  was  entertained  in  his  first 
journey,  than  by  not  again  having  recourse  to  the  kindness 
of  his  former  host.  Travelling  would,  indeed,  be  impracti- 
cable in  Greece,  if  it  were  not  facilitated  by  this  noble  senti- 
ment ;  for  the  Protogerio  are  not  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  the  miserable  khans  or  caravansaries  are  gene- 
rally constructed  only  in  towns  or  on  high\va3'S. 

Travelling,  in  the  greater  part  of  Greece,  seems  to  have 
been,  ancientl)'  at  least,  as  difficult  as  it  is  at  the  present  day  ; 
and  that  circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  laws  of  hospitality. 
This  reciprocal  hospitality  became  hereditary'  in  families 
even  of  different  nations;  and  the  friendship  which  was  thus 
contracted  was  not  less  binding  than  the  ties  of  affinity,  or 
of  blood.  Those  between  whom  a  regard  had  been  cemented 
by  the  intercourse  of  hospitality  were  provided  with  some 
particular  mark,  ■which,  being  handed  down  from  father  to 
son,  established  a  friendship  and  alliance  between  the  fami- 
lies for  several  generations ;  and  the  engagement  thus  entered 
into  could  not  be  dispensed  with,  unless  publicly  disavowed 
in  a  judicial  manner,  nothing  being  considered  so  base  as  a 

the  hospitable  conduct  of  Abraham,  related  in  Gen.  xvili.  "  When  we 
alighted  at  his  tent-door,  our  horses  were  taken  from  us  by  his  son,  a 
young  man  well  dressed  in  a  scarlet  cloth  benish  and  a  shawl  of  silk  for  a 
turban.  The  sheik,  his  father,  was  sitting  beneath  the  awning  in  front  of 
Ihe  tent  itself;  and,  when  we  entered,  rose  up  lo  receive  us,  exchanging 
the  salute  of  welcome,  and  not  sealing  himself  unlll  all  his  guests  were 
accommodated."....  "Soon  afterwards,  warm  cakes  prepared  on  the 
hearth,  cream,  honey,  dried  raisins,  butter,  lebben,  and  wheat  boiled 
in  milk,  were  sen'ed  to  the  company.  Neither  the  sheik  himself  nor 
any  of  his  family  partook  with  us,  but  stood  around  to  wait  upon  their 
guests."  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  i.  pp.  30.  32.  (8vo. 
edit.) 

8  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  on  two  occasions  partook  of  Arab  hospi- 
tality, in  a  manner  which  strikingly  illustrates  the  parable  above  cited. 
"  W'e  arrived  at  a  camp  late  at  night ;  and,  hailing  before  a  tent,  found  the 
owner,  with  his  wife  and  chllilreh,  had  just  retired  to  rest:  when  It  was 
astonishing  to  see  Ihe  good  humour  with  which  they  all  arose  again,  and 
kindled  a  fire,  the  wife  commencing  to  knead  the  dough  and  prepare  our 
supper,  our  Arabs  making  no  apology,  but  taking  all  as  a  matter  of  course, 
though  the  nights  were  bitterly  cold."  Travels  in  Egypt,  Nubia,  Syria,  &c. 
p.  273 


174 


ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IV. 


violation  of  it.  lliis  mark  was  the  l^;^fo^cv  ^wkov  of  the 
Greeks,  and  the  tessera  huspitalis  of  tlie  Latins.  The  arv/jiQoKov 
was  sometimes  an  astragal,"  probahly  of  lead,  which  being 
cut  in  halves,^  one  half  was  kept  by  the  host,  and  the  other 
by  the  person  whom  he  had  entertained.  On  subsequent 
occasions  tliey  or  their  descendants,  by  whom  the  symbol 
was  recognised,  gave  or  receiveu  hosjiitality  on  comparing 
the  two  tallies.  Mr.  Dodwell  found  some  half  astragals  of 
lead  in  Greece,  which  had  probably  served  for  this  pur- 
pose. ^ 

The  ancient  Romans  divided  a  tessera  lengthwise,  into  two 
equal  parts,  as  signs  of  hospitality,  upon  each  of  which  one 
of  the  parties  wrote  his  name,  and  interchanged  it  with  the 
other.  The  production  of  this,  when  they  travelled,  gave  a 
mutual  claim  to  tbe  contracting  parties  and  their  descendants, 
for  reception  and  kind  treatment  at  each  other's  houses,  as 
occasion  oiTered.  These  tesserx  were  sometimes  of  stone, 
shaped  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  square ;  and  as  they  were 
carefully  and  privately  kept,  so  that  no  one  miglit  claim  the 


privileges  of  them,  besides  the  person  for  whom  they  were 
intended,  this  circumstance  gives  a  beautiful  and  natural  ex- 
planation of  the  following  passage  in  Rev.  ii.  17.  where  it  is 
said,  jfb  him  that  overcometh,  will  I  give  a  white  stone,  and  in 
the  stone  a  new  name  writ  ten,  which  no  man  knoweth,  saving 
he  that  receive/h  if.  In  this  passage  the  venerable  translators 
of  our  authorized  version,  by  rendering  it  a  white  sfone,  seem 
to  have  confounded  it  with  the  calculus  or  small  globular  stone, 
which  was  commonly  used  for  balloting,  and  on  some  other 
occasions.  The  origmal  words  are  -^txpov  Kfjuov,  which  do  not 
specify  either  the  matter  or  the  form,  but  only  the  use  of  it. 
Ijy  this  allusion,  therefore,  the  promise  made  to  the  church 
at  Pergamos  seems  to  be  to  this  purpose: — "To  him  that 
overcometh,  will  I  give  -d  pledge  of  my  affection,  which  shall 
constitute  him  my  friend,  and  entitle  him  to  privileges  and 
honours,  of  which  none  else  can  know  the  value  or  extent." 
And  to  this  sense  the  following  words  very  well  agree,  which 
describe  this  stone  or  tessera,  as  having  in  it  «  new  name 
written,  which  no  man  knoweth,  saving  he  that  receiveth  it,^ 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS,  LITERATURE,  STUDIES,  AND  SCIENCES  OP  THE  HEBREWS. 

SECTION  I. 

RURAL  AND  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY  OF  THE  JEWS. 

I.  Management  of  Cattle  by  the  Jews. —  Various  Animals  reared  by  ttiem. — II.  Laws  of  Jlloses  respecting  Agiucultuke. — 
III.  jyianures  known  and  used  by  the  Jews. — IV.  Tlieir  Mode  of  ploughing,  sowing,  and  reafung. — V,  Different  Ways  of 
threshitig  out  Corn. — VI.  Vineyards,  and  the  Culture  of  the  Vitie  and  Olive. —  Gardens. — VII.  JlUusions  in  the  Scriptures 
to  tlie  rural  aiid  domestic  Economy  of  the  Jews, 

xiii.  6.) ;  and  strifes  between  the  different  villagers  and  herds- 
men of  Syria  still  exist,  as  well  as  in  the  days  of  those  pa- 
triarchs.* 'Jacob,  also,  must  have  had  a  great  number,  since 
he  could  afford  a  present  to  his  brother  Esau  oi  five  hundred 
and  eighty  head  of  cattle.   (Gen.  xxxii.  13 — 17.)^     It  was 

*  Ward's  Dissertations  upon  several  passages  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
pp.  229—232.  London,  1759.  Svo.  Dr.  T.  M.  Harris's  Dissertation  on  the 
Tessera  Hospitalis  of  the  Ancient  Romans,  annexed  to  his  Discourses  on 
the  Principles,  Tendency,  and  Design  of  Free-Masonry.  Charlestown 
(Massachusetts),  Anno  Lucis  5S01.  This  writer  has  also  given  several 
proofs  of  the  prevalence  of  a  similar  practice  among  the  ancient  Chris- 
tians, who  carried  tlie  tessera  wilh  them  in  their  travels  as  an  inlroduclion 
to  the  friendship  and  brotherly  kindness  of  their  fellow-Cliristians.  After- 
wards, heretics,  to  enjoy  those  privileges,  counterfeited  the  tessera.  The 
Christians  then  altered  the  inscription.  This  was  frequently  done  till  the 
Nicene  Council  gave  their  sanction  to  those  marked  with  the  initials  of  the 
words  llxrtip,  Tio;,  Ayiav  Uviufici. ;  which  B.  Hildebrand  calls  TessercB 
Ca7ioniccB.  The  impostor  Peregrinus,  as  we  learn  from  Lucian  (Op.  torn, 
iii.  p.  325.  Amst.  1743),  feigned  himself^  a  Christian,  that  he  might  not  only 
be  clothed  and  fed  by  the  Christians,  but  also  be  assisted  on  his  travels, 
and  enriched  by  their  generosity  ;  but  his  artifice  was  detected  and  ex- 
posed. The  procuring  of  a  tessera  (Dr.  Harris  remarks),  as  a  mark  of 
evangelization,  answereii  aU  the  purposes,  and  saved  all  the  trouble,  of 
formal  written  certificates,  and  introductory  letters  of  recommendation. 
The  danger  of  its  being  used  by  impostops,  as  in  the  case  of  Peregrinus, 
rendered  it  necessary  to  preserve  the  token  with  gre>it  care,  and  never  to 
produce  it  but  upon  special  occasions.  Notwithstanding  the  simplicity  of 
this  method,  it  continued  in  use  until  the  time  of  Burchardis,  archbishop 
of  Worms,  who  flourished  a.  d.  1100,  and  who  mentions  it  in  a  visitation 
charge.    (Harris's  Sermons,  &c.  pp.  319,  320.) 

5  Richardson's  Travels  along  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  ii.  p.  196. 

«  The  following  description  of  the  removal  of  an  Arab  horde  will  afford 
the  reader  a  lively  idea  of  the  primitive  manners  of  the  patriarchs  : — "  It 
was  entertaining  enough  to  see  the  horde  of  Arabs  decamp,  as  nothing 
could  be  more  regular.  First  went  the  sheep  and  goat-herds,  each  with 
their  flocks  in  divisions,  according  as  the  chief  of  each  family  directed ; 
then  followed  the  camels  and  asses,  loaded  with  the  tents,  furniture,  and 
kitchen  utensils;  these  were  followed  by  the  old  men,  women,  boys,  and 
girls,  on  foot.  The  children  that  cannot  walk  are  carried  on  the  liacks  of 
the  young  women,  or  the  boys  and  girls  ;  and  the  smallest  of  (he.  lambs  and 
kids  are  carried  under  the  arms  of  the  children.  To  each  tent  belong 
many  dogs,  among  which  are  some  greyhounds;  some  tents  have  from 
ten  to  fourteen  dogs,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  men,  women,  and  children, 
belonging  to  them.  The  procession  is  closed  by  the  chief  of  the  tribe,  whom 
they  called  Emir  and  Father  (emir  means  prince),  mounted  on  the  very  best 
horse,  and  surrounded  by  the  heads  of  each  family,  all  on  horses,  with 
many  servants  on  foot.  Between  each  family  is  a  division  or  space  of  one 
himdred  yards,  or  more,  when  they  migrate;  and  such  great  regularity  is 
observed,  that  neither  camels,  asses,  sheep,  nordog.s,  mix,  but  each  keeps 
to  the  division  to  which  it  belongs  without  the  least  trouble.  They  had 
been  here  eight  days,  and  were  going  four  hours'  journey  to  the  north- 
west, to  another  spring  of  water.  This  tribe  consisted  of  about  eight 
hundred  and  fifty  men„women,  and  children.  Their  flocks  of  sheep  and 
goats  were  about  five  thousand,  besides  a  great  number  of  camels,  horses,  ^ 
and  asses.  Horses  and  greyhounds  they  breed  and  train  up  for  sale  :  they 
neither  kill  nor  sell  their  ewe  lambs.  At  set  times  a  chapter  in  the  Koran  ' 
is  read  by  the  chief  of  each  family,  either  in  or  near  each  tent,  the  whole 
family  being  gathered  round  and  very  attentive."  Parson's  Travels  from 
Aleppo- to  Bagdad,  pp.  109,  HO.    London,  1808.  4to. 


JuD.ffiA  was  eminently  an  a^icultural  country ;  and  all  the 
Mosaic  statutes  were  admirably  calculated  to  encourage  agri- 
culture as  the  chief  foundation  of  national  prosperity,  and  also 
to  preserve  the  Jews  detached  from  the  surrounding  idolatrous 
nations. 

I.  After  they  had  acquired  possession  of  the  promised 
land,  the  Jews  applied  themselves  wholly  to  agriculture  and 
the  tending  of  cattle,  following  the  example  of  their  ances- 
tors, the  patriarchs,  who  (like  the  Arabs,  Bedouins,  Turco- 
mans, and  numerous  tribes  of  eastern  Asia)  were  generally 
husbandmen  and  shepherds,  and  whose  chief  riches  consisted 
in  cattle,  slaves,  and  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  Adam  brought 
up  his  two  sons  to  husbandry,  Cain  to  the  tilling  of  the 
ground,  and  Abel  to  the  feeding  of  slieep.  (Gen.  iv.  2.)  Jabal 
was  a  grazier  of  cattle,  of  whom  it  is  said,  that  he  was  the 
father  of  such  as  dwell  in  tents  (ver.  20.),  that  is,  he  travelled 
with  his  cattle  from  place  to  place,  and  for  that  end  invented 
the  use  of  tents,  which  he  carried  with  him  for  shelter. 
After  the  Deluge,  Noah  resumed  his  agricultural  labours, 
which  had  been  interrupted  by  that  catastrophe.  (Gen.  ix. 
20.)  The  chief  wealth  of  the  patriarchs  consisted  in  cattle. 
(Gen.  xiii.  2.  compared  with  Job  i.  3.)  Abraham  and  Lot 
must  have  had  vast  herds  of  cattle,  when  they  were  obliged 
to  separate  because  the  land  could  not  contain  them  (Gen. 

»  The  astragal  was  a  bono  of  the  hinder  feet  of  cloven-footed  animals. 
Plin.  Nat.  Hist.  h.  xi.  cc.  4.5,  46. 

»  Jacobi  Nicholai  Loensis  Miscell.  Epiphill.  p.  4.  c.  19.  Samuelis  Petiti 
Miscel.  b.  2.  c.  i.     Note  on  v.  613.    Euripid.  Medea,  Esvois  te  Tre/^Trsiv 

'  Mr.  Dodwell's  Classical  Tour  in  Greece,  vol.  i.  p.  519.  Plautus,  in  his 
play  called  P;enulus  (act  5.  sc.  2.),  represents  Hanno,  the  Carthaginian,  as 
retaining  a  symbol  of  hospitality  reciprocally  with  Antidamas  of  Calydon; 
but  Antidamas  being  dead,  he  addresses  himself  to  his  son  Agorastocles, 
and  says,-^ 

"Si  ita  est,  tesseram 

Conferre,  si  vis,  hospitalem — eccam  atluli." 
Agorastocles  answers : — 

"  Agedum  hoc  estende,  est  par  probe,  nam  habeo  domum." 
To  which  Hanno : — 

"  O  mi  hospes,  salve  multum,  nam  mihi  tuus  pater 
Pater  tuus  ergo  hospes  Antidamas  fuit ; 
Ha;c  mihi  hospitalis  tessera  cum  illo  fuit." 
Agorastocles  proceeds : — 

"  Ergo  hie  apud  me  hospitium  tibi  prsebebitur." 
"If  this  be  the  case,  here  is  the  tally  of  hospitality,  which  I  have 
brought;  compare  it  if  you  please. — Show  it  me  ;  it  is  indeed  the  tally  to 
that  which  1  have  at  home  ; — My  dear  host,  you  are  heartily  welcome :  for 
your  father  Antidamas  was  my  host :  this  was  the  token  of  hospitality  be- 
tween him  and  mc ;  and  you  shall,  therefore,  be  kindly  received  in  my 
house."    Ibid.  p.  520. 


Sl-CT.    I.] 


MANAGEMENT  OF  CATTLE. 


175 


their  s^reat  flocks  of  cattle  which  made  them  in  those  primi- 
tive times  put  siicli  a  price  upon  wells.  These  were  posses- 
sions of  incstim;il(l(!  value  m  a  coniitry  where  it  seldom 
rained,  and  where  tli(!re  were  hut  few  rivers  or  brooks,  and, 
therefore,  it  is  no  wonder  that  we  read  of  so  many  contests 
ahout  them. 

In  sncceedinrr  ages,  we  find,  that  tlie  greatest  and  weal- 
thiest men  did  not  disdain  to  follow  hushandry,  however 
mean  that  occupation  is  now  accounted.'  Moses,  tin;  great 
lawgiver  of  the,  Israelites,  was  a  shepherd.  Shamgar  was 
taken  from  tlu!  herd  to  he  a  judge  in  Israid,  and  (iideon  from 
his  tliresiiing-tloor  (.ludg.  vi.  1 1.),  vis  were  .lair  and  .hiphtliaii 
from  tiie  keeping  of  slieej).  When  S;inl  received  the  news 
of  the  danger  to  which  the  city  of  .laiiesh-gilead  was.exposed, 
lie  was  comhig  after  tin;  lu^rd  out  of  the  lield,  notwithslandintr 
he  was  a  king.  (I  Sam.  xi.  f),)  And  king  D<iv'u\,  fmni  ftfj- 
iii<r  lite  ewes  irn-tif  willi  i/ouiiir^  was  hrouf^lil  In  feed  ,/ucoh  his 
people  (i)id  Israel  his  iiilii ri/aiice  (I'sal.  Ixxviii.  71.);  and  it 
siiould  seem,  from  2  Sam.  xiii.  '2',i.,  that  Ahsalom  was  a  large 
sheep-owner.  King  Uzxiah  is  said  to  he  a  lover  of  hiis- 
i)andry  (2  ('hron.  xxvi.  10.);  and  some  of  tin;  proiihets  were 
called  from  that  employment  to  the  pniphetii^  dignity,  as 
Mlisha  was  from  the  |)lough  (I  Kings  xix.  I'J.),  and  Amos 
from  being  a  herdsman.  Hut  the  tending  of  the  flocks  was 
not  confined  to  tlu;  men  :-  in  the  primitive  ages,  rich  and 
nohle  women  were  accustomed  to  keep  sheep,  and  to  draw 
water  as  w(-ll  as  those  of  inferior  (inality.  Thus,  Rebecca, 
the  danghl(^rof  Metluuil,  Abraham's  hrothcir,  carried  a  pitcher, 
and  drew  water  ((<en.  xxiv.  l.*}.  I'.*.),  as  the  women  of  Pah-s- 
tine  still  generally  do:  Kachel,  the  daughter  of  Laban,  kept 
her  father's  sheep  (Gen.  xxix.  9.);  and  Zipporah,  with  her 
six  sisters,  had  the  care  of  their  fatlier  Jethro's  flocks,  who 
was  a  prince,  or  (which  in  those  times  was  an  honour  scarcely 
inferior)  a  priest  of  Midian.  (Exod.  ii.  Itj.)  Repeated  in- 
stances occur  in  Homer  of  the  daughters  of  princes  tending 
flocks,  and  performing  other  menial  services.^ 

1.  Among  the  larger  animals  kept  by  the  Hebrews  or 
Jews,  NEAT  CATTLE  daim  first  to  be  noticed,  on  account  of 
their  great  utility.  They  are  termed  collectively  npa  (  b«k«r), 
and  though  they  are  of  so  small  stature  in  the  East,  yet  they 
attain  to  considerable  strength.  (Prov.  xiv.  4.)  The  bulls 
of  Hashan  were  celebrated  for  their  strength.  (Psal.  xxii.  12.) 
The  castration  of  bulls,  or  the  males  of  the  ox-tribe,  as  well 
as  of  other  male  anin\als,  which  was  common  among  other 
nations,  was  prohibited  to  the  Hebrews.  (Lev.  xxii.  24,  25.) 
Oxen  were  used  both  fi)r  draught  and  for  tillage,  as  is  still 
the  case  in  the  East:  they  were  also  employed  in  treadin<r 
out  the  corn,  during  which  they  were  not  to  be  muzzled 
(l)eut.  XXV.  4.);  and  were  driven  by  means  of  ox-goads 
(.ludg.  iii.  31.),  which,  if  they  resembled  those  used  in  more 
recent  times  m  the  East,  must  have  been  of  considerable 
size.''     Calves,  or  the  young  of  the  ox-kind,  are  frequently 

•  Honourable  as  tlie  occiipalion  of  a  sliopliei-d  was  aniongthe  Hfibrcws, 
il  was  an  abomiiuUion  tu  Ihi'  i^gi/pliann  (Gen.  xlvi.  'il.)  at  (lie  time  nlion 
Jacob  anil  his  children  went  down  into  Kaypl. — From  the  fraynienis  of  llie 
ancient  historian  Manetho,  preserved  in  .Icisephusaud  Africanus,  it  appears 
that  that  country  had  been  invaded  by  a  colony  of  Nomades  or  Shepherds, 
descended  from  Cush,  who  established  Iheinselves  there,  and  had  a  suc- 
cession of  kings.  After  many  wars  between  them  and  the  Esyptians,  in 
which  some  of  their  principal  cities  were  burnt,  and  great  cruelties  were 
coniiuiiled,  they  were  com))elle(l  to  evacuate  the  country ;  but  not  till  they 
had  been  in  possession.of  it  for  a  period  of  nine  hundred  years.  This  alone 
Was  snilicieiil  to  render  shepherds  odious  to  the  Egyptians  ;  but  they  were 
still  more  obnoxious,  because  they  killed  and  ale  those  animals,  particu- 
larly the  sheep  and  the  o.\,  which  were  accounted  most  sacred  among 
them.  See  Bryant's  Analysis  of  Ancient  Mythology,  vol.  vi.  pp.  193^—211. 
8vo.  edit. 

»  From  Hector's  address  to  his  horses,  it  appears  that  his  wife,  Andro- 
mache, ih()ii;;h  a  princess,  did  not  think  it  beneath  her  dignity  to  feed  those 
animals  herself     Iliad,  viii.  18.')— ISO. 

'  See  particularly  Iliad,  lib.  vi.  59.  78.  Odyss.  lib.  vi.  57.  xii.  131. 
•  ♦  The  inlilliirent  traveller,  Maundrell,  in  his  journey  from  .Jerusalem  to 
Ali'ppn,  relaie.s.  that  when  he  was  near  .lerusalem,  he  came  to  a  certain 
pliice,  where  (says  he)  "the  country  people  were  every  wliere  at  ploush 
In  the  ti."Ms,  in  order  to  sow  cotton  :  it  was  observable,  that  in  plouuhing, 
tli.y  used  j.iails  of  an  extraordinary  size;  upon  measuring  of  several,  I 
found  ihem  to  be  about  eight  feel  long,  and,  at  the  bigger  end,  six  inches 
in  circumference.  They  were  armed  at  the  lesser  end  with  a  sharp 
prickle,  for  driving  of  the  oxen,  and  at  the  other  end  with  a  small  spade,  or 
jiaddle  of  iron,  strong  and  massy,  for  cleansing  the  plough  from  the  clay 
that  encumbers  it  in  working.  May  we  not  from  hence  conjecture,  that  it 
was  with  such  a  goad  as  one  of  these,  that  Shamgar  made  that  prodigious 
slaughter  related  of  liiin  !  lam  confident  that  whoever  should  see  one  of 
these  instruments,  would  judge  it  to  be  a  weapon,  not  less  fit,  perhaps  fit- 
ter, ihaa  a  sword  for  such  an  execution  :  goads  of  this  sort  1  saw  always 
used  hen^bouls,  and  also  in  Syria;  and  the  reason  is,  because  the  same 
sinsle  person  both  drives  the  oxen,  and  also  holds  and  manages  the  plough  ; 
which  makes  it  necessary  to  use  such  a  goad  as  is  above  described,  to  avoid 
the  encumbrance  of  two  instruments."  MaiindreU's  Travels,  p.  110.  In 
January.  1816,  Mr.  Huckingham  observed  similar  goads  in  use,  at  Ras-el- 
Hui,  HI  the  vicinity  of  the  modern  town  of  Sour,  which  stands  on  the  site 
of  ancient  Tyre  (Travels  in  Palestine,  p.  57.) ;  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hartley,  in 
March,  18^  met  with  the  same  kind  of  goads  in  Greece.  (Missionary 
Register,  May,  1S30,  p.  223.)  • 


mentioned  in  Scripture,  because  they  were  commonly  used 
in  sacrifices.  The  failed  calf  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  24.  Luke  xv. 
23.)  was  stall-fed,  with  a  special  reference  to  a  particular 
festival  or  extraordinary  sacrifice. 

2.  So  useful  to  the  Hebrews  were  asses,  that  the  coveting 
of  them  is  prohibited  in  the  decalogue,  equally  with  o.xen : 
in  the  East  they  attain  to  a  consiimrable  size  and  beauty. 
Princes  and  peo|)l(!  of  distinction  tlid  not  think  it  beneath 
their  dignity  to  ride  on  asses  (Num.  xxii.  21.  Judg.  i.  4. 
V.  10.  x.  4.  2  Sam.  xvi.  2.);  when,  therefore,  Jesus  Christ 
rode  into  Jerusalem  on  an  ass,  he  was  received  like  a  prince 
or  sov(;reign.  (Matt.  xxi.  1 — 9.)  The  Hebrews  were  for- 
bidden to  driiw  with  an  ox  and  an  ass  together  (Deut.  xxii. 
10.),  probably  because  one  was  a  clean  animal,  and,  conse- 
(pientl)',  (Hiible,  while  the  other  was  declared  to  be  unclean, 
and,  consetpiently,  unfit  for  food.  The  habits  and  speed  of 
wild  ass(!S,  which  anciently  were  numertms  in  Arabia  Deserta 
and  tiie  neighbouring  countries,  are  described  with  great 
force  and  poi-tical  beauty  in  Job  xxxix.  5 — 8. 

Mi'i.Ks,  which  animals  partake  of  the  horse  and  ass,  were 
probably  unknown  in  the  earlier  ages.  Il  is  very  certain 
that  the  Jews  did  not  breed  them,  because  they  were  forbid- 
den to  couple  together  two  creatures  of  diflferent  species. 
(Lev.  xix.  19.)  They  seem  to  have  been  brought  to  the 
Jews  from  other  nations ;  and  the  use  of  them  was  become 
very  common  in  the  time  of  Diivid,  and  they  formed  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  royal  etpiipage.  (2  Sam.  xiii.  29.  xviii.  9. 
1  Kinffs  i.  33.  .38.  44.  x.  25.  2  Chron.  ix.  24.) 

3.  Horses  were  not  used  by  the  Jews  for  cultivating  the 
soil :  indeed,  though  they  abounded  in  Egypt  in  the  time  of 
Moses  (as  may  be  inferred  from  Exod.  ix.  3.  xiv.  6,  7.  9. 
23 — 28.  XV.  4.),  yet  we  do  not  find  any  mention  of  their 
being  used  before  the  time  of  David,  who  reserved  only  a 
hundred  horses  for  his  mounted  life-guard,  or  perhaps  for  his 
chariots,  out  of  one  thousand  which  he  captured  (2  Sam.  viii. 
4.),  the  remainder  being  houghed,  accortlinff  to  the  Mosaic 
injunction.  Solomon  carried  on  a  trade  in  Egyptian  horses 
for  the  benefit  of  the  crown.* 

4.  Camels  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures : 
anciently,  they  were  very  numerous  in  Judea,  and  throughout 
the  East,  where  they  were  reckoned  among  the  most  valua- 
ble live  stock.  The  patriarch  Job  had  at  first  three  thousand 
(Job  i.  3.),  and,  after  his  restoration  to  prosperity,  six  thou- 
sand, (xiii.  12.)  The  camels  of  the  Midianitesand  Amalek- 
ites  were  wilhout  number,  as  Ihe  sand  hif  the  sea-side  fir  inul- 
tilude.  (Judg.  vii.  12.)  So  great  was  the  importance  attached 
to  the  propagation  and  management  of  camels,  that  a  particu- 
lar officer  was  appointed  in  the  reign  of  David  to  superintend 
their  keepers;  and  as  the  sacred  historian  particularly  men- 
tions that  he  was  an  Ishmaelite,  we  may  presume  that  he  was 
selected  for  his  office  on  account  of  his  superior  skill  in  the 
treatment  of  these  animals.  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  30.) 

Two  species  of  camels  are  mentioned  in  the  Scripture,  viz. 
1.  the  'jDj  (g«jm«l)  or  common  camel,  which  has  two  hunches 
on  its  back,  that  distinguish  it  from,  2.  the  -ua  (Br/Kwii),  or 
dromedary,  which  has  only  one  bunch.  The  dromedary  is 
remarkable  for  its  fleetness.  Both  species  are  now,  as  well 
as  anciently,  much  used  for  travelling  long  journeys.  The 
camels'  furniture,  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxxi.  34.,  is  most  pro- 
bably the  large  seat  or  pack-saddle,  invariably  observed  in 
the  East  upon  the  back  of  camels.  When  taken  off",  at  the 
close  of  a  journej',  it  would  equally  afford  a  place  of  conceal- 
ment for  the  images,  and  a  convenient  seat  for  Rachel.^  The 
Arabs  eat  both  the  flesh  and  milk  of  camels,  which,  however, 
were  forbidden  to  the  Israelites,  as  being  unclean  animals. 
(Lev.  xi.  4.  Deut.  xiv.  7.)  A  coarse  cloth  is  manufactured 
of  camels'  hair  in  the  East,  which  is  used  for  making  the 
coats  of  shepherds  and  camel  drivfers,  and  also  for  the  cover- 
ing of  tents.  It  was,  doubtless,  this  coarse  kind  which  was 
worn  by  John  the  Baptist,  and  which  distinouished  him  from 
those  residents  in  royal  palaces,  who  wore  soft  raiment. 
(Matt.  iii.  4.  xi.  8.) 

5.  Amonff  the  smaller  cattle.  Goats  and  Sheep  were  the 
most  valuiime,  and  were  reared  in  great  numbers  on  account 
of  their  flesh  and  milk;  the  latter  animals  were  also  of  great 
value  on  account  of  their  wool,  which  was  shorn  twice  in  the 
year.  Sheep-shearing  was  a  season  of  great  festivitj'. 
(2  Sam.  xiii.  23 — 27.  1  Sam.  x.xv.  2,  &c.)  Jahn  enumerates 
Ihree  varieties  of  sheep,  but  Dr.  Harris  specifies  only  two 
breeds  as  being  found  in  Syria;  viz.  L  The  Bedouin  sheep. 


s  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  394,  39.3.  In  pp.  431—514.  there  is 
an  elaborate  dissertation  on  the  ancient  history  and  uses  of  horses.  For 
the  reason  why  the  Israelilish  sovereigns  were  prohibited  from  multiplying 
horses,  see  p.  43.  of  the  present  volume- 

«  Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece,  p.  232. 


176 


ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Paht  IV.  Chap.  VIT. 


which  differs  little  in  its  appearance  from  our  common  breed, 
except  that  the  tail  is  somewhat  longer  and  thiclcer;  and,  2. 
A  breed  which  is  of  more  frequent  occurrence  than  tlie  otlier, 
and  wliich  is  much  more  valued  on  account  of  the  extraordi- 
nary bulk  of  its  tail,  which  has  been  noticed  by  all  travellers. 
The  ancient  Hebrews,  like  the  modern  Arabs,  were  accus- 
tomed to  give  names  of  endearment  to  favourite  sheep 
(■2  Sam.  xii.  3.) ;  the  shepherds  also  called  them  generally 
by  name,  and  the  sheep  knowing  the  shepherd's  voice  obeyed 
the  call  (.John  x.  3.  14.),  while  they  disregarded  the  voice 
of  strangers.'  They  also  appear  to  have  numbered  them 
(Jer.  xxxiii.  13.),  as  the  shepherds  count  their  flocks  iu 
modern  Greece,  by  admitting  them  one  by  one  into  a  pen.2 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  shephenls  to  conduct  the  flocks  to 
pasture,  and  to  protect  them  trom  the  attacks  of  thieves  and 
wild  beasts  (John  x.  10 — 13.):  for  this  purpose  they  were 
furrdshed  with  a  crook  (Psal.  xxiii.  4.)  and  with  a  sling  and 
stones.  David  was  equipped  witli  his  shepherd's  staff  and 
sling  when  he  went  forth  to  encounter  the  Philistine  giant 
Goliath.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  40.)  And  as  it  sometimes  happened 
that  the  owners  of  large  flocks  made  very  hard  bargains  with 
their  shepherds  (as  Laban  did  with  Jacob,  Gen.  xxxi. 
38 — 40.),  Moses  made  various  enactments  in  this  respect 
which  are  equally  characterized  by  their  equity  and  huma- 
nity. In  guarding  and  managing  their  flocks  dogs  were  of 
great  use ;  though  these  animals,  being  declared  by  the  law 
of  Moses  to  be  unclean,  were  held  in  great  contempt  among 
the  Jews.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  43.  xxiv.  14.  2  Sam.  ix.  8.  2  Kings 
viii.  13.)  They  had  them,  however,  in  considerable  numbers 
in  their  cities,  where  they  were  not  confined  in  the  houses  or 
courts,  but  were  forced  to  seek  their  food  where  they  could 
find  it.  The  Psalmist  compares  violent  men  to  dogs,  that  go 
about  the  city  by  night  in  quest  of  food,  and  growl  if  they  be 
not  satisfied.  (Psal.  lix.  6.  14, 15.)  Being  frequently  almost 
starved,  they  devour  corpses.  (1  Kings  xiv.  11.  xvi.  4. 
xxi.  19.) 

When  the  sheep  were  pastured  in  the  open  country,  the 
shepherds  were  accustomed  to  keep  watch  in  turns  by  night. 
The  shepherds  to  whom  the  glad  tidings  of  the  Messiah's 
advent  were  announced  were  thus  employed.  (Luke  ii.  8.) 
The  Jews,  however,  had  sheepfolds,  which  were  enclosures 
without  roofs,  surrounded  by  walls,  with  doors  at  which  the 
animals  entered :  here  they  were  confined  both  at  the  season 
of  sheepshearing,  as  well  as  during  the  night.  (John  x.  1. 
Num.  xxxii.  16.  2  Sam.  vii.  8.  ZepTi.  ii.  6.)  ■  In  Palestine 
flocks  anciently  were,  as  they  still  are,  tended,  not  only  by 
the  owner,  but  also  by  his  sons  and  daughters,  as  well  as 
servants.  Consequently  they  were  exposed  to  all  the  vicis- 
situdes of  the  seasons,  which  circumstance  explains  the 
observation  of  Jacob,  who,  in  remonstrating  with  the  merce- 
nary Laban,  says  that  In  Ike  day  the  draught  consumed  him, 
and  the  frost  by  night,  and  hii  sleep  departed  from  his  eyes, 
(Gen.  xxxi.  40.')^ 

II.  Moses,  following  the  example  of  the  Egyptians,  made 
Agriculture  the  basis  of  the  state.  lie  accordingly  ap- 
pointed to  every  citizen  a  certain  quantity  of  land,  and  gave 
him  the  right  of  cultivating  it  himself,  and  of  transmitting  it 
to  his  heirs.  The  person  who  had  thus  come  into  possession 
could  not  alienate  the  property  for  any  lunger  period  than 
until  the  next  jubilee:  a  regulation  which  prevented  tlie  rich 
from  coming  into  the  possession  of  large  tracts  of  land,  and 
then  leasing  them  out  to  the  poor,  in  small  parcels  ; — a  prac- 
tice which  anciently  prevailed,  and  exists  to  this  day  in  the 
East.  The  law  of  Moses  further  enacted,  that  the  vendor  of 
a  piece  of  land,  or  his  nearest  relative,  had  a  right  to  redeem 
the  land  sold,  whenever  they  chose,  by  paying  the  amount 
of  profits  up  to  the  year  of  jubilee  (Ruth  iv.  4.  Jer.  xxxii.  7 
8.)  ;  and  by  a  third  law  the  Israelites  were  required  (as  was 
the  case  among  the  Egyptians  after  the  time  of  Joseph,  Gen. 
xlvii.  18 — 2G.)  to  pay  a  tax  of  two-tenths  of  their  income 
unto  God;  whose  servants  they  were  to  consider  themselves, 
and  whom  they  were  to  obey  as'  their  king.  (Lev.  xxvii.  30, 
31.  Deut.  xii.  17—19.  xiv.  22—29.)  The  custom  of  mark- 
ing the  boundaries  of  lands  by  stones  (though  it  prevailed  a 
long  time  before  Moses,  Job  xxiv.  2.)  was  confirmed  and 
perpetuated  by  an  express  law,  which  prohibited  the  removal 

'  The  Icelanders  to  this  day  call  their  sheep  by  name  (Dr.  Henderson's 
Travels  in  Iceland,  vol.  i.  pp.  189,  190.) ;  so  also  do  the  modern  Greeks. 
(Hartley's  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  1828.  Missionary  Register,  May,  1830, 
p.  ^23.) 

^  Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece,  p.  238. 

J"  Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  412—416.  Jiihn  et  Ackermann,  Archa;ol.  Bibl. 
|§46— 51.  Harris's  Nat.  Hist,  of  the  Bible,  at  the  articles,  Asses,  Mules, 
Horses,  Camels,  Sheep,  and  Dogs. 

*  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  vol.  i.  p.  400.  3d  edition. 


of  such  landmarks  (Deut.  xix.  14.),  and  denounced  a  curse 
against  the  person  who  removed  thein  without  authority. 
(Deut.  xxvii.  17.)  In  giving  this  law,  Moses  reminded  the 
Israelites,  that  it  was  God  who  gave  them  the  land ;  thus 
insinuating  that  the  landmarks  should  all  in  some  sense  be 
sacred  to  the  giver.  Among  the  Romans,  they  actually  were 
held  sacred.  Indeed,  they  can  be  so  easily  removed,  and, 
consequently,  a  mnn  be  so  unobservedly  deprived  of  his  pro- 
perty, that  it  becomes  necessary  to  call  in  the  aid  of  the  fear 
of  God  to  prevent  it ;  and  this  Moses,  who  gave  his  laws  by 
divine  command,  did  with  peculiar  propriety. 

These  regulations  having  been  made  in  respect  to  the 
tenure,  encumbrances,  &c.  of  landed  property,  Joshua  divided 
the  whole  country  which  he  had  occupied,  .;^r.s/,  among  the 
several  tribes,  and,  secondly,  among  individual  Israelit-^-s, 
running  it  out  with  the  aid  of  a  measuring  line.  (Josh.  xvii. 
5 — 14.  compared  with  Amos  vii.  17.  Mic.  ii.  5.  Psal.  Ixxviii. 
55.  and  Ezek.  xl.  3.)  From  this  circumstance  the  line  is 
frequently  used,  by  a  figure  of  speech,  for  the  heritage  itself. 
(See  instances  in  Psal.  xvi.  6.  and  Josh.  xix.  9.  Heb.)* 

The  fixing  of  every  one's  inheritance  in  the  family  to  which 
it  had  been  appropriated  in  the  first  division  of  Canaan  was 
doubtless  one  arreat  reason,  which  made  the  Jews  chiefly 
follow  husbandry  and  improve  their  estates ;  for  though  (as 
we  have  seen)  an  inheritance  might  have  been  alienated  for 
a  time,  yet  it  always  returned  in  the  year  of  jubilee.  Their 
being  prohibited,  also,  to  take  any  interest  from  their  brethren 
for  the  use  of  money,  and  the  strict  injunctions  laid  upon 
them  by  Jehovah,  with  respect  to  their  dealings  and  com- 
merce with  foreigners,  deprived  them  so  much  of  the  ordinary 
advantages  thence  arising,  that  they  were  in  a  manner  obliged 
to  procure  their  living  from  the  fruits  and  produce  of  the 
earth,  the  improvement  of  which  constituted  their  chief  care. 

III.  Although  the  Scriptures  do  not  furnish  us  with  any 
details  respecting  the  state  of  agriculture  in  Judea,  yet  we 
may  collect  from  various  passages  many  interesting  hints 
that  will  enable  us  to  form  a  tolerably  correct  idea  of  the  hi^h 
state  of  its  cultivation.  From  the  parable  of  the  vineyardlet 
furih  to  husbandmen  (Matt.  xxi.  33,  34.)  we  learn  that  rents 
of  land  were  paid  by  a  part  of  the  produce ;  a  mode  of  pay- 
ment formerly  practisea  by  the  Roirians,"  which  anciently 
obtained  in  this  country,'  and  which  is  still  practised  by  the 
Italians.^ 

The  soil  of  Palestine  is  very  fruitful,  if  the  dews  and  vernal 
and  autumnal  rains  are  not  withheld :  but  the  Hebrews,  not- 
withstanding the  richness  of  the  soil,  endeavoured  to  increase 
its  fertility  in  various  ways.  With  the  use  of  Manures,  the 
Jews  were  unquestionably  acquainted.  Doves'  dung  (2  Kings 
vi.  25.)  appears  to  have  been  very  highly  valued  by  the  Jews, 
as  to  this  day  it  is  by  the  Persians.^  Salt,  either  by  itself 
or  mixed  in  the  dunghill  in  order  to  promote  putrefaction,  is 
specially  mentioned  as  one  article  of  manure  (INIatt.  v.  13. 
Luke  xiv.  34,  35.);  and  as  the  river  Jordan  aimually  over- 
flowed ils  banks,  the  mud  deposited  when  its  waters  sub-sided 
must  have  served  as  a  valuable  irrigation  and  top-dressing, 
particularly  to  the  pasture  lands.  It  is  probable  that,  a,f!er 
the  waters  had  thus  subsided,  seed  was  sown  on  the  wet  soft 
ground ;  in  allusion  to  which  Solomon  says.  Cast  thy  bread 
(corn  or  seed)  iipo^i  the  ivaters  .•  for  thou  s/talt  find  it  again, 
with  increase,  after  many  days.  (iCccles.  xi.  1.)  And  Isaiah, 
promising  a  time  of  peace  and  plenty,  says.  Blessed  are  ye 
that  sow  beside  all  waters,  and  send  fo)-th  thither  the  feet  of 
the  ox  and  the  ass.  (Isa.  xxxii.  30.) 

In  Egypt,  such  vegetable  productions  as  require  more 
moisture  tlian  that  which  is  produced  by  the  inundation  of 
the  Nile  are  refreshed  by  water  drawn  out  of  the  river,  and 
afterwards  deposited  in  capacious  cisterns.  When,  therefore, 
their  various  sorts  of  pulse,  melons,  sugar-canes,  &c.  all  of 

s  .lahn  et  Ackermann,  ArchcBol.  Bibl.  §  55.  Michaelis's  Commentaries, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  373,  374. 

6  see  Plin.  Epist.  lib.  ix.  Ep.  37.    Horat.  Epist.  lib.  i.  Ep.  14.. 42 

■>  The  BnUlon  Book,  a  survey  of  the  state  of  the  bisliopric  of  Durham, 
made  in  1183,  shows  what  proportion  of  the  rent  was  paid  in  cows,  sheep, 
pigs,  fowls,  eggs,  &c.,  the  remainder  being  made  up  chiefly  by  manual 
labour. 

8  See  Blunt's  Vestiges  of  Ancient  Manners  and  Customs  in  IVfodern 
Italy,  p.  220.     London,  1823,  8vo. 

s  "Tlie  dung  of  pigeons  is  the  dearest  manure  that  the  Persians  use  ; 
and  as  they  apply  it  almost  entirely  for  the  rearing  of  melons,  it  is  pro- 
bable, on  that  account,  that  the  melons  of  Ispahan  are  so  much  finer  than 
I  hose  of  other  cities.  The  revenue  of  a  pigeon-house  is  about  a  hundred 
tomauns  per  annum  ;  and  the  great  value  of  this  dung,  which  rears  a  fruit 
that  is  indispensable  to  the  existence  of  the  natives  during  the  great  heats 
of  summer,  will  probably  throw  some  light  upon  that  passage  in  Scripture, 
where,  in  the  famine  of  Samaria,  the  fourth  part  of  a  cab  of  doves'  dung 
was  sold  for  five  pieces  of  silver.  2  Kings  vi.  23."  Morier's  Second  Jour- 
ney through  Persia,  p.  141.  See  also  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Persia,- 
vol.  i.  p.  451. 


6kct.  I.] 


AGRICULTURE  OF  THE  JEWS. 


177 


wliifli  are  commonly  ploujrhed  in  rills,  romiire  to  he  re- 
freshed, they  strike  out  tlie  jjlufrs  wliich  are  fixed  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  eisteni.s  :  whence  the  water,  jTUSiiinjr  ont,  is  con- 
duetiui  from  one  rill  to  another  by  the  gardener,  wiio  is  always 
ready,  as  occasion  requires,  to  stop  and  divert  tiie  torrent,  by 
turninir  Ike  earth  uf^um.st  it  Ijif  his  foot,  and  at  the  same  time 
openinfj,  with  liis  mattock,  a  new  trench  to  receive  it.  A 
biniihir  mode  of  irri<ralin<r  lands  obtains  in  the  island  of  (Jy- 
])rns'  and  also  in  India. •^  This  nietliod  of  irnpartinir  innistnre 
and  nourishment  to  a  land,  rarely,  if  ever,  refreshed  witli  rain, 
is  often  alluded  to  in  the  Scripturt^s,  where  it  is  made  tlie  dis- 
tiiiguishin<r  (piality  btUween  I'^tjypt  and  the  land  of  ('anaan. 
Fur  the  land,  saj'S  Moses,  whither  thougoesl  in  to  possess  it,  is 
nut  as  the  luiid  of  JCi^t/pt  from  whence  ye  ccinie  out,  where  thou 
sowedst  thji  svid,  and  wati^redst  it  with  thj'  foot  as  a  {jarden  of 
herbs  :  but  the  liiiid,  whi/hcr  i/e  a;o  to  possess  it,  is  a  land  of 
hilts  and  valh ys,  and  driaketh  wafer  of  the  rain  of  heaven. 
(Ueut.  xi.  10,  ll.y  This  mode  of  irri<ration  is  alluded  to  in 
I'sal.  i.  3.,  where  the  good  man  is  compared  to  a  fruitful 
Uve,  pUinted  1)1/ the  rivers  of  water  a^'D^'^ho  (pwLGfY-MWY/M), 
that  is,  the  streams  or  divisions  of  the  waters,  meaning  those 
which  are  turned  on  and  off  as  above-mentioned  by  the  culti- 
vator.' The  prophet  Jeremiah  has  imitated,  ana  elegantly 
amplified,  the  passage  of  the  Psalmist  above  referred  to. 

"  He  shall  be  likp  a  trcfi  planted  by  the  water-side, 
And  which  sendeth  forth  her  roots  to  the  aqueduct: 
Slie  shall  not  fear  when  the  heat  comcth, 
But  her  leaf  shall  be  inreen  ; 

And  in  the  year  of  drought  she  shall  not  be  anxious, 
Neither  shall  she  cease  from  bearing  fruit."        Jer.  xvii.  8. 

From  this  image  the  son  of  Sirach  has  most  beautifully 
illustrated  the  intluenceand  the  increase  of  religious  wisdom 
in  a  well-prepared  heart : — 

"  I  also  came  forth  as  a  canal  from  a  river, 
And  as  a  conduit  llowing  into  a  paradise. 
I  said,  I  will  water  my  garden, 
And  I  will  abun<lantly  moisten  my  border; 
And,  lo  !  my  canal  became  a  river, 
And  my  river  became  a  sea."  Ecclus.  xxiv.  30,  31. 

This  gives  us  the  true  meaning  of  the  following  elegant 
proverb : — 

"The  heart  of  the  king  Is  like  the  canals  of  waters  in  the  hand  of  Jehovah  ; 
Whithersoever  it  pleaseth  him,  he  inclinclh  it."  Prov.  xxi.  1. 

The  direction  of  it  is  in  the  hand  of  Jehovah,  as  the  distri- 
bution of  the  water  of  the  reservoir,  through  the  garden  by 
dilTerent  canals,  is  at  the  will  of  the  gardener. 

Solomon  mentions  his  own  works  of  this  kind  : — 

"1  made  me  gardens  and  paradises  ; 
And  I  planted  in  them  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees, 
1  made  me  pools  of  water, 
To  water  with  them  the  grove  flourishing  with  trees." 

Eccles.  ii.  5.  9. » 

IV.  In  the  first  ages  of  the  W'Orld,  men  were  chiefly  em- 

Eloycd  in  digging  and  throwing  up  the  earth  w'ith  their  own 
ands;  but  Noah  advanced  the  art  of  husbandry  (Gen.  ix. 
20.),  and  contrived  filter  instruments  for  ploughing  than  were 
known  before.  This  patriarch  is  called  a  man  of  the  aground, 
but  in  our  translation,  a  husbandman,  on  account  of  his  im- 
provements in  agriculture,  and  his  inventions  for  making  the 
earth  more  tractable  and  fruitful.  It  was  a  curse  upon  the 
earth  after  the  fall,  that  it  should  bring  forth  thorns  and  this- 
tles :  these  obstructions  were. to  be  removed,  which  required 
much  labour,  and  the  ground  was  to  be  corrected  by  plough- 
ing. 

The  earliest  mention  made  in  the  Old  Testament  of  a 
Plough  is  in  Deut.  xxii.  10.  where  the  Israelites  are  prohi- 
bited from  ploughing  with  an  ox  and  an  ass  together  ,-  a  plain 
intimation  that  it  had  been  customary  with  the  idolatrous  na- 
tions of  the  East  to  do  so.     In  Syria,  the  plough  is  still 

'  Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  ISr,.  3d  edition. 

»  Siatham's  Indian  Recollections,  p.  429. 

'  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels  in  Barbary,  itc.  vol.  ii.  pp.  206,  267. 

*  l)r.  A.  Clarke  on  Psal.  i.  3.  See  also  Burder's  Oriental  Literature, 
vol.  ii.  p.  1. 

»  Bp.  I..owth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  pp.  21,  25.  Maundrell  (p.  83.)  has  given  a 
description  of  the  remains,  as  they  are  said  to  be,  of  these  very  pools 
made  by  Solomon,  for  the  reception  and  preservation  of  the  waters  of  a 
spring,  rising  at  a  little  distance  from  them  ;  which  will  give  us  a  perfect 
notion  of  il>e  contrivance  and  design  of  such  reservoirs.  "As  lor  the 
•  pools,  they  are  three  in  number,  lying  in  a  row  above  each  other  ;  being 
so  disposed,  that  the  waters  of  the  uppermost  may  descend  into  the  second, 
^  and  those  of  the  second  into  the  third.  Their  figure  is  quadrangular  ;  the 
breadth  is  the  same  in  all,  amounting  to  about  ninety  paces  :  in  their  length 
there  is  some  dilTerence  between  them  ;  the  first  being  one  hundred  and 
sixty  pace,*  long;  the  second,  two  hundred;  the  third,  two  hundred  and 
twenty.  They  are  all  lined  with  wall,  and  plastered,  and  contain  a  great 
depth  of  water." 

Vol.  II.  Z 


drawn,  frequently  by  one  small  cow,  at  most  with  tw'o,  and 
sometimes  oidy  by  an  ass.^^  In  Persia,  Mr.  Morier  states, 
that  it  is  for  the  most  part  drawn  l)y  one  ox  only,  and  not  un- 
frequently  by  an  ass.'  In  Egypt  they  plough  with  two 
oxen.8  The  plough  appears  to  have  been  furnished  with  a 
share  and  couller,  probably  not  very  imlike  those  which  are 
now  in  use.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  20,  21.  Isa.  ii.  4.  Joel  iii.  10. 
Mic.  iv.  3.)  "The  plough  in  use  at  Nazareth  is  not  moved 
upon  wheels,  'i'he  share,  which  is  small,  scarcely  grazes 
the  earth  ;  and  it  lias  only  one  handle  or  shaft,  with  a  small 
piece  of  wood  across  the  top,  for  the  husbandman  to  guide  it, 
resembling  the  head  of  a  staff  or  the  handle  of  a  spade.  The 
man  holds  this  in  his  right  hand,  with  which  he  goads  the 
the  oxen.  'J'he  w  hole  machine  is  made  so  extremely  light, 
that  a  person  might  with  facility  carry  it  in  his  arms.  The 
share  is  covered  with  a  piece  of  broad  iron  pointed  at  the 
end,  so  that  it  miglit  be  converted  into  a  weapon  of  warfare. 
In  all  probai)iii(y,  it  is  to  this  peculiarity  that  one  of  the  pro- 
phets refers,  wh(;n  he  calls  on  the  nations  to  relinquish  rural 
occupations,  and  converts  their  plrmghs  into  instruments  of 
batth^  fJoel  iii.  10.)  Another  of  the  sacred  writers  has  re- 
versed tliis  recommendation,  and  applied  it  to  the  tranquillity 
w-ith  which  it  is  proohesied  [tliat]  the  church  shall  be 
ullimat(dy  blessed  m  the  latter  days.  (Isa.  ii.  ■l.)"'J 

The  method  of  managing  the  ground,  and  prc'paring  it  for 
the  seed,  was  much  the  same  with  the  practice  oi  the  i)resent 
times  ;  for  Jeremiah  speaks  of  ploughing  up  the  fallow  ground 
(Jer.  iv.  3.),  and  Isaiah  of  harrowing  or  breaking  up  the 
clods  (Isa.  xxviii.  24.)  ;  but  Moses,  for  wise  reasons,  doubt- 
less, gave  a  positive  injunction,  that  they  should  not  sow 
their  helds  with  mingled  seed. 

The  kind  of  grain  sown  by  the  .Tews  were  fitches,  cummin, 
wheat,  barley,  and  rye.  (Isa.  xxviii.  25.)  The  cultivated 
fields  were  guarded  by  watchmen  (as  they  still  are  in  the 
East,)  who  sit  upon  a  seat  hung  in  a  tree,  or  in  a  lodge  or 
watcli-tower  made  of  planks,  and  keep  off  birds,  beasts,  and 
thieves.  (Jer.  iv.  16,  17.  Isa.  xxiv.  20.)  It  was  lawful  for 
travellers  to  pluck  ears  from  the  standing  corn  in  another's 
field,  and  to  eat  them  ;  but  they  were  on  no  account  to  use  a 
sickle.  (Deut.  xxii.  25.  compared  with  Matt.  xii.  1.  Mark  ii. 
23.  and  Luke  vi.  1.)  Their  corn  fields  were  infested  with 
a  worthless  kind  of  weed  resembling  corn  {^i^^wv),  in  our 
version  rendered  tares  ;  but  it  is  evident  that"this  is  a  differ- 
ent production  from  our  tare  or  vetch,  which  is  a  very  useful 
plant.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  loUum  temukntum,  a 
species  of  darnel  growing  among  corn,  to  which  it  bears 
some  resemblance.  Bread,  which  may  be  made  from  a  mix- 
ture of  darnel  ground  with  corn,  will  produce  giddiness  and 
sickness  ;  an  effect  which  the  straw  is  known  to  have  upon 
cattle. 

There  were  three  months  between  their  sowing  and  their 
first  reaping,  and  four  months  to  their  full  harvest :  their 
barley  harvest  was  at  the  Passover,  and  their  wheat  harvest 
at  the  Pentecost.  The  reapers  made  use  of  sickles,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  present  custom  they  filled  their  hands  with 
the  corn,  and  tnose  who  bound  up  the  sheaves  their  bosom  : 
there  was  a  person  set  over  the  reapers  (Ruth  ii.  5.)  to  see 
that  they  did  their  work,  that  they  had  provision  proper  for 
them,  and  to  pay  them  their  wages  ;  the  Chaldees  call  hirn 
Uab,  the  master,  the  ruler,  or  governor  of  the  reapers.  Wo- 
men were  employed  in  reaping  as  well  as  the  men  ;  and  the 
reapers  were  usually  entertained  above  the  rank  of  common 
servants,  though  in  the  time  of  Boaz  we  find  nothing  pro- 
vided for  them  but  bread  and  parched  corn  ;  and  their  sauce 
W'as  vinegar  (a  kind  of  weak  wine),  which,  doubtless,  was 
very  coofino;  in  those  hot  countries.  (Ruth  ii.  14. ")  The 
poor  were  allowed  the  liberty  of  gleaning,  though  tne  land- 
owners were  not  bound  to  adiUiit  them  immediately  into  the 
field  as  soon  as  the  reapers  had  cut  down  the  corn  and  bound 
it  up  in  sheaves,  but  after  it  was  carried  off:  they  might 
choose  also  among  the  poor,  ^vhom  they  thought  most 
worthy  or  most  necessitous.  A  sheaf  left  in  the  field,  even 
though  discovered,  was  not  to  be  taken  up,  but  to  be  left  for 
the  poor.  (Deut.  xxiv.  19.)  The  conclusion  of  the  harvest, 
or  carrying  home  the  last  load,  was  with  the  Jews  a  season 
of  joyous  festivity,  and  was  celebrated  with  a  harvest  feast. 
(Psal.  cxxvi.  6.  Isa.  ix.  3.  xvi.  9,  10.)  The  corn  being 
pulled, 1°  or  cut,  and  carried  in  wagons  or  carts  (Num.  vii. 

s  Dr.  Russel's  History  of  Aleppo,  vol.  i.  p.  73. 

■■  Morier's  First  Travels  in  Persia,  p.  CO. 

6  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  167. 

9  Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  JOl.  3d  edition. 

'»  In  crossing  one  of  the  plains  of  the  Turcomans,  "we  passed,"  says 
Mr.  Buckingham,  "  a  party  of  lui.-bandmen  gathering  in  the  harvest,  tlie 
greater  portion  of  the  grain  being  now  fully  ripe.     They  plucked  up  the 


178 


ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  JEWS 


[Paht  IV.  Chap.  Vn. 


3 — 8.  Isa.  xwiii.  27,  28.  Amos  ii.  13.),  was  either  laid  up 
in  stacks  (Exod.  xxii.  6.)  or  barns  (Matt.  vi.  26.  xiii.  30. 
Luke  xii.  18.  24.)  ;  and  when  thrpshed  out,  was  stored  in 
granaries  or  gnrners.  (Mvitt.  iii.  12.)  David  had  store/iouscs 
m  the  fields,  in  ike  c'ties,  and  in  the  villages,  and  in  the  casiles. 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  25.) 

V.  After  the  orrain  was  carried  into  the  barn,  the  next  con- 
cern was  to  thresh  or  beat  the  corn  out  of  the  ear,  which  pro- 
cess was  performed  in  various  ways.  Sometimes  it  was 
done  by  horses  (Isa.  xxviii.  28.),  as  is  the  practice  to  this 
day  among  the  Koords,'  and  by  oxen,  that  trod  out  the  corn 
with  their'hoofs  shod  with  brass.  (lyiic.  iv.  12,  13.)  This 
mode  of  threshinfr  is  expressly  referred  to  by  Rosea  (x.  11.), 
and  in  the  prohibition  of  Moses  atjainst  muzzling  the  ox  that 
treudelh  out  the  corn  (Deut.  xxv.  4.),  and  it  obtains  in  Persia- 


'atnry.''  Another  mode  of  threshing  was,  by 
ing  a  loaded  cart  with  Avheels  over  the  corn,  backwards  and 
forwards;  so  that  the  wheels  running  over  it,  forcibly  shook 
out  the  grain  (Isa.  xxviii.  28.)  ;  but  the  most  common  mode 
appears  to  have  been  that  which  is  in  use  in  this  countrj^ 
VIZ.  by  flails.  Thus  the  fitches  are  said  to  be  beaten  out 
with  a  staff,  and  the  cummin  with  a  rod.  In  this  manner 
Gideon  and  Araunah  or  Oman  threshed  out  their  wheat 
(Judg.  vi.  11.  1  Chron.  xxi.  20.) ;  for  it  is  represented  as 
th^Mr  own  personal  action. 

The  threshing  floors  were  places  of  great  note  among  the 
ancient  Hebrews,  particularly  that  of  Araunah  the  .Tebusite, 
which  was  the  spot  of  ground  chosen  by  king  David  on 
which  to  build  the  altar  of  God  (2  .Sam.  xxiv.  25.),  and  this 
was  the  very  place  where  the  temple  of  !*!olcmon  was  after- 
wards erected.  (2  Chron.  iii.  1.)  These  floors  were  covered 
at  the  top  to  keep  off  the  rain,  but  lay  open  on  all  si- -es,  that 
the  wind  might  come  in  freely  for  the  winnowing  of  the  corn  ; 
which  being  done,  they  were  shut  up  at  night,  with  doors 
fitted  to  them,  that  if  any  body  lay  there,  he  might  be  kept 
warm,  and  the  corn  be  secured  from  the  danger  of  robbers 
(Ruth  iii.  6.) :  the  time  of  winnowing,  or  separating  the  corn 
from  the  chaff,  was  in  the  evening,  when  the  heat  of  the  day 
was  over,  and  cool  breezes  began  to  rise ;  for  this  purpose, 
they  had  the  same  implements  which  are  in  common  use;  for 
Isaiah  speaks  of  winnowing  wUh  the  f:hove\  and  with  the  fun. 
(Isa.  XXX.  24.)  The  grain,  being  threshed,  was  thrown  into 
the  middle  of  the  threshing  floor;  it  was  then  exposed  with 
a  fork  to  a  gentle  wind  (Jer.  iv.  11,  12.),  which  separated 
the  broken  straw  and  the  chaff:  so  that  the  kernels,  and  clods 
of  earth  with  grain  cleaving  to  them,  and  the  ears  not  yet 
thoroughly  threshed,  fell  upon  the  ground.  Tiie  clods  of 
earth,  as  is  customary  in  the  East  at  the  present  day,  were 
collected,  broken  in  pieces,  and  separated  from  the  grain  by 
a  sieve;  whence  the  operation  of  sifting  is,  in  prophetic  lan- 
guage, a  symbol  of  misfortune  and  overthrows.  (Amos  ix.  9. 
Luke  xxii.  31.)  The  heap  thus  winnowed,  which  still  con- 
tained many  ears  that  were"  broken  but  not  fully  threshed  out, 
was  again  exposed  in  the  threshing-floor,  and  several  yoke 
of  oxen  were  driven  over  it,  for  the  purpose  of  treading  out 
the  remainder  of  the  grain.  At  length  the  grain,  mingled 
with  the  chaff,  was  again  exposed  to  the  wind  by  a  fan,  which 
bore  off  the  chaff,  so  that  the  pure  wheat  fell  upon  the  floor. 
(Ruth  iii.  2.  Isa.  xxx.  24.)  In  the  figurative  language  of 
prophecy,  this  process  is  symbolieal  of  the  dispersion  of  a 
vanquished  people  (Isa.  xli.  15,  16.  Jer.  xv.  7.  li.  2.),  and 
also  of  the  final  separation  between  the  righteous  and  the 
wicked.  (Job  xxi.  18.  Psal.  i.  4.  xxxv.  5.  Matt.  iii.  12.  Luke 
iii.  17.)  The  scattered  straw,  as  much  at  least  as  v/as  re- 
quired for  the  manufacturing  of  bricks  and  for  the  fodder  of 
cattle,  was  collected ;  but  the  residue  was  reduced  to  ashes 
by  fire :  from  this  custom  the  sacred  writers  have  derived  a 
figurative  illustration  to  denote  tlie  destruction  of  wicked 
men.  (Isa.  v.  24.  xlvii.  14.  Nah.  i.  10.  Mai.  iv.  1.  Matt. 
iii.  12.) 

After  the  corn  was  threshed,  it  was  dried  either  in  the  sun, 
or  by  a  fire,  or  in  a  furnace.  This  is  called  parched  corn 
(Lev.  xxiii.  14.  1  Sam.  xvii.  17.  and  xxv.  18.),  and  was 

corn  hy  the  roots,  a  practice  often  spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures,  tliongli 
reaping  seems  to  be  made  the  earliest  and  most  frequent  mention  of." 
Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  i.  p.  42. 

»  Bnckinahani's  Travels  in  Mesopnlamia,  vol.  i.  p.  418. 

^  Sir  R,  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Georgia,  Persia,  &o.  vol.  ii.  p.  00. 

'  See  Turner's  Embassy  to  Thiliet,  p.  184. 

*  Ward's  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  it.  p.  320.  Dr.  Davy's  Travels 
in  the  Interior  of  Ceylon,  p.  275.  (London,  1821),  where  a  tlireshing-floor  is 
delineated.  Capt.  Lyon's  Tour  in  Mourzouk  and  Fezzan,  p.  169.  Mrs. 
Ilolderness's  Notes  on  ihe  Crim  Tatars,  p.  97.  (London,  1821.)  See  also 
Mr.  Dodwell's  Classical  Tour  in  Greece,  vol.  ii.  p.  10. 


sometimes  used  in  this  manner  for  food  without  any  farther 
preparation,  but  generally  the  parching  or  dr\'ing  of  it  was  in 
order  to  make  it  more  fit  for  grinding.  This  process  was 
performed  either  in  mortars  or  mills,  both  of  which  are  men- 
tioned  in  Num.  xi.  8.  And  Solomon  speaks  of  the  former", 
when  he  compares  the  braying  of  a  fool  in  a  mortar  to  the 
like  practice  used  with  Wheat.  (Prov.  xxvii.  22.)  But  mills 
were  chiefly  employed  for  this  purpose ;  and  they  were  deemed 
of  such  use  and  necessity,  that  the  Israelites  were  strictly 
forbidden  to  take  the  nether  or  upper  mill-stone  in  pledge  ,■  the 
reason  of  which  is  added,  because  this  was  taking  a  man's 
life  in  pledge  (Deut.  xxiv.  6.),  intimating  that  while  the  mill 
ceases  to  grind,  people  are  in  danger  of  being  starved. 

The  grinding  at  mills  was  accounted  an  inferior  sort  of 
work,  and,  therefore,  prisoners  and  captives  were  generally 
put  to  It.  To  this  work  Samson  was  set,  while  he  was  in 
the  prison-house.  (Judg.  xvi.  21.)  There  hand-mills  were 
usually  kept,  by  which  prisoners  earned  their  living.  (Lam. 
V.  13.)  The  expression  in  Isa.  xlvii.  2. — Take  the  millstones 
and  grind  meal, — is  part  of  the  description  of  a  slave.  In 
Barhary,  most  families  grind  their  wheat  and  barley  at  home, 
having  two  portable  mill-stones  for  that  purpose  :  the  upper- 
mo.st  of  which  is  turned  round  by  a  small  handle  of  wood  or 
iron,  that  is  placed  in  the  rim.  When  this  stone  is  large,  or 
expedition  is  required,  a  second  person  is  called  in  to  assist; 
and  it  is  in  that  country  usual  fcr  the  women  alone  to  be  thus 
employed,  who  seat  themselves  over-against  each  other  with 
the  mill-stnnes  between  them.  This  practice  illustrates  the 
propriety  of  the  expression  of  sitting  behind  the  mill  (Exod. 
xi,  5.^,  and  also  the  declaration  of  our  Lord,  that  two  W(mien 
shall  Oe  gri77d>ng  at  the  mill ,-  the  one  shall  be  taken  and  the 
other  left.  (Matt,  xxiv,  i\.y  From  Jer.  xxv.  10.  and  Rev. 
xviii.  22.,  it  appears  that  those  who  were  occupied  in  grind- 
ing beguiled  their  laborious  task  by  singing,  as  the  Barbary 
women  continue  to  do  to  this  day. 

VI.  Palestine  abounded  with  generous  wine ;  and  in  some 
districts  the  grapes  were  of  superior  quality.  The  canton 
allotted  to  Judah  was  celebrated  on  this  account;  and  it  is, 
perhaps,  with  reference  to  this  circumstance,  that  the  venera- 
ble patriarch  said  of  his  son  Judah, — He  ivashed  his  garments 
IN  WINE,  and  his  clothes  in  the  blood  of  grapes.  (Gen.  xlix. 
11.)  In  this  district  were  tl>e  vales  of  Sorek  and  of  Eshcol ; 
and  the  cluster  which  the  Hebrew  spies  carried  from  this 
last  place  was  so  large  as  to  be  carried  on  a  staff  between  two 
of  them.  (Num.  xiii.  23.) 

The  Jews  planted  their  vineyards  most  commonly  on  the 
south  sideo  ot  a  hill  or  mountain,  the  stones  being  gathered 
cut  and  the  space  hedged  round  with  thorns  or  walled.  (Isa. 
V.  1 — 6.  compared  with  Psal.  Ixxx,  8 — 16,  and  Matt.  xxi. 
33.)  A  good  vineyard  consisted  of  a  thousand  vines,  and 
produced  a  rent  of  «  Ihoimindsilverlings,  or  shekels  of  silver, 
fisa.  vii.  23.)  It  required  two  hundred  more  to  pay  the 
aressers.  (Song  of  Solomon  viii.  11,  12.)  In  these  the 
keepers  and  vine-dressers  laboured,  digging,  planting,  prun- 
ing, and  propping  the  vines,  gathering  the  grapes,  and  making 
wine.  1  his  was  at  once  a  Iviborious  task,  and  often  reckoned 
a  base  one,  (2  Kings  xxv.  12.  Song  of  Solomon  i.  6.  Isa.  Ixi. 
5.)  Some  of  the  best  vineyards  were  at  Engedi,  or  perhaps 
at  Baal-hamon,  which  might  not  be  far  distant,  and  at  Sih- 
mah.  (Song  of  Solomon  i,  14.  viiu  11.  Isa.  xvi.  9.)  Vines 
also  were  trained  upon  the  walls  of  the'  houses^  (Psal. 
cxxviii.  3.),  and  purged  or  cleaned  by  lopping  off  every  use- 
less and  unfruitful  branch,  and  superfluous  excrescence,  in 
order  that  the  fruitful  branches  might  be  rendered  more  pro- 
ductive. (John  XV.  3.)8      The  vines  with  the  iendir  grapes  gave 

5  Dr.  Sliaw's  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  i.  p.  41G. 

6  The.?/rfpsof  the  sun. burnt  lulls  near  Nablous  (the  ancient  i5hecbpm) — 
the  mountains  of  the  height  of  Israel — "  seem  ppcnliarly  adapted  for  the 
trainiuu  of  vines.  They  are,  however,  almost  totally  neglected ;  formins, 
doubtless,  a  remarkable  contrast  lo  their  slate  in  the  days  of  Israel'.s  pros- 
perity, when  the  druiikords  of  Ephraim  (Isa.  xxviii.  1.  3.  7.)  prided  them- 
selves fn  the  abundance  and  strength  of  their  wines.  How  celebrated 
these  parts  once  were  for  this  article  of  produce  we  learn  from  seveial 
notices  in  the  Old  Testament :  Gideon,  by  a  happy  comparison,  thus  dis- 
parages his  own  services,  in  the  presence  of  the  Kphraiinites — Is  not  tlie. 
GLEANING  of  Hie  grajies  of  Ephraim  heller  than  the  vinlnge  of  Alnezer  I 
(.Indg.  viii.  2  )  And  the  restoration  of  Israel  is  described,  partly  by^  their 
return  to  the  rearing  of  vineyards,  which  should  yield,  as  formerly  ihpy 
had  done,  an  abuntlant  vintage."  (Jer.  xxxi.  5.)  Jowett's  Christian  Re- 
searches in  Syria,  &c.  p.  304. 

•>  The  same  mode  of  culture  is  practised  in  Persia  to  this  day.  Mr. 
Morier  has  given  an  engraving  on  wood  illustrative  of  this  custom,  which 
beautifully  elucidates  the  patriarch  Jacob's  comparison  of  Joseph  to  a 
fruitful  bough,  whose  branches  run  over  the  wall.  (Gen.  xiix.  22.)  Second 
Journey,  p.  232. 

8  In  modern  Greece' the  vine  is  cut  or  purged  in  the  following  manner  : 
— '■  Only  two  or  three  of  the  principal  sprouts  are  permitted  to  grow  up- 
from  the  root :  the  rest  are  cut  off,  and  this  practice  is  often  called  by  the  . 
Greeks  cleaning."  Rev.  John  Hartley's  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Greece,  in 
1828.    (Missionary  Register,  May,  1830.  p.  225.) 


Sect.  I.] 


VINEYARDS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


179 


a  ^ood  smell  early  in  the  sprinfj  (Sona  of  Solomon  ii.  13.), 
■a.s  we  learn,  also,  from  Isa.  xviii.  5.  (ijorr  the.  harvest,  that  is, 
the  hurletj  harvest,  when  the  bud  is  perfect,  and  the  sour  i^rape 
is  ripening  in  the  Jlnwer.  It  was  also  usual  to  erect  tempo- 
rary huts  or  sheds,  made  of  houjrhs  and  reeds,  to  shelter  the 
servant  who  was  employed  to  guard  the  fruit  when  nearly 
ripe  from  hirds  and  other  creatures  of  prey  Hsa.  i.  II.),'  and 
partjrulariy  from  the  ravages  of  wild  hoars  f  Psal.  Ixxx.  13.), 
whii'h  to  this  day  are  as  destructive;  in  (jir(!ec(',-  as  they 
anciently  were  in  Palestine.  As  soon  as  the  vinta<:^e  was 
completed,  these  sheds  were  either  taken  down  or  sullered  to 
perish.  From  this  circumstance  Job  derives  a  beautiful 
simile,  to  illustrate  the  sliort  duration  of  tlie  prosperity  of  the 
wicived.  (xxvii.  IH.)-  IJut  it  ap|)ears  from  Isa.  v.  1,2.  Matt, 
xxi.  33.  and  Mark  xii.  1.,  that  towers  were  erected  for  this 
purpose,  as  they  still  an;  in  some  |)arts  of  I'alestirie.' 

"The  vintdi^e  followed  the  wheat  harvest  and  the  thresh- 
ing (Lev.  xxvi.  5.  Amos  ix.  13.),  about  June  or  July,  when 
the  clusters  of  the  jrra])es  were  feathered  with  a  sickle,  and 
put  into  baskets  (Jer.  vi.  0.),  carried  atid  thrown  into  the 
wine-vat,  or  wine-press,  where  they  were  probably  first  trod- 
den by  men  and  then  pressed,  (ilev,  xiv.  IS — 20.)  It  is 
mentioned,  as  a  mark  of  the  jrreat  work  and  power  of  the 
Messiah,  I  have  trodden  the  {[inmiive  U'ine-j)ress  ah/ne ,-  find 
of  the  people  there  nms  none  ivith  me.  (Isa.  Ixiii.  3. ;  see  also 
Hev.  xix.  15.)  The  vintajre  was  a  season  of  great  mirth. 
Of  the  juice  of  the  srpieezed  grapes  were  formed  wine  and 
vinegar.  The  wines  of  llelbon,^  near  Damascus,  and  of 
Lebanon,  where  the  vines  had  a  fine  snn,  were  reckoned 
most  excellent.''  (Ezck.  xxvii.  18.  Hos.  xiv.  7.)  The 
wines  of  (,'anaan,  being  very  heady,  were  commonly  mixed 
with  water  for  common  use,  as  the  Italians  do  theirs;  and 
sometimes  they  scented  them  with  frankincense,  myrrh, 
calamus,  and  other  spices  (Prov.  ix.  2.  5.  >Song  of  Solomon 
viii.  2.) :  they  also  scented  their  wine  with  pomegranates, 
or  made  wine  of  their  juice,  as  we  do  of  the  jmce  of  currants, 
gooseberries,  &c.  fermented  with  sugar.  W  ine  is  best  when 
old  and  on  the  lees,  the  dregs  having  sunk  to  the  bottom, 
(Isa.  XXV.  6.)  Sweet  wine  is  that  which  is  made  from 
grapes  fully  ripe.  (Isa.  xlix.  20.)  The  Israelites  had  two 
Kinds  oi  vinegiir,  the  one  was  a  weak  wine,  which  was  used 
for  their  common  drink  in  the  harvest  field,  &c.  (Ruth  ii. 
14.),  as  the  Spaniards  and  Italians  still  do;  and  it  was  pro- 
bably of  this  that  Solomon  was  to  furnish  twenty  thousand 
baths  to  Hiram,  for  bis  servants,  the  hewers  that  cut  timber 
in  Lebanon.  (2  Chron.  ii.  10.)  The  other  had  a  sharp  acid 
taste,  like  ours;  and  hence  Solomon  hints,  that  a  sluggard 
vexes  and  hurts  such  as  employ  him  in  business ;  as  vinegar 
is  disagreeable  to  the  teeth,  and  smolce  to  ike  eyes  (Prov.  x. 
2G.)  ;  and  as  vinegar  poured  upon  vitre  spoils  its  virtue  :  so 
he  that  singelh  songs  to  a  heavy  heart  does  out  add  to  its  orief. 
(Prov.  XXV.  20.)  The  poor  were  allowed  to  glean  grapes, 
zs  well  as  corn  and  other  articles  (Lev.  xix.  10.  Deut.  xxiv. 
21.  Isa.  iii.  14.  xvii.  6.  xxiv.  13.  Mic.  vii.  1.);  and  the 
gleaning  of  the  gi-apcs  of  Epiiraim  was  better  than  the  vintage 
of  Jb'ezer,  (Judg.  viii.  2.)  The  vineyard  was  not  to  be 
pruned  and  dressed  in  the  Sabbatical  year.  (Lev.  xxv.  3, 
4.)  The  vessels  in  which  the  wine  was  kept  were,  proba- 
bly, for  the  most  part,  bottles,  which  were  usually  made  of 
leather,  or  goat-skins,  firmly  sewed  and  pitched  together. 
The  Arabs  pull  the  skin  off  goats  in  the  same  manner  that 
we  do  from  rabbits,  and  sew  up  the  places  where  the  le^s 
and  tail  were  cut  off,  leaving  one  for  the  neck  of  the  bottle, 
to  pour  from ;  and  in  such  bags,  they  put  up  and  carry,  not 

«  Isa.  i.  8.  And  the  diiu^liler  of  Zion  is  left  as  a  cottajre  in  a  vineyard, 
as  a  loilse  in  a  gnrtlun  ui  cucumbers.     "Tliere  is  a  small  species  of 

cucuniber  of  wliicti  tlic  natives  of  India  are  very  fond Lar;j;e  fields  of 

tlicsc  are  soinceinies  planled ;  which,  wlien  nearly  arrived  to  maturity, 
require  incessant  watcliina  to  protect  them  from  the  attacks  of  man  and 
beast."     Stathaui'slniliaii  Kecolleclions,  p.  90. 

»  Hartley's  Researcliesin  Greece,  pp.  '2^1,  235. 

'  Dr.  Boothroyd  on  Job  xxvii.  18. 

•  ill  the  route  between  Jerusalem  and  tlie  convent  of  Saint  Elias  (which 
is  situated  about  an  hour's  distance  from  tliat  city),  Mr.  Buckingham  was 
particularly  struck  with  the  appearance  of  several  small  and  detached 
square  towers  in  the  midst  of  tlie  vine  lands.  These,  his  guide  informed 
him,  were  used  as  watch-towers,  whence  watchmen  to  this  day  look  out,  in 
order  to  guard  the  produce  of  the  lands  from  depredation.  This  fact  will 
explain  ilie  use  and  iiiteniion  of  the  toierr  mentioned  in  Matt.  xxi.  33.  and 
Mark  xii.  V  Similar  towers  were  seen  by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles,  as 
they  passed  between  numerous  vineyards,  some  of  which  appeared  to  be 
antique.     Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  p.  342. 

•  At  one  time  the  wine  of  Helbon  (which  place  Strabo  terms  Chalybon) 
was  held  in  such  repute,  that  it  was  appropriated  exclusively  to  the  use  of 
the  kings  of  Persia.    Strabon,  Geographia,  toni.  ii.  p.  1043.  edit.  Oxon. 

•  Lebanon  and  its  vicinity  still  produce  excellent  wine  ;— at  least  a  dozen 
•oris,  all  of  which  are  cheap.    Game's  Letters  from  the  East,  p,  239. 


only  their  liquors,  but  dry  things  which  are  not  apt  to  be 
broken  ;  by  which  means  thev  are  well  preserved  from  wet, 
dust,  or  insects.  These  would  in  time  crack  and  wear  out. 
Hence,  when  the  Gibeonites  came  to  Joshua,  pretending  that 
they  came  from  a  far  country,  amongst  oth.er  things  they 
brougitt  ivine  bottles  old  and  rent,  and  bound  up  where  they 
had  leaked.  (Josh.  ix.  4.  13.)  Thus,  too,  it  was  not  expe- 
dient to  put  new  wine  into  ohl  bottles,  because  the  fermenta- 
tion of  it  would  break  or  crack  the  bottles.  (Matt.  ix.  17.) 
And  thus  David  complains,  that  he  is  become  like  a  bott/e 
in  the  smoke ,-  that  is,  a  bottle  dried,  and  cracked,  and  worn 
out,  and  unfit  for  service.  (P.sal.  cxix.  83.)  These  bottles 
were  probably  of  various  sizes,  and  sometimes  very  large ; 
for  when  Abigail  went  to  meet  David  and  his  four  hundred 
men,  and  took  a  present  to  pacify  and  supply  him,  two  hun- 
dred loaves,  and  five  sheep  ready  dresred,  &c.  she  took  only 
TWO  bottles  of  wine  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18.) ;  a  very  disproportion- 
ate ouantity,  unless  the  bottles  were  large.  But  the  Israel- 
ites liad  bottles  likewise  made  by  the  jmtters.  (See  Isa.  xxx. 
14.  margin,  and  Jer.  xix.  1.  10.  xlviii.  19.)  We  hear  also 
of  vessiMS  called  barrels.  That  of  the  widow,  in  which  her 
meal  was  held  (1  Kings  xvii.  12.  11.)  was  not,  probably, 
very  larije ;  hut  these  ftnir  in  which  the  water  was  brought 
up  froin  the  sea,  at  the  bottom  of  Mount  Carinel,  to  pour  upon 
hiijah's  sacrifice  and  altar, must  have  been  large.  (1  Kings 
xviii.  33.)  We  read  likewise  of  other  vessels,  which  the 
widow  of  Shunem  borrowed  of  her  neighbours,  to  hold  the 
miraculous  supply  of  oil  (2  Kings  iv.  2 — G.) ;  and  of  the 
water-pots,  or  jars,  or  jugs,  of  stone,  of  considerable  size,  in 
which  our  Lord  caused  the  w^ater  to  be  converted  into  wine. 
(John  ii.  6.)  Grapes,  among  the  Israelites,  were  likewise 
dried  into  raisins.  A  part  of  Abigail's  present  to  David  was 
an  hundred  clusters  of  raisins  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18.);  and  when 
Ziba  met  David,  his  present  contained  the  same  quantity. 
(2  Sam.  xvi.  1. ;  sec  also  1  Sam.  xxx.  12.  and  1  Chron. 
xii.  40.)"' 

It  was  a  curse  pronounced  upon  the  Israelites,  that,  upon 
their  disobedience,  they  should  plant  vineyards  and  dress 
them,  but  they  should  neither  drink  of  the  wine  nor  eat  the 
"grapes,  for  the  worms  should  eat  them.  (Deut.  xxviii.  39.) 
It  seems  that  there  is  a  peculiar  sort  of  worms  that  infist  the 
vines,  called  by  the  Latins  Volvox  and  Convolvulus,  because 
it  wraps  and  rolls  itself  up  in  the  buds,  and  eats  the  grapes 
up,  when  they  advance  towards  ripeness,  as  the  Roman  au- 
thors explain  it.** 

Besides  other  fruits  that  were  common  in  Judaja,  as  dates, 
figs,  cucumbers,^  pomegranates,  they  had  regular  plantations 
of  olives,  which  were  a  very  ancient  and  profitable  object  of 
horticulture.  So  early  as  the  time  of  Noah  (Gen.  viii.  II.) 
the  branches  of  the  olive  tree  were,  and  since  that  time  have 
been  among  all  nations,  the  symbol  of  peace  and  prosperity.. 
Oil  is  first  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxviii.  18.  and  Job  xxiv.  11..; 
which  proves  the  great  antiquity  of  the  cultivation  of  this 
tree.  Olives,  in  Palestine,  are  of  the  best  growth,  and  afford 
the  finest  oil ;  whence  that  country  is  often  extolled  in  the 
Scriptures  on  account  of  this  tree,  and  especially  in  opposi- 
tion to  Egypt,  which  is  destitute  of  good  olives.  (Num. 
xviii.  12.  Deut.  vii.  13.  xi.  14.  xii.  17.  xviii.  4.)  The  olive 
delights  in  a  barren,  sandy,  dry?  and  mountainous  soil ;  and 
its  multiplied  branches  (which'  are  very  agreeable  to  the  eye 
as  they  remain  green  throughout  the  winter)  have  caused  it  to 
be  represented  as  the  symbol  of  a  numerous  progeny, — a 

'  Inve-stigalor,  No.  iv.  pp.  307— 309.— The  pleasing  and  instructive  Essay 
on  the  Agriculture  of  the  Israelites  (by  the  Rev.  James  Piumpire),  in  tlie 
first,  third,  and  fourth  numbersof  this  journal,  contains  the  fuile.st  account 
of  this  interesting  subject  extant  in  the  Tlnglish  language. 

«  Bochart.  Hieroz.  p.  3.  1.  iv.  c.  27. 

»  On  the  cultivation  of  this  valuable  article  of  food  in  the  East,  Mr. 
Jowett  has  communicated  the  follow'ing  interesting  particulars.  During 
his  voyage  to  Upper  Egypt,  in  February,  1S19,  he  says,  "  VVc  observed  the 
people  making  holes  in  the  sandy  soil  on  the  side  of  the  river.  Into  these 
holes  they  put  a  small  quantity  of  pigeons'  dung  and  feathers,  with  the  seed 
of  melons  or  cucumbers.  The  value  of  this  manure  is  alluded  to  in  2 
Kings  vi.  25.  The  produce  of  this  toil  I  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing,  in 
due  season  ;  that  is  the  following  month  of  June.  Extensive  fields  of  lipe 
melons  and  cucumbers  then  adorned  the  sides  of  the  river.  They  grew^  in 
such  abundance,  that  the  sailors  freely  helped  themselves.  Sorne  guard, 
however,  is  placed  upon  iheni.  Occasionally,  but  at  long  and  desolate  in- 
tervals, we  may  observe  a  little  hut  made  of  reeds,  just  capable  of  contain- 
ing one  man  ;  being,  in  fact,  little  more  than  a  fence  against  a  north  wind. 
In  these  I  have  observed,  sometimes,  a  poor  old  man,  perhap.s  lame, 
feebly  protecting  the  property.     It  exactly  illustrates  Isaiah  i.  6.    And  the 

daughter  of  Zion  is  left as  a  lodge  in  a  garden  of  cucumbers.    The 

abundance  of  these  most  necessary  vegetables  brings  to  mini!  the  mur- 
murs of  the  Israelites ;  Num.  xi.  5.  6.  ITe  rememher the  cucumliers, 

and  the  melons,  and  the  IteA-s,  and  the  onions,  and  the  garlick ;  but  now 
our  soul  is  dried  away."  Joweti's  Researches  in  the  Mediterraneac, 
&c.  p.  127. 


180 


ON  THE  ARTS  CULTIVATED  BY 


[PaktIV.  Chap.  Vn, 


blessing  which  was  ascribed  to  the  peculiar  favour  of  God. 
(Psal.  fii.  8.  cxxviii.  3.  Jer.  xi.  16.  Hos.  xiv.  6.)  The  oil, 
extracted  from  it  by  a  press,  enable  the  Jews  to  carry  on  an 
extensive  commerce  with  the  Tyrians  (Ezek.  xxvii.  17.  com- 
pared with  1  Kings  v.  11.);  they  also  sent  presents  of  oil  to 
the  kings  of  Egypt.  (Hos.  xii.  1.)  The  berries  of  the  olive 
tree  were  sometimes  plucked  or  carefully  shaken  oft"  by  the 
hand  before  they  were  ripe.  (Isa.  xvii.  G.  xxiv.  13.  Deut. 
xxiv.  20.)  It  appears  from  Mic.  vi.  15.  that  the  presses  for 
extracting  the  on  were  worked  with  the  feet ;  the  best  and 
purest  ou,  in  Exod.  xxvii.  20.  termed  pure  oil-olive  beaten, 
was  that  obtained  by  only  beating  and  squeezing  the  olives, 
without  subjecting  them  to  the  press. 

Among  the  judgments  with  which  God  threatened  the 
Israelites  for  their  sins,  it  was  denounced,  that  though  they 
had  olive  trees  through  all  their  coasts,  yet  they  should  not 
anoint  themselves  with  the  oil,  for  the  olive  should  cast  her 
fruit  (Deut.  xxviii.  40.) ;  being  blasted  (as  the  Jerusalem 
Targum  explains  it)  in  the  very  blossom,  the  buds  should 
drop  off  for  want  of  rain,  or  the  fruit  should  be  eaten  with 
worms.  Maimonides  observes,'  that  the  idolaters  in  those 
countries  pretended  by  certain  magical  arts  to  preserve  all 
manner  of  fruit,  so  that  the  worms  should  not  gnaw  the  vines, 
nor  either  buds  or  fruits  fall  from  the  trees  (as  he  relates  their 
words  out  of  one  of  their  books)  :  in  order,  therefore,  that  he 
might  deter  the  Israelites  from  all  idolatrous  practices,  Moses 
pronounces  that  they  should  draw  upon  themselves  those  very 
punishments,  which  they  endeavoured  by  such  means  to 
avoid. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  were  very  fond  of  Gardens,  which 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Writings,  and  derive 
their  appellations  from  the  prevalence  of  certain  trees ;  as  the 
garden  of  nuts  and  oi pomegranates.  (Sol.  Song  vi.  11.  iv.  13.) 
The  modern  inhabitants  of  the  East  take  equal  delight  in 
gardens  with  the  ancient  Hebrews,  on  account  of  the  refresh- 
ing shade  and  delicious  fruits  which  they  afford,  and  also 
because  the  air  is  cooled  by  the  waters  of  which  their  gar- 
dens are  never  allowed  to  be  destitute,  (livings  xxi.  2.  2  Kings 
XXV.  4.  Eccles.  ii.  5,  G.  John  xviii.  1.  xix.  41.)  The  Jews 
were  greatly  attached  to  gardens,  as  places  of  burial :  hence 
they  irequently  built  sepulchres  in  them.  (2  Kings  xxi.  18. 
Mark  xv.  46.)  A  pleasant  region  is  called  a  garden  of  the 
Lord,  or  of  God,  that  is,  a  region  extremely  pleasant.  See 
examples  in  Gen.  xiii.  10.  Isa.  li.  3.  and  Ezek.  xxxi.  8.^ 

VII.  The  sacred  poets  derive  many  beautiful  Allusions 
and  Images  from  the  rural  and  domestic  economy  of  the 
Jews ;  and  as  the  same  pursuits  were  cherished  and  followed 
by  them  during  the  manifestation  of  our  Redeemer,  "  it  is 
natural  to  imagine  that  in  the  writings  of  Jews  there  must 
occur  frequent  allusions  to  the  implements  and  arts  of  agri- 
culture, and  to  those  rustic  occupations  which  in  general 
formed  the  study  and  exercise  of  this  nation.  Hence  the 
beautiful  images  and  apt  siinilitudes  in  the  following  pas- 
sages : — No  one  having  put  his  hand  to  the  plough  and  look- 
ing back  is  Jit  for  t/ie  kingdom  of  God. —  Ye  are  God^s  hus- 
bandry, or  cultivated  field.'' — J.  workman  that  needeth  not  to  be 
ashamed,  rightly  dividing'  the  word  of  truth. —  Wherefore  lay 
apart  all  Jilthiness  and  superfluity  of  naughtiness,  and  receive 
with  meekness  the  engrafted  word, —  Whatsoever  a  man  soweth, 
that  shall  he  reap  :  he  that  soweth  to  the  flesh — lives  a  sensual 
life — shall  from  the  flesh  reap  destruction,  hut  he  that  soweth 
to  the  spirit — lives  a  rational  life — shall  from  the  spirit  reap 
everlastiiig  life. — Consider  the  ravens,  they  sow  not,  neither  do 
they  reap,  or  gather  into  barns,  yet  your  heavenly  Father 
feedtth  them. — I  am  the  good  shepherd,  and  know  my  sheep, 
and  am  known  of  mine,— -Fear  not,  little  flock,  it  is  your 
Father'' s  good  pleasure  to  give  you  the  kingdom.  How  striking 
is  the  parable  of  the  sower,  which,  by  seed,  scattered  promis- 
cuously, and  in  every  direction  by  a  husbaiidman,  and 
meeting  a  various  fate,  according  to  the  respective  nature 
of  the  soil  into  which  it  fell,  -represents  the  different  re- 
ception which  Gospel  doctrine  would  experience  in  the 
world,  according  to  the  different  dispositions  and  principles 
of  that  mind  into  which  it  was  admitted  !     He  that  soweth  the 

»  More  Nevoch.  p.  3.  c.  37. 

5  Ikenii  Andquitates  Hebr.  pp.  58.3—589.  Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  406 
— 411.     Jahn  et  Ackormanrij  Arclixol.  Bibl.  §§  57—70. 

3    1  Cor.  iii.  9.      fc)iou  ye-upyiov. 

*  2  Tim.  ii.  15.  Ep^-alKv  op3-oTo^ouvToi.  A  beautiful  and  expressive 
image  taken  from  a  liusbandman  (spyitTiic)  drawing  his  furrow  even,  and 
cutting  the  ground  in  a  direct  line.  Ernesti  says,  that  the  cognate  words 
op^oTo^ix  is  used  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Eusebius,  and  others,  for 
op&oJo|,a_right  doctrine.  Instit.  Interp.  Nov.  Test.  p.  109.  (Edit.  1792.) 
A  simihr  remark  is  also  made  by  Schecisner,  voce  op 3^otoj«s»j. 


GOOD  SEED  is  the  Son  of  Man ;  the  field  is  the  world ;  the 
GOOD  SEED  are  the  rhiJdren  of  the  kingdom  ;  the  tares  are  the 
children  of  the  wicked  one  ;  the  enemy  that  sowed  ihem  is  the 
devil ;  the  harvest  is  the  end  of  the  world ,-  and  the  reapers 
are  the  angels.  As  therefore  the  tares  are  gathered  and  burnt 
in  the  fire,  so  shall  it  be  in  the  end  (fthe  world. —  Whose  fan  is 
in  his  hand,  and  he  will  thorovglily  purge  his  floor,  and 
GATHER  his  wheat  into  the  garner,  but  he  will  burn  up  the 
chaff  with  unquenchable  fire.  By  what  an  apt  and  awful 
similitude  does  St.  Paul  represent  God's  rejection  of  the 
Jews  and  admission  of  the  heathens,  by  the  boughs  of  an 
olive  being  lopped  off,  and  the  scion  of  a  young  olive 
ingrafted  into  the  old  tree!  (Rom.  xi.  17.  &c.)" — a  prac- 
tice which  still  obtains  in  the  Morea  or  Peloponnesus  ;* 
"  and,  by  continuing  the  same  imagery,  how  strictly  does  he 
caution  the  Gentiles  against  insolently  exulting  over  the  mu- 
tilated branches  and  cherishing  the  vain  conceit  that  the 
boughs  were  lopped  off  merely  that  they  might  be  ingrafted ; 
for  if  God  spared  not  the  native  branches,  they  had  greater 
reason  to  fear  lest  he  would  not  spare  them ;  that  they  should 
remember  that  the  Jews  through  their  wilful  disbelief  of 
Christianity  were  cut  off,  and  that  they,  the  Gentiles,  if  they 
disgrace  their  religion,  would  in  like  manner  forfeit  the 
divine  favour,  and  their  present  flourishing  branches  be  also 
cut  down  !  To  inspire  tne  Gentile  Christians  with  humility, 
he  concludes  with  assuring  them  that  the  Jewish  nation, 
though  they  had  experienced  the  severity  of  God,  as  he  calls 
it,  were  not  totally  forsaken  of  the  Almighty :  that  the 
branches,  though  cut  down  and  robbed  of  their  ancient  ho- 
nours, were  not  abandoned  to  perish  :  when  the  Jews  returned 
from  their  infidelity  they  would  be  ingrafted  : — an  omnipotent 
hand  was  still  able  to  reinsert  them  into  their  original  stock. 
For  if  thou,  O  heathen,  the  scion  of  an  unfruitful  wild  olive, 
wert  cut  out  of  thy  own  native  barren  tree,  and,  by  a  process 
repugnant  to  the  ordinary  laws  of  nature,  wert  ingrafted  into 
the  fruitful  generous  olive — how  much  more  will  not  those, 
who  naturally  belong  to  the  ancient  stock,  be,  in  future  time, 
ingrafted  into  their  own  kindred  olive  !  With  what  singular 
beauty  and  propriety  is  the  gradual  progress  of  religion  in  the 
soul,  from  the  oeginning  to  its  maturity,  represented  by  seed 
committed  to  a  generous  soil,  which,  after  a  few  successions 
of  day  and' night,  imperceptibly  vegetates — peeps  above  the 
surface — springs  higher  and  higher — and  spontaneously  pro-^ 
ducing,  first,  the  verdant  blade — then  the  ear — afterwards  thei 
swelling  grain,  gradually  filling  the  ear  (Mark  iv.  27,  28.)  ;6' 
and  when  the  time  of  harvest  is  come,  and  it  is  arrived  at  its 
maturity,  it  is  then  reaped  and  collected  into  the  storehouse. 
Beautiful  illustrations  and  images  like  these,  taken  from  rural 
life,  must  seal  the  strongest  impressions,  particularly  upon 
the  minds  of  Jews,  who  were  daily  employed  in  these  occu- 
pations, from  which  these  pertinent  similes  and  expressive 
comparisons  were  borrowed."' 


\ 


SECTION  II. 

on  the  arts  cultivated  by  tHE  HEBREWS  OR  JEWS. 

I.  Origin  of  the  arts, — State  of  them  from  the  deluge  to  the  time 
of  jyioses. — II.  State  of  the  arts  from  the  time  of  JYIoses  until 
the  captivity.' — III.  State  of  the  arts  after  the  captivity, — 
IV.  Accotmt  of  some  of  the  arts  practised  by  the  Jews. — 
1.  Writing  ; — JMaterials  used  for  this  purpose  ; — Letters  ; — 
Form  of  books, — 2.  Engraving. — 3.  Pai7iti7ig, — V.  Music 
and  musical  instruments. — VI.  Dancing. 

I.  The  arts,  which  are  now  brought  to  such  an  admirable 
state  of  perfection,  it  is  universally  allowed,  must  have  origi- 
nated partly  in  necessity  and  partly  in  accident.  At  first  they 
must  nave  been  very  imperfect  and  very  limited ;  but  the 

6  The  Rev.  John  Hartley,  who  travelled  in  Greece  in  1828,  says,— "I  had 
my  attention  directed  to  the  practice  of  grafting  the  olive  trees,  to  which 
St.  Paul  alludes.  (Rom.  xi.  17.  20.  23,  24.)  Logoihetes"  (his  friend  and 
guide)  "  showed  me  a  few  wild  olives  ;  but  by  far  the  greater  number  are 
such  as  have  been  grafted.  He  informs  me  that  it  is  the  universal  practice 
in  Greece  to  graft,  from  a  good  tree,  upon  the  wild  olive."  (Missionary 
Register,  May,  1830,  p.  225.) 

«  Seminis  inodo  spaKgenda  sunt,  quod  quamvis  sit  exiguum,  cum  occu- 
pavit  idoneum  locum,  vires  suas  explicat,  et  ex  minimo  in  maximos  auctua 
diffunditur.     Seneca  Opera,  torn.  ii.  epist.  38.  p.  134.  edit.  Gronovil  1672. 

'  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  107— 1)2. 


Sect.  II.] 


THE  HEBREWS. 


181 


inquisitive  and  active  mind  of  man,  secondcul  by  his  wants, 
soon  secured  to  them  a  irrcMtcr  extent,  and  fewer  imperfec- 
tions. Accordinffly,  in  thi;  fourth  jrenerati'ni  after  the  crea- 
tion of  man,  we  nnd  mention  made  of  artificers  in  brass  and 
iron,  and  also  of  musical  instruments,  ((ien.  iv.  21,  22.) 
Tlios(!  couimuiiiti(;s,  which,  from  local  or  other  causes,  could 
not  llourish  i)y  means  of  ajrriculture,  would  iie(;essarily  direct 
their  attiuititni  to  tiie  eiicouraireuKMil  and  improvement  of  the 
arts.  These,  cons(!qu('ntly,  advancf^d  with  jrrcat  rapidity, 
and  were  carried  to  a  hi<rh  pitch  so  far  back  as  the  time  of 
Noah ;  as  we  may  learn  from  the  very  larm^  vessel  built 
under  his  direction,  the  construction  of  which  sliows  that  they 
must  have  bt;en  widl  aciiuaiuted  witli  some  at  least  of  tlu; 
mechanical  arts.  They  had  also,  without  doui)t,  seen  the 
operations  of  artificers  in  otluir  ways  besides  that  of  buildinjr, 
and  after  the  deluire  imitatcnl  their  works  as  well  as  they 
could.  Hence  it  is,  that  shortly  after  tiiat  event,  we  find 
mention  made  of  uti-usils,  ornaments,  and  many  otlusr  tiiinirs 
which  imply  a  kiiowledire  of  the  arts,  (/ompare  Gtm.  ix.  21. 
xi.  1 — 9.  xii.  7,  8.  xiv.  1 — IG.  xvii.  10.  xviii.  4 — G.  xix.  32. 
xxxi.  II).  27.  31. 

II.  K<(y|)t  in  the  early  a^e  of  the  world  excelled  all  other 
nations  in  a  knowledge  of  tlie  arts.  Altliounh  the  Hebrews 
durinir  their  residence  in  E<rypt  applied  liiemselves  to  the 
rearinjr  of  cattle,  yet  they  could  not  remain   four  hundred 

J  ears  in  tlrat  country  without  becomintr  initiated  to  a  consi- 
erable  deirree  into  that  knowled<re  whicli  the  Eiryptians 
possessed.  Among  other  labours  imposed  upon  them,  was 
the  building  of  treasure  cities  (Exod.  i.  11 — 11.),  and,  ac- 
cording to  josephus,  they  were  employed  in  erecting  pyra- 
mids.' Moses,  it  is  true,  did  not  enact  any  special  laws  in 
favour  of  the  arf.s,  nor  did  he  interdict  them  or  lessen  them  in 
the  estimation  of  the  people ;  on  the  contrary,  he  speaks  in 
the  praise  of  artificers.  (Exod.  xxxv.  30 — 35.  xxxvi.  1.  et 
se//.  xxxviii.  22,  23,  &c.)  The  grand  object  of  Moses,  in  a 
temporal  point  of  view,  was  to  promote  agriculture,  and  he 
thought  it  best,  as  was  done  in  other  nations,  to  leave  the  arts 
to  the  ingenuity  and  industry  of  the  people. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  .loshua,  a  place  was  expressly  al- 
lotted by  Joab,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  artificers :  for  in  the 
genealogy  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  delivered  in  1  Chron.  iv.  11., 
we  read  of  a  ])lace  called  the  fu/ky  cf  Cr/ifts/nni,  and  (verse 
21.  23.)  of  a  family  of  workmen  of  fine  linen,  and  another 
of  potties :  and  when  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, the  enemy  carried  aivai/  all  tlie  cruflsmen  and  smiths, 
{2  Kings  xxiv.  11.)  But  as  a  proof  that  their  skill  in  manu- 
tactures,  and  trade  therein,  could  not  be  very  extensive,  we 
find  that  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (chap,  xxvii.),  in  describing  the 
affluence  of  the  goods  which  came  to  Tyre,  makes  mention 
of  nothing  brought  thither  from  Judsa,  except  wheat,  oil, 
grapes,  and  balm,  which  were  all  the  natural  products  of 
tneir  ground.  It  appears  that  the  mistress  of  the  family 
usually  made  the  clothing  for  her  husband,  her  children,  and 
lierself,  and  also  for  sale.  (Exod.  xxxv.  25.  1  Sam.  ii.  19. 
Pmv.  xxxi.  18 — 21.  Acts  ix.  39.)  Employment,  conse- 
quently, as  far  as  the  arts  were  concerned,  was  limited  chiefly 
to  th)se  who  engaged  in  the  more  difficult  performances;  for 
instance,  those  who  built  chariots,  hewed  s<:oues,  sculptured 
idols  or  made  them  of  metal,  or  who  mv\de  instruments  of 
gold,  silver,  and  brass,  and  vessels  of  clay,  and  the  like. 
(See  Jndg.  xvii.  4.  Isa.  xxix.  IG.  xxx.  11.  Jer.  xxviii.  13.) 
In  the  time  of  Saul,  mention  is  made  of  smiths,  who  manu- 
factured implements  of  agriculture  as  well  as  arms;  but  who 
were  carried  off  by  the  Philistines,  in  order  that  they  might 
bo  enabled  to  keep  the  Israelites  more  effectnally  in  subjec- 
tion. (iSam.  xiii.  19^-22.)  Among  the  Hebrews,  artificers 
were  not,  as  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  servants  and 
slaves,  hut  men  of  some  rank  and  wealth  :  and  as  luxury  and 
riches  increased,  they  became  very  numerous.  (Jer.  xxiv.  1. 
xxix. 2.  2Kingsxxiv.  14.)  Building  and  architecture,  however, 
did  not  attain  much  perfection  prior  to  the  reign  of  the  accom- 
plished Solomon.  We  read,  indeed,  before  tiie  Israelites  came 
into  the  land  of  (^anaan,  that  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  (who  were 
employed  in  the  construction  of  the  tabernacle)  excelled  in 
all  inaaner  of  workmanship  (^Exod.  xxxv.  30 — 35.),  but  we 
are  there  told,  that  they  haa  their  skill  by  inspiration  from 
God,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  they  had  any  successors ; 
for  in  the  xlays  of  Solomon,  wiien  the  Hebrews  were  at  rest 
from  all  their  enemies,  and  were  perfectly  at  liberty  to  follow 
out  improvements  of  every  kind,  yet  they  had  no  professed 
artists  that  could  undertake  the  work  of  the  temple  ;  so  that, 

»  Antiq.  lib.  ii.  c.  9.  §  1. 


in  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  Solomon  was  obliged  to 
send  to  Hiram  king  of  Tyre  for  a  skilful  artist  (2Chr7)n,  ii, 
7.),  I)y  whose  direction  the  model  of  the  temple  and  all  the 
curious  furniture  of  it  was  both  designed  and  finished.  From 
the  Syrians  the  Israelites  must  have  learned  much,  because, 
long  after  the  reign  of  Solomon,  there  were  numerous  native 
artisans  employed  in  carpentry  and  building  (2  Kings  xii, 
11  — 13.  xxii.  4 — G.) ;  and  among  the  caiJtives  carried  away 
by  Xebuchadnczzar,  all  lite  cnif'hincn  andsinil/is  are  generally 
noticed.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  14.)  But  besides  these,  mention  is 
made  of  parlicudar  manufactures,  as  potters  (Jer.  xviii.  2 — 1.), 
fullers  (2  Kings  xviii.  17.  Isa.  vii.  3.  Mai.  iii.  2.  Mark  ix. 
3.),  bakers  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21.  Hos.  vii.  4.),  and  barbers. 
(E/.ek.  V.  1.) 

HI.  During  the  captivity  many  Hebrews  (most  commonly 
thosi!  to  whom  a  barren  tract  of  the  soil  had  been  assigned) 
applied  thi-msclves  to  the  arts  and  to  merchandise.  Subse- 
quently, when  they  were  scattered  abroad  among  ditl'erent 
nations,  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  became  so  popular,  that  the 
Talmudists  taught  that  all  parents  ought  to  teach  their  chil- 
dren some  art  or  handicraft.  'I'hey  indeed  mention  many 
learned  men  of  their  nation,  who  practised  some  kind  of 
manual  labour,  or,  as  we  should  say,  followed  some  trade. 
Accordingly,  we  find  in  the  New  Testament,  that  Joseph  the 
husband  of  Mary  was  a  carpenter,  and  that  he  was  assisted 
by  no  less  a  personage  than  our  Saviour  in  his  labours.  (Matt, 
xiii.  55.  Mark  vi.  3.)  Simon  is  mentioned  as  a  tanner  in  the 
city  of  Joppa.2  (Acts  ix.  43.  x.  32.)  Alexander,  a  learned 
Jew,  was  a  copper-smith  (2  Tim.  iv.  1 1.);  Paul  and  Aqiiila 
were  tent  makers,  a-x^viTc/o/.  Not  only  the  Greeks,  but  the 
Jews  also,  esteemed  certain  trades  infamous.  At  any  rate, 
the  Rabbins  reckoned  the  driver  of  asses  and  camels,  barbers, 
sailors,  shepherds,  and  inn-keepers,  in  the  same  class  with 
robbers.  Those  E|)hesians  and  Cretans,  who  were  lovers 
of  gain,  ai(TXP'-x.efJui  (1  Tim.  iii.  8.  Tit.  i.  7.),  Avere  men,  as 
we  may  learn  from  ancient  writers,  who  were  determined  to 
get  money,  in  however  base  a  manner.  In  the  apostolic  age, 
the  more  eminent  Greek  tradesmen  were  united  into  a  society. 
(Acts  xix.  25.)3 

IV.  Account  of  so.me  of  the  principal  Arts  practised 
BY  THE  Jews. 

1.  Writing. — We  meet  with  no  notice  of  this  art  in  the 
Old  Testament  before  the  copy  of  the  law  was  given  by  God 
to  Moses,  which  was  written  (that  is,  engraven)  on  two  tulles 
of  stone  by  the  finger  rf  God  (Exod.  xxxi.  18.),  and  this  is 
cpAXcA  the  writing  of  God,  (Exod.  xxxii.  16.)  It  is,  there- 
fore, probable  that  God  himself  was  the  first  who  taught 
letters  to  Moses,  who  communicated  the  knowledge  of  them 
to  the  Israelites,  and  they  to  the  other  eastern  nations.'  En- 
gravintr  or  sculpture  seems,  therefore,  to  be  the  most  ancient 
way  of  writing,  of  which  we  have  another  very  early  instance 
in  Exod.  xxxix.  30.,  where  we  are  told  that  "holiness  to 
the  Lord"  was  written  on  a  golden  plate,  and  worn  on  the 
high-priest's  head.  And  we  find  that  the  names  of  tlie 
twelve  tribes  were  commanded  to  be  written  on  twelve  rods. 
(Num.  xvii.  2.)  To  this  mode  of  writing  there  is  an  allu- 
sion in  Ezck.  xxxvii.  16.^  In  later  times  the  Jews  made 
use  of  broad  rushes  or  flags  for  writing  on,  which  grew  in 
o^reat  abundance  in  Egypt,  and  are  noticed  by  the  prophet 
Isaiah  when  foretelling  the  confusion  of  that  country.     (Isa. 

'  The  trade  of  a  tanner  was  estepmed  by  the  Jews  so  contemptible,  that 
all  who  followed  it  were  lequired  to  mention  the  same  before  their  niarrlafje, 
under  the  penally  of  the  nuptials  being  void.  It  is  recorded  in  tlie  Misiia, 
ih.-it,  after  the  death  of  a  man  whose  brother  had  exercised  the  trade  ol^  a 
tanner,  the  wise  men  of  Sidon  determined,  that  the  widow  of  the  deceased 
was  permitted  to  decline  intermarryin"  with  that  brother.  Townsentl's 
Harmony  of  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  103.   . 

»  Jahn's  Archa'ologia  Biblica,  by  Mr.  Upham,  §§  90— M.  Pareau,  Antiq. 
Uebr  pp.  419—423. 

«  We  know  that  the  inhabitants  of  Yemen  or  the  Southern  Arabia  were 
accustomed,  in  the  remotest  ages,  to  inscribe  their  laws  and  wise  sayings 
upon  stone.  See  Meidanii  Proverb.  Arab.  p.  45.  (cited  in  Biirder's  Orien- 
tal Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  19S.)  and  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary,  on  Exod. 
xxxii.  I'l. 

»  Writing  on  billets  or  sticks  was  practised  by  the  GreeJts.  Plutarch,  in 
his  Life  of  Solon  (Viia>,  torn.  i.  p.  20.  ed.  Bryan.),  and  Aiilus  Gelliiis  (Noct. 
Att.  lib.  ii.  c.  12.),  inform  us  that  the  very  ancient  laws  of  that  philosopher, 
preserved  at  Athens,  were  inscribed  on  tablets  of  wood  called  Axones.  In 
later  times  a  similar  mode  of  writing  was  practised  by  the  aborijrinal  Bri- 
tons, who  cut  their  letters  upon  sticks,  which  were  most  commonly  squared, 
and  sometimes  formed  into  three  sides  ;  consequently  a  single  slick  con- 
tained either  four  or  three  lines.  (See  Ezek.  xxxvii.  16.)  The  squares  were 
used  for  general  subjects,  and  for  stanzas  of  four  lines  in  poetry  ;  the  tri- 
lateral ones  were  adapted  to  triades,  and  for  a  peculiar  kind  of  ancient 
metre,  called  Trihan  or  triplet,  and  Englyn  Miltryr,  or  the  warrior's 
verse.  Several  sticks  with  writina  upon  them  were  put  together,  formin? 
a  kind  of  frame,  which  w^as  called  Peithynen  or  elucidalor ;  and  was  so 
contrived  that  each  stick  might  be  turned  for  the  facility  of  reading,  the 


182 


ON  THE  ARTS  CULTIVATED  BY 


[Part  IV.  Chap.  VII. 


xix.  6,  7.)     Writing  on  palm  and  other  leaves  is  still  prac- 
tised in  the  East.i 

The  other  eastern  nations  made  use  chiefly  of  parchment, 
being  the  thin  skins  of  animals  carefully  dressed.     Tlie  best 

end  of  each  running  out  alternately  on  both  sides  of  the  frame.    The  sub- 
joined cut 


is  an  engraved  specimen  of  ancient  Britis^i  writinz,  copied  from  Dr.  Fry's 
elegant  work  entitled  Pan!ographia.  (p.  307.)  The  following  is  a  literal 
reading  in  the  modern  orthography  of  Wales,  with  a  correct  translation  ; — 

"Aryv  y  doeth  yw  pwyll : 
Bid  ezain  alltud : 
Cyvnewid  a  haelion  : 
Diengid  rliy  wan  eid  rhygadarn  : 
Enwawg  nieiciad  o'  i  voc  : 
Goiaen  awel  yn  nghyving: 
Hir  oreistez  i  ogan  : 
Llawer  car  byw  i  Indeg." 

TRANSLATION. 

"The  weapon  of  the  wise  is  reason  : 
Let  the  exile  be  moving  : 
Commerce  with  generous  ones: 

Let  the  very  feeble  run  away  ;  let  the  very  powerful  proceed: 
The  swineherd  is  proud  of  iiis  swine  : 
A  gale  is  almost  ice  in  a  narrow  place  : 
Long  penance  to  slander  : 
The  frail  Indeg  lias  many  living  relations." 

A  continuation  of  this  mode  of  writing  may  be  found  in  the  Sunic  or  Clog, 
(a  corruption  of  Log)  Almanacks,  which  prevailed  among  the  northern 
nations  of  Europe  so  late  even  as  the  sixteenth  century.  See  a  description 
and  engraving  of  one  in  Dr.  Plot's  Natural  History  of  Stalfordshire,  pp. 
418—422. 

»  In  the  Sloanian  Library,  there  are  upwards  of  twenty  manuscripts 
written  on  leaves,  written  in  the  Sanskrit,  Burnian,  Peguan,  Ceylonese, 
and  other  lanijuages.  (Ayscough's  Catalogue  of  the  Sloane  Library,  pp. 
904 — 906.)  In  Tanjore  and  other  parts  of  India,  the  palmyra  leaf  is  used. 
(Dr.  C.  Buchanan's  "Christian  Researches  in  Asia,"  pp.  70,  71.  8vo.  edit.) 
The  common  books  of  the  Burmans,  like  those  of  the  Hindoos,  particu- 
larly of  such  as  inhabit  the  southern  parts  of  India,  are  cotriposed  of  the 
palmyra  leaf,  on  which  the  lellers  are  engraved  with  a  stylus.  (Symes's 
Account  of  an  Embassy  to  Ava,  vol.  ii.  p.  409.  8vo.)  In  their  more  elegant 
books,  the  Burmans  write  on  sheets  of  ivory,  or  on  very  fine  white  pahiiy- 
ra  leaves  :  the  ivory  is  stained  black,  and  the  margins  are  ornamented  with 
gilding,  while  the  characters  axe  enamelled  or  gilt.  On  the  palmyra  leaves 
the  characters  are  in  general  of  black  enamel :  and  the  ends  of  the  leaves 
and  margins  are  painted  with  (lowers  in  various  bright  colours.  A  hole 
through  uoth  ends  of  each  leaf  serves  to  connect  the  whole  into  a  volume 
by  means  of  two  strings,  which  also  pass  through  the  two  wooden  boards 
that  serve  for  binding.  In  the  finer  binding  of  these  kinds  of  books,  the 
boards  are  lacquered  ;  the  edges  of  the  leaves  are  cut  smooth  and  gill, 
and  the  title  is  written  on  the  upper  board.  The  two  boards  are  by  a  knot 
or  jewel  secured  at  a  little  distance  from  the  boards,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
book  from  falling  to  pieces,  but  sufficiently  distant  to  adinir  of  the  upper 
leaves  being  turned  back,  while  the  lower  ones  are  read.  The  more  ele- 
gant books  are  in  general  wrapped  up  in  silk  cloth,  and  bound  round  by  a 
garter,  in  which  the  natives  ingeniously  contrive  to  weave  tlie  title  of  the 
book.  (Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  iv.  p.  a06.  8vo.  edit.)  The  Ceylonese  some- 
times make  use  of  the  palm  leaf,  but  generally  prefer  that  of  the  Talipot 
tree,  on  account  of  its  superior  breadth  and  thickness.  From  the.se  leaves, 
which  are  of  immense  size,  they  cut  out  slips  from  a  foot  to  a  foot  and  a 
half  long,  and  about  two  inches  broad.  These  slips  being  smoothed  and. 
all  excrescences  pared  off  with  the  knife,  they  are  ready  for  use  without 
any  other  preparation  :  a  fine-pointed  steel  pencil,  like  a  bodkin,  and  set 
in  "a  wooden  or  ivory  handle,  ornamented  according  to  the  owner's  taste, 
is  employed  to  write,  or  rather,  to  engrave,  their  characters  on  these  tali- 
pot slips,  which  are  very  thick  and  tough.    In  order  to  render  the  charac- 


was  made  at  Pergamos,  whence  it  was  called  Ckarta  Perga- 
inena.  It  is  prohalile  that  the  Jews  learned  the  use  of  it 
from  them,  and  that  this  is  what  is  meant  by  a  roll  (Ezra  vi. 
3.),  and  a  roll  of  a  book  (.ler.  xxxvi.  2.),  and  a  scroll  rolled 
togelher  (Isa.  xxxiv.  4.) :  tor  it  could  not  be  thin  and  weak 
paper,  but  parchinent  whicii  is  of  some  consistency,  that 
was  capable  of  being  fliiis  rolled  up.  St.  Paul  is  the  only 
person  who  makes  express  mention  of  parchment.  (2  Tim. 
iv.  13.)  In  .Job  xix.  21.  and  in  .ler.  xvii.  1.  tltcre  is  mention 
made  of  pens  of  iron,  with  which  they  probably  made  the 
letters,  when  they  engraved  on  lead,-  stone, '^  or  other  hard 
substances:  but  for  softer  materials  they,  in  all  probability, 
made  use  of  qxdlls  or  reeds ;  for  we  are  told  of  some  in  the 
trit)e  of  Zebulun  who  lumdltd  tlie  pen  f.f  the  wriler.  (Judg. 
V.  14.)  David  alludes  to  the  .pen  of  a  ready  writer  (PsaJ. 
xlv.  1.),  and  Baruch,  as  we  are  told,  wrote  the  words  of 
Jeremiah  with  ink  in  a  book.  (Jer.  xxxvi.  18.)  It  is  highly 
probable  that  several  of  tlie  prophets  wrote  upon  tablets  of 
wood,  or  soine  similar  substance.  (Compare  Isa.  xxx.  8. 
and  Habakkuk  ii.  2.)  Such  talilets,  it  is  well  known,  were 
in  use  long  before  the  time  of  Homer  (who  lived  about  one 
hundred  nnd  fifty  years  before  tbe  prophet  Isaiah).  Zecha- 
rias,  the  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  when  required  to  name 
his  son,  ashed  for  a  lorLling-tuilc,  Tr.vuKfSicv  (Luke  i.  63.); 
and  such  tablets  were  also  in  use  among  the  Romans  and 
other  ancient  nations,  and  are  yet  to  be  seen  in  modern 
Greece,  where  they  are  called  by  the  same  name.''  They 
were  not  finally  disused  in  western  Europe  until  the  four- 
teenth century  of  the  Christian  a?ra.  They  were,  in  general, 
covered  with  wax,  and  the  writing  was  executed  with  styles 
or  pens,  made  of  gold,  silver,  brass,  iron,  copper,  ivory,  or 
bone,  which  at  one  end  were  pointed  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
scribing the  letters,  and  smooth  at  the  other  extremity  for 
the  purpose  of  erasing.^  In  Barbary  the  children,  who  are 
sent  to  school,  write  on  a  smooth  thin  board  slightly  daubed 
over  with  whiting,  which  may  be  wiped  oft"  or  renewed  at 
pleasure.  The  Copts,  who  are  employed  by  the  great  men 
of  Egypt  in  keeping  their  accounts,  &c.  make  use  of  a  kind 
of  pasteboard,  from  which  the  writing  is  occasionally  wiped 
off  with  a  wet  sponge.  To  this  mode  of  writing  there  is  an 
allusion  in  Neb.  xiii.  14.,  and  especially  in  INum.  v.  23.; 
where,  in  the  case  of  the  woman  suspected  of  adultery,  who 

ters  more  visible  and  distinct,  they  rub  them  over  with  oil  mixed  with 
pulverized  charcoal,  which  process  also  renders  them  so  permanent,  that 
they  never  can  be  etfaced.  When  one  slip  is  insufikient  to  contain  all  that 
they  intend  to  write  on  any  particular  subject,  the  Ceylonese  string  several 
together  by  passing  a  piece  of  twine  through  them,  and  attach  them  to  a 
board  in  the  same  way  as  we  file  newspapers.  (Percival's  Account  of  the 
Island  of  Ceylon,  p.  205.)  The  Braiiiin  manuscripts,  in  the  Telinga  lan- 
guage, sent  to  Oxford  from  Fort  St.  George,  are  written  on  the  haves  of 
the  Ainpana.  or  Palma  Malabarica.  In  the  Maldive  Islands,  the  natives 
are  said  to  write  on  the  leaves  of  the  Macarciquean,  which  are  a  fathom  and 
a  half  (jiinefeet)  long,  and  about  a  foot  broad ;  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
East  Indies,  the  leaves  of  the  plantain  tree  are  employed  lor  the  same 
purjiose. 

'.>  The  eminent  antiquary,  Montfaucon,  informs  us  that  in  1699  he  bought 
at  Rome  a  book  wholly  composed  of  lead,  about  four  inches  in  length,  by 
three  inches  in  width,  and  containing  Egyptian  Gnostic  figures  and  unin- 
telligible writing.  Not  only  the  two  pieces  which  formed  the  cover,  but 
also  all  the  leaves  (six  in  number),  the  slick  inserted  into  the  rings  which 
held  the  leaves  together,  the  hinges,  and  the  nails,  were  all  otlead,  without 
exccjilion.  Aniiciuite  Expliqutc,  tom.  ii.  p.378.  It  is  not  known  what  has 
become  of  tliis  curious  article.  « 

'  '•  The  most  ancient  people,  before  the  invention  pf  books  and  before  the 
use  of  sculpture  upon  stones  and  other  small  tragments,  represented  things 
great  and  noble  upon  entire  rocks  and  mountains  :  the  custom  was  not  laid 
aside  for  many  ages.  Semiramis,  to  perpetuate  her  memory,  is  reported 
to  have  cut  a  whole  rock  into  the  shape  of  herself  Hannibal,  long  after  the 
invention  of  books,  engraved  characters  upon  the  Alpine  rocks,  as  a  testi- 
mony of  his  passage  over  them  ;  which  characters  were  remaining  about 
two  centuries  ago,  according  to  Paulus  .lovius.  It  appears  parlicujarly  to 
have  been  the  custom  of  the  northern  nations,  from  that  remarkable  in- 
scription mentioned  by  Sa.xo,  and  several  ages  after  him  delineated  and 
publisheii  by  Olaus  Wormius.  It  was  inscribed  by  Harold  Ilyldeland,  to 
the  memory  of  his  father,  and  was  cut  out  in  the  side  of  a  rock,  in  Runic 
characters,  each  letter  of  the  inscription  being  a  quarter  of  an  ell  long,  and 
the  length  of  the  whole  thirty-four  ells."  (Wise's  Letter  to  Dr.  Mead, 
p.  25.)'  The  custom  was  eastern  as  well  as  northern,  as  appears  from  that 
remarkable  instance  which  occurs  in  Captain  Hamilton's  Account  of  the 
East  Indies,  vol.  ii.  p.  241.  The  author,  after  giving  a  short  history  of  the 
successful  attack  which  the  Dutch  made  upon  the  island  of  Amoy  in  China, 
A.  D.  164.5,  adds,  "This  history  is  written  in  large, China  characters  on  the 
face  of  a  smooth  rock,  that  faces  the  entrance  of  the  harbour,  and  may  be 
fairly  seen  as  we  pass  out  and  into  the  harbour.''  Burder's  Oriental  Litera- 
ture, vol.  i.  p.  535. 

*  "At  Karitena,  it  is  still  usual  for  schoolboys  to  have  a  small  clean 
board,  on  which  the  master  writes  the  alphabet,  or  any  other  lesson, 
which  he  intends  his  scholars  to  read.  As  soon  as  one  lesson  is  finished, 
the  writing  is  marked  out  or  scraped  out  ;  and  the  beard  may  thus  be  con- 
tinually employed  for  writing  new  lessons.  Not  only  does  this  instrument 
harmonize  in  its  use  *vith  the  wrjting-table  mentioned  in  Luke  i.  63..;  but 
the  Greeks  call  it  by  tlie  very  same  name,  7rivj.AtSior."  Rev.  John  Haul- 
ley's  Tour  in  Greece,  in  1928.  (Missionary  Register,  May,  1830.  pp.  231,  232.) 

5  On  this  subject  and  on  the  substances  generally  employed  for  writiii^, 
both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  see  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bib- 
liography, by  the  author  of  this  work,  vol.  i.  pp.  31 — 72. 


Sect.  IL] 


THE  HEBREWS. 


183 


was  to  take  an  oath  of  cursings  It  is  said  that  the  priest  shall 
write  the  cursex  in  a  Inxih,  and  lAnt  Iheni  oat  with  the  hitler 
writer.  It  iippears  tliiil  liifsc  iir.ilcdictioiis  were  writton  with 
a  ivitui  of  ink  j)re|)ar(:(l  for  the  piiri)ose,  without  any  calx  of 
iron  or  other  inatorial  that  couhl  nv.ikti  a  |)ennaii(Mit  dye; 
{iiid  were  thou  washed  ofT"  the  parchnieiit  into  the  water 
Which  the  woman  Was  oljlijred  to  drink  :  so  tliat  she  drunk 
tlie  veri/  H'D'yls  of  the  execration.  Tiie  iidi  used  in  tiie  Kast 
is  almost  all  of  this  kind  ;  a  wet  sponiie  will  e(iin|)letely 
Ohliterate  the  finest  of  tlieir  writiiiifs.i  'i'lic  iid<  was  ciirricd 
in  an  inipl(>nient,  termed  liy  oiir  translators  an  inkhorn,  whi(di 
was  stnek  into  the  i^irdie  (I'l/ek.  ix.  2,  .'}.),  as  it  still  is  in 
tlie  Levant,'^ 

Kpistks  or  Letters,  which  arc  included  under  the  same 
Hehrevv  word  with  Hooks  (viy..  idd,  s'l'nit),  are  very  rarely 
mention«(l  in  the  earlier  a<res  (d'anti(pdty.  The  first  noti(!c 
of  an  epistle  in  tin;  Sacred  VVritiiiirs  occurs  in  2  Sam.  xi. 
14.:  but  afterwards  they  an^  more  fr(H|uently  mentioned. 
In  the  Kasl,  letU^rs  are  to  this  day  commonly  sent  unsealed  : 
but,  when  tli(>y  are  sent  to  persons  of  distinction,  they  are 
placed  in  a  valuable  purse,  which  is  tied,  closed  over  with 
clay  or  wax,  and  then  stamped  with  a  sijrnet.  The  same 
practice  obtained  in  ancient  times.  See  Isa.  viii.  (>.  xxix. 
11,  (marjrinal  renderinir),  Neh.  vi.  5.  .lob  xxxviii.  11. 
The  book  which  was  shown  to  the  apostle  John  (Rev.  v.  1. 
vi.  1,  2,  &c.)  was  sealed  with  seven  seals,  which  unusual 
number  seems  to  have  l)een  affixed,  in  order  to  intimate  the 
great  importance  and  secrecy  of  the  matters  therein  contained, 
riie  most  ancient  ejiistles  he<>in  and  end  without  cither 
salutation  or  farewell ;  but  under  tlie  Persian  monarchy  it 
was  very  prolix.  It  is  triven  in  an  abridi^'ed  form  in  K/.n 
iv.  7 — 10.  and  v.  7.  The  apostles,  in  their  epistles,  vised 
the  salutation  customary  amoii<r  the  Greeks,  but  they  omitted 
the  usual  farewell  (^^jpsiv)  at  the  close,  and  adopted  a  bene- 
diction more  confnmiable  to  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel  of 
Ciirist.  When  I'atd  dictated  his  letters  (as  he  most  fre- 
quently did),  he  wrol(>  the  benediction  at  the  close  with  his 
own  hand.     See  an  instance  in  2  Thess.  iii.  17.' 

Books  being  written  on  parchment  and  similar  flexible 
materials,  were  rolled  round  a  slick  or  cylinder;  and  if  thev 
were  very  long,  round  two  cylinders,  from  the  tw'o  extremi- 
ties. Usually,  the  writing  was  only  on  the  inside.  The 
writing  on  hzekiel's  roll  (Ezek.  ii.  9,  10.)  being  on  both 
sides,  indicated  that  the  prophecy'  would  be  long.'  The 
reailer  unrolled  the  book  to  the  place  which  he  wanted, 
•tyafrTi/|tc  ts  /S.oa/cv,  and  rolled  it  up  again,  when  he  had  read 
it,  TtTu^xc  TO  ftiZfj-.v  (Luke  iv.  17 — 20.)  ;  whence  the  name 
piSjd  (iMfc; 7i/m),  rt  volume,  or  thing  rolled  up.  (Psal.  xl.  7. 
Isa.  xxxiv.  4.  Ezek.  ii.  9.  2  Kings  xix.  14.  Ezra  vi.  2.) 
The  leaves  thus  rolled  round  the  stick,  and  bound  with  a 
string,  could  i)e  easily  sealed.  (Isa.  xxix.  11.  Dan.  xii.  4. 
Rev.  V.  I.  vi.  7.)  Those  books  which  were  inscribed  on 
tjjblets  of  wood,  lead,  brass,  or  ivory,  were  connected  toge- 
ther by  rings  at  tlie  ba(dc,  through  which  a  rod  was  passed 
to  carry  them  by.  In  Palestine,  when  persons  are  reading 
privately  in  a  book,  "  they  usually  go  on,  reading  aloud  with 
a  kind  of  singing  voice,  moving  their  heads  and  bodies  in 
time,  and  making  a  monotonous  cadence  at  regular  intervals, 
— thus  giving  emphasis;  although  not  such  an  emphasis, 
pliant  to  the  sense,  as  would  please  an  English  ear.  Very 
often  they  seem  to  read  without  perceiving  the  sense;  and 
to  be  pleased  with  themselves,  merely  because  they  can  go 
through  the  mechanical  act  of  reading  in  any  way."  This 
practice  may  enable  us  to  "understand  how  it  was  that 
Philip  should  hear  at  what  passage  in  Isaiah  the  Ethiopian 
Eunuch  was  readiu'j,  before  he  was  invited  to  come  up  and 
sit  with   liim   in   the  chariot.     (Acts  viii.  30,  31.)     The 

'  rrainicr's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  p.  127.     Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Num.  v.  23. 

»  Emerson's  Letters  from  the  .'Ef;L'aii,  vol.  ii.  p.  64.  "Tliis  implement 
ia  one  ol'  considerable  antiquity  ;  it  is  common  liirouubont  the  Levant,  and 
we  met  willi  it  ollen  in  the  houses  of  llie  Greeks.  To  one  end  of  a  lonj; 
brass  tube  for  holding  pens  is  attached  llie  little  case  containing  the  moist- 
ened sepia  used  lor  ink,  which  is  closed  with  a  lid  and  snap,  and  the  whole 
stuck  with  much  importance  in  the  cirdle.  This  is,  without  doubt,  the 
inslrumeiil  borne  by  the  individual,  whom  Ezekiel  mentions  as  one  man 
clothed  in  linen,  tcilh  a  writer's  inJc/iorn  by  his  side.  (Ezek.  ix.  2.)"  Ibid. 
p.  (>1.  nolf. 

'  .lahn's  Archajol.  Hebr.  by  Mr.  Upham,  §§  S8, 89.  Pareau,  Antiq.  Ilebr 
pp.  426—4^-1. 

«  111  the  monastery  of  Mesaspelaion,  in  Greece,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hartley 
observed  two  beautifiil  rolls  of  the  same  description  wilh  that  mentioned  in 
Ezek.  ii.  9,  10.,  and  conlainins  the  .Liturgies  of  St.  Chrysostom  and  that 
attributed  by  the  Greeks  to  Si.  James.  "  You  began  to  read  bv  unfoldinir, 
and  you  continued  to  read  and  unfold,  till  at  last  you  arrived  at'lhe  slick  to 
which  the  roll  was  attached.  Then  you  turned  Ilie  parchment  round,  and 
continued  to  read  on  the  other  side  of  the  roll ;  folding  it  gradually  up, 
unul  you  completed  the  Liturgy.  Thus  it  was  written  within  and  vilhout." 
Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece,  p.  238. 


Eunuch,  though  probably  reading  to  himself,  and  not  par- 
ticularly designing  to  be  heard  by  his  attendants,  would 
read  loud  enough  to  be  understood  by  a  person  at  some  dis- 
tance." ' 

2.  Thoufrh  the  art  of  Carving  or  Engraving  was  not  in- 
vented by  tlie  Hebrews,  yet  that  it  was  cultivated  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  is  evident  not  only  from  the  cherubim  which 
were  deposited  first  in  the  tabernacle  and  afterwards  in  Solo- 
mon's temple,  but  from  the  lions,  which  wt;re  on  each  side 
of  his  throne  (1  Kings  x.  20.),  and  from  the  description 
which  Isaiah  (xliv.  1.3 — 17.)  lias  given  us  of  the  manner  in 
which  idols  were  manufactured. 

3.  By  whomsoever  Painting  was  invented,  this  art  ap- 
pears to  have  made  some  progress  in  the  more  advanced 
periods  of  the  .lewish  polity.  In  Ezek.  xxiii.  14,  15.  men- 
tion is  made  of  men  jiorlrai/ed  upon  the  wall,  the  images  of 
the  Chah/eans  portrai/rd  with  vermilion,  girded  with  girdles 
upon  their  loins,  exceeding  in  dipd  attire  upon  their  heads,  all 
of  them  princes  to  looh  to.  Jijremiah  mentions  apartments 
whi(di  were  paintid  with  vermilion,  (xxii.  14.)  But  as  all 
pictures  were  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  law,  as  well  as 
images  (Lev.  xxvi.  1.  Num.  xxxiii.  52.),  it  is  most  pro- 
bable that  these  pictures  wer(>  copied  by  tliti  .lews  from  some 
of  their  heathen  neighbours,  after  they  liad  been  corrupted 
by  intercourse  with  them. 

4.  The  art  of  Music  was  cultivated  with  great  ardour  by 
the  Hebrews,  who  did  not  confine  it  to  sacred  purposes,  but 
introduced  it  upon  all  special  and  solemn  occasions,  such  as 
entertaining  their  friends,  public  f(>stivals, and  the  like:  thus 
Laban  tell.s  .lacob  that  if  he  had  known  of  his  leaving  him, 
he  would  have  sent  him  uwui/  with  mirth  and  with  songs,  with 
ta.'jret  and  with  harp.  (Gen.  xxxi.  27.)  Isaiah  says,  that 
the  harp  and  the  viol,  the  tabret  and  pipe,  are  in  their  feasts 
(Isa.  V.  12.) ;  and,  to  express  the  cessation  of  these  leasts, 
he  says, //te  mirth  of  tubrets  ceaseth,the  joxj  (f  the  harp  ceaseth. 
(Isa.  xxiv.  8.")  It  was  also  the  custom  at  the  coronation  of 
kings.  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  13.)  And  it  was  the  usual  manner 
of  expressing  their  mirth  upon  their  receiving  good  tidings 
of  victory,  and  upon  the  triumphal  returns  of  their  generals, 
as  may  be  seen  in  Judg.  xi.  34.  and  1  Sam.  xviii.  (5.  That 
music  and  dancing  were  used  among  the  Jews  at  their  feasts 
in  latter  a^es,  may  be  inferred  from  the  parable  of  the  prodi- 
o-al  son.  (Luke  xv.  25.)  Besides  their  sacred  music,  the 
Hebrew  nionarchs  had  their  private  music.  saph  was 
luaster  of  David's  royal  band  of  musicians.  It  appears  that 
in  tlie  temple-service  female  musician*  were  admitted  as 
well  as  males,  and  that  in  general  they  were  the  daughters 
of  Levites.  Heman  had  fourteen  sons  and  three  daughters 
who  wore  skilled  in  music;  and  Ezra,  when  enumerating 
those  who  returned  wilh  him  from  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
reckons  two  hundred  singinor  nien  and  singing  women. 
The  Chaldee  paraphrast  on  Eccles.  ii.  8.,  where  Solomon 
says  that  he  had  men  singers  and  ujomen  sm^er«,  understands 
it  of  sisiging  women  of  tiie  temple. 

In  the  tabernacle  and  the  temple,  the  Levites  (both  men 
and  women)  were  the  lawful  musicians ;  but  on  other  occa- 
sions the  Jews  were  at  liberty  to  use  any  musical  instru- 
ments, with  the  exception  of  the  silver  trumpets,  which  were 
to  be  sounded  oidy  by  the  priests,  on  certain  solemn  and 
public  occasions.     (Num.  x.  1 — 10.) 

The  invention  of  musical  instruments  is  ascribed  to  Jubal. 
(Gen.  iv.  21.)  The  following  are  the  principal  Musical 
In.strumicnts  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Writings:^ — 

(1.)  Pulsatile  Inslruments. — These  were  three  in  number, 
viz.  The  tabret,  the  cymbal,  and  the  sistrum. 

i.  The  Tabret,  Tabor,  or  Timbrel,  rjn  (tuph),  was  com- 
posed of  a  circular  hoop,  either  of  wood  or  brass,  which  was 
covered  with  a  piece  of  skin  tensely  drawn  and  hung  round 
with  small  bells.  It  was  held  in  the  left  hand,  and^ beaten 
to  notes  of  rniisic  with  the  right.  After  the  passage  of  the 
lied  Sea,  Miriam  the  sister  of  Moses  took  a  timbrel,  and 
began  to  play  and  dance  with  the  women  (Exod.  xv.  20.): 
in  like  manner  the  daughter  of  Jephthah  came  to  meet  her 
father  wilh  timbrels  and  dances,  after  he  had  discomfited 
and  subdued  the  Ammonites.  (Judg.  xi.  34.)  The  ladies 
in  the  East,  to  tliis  day,  dance  to  the  sound  of  this  instru- 
ment. The  earliest  notice  of  the  tabret  occurs  in  Gen. 
xxxi.  27. 

ii.  The  Cymbal,  Ss'?s  (rsfLTSfL),  Psal.  cl.  5.  consisted 
of  two  large  and  broad  plates  of  brass,  of  a  convex  form ; 

<•  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  121. 

s  For  some  remarks  on  the  titles  of  certain  Psalms,  which  are  supposed 
to  have  been  derived  either  from  musical  instruments  or  the  tunes  to  which 
they  were  sung,  see  part  i.  chap.  iii.  sect.  ii.  §  vi.  infra. 


184 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IV.  Chap.  VH. 


which,  being  struck  against  each  other,  made  a  hollow  ring- 
ing sound.'  They  form,  in  our  days,  a  part  of  every  military 
band. 

iii.  The  Sisrrum,  d''3?jj,'JC  (MCNAaNoiM),  which  in  our  ver- 
sion of  2  Sam.  vi.  5.  is  misrendered  curnetn,  was  a  rod  of 
iron  bent  into  an  oval  or  oblong  shape,  or  square  at  two  cor- 
ners and  curved  at  the  others,  and  furnished  with  a  number 
of  moveable  rings;  so  that,  when  shaken  or  struck  with 
another  rod  of  iron,  it  emitted  the  sound  desired. 

(2.)  Wind  Instnunents. — Six  of  these  are  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures,  viz.  The  organ,  the  flute  and  hautboy,  dulci- 
mer, horn,  and  trumpet. 

i.  The  Organ,  jjy  (oofii),  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Jubal  in 
Gen.  iv.  21.;  but  it  cannot  have  been  like  our  modern  organs. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  kind  of  flute,  at  first  composed 
of  one  or  two,  but  afterwards  of  about  seven  pipes,  made  of 
reeds  of  unequal  length  and  thickness,  which  were  joined 
together.  It  corresponded  most  nearly  to  the  crufny^  or  pipe 
ot  Pan  among  the  Greeks. 

ii.  iii.  The  "7>'7n  (chalil),  and  the  apj  (nckcb),  which  our 
translators  have  rendered  ^ipes,  are  supposed  to  have  been  the 
flute  and  hautboy. 

iv.  The  'n'jisciD  (sumpunjgh),  or  Dulcimer  (Dan.  iii.  5.), 
was  a  wind  instrument  made  of  reeds  ;  by  the  Syrians  called 
Sainbonjuh,  by  the  Greeks  XufjiSunn,  and  by  the  Italians  Zam- 
pogna. 

V.  The  Horn  or  Crooked  Tnimpef.  was  a  very  ancient  in- 
strument, made  of  the  horns  of  oxen  cut  off  at  the  smaller 
extremity.  In  progress  of  time  ram's  horns  were  used  for 
the  same  purpose.     It  was  chiefly  used  in  war. 

vi.  The  form  of  the  straight  Trumpet  is  well  known :  it 
was  used  by  the  priests  (Num.  x.  8.  1  Chron.  xv.  24.)  both 
on  extraordinary  occasions  (Num.  x.  10.),  and  also  in  the 
daily  service  of  the  temple.  (2  Chron.  vii.  6.  xxix.  26.)  In 
time  of  peace,  when  the  people  or  the  rulers  were  to  be  con- 
vened together,  this  trumpet  was  blown  softly:  but  when  the 
camps  were  to  move  forward,  or  the  people  were  to  march  to 
war,  it  was  sounded  with  a  deeper  note. 

(3.)  Stringed  Instruments. — These  were  the  harp  and  the 
psaltery. 

i.  The  Harp,  -)ij3  (k/nour),  seems  to  have  resembled  that 
in  modern  use :  it  was  the  most  ancient  of  all  musical  instru- 
ments. (Gen.  iv.  21.)  It  had  ten  strings,  and  was  played  by 
David  with  the  hand  (1  Sam.  xvi.  23.) ;  but  Josephus-  says, 
that  it  was  played  upon  or  struck  with  a  plectrum. 

ii.  The  Piyullcry  >73j  (NCBeL),  obtained  its  name  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  bottle  or  flagon  :  it  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
Psalms  of  David,  and  the  invention  of  it  is  ascribed  to  the 
Phoenicians.  In  Psal.  xxxiii.  2.  and  cxliv,  9.  it  is  called  a 
tcn-:iringed  indrument,  but  in  Psal.  xcii.  3.  it  is  distinguish- 
ed from  the  latter.  Josephus^  says,  that  it  had  twelve 
sounds  (or  strings),  and  was  struck  or  played  upon  by  the 
fingers.'' 

Effects  the  most  astonishing  are  attributed  in  the  Scrip- 
tures to  the  Hebrew  music,  of  the  nature  of  which  we  know 
but  very  little.  Several  examples  are  recorded,  in  the  sacred 
history,  of  the  power  and  charms  of  music  to  sweeten  the 
temper,  to  compose  and  allay  the  passions  of  the  mind,  to 
revive  the  drooping  spirits,  and  to  dissipate  melancholy.  It 
had  this  effect  on  Saul,  when  David  played  to  him  on  his 
harp.  (1  Sam.  xvi.  16.  23.)  And  when  Elisha  was  desired 
by  Jehoshaphat  to  tell  him  what  his  success  against  the  king 
of  Moab  would  be,  the  prophet  required  a  minstrel  to  be 
brought  unto  him;  and  when  he  played,  it  is  said  that  the 
Juvnd  of  ike  Lard  came  upon  him  (2  Kings  iii.  15.) ;  not  that 
the  gift  of  prophecy  was  the  natural  effect  of  music,  but  the 
.  meaning  is,  that  music  disposed  the  organs,  the  humours, 
and  in  short  the  whole  mind  and  spirit  of  the  prophet,  to 
receive  these  supernatural  impressions. 

(4.)  Dancing  was  an  ordinary  concomitant  of  music 
among  the  Jews.  Sometimes  it  was  used  on  a  religious 
account:  thus  Miriam  with  her  women  glorified  God  (after 
the  deliverance  from  the  Egyptians),  in  dances  as  well  as 
songs  (Exod.  xv.  20.),  and  David  danced  after  the  ark. 
f  2  Sam.  vi.  16.)  It  was  a  thing  common  at  the  Jewish  feasts 
(Judg.  xxi.  19.  21.)  and  in  public  triumphs  (Judg.  xi.  34), 
and  at  all  seasons  of  mirth  and  rejoicing.  (Psal.  xxx.  11. 
Jer.  xxxi.  4.  13.  Luke  xv.  25.)     The  idolatrous  Jews  made 

»  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  vii.  c.  12. 

»  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  vii.  c.  12.  a  Ibid. 

«  Calmet,  Dissertation  surles  Instrumcns  de  Musique  des  Hebreux,  pre- 
fixed to  his  Commentary  on  the  Psalins.  Jaiin,  Archaologia  Biblica,  §§94 
—96.    Brown's  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  vol.  i.  pp.  315—321. 


it  a  part  of  their  worship  w'hich  they  paid  to  the  golden  calf. 
(Exod.  xxxii.  19.)  The  Amalekites  danced  after  their  vic- 
tory at  Ziklag  (ISam.  xxx.  16,),  and  Job  makes  it  part  of 
the  character  of  the  prosperous  wicked  (that  is,  of  those 
who,  placing  all  their  happiness  in  the  enjoyments  of  sense, 
forget  God  and  religion),  that  their  children  dance.  (Job 
xxi.  11.)  The  dancing  of  the  ])rofligate  Herodias's  daughter 
pleased  Herod  so  highly,  that  he  proiriised  to  give  her  what- 
ever she  asked,  and  accordingly,  at  her  desire,  and  in  compli- 
ment to  her,  he  commanded  John  the  Baptist  to  be  beheaded 
in  prison.  (Matt,  xiv,  6 — 8.)  Most  probably  it  resembled 
the  voluptuous  performances  of  the  dancing  girls  who  still 
exhibit  in  the  East.* 


SECTION  III. 

ON  THE  LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCES  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

I.  Schools. —  On  the  schools  of  the  prophets  in  particular. — II. 
Jippellatio7i  given  to  the  Jeivish  doctors  or  teachers. — III. 
Their  method  of  teaching. — IV.  Studies  of  the  Jews. — 1. 
History. — 2.  Poetry. — 3.  Oratory. — 4.  Ethics. — 5.  I'hysics. 
— 6.  Arithmetic. — 7.  JMathematics. — 8.  Astronomy. — 9.  As- 
trology.— 10.  Surveying. — 11.  JMechanic  Arts. — 12.  Geo- 
graphy. 

1.  Schools  have  ever  been  considered  among  polished 
nations  as  the  chief  support  of  states :  in  them  are  formed 
the  ministers  of  religion,  judges,  and  magistrates,  as  well  as 
the  people  at  large  :  and  there  are  taught  religion,  laws, 
history,  and  all  those  sciences,  the  knowledge  of  which  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  well-being  of  nations,  and 
to  the  comfort  of  private  life.  The  Jewish  writers  pretend 
that  from  the  earliest  ages  there  have  been  schools  ;  and  that, 
before  the  Deluge,  they  were  under  the  direction  of  the  patri- 
archs :  but  these  notions  have  long  since  been  deservedly 
rejected  for  want  of  authority. 

Although  the  Hebrews  confined  their  pursuits  to  agricul- 
ture and  tne  management  of  cattle,  yet  we  have  no  reason  to 
conclude  that  they  were  a  nation  of  ignorant  rustics.  Of  that 
which  most  concerns  inan  to  know, — their  religious  and  moral 
duties, — they  could  not  be  ignorant,  since  the  father  of  every 
family  was  hound  to  teach  the  laws  of  Moses  to  his  children. 
(Deut.  xxxii.  6.  Psal.  Ixxvii.  5.)  We  have,  however,  no 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  any  schools,  strictly  so  called, 
earlier  than  the  time  of  Samuel :  and  as  the  Scriptures  do 
not  mention  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  before  him  who  was 
both  a  judge  and  a  prophet  in  Israel,  we  may  venture  to  as- 
cribe those  schools  to  him.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
almost  total  cessation  of  the  spirit  of  prophecy  under  the 
ministry  of  Eli,  and  the  degeneracy  of  the  priesthood,  first 
occasioned  the  institution  of  these  seminaries,  for  the  better 
education  of  those  who  were  to  succeed  in  the  sacred  minis- 
try. From  1  Sam.  x.  5.  10.  xix.  20.  2  Kings  ii.  5.  and  xxii. 
14. i  it  appears  that  the  schools  of  the  prophets  were  first 
erected  in  the  cities  of  the  Levites;  which  for  the  more  con- 
venient instruction  of  the  peopld"  were  dispersed  through  the 
several  tribes  of  Israel.  In  these  places  'convenient  edifices 
were  built  for  the  abode  of  the  prophets  and  their  disciples, 
who  were  thence  termed  the  Sons  of  the  Fruphets ,-  over  whom 
presided  some  venerable  and  divinely-inspired  prophet,  who 
is  called  their  father.  (2  Kings  ii.  12.)  Samuel  was  one, 
and,  perhaps,  the  first  of  those  fathers  (1  Sam.  xix.  20.),  and 
Elijah  was  another  (2Kings.ii.  12.),  who  was  succeeded  by 
Elisha  in  this  office.  (2  Kings  vi.  1.)  The  sons  of  the  pro- 
phets lived  together  in  a  society  or  community  (2  Kings  iv. 
38.)  ;  they  were  instructed  in  the  knowledge  of  the  law,  and 
of  the  principles  of  their  religion,  as  well  as  in  the  sacred 
art  of  psalmody,  or  (as  it  is  termed  in  1  Sam.  x.  5.  and 
1  Chron.  xxv.  1.  7.)  prophesying  with  harps,  psalteries,  and 
cymbals.  At  the  conclusion  of  their  lectures  and  religious 
exercises,  they  were  accustomed  to  eat  together  with  their 
masters.  Calmet  is  of  opinion  that  these  schools  subsisted 
until  the  Babylonish  captivity :  and  it  should  seem  that  the 
captives  resorted  to  such  establishments,  to  hear  the  prophets, 
when  there  were  any,  in  the  places  where  they  resided. 
Ezekiel  relates  various  conversations  which  he  had  with  the 
elders  of  Israel  who  came  to  consult  him :  the  people  also 
assembled  about  him,  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  heariirg 

5  Carne's  Letters  from  the  East,  p.  165.    Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  p.  431 
Home's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp.  339,  310. 


Sf.( 


IV.] 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCES  OF  THE- JEWS. 


185 


him  and  bnin<r  instructed  by  him  ;  but  they  were  not  very 
carnfiil  to  reduce  his  instructions  to  |)ractice.  (Kzek.  viii.  I. 
xiv.  1.  XX.  I.)  It  is  not  iiii|)rol)al)le  that  from  the  schools  of 
the  prophets  («od  cliose  sucli  persons  as  he  (U^enied  fit  to 
exerciser  tlie  |)roplietic  office,  and  to  make  known  his  will  to 
the  |H!oph\  The  (greater  prophets  employed  these  scholars 
or  youn<r  proplicts  to  carry  pro|)h(tic  messaires.  In  2  Kuu^s 
lia  s(!ut  one  of  tiie  smis  of  the  prophets  to  anoint 


Kli. 


1 

.Ichu  kinjr  of  Israel  :   and  in  1  Killers  xx.  (f).,  the  youii<r  nro- 

t)het,  who  was  sent  tr)  reprove  Ahal)  for  sparinif  lien-lladad, 
cin<^  of  Syria,  is  by  the  ('haldee  paraphrast  calle'd  oiu;  of  the 
sons  or  disciples  of  the  ])rophels.  Hence  Amos  relates  it  as 
an  unusual  circimistance,  that  he  nxtx  no  pm/ihet,  not  one  of 
tliosi^  distinguished  men  who  presided  over  these  seminaries, 
— iifi/Zitrii  jii(i/)/ir/\-..sii/t,  educated  from  hisyoulh  in  the  schools 
of  the  propln  ts  ;  but  that  he  was  iiii  hrnhiiuin  and.  a  f^dllierer 
of  .si/riiiiiiircfniif,  who  i\\t\  not  pursue  the  studies  and  mode  of 
livincr  |)eculiar  to  the  prophets,  when  //ic  Loud  /oak  liJiii  a.s  lie 
wi/s  fii/loirimr  //it/lock,  and  commanded  him  to  go  and  pro- 
|)hesy  unto  his  pef)pl<'  Isracd.  (Amos  vii.  14,  15.)'  To  the 
schools  of  tli(!  pro|)hets  succeeded  tlu^  synairoffues  ;  but  it 
appears  that  in  tlu'  time  of  .lesiis  Christ  eminent  Jewish 
docturs  had  their  se|)arate  schools  ;  as  (Gamaliel,  the  preceptor 
of  St.  Paul,  iind  ])rol)al)ly  also  'J'yranmis. 

II.  Various  Api'ei.i.ations  were  anciently  f^iven  to  learned 
men.  Amonjr  the  Hebrews  they  were  deiioniinr.ted  o'csn 
(n  'K«mim),  as  amon<>-  the  Greeks  they  were  called  a-apu,  that 
is,  wise  men.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  common  ajipcdlative 
for  men  of  that  description  was  -^piu/u-iTwc,  in  the  Hebrew 
-iDiD  (soph'rV  n  fcrilir.  They  were  addressed  by  the  hono- 
rary title  of  Jiiihhi  3->,  '3t  (R'B,  r'/bbi\  that  is,  threat  or  master. 
The  J(!ws,  in  imitation  of  lh<!  GreeKS,  had  their  seven  wise 
men,  who  were  called  /iiilj/iuni,  ]3i.  Gamaliel  was  one  of 
the  number.  They  called  themselves  the  children  of  wis- 
dom ;  expressions  which  correspond  very  nearly  to  the  Greek 
<fiK'.T:.<f'jc.  (Malt.  xi.  1!).  Luke  vii.  35.)  The  heads  of  sects 
were  called /«//;<•/••«  (Matt,  xxiii.  'J.),  and  the  disciples,  B'^1D'7^ 
(t'I.imudim),  were  denominated  sons  or  children.^  The  Jew- 
ish teachers,  at  least  sonie  of  them,  had  private  lecture-rooms, 
but  they  also  tauirht  and  disputed  in  synagog-ues,  in  temples, 
and,  in  fact,  wherever  they  could  find  an  audience.  The 
inrthod  of  these  teachers  was  the  same  with  that  which  pre- 
vailed amontj'  the  (Jreidis.  Any  disci|)le  who  chose  might 
propose  miestions,  upon  which  it  was  tht^  duty  of  the  teachers 
to  remarlv  and  give  their  o|)iiiions.  (Luke  ii.  4G.)  The 
teachers  were  not  invested  with  their  functions  by  any  formal 
act  of  the  cluirch  or  of  the  civil  authority ;  they  were  self- 
constituted.  They  received  no  other  salary  than  some  volun- 
tary present  from  the  disciples,  which  was  called  an  honorary, 
Ti/UH,  HoNORARH'M.  (1  Tim.  v.  17.)  They  accjuired  a  subsist- 
ence in  the  main  hv  the  exercise  of  some  art  or  handicraft. 
According  to  the  Talmudists  tlu^y  were  bound  to  hold  no 
ijonversation  with  women,  and  to  refuse  to  sit  at  table  with 
the  lower  class  of  jieoplo.  (Johniv.  iJ7.  Matt.  ix.  11.)  The 
subjects  on  which  they  taught  were  numerous,  commonly 
intricate,  and  of  no  great  consequence;  of  wliich  tiiere  are 
abundant  examples  in  the  Talmud.^ 

III.  After  the  Jews  became  divided  into  the  two  great 

»  Caliiict,  Dissertation  siu'  les  Ecoles  dos  Ilebreiix,  Dissert,  torn.  i.  pp. 
372— 376..  and  Dictionary,  voce  Sl-IiooIs.  Stilliiifjlleet's  Orisines  Sacrae.  pp. 
9-»— 101.  Siti  ediiion,  Hasnaat-'s  Hisl.  of  the  .lews,  pp.  410,  411.  VVjisii  Mis- 
cellanea  Sacra,  lib.  i.  c.  10.  §  10.  p.  7?.  Bp.  Story's  Essay  concerning  the 
Nature  of  the  Piieslhood,  pp.  39—42. 

'  "It  was  anciently  the  ciisloiii  of  preceptors  to  address  their  pupils  by 
the  title  ot'soiis :  thus,  the  disciples  of  the  piopliels  are  called  tlie  sons  of 
the  pruphelx.  (1  Kinis  xx.  35.  2  Kings  ii.  3.  iv.  38  )  St.  Paul  styles  Tinio:hy 
hiijAbn.  (ITiui.  i.  2.  2Tiru.  i.  2.)  St.  .lohn  styles  those,  to  whom  his  first 
epistle  was  sent,  his  children  (ii.  1  v.  21.) ;  and  thus  the  royal  sage  (Prov. 
i.  8.)  addres.ses  his  young  hearers,  exlioniu';  them  not  to  contemn  tlie 
advice  and  admoiutinn  of  their  parents  ;  because  obeilience  to  parents  is  a 
duty,  scrciiiil  only  in  importance  to  obedience  to  GoU."  Ilolden's  Transla- 
tion of  Proverbs,  p.  SS. 

'  A  Si'rt  of  academical  degree  was  conferred  on  the  pupils  in  the  .Jewish 
seminaries,  which,  after  the  destruction  of  .lerusalem,  were  established 
at  Habvlon  and  Tiberias,  and  of  which  Itasnaue  has  given  a  copious  account 
in  his  History  of  the  Jews,  book  v.  c.  5.  pp.  410—414.  (London,  170>S.  lolio.) 
The  circumstances  allending  the  conferring  of  this  degree  are  described 
by  M:iiuionides  (.ladchazaka,  lib.  vi.  4  )  as  follows: — 1.  The  candidate  for 
the  degree  was  e.xamined.  both  in  respect  to  his  moral  character  and  his 
literary  accpiisilions.  2.  Having  imdergone  this  examination  with  approba 
tion,  the  disciple  then  ascended  an  elevated  seat.  Malt,  xxiii.  2.  3,  A  writ- 
ing tablet  \\^s  presented  to  him,  io  signily,  that  he  shuuUI  write  down  his 
•acquisitions,  since  they  might  escape  from  hi.s  memory,  and,  without  being 
written  down,  be  lost.  4.  A  kev  was  presented,  to  signify  that  he  might 
now  open  to  others  the  treasures  of  knowledge.  (Luke  xi.  52.)  5.  HaiTds 
were  laid  upon  hint ;  a  custom  derived  from  Num.  x.xvii.  IS.  6.  A  certain 
power  or  authority  was  conferred  upon  him.  probably  to  be  exercised 
over  Ins  own  disciples.  7.  Finally,  he  was  .saluted  in  the  school  of  Tibe. 
rias,  with  the  title  of  Kabhi,  a-|,  in  the  school  of  Babylon,  wiih  that  of 
Maslei;  -,n  (Jahn's  Archaologia  Biblica,  by  Mr  Uoliaui.  105.) 
OL.  11.  A  2 


sects  of  Sadducees  and  Pharisees,  each  sect  had  its  separate 
school.  The  Mkthod  of  TKArni.\u  in  these  schools  may  be 
easily  collected  from  tlie  Gospels  ai'd  Acts.  The  Doctors  ox 
Teaclicrs  generally  sat.  Thus  our  1  .ord  sat  down  previously  to 
delivering  his  sermon  on  the  mount  (.Matt.  v.  1.);  as  Gama- 
liel also  did  in  his  school.  (Acts  xxii.  3.)  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, the  Jewish  teachers,  like  the  Greek  philosophers,  were 
accustomed  to  have  their  disciples  around  them,  wherever 
they  went,  and  to  discourse,  as  occasion  arose,  on  things 
either  human  or  divine.  In  this  way  our  Lord  delivered 
some  of  his  most  interesting  instructions  to  his  apostles. 
Allusions  to  this  practice  occur  in  Matt.  iv.  20.  x.  38.  xvi. 
24.  Mark  i.  18.  xvi.  24.  The  I'ujnls  generally  sat  below 
their  preceptors.  St.  Paul  tells  the  Jews  that  he  sat  or 
studied  at  the  feet  of  (Jamaliel.  (Acts  xxii.  3.)  Philo  relates 
that  the  children  of  tin;  I'jssenes  sat  at  the  feet  of  their  mas- 
tt'rs,  who  interpreted  tlie  law,  and  explained  its  figurative 
sense,  after  the  manner  of  the  ancient  philosophers.  The 
author  of  the  commentary  on  the  first  I'^pistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, published  under  the  name  of  St.  Ambrose,  says,  on 
ch.  xiv.,  that  the  Jewish  rabbins  sat  on  elevated  chairs ;  while 
scholars  who  had  made-  the  greatest  ])rf)ficiency  sat  on  benclies 
just  below  them,  and  the  junior  pupils  sat  on  the  ground  on 
hassocks.  Hut  in  the  Talmud,^  it  is  stated  that  the  masters 
sat  down  while  the  scholars  stood.* 

IV.  The  Jews  did  not  become  distinguished  for  their  intel- 
lectual acquirements  before  the  time  of  David,  anil  especially 
of  Solomon,  who  is  said  to  have  surpassed  all  others  in  wis- 
dom; a  circumstance  w^hich  was  the  ground  of  the  many 
visits  which  were  paid  to  him  by  distinguished  foreigners. 
(1  Kings  V.  9 — 12.)  His  example,  which  was  truly  an  illus- 
trious one,  was,  be3'ond  question,  imitated  by  other  kings. 
The  literature  of  the  Hebrews  was  limited  chiefly  to  religion, 
the  history  of  their  nation,  poetry,  philosophy,  ethics,  and 
natural  history ;  on  which  last  suhject  Solomon  wrote  many 
treatises,  no  longer  extant.     The  Hebrews  made  but  little 

Erogress  in  science  and  literature  after  the  time  of  Solomon. 
•  uring  their  captivity,  it  is  true,  they  acquired  many  foreign 
notions,  with  wliich  they  had  not  been  previously  acquainted : 
and  they,  subsequently,  borrowed  much,  both  of  truth  and 
of  falsehood,  from  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks.  The  author 
of  the  book  of  Wisdom,  with  some  others  of  the  Jewish 
writers,  has  made  pretty  good  use  of  the  Greek  philosophy. 
It  is  clear,  notwithstanding  this,  that  the  Jews  after  the  cap- 
tivity fell  below  their  ancestors  in  respect  to  Hi  Inry  ,■  as  the 
published  annals  of  that  period  are  not  of  a  kindred  character 
with  those  of  the  primitive  ages  of  their  country. 

1.  That  the  art  of  Historical  Writing  was  anciently 
much  cultivated  in  the  East,  the  Bible  itself  is  an  ample  tes- 
timony ;  for  it  not  only  relates  the  prominent  events,  from  the 
creation  down  to  the  fifth  century  before  Christ,  but  speaks 
of  many  historical  books,  which  have  now  perished ;  and 
alsoof  many  monuments  erected  in  commemoration  of  remark- 
able achievements,  and  furnished  with  appropriate  inscrip- 
tions. The  Babylonians,  also,  the  Assyrians,  the  Persians, 
and  Tyrians,  had  their  historical  annals.  Among  the  Egj'p- 
tians  there  was  a  separate  order,  viz.  the  priests,  one  part  of 
whose  duty  it  was  to  write  the  history  of  their  country.  In 
the  primitive  ages  the  task  of  composing  annals  fell  in  most 
nations  upon  the  priests,  but  at  a  later  period  the  king  had 
his  own  secretaries,  whose  special  business  it  was  to  record 
the  royal  sayings  and  achievements.  Tlie  prophets  among 
the  Hebrews  recorded  the  events  of  their  own  times,  and,  in 
the  earliest  periods,  the  genealogists  interwove  many  histo- 
rical events  with  their  accounts  of  the  succession  of  families. 
Indeed,  it  should  not  be  forgotten,  that  ancient  history  gene- 
rally partakes  more  of  a  genealogical  than  a  chronological 
character.  Hence  the  Hebrew  phrase  for  genealogies  nn'yin 
(toldoth)  is  used  also  for  history  (Gen.  vi.  9.  x.  1.);  and 
hence  no  epoch  more  ancient  than  that  of  Nabonnassar  is 
any  where  found.  In  the  Bible,  however,  this  defect,  in  re- 
gard to  a  regular  chronological  system,  is  in  a  manner  com- 
pensated by  the  insertion  in  various  places  of  definite  periods 
of  time,  ancl  by  chronological  genealogies.  In  giving  a  con- 
cise account  of  the  gei^ealcgy  of  a  person,  the  Hebrews,  as 
well  as  the  Arabs,  took  the  liberty  to  omit,  according  to  their 
own  pleasure,  one  or  more  generations.  fRuth  iv.  18 — 22. 
p]zra  vii.  1 — 5.  Matt.  i.  8.)  It  was  consiaered  so  much  of 
an  honour  to  have  a  name  and  a  place  in  these  family  annals, 
tliat  the  Hebrews,  from  their  first  existence  as  a  nation,  had 
public  genealogists,  denominated  D'-oiip,  nois'  (shotcr,  sho- 

TtRlM). 


«  Tit.  MegiUah. 


»  Caluiet,  Dissertations,  torn.  i.  pp.  377,  378. 


186 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IV.  Chap.  Vll. 


Not  only  the  Hebrews,  but,  if  we  may  credit  Herodotus 
and  Diodorus  Siculus,  the  Egyptians  also  assigned  a  certain 
period  to  a  generation.  According  to  tlieir  estimation,  three 
generations  made  an  hundred  years.  In  the  time  of  Abraham, 
However,  when  men  lived  to  a  greater  age,  an  hundred  years 
made  a  generation.  Tliis  is  clear  from  Gen.  xv.  13.  16.,  and 
from  the  circumstance,  that  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  dwelt 
two  hundred  and  fifteen  years  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  yet 
there  were  only  two  generations. 

The  study  of  history  among  the  Jews  was  chiefly  confined 
to  the  affairs  of  their  own  nation.  Much  information,  how- 
ever, may  be  obtained  from  their  historical  and  other  writings, 
for  the  better  understanding  the  stuti'S  of  other  foreign  nations 
with  which  they  became  very  closely  connected  :  and  the 
most  ancient  historical  documents  of  the  Hebrews  throw  more 
light  upon  the  origin  of  nations,  and  the  invention  and  pro- 
gress of  the  arts,  than  any  other  writings  that  are  extant. 

2.  Poetry  had  its  origin  in  the  first  ages  of  the  world, 
when  undisciplined  feelings  and  a  lively  miagination  natu- 
rally supplied  strong  expressions,  gave  an  expressive  modu- 
lation to  the  voice,  and  motion  to  the  limbs.  Hence  poetry, 
music,  and  dancing,  were  in  all  probability  contemporaneous 
in  their  origin.  As  the  nature  and  genius  of  the  poetry  of 
the  Hebrews  has  already  been  discussed  at  some  length  in 
the  first  volume  of  this  work,  it  is  sufilcient  here  to  remark, 
that  the  effusions  of  the  inspired  Hebrew  muse  infinitely  sur- 
pass in  grandeur,  sublimity,  beauty,  and  pathos,  all  the  most 
celebrated  productions  of  Greece  and  Home.  Not  to  repeat 
unnecessarily  the  observations  already  offered  on  this  topic, 
we  may  here  briefly  remark,  that  the  eucharistic  song  of 
Moses,  composed  on  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  and 
their  miraculous  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  (Exod.  xv.  1 — 10.), 
is  an  admirable  hymn,  full  of  strong  and  lively  images.  The 
song  of  Deborah  and  Barak  (Judg.  v.),  and  that  of  Hannah 
the  mother  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  ii.  1.),  have  many  excellent 
flights,  and  some  noble  and  sublime  raptures.  David's 
lamentation  on  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (2  Sam.  i.  19.) 
is  an  incomparable  elegy.  The  gratulatory  hymn  (Isa.  xii.) 
and  Hezekiah's  song  of  praise  (Isa.  xxviii.)  are  worthy  of 
every  one's  attention.  The  prayer  of  Habakkuk  (iii.)  con- 
tains a  sublime  description  of  the  divine  majesty.  Besides 
these  single  hymns,  we  have  the  book  of  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  and  Lamentations;  all  of  which  are 
composed  by  different  poets,  according  to  the  usage  of  those 
times.  The  Psalms  are  a  great  storehouse  of  heavenly  devo- 
tion, full  of  affecting  and  sublime  thoughts,  and  with  s 
variety  of  expressions,  admirably  calculated  to  excite  a  thank- 
ful remembrance  of  God's  mercies,  and  for  moving  the  pas- 
sions of  joy  and  grief,  indignation  and  hatred.  They  consist 
mostly  of  pious  and  affectionate  prayers,  holy  med.itations, 
and  exalteu  strains  of  praise  and  thanksgiving.  The  allusions 
are  beautiful,  the  expressions  tender  and  moving,  and  the 
piety  of  the  authors  is  singularly  remarkable.  The  Proverbs 
of  Solomon  are  a  divine  collection  of  many  admirable  sen- 
tences of  morality,  wonderfully  adapted  to  instruct  us  in  our 
duty  to  God  and  man.  The  book  of  Ecclesiastes  teaches 
us,  in  a  very  lively  manner,  the  insufficiency  of  all  earthly 
enjoyments  to  make  a  man  happy.  The  Canticles  or  Song 
of  Solomon,  under  the  parable  of  a  man's  affection  to  his 
spouse,  in  very  tender  yet  elegant  expressions,  shows  us  the 
ardent  love  of  Christ  to  his  church  and  people;  and  the  La- 
mentations of  Jeremiah  contain  a  very  mournful  account  of 
the  state  of  Jerusalem,  as  destroyed  by  the  Chaldreans. 

3.  Oratory  does  not  appear  to  have  been  cultivated  by 
the  Hebrews  ;  although  the  sacred  writers,  following  the 
impulse  of  their  genius,  have  left  such  specimens  in  their 
writings,  as  the  most  distinguished  orators  might  imitate 
with  advantage.  Want  of  eloquence  was  objected  as  a 
defect  affainst  the  a])ostle  Paul  (1  (Jor.  i.  17.),  who,  not- 
withstanding, possessed  a  highlj  cultivated  mind,  and  was 
by  no  means  deficient  in  strong  natural  eloquence. 

4.  Traces  of  Ethics,  that  is,  of  the  system  of  prevailing 
moral  opinions,  may  be  found  in  the  book  of  Job,  in  the 
37th,  39th,  and  G3d  Psalms,  also  in  the  books  of  Proverbs 
and  Ecclesiastes,  but  chiefly  in  the  apocryphal  book  of 
Wisdom,  and  the  writings  of  the  son  of  Sirach.  During 
the  captivity,  the  Jews  acquired  many  new  notions,  and 
appropriated  them,  as  occasion  offered,  to  their  own  pur- 
poses. They  at  length  became  acquainted  with  the  philoso- 
phy of  the  Greeks,  which  makes  its  appearance  abundantly 
in  the  book  of  Wisdom.  After  the  captivity,  the  language 
in  which  the  sacred  books  were  written  was  no  longer 
vernacular.  Hence  arose  the  need  of  an  interpreter  on  the 
sabbatic  year,  a  time  when  the  whole   law  was  read ;  and 


also  on  the  sabbath  in  the  synagogues,  which  had  been 
recently  erected,  in  order  to  make  the  people  understand 
what  was  read.  These  interpreters  learnt  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage at  the  schools.  The  teachers  of  these  schools,  who, 
for  the  two  generations  preceding  the  time  of  Christ,  had 
maintained  some  acquaintance  with  the  (ireek  philosophy, 
were  not  satisfied  with  a  simple  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew 
idiom,  as  it  stood,  but  shaped  the  interpretation  so  as  to 
render  it  conformable  to  their  philosophy.  Thus  arose  con- 
tentions, which  gave  occasion  for  the  various  sects  of  Phari- 
sees, Sadducees,  and  Essenes.  In  the  time  of  our  Saviour, 
divisions  had  arisen  among  the  Pharisees  themselves.  No 
less  than  eighteen  nice  questions,  if  we  may  believe  the 
Jewish  Rabbins,  were  contested,  at  that  period,  between  the 
schools  of  Hillel  and  Shammai.  One  of  which  questions 
was  an  inquiry,  "What  cause  was  sufficient  for  a  bill  of 
divorce  1"  If  the  Shammai  and  Hillel  of  the  Talmud  are 
the  same  with  the  learned  men  mentioned  in  Josephus,  viz, 
Sameas  and  Pollio,  who  flourished  thirty-four  years  before 
Christ,  then  Shammai  or  Sameas  is  undoubtedly  the  same 
with  the  Simeon  who  is  mentioned  in  Luke  ii.  25.  34.,  and 
his  son  Gamaliel,  so  celebrated  in  the  Talmud,  is  the  same 
with  the  Gamaliel  mentioned  in  Acts  v.  34.  xxii.  3. 

5.  Physics,  or  Natural  Philosophy,  has  secured  but 
little  attention  in  the  East;  but  a  knowledge  of  the  animal, 
vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms,  or  the  science  of  Natural 
History,  was  always  much  more  an  object  of  interest. 
Whatever  knowledge  of  this  science  the  Hebrews  subse- 
quently had,  they  most  probably  derived  partly  from  the 
Canaanitish  merchants,  partly  from  the  Egyptians,  and  other 
nations  with  whom  they  had  intercourse.  The  book  of  Job 
evinces  that  its  author  possessed  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  works  of  nature.  The  agricultural  and  pastoral  habits 
of  the  Hebrews  were  favourable  to  the  acquisition  of  this 
science  ;  and  how  much  they  loved  it  will  be  evident  to  any 
one  who  peruses  the  productions  of  the  sacred  poets,  espe- 
cially those  of  David.  But  no  one  among  the  Hebrews 
could  ever  be  compared  to  King  Solomon ;  ivho  spake  of 
trees^from  the  cedar  that  is  in  Lebanon,  even  to  the  hysfop  that 
springeth  out  of  the  wall,  and  also  of  bensfs  and  of  fowl,  and  of 
creeping  things  and  (f  fishes.  (I  Kings  iv.  33.)  The  nu- 
merous images  which  our  Saviour  derived  from  the  works  of 
nature,  attest  how  deeply  he  had  contemplated  them. 

6.  Arithmetic. — The  more  simple  methods  of  arithmetical 
calculation  are  spoken  of  in  the  Pentateuch,  as  if  they  were 
well  known.  The  merchants  of  that  early  period  must,  for 
their  own  convenience,  have  been  possessed  of  some  metliod 
of  operating  by  numbers. 

7.  Mathematics. — By  this  term  we  understand  Geometry, 
Mensuration,  Naviqation,  &c.  As  far  as  a  knowledge  of 
them  was  absolutely  required  by  the  condition  and  employ- 
ments of  the  people,  we  may  well  suppose  that  knowledge 
to  have  actually  existed  ;  although  no  express  mention  is 
made  of  these  sciences. 

8.  Astronomy. — The  interests  of  agriculture* and  naviga- 
tion required  some  knowledge  of  astronomy..  An  evidence 
that  an  attempt  was  made  at  a  very  early  period  to  regulate 
the  year  by  the  annual  revolution  of  the  sun,  may  be  found 
in  the  fact,  that  the  Jewish  mouths  were  divided  into  thirty 
days  each.  (See  Gen.  vii.  11.  viii.  4.)  In  Astronomy,  the 
Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  Phcenicians  exhibited  great 
superiority.  We  are  informed  there  were  magicians  or  en- 
chanters in  Egypt  (Exod.  vii.  11.  Lev.  xx.  27.  xix.  31. 
Deut.  xviii.  20.),  denominated  in  Hebrew  d'd^'sd,  because 
they  computed  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  pretended 
to  the  people,  that  they  produced  them  by  the  eflicacy  of 
their  own  enchantments.  Astronomy  does  noc  appear  to 
have  been  nmch  cultivated  by  the  Hebrews :  the  laws  of 
Moses,  indeed,  by  no  means  favoured  this  science,  as  the 
neiglAouring  heathen  nations  worshipped  the  host  of  heaven  ; 
hence  the  sacred  writers  rarely  mention  any  of  the  constella- 
tions by  name.  See  Job  ix.  9.  xxxviii.  31,  32.  Isa.  xiii. 
10.  Amos  V.  8.  2  Kings  xxiii.  5. 

9.  Astrology. — It  is  by  no  means  surprising  that  the 
Hebrews  did  not  devote  greater  attention  to  astronomy,  since 
the  study  of  astrologij,  which  was  intimately  connected  with 
that  of  astronomy,  and  was  very  highly  estimated  among 
the  neighbouring  nations  (Isa.  xlvii.  9.  Jer.  xxvii.  9.  1.  35. 
Dan.  ii.  13.  48.),  was  interdicted  to  the  Hebrews.  (Deut. 
xviii.  10.  Lev.  XX.  27.)  Daniel,  indeed,  studied  the  art  of 
astrology  at  Babylon,  but  he  did  not  practise  it.  (Dan.  i: 
20.  ii.  2.)  The  astrologers  (and  those  wise  men  mentioned- 
in  Matt.  ii.  1.  et  seq.  appear  to  have  been  such)  divided  the 
heavens  into  apartments  or  habitations,  to  each  one  of  which 


Sect.  IV.] 


COMMERCE  AND  NAVIGATION  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 


IQH 


apartments  they  assigned  a  niler  or  ])resi(lcnt.  This  fact 
developes  tlie  firiirjii  of"  tlie  word  /2f>fC'.uA,  '?>3t  Sja,  or  the 
Litrd  nf  tht  («■/.>//"/■)  du'dinir.  (Malt.  X.  -^5.  xii.  21.  27. 
Mark  lii.  22.  Luke  xi.  15—19.) 

10.  Measures  of  length  are  mentioned  in  fien.  vi.  15,  Ifi. 
A  knowledge  of  the  method  of  measuring  lands  is  implied 
in  th(;  account  given  in  (Jen.  xlvii.  20 — 27.  Mtiution  is  niad(;, 
in  tlie  l)oiiks  (jf  .loh  and  Josiuia,  of  a  line  or  r<'|)e  for  tho  |Hir- 
pose  of  t;il<ing  measurciiKMits,  >,->,  'jjn.  It  was  hrou'j;lit  hy 
the  llihrews  out  of  K;!}'))!,  where,  according  to  the  unani- 
mous testimony  of  anvic|iiily,  Si'kvkyino  first  had  its  origin, 
and,  in  consequence  of  tiie  inundations  of  liie  Nile,  was  car- 
ried to  the  greatest  height.  It  was  here,  as  W(!  nriy  well 
conclude,  that  t!ie  lle[)rews  accjuired  so  much  knowhdge 
of  the  principles  of  liiat  science,  as  to  enahle  them,  witli  the 
aid  of  tlie  measnrini>-  line  above  mentioned,  to  ])arlilion  and 
set  olf  geographically  the  wlnde  land  of  ('anaan.  Tlie 
weights  used  in  weighing  solid  bodies  (CJen.  xxiii.  15,  10.), 

1)rovid(d  tlu'V  were  similar  to  each  other  in  form,  imply  a 
cnowhdge  of  the  rudiments  of  stereometry. 

11.  The  Miociiamc  Arts. — No  express  mention  is  made 
of  the  mechanics  arts;  but  that  a  knowledge  of  them,  not- 
wittistnndiiig,  existed,  may  l)e  inferred  fVom  the  erection  of 
Noah's  ark,  and  the  lower  of  Bai)el ;  from  the  use  of  balances 
in  tlie  time  of  Abraliam  ;  also  from  what  is  said  <jf  the  Egyp- 
tian chariots,  in  (ien.  xii.  13.  xlv.  19.  1.  9.  and  Exo<l.  xiv. 
(),  7. ;  and  from  the  instruments  used  by  the  Egyptians  in 
irrigating  tin  ir  lands.  (Ueut.  xi.  10.)  It  is  implied  in  the 
mention  of  these,  and  suhsequiMitly  if  many  other  instru- 
ments, that  other  instruments  still,  not  expressly  named,  but 
which  were,  of  course,  necessary  for  the  formation  of  those 
which  are  named,  were  in  existence. 

12.  Gecgraphy. — Ceognphical  notices  occur  so  frequently 
in  the  Bil)le,  that  it  is  net  necessary  to  say  much  on  this 
point;  but  see  Gen.  x.  1 — 30.  xii.  4 — 15.  xiv.  1 — 10.  xxviii. 
2—9.  xlix.  13,  &c.  Perhaps,  however,  it  deserves  to  be 
repeated,  that  in  the  time  ot  Joshua,  the  whole  of  Palestine 
was  subjected  to  a  geographical  division,  (.losli.  xviii.  9.) 
It  is  evident,  then,  from  their  geographical  knowledge,  as 
well  as  from  other  circumstances  already  mentioned,  that 
there  must  have  existed  among  the  Hebrews  the  rudiments, 
if  nothing  more,  of  geographical  science. 


SECTION  IV. 

ON   THE    COMMERCE    AND   NAVIGATION    OF   THE    HEBREWS. 

I.  Commerce  of  the  ^lidianites,  Effyptiatitjavd  P/icciiician^. — 
II.  JSTode  of  iriiiisporling-  snoods. — III.  Commerce  of  the 
Jlehrew.i,  fnirticularly  under  Solomon  and  his  successors. — 
IV.  A'otice  of  ancient  shipping. — V.  J[Ij7iey,  weights,  and 
measures. 

I.  The  Scriptures  do  not  afford  us  any  example  of  trade, 
more  ancient  tlian  those  caravans  of  Ishmaelites  and  Midian- 
ites,  to  whom  .loseph  was  perfidiously  sold  by  his  brethren. 
These  men  were  on  their  return  from  Gilead,  with  their 
camels  laden  with  spices,  and  other  rich  articles  of  merchan- 
dise, which  they  were  carrying  into  Egypt;  where,  doubt- 
less, they  prod\iC(d  a  great  return,  from  the  quantities  con- 
sumed in  tliat  country  tor  embalming  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 
From  their  purchasing  .Toseph,  and  selling  him  to  Potiphar, 
it  is  evident  that  their  traflic  was  not  confined  to  the  commo- 
dities furnished  by  (Jilead.  But  the  most  distinguished 
merchants  of  ancient  times  were  the  Phoenicians,  who  bought 
the  choicest  productions  of  the  East,  which  they  exportedto 
Africa  and  Europe,  whence  they  took  in  return  silver  and 
other  articles  of  merchandise,  which  they  again  circulated 
in  the  East.  Their  first  metropolis  was  Sidon,  and  after- 
wards Tyre,  founded  abf)ut  250  years  before  the  building  of 
Solomons  temple,  or  1251  before  the  Christian  era;  and 
wherever  they  went,  they  appear  to  have  established  peace- 
ful commercial  settlements,  mutually  beneficial  to  themselves 
and  to  the  natives  of  the  country  visited  by  them.  The  com- 
merce of  Tyre  is  particularly  described  in  Isa.  xxiii.  and 
Ezek.  xx,vii.  xxviii, 

II.  The  commerce  of  the  East  appears  to  have  been  chiefly 
carried  on  by  land  :  hence  ships  are  but  rarely  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament  before  the  times  of  David  and  Solomon. 
There  were  two  principal  routes  from  Palestine  to  Egypt; 

«  Jahn's  Arch.ieologia  Biblica,  by  Upham,  §§  98—100.  104.  106.,  Pareau, 
Antiqnitas  Hebraica,  pp.  432—438. 


viz.  one  along  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  from 
Ciaza  to  Pelusium,  which  was  about  thn^e  days' journey ; 
and  the  other  IVorn  Gaza  to  the  Elaniiic  branch"  of  the  Ara- 
bian Gulf,  which  now  passes  near  Mount  .Sinai,  and  requires 
nearly  a  month  to  complete  it.  Although  chariots  were  not 
unknown  to  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  East,  yet  they 
chiefly  transported  their  mercliandise  across  the  clesert  on 
camels,  a  hardy  race  of  animals,  admirably  adapted  by  nature 
for  this  purpose:  and  lest  they  should  be  |;lun(lered  by  rob- 
b(?rs,  the  merchants  usrd^o  travel  in  I'irge  bodies  (as  they 
now  do),  which  are  called  caruvaim  ,•  or  in  smaller  compa- 
nies termed  hafdis  or  kajlds.  (Job  vi,  18,  19,  Gen.  xxxvii. 
25.  Isa.  xxi,  13.) 

III.  Ailhoiigh  the  land  of  Canaan  was,  from  its  abundant 
produce,  admirably  adapted  to  commerce,  yet  Moses  cnr.ctrd 
no  laws  in  favour  of  trade;  b.^cause  the  Hebrews,  being 
specially  set  apart  for  the  preservation  of  true  religion,  could 
not  !)(;  dispersed  among  idolatrous  nations  without  bring  in 
danger  oi  becoming  contaminated  with  their  abominable 
worship.  Wv  therefore  only  inculcated  the  strictest  justice 
in  weights  and  measures  (Lev.  xix.  3d,  37.  Deut.  xxv.  13, 
II.);  and  left  the  rrst  to  future  ages  ai,d  governors.  It  is 
obvious,  how  ever,  that  the  three  great  festivals  of  the  J(  ws, 
who  were  bound  to  present  themselves  bfifore  Jehovah  thrice 
in  the  year,  would  give  occasion  for  much  domestic  traffic, 
which  the  individuals  of  the  twelve  tribes  would  carry  on 
with  each  otl'.er  either  for  money  or  produce.  From  Judg. 
V.  17.  it  should  seem  that  the  tribes  of  Dan  and  Asher  had 
some  commercial  dealings  with  the  neighbouring  maritime 
nations;  1  ut  the  earliest  dind  notice  contidned  in  the  Scrij>- 
tures  of  the  commerce  of  the  Hebrews  does  not  occur  before 
the  reign  of  D.ivid.  This  wise  and  valiant  prince,  by  many 
victories,  not  only  enlarged  the  bound;iries  of  his  empire, 
but  also  subdued  the  kingdom  of  Edom  (which  he  reduced 
into  a  province),  and  made  himself  master  of  the  two  ports 
of  Elath  and  Ezion-geber  on  the  Red  Sea.  Part  ot  the 
wealth  acquired  by  his  conquests  heeniployfd  in  purchasing 
cedar-timber  from  Hiram  1.  king  of  Tyre,  with  whr m  he 
maintained  a  friendly  correspondence  as  long  as  he  lived; 
and  he  also  hired  Tyrian  masons  and  cnrpenters  frr  carrying 
on  his  works.2  This  prince  collected,  for  the  building  of  the 
temple,  upwards  of  eight  hundred  millions  of  our  money, 
according  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot's  calculations.^  On  the  death 
of  David.  Solomon  his  successor  cultivated  the  arts  of  peace, 
and  was  thereby  enabled  to  indulge  his  taste  for  magnihcence 
and  luxury,  more  than  his  father  could  possibly  do.  Being 
blest  with  a  larger  share  of  wisdom  than  ever  before  fell  to 
the  lot  of  any  man,  he  directed  his  talents  fer  business  to  the 
improvement  of  foreign  commerce,  which  had  not  been  ex- 
pressly iirohibiled  by  Moses.  He  employed  the  vast  wealth 
amaSsecl  by  his  father  in  works  of  architecture,  and  in  strength- 
ening and  beautifying  his  kingdom.  The  celebrated  teniple 
at  Jerusalem,  the  fortifications  of  that  capital,  and  many  en- 
tire cities  (among  which  was  the  famous  Tadmor  or  Palmy- 
ra), were  built  by  him.  Finding  his  own  subjects  but  little 
qualified  for  such  undertakings,  he  aj^plif  d  to  Hiram  II.  king 
of  Tyre,  the  son  of  his  father's  friend  Hiram,  who  furnished 
him  with  cedar  and  fir  (or  cypress)  timber,  and  large  stones, 
all  properly  cut  and  prepared  lor  building;  which  the  Tyrians 
carried  by  water  to  the  most  convenient  landing-place  in 
Solomon's  dominions,  Hiram  II.  also  sent  a  great  number 
of  workmen  to  assist  and  instnict  Solomon's  people,  none 
of  whom  had  skill  to  hew  timber  like  unto  the  Sic^mians  (I 
Kings  V.  5,  6.),  as  the  Israelites  then  called  the  Tyrians, 
from  their  having  lieen  originally  a  colony  from  Sidon. 
Solomon,  in  return,  furnished  the  Tyrians  with  corn,  wine, 
and  oil;  and  he  even  received  a  balance  in  gold.  (1  Kings 
V.  9 — 11.  2  Chron.  ii.  10.)  It  is  not  improbable,  however, 
that  the  gold  was  the  stipulated  price  for  Solomon's  cession 
of  twenty  towns  to  the  Tyrians;  which  Hiram,  not  liking 
them,  afterwards  returned  to  him.     (1  Kings  ix.  12,  13.^ 

The  great  intercourse  of  trade  and  friendship,  which  Solo- 
mon had  with  the  first  ccmmerci'.d  people  in  the  western 
world,  inspired  him  with  a  strong  desire  to  participate  in  the 
advantages  of  trade.  His  father's  conquests,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  had  extended  his  territories  to  the  Red  Sea  or 
the  Arabian  Gulf,  and  had  given  him  the  possession  of  a  good 
harbour,  whence  ships  might  be  despatched  to  the  rich  coun- 
tries of  the  south  emd  east.     But,  liis  own  subjects  being 

^  Enpolemiis,  an  ancient  writer  quoted  by  Eusebius  (De  Pra?p.  Evang. 
lib.  ix),  says  that  David  buill  ships  in  Arabia,  in  which  he  sent  men  sliilled 
in  mines  and  metals  to  the  island  of  Ophir.  Some  modern  authors, 
improving  npon  this  rather  suspicious  authority,  have  ascribed  to  David 
the  honour  of  being  the  founder  of  the  great  East  Indian  commerce. 

»  Tables  of  Ancient  Coins,  pp.  35.  20S. 


188 


COMMERCE  AND  NAVIGATION  Or  THE  HEBREWS 


[Paht  IV 


totally  ignorant  of  the  arts  of  building  and  navigating  vessels, 
he  again^had  recourse  to  the  assistance  of  Hiram.  The  king 
of  Tyre,  who  vv^as  desirous  of  an  opening  to  the  oriental  com- 
merce, the  articles  of  which  his  subiects  were  obliged  to 
receive  at  second  hand  from  the  Arabians,  entered  readily 
into  the  views  of  the  Hebrew  monarch.  Accordingly,  Tyrian 
carpenters  were  sent  to  build  vessels  for  both  kings  at  Ezion- 
geber,  Solomon's  port  on  the  Red  Sea;  whither  Solomon 
himself  also  went  to  animate  the  workmen  by  his  presence. 

Solomon's  ships,  conducted  by  Tyrian  navigators,  sailed 
in  company  with  those  of  Hiram  to  some  rich  countries, 
called  Ophir  (most  probably  Sofala  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa),  and  Tarshish,  a  place  supposed  to  be  somewhere  on 
the  same  coast.'  The  voyage  required  three  years  to  acconi- 
plish  it ;  yet,  notwithstanding  the  length  of  time  employed  in 
It,  the  returns  in  this  new  channel  of  trade  were  prodigiously 
great  and  profitable,  consisting  of  gold,  silver,  precious  stones, 
valuable  woods,  and  some  exotic  animals,  as  apes  and  pea- 
cocks. We  have  no  information  concerning  the  articles  ex- 
ported in  this  trade  :  but,  in  all  probability,  the  manufactures 
of  the  Tyrians,  together  with  the  commodities  imported  by 
them  from  other  countries,  were  assorted  with  the  corn,  wine, 
and  oil  of  Solomon's  dominions  in  making  up  the  cargoes  ; 
and  his  ships,  like  the  late  Spanish  galleons,  imported  the 
bullion,  partly  for  the  benefit  of  his  industrious  and  commer- 
cial neighbours.  (1  Kings  vii. — x.  2  Chron.  ii.  viii.  ix.) 
Solomon  also  established  a  commercial  correspondence  with 
Egypt;  whence  he  imported  horses,  chariots,  and  fine  linen- 
yam  :  the  chariots  cost  six  hundred,  and  the  horses  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty,  shekels  of  silver  each.  (1  Kings  x.  28,  29. 
2  Chron.  i.  IG,  17.) 

After  the  division  of  the  kingdom,  Edom  being  in  that  por- 
tion which  remained  to  the  house  of  David,  the  Jews  appear 
to  have  earned  on  the  oriental  trade  from  the  two  ports  of 
Elatli  and  Ezion-geber,  especially  the  latter,  until  the  time 
of  Jehoshaphat,  whose  fleet  was  wrecked  there  (1  Kings 
xxii.  48.  2  Chron.  xx.  36,  37.)  During  the  reign  of  Jeho- 
ram,  the  wicked  successor  ot  Jehoshaphat,  the  Edomites 
shook  off  the  yoke  of  the  Jewish  sovereigns,  and  recovered 
their  ports.  From  this  time  the  Jewish  traffic,  through  the 
Red  Sea,  ceased  till  the  reign  of  Uzziah ;  who,  having  reco- 
vered Elath  soon  after  his  accession,  expelled  the  Edomites 
thence,  and  having  fortified  the  place,  peopled  it  with  his 
own  subjects,  who  renewed  their  former  commerce.  This 
appears  to  have  continued  till  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  when  Rezin, 
king  of  Damascus,  having  oppressed  and  weakened  Judah 
in  conjunction  with  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  took  advantage  of 
this  circumstance  to  seize  Elath;  whence  he  expelled  the 
Jews,  and  planted  it  with  Syrians.  In  the  following  year, 
however,  Elath  fell  into  the  hands  of  Tiglathpileser,  king  of 
Assyria,  who  conquered  Rezin,  but  did  not  restore  it  to  his 
friend  and  ally,  king  Ahaz.2  Thus  finally  terminated  the 
commercial  prosperity  of  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 
After  the  captivity,  indeed,  during  the  reigns  of  the  Asmonaean 

frinces,  the  Jews  became  great  traders.  In  the  time  of 
'ompey  the  Great  there  were  so  many  Jews  abroad  on  the 
ocean,  even  in  the  character  of  pirates,  that  king  Antigonus 
was  accused  before  him  of  having  sent  them  out  on  purpose. 
During  the  period  of  time  comprised  hi  the  New  Testament 
history,  Joppa  and  Caesarea  were  the  two  principal  ports; 
and  corn  continued  to  be  a  staple  article  of  export  to  Tyre. 
(Acts  xii.  20.)3 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  Jews  seem  to  have 
applied  themselves  much  more  than  they  had  previously 
done  to  commercial  pursuits;  for  though  some  of  them 
cultivated  the  soil  at  the  exhortation  of  Jeremiah  (xxix.  4, 

'  It  is  certain  tliat  under  Pharaoh  Necho,  two  hnndrerl  years  after  the 
time  of  Solomon,  lliis  voyage  was  made  by  tlie  Esyptians.  (Ilerodotns,  lib. 
iv.  c.  42.)  They  sailed  from  tlie  Red  Sea,  and  returned  by  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  Ihey  performed  it  in  three  years ;  just  the  same  time  that  the 
voyage  under  Solomon  had  taken  up.  It  appears  likewise  from  Pliny 
(Nat.  Hist.  lib.  ii.  c.  67.),  that  the  passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
was  known  and  frequently  practised  before  liis  time  ;  by  Hanno  the  Car- 
thaeiuian,  when  Carthage  was  in  all  its  glory  ;  by  one  Eudoxus,  in  the  time 
of  Plolemv  Lalhyrus,  king  of  Egypt ;  and  C.-elins  Antipater,  an  historian  of 
good  credit,  somewhat  earlier  than  Pliny,  testifies  that  he  had  seen  a  mer- 
chant who  had  made  the  voyage  from  Gades  to  jEthiopla.  Bp.  Lowth, 
however,  supposes  Tarshish  to  be  Tartessus  in  Spain.  Isaiah,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  34,  35. 

2  During  this  period,  the  .Tews  seem  to  have  had  privileged  streets  at 
Damascus,  as  the  Syrians  had  in  Samaria.  (1  Kings  xx.  34.)  In  later  times, 
<Ini-ing  the  crusades,  the  Genoese  and  Venetians,  who  had  assisted  the 
Latin  kings  of  .lerusalem,  had  streets  assigned  to  them,  with  great  liberties, 
and  exclusive  jurisdictions  therein.  See  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  48'.)— 492. 

"  Jahn,  Archaeol.  Heor.  §§  107 — 111.  Macpherson's  Annals  of  Com- 
merce, vol.  i.  pp.  22 — 24.  26.  Prideaux's  Connection,  vol.  i.  pp.  5 — 10. 
Sth  edit. 


5.)  yet  many  others  appear  to  have  gained  their  subsistence 
by  buying  and  selling.  Hence,  immediately  after  their 
restoration,  there  were  Jewish  traders,  who,  regardless  of 
the  rest  of  the  sabbath-day  which  was  enjoined  by  Moses, 
not  only  bought  and  sold  on  that  sacred  day  (Neb.  xiii.  15.), 
but  also  extorted  unjust  usury.  (Neh.  v.  I — 13.)  In  later 
times,  foreign  commerce  was  greatly  facilitated  by  Simon 
Maccabaeus,  who  made  the  fortified  city  of  Joppa  a  commo- 
dious port  (1  Mace.  xiv.  5.),  and  by  Herod  the  Great,  who 
erected  the  city  of  Csesarea,  whic'i  he  converted  into  a  very 
excellent  harbour,  which  was  always  free  from  the  waves  of 
the  sea  by  means  of  a  magnificent  mole.' 

IV.  Respecting  the  size  and  architecture  of  the  Jewish 
ships,  we  have  no  information  whatever.  The  trading  vessels 
of  the  ancients  were,  in  general,  much  inferior  in  size  to 
those  of  the  moderns  :  Cicero  mentions  a  number  of  ships 
of  burden,  none  of  which  were  below  two  thousand  ampho- 
rae, that  is,  not  exceeding  fifty-six  tons  ;*  and  in  a  trading 
vessel,  in  all  probability  of  much  less  burden,  bound  with 
corn  from  Alexandria  in  Egypt  to  Rome,  St.  Paul  was 
embarked  at  Myra  in  Lycia.  From  the  description  of  his 
voyage  in  Acts  xxvii.  it  is  evident  to  what  small  improve- 
ment the  art  of  navigation  had  then  attained.  They  had 
no  anchors,  by  which  to  moor  or  secure  their  vessels  ;  and 
it  is  most  probable  that  the  crew  of  the  vessel  on  board  of 
which  the  apostle  was  embarked,  drew  her  up  on  the  beach 
of  the  several  places  where  they  stopped,  and  made  her  fast 
on  the  rocks,  as  the  ancient  Greeks  did  in  the  time  of  Ho- 
mer,'' which  practice  also  still  obtains  in  almost  every  island 
of  Greece."  Further,  they  had  no  compass  by  which  they 
could  steer  their  course  across  the  tr;ickless  deep ;  and  the 
sacred  historian  represents  their  situation  as  peculiarly  dis- 
tressing, M'hen  the  sight  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  was 
intercepted  from  them.  (Acts  xxvii.  20.)  The  vessel  being 
overtaken  by  one  of  those  tremendous  gales,  which,  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year  prevail  in  the  Mediterranean^ 
(where  they  are  now  called  Lcvauiers),  ihey  had  much  work  io 
come  by  the  ship's  boat,  which  appears  to  have  been  towed 
along  after  the  vessel,  agreeably  to  the  custom  that  still  ob- 
tains in  the  East,  where  the  skiffs  are  fastened  to  the  sterns  of 
the  ships  (10.) ;  which  having  taken  M^,that  is,  having  drawn 
it  up  close'  to  the  stern,  they  proceeded  to  under-gird  the  sh'p, 
(17.)  We  learn  from  various  passages  in  the  Greek  and 
Roman  authors,  that  the  ancients  had  recourse  to  this  expe- 
dient in  order  to  secure  their  vessels,  when  in  imminent 
danger  ;3  and  this  method  has  been  used  even  in  modern 
times.'" 

Much  ingenious  conjecture  has  been  hazarded  relative  to 
the  nature  of  the  rudder-bands,  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii. 
40. ;  but  the  supposed  difficulty  will  be  obviated  by  attend- 
ing to  the  structure  of  ancient  vessels.  It  was  usual  fir  all 
large  ships  (of  which  description  were  the  Alexandrian 
corn  ships)  to  have  two  rudders,  a  kind  of  very  large  and 
broad  oars,  which  were  fixed  at  the  head  and  stern.  The 
bands  were  some  kind  of  fastenings,  by  which  these  rudders 
were  hoisted  some  way  out  of  the  water  ;  for  as  they  could 
be  of  no  use  in  a  storm,  and  in  the  event  of  fair  weather 
coming  the  vessel  could  not  do  without  them,  this  was  a 
prudent  way  of  securing  them  fr^m  being  broken  to  pieces 
by  the  agitation  of  the  waves.  These  bgmds  being  loosed, 
the  rudders  would  fall  down  into  their  proper  places,  and 

*  .Tosephiis,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xv.  c.9.  §6.    Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  418,419. 

6  Epist.  ad  Familiares,  lib.  xii.  ep.  15. 

6  Iliad,  lib.  i.  4^.5.  et  passim. 

'  Emerson's  Letters  from  the  -Slgean,  vol.  ii.  p.  121.  The  following  pas- 
sages of  Acts  xxvii.  will  derive  elucidation  from  the  above  practice  :  it  will 
be  observed  that  at  settmg  sail  there  is  no  mention  made  of  heaving  up  the 
anchor;  but  there  occur  such  phrases  as  the  following: — And  entering 
into  a  ship  of  Adramijttium,  we  launched,  weaning  to  sail  by  the  const 
of  Asia,  (verse  2.)  And  when  the  sojith  wind  blew  softly,  supposing  that 
ihcy  had  obtained  their  purpose,  loosing  thence,  they  sailed  close  by 
Crile.'d'i.)  And  again,  And  tcheji  we  had  launched  from  .thekce,  we 
sailed  under  Cyprus,  because  the  icinds  were  contrary.  (4.)  Ibid.  pp. 
121,  122. 

8  IVIr.  Emerson  has  described  the  phenomena  attending  one  of  these 
gales  in  his  Letters  from  the  j^gean,  vol.  ii.  pp.  149 — 152. 

9  Raphelius  and  Wetstein,  in  loc.  have  collected  numerous  testirponies. 
See  also  Dr.  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  239,  240. 

'0  The  process  of  under-girding  a  ship  is  thus  pertbrmed  : — A  stout  cable 
is  slipped  under  the  vessel  at  the  prow,  which  the  seamen  can  conduct  to 
any  part  of  the  ship's  keel,  and  then  fasten  the  two  ends  on  the  deck,  to 
keep  the  planks  from  starting.  As  many  rounds  as  may  be  necessary 
may  be  thus  taken  about  the  vessel.  An  instance  of  this  kind  isment'oned 
in  Lord  Anson's  Voyage  round  the  World.  Speaking  of  a  Spanish  man-of- 
war  in  a  storm,  the  writer  says, — "  They  were  obliged  to  throw  overboard 
all  their  upper-deck  guns  ;  and  taJce  six  turns  of  the  cable  round  tlifship 
to  prevent  her  opening."  (p.  24.  4to.  edit.)  Bp.  Ptarce  and  Dr.  A.  Clarkt 
on  Acts  xxvii.  17.  Two  instances  of  under-girding  a  ship  are  noticed  in  tli8 
Chevalier  de  Johnstone's  Memoirs  of  the  Rebellion  in  1745 — 6.  (London, 
1822.  8vo.)  pp.  421.  454. 


Chap.  VIII.] 


AMUSEMENTS  OF  THE  JEWS 


189 


serve  to  steer  the  vessel  into  the  creek  which  they  now  had 
in  view.' 

It  was  the  cnstom  of  the  ancients  to  have  imatres  on 
their  sliins  both  at  the  head  and  stern  ;  the  first  of  which 
was  called  Ylupio-n/jioc,  or  the  •"V",  from  which  the  vessel 
was  named,  and  the  other  was  that  of  the  tntelar  deity  to 
whose  care  it  was  committed.  There  is  no  doul)t  hut  they 
sometimes  had  deities  at  the  head  :  in  which  cast!  it  is 
most  likely,  tlial  if  they  had  any  Wmirc  at  llii'  stern,  it  was 
the  snrne  ;  as  it  is  hardly  |)r(jl);d)le,  that  the  ship  should 
be  called  hy  the  name  of  one;  deity,  and  he  committed  to 
the  cvire  of  anoth<^r.  The  constellation  of  tlu;  Dioscuri, 
that  is,  of  (Jaslor  and  Pollux  (Acts  xxviii.  11.),  was 
deemed  favourable  to  mariners;  and,  tlujreforc,  fiT  a  jjood 
omen,  lliey  had  them  painted  or  carved  on  the  head  of  the 
ship,  whence  they  jrave  it  a  name,  which  the  sacred  his- 
torian uses. 2 

The  l''(jyi)tians  commoni)'  used  on  the  Nile  a  li<rht  sort  of 
ships  or  boats  made  of  the  reed  papyrus.*  Isaiah  alludes  to 
tliem  (xviii.  2.),  in  our  version  rendered  vrssrl.i  of  bulniiihex.* 
Boats  of  similar  frail  materials  are  still  in  use  in  the 
East.^ 

V.  Commerce  could  not  he  carried  on  without  Coin,  nor 
without  a  system  of  Wkights  and  MiSAsrnKS. 

Althonirh  the  Scrij)ttires  frequently  mentic.n  ffold,  silver, 
brass,  certain  sums  of  money,  purchases  mndc  with  inoney, 
current  money,  and  money  of  a  certain  weitrht;  yet  the  use 
of  coin  or  stamped  Mtnui/  appears  to  have  been  of  late  intro- 
duction amiinjr  the  Hebrews.  Oalinet  is  of  opinion,  that  the 
ancient  Hebrews  took  (jold  and  silver  only  ny  weight,  and 
that  they  regarded  the  purity  of  the  metal,  and  not  the  stamp. 
The  practice  of  weijrhiiitr  money  is  stated  by  M.  Volney  to 
be  preneral  in  Syria,  Kirypt,  and  Turkey  :  no  piece,  however 
effaced,  is  there  refused.  The  merchant  draws  out  his  scales 
and  weiiihs  it,'  as  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  when  he  pur- 
chased the  cave  of  Machpelah  for  a  sepulchre.  ((t(Mi.  xxiii. 
IG.)'  The  most  ancient  mode  of  carrying  on  tride,  unciues- 
tionahly,  was  by  way  of  barter,  or  cxchan<ring  one  commo- 
dity for  another;  a  custom  which  obtains  in  some  places  even 


to  this  day.  In  process  of  time  such  metals  as  were  deemed 
the  most  valuable  were  received  into  traflic,  and  were  weiirbed 
out;  until  tiie  inconveniences  of  this  method  induced  men  to 
give  to  each  metal  a  certain  mark,  weight,  and  degree  of 
alloy,  in  order  to  determine  its  value,  and  save  both  buyers 
and  sellers  the  trouble  of  weighing  and  examining  the  metal. 
In  some  cases,  the  earliest  C(  ins  bore  the  impression  of  a 
|)articular  figure;  in  others,  they  were  made  to  resemble 
objects  of  nature.  The  coinage  of  money  was  of  late  date 
among  the  Persians,  (ireeks,  and  Homans.  The  Persians 
had  none  coined  before  the  reign  of  Darius  the  son  of  Hys- 
taspes,  nor  had  the  (ireeks  (whom  the  Homans  most  proba- 
bly imitated)  any  before  the  time  of  Alexander.  We  have 
no  certain  vestiges  of  the  existence  of  coined  money,  among 
tiie  Kgyptians,  heforf;  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies;  nor  had  the 
Hebrews  any  coinage  until  the  government  of  .ludas  Macea- 
ba'us,  to  whom  Antii.chns  Sidetes,  king  of  Syria,  granted  the 
privilege  of  coining  his  own  inoney  in  .liidaja.  Before  these 
respective  times,  all  payments  were  made  by  weight;  this 
will  account  i\)T  one  and  the  same  word  (.v//f/.v/,  which  comes 
from  s/iiiku/,  to  wn'ir/t),  denoting  both  a  C(  rtain  weight  of  any 
commrxlity  and  also  a  determinate!  sum  of  money. s  The 
holy  pliancy  of  temper  with  which  belifivers  shonhf  conform 
to  all  the  i)recepts  of  the  d'ospel  is  by  St.  Paul  represented 
by  a  beautiful  allusion  to  the  coinii;g  of  money,  in  which  the 
lifiuid  metals  accurately  receive  the  figure  of  the  mould  or 
die  into  which  they  are  poured.  (Kom.  vi.  17.)'-' 

Weights  and  Measl'kes  were  regulated  at  a  very  early 
period  in  Asia.  Moses  made  various  enactments  concerning 
them  for  the  Hebrews ;  and  both  weights  and  niei'.sures,  which 
were  to  serve  as  standards  for  form  and  contents,  were  depo- 
sited at  first  in  the  tabernacle,  and  afterwards  in  the  temple, 
under  the  cognizance  of  the  priests. "J  On  the  destruction  of 
Solomon's  temple  these  standards  nv-.essarily  perished ;  and 
during  the  ca])tivity  the  Hebrews  used  the  weights  and  mea- 
sures of  their  masters. 

For  tables  of  the  weights,  measures,  and  money  used  in 
commerce,  and  which  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  No.  II.  of  the  appendix  to  this  volume. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


AMUSEMENTS  OF  THE  JEWS. ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  THEATRES,  TO   THEATRICAL  PERFORMANCES,  AND 

TO  THE   GRECIAN   GAMES  IN  THE    NEW  TESTAMENT. 


I.   Recreations 
lions  amonif  th 


of  the  Jews   in   domestic  Jj'fe. — II.  J\IiUtary  Sports. — III.  Introduction  of  gymnastic  and  theatrical  Exhibi- 
_,     he  Jews. — IV.  ,1lliisio7is  to  the  Theatres  and  to  theatrical  Performances  in  the  J\'ew  Testament. — V.  ..j/lusiona 

to  the  Grecian  Games,  particulurli/  the  Olympic  Games. — 1.    Qualifications  of  the  Candidates Preparatoni  Discipline  to 

■which  they  were  subjected. — 2.  Foot  Race. — 3.   Rewards  of  the  Victors. — 4.  Beautiful  Allusions  to  these  Games  in  the  J\i'ew 
Testament  ejcplained. 


Thk  whole  design  of  the  Mosaic  institutes,  being  to  pre- 
serve the  knowledge  and  worship  of  the  true  (iod  among  the 
Israelites,  will  sufhciently  account  for  their  silence  respect- 
ing recreations  and  amusements.  Although  no  particular 
circumstances  are  recorded  on  this  subject,  we  meet  with  a 
few  detached  facts  which  show  that  the  Hebrews  were  not 
entirely  destitute  of  amusements. 

I.  The  various  events  incident  to  Domestic  Life  afforded 
them  occasions  for  festivity.     Thus,  Abraham  made  a  great 

I  Klsner  and  Wrlstein  on  Acts  xxvii.  40. 

»  Valpy's  Or.  Test.  vol.  ii.  on  Acts  xxviii.  11. 

»  Kx  ipso  qiiideni  papyro  navi^ia  lexunt.  Pliny,  Ili.st.  Nal.  lib.  xiii.  11. 
The  sanio  fad  is  attested  by  Lucan :  conseritur  bibula  Meniphitid  cyniba 
papyro.     Phaisal  lib.  iv.  136. 

*  Bp.  Lowth  on  Isaiah  xviii.  2. 

»  The  lion.  Capf.  Keppel,  giving  an  account  of  an  excursion  up  the  river 
Ticris,  thus  describes  the  boat  in  which  he  embarked  : — "  It  was  in  .shape 
like  a  large  circular  basket  ;  the  sides  were  of  willow,  covered  over  with 
bitumen,  the  botloni  was  laid  with  reeds.  This  sort  of  boat  is  common  to 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  and  is  probably  best  adapted  to  the  strong 
currents  rommon  to  these  rivers.  May  not  these  boats  be  of  the  same 
kinil  as  the  vessels  of  l)iilru.ihes  upon  the  italers  alluded  to  by  Isaiah  7 
(xviii.  2  )"     Narrative  of  Travels  from  India,  vol.  i.  pp.  107,  198. 

'  In  a  piece  of  sculpture  discovered  by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  at  El 
Cab,  the  ancient  F.leethias  in  Egypt,  there  was  represented  a  pair  of 
Scales :  at  one  end  was  a  man  writing  an  account,  while  another  was  weigh- 
ing some  small  articles,  probably  loaves  of  bread.  The  weight  was  in  the 
forin  of  a  cow  couchaut.    Travels  ui  Egypt,  Nubia,  &c.  pp.  1:30—132. 

■•  Volney's  Travels  in  Syria,  &c.  vol.  ii'  p.  425.  In  considerable  payments 
an  agent  of  exchange  is  sent  for,  who  counts  paras  by  thousands,  rejects 
pieces  of  false  money,  and  weighs  all  the  sequins  either  separately  or 
together.  (Ibid.)  This  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  phrase,  current  money 
mth  the  merchant,  in  Geo.  xxiii.  16. 


feast  on  the  day  when  Isaac  was  weaned.  (Gen.  xxi.  8.) 
Weddings  were  always  seasons  of  rejoicing  (see  pp.  IGl, 
\G'2.  supra):  so  also  were  the  seasons  of  sheep-shearing 
riSam.  XXV.  3(!.  and  2  Sam.  xiii.  23.) ;  and  harvest-home. 
(See  p.  177.)  To  which  may  be  added,  the  birth-days  of 
sovereigns.  (Gen.  xl.  20.  I\Iark  \i.  21.)  Of  most  of  these 
festivities  music  (see  p.  183.)  and  dancing  (see  p.  181.) 
were  the  accompaniments.  From  the  amusement  of  children 
sitting  in  the  market-place,  and  imitating  the  usages  common 
at  wedding  feasts  and  at  funerals,  .lesus  Christ  takes  occa- 
sion to  compare  the  pharisees  to  sullen  children  who  will  be 
pleased  with  nothiuff  which  their  companions  can  do,  whe- 
ther they  play  at  weddings  or  funerals  ;  since  they  could  not 
be  prevailed  upon  to  attend  either  to  the  severe  precepts  and 
life  of  John  the  Baptist,  or  to  the  milder  precepts  and  habits 
of  Christ.  (Matt.  xi.  16,  17.V'  The  infamous  practice  of 
gamesters  who  play  with  loaded  dice  has  furnished  St.  Paul 
with  a  strong  metaphor,  in  which  he  cautions  the  Christians 
at  Ephesus  against  the  c\\e-Ai\\\g  sleight  of  men  (Eph.  iv.  14.), 
whether   unbelieving  Jews,  heathen  philosophers,  or  false 


•  Calmet's  Dictionary,  vol.  ii.  article  Money.  See  a  full  account  of  the 
money  coined  by  the  Maccabwan  princes,  in  F.  P.  Bayer's  Disserlatio  De 
Ntiniis  Ilebneo-Samaritanis.     Valentine  Edelanorum.  1781.  4to. 

9  Cox's  Hor<-B  Romaiix.  p.  33. 

'0  Michaelis  has  fully  discus.sed  the  wisdom  and  propriety  of  the  Mosaic 
regulations  concerning  weights  and  measures,  in  his  Commentaries  on  the 
Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  iii.  pp.  378 — 397. 

"  Kuinoel  on  Matt.  xi.  17. 


190 


ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  THEATRES,  AND  TO 


[Part  IV. 


teachers  in  the  church  itself,  who  corrupted  the  doctrines  of 
the  Gospel  for  worldly  purposes,  while  they  assumed  the 
appearance  of  gr6at  disinterestedness  and  ])iety.' 

IL  MiLiTARV  Sports  and  exercises  appear  to  have  been 
common  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  Jewish  history.  By 
these  the  Jewish  youth  were  taiight  the  use  of  the  bow 
(1  Sam.  XX.  20.  30 — 35.),  or  the  hurlinff  of  stones  from  a 
sling  with  unerring  aim.  (Judg.  xx.  16.  1  Chron.  xii.  2.) 
Jerome  informs  us,  that  in  his  days  (the  fourth  century)  it 
was  a  common  exercise  throughout  Judaia  for  the  young  men, 
who  were  ambitious  to  give'  proof  of  their  strength,  to  lift 
up  round  stones  of  enormous  weight,  some  as  high  as  their 
knees,  others  to  their  navel,  shoulders,  or  head,  while  others 
placed  them  at  the  top  of  their  heads,  with  their  hands  erect 
and  joined  together.  He  further  states,  that  he  saw  at  Athens 
an  extremely  heavy  brazen  sphere  or  globe,  which  he  vainly 
endeavoured  to  lift ;  and  that  on  inquiring  into  its  use,  he 
was  informed,  that  no  one  was  permitled  to  contend  in  the 
games  until,  by  his  lifting  of  this  weight,  it  was  ascertained 
who  could  be  matched  with  him.  From  this  exercise  Jerome 
elucidates  a  difficult  passage  in  Zech.  xii.  3.,  in  which  the  pro- 

Ehet  compares  Jerusalem  to  a  stone  of  ^reat  weight,  which 
eing  too  heavy  for  those  who  attempted  to  lift  it  up,  or  even 
to  remove  it,  falls  back  upon  them,  and  crushes  them  to  pieces.^ 
in.  Among  the  great  chauoes  which  were  effected  in  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  Jews,  sul)sequently  to  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  may  be  reckoned  the  introduction  of 
Gymnastic  Sports  and  Games,  in  imitation  of  those  cele- 
brated by  the  Greeks ;  who,  it  is  well  known,  were  passion- 
ately fond  of  theatrical  exhibitions.  These  amusements  they 
carried,  with  their  victorious  arms,  into  the  various  countries 
of  the  East ;  the  inhabitants  of  which,  in  imitation  of  their 
masters,  addicted  themselves  to  the  same  diversions,  and 
endeavoured  to  distingi'-sh  themselves  in  the  same  exercises. 
The  profligate  high-priest  Jason,  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
Epipnanes,  first  introduced  public  games  at  Jerusalem,  where 
he  erected  a  gymnasium,  or  "  place  for  exercise,  and  for  the 
training  up  of  youth  in  the  fashions  of  the  heathen."  (2  Mace. 
iv.  9.)  "  The  avowed  purpose  of  these  athletic  exercises 
was,  the  strengthening  of  the  body ;  but  the  real  design  went 
to  the  gradual  change  of  Judaism  for  heathenism,  as  was 
clearly  indicated  by  the  pains  which  many  took  to  efface  the 
mark  of  circumcision.  The  games,  besides,  were  closely 
connected  with  idolatry ;  for  they  were  generally  celebrated 
in  honour  of  some  pagan  god.  The  innovations  of  Jason 
were  therefore  extremely  odious  to  the  more  pious  part  of  the 
nation,  and  even  his  own  adherents  did  not  enter  fully  into 
all  his  views."-^  They  also  produced  a  demoralizing  effect 
upon  the  Jews.  Even  the  very  priests,  neglecting  the  duties 
of  their  sacred  office,  hastened  to  be  partakers  of  these  un- 
lawful sports,  and  were  ambitious  of  obtaining  the  prizes 
awarded  to  the  victors.  (10 — 15.)  The  re-itoration  of  divine 
worship,  and  of  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  laws  and  insti- 
tutions under  the  Maccabsean  princes,  put  an  end  to  these 
spectacles.  They  were,  however,  revived  by  Herod,  who, 
in  order  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  emperor  Augustus 
(b.  c.  7.),  built  a  theatre  at  Jerusalem,''  and  also  a  capacious 
amphitheatre,  without  the  city,  in  the  plain;  and  who  also 
erected  similar  edifices  at  Csesarea,^  and  appointed  games  to 
be  solemnized  every  fifth  year  with  great  splendour,  and 
amid  a  vast  concourse  of  spectators,  who  were  invited  by 
proclamation  from  the  neighbouring  countries.  Josephus' 
narrative  of  these  circumstances  is  not  sufficiently  minute  to 
enable  us  to  determine  with  accuracy  "//the  exhibitions  which 
took  place  on  these  occasions.  But  we  may  collect,  that  they 
consisted  of  wrestling,  chariot-racing,  music,  and  combats  of 
wild  beasts,  which  either  fought  with  one  another,  or  with 
,  men  who  were  under  sentence  of  death  : — a  barbarous  amuse- 
ment which  has  happily  been  abolished  by  the  beneficent 
influence  of  the  Gospel.  Further,  the  most  distinguished 
wrestlers  were  invited  to  attend  -by  the  promise  of  very  great 
rewards  to  the  victors.  The  Gentiles  were  highly  delighted 
with  these  exhibitions,  which  were  so  utterly  repugnant  to 
the  laws  and  customs  of  the  Jews,  that  they  regarded  them 
with  the  utmost  horror  and  detestation." 

I  Dr.  Macknight  on  Eph.  iv.  14. 

»  Jerome  on  Zech.  xii.  3.   (Op.  torn.  iii.  col.  1780.  edit.  Benedictin.)    W. 
Lowth  on  Zech.  xii.  3. 
»  Jahn's  Hist,  of  the  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  vol.  i.  p.  308. 

*  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  Hb.  xv.  c.  8.  §  1. 

*  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.  21.  §8.  The  different  passages  of  Josephus  are 
examined  in  detail  by  Kichhorn  (to  whom  wc  are  indebted  for  the  facts 
above  stated)  in  hisCommentatio  de  JudfeorumRe  Scenica,  inserted  in  the 
second  volume  of  the  Coiiimentationes  Societatis  Regise  Gottingensis  Be- 
centiores.    Gotting^e,  1813.  4to. 

*  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xv.  c.  8.  §§  1,  2. 


IV.  In  all  countries  the  stage  has  ever  furnished  different 
languages  with  some  of  the  most  beautiful  Metaphors  and 
Allusions  that  adorn  them.''  In  every  tongue  we  read  of  the 
drama  of  human  life  :s  its  scenes  are  described  as  continually 
shiftino- and  varying:  mortal  life  is  represented  as  an  intri- 
cate plot,  which  will  gradually  uniold  and  finally  wind  up 
into  harmony  and  happiness  ;  and  the  world  is  styled  a  mag- 
nificent theatre,  in  which  God  has  placed  us, — assigned  to 
every  man  a  character, — is  a  constant  spectator  how  he  sup- 
ports this  character, — and  will  finally  ajiplaud  or  condemn 
according  to  the  good  or  bad  execution  of  the  part,  whatever 
it  is,  he  has  been  appointed  to  act.^  The  drama  was  insti- 
tuted to  exhibit  a  striking  picture  of  human  life,  and,  in  a 
faithful  mirror,  to  hold  up  to  the  spectator's  view  that  mis- 
cellany of  characters  which  diversify  it,  and  those  inter- 
changes and  reverses  of  fortune  which  chequer  it.'"  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  remark,  though  the  observation  is  pro- 
per for  the  sake  of  illustrating  a  very  beautiful  passage  in 
one  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  that  a  variety  of  scenes  is  painted, 
which  by  means  of  the  requisite  machinery  are  very  fre- 
quently shifting,  in  order  to  show  the  characters  in  a  variety 
of  places  and  fortunes.  To  the  spectator,  lively  and  afficting 
views  are  by  turns  displayed,  sometimes,  for  example,  of 
Thebes,  sometimes  of  Athens,"  one  while  of  a  palace,  at 
another  of  a  prison;  now  of  a  splendid  triumph,  and  now 
of  a  funeral  procession, — every  thing,  from  the  beginning  to 
the  catastrophe,  perpetually  varying  and  changing  according 
to  the  rules  and  conduct  of  the  drama.  Agreeably  to  this, 
with  what  elegance  and  propriety  does  St.  Paul,  whom  we 
find  quoting  Menander,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  writers  of 
the  Greek  comedy,  represent  the  fashion  of  this  world  as 
continually  passing  away,'^  and  all  the  scenes  of  this  vain 
and  visionary  life  as  perpetually  shifting  !  "  The  imagery," 
says  Grotius,  "  is  taken  from  the  theatre,  where  the  scenery 
is  suddenly  changed,  and  exhibits  an  appearance  totally  dif- 
ferent."'^ And  as  the  transactions  of  the  drama  are  not  real, 
but  fictitious  and  imaginary,  such  and  such  characters  being 
assumed  and  personated,  in  whose  joys  or  griefs,  in  whose 
domestic  felicities  or  infelicities,  in  whose  elevation  or  de- 
pression, the  actor  is  not  really  and  personally  interested,  but 
only  supports  a  character,  perhaps  entirely  foreign  from  his 
own,  and  fepresents  passions  and  affections  in  which  his  own 
heart  has  no  share :  how  beautiful  and  expressive,  when  con- 
sidered in  this  light,  is  that  passage  of  Scripture  wherein  the 
apostle  is  inculcating  a  Christian  indifference  for  this  world, 
and  exhorting  us  not  to  suffer  ourselves  to  be  unduly  affected 
either  by  the  joys  or  sorrows  of  so  fugitive  and  transitory  a 
scene!  (1  Cor.  vii.  29 — 31.)  But  this  I  saij,  brethren,  the 
time  is  short.  It  rcniaiiieth  that  buth  they  that  have  loives  be  us 
though  tlicy  had  none .-  mid  they  that  iveep  as  though  l/iey  wept 
not :  and  they  that  rejoice  as  though  they  rejoiced  not :  and  they 
that  buy  as  though  they  possessed  not :  and  they  that  use  this 
world  as  not  abusing  it.^^    For  t/ie  fashion  of  this  world,  passeth 

■■  For  the  following  account  of  the  theatrical  representations,  and  of  the 
Grecian  games  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament,  the  autlior  is  indebted  to 
Dr.  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  sections  I.  and  4.,  collated  with  Briin- 
ing's  Compendium  Antiquitatiim  Grajcarum  e  profanis  Sacrarum,  pp.  352 
— 376.,  from  wliich  treatise  Dr.  H.  appears  to  have  derived  a  considerable 
portion  of  his  materials. 

Epigram  in  Antholog. 
Quomodo  fabnla,  sic  vita  ;  non  qurim  diu,  sed  quam  bene  acta  sit,  refert. 
Nihil  ad  rem  pertinet,  quo  loco  desinas :  quocuiique  voles  desine  :  tantflm 
bonam  clau.sulam  impoiie.     Seneca,  epist.  Ixxvii.  torn.  ii.  p.  306.  edit.  _Elz. 

1673.  Oioi/  £1  ^fuuiiov  XTTOKvii  Tui  (Txiiviis  0  -^^ xfXKx^jjv  s-pctliiyo;  HKX'  CM* 
itTTOV  Tut  -srgvle  y.ipily   xKKx    r x    Tpi:«,    v.xK^^^^    stTTX^'    £V    USi'hi    T  cy  liico  TX  Tpia 

Aor  TO  Sjixfi-i  £,-..  Mar.  Antoninus,  lib.  xii.  p.  236.  edit.  Oxon.  The  words 
of  the  Psalmist, — "we  spend  our  days  as  a  tale  that  Is  told," — have  been 
supposed  to  be  an  allusion  to  a  dramatic  fable.  The  imagery,  considered 
in  this  view,  would  be  striking,  did  We  know  that  the  early  Jews  ever  had 
any  scenical  representations. 

»  Epicteti  Enchirid.  cap.  17.  p.  699.  Upton.  Epicteti  Dissertationes  ab 
Arriano.  lib.  iv.  p.  .WO.  Upton. 

10  M.  Antoninus,  lib.  xi.  §  vi.  p.  204.  edit.  Oxon. 

»»  Modo  me  Thebis,  modo  ponit  Athenis. 

Horat.  Epist.  lib.  ii.  ver.  213. 

i"  Cor.  vii.  31.     Tlxfx'yti  yxf  to  (r%ii^:4  tou  xotr^sou  toutou. 

"  Dicitur,  -axfxytiv  to  (rxni^x  tu;  rxuvnc,  ubi  scena  invertitur,  aliamque 
plane  ostcndit  faciem.  Grotius,  ad  loc.  Mais  comme  Grotius  reniarque 
que  cette  reflexion  del'  Apotre  est  emprunti''e  du  theatre,  et  que  le  mot 
Grec  <rjc>i/"=«,  que  I'on  traduit  la  figure,  signifie  proprement  un  personnage 
de  theatre,  on  une  di'coration  dans  Euripide  et  dans  Aristophane,  et  que 
les  Grecs  disoient  pour  marquer  le  changement  de  scene,  ou  de  decoration 
du  theatre  -axfxyt'  to  !rxt\ft.x  th;  o-xiiviii,  on  oroitqii'il  faudroit  traduire,  La 
face  de  ce  monde  change,  ce  qui  convient  parfaitement  an  dessein  de 
I'Apotre  dans  cette  conjoncture.  Projet  d'une  Nouvelle  Version,  par  le 
Cene,  p.  674.     Rotter. ,1696. 

n  Y-xlxxfiiiiivoi  is  very  unhappily  rendered  abuse.  It  is  here  used  in  a 
good  sense,  as  the  whole  passage  requires.  From  the  transiency  of  humati 
life  the  apostle  observes,  that  those  who  are  now  using  this  world's  happi- 
ness will  soon  be  as  those  who  had  never  enjoyed  it.  The  Greek  writera 
use  nxfxxfxn/ixi  or  A!ro%f«o^»i  to  abuse. 


Chap  VIIL] 


THEATRICAL  PERFORMANCES  IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


191 


away.  If  we  keep  in  mind  thn  supposrd  allusion  in  the  text 
(the  fiishion  of"  this  world  passeth  away),  we  shall  (lisecrii  a 
peculiar  b(v<iuty  and  ibrct;  iti  his  laniruaj^e  and  sr-nlinicnt.  For 
the  actors  in  a  play,  whether  it  he  comedy  or  trajrcdy,  <io  not 
act  their  own  proper  and  personal  concerns,  hut  only  piirso- 
nate  and  mimic  the  characters  and  conditions  of  other  m(;n. 
And  so  when  they  weep  in  actin<r  some  trajrical  part,  it  is  as 
thoiioh  tliey  wept  not;  and  tln^re  is  more  show  and  a|>pear- 
ance,  than  triitli  and  reality,  of  trrief  and  sorrow  in  the  case. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  they  rejoice  in  actinjr  some  hri<rhter 
scene,  it  is  as  though  they  rejoiced  not ;  it  is  hut  a  feifjned 
semblance  of  joy,  and  forced  air  of  mirth  and  gayety,  wiiich 
they  exhihit  to  the  spectators,  no  real  inward  {riadness  of 
heart.  If  they  seem  to  contract  marriajres,  or  act  the  mer- 
chant, or  personate;  a  tjentleman  of  fortune,  still  it  is  notiiin<r 
but  fiction.  And  so  when  the  ])lay  is  over,  tiiey  hav(;  no 
wives,  no  possessions  or  oodcIs,  no  enjoyments  of  the  world, 
in  conseiiuence  of  such  n^presentations.  In  like  manner,  hy 
this  apt  qom|)arison,  the  apostle  would  teach  us  to  moderate 
our  desires  and  aflections  towards  every  thinj;  in  this  world; 
and  rather,  as  it  were,  to  personate  such  thinys  as  matters  of 
a  foieion  nature,  than  to  incorporate  ourselves  with  them,  as 
our  own  pro|)er  and  personal  concern.' 

"Tiie  theatre  is  also  furnished  with  dresses  suitable  to 
every  age,  and  adapted  to  every  circumstance  and  change  of 
fortune.  The  persons  of  the  drama,  in  one  and  the  same 
representation,  frequently  support  a  variety  of  characters  : 
the  prince  and  the  beggar,  the  young  and  the  old,  change 
their  dress  according  to  the  characters  in  which  they  respect- 
ively appear,  by  turns  laying  aside  one  habit  and  assuming 
another,  agreeably  to  every  condition  and  age.2  The  apostle 
Paul  seems  to  allude  to  this  custom,  and  his  expressions  re- 
garded in  this  light  have  a  peculiar  beauty  and  energy,  when 
he  exhorts  Christians  to  put  off  the  old  man  with  his  deed's, 
and  tu  PUT  on  the  new  man.  (Coloss.  iii.  9,  10.  Eph.  iv. 
22,  23,  21.)  Thai  ye  put  off,  cunccrniiiff  1  he  farmer  cunver- 
fiafian,  the  old  man,  w/iich  is  corrupt  acairdiiii;;  to  the  deceitful 
lu.st.s :  and  be  renewed  in  the  spirit  of  your  minds,  and  that  yc 
PUT  ON  THE  NEW  MAN,'  wMch  after  God  is  created  in  righteous- 
nees  and  true  holiness. 

"  It  is,  moreover,  well  known,  that  in  the  Roman  theatres 
and  amphitheatres,  malefactors  and  criminals  were  con- 
denuied  to  fight  with  lions,  bears,  elephants,  and  tigers,  for 
which'  all  parts  of  the  Uoman  dominions  were  industriously 
ransack(>d,  to  afford  this  very  polite  and  elegant  amusement 
to  this  most  refined  and  civilized  people.  The  wretched 
miscreant  was  brought  upon  the  stage,  regarded  with  the 
last  ignominy  and  contempt  by  the  assembled  multitudes, 
made  a  gazing-stock  to  the  world,  as  the  apostle  expresses 
it ;  and  a  wild  beast,  instigated  to  madness  by  the  shouts 
and  light  missive  darts  of  the  spectators,  was  let  loose  upon 
him,  to  tear  and  worry  him  in  a  miserable  manner.  To  this 
sanguinary  and  brutal  custom  the  following  expressions  of 
the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  allude,  (x.  32,  33.) 
Ye  endured  a  great  fight  of  ajpictions,  partly  rvhiht  ye  were 
made  a  gazing-^tock,  both  by  reproaches  and  afflictions.  The 
original  is  very  einphatical ;  being  openly  exposed  as  on  a 
public  theatre  to  ignominious  insults  and  to  the  last  cruel- 
ties.* In  another  passage  also,  St.  Paul,  speaking  of  the 
determined  fierceness  and  bigotry  with  wliich  the  citizens 
of  Ephesus  opposed  him,  uses  a  strong  meta])horical  expres- 
sion taken  from  the  theatre: — If  after  the  manner  of  men  T 
have  fought  ivilh  beasts  at  Ephesus.  Not  that  the  apostle 
appears  to  have  been  actually  condemned  by  his  enemies  to 
'  Rrelcell's  Discourses,  p.  31S. 

*   Eiv:ei  ^xp  o.a3*Oi'   Tw  *y  x  joj  u.TOxplTl)  TOV  TO 
Ayx/<i/^njwo;  TSfrtTofxiv  xvxKxZt\^  sxxhfov  Itt^xjiiv 

Laertius,  lib.  vii.  p.  468.  edit.  Meibomii.  1692. 

'  Mihi  finirlem  diil)ium  non  est  quin  ha»c  loquendi  ratio  ducta  sit  ab  ado- 
ril'us,  qui,  hnbitu  mutalo,  veslibu.-;qiie  depnsiiis,  alias  paries  aaunt,  atiosque 
88  esse  produnt,  qtiani  qui  in  scrna  esse  videbantur.  Krebsii  Obser\'atiuiies 
\n  Nov.  Test,  p  342.    Lipsia;,  1755. 


ce»  Tj  9ffi(riTcu  xv  n 
poiri)xov1;i;.  Diogenes 


Claudian. 
,  exposed  on  a  public  stage. 


♦ Quodcunqae  tremendum  est 

Denlibus,  aut  insigne  jiibis,  aut  nol)ile  cornu, 
Aut  rigiduni  setis  capitur,  decus  oinne  liinorque 
Sylvarum,  non  caule  latent,  non  mole  resistant 
•  Oi.ii5i(r^6i;  Ti  XXI  ^Kfi^ia-i  &:xlf,l 
Dispensatorem  ad  bestias  dedit.  Hoc  est.  seipsurn  traducere.'  Id  est,  says 
oiie  of  Ibe  commentators,  ludibrio  exponere.  I'etroniiis  Arbiter,  p.  220. 
edit.  Bunnan  1709.  e:. Jf»lp.<r.v  lujov^.  Tbey  opi'nly  exposed  them- 
.selves.  Polybius,  p.  364.  Hanov.  1619.  Eusebius  relates  Ibat  Attains,  a 
Christian,  was  led  round  the  amphitheatre,  and  exposed  to  the  insults  and 
violence  of  tlie  multitude,  n.p.xj;?-.;  x„xx.u,  tcu  x/.;.  jix^p^u.  Eusebius. 
Hist.  i;,ccles.  lib.  v.  p.  206.  Cantab.  Solebant  olim  cladialores  et  besliarii, 
aiiiequain  certamen  obirenl  per  ora  populi  circumduci.  Valesii  not.  in  loc. 
There  is  astrikini;  passage  in  Pliilo,  where,  in  the  same  strong  metaphori- 
cal imasery  the  apostle  here  employs,  Flaccus  is  represented  dcplorin<' 
the  public  ignommv  to  which  he  was  now  reduced.  See  I'hilonis  Oper^ 
loiii-  II-  p.  542.  edit.  Mangey.  ^    ^ 


combat  with  wild  beasts  in  the  theatre," — as  Roman  citizens 
were  nt^ver  subjected  to  such  a  degradation  :  "  he  seems 
only  to  have  employed  this  strong  phraseology,  U)  denote 
the  violence  and  ferocity  of  his  adversaries,  which  resembled 
the  rage  and  fury  of  brutes,  and  to  compare  his  contention 
with  these  fierce  pagan  zealots  and  fanatics,  to  the  common 
theatrical  conflict  of  men  with  wild  beasts."" 

Ii(!t  it  he  farther  observed,  for  the  elucidating  a  very 
striking  passage  in  1  ('or.  iv.  9.  that  in  the  Roman  amphi- 
ihiratre  the  best lurii,  who  in  the  morning  combated  with  wild 
beasts,  had  armour  with  which  to  defend  themselves,  and  to 
annoy  and  slay  their  antagonist.  Rut  the  last  who  were 
brou<,rht  upon  the  stage,  which  was  about  noon,^  were  a  nii- 
serabli!  ntnuber,  (piite  naked,  without  any  weapons  to  assail 
their  adversary — with  inmiediat*;  and  inevitable  death  before 
them  in  all  its  horrors,  and  destined  to  be  mangled  and 
biitchered  in  the  direst  manner.  In  allusion  to  this  custom, 
with  what  sublimity  and  energy  are  the  apostles  represented 
to  be  brought  out  last  upon  the  stage,  as  being  devoted  to 
certain  death,  and  being  made  a  public  spec^lacle  to  the 
w;orld,  to  angels  and  men !  For  I  think  that  God  hath  set 
forth  us  the  ajiostlrs  last,  as  it  were  appointed  to  death .-  /J/r 
we  are  made  a  spertarle  to  the  world,  tu  angels  and  intn.  Ijr. 
Whitby's  illustration  of  this  distinguished  passage  is  accu- 
rate and  judicious.  "Here  the  apostle  seems  to" allude  to 
the  Roman  spectacles,  txc  tccv  d-t^lii'./uvycev  *«/  ^cv:^a;^/ac  av/^c- 
<j>:v'.ij,  that  of  the  bestiurii  and  the  gladiators,  where  in  the 
morning  men  were  brought  upon  the  theatre  to  fight  with  wild 
beasts,  and  to  tlu  ni  was  allowed  armour  to  defend  themselves, 
and  smite  the  beasts  that  did  assail  them  :  but  in  the  meri- 
dian spectacle  were  brought  forth  the  gladiators  naked,  and 
without  any  thing  to  defend  them  from  the  sword  of  the 
assailant,  and  he  that  then  escaped  was  only  reserved  for 
slaughter  to  another  day;  so  that  these  men  might  well  be 
called  iyri^xvciTM,  man  appointed  for  death;  and  this  being 
the  last  appearance  on  the  theatre  for  that  day,  they  are  said 
here  to  be  set  forth  ia-j(^:LTu,  the  last." 

V.  But  the  most  splendid  and  renowned  solemnities, 
which  ancient  history  has  transmitted  to  us,  were  the  Olym- 
pic Games.  Historians,  orators,  and  poets,  abound  with 
references  to  them,  and  their  sublimest  imagery  is  borrowed 
from  these  celebrated  exercises.  "These  games  were  so- 
lemnized every  fifth  year  by  an  infinite  concourse  of  peo[)le 
from  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. »  They  were  celebrated 
w;ith  the  greatest  pomp  and  magnificence:  hecatombs  of 
victims  were  slain  in  honour  of  the  immortal  gods;  and  Elis 
was  a  scene  of  universal  festivity  and  joy.  There  were 
other  public  games  instituted,  as  the  Pythian,  Nemean, 
Isthmian;  which  could  also  boast  of  the  valour  and  dexterity 
of  their  combatants,  and  show  a  splendid  list  of  illustrious 
narnes,  who  had,  from  time  to  time,  honoured  them  with 
their  presence.  But  the  lustre  of  these,  though  maintained 
for  a  series  of  years,  was  obscured,  and  almost  totally 
eclipsed  by  the  Olympic.  We  find  that  the  most  formidable 
and  opulent  sovereigns  of  those  times  were  competitors  for 

«  The  same  metaphors  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Hernd  is  called  a  fox  ;  Go  and  tell  that  fox.  (Luke  xiii.  32.)  Ifypo- 
eritos  arc  called  wolves  in  sheep's  clothing.  (Malt.  vii.  15.)  Rapacious'and 
|iiorci'nary  preachers  are  styled  wolves,  that  will  enter  and  ravage  the  fold: 
There  will  enter  among  you  grievous  wolves,  not  sparing  the  flock.  (Act.") 
XX.  20.)  The  apostle  uses  a  harsher  metaphor  to  denote  the  malice  and 
rage  of  his  adversaries:  Beware  of  dogs.  (Phil.  iii.  2.)  Had  St.  Paul  been 
thus  engaged,  says  Dr.  Ward,  it  is  difficult  to  apprehend  how  he  could  have 
espapi'd  without  a  miracle.  For  tliose  who  conquered  the  bea.^ls  were 
alU-rwards  obliged  to  tight  with  men  till  they  were  killed  themselves.  It 
seems  most  reasonable,  therefore,  to  understand  the  expression  (::i-p.t^x. 
^■jo-x)  as  metaphorical,  and  that  he  alludes  to  the  tumult  raised  by  Deme- 
trius. He  uses  the  like  metaphor,  and  with  respect  to  the  same  thing 
(1  Cor.  iv._9.),  and  again  (13.),  alluding  to  another  custom.  As  to  the  expres- 
sion, Kxt"  xvjp.To.'  in  1  Cor.  xv.  32.  the. sense  seems  to  be  humanitus 
loquendo.  Dr.  Ward's  Di.sserlalions  on  Scripture,  dissert,  xlix.  pp.  200,  201. 
The  very  same  word  which  the  apostle  here  employs  to  denote  the  vio- 
lence and  fury  of  his  adversaries  is  used  by  Ignatius  in  the  like  metaphori- 
cal sense,  Arro  i:upix,-  jusxpi  Pu../ii-,-  bHPIOMAX:!  J.x  yyj;  XX.  bx\xir<rii, 
luxTOi  XXI  Kf'.fx!.  All  the  way  from  Syria  to  Rome,  bv  sea  and  by  land,  by 
niahl  and  by  day,  do  I  pight  with  wild  beasts.  Icna'tii  Epist.  ad  Rom.  pi 
W.  eilit.  Oxon.  1708.  IlpoeoXxiro-x.  it  u//xi  x^o  rav  cijpiuiv  xi  ;-px'5!-i;/.cpru.-v.  I 
advise  you  to  beware  of  beasts  in  the  shape  of  men,  p.  22.  So  also  the 
Psalmist,  My  soul  is  among  lions,  even  the  sons  of  mon,  tr/iose  leelfi  are 
spriirsandarroirs.  (Psal.  Ivii.  4.)  Break  their  teelh,  O  Godwin  their  mouths, 
lireak  out  the  great  tfeth  of  the  young  lions,  O  Lord.  (Psal.  Iviii.  6.)  Seo 
also  Lakemacher's  Observaliones  Sacra?,  part  ii.  pp.  194 — 196. 

■>  Matulinariim  non  ultima  prfpda  ferariim.  Martial,  xiii.  95.  Casii  in 
nieridianiim  speetacuhmi  incidi— qiiicquid  ante  pugnatiiniest,  misericordia 
fuit,  nunc  omissis  nugis  mera  hoiiiicidia  sum:  niliil  habent  quo  teganliir, 
ad  ictum  totiscorporibiis  expositi— non  galea,  non  scuto  repellitur  ferrum. 
Seneca,  tom.  ii.  epist.  vii.  pp.  17,  18.  edit.    Gronov.  1672.     A)rc>.>,uWo  /u»v 

i-ffix  iKxX'TTa,  xvJpx.-TCi  Ss  CTO).>.in,  CI  iJtv  xXf.xXots  nx'/,'.ftlvoi,  ii   Si  XXI  ijr' 

ix.'iiui/  xi,x\^Mi">.  Dion.  Cassius,  lib.  Ix.  p.  951.  Reimar.  See  also  pp. 
971,  972.  ejusdem  edilionis.  See  also  Beausobre's  note  on  ICor.  iv.  9.  and 
Lipsii  Saturnalia,  tom.  vi   p.  951. 

8  Jospphns,  De  Bell.  Jiid.  lib.  i.  cap.  21.  §12.  ed.  Havercamp.  Arriani 
Epicteius,  lib.  iii.  p.  456.  edit.  Upton.  1741. 


192  ALLUSIONS  TO  THE 

the  Olympic  crown.  We  see  the  kinq^s  of  Macedon,'  the 
tyrants  of  Sicily,^  the  princes  of  Asia  Minor,  and  at  last  the 
lords  of  imperial  Rome,  and  emperors  of  liie  world,'  incited 
hy  a  love  of  Silory,  tlie  last  infirmity  of  noble  minds,  enter 
their  names  amonir  the  candidates,  and  contend  for  the  envied 
palrn; — judgiiiir  their  felicity  completed,  and  the  career  of 
all  human  |lory  and  greatness  happily  terminated,  if  they 
could  hut  interweave  the  Olympic  o-irland  with  the  laurels 
they  had  purchased  in  fields  of  blood. '  The  various  games, 
which  the  Romans  celebrated  in  their  capital  and  in  the 
principal  cities  and  towns  of  Italy,  with  such  splendour, 
ostentation,  and  expense,  seem  to  have  been  instituted  in 
imitation  of  the  Grecian;  though  these  were  greatly  inferior 
in  point  of  real  merit  and  intrinsic  glory :  tor  though  the 
Romans  had  the  gymnastic  exercises  of  the  stadium  and  the 
chariot-race,  yet  the  mutual  slaughter  of  such  numbers  of 
gladiators,  the  combats  with  lions,  bears,  and  tigers,  though 
congenial  to  the  saiiguina  y  ferocity  and  brutality  of  these 
people, — for  no  public  entertainment  could  be  made  agreea- 
ble without  these  scenes, — must  present  spectacles  to  the 
last  degree  shocking  to  huinanity;  for  every  crown  here 
won  was  dipt  in  blood. 

1.  "The  Olympic  exercises  principally  consisted  in  run- 
ning, wrestling,  and  the  chariot-race ;  for  leaping,  throwing  the 
darf,  and  discus,  were  parts  of  that  they  called  the  Pantathlon. 
The  candidates  were  to  be  freemen,  and  persons  of  unexcep- 
tionable inorals.5  A  defect  in  legitimacy  or  in  personal 
character  totally  disqualified  them.  It  was  indispensably 
necessary  for  them  previously  to  submit  to  a  severe  regimen." 
At  their  own  houses  they  prescribed  themselves  a  particular 
course  of  diet;  and  the  laws  required  them,  when  they  had 
given  in  their  names  to  be  enrolled  in  the  list  of  competitors, 
to  resort  to  Elis,  and  reside  there  thirty'  days  before  the  games 
commenced;  where  the  regimen  and  preparatory  exercises 
were  regulated  and  directed  by  a  number  of  illustrious  per- 
sons who  were  appointed  every  day  to  superintend  them. 
This  form  of  diet  they  authoritatively  prescribed,  and  reli- 
giously inspected,  that  the  combatants  might  acquit  them- 
selves in  the  conflict  in  a  manner  worthy  the  Grecian  name, 
worthy  the  solemnity  of  the  occasion,  and  worthy  those 
crowds  of  illustrious  spectators  by  whom  they  would  be  sur- 
rounded. There  are  many  passages  in  the  Greek  and  Roman 
classics  which  make  mention  of  that  extreme  strictness,  tem- 
perance, and  continence  which  the  candidates  were  obliged 
to  observe. 

Qui  stud'?t  optatain  ciirsu  coiit'mgcre  melam, 

MuUa  lulit  f.  clique  pucr  ;  sudavit  et  alsit : 

Abstinuit  vencre  et  vino.  Hor.  Art.  Poet.  ver.  412. 


GRECIAN  GAMES,  &c. 


[Part  IV 


A  youlh,  who  liopes  th'  Olympic  prize  to  gain, 
All  arts  mnsl  try,  and  every  toil  sustain  ; 
Til'  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  uiust  often  prove.- 
Andshun  the  vveak'nins  joys  of  wine  and  love. 


Francis. 


The  following  is  a  very  distinguished  passage  in  Arrian's 
discourses  of  Epictetus,  which  both  represents  to  the  reader 
the  severity  of  this  regimen  and  the  arduous  nature  of  the 
subseijuent  contention  :-^ — "  Do  you  wish  to  conquer  at  the 
Olympic  games'? — But  consider  what  precedes  and  follows, 
and  then  if  it  be  for  your  advantage,  engage  in  the  affair.  You 
must  conform  to  rules ;  submit  to  a  diet,  refrain  froin  dainties, 
exercise  your  body  whether  you  choose  it  or  not,  in  a  stated 
hour,  in  heat  and  cold  :  you  must  drink  no  cold  water,  nor  some- 
times even  wine.     In  a  word,  you  must  give  yourself  up  to 

I  Philip.  Eadctn  qnoque  die  nuntinm  pater  ejus  [Pliilippus]  daiirum  vic- 
toriarum  aecepil  :  atterius,  belli  Illyrici,  alteniis,  ceriaiuinis  Olynipici,  in 
qnod  quadri^'aniincurrnsiniserat.  .lustin.  lib.  xii.  cap.  lGTp..359.  edit.  Gro- 
nov.  1719.  Cui  Alexandro  lana  omnium  virtatuin  natura  ornamenta  exsti- 
tore,  ut  etiam  Olympio  corlaniine  vario  ludicroruni  genere  coiitenderit. 
'  Jusiiu.  lib.  vii.  cap.  2.  p.  217. 

«  Hiero  kin?  ol  Syracuse.  See  Pindar's  first  Olympic  ode  :  his  first  Py- 
thian ode.  Tlieron  king  of  Agrigenium.  See  the  second  and  third  Olympic 
odes.  •- 

3  Nero.  See  Dion  Cassius,  torn.  ii.  pp.  1032,  1033.  10G6.  edit.  Reiniar. 
Aurigavit  [Nero]  plurifariaai,  Olynipiis  etiam  decenijugem.  Suetonius  in 
Vita  Neronis,  p.  GU5.  edit.  var.  Lug.  Bat.  1G62. 

*  Siintquos  curriculo  pulverem  Olympicum 
Collegisse,  juvat :  metaque  fervidis 
Evilata  rotis,  palmaque  nobilis 
Terrarum  domin'os  evehit  ad  Deos.        Horat.  lib.  i.  ode  1. 

5  The  candidates  were  obliged  to  undergo  an  examination  of  another  kind, 
consisting  of  the  following  interrogatories :— 1.  Were  they  freemen  ! 
2.  Were  they  Grecians  ?  3.  Were  their  characters  clear  from  all  infamous 
and  immoral  stains  !  West's  Dissertation  on  the  Olympic  Games,  p.  152. 
edit.  12mo. 

0  Arriani  Epictetus,  lib.  iii.  p.  456.  Tipton. 

■■  Pliilostratus,  de  Vita  ApoUonii,  lib.  v.  cap.  43.  p.  227.  edit.  Olcarii.  Lip- 
sia;,  1709. 

«  Epictetus,  lib  iii.  c.  15.  See  also  Epicteti  Enchriidion.  cap.  29.  p.  710. 
edit.  Upton. 


your  master,  as  to  a  physician.  Then,  in  the  combat  you 
may  be  thrown  into  a  ditch,  dislocate  your  arm.  turn  your 
ankle,  swallow  abundance  cf  dust,  be  whipped,  r,nd.  i^f'ev  :ill. 
lose  the  victory.  Wiien  you  have  reckoned  up  all  this,  if 
your  inclination  still  holds,  set  ab^  ut  the  cf  ndrat."-' 

2.  "  After  this  preparatory  discipline,  on  the  daj'  appointed 
for  the  celebration,  a  herald  calh  d  over  their  names,  recited 
to  them  the  laws  of  the  games,  encouraged  them  to  exert  all 
their  powers,  and  expatiated  upon  the  bit  ssings  and  advan- 
tages of  victory.  He  then  introduced  tlie  competitors  into 
tlie  stadium,  led  them  around  it.  and,  with  a  loud  voice,  de- 
manded if  any  one  in  tliat  assembly  could  charge  any  of  the 
candidates  with  beinw  infamous  in  his  life  and  morals,  or 
could  prove  him  a  slave,  a  robber,  or  illegitimate.'"  They 
were  then  conducted  to  the  altar,  and  a  solemn  oath  exacted 
from  them,  that  they  would  observe  the  strictest  honour  in 
the  contention.  Afterwards,  those  who  were  to  enga<ie  in  the 
foot-race  were  brought  to  the  barrier,  along  which  they  were 
arranged,  and  waited,  in  all  the  excesses  of  ardt  ur  and  impa- 
tience, fur  the  signal.  The  cord  being  dropped,  they  all  at 
once  sprung  forward,"  fired  with  the  love  of  glory,  conscious 
that  the  eyes  of  all  assembled  Greece  were  now  upon  them,  ■ 
and  that  the  envied  palm,  if  they  won  it,  would  secure  them  ' 
the  highest  honours,  and  immortalize  their  memory.  It  is 
natural  to  imagine  with  what  rapidity  tliey  would  urge  their 
course,  and,  emulous  of  glory,  stretch  every  nerve  to  reach 
the  goal.  This  is  beautifully  represented  in  the  following 
elegant  epigram  (translated  by  Mr.  West)  on  Arias  of  Tarsus, 
victor  in  the  stadium  : — 

The  speed  of  Arias,  victor  in  the  race. 
Brings  to  thy  founder,  Tarsus,  no  disgrace; 
For,  able  in  the  course  witli  him  to  vie. 
Like  him,  he  seems  on  feather'd  feet  lo  fly. 
The  barrier  when  ho  quits,  the  dazzled  sight 
In  vain  essays  to  catch  liiin  in  his  flight. 
Lost  is  tlie  racer  through  the  whole  career, 
Till  victor  at  the  goal  he  reappear 

In  all  these  athletic  exercises  the  combatants  contended 
naked  ;'2  for  though,  at  first,  they  wore  a  scarf  rouiid  the  W'aist, 
yet  an  unfortunate  casualty  once  happening,  when  this  dis- 
engaging itself,  and  entangling  round  the  feet,  threw  the  per- 
son down,*  and  proved  the  unhappy  occasion  of  his  losing  the 
victory,  it  was,  after  this  accident,  adjudged  to  be  laid  aside." 

3.  "  Chaplets  composed  of  the  sprigs  of  a  wild  olive,' '  and   . . 
branches  of  palm,  were  publicly  placed  on  a  tripod  in  the 
middle  of  the  stadium,''  full  in  the  view  of  the  competitors, 

to  inflame  them  with  all  the  ardour  of  contention,  and  all  the 
spirit  of  the  most  generous  emulation.  Near  the  goal  was 
erected  a  tribunal,  on  which  s  it  the  presidents  of  the  games, 
called  Hellanodics,  personages  venerable  for  their  years  and 
characters,  who  were  the  sovereign  arliiters  and  judges  of 
these  arduous  contentions,  the  impartial  witnesses  of  the 
respective  merit  and  pretensions  of  each  coinbatant,  and  with 
the  strictest  justice  conferred  the  crown. 

4.  "  It  is  pleasing  and  instructive  to  observe,  how  the  se- 
veral particulars  here  specified  concerning  these  celebrat(>d 
solemnities,  which  were  held  in  the  highest  renown  and  glory 

in  the  days  of  the  apostles,  explain  ana  illustrate  various  pas-       I 
sages  in  their  writings,  the  beauty,  energy,  and  subliinity  of 
which  consist  in  the  metaphorical  allusions  to  tiiese  games, 
from  the  various  gymnastic  exercises  of  which  tht  ir  elegant 
and  impressive  imagery  is  borrowed.     Thus  the  writer  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (an  epistle  which,  in  point  of  com- 
position, may  vie  with  the  most  pure  and  elahorate  of  the      i 
Greek  classics)   says,  IViitrcfore  seeing  ice  also  are  conipassed      \ 
ubuiU  with  so  great  a  cloud  of  witnesses.  Id  us  lay  aside  every      ' 

»  Mrs.  Carter's  translation  of  Arrian,  pp.268,  269.    London,  1758.  4to. 
»f  See  West's  Dis.sertalion  on  the  Olympic  Games,  p.  194.  12uio. 

11 signoqne  repenle 

.       Corripiunt  spatia  andilo,  limenque  relinquunt 
ElTusi,  nimbo  similes  :  sinnU  ultima  signanl. 

Virgil.  .aJneid.  v.  ver.  315 

12  Thncydides,  lib.  i.  §  6.  torn.  i.  pp.  16,  17.  ed.  Glasg. 

13  In  the  xivlh  Olymjiiad,  one  Orsippns,  a  racer,  happened  to  be  thrown 
down  by  bis  scarf  tangling  about  his  feet,  and  was  killed  ;  though  otliprssay 
that  he  only  lost  the  victory  by  that  fall;  but  whichever  way  it  was,  occa- 
sion was  taken  from  thence  to  make  a  law,  that  all  the  a/A/e/es  for  the  future 
should  contend  naked.     West's  Dissertation,  p.  66.  12mo. 

II  To  yiifj.i  tiTTii/  oun  xfy\ip-.c^  orj^i  xovtro:,  5u  ^«v  omU-  xotivou  a-TiCxvt>f  n 
o-sxivou.  Josephns  contra  Apion.  lib.  ii.  §.30.  p.  488.  Havercamp.  Sirabo, 
in  his  geographical  description  of  the  Elian  territories,  mentions  a  grove 
of  wild  olives.  Etrr;  i'.jx<rc;  xy  fii'KxfAiv  !7-/^i,p;;.  Strabo,  lib.  viii.  p.  343. 
edit.  Paris,  1620.  Probably  from  this  grove  the  Olympic  crowns  were  com- 
posed. 

•5  To  excite  the  emulation  of  the  competitors,  by  placing  in  their  view  the 
object  of  their  ambition,  these  crowns  were  laid  upon  a  tripod  or  tables 
which  during  the  games  was  brousht  out  and  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
stadium.     West's  Dissertation,  p.  174.  12mo. 


Cl.Al'.  VIII.] 


IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


193 


f 
III 


weifrfit,  and  the  sin  which  doth  .w  easili/  beset  us,  and  let  us  run  I 
vnih  padnice  l/ie  race  that  is  set  Iteforc  us  ,-   hiahini^  uiiId  Jesus, 
the  author  and  finisher  iif  uur  faith,  who  frr  the  jiiij  that  was  set 
Ixjurc  him,  endured  the  cross,  de.s/iisinu;  the  shame,  and  is  set 
down  at  the  ri-rht  hand  of  the  majrsli/  on  hi}^h.      Fur  consider 
him  that  endureth  snieh  contradict iini  of  sinners  against  himself, 
test  you  be  wearied  and  fiint  in   i/oar  minds,      IVherefire  lift 
up  the  hands  that  hanii;  down,  and  the  felile  knees  ,•  and  matte 
strai<rhl  paths  for  your  feet,  lest  tlnil  which  is  lame  lie  turned  out 
(if  the  way.  (lid),  xii.  1 — ."?.  12,  13.)     In  ■allusion  tfi  tliat  |)ro- 
difrious  assembly,  from  all   parts  of  tlu;  world,'  wliich  was 
convened    at  Olynipia  to  be  sjjcetators  of  those  ecdebnited 
j^ames,  the   apostles  places  tlm  (,'liristian  cond)atanl  in  the 
midst  of  a  most  aumist  and  matrnificent  theatre,  composed  of 
all  those  frreat  and  illustrious  characters,  whom  in  the  pre- 
ceding ciiapter  he  h;id  enumerated,  th''  fanei<>d   presence  of 
whom  should  fire  him  with  a  virtunus  arnl)ition,  and  animate 
him  w^ith  imcon(]uered  ardour  to  run  the  race  that  was  set 
bclon;  him.      IVlienfire  seein;j;   u-e  are  compassed  about  with 
such  a  cloud  of  witnesses  .^  whose  eyes  are  upon  us,  who  expect 
every  thinfj  t""roin  the  preparatory  discipline  we  have  received, 
and  who  lonjr  to  applaud  and  conirralul.ite  us  upon  our  victory : 
let  us  lai/  aside  every  weiu;ht,'^  and  the  sin  that  doth  so  easily  beset 
us  ;^  let  US  throw  olT  every  impediment,  as  the  competitors  for 
the  Olympic  crown  did,  and  tliat  sin  that  would  entan<rle  and 
impede  our  steps,  and  prov(^  tiie  fatal  cause  of  our  losing  the 
victory;  and  let  us  run  with  patience  the  race  set  hefure  us ,- 
like  those  who  ran  in  the  Grecian  stadium,  let  us,  inflamed 
with  the  idea  of  oflory,  honour,  and  immortality,  urge  our 
course  with  unrenuttinir  ardour  toward  the  destined  happy 
loal  for  the  prize  of  our  high  calling  in  God  our  Saviour, 
ho/fiiifr  unto  Jesus  the  author  and  finisher  of  our  faith  :  as  the 
candidates  for  the  Olympic  honours,  during  the  arduous  con- 
tention, had  in  view  those  illustrious   and  venerable   per- 
sonages from  whose  hands  tliey  were  to  receive  the  envied 
palm,  and  who  were  immediate  witnesses  of  their  respective 
conduct  and  merit;  in  imitation  of  them,  let  us  Christians 
keep  our  eyes  steadfastly  fixed  upon  Jesus  the  original  intro- 
ducer and  perfecter  of  our  religion,  who,  if  we  are  victorious, 
will  rejoice  to  adorn  our  temples  with  a  crown  of  glory  that 
will  never  fade  ;  who,  for  the  Joy  set  before  him,^  endured  the 
cross,  despisini^the  shame,  and  is  now  set  down  at  the  right  hand 
of  God :  Jesus  himself,  to  seize  the  glorious  palm  which  his 
God  and  Father  placed  full  in  his  view  in  order  to  inspirit 
him  with  ardour  and  alacrity,  in  the  race  he  had  set  before 
him,  cheerfully  submitted  to  sorrows  and  sufferings,  endured 
the  cross,  contemning  the  infamy  of  such  a  death,  and,  in 
consequonce  of  perseverance  and  victory,  is  now  exalted  to 
the  highest  honours,  and  placed  on  the  right  hand  of  the  Su- 
preme Majesty.     For,  consider  him  that  endureth  such  contra- 
diction of  sinners  against  himself,  lest  yc  be  wearied  and  faint 
in  your  minds  ,■'"'  consider  him  who  conflicted  with  such  oi)po- 
sition  of  wicked  men  all  confederated  against  him,  and  let 
reflections  on  his  fortitude  prevent  j'our  being  languid  and 
dispirited  ;  therefore  lift  up  the  hands  which  hung  down,  and 
the  feeble  knees  J     And  make  straight  paths  fur  your  feet,  lest 

•  Not  merely  the  inhabitantsof  Athens,  of  Laceclffimpn,  and  of  Nicopolis, 
liut  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  world  are  convened  to  be  spectators  of  the 
Olympic  exercises.     Arriani  Epictetus,  lib.  iii.  p.  456.  Upton. 

i  Nsjoi /uxprupuv.  A  cloud  of  witnesses.  This  form  of  expression  occurs 
in  the  politest  writers.  See  Iliad,  x.  133.  vEneid,  vii.  703.  Andron.  Rho- 
riii  Argonauticon,  iv.  398.  Appian,  Pise.  i.  403.  and  Euripidis  Hecuba, 
vcr.  907. 

a  Oyx:>v  xrro^iftivm  Travrn.  A  stadio  sumpta  similitudo  :  ibi  qui  cursuri 
sunt,  omnia  qua;  oneri  esse  possunt,  deponunt.  Grot,  in  loc.  Monet  ut 
o>x3r  abjiciamus,  quo  vocabulo  crassa  omnis  et  tarda  moles  simiificatur. 
Beza. 

«  EuTip.rTaTOi-.  Eiitanjiled  by  wrapping  round.  An  allusion  to  the  gar- 
nientsof  the  Greeks  which  were  lonjj,  and  wmilil  entangle  and  impede  their 
Btepa,  if  not  thrown  off  in  the  race.     See  Hallet,  in  loc. 

'  llpox-iuiv,,-  xMTv  x*pxi.  The  joy  placed  full  in  his  view.  In  the  Olym- 
pic exercises  the  prize  was  publicly  placed  in  the  view  of  the  combatants 
^  fire  their  enmlation.  The  Ibllowing  note  of  Krebsius  is  very  elegant  :— 
Elegantissima  melaphora  est  vocis  -f-.xiijusvi;;,  e  veterum  certaminum 
raiione  dncta.  Prnprie  enini  -poxfiirjxi  dicuntur  tm  it^x.x^  sc.  prieniiacer- 
taniinis,  qua;  publice  proponunlur  in  propatulo,  ut  eorum  aspectus,  cer- 
laque,  eorum  adipiscendorum  spes,  certaturos  alacriores  redderet  ad  cer- 
umen ineunduui,  victorianique  reportandam.  J.  Tob.  Krebsii  Observat.  in 
N.  T.  e  Joseph,  p.  .377.     Lips.  1755.  8vo. 

«  lijt  /»n  x».ui,Ti,  Txij  |ux:«i,-  i,uojw  sxKua.utm.  jjinc  duo  Verba  a  pala^stra  et 
adathledsde.-iumptasunt,  qui  propriedicuntut  xxMvstv  et  yuxx';  ixx.u-TJxi, 
cum  corporis  viribus  debilitati  et  fracti,  omnique  spe  vincendi  abjecta, 

victas  mauus  danl  adversario Neque  dubium  est  quin  apostolus  eo 

respexent.  ■'Krebsius,  p.  3'.10. 

Uuemadmodum  Paulus  siepissime  delectafnr  loquendi  formutis  ex  re  pa- 
la!strir,:\  pelitis  ;  ita  dubium  non  est,  quin  hie  quoque  respexisse  eo  videa- 
tur.  Alhletis  enun  et  luctatorlbus  tribuntur  :rxp... .<«.:«.  '/j>?'-i  et  ■=rx,.:.A.sXu. 
M:v»  >ov»r»,  cum  luclando  ita  defatigati,  viribusque  fracti  sunt,  ut  neque 
manus  neque  pedes  olTicio  suo  fungi  possint,  ipsi(iue  adeo  victo.s  se  esse 
lateri  cogantur.    Krebsius,  p.  .392.       •^  '    '     i 

Vol.  II.  2C 


that  which  is  lame  be  turned  out  of  the  way  :  exert  in  the  Chris- 
tian race  those  nerves  that  have  been  relaxed,  and  collect 
those  spirits  which  have  been  sunk  in  dejection:  make  a 
smooth  and  even  ))ath  for  your  ste])s,  and  remove  every  thing 
that  would  obstruct  and  retard  your  velocity. 

"The  following  distinguished  passage  in  St.  Paul's  first 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (ix.  24 — 27.)  abounds  with 
agonistical  terms.  Its  beautiful  and  striking  imagery  is 
totally  borrowed  from  the  (ireek  stadium.  Know  ye  not 
that  they  who  run  in  a  race,  run  all,  but  inie  receivelh  the 
prize?  So  run,  that  ye  may  obtain.  Jind  every  mun^that 
striveth  fin-  the  mastery,  is  temperate  in  all  things.  Now  they 
do  it  to  obtain  a  cornrptible  crown  ;  but  we  an  incorruptible. 
I  therefore  so  run,  not  as  uncertainly  ,-  so  fight  I,  not  as  one 
that  bratelh  the  air :  but  I  keep  under  my  body,  and  bring  it 
into  subjection ,-  lest  that  by  any  means,  when  I  have  preached 
the  Gospel  to  others,  I  myself  should  be  a  cast-away  :  know  you 
not  that  in  the  CJrecian  stadium  great  numbers  ruti  with  the 
utmost  contention  to  secure  the  prize,  but  that  only  one  person 
wins  and  receives  ]  With  the  same  ardour  and  perseverance  do 
you  run,  that  you  may  seize  the  garland  of  celestial  glory. 
Every  one,  also,  wdio  enters  the  list  as  a  combatant,  submits 
to  a  very  rigid  and  severe  regimen. »  They  do  this  to  gain 
a  fading  chapUt,-'  that  is  only  composed  of  the  decaying 
leaves  of  a  wild  olive,  but  in  our  view  is  hung  up  the 
unfading  wreath  of  immortality.'"  With  this  in  full  pros- 
pect I  run  the  Christian  race,  not  distressed  with  wretched 
uncertainty  concerning  its  final  issue."  I  engage  as  a  com- 
batant, but  deal  not  my  blows  in  empty  air.'^  But  I  inure 
my  body  to  the  severest  discipline,  and  bring  all  its  appetites 
into  subjection  :  lest,  when  1  have  proclaimed'^  the  glorious 
prize  to  others,  I  should,  at  last,  be  rejected  as  unworthy'^ 
to  obtain  it.  This  representation  of  the  Christian  race  must 
make  a  strong  impression  upon  the  minds  of  the  Corinthi- 
ans, as  they  were  so  often  spectators  of  those  games,  which 
were  celebrated  on  the  Isthmus,  upon  which  their  city  was 
situated.  It  is  very  properly  introduced  with.  Know  vou 
NOT  ;  for  every  citizen  in  Corinth  was  acquainted  with  every 
minute  circumstance  of  this  most  splendid  and  pompous  so- 
lemnity. St.  Paul,  in  like  manner,  in  his  second  Epistle  to 
Timothy  (ii.  5.),  observes,  that  if  a  man  strive  for  mastery, 
yet  is  he  not  crowned  unless  he  strive  lawfully  .•  he  who  con- 
tends in  the  Grecian  games  secures  not  the  crown,  unless  he 
strictly  conform  to  the  rules  prescribed. 

"  What  has  been  observed  concerning  the  spirit  and 
ardour  with  which  the  competitors  engaged  in  the  race, 
and  concerning  the  prize  they  had  in  view  to  reward  their 
arduous  contention,  will  illustrate  the  following  sublime 
passage  of  the  same  sacred  writer  in  his  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians  (iii.  12 — 14.): — Not  as  though  I  had  already 
attained,  either   were  already  perfect ;  but  I  follow   after,  if 

«  rise;  St  0  ctyaowi^o/isi/o;  viivTx  iyxfxTivtrxi.  We  have  already  noticed 
how  rigid  and  severe  this  regimen  v\as,  and  what  temperance  and  conti- 
nence [iyxpxTsix]  those  who  entered  their  names  in  the  list  of  combatants 
were  previously  obliged  to  observe.  Multa  tulit  fecitque  puer,  sudavit  et 
alsit :  abstinuit  venere  et  vino,  says  Horace.  See  .^liani,  Var.  Hist.  lib.  xi. 
cap.  3.  p.  (384.  Gronovii  Lug.  Bat.  1731,  and  Plato  de  Lcgibus,  lib.  viii.  pp. 
130,  IJO.  edit.  Serrani,  ].'''78,  and  Euslathius  ad  Horn.  Iliad  n.  p.  1472. 

»  il'jxjjToi/  a-TKfxvuv.  The  chaplet  that  was  bestowed  on  the  victor  in  the 
Olympic  games  was  made  of  wild  olive,  the  crowns  in  the  Isthmian  games 
were  composed  of  parsley.    These  chaplets  were  fading  and  transitory. 

Ai5':u;  XXI  TCi;  JK/«f\ixci;  o-ts^xkou  /uiv  ou  ;if f uo-oi/,-,  xX./,'  lirjrsp  f.r  oKv/attix, 

xinivjiv.  Plutarch.  Cato,  jun.  p.  1433.  edit.  Gr.  Sleph.  8vo.  See  also  Por- 
phyrius  de  Antro  Nympharum,  p.  210.  edit.  Cantab.  1655.  Philonis  Opera, 
tom.  ii.  p.  463.  edit.  Slangey.  Tcu;  yxj,  tx  Iri-ftix  v<x»i.tx;  oi'  K-.fivi,:,  touv 
(TiA-iv^i-  o-Ti-avsvcr.v.  Those  who  conquer  in  the  Isthmian  games  the  Corin- 
thians crown  with  parsley.  Polyajni  Stratag.  hb.  v.  p.  376.  edit.  Casaubon. 
1589. 

•0  'H.usi;  J«,  x^ixfTov.  With  what  ardour  in  the  Christian  race  this  glo- 
rious crown  should  inspire  us  is  well  represented  by  Irenaeus.  Bonus 
igit.ur  agoni.sta  ad  incorruptelff  agonem  adhortatur  nos,  uti  coronemur,  et 
precio.-;am  arbilremur  coronans,  videlicet  qua;  per  agonem  nobis  acqiiirilur, 
sed  nou  ullro  coalitam.  Et  quanio  per  agonem  nobis  advenit,  tanto  est  pre- 
ciosior:  qiiantfl  autem  preciosior,  tanto  earn  semper  diligamus.  Irenaeus, 
lib.  iv.  p.  377.  edit.  Grab.  T.he  folly  also  of  Christians  in  being  negligent  and 
remiss,  when  an  incorruptible  crown  awaits  their  persevering  and  victori- 
ous constancy  and  virlue,  is  also  beautifully  exposed  by  Justin  Martyr.  See 
his  Apol.ii.  p  78.  edit.     Paris.  1636. 

«i  So  we  understand  oux  xSr.Kj--;,  Mr.  West  renders  if,  in  the  illustration 
he  has  given  us  of  this  passage  ;  I  so  run,  a.s  not  to  pass  imdistinguished  ; 
and  then  adds  the  following  note:  'i!,-  oux  xS<fK^;,  may  ali^o  signify  in  this 
]>lace.  as  if  I  was  unseen,  not  unobserved,  i.  e.  as  if  I  was  in  the  presence 
of  the  judge  of  the  games,  and  a  great  number  of  spectators.  West's  Dis- 
sertation, p.  2.53.  12mo. 

n  OuTcu  iruxTiu.",  iJt  eux  xifx  Jipx.v.  This  circumstance  is  often  ineniionrd 
in  describing  (he  engagements  of  coud)atanls ;  thus,  Virgil  has,  Entellus 
vires  in  ventum  efludit.  ^neid.  v.  443.  Vacuas  agit  inconsulia  per  auras 
Brachia.  Valerius  Flaccus,  iv.  3(.B.  Tf  i;  J'  y.ifx  tu^-s  Qxi'.txi.  Iiiad,  T.  446. 
See  also  Oppian.  Piscat.  lib.  ii.  ver.  4nO.     Rittershus.  Lug.  Bat   1597. 

13  Ax.>.iji,-  x>ifujx5  ;  proclaimed,  as  a  herald,  the  prize  to  others.  A  herald, 
"•■pul,  made  proclamaltou  at  the  games  what  rewards  would  be  bestowed 
on  the  conquerors. 

'*  At'.xtft'j;  y(v;.f,xi.  Be  disapproved;  be  rejected  as  unworthv  ;  cuma 
I  ofTwithcut  honour  ami  approbaiioii. 


194 


DISEASES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  IV.  Chap.  IX. 


that  I  iimfi  apprehend  that  for  which  ako  I  am  apprehended 
of  Christ  Je.sus.  Brethren,  I  count  nut  myself  to  have  appre- 
hended:  hut  this  one  t fling  I  do,  forgetting  tliose  things  which 
are  behind,  and  reaching  forth  unto  those  things  which  are 
before,  I  press  towards  the  mark,  for  the  prize  of  the  high 
calling  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus  :  Not  that  already  I  have 
acquired  this  palm ,-  not  that  I  have  already  attained  per- 
fection ;  but  I  pursue  my  course,  that  I  may  seize  that  crown 
of  immortality,  to  the  hope  of  wliich  I  was  raised  by  the 
gracious  appointment  of  Christ  Jesus.  My  Christian  breth- 
ren, I  do  not  esteem  myself  to  have  obtained  this  glorious 
prize:  but  one  thing  occupies  my  whole  attention;  forget- 
ting what  1  left  behind,  I  stretch   every   nerve   towards   the 


prize  before  me,  pressing  with  eager  and  rapid  steps,  towards 
the  goal,  to  seize  the  immortal  palm^  which  God,  by  Christ 
Jesus,  bestows.  This  affecting  passage,  also,  of  the  same 
apostle,  in  the  second  Epistle  of  Timothy,  written  a  little 
before  his  martyrdom,  is  beautifully  allusive  to  the  above- 
mentioned  race,  to  the  crown  that  awaited  the  victory,  and 
to  the  Hellanodics  or  judges  who  bestowed  it: — I  have 
fought  a  good  fight,  I  have  finished  my  course,^  I  have  kept 
the  faith.  Henceforth  there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of  right- 
eotisness,  which  the  Lord,  the  righteous  Judge,  shall  give  me  at 
that  day  .■  and  not  to  me  only,  but  to  all  th^  also  that  hv. 
his  appearing.''''  (2  Tim.  iv.  7,  8.) 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ON    THE    DISEASES    MENTIONED    IN    THE    SCRIPTURES,    TREATMENT    OF    THE    DEAD,  AND 

FUNERAL    RITES. 

SECTION  I. 


ON  THE  DISEASES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


I.  Ori^^in  and  Progress  of  the  .^rt  of  Medicine  in  the  East. — II.  JVotice  of  Remedies  in  use  among  the  Jbtvs. — III.  Account 
of  some  particular  Diseases  vientioned  in  the  Scriptures  ;  viz.  1.  The  LeproKy  ; — 2.  Elephantiasis,  t/ie  Disease  of  Job; — 
3.  Disease  of  the  Philistines  ; — 4.  Of  King  Saul; — 5.  Of  King  Jehoram ; — 6.  Of  King  Heztkiah  ; — 7.  Of  J\'ebuchad?iezzar  ; 
— 8.  Palsy; — 9.  Issue  of  Blood  ; — 10.  Blindness; — 11.   The  Beality  of  demoniacal  Possessions  proved. 

I.  The  diseases  to  which  the  human  frame  is  subject  would 
naturally  lead  men  to  try  to  alleviate  or  to  remove  them : 
hence  sprang  the  Art  of  Medicine.  In  the  early  ages  of 
the  world,  indeed,  there  could  not  be  much  occasion  for  an 
art  which  is  now  so  necessary  to  the  health  and  happiness 
of  mankind.  The  simplicity  of  their  manners,  the  plainness 
of  their  diet,  their  temperance  in  meat  and  drink,  and  their 
active  life  (being  generally  occupied  in  the  field,  and  in  rural 
affairs),  would  naturally  tend  to  strengthen  the  body,  and  to 
afford  a  greater  share  of  health  than  what  we  now  enjoy.  So 
long  as  our  first  parents  continued  in  that  state  of  upright- 
ness in  which  they  were  created,  there  was  a  tree,  emphati- 
cally termed  the  tree  of  life,  the  fruit  of  which  was  divinely 
appointed  for  the  preservation  of  health  ^  but  after  the  fall, 
being  expelled  from  Eden,  and,  consequently,  banished  for 
ever  from  that  tree,  they  became  liable  to  various  diseases, 
which,  doubtless,  they  would  endeavour  to  remove,  or  to  miti- 
gate in  various  ways.  From  the  longevity  of  the  patriarchs 
It  is  evident  that  diseases  were  not  very  frequent  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  world,  and  they  seem  to  have  enjoyed  a  suffi- 
ciently vigorous  old  age,  except  that  the  eyes  became  dim 
and  the  sight  lieeble.  (Gen.  xxvii.  1.  xlviii.  10.)  Hence  it  is 
recorded  as  a  remarkable  circumstance  concerning  Moses, 
that  in  extreme  old  age  (for  he  was  an  hundred  and  twenty 
years  old  when  he  died)  his  eye  was  not  dim,  nor  his  natural 
force  abated.  (Deut.  xxxiv.  7.) 

The  Jews  ascribed  the  origin  of  the  healing  art  to  God  him- 
self (Ecclus.  xxxviii.  1, 20»  and  the  Egyptians  attributed  the 
invention  of  it  to  their  god  Thaut  or  Hermes,or  to  Osiris  or  Isis. 

Anciently,  at  Babylon,  the  sick,  when  they  were  first 
attacked  by  a  disease,  were  left  in  the  streets,  for  the  purpose 
of  learning  from  those  who  might  pass  them  what  practices 
or  what  medicines  had  been  of  assistance  to  them,  when 
afflicted  with  a  similar  disease.  This  was,  perhaps,  done 
also  in  other  countries.  The  Egyptians  carried  their  sick 
into  the  temple  of  Serapis ;  the  Greeks  carried  theirs  into 
those  of  iEsculapius.  In  both  of  these  temples  there  were 
preserved  written  receipts  of  the  means  by  which  various 
cures  had  been  effected.  With  the  aid  of  these  recorded  re- 
medies, the  art  of  healing  assumed  in  the  progress  of  time 
the  aspect  of  a  science.  It  assumed  such  a  form,  first  in 
Egypt,  and  at  a  much  more  recent  period  in  Greece;  but  it 
was  not  long  before  those  of  the  former  were  surpassed  in 
excellence  by  the  physicians  of  the  latter  country.  That  the 
Egyptians,  however,  had  no  little  skill  in  medicine,  may  be 
gathered  from  what  is  said  in  the  Pentateuch  respecting  the 
marks  of  leprosy.  That  some  of  the  medical  prescriptions 
should  fail  of  bringing  the  expected  relief  is  by  no  means 
strange,  since  Pliny  himself  mentions  some  which  are  far 


from  producing  the  effects  he  ascribes  to  them.  Physicians 
are  mentioned  first  in  Gen.  1.  2.  Exod.  xxi.  19.  Job  xiii.  4. 
Some  acquaintance  with  chirurgical  operations  is  implied  in 
the  rite  of  circumcision.  (Gen.  xvii.  11 — 14.)  There  is 
ample  evidence  that  the  Israelites  had  some  acquaintance 
with  the  internal  structure  of  the  human  system,  although  it 
does  not  appear  that  dissections  of  the  human  body,  for  medi- 
cal purposes,  were  made  till  as  late  as  the  time  of  Ptolemy. 
That  physicians  sometimes  undertook  to  exercise  their  skill, 
in  removing  diseases  of  an  internal  nature,  is  evident  from 
the  circunistance  of  David's  playing  upon  the  harp  to  cure 
the  malady  of  Saul.  (1  Sam.  xvi.  16.)  The  art  of  healing 
was  committed  among  the  Hebrews,  as  well  as  among  the 
Egyptians,  to  the  priests;  who,  indeed,  were  obliged,  by  a 
law  of  the  state,  to  take  cognizance  of  leprosies.  (Lev.  xiii. 
1 — 14.  57.  Deut.  xxiv.  8,  9.)  Reference  is  made  to  physi- 
cians who  were  not  priests,  and  to  instances  of  sickness, 
disease,  healing,  &c.  in  the  following  passages;  viz.  1  Sam. 

o-Koirov  Jiiuxu)  £571  TO  tlfyiiiiov.  Every  term  here  employed  by  the  apostle 
is  agonistical.  The  whole  passage  beautifully  represents  that  ardour  which 
fired  the  combatants  when  engaged  in  the  race.  Tlieir  spirit  and  conten- 
tion are  in  a  very  striking  manner  descrilaed  in  the  following  truly  poetical 
lines  of  Oppian,  which  happily  illustrate  this  passage  :— 

Hg  S"£  :ro5"'jjX£(>);  [jt.ifj.tKVifjilvai  oev5"p£f  0LS^\'jiV, 
2t«3-/«>)5  cp^>]d-£vT£;,  os-sroo-o-uTOi  w/.tayQ\Jv» 

ripo^pOTiTDCivOjWEVO*    5o\*X0V   T£>-05    EyxOVfUUITtV 
E^XVVirXt  TTBLTiV    5'e   TTOVOg    VUfTTil   T£    TrsKotTtTXt  ^ 

N*xti^  Tc  yKvy.vSMpov  iKSiv  xpxTO?,  £5  t£  ■5rup£-5'p» 
Ai^:»ij  x»i  xapTO;  ctE^Xiov  x/ic<fibxKi<rbxi. 

Oppian  Pise.  lib.  iv.  ver.  101.  edit.  Rittershusii. 

As  when  the  thirst  of  praise  and  conscious  force 

Invite  the  labours  of  the  panting  cotrRSE, 

Prone  from  the  lists  the  blooming  rivals  strain, 

And  spring  exulting  to  the  distant  plain, 

Alternate  feet  with  nimble-measured  bound 

Impetuous  trip  along  the  refluent  ground, 

In  every  breast  ambitious  passions  rise, 

To  seize  the  goal,  and  snatch  th'  immortal  prize. 

Jones's  translation. 

Insfat  equis  auriga  suos  vincentibus,  ilium 

Prcliteritum  teilmens,  extrenios  inter  euntem. 

Herat.  Satyr.  lib.  i.  Sat.  1.11.5,  116. 
3  Tov  APOMON  TeT£X.£XK.  I  have  finished  my  RACE.  The  whole  pa.ssage 
is  beautifully  allusive  to  the  celebrated  games  and  exercises  of  those  times 
Apauac  properly  signifies  a  race.  Theocritus,  Idyl.  iii.  ver.  41.  Sophoclis 
Klectra,  ver.  693.  See  also  ver.  686 — 688.  Euripiiiis  Andromache,  ver.  599. 
Eiiripiilis  Iphigenia  in  Aulide,  ver.  212.  Strabo,  lib.  iii.  p.  1.5.5.  edit.  Paris, 
1620.  XpnoptiontisMcmorab.  pp.  210,  211.  Oxon.  1741.  So  this  word  ought 
to  be  rendered.  (Acts  xx.  24.)  But  none  ofthfse  things  wove  me,  neiiher 
count  I  my  life  dear  unto  myself;  so  that  I  might  finish  my  course  rcith 
joy ;  T£X.£iiinrxi  toi-  APOMON  ;uou  :  finish  the  short  race  of  human  life  with 
honour  and  applause.  It  is  a  beautiful  and  striking  allusion  to  the  race  in 
these  celebrated  games. — In  the  fifth  volume  of  Bishop  Home's  Works, 
there  is  an  animated  discourse  on  the  Christian  race  ;  the  materials  of  which 
are  partly  derived  from  Dr.  Harwood's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament, 
vol.  ii.  sect.  4. 


Sect.  I.] 


DISEASES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


195 


xvi.  16.  1  Kings  i.  2 — 4.  2  Kinors  viii.  29.  ix.  15.  Isa.  i.  G. 
Jer.  viii.  22.  Kzrk.  xxx.  21.  The  probable  reason  of  king 
Asa's  not  seeking  iielp  from  God,  but  from  the  physicians,  as 
mentioned  in  2  Chron.  xvi.  12.,  was,  that  tiiey  iiad  not  at 
that  period  recourse  to  the  simple  medicines  which  nature 
offered,  but  to  certain  svipcirstitious  rites  and  incantations;  and 
this,  no  doubt,  was  the  ground  of  tht;  reflection  which  was 
cast  upon  him.  Ai)out  the  time  of  (Jlirist,  tlio  Hebrew  phy- 
sicians both  made  advancements  in  science,  and  increased  in 
numbers.'  It  appears  from  tlw;  Talmud,^  that  the  Hebrew 
physicians  were  accustomed  to  salute  the  sick  by  saying, 
"  Jirise  from  your  disease.''''  This  salutation  had  a  miraculous 
effect  in  the  mouth  of  .lesvis.  (Mark  v.  11.)  According  to 
the  .lerusalem  Tiilmud,  a  sick  man  was  judged  to  be  in  a 
way  of  recovery,  who  began  to  take  his  usual  food.  (Com- 
pare Mark  v.  l.'l.)  The  ancients  were  accustomed  to  attri- 
bute the  origin  of  diseases,  particularly  of  those  whose  natural 
causes  they  did  not  understand,  to  the  limntdiutc  interference 
of  the  Deity.  Hence  ihey  were  denominated,  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  M-ya-T/^K,  or  the  .sroun^e.i  of  (Jud,  a  word  which  is 
employetl  in  the  New  Testament  by  the  physician  Luke  him- 
selt  (vii.  21.),  and  also  in  Mark  v.  2'.).  3 1.'' 

II.  Concerning  the  remedies  actually  employed  by  the 
Jews  few  particulars  are  certainly  known.  Wounds  were 
bound  up,  after  applying  oil  to  them  (Kzek.  xxx.  21.  Isa.  i. 
6.),  or  pouring  in  a  liniment  composed  of  oil  and  wine  (Luke 
X.  34.),  oil  being  mollifying  and  healing,  while  wine  would 
be  cleansing  and  somewhat  astringent.  Herod  was  let  down 
into  a  bath  of  oil.'  Great  use  was  made  of  the  celebrated 
balm  of  Gilcad.   (Jer.  viii.  22.   xlvi.  11.  li.  8.)     The  com- 

fiarison  in  Prov.  iii.  8.  is  taken  from  the  plasters,  oils,  and 
rictions,  which,  in  the  East,  are  still  employed  on  the  abdo- 
men and  stomach  in  most  maladies :  the  people  in  the  vil- 
lages he'uvr  ignorant  of  the  art  of  making  decoctions  and 
potions,  and  of  the  doses  proper  to  be  administered,  generally 
make  use  of  external  medicines.*  When  Jesus  Christ  autho- 
rized his  apostles  to  heal  the  sick  (Matt.  x.  8.),  the  evangelist 
Mark  relates  that  they  anointed  with  oil  many  that  were  sick, 
and  healed  them.  (vi.  13.)  From  the  expressions  in  Prov. 
iii.  18.  xi.  30.  xiii.  12.  and  xv.  4.  Calmet  thinks  it  proba- 
ble that  the  Jews  had  salutary  herbs  and  plants  which  they 
called  the  tree  of  life,  and  which  we  should  now  call  medi- 
cinal herbs  and  plants,  in  opposition  to  such  as  are  poisonous 
and  dangerous,  which  they  call  the  tree  of  death.  Some 
modern  neologian  expositors  have  imagined,  that  the  Pool  of 
Bethesda  at  Jerusalem  was  a  bath,  the  waters  of  which  de- 
rived their  sanative  power  from  the  entrails  of  the  victims 
offered  in  sacrifice  being  washed  therein  (John  v.  2 — 7.), 
and  that  by  the  angel  was  simply  intended  a  man,  who 
was  sent  to  stir  up  from  the  bottom  the  corrupt  ediment ; 
which  being  distributed  through  the  water,  the  pores  of  the 

Eerson  who  bathed  in  it  were  penetrated  by  this  matter,  and 
is  disorder  repelled.  "  But  tnis  is  a  miserable  evasion,  to 
get  rid  of  the  power  and  goodness  of  God,  built  on  the 
merest  conjecture,  [and]  selt-contradictions,  and  every  way 
as  unlikely  as  it  is  insupportable.  It  has  never  yet  been 
proved,  that  the  sacrifices  were  ever  washed  ;  and,  could  even 
this  be  proved,  who  can  show  that  they  were  washed  in  the 
Pool  of  Bethesda  1  These  waters  healed  a  man  in  a  moment 
of  whatsoever  disease  he  had.  Now,  there  is  no  one  cause 
under  heaven  can  do  this.  Had  only  one  kind  of  disorder 
been  cured  here,  there  might  have  been  some  countenance 


the  characteristic  symptom  of  wliich  is  patches  of  smootn 
laminated  scales,  of  different  siz.  s  and  of  a  circular  form 
This  disease  was  not  peculiar  to  the  Israelites,  but  anciently 
was  endemic  in  Palestine,  as  it  still  is  in  Egypt  and  other 
countries.  In  the  admirable  description  of  the  cutaneous 
affections  to  which  the  Israelites  were  subject  after  their  de- 
parture from  Egypt,  given  by  Moses  in  tlie  thirteenth  chap- 
ter  ot  the  book  of  Leviticus,  there  are  three  which  distinctly 
belong  to  the  leprosy.s  All  of  them  are  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  mna  (BfHRar),  or  "  bright  spot ;"  viz. 

i.  The  pna  (boh«k),  which  imports  brightness  but  in  a 
subordinate  degree,  being  a  dull  white  spot :  it  is  not  conta- 
gious, and  does  not  render  a  person  unclean,  or  make  it 
necessary  that  he  should  be  confined.  Michaelis  describes 
a  case  of  bohak  from  the  traveller  Niebuhr,  in  wliich  the 
spots  were  not  perceptibly  elevated  above  the  skin,  and  did 
not  change  the  colour  of  the  hair :  the  spots  in  this  species 
of  leprosy  do  not  ajjpear  on  the  hands  or  abdomen,  but  on  the 
neck  and  face  they  gradually  spread,  and  continue  sometimes 
only  about  two  months,  though  in  some  ca.ses  as  long  as  two 
years,  when  they  gradually  disappear  of  themselves.  This 
disorder  is  neither  infectious  nor  hereditary,  nor  does  it  occa- 
sion any  inconvenience.^ 

ii.  Two  species  called  m*  (tsorat),  that  is,  venom  or 
malignity,  viz.  the  nja*?  mna  (BeHnar  lebena),  or  bright 
white  behrat  (Lev.  xiii.  38,  39.),  nns  mna  (BnmaT  cfCH«), 
dark  or  dusky  behrat,  spreading  in  the  skin.  (Lev.  xiii.  3.) 
Both  these  are  contagious ;  in  other  words,  render  the  per- 
son affected  with  it  unclean,  and  exclude  him  from  society. 
(1.)  In  the  behrat  cecha  (the  Leprosis  Lepriasis  nigricans 
of  Dr.  Good's  nosological  system)  the  natural  colour  of  the 
hair,  which  in  Egj'pt  and  Palestine  is  black,  is  not  chanrred, 
as  Moses  repeatedly  states,  nor  is  there  any  depression  of 
the  dusky  spot,  while  the  patches,  instead  of  keeping  sta- 
tionary to  their  first  size,  are  perpetually  enlarging  their 
boundary.  The  patient  labouring  under  this  form  of  the 
disease  was  pronounced  unclean  by  the  Hebrew  priest, 
and,  consequently,  was  sentenced  to  a  separation  from  his 
taniily  and  friends  :  whence  there  is  no  doubt  of  its  havimr 
proved  contagious.  Though  a  much  severer  malady  than 
the  common  leprosy,  it  is  far  less  so  than  the  species 
described  in  the  ensuing  paragraph ;  and  on  this  account  it 
is  dismissed  by  Moses  with  a  comparatively  brief  notice. 

(2.)  The  behrat  lebena,  (Leprosis  Lepriasis  Candida,  or 
leuce  of  Dr.  Good's  Nosology,)  or  bright  white  leprosy,  is 
by  tar  the  most  serious  and  obstinate  of  all  the  forms  which 
the  disease  assumes.  The  pathognomonic  characters,  dwelt 
upon  by  Moses  in  deciding  it,  are  "a  glossy  white  and 
spreading  scale  upon  an  elevated  base,  the  elevation  depress- 
ed in  the  middle,  but  without  a  change  of  colour,  the  black 
hair  on  the  patches,  which  is  the  natural  colour  of  the  hair 
in  Palestine,  participating  in  the  whiteness,  and  the  patches 
themselves  perpetually  widening  their  outline."  Several 
of  these  characters  taken  separately  belong  to  other  lesions 
or  blemishes  of  the  skin,  and,  therefore,  none  of  them  were 
to  be  taken  alone ;  and  it  was  only  when  the  whole  of  them 
concurred  that  the  Jewish  priest,  in  his  capacity  of  physi- 
cian, was  to  pronounce  the  disease  a  tsorat,  or  malignant 
leprosy. 

Common  as  this  form  of  leprosy  was  among  the  Hebrews, 
during  and  subsequent  to  their  residence  in  Egypt,  we  have 
no  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  a  family  complaint,  or  even 


for  this  deistical  conjecture— -but  this  is  not  the  case ;  and  we  ,  known  amongst  them  antecedently  :   wYience  "there  is  little 

,  and  thus  [  doubt,  notwithstanding  the  confident  assertions  of  Manetho 
to  the  contrary,  that  they  received  the  infection  from  the 
Egyptians,  instead  of  communicating  it  to  them.  Their 
subjugated  and  distressed  state,  however,  and  the  peculiar 
nature  of  their  employment,  must  have  rendered  them  very 
liable  to  this  as  well  as  to  various  other  blemishes  and 
misafiections  of  the  skin  :  in  the  productions  of  wliich  there 
are  no  causes  more  active  or  powerful  than  a  depressed  state 
of  body  or  mind,  hard  labour  under  a  burning  sun,  the  body 
constantly  covered  with  the  excoriating  dust  of  brick-fields 


are  obliged  to  believe  the  relation  just  as  it  stands, , 

acknowledge  the  sovereign  power  and  mercy  of  God,  or 
take  the  desperate  flight  of  an  infidel,  and  thus  get  rid  of 
the  passage  altogether."^ 

in.  Various  diseases  are  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Writ- 
ings, as  cancers,  consumption,  dropsy,  fevers,  lunacy,  &c. 
Concerning  a  few  disorders,  the  nature  of  which  has  exer- 
cised the  critical  acumen  of  physicians  as  well  as  divines, 
the  following  observations  may  be  satisfactory  to  the  reader. 

1.  Of  all  the  maladies  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  the 
most  formidable  is  the  disorder  of  the  skin,  termed  Leprosy,' 

»  Mark  v.  26.  Luke  iv.  23.  v.  31.  viii.  43.  Josephus,  Antiq.  Jud.  lib. 
Jtvii.  c.  6.  §  5. 

»  Schabbath,  p.  110.  See  also  Lightfoot'B  Horse  Hebraicee  on  Mark 
V.  41.  , 

»  Jahn,  Archaeol.  Biblica,  by  Upham,  |§  105.  ISl.  Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr. 
pp.  164.  166. 

*  Josephus,  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.  33.  §  5. 
»  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  10. 

•  Pr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary  on  John  v.  3. 

'  This  dreadful  disorder  has  its  nauie  from  the  Greek  Ata-p*,  from  ;ttT.; 
a  sctde    because  in  ibis  disease  the  body  was  often  covered  with  thin  white 


scales,  BO  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  snow.  Hence  the  hand  of  Mose« 
is  said  to  have  been  leprous  as  snoic  (Exod.  iv.  6.)  ;  and  Miriam  is  said  to 
have  become  leprous,  tchi/e  as  s7iotc  (Num.  sii.  10.);  and  Gehazi,  when 
struck  judicially  with  the  disease  of  Naaman,  is  recorded  to  liave  gone  out 
from  the  presence  of  Elisha,  a  leper,  as  tcliile  as  snoic.  (2  Kings  v.  27.)  Dr 
A.  Clarke  on  Lev.  xiii.  1. 

8  For  this  account  of  the  leprosy,  the  author  is  almost  wholly  indebted 
to  the  late  Ur.  Good's  Study  ol  Medicine,  vol.  v.  pp.  587—597.  2d  edition. 

<•  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  iii.  pp  233,234. 
"That  all  this,"  he  adds,  "with  equal  force  and  truth,  should  still  be  found 
exactly  to  hold,  at  the  distance  of  3500  years  from  the  time  of  Moses, 
ought  certainly  to  gain  some  credit  to  his  laws,  even  with  those  who  will 
not  allow  them  to  be  of  divine  authority."  (p.  234 


196 


DISEASES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Paut  IV.  Chap.  IX. 


and  an  impoverished  diet ;  to  all  of  which  the  Israelites 
were  exposed,  whilst  under  the  Egyptian  bondage. 

It  appears,  also,  from  the  Mosaic  account,  that  in  conse- 
quence of  these  hardships  there  was,  even  after  the  Israelites 
had  quitted  Egypt,  a  general  predisposition  to  tlie  contagions 
form  of  leprosy,  so  that  it  often  occurred  as  a  consequence 
of  various  other  cutaneous  affeciions.  Eight  different  ble- 
mishes in  the  skin,  which  had  a  tendency  to  terminate  in 
this  terrible  disease,  are  enumerated  by  Moses,  and  describ- 
ed by  Dr.  Good,  to  whose  elaborate  treatise  the  reader  is 
referred.  The  effects  of  leprosy,  as  described  by  travellers 
who  have  witnessed  the  disorder  in  its  most  virulent  forms, 
are  truly  deplorable.'  The  Mosaic  statutes  respecting  lenrosy 
are  recorded  in  Lev.  xiii.  and  xiv.  Num.  v.  1 — 4.  and  Deut. 
xxiv.  8,  9.     They  are  in  substance  as  follows : — 

(1.)  On  the  appearance  of  any  one  of  the  cutaneous  affections 
above  noticed  on  any  person,  the  party  was  to  be  inspected 
by  a  priest,  both  as  actmg  in  a  judicial  capacity,  and  also  as 
being  skilled  in  medicine.  The  signs  of  the  disease,  which 
are  circumstantially  pointed  out  in  the  statute  itself,  accord 
with  those  which  have  been  noticed  by  modern  physicians. 
"  If,  on  the  first  inspection,  there  remained  any  doubt  as  to 
the  spot  being  really  a  symptom  of  leprosy,  the  suspected 
person  was  shut  up  for  seven  days,  in  order  that  it  might  be 
ascertained,  whether  it  spread,  disappeared,  or  remained  as 
it  was ;  and  this  confinement  might  be  repeated.  During 
this  time,  it  is  probable  that  means  were  used  to  remove  the 
spot.  If  in  the  mean  time  it  spread,  or  continued  as  it  was, 
without  becoming  paler,  it  excited  a  strong  suspicion  of  real 
leprosy,  and  the  person  inspected  was  declared  unclean.  If 
it  disappeared,  and  after  his  liberation  became  again  manifest, 
a  fresh  msiiection  took  place. 

(2.')  "The  unclean  were  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
people.  So  early  as  the  second  year  of  the  Exodus,  lepers 
were  obliged  to  reside  without  the  camp  (Num.  v.  1 — 4.); 
aud  so  strictly  was  this  law  enforced,  that  the  sister  of  Moses 
herself,  becoming  leprous,  was  expelled  from  it.  (Num. 
xii.  14 — 16.)  When  the  Israelites  came  into  their  ov/n  land, 
and  lived  in  cities,  the  spirit  of  the  law  thus  far  operated, 
that  lepers  v/ere  obliged  to  reside  in  a  separate  place,  which 
was  called  (n'lrDnnij)  beth  chophschith,  or  the  house  of 
uncleunness  ;  and  from  this  seclusion  not  even  kings,  when 
they  became  leprous,  were  exempted.  (2  Kings  xv.  5.) 
As,  however,  a  leper  cannot  always  be  within  doors,  and 
may,  consequently,  sometimes  meet  clean  persons,  he  was 
oljliged,  in  the  first  place,  to  make  himself  known  by  his 
dress,  and  to  go  about  with  torn  clothes,  a  bare  head,  and 
his  chin  covered  ;  and  in  the  next  place,  when  any  one  came 
too  near  him,  to  cry  out  that  he  was  Unclean.  (Num.  xiii. 
45,  4G.)" 

(3.)  Although  a  leper,  merely  meeting  and  touching  a 
person,  could  not  have  immediately  infected  hiin,  yet,  as 
such  a  rencontre  and  touch  would  have  rendered  him  Leviti- 
cally  unclean,  in  order  to  prevent  leprosy  from  spreading,  in 
consequence  of  close  communication,  "  it  was  an  established 
rule  to  consider  a  leprous  person  as  likewise  unclean  in  a 
Levitical  or  civil  sens*; ;  and,  consequently,  whoever  touched 
him,  became  also  unclean ;  not  indeed  medically  or  physi- 
cally so, — that  is,  infected  by  one  single  touch, — but  still 
unclean  in  a  civil  sense. 

(4.)  "  On  the  other  hand,  however,  for  the  benefit  of  those 
found  clean,  the  law  itself  specified  those  who  were  to  be 
pronounced  free  from  the  disorder ;  and  such  persons  were 
then  clear  of  all  reproach,  until  they  again  fell  under  accusa- 
tion from  manifest  symptoms  of  infection.  The  man  who, 
on  the  first  inspection,  was  found  clean,  or  in  whom  the 
supposed  symptoms  of  leprosy  disappeared  during  confine- 
ment, was  declared  clean:  only,  in  the  latter  case,  he  was 
obliged  to  have  his  clothes  washed.  If,  again,  he  had 
actually  had  the  disorder,  and  got  rid  of  it,  the  law  required 
him  to  make  certain  ofierings,  wi  the  course  of  which  he  was 
pronounced  clean."  ^ 

(5.)  The  leprous  person  was  to  use  every  effort  in  his 
power  to  be  healed ;  and,  therefore,  was  strictly  to  follow 
the  directions  of  the  priests.  This,  Michaelis  is  of  opinion, 
may  fairly  be  inferred  from  Dent.  xxiv.  8. 

(6.)  When  healed  of  his  leprosy,  the  person  was  to  go 

»  Mr.  Barker,  the  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  when 
at  Damascus  in  the  year  1825,  describing  the  hospital  of  Christian  lepers, 
says,  -'How  afflicting  was  their  situation  and  aj)pparance !  Some  were 
witliont  noses  and  fingers,  being  eaten  up  by  the  disease,  and  others  were 
differently  disfigured."  Twenty-sixth  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  App. 
|).  HI. 
.__  *  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  278—287. 


and  show  himself  to  the  priests,  that  he  might  be  declared 
clean,  and  offer  the  sacrifice  "enjoined  in  that  case;  and, 
when  purified,  that  he  might  be  again  admitted  into  civil 
society.     (Matt,  viii,  4,  Lev.  xiv.  11—32.) 

(7.)  Lastly,  As  this  disease  was  so  ntft  nsive  to  the  Israel- 
ites, God  commanded  them  to  use  frequent  ablutions,  and 
prohibited  them  from  eating  swine's  flesh  and  other  articles 
of  animal  food  that  had  a  tetidency  to  produce  this  disease. 

The  peculiar  lustrations  which  a  person  who  had  been 
healed  of  a  leprosy  was  to  undergo  are  detailed  in  Lev.  xiv. 
— See  an  abstract  of  them  in  p.  134.  of  this  volume. 

2.  The  Disease  with  which  the  patriarch  Job  was  afflicted 
(ii.  7.)  has  greatly  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  commentators, 
who  have  supposed  it  to  be  the  contagious  leprosy,  the  small 
pox,  and  the  Elephantiasis,  or  Leprosy  of  the  Arabians. 
The  last  opinion  is  adopted  by  Drs.  Mead  and  Good,  and  by 
Michaelis,  and  appears  to  be  bast  supported.  This  dreadful 
malady,  which  the  ancient  medical  writer  Paul  of  iEgineta 
has  accurately  characterized  as  an  universal  ulcer,  was  named 
elephantiasis  by  the  Greeks,  from  its  rendering  the  skin  of 
the  patient  like  that  of  an  elephant,  scabrous  and  dark  co- 
loured, and  furrowed  all  over  with  tubercles,  loathsome 
alike  to  the  individual  and  to  the  spectators.  W^hen  it  attains 
a  certain  height,  as  it  appears  to  have  done  in  this  instance, 
it  is  incurable,  and,  consequently,  affords  the  unhappy  patient 
no  prospect  but  that  of  long-continued  misery.' 

3.  The  Disease  of  the  Philistines,  mentioned  in  1  Sam. 
V.  G.  12.  and  vi.  17.,  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  dysentery; 
but  it  was  most  probably  the  ha;morrhoids  or  bleeding  piles, 
in  a  very  aggravated  degree.  Jahn,  however,  considers  it 
as  the  effect  of  the  bite  ot  venomous  solpugas.'' 

4.  The  Disease  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xvi.  14.)  appears  to 
have  been  a  true  madness,  of  the  melancholic  or  atlrabila- 
rious  kind,  as  the  ancient  physicians  termed  it;  the  fits  of 
which  returned  on  the  unhappy  monarch  at  uncertain  periods, 
as  is  frequently  the  case  in  this  sort  of  malady.  The  remedy 
applied,  in  the  judgment  of  experienced  physicians,  was  an 
extremely  proper  one,  viz.  playing  on  the  harp.  The  cha- 
racter of  the  modern  oriental  music  is  expression,  rather 
than  science :  and  it  may  be  easily  conceived  how  well 
adapted  the  unstudied  and  artless  strains  of  David  were  to 
soothe  the  perturbed  mind  of  Saul ;  which  strains  were  bold 
and  free  from  his  courage,  and  sedate  through  his  piety.' 

5.  The  Disease  of  Jehoram  King  of  Israel. — This 
sovereign,  who  was  clothed  with  the  double  infamy  of  being 
at  once  an  idolater  and  the  murderer  of  his  brethren,  was 
diseased  internally  for  two  years,  as  had  been  predicted  by 
the  prophet  Elijah;  and  his  bowels  are  said  at  last  to  have 
fallen  out  by  reason  of  his  sickness.  (2  Chron.  xxi.  12 — 15. 
18,  19.)  This  disease.  Dr.  Mead  says,  beyond  all  doubt 
was  the  dysentery,  and  though  its  continuance  so  long  a 
time  was  very  uncommon,  it  is  by  no  means  a  thin^  unheard 
of.  The  intestines  in  time  become  ulcerated  by  tlie  opera- 
tion of  this  disease.  Not  only  blood  is  discharged  from 
them,  but  a  sort  of  mucous  excrements  likewise  is  thrown 
off,  and  sometimes  small  pieces  of  the  flesh  itself;  so  that 
apparently  the  intestines  are  emitted  or  fall  out,  which  is 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  expressions  that  are  used  in  the 
statement  of  king  Jehoram's  disease." 

6.  The  Disease  WITH  WHicri*HEZEKiAH  WAS  afflicted 
(2  Kings  XX.  7.  Isa.  xxxviii.  21.)  has  bfen  variously  sup- 
posed to  be  a  pleurisy,  the  plague,  the  elephantiasis,  and 
the  quinsey.  But  Dr.  Mead  is  oi  opinion  that  the  malady 
was  a  fever  which  terminated  in  an  abscess;  and  for  pro- 
moting its  suppuration  a  cataplasm  of  figs  was  admirably 
adapted.  The  case  of  Hezekinh,  however,  indicates  not 
only  the  limited  knowledge  of  the  .Tewish  physicians  at  that 
time,  but  also  that  though  God  can  cure  by  a  miracle,  yet 
he  also  gives  sagacity  to  discover  and  apply  the  most  natural 
remedies.'' 

7.'  Concerning  the  nature  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  Malady 
(Dan.  iv.  25,  2G.  31 — 33.)  learned  men  are  greatly  divided, 
but  the  most  probable  account  of  it  is  that  giten  by  Dr. 
Mead;  who  remarks  that  all  the  circumstances  of  it,  as 
related  by  Daniel,  so  perfectly  agree  with  hypochondriacal 
madness,  that  to  him  it  appears  evident  that  Nebuchadnezzar 
was  seized  with  this  distemper,  and  under  its  influence  ran 
wild  into  the  fields ;  and  that  fancying  himself  transformed 
into  an  ox,  he  fed  on  grass  in  the  manner  of  cattle.     For 

3  Mead's  MedicaSecra,  pp.  1—11.  (London,  1755.)    Good's  translation  of 
Job,  p.  22. 
«  ArchfBol.  Bibl.  §  185.  '  Mead's  Medica  Sacra,  p.  20—33. 

«  Mead's  Mcdica  Sacra,  p.  35.    Jahn's  Archaeol.  Bibl.  §  187. 
'  Mcdica  Sacra,  p.  37. 


Sect.  I.] 


DISEASES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


197 


every  sort  of  madness  is  a  disease  of  a  disturbnd  iinairina- 
tion ;  under  wlilch  this  unhappy  man  httjonred  lull  seven 
years.  And  tlirouirli  neirlccl  of  taking  ])r(>|)er  care  of  iiim- 
seif,  his  hair  and  nails  frrew  to  an  excessive  lenijth ;  by 
which  the  latter,  jrrowinjr  thicker  and  crooked,  resembled  the 
claws  of  birds.  Now,  the  ancients  called  persons  aflected 
with  this  species  of  madni^ss  xuKuvd-f^Tu  (^ivo/f-meii)  or  kuv^v- 
Q-fJ,Trct  (^iloir-intii) ;  l)ecause  they  went  abroad  in  the  nijrlit 
imitatin<f  wolves  or  doijs;  particularly  intent  \\\i(m  openiuij 
the  sepulchres  of  the  dead,  and  had  their  Icjrs  much  ulcer- 
ated, either  by  freipient  falls,  or  the  bites  of  dogs.'  In  like 
manner  are  the  dan<rhters  of  Proetus  related  to  have  been 
luad,  who,  as  Vir<ril  says, — 

Implnunt  falsis  miigililitis  ngros."* 

Willi  iiiiiiiick'd  iiiooinys  lilled  the  fields. 

For,  as  Servius  observes,  .Tuno  possessed  tlieir  minds  with 
such  a  species  of  madness,  that  fimcyin'j;  themselves  cows, 
they  ran  into  tiie  fields,  bellowed  often,  and  dreaded  the 
ploiifrh.  Hut  these,  accordinir  to  Ovid,  the  physician  Mc- 
lampus, — 

per  carmen  et  herhas 

Eripiiil  funis.' 

Snalch'd  from  tlie  furies  by  liis  charms  and  herbs. 

Nor  was  this  disorder  unknown  to  the  moderns;  for 
Schenckius  records  a  remarkable  instance  of  it  in  a  hus- 
bandman of  Padua,  w/iu,  ima<rining  that  he  was  a  wv/f, 
atlucked^  and  even  killed  several  persons  in  the  fields  ,-  and 
when  at  lem^fh  he  iras  taken,  he  persevered  in  declaring  him- 
self a  real  ivalf  and  that  the  onli/  difference  consisted  in  the 
inversion  of  his  skin  and  hair.^  Bvit  it  may  be  objected  to 
this  opinion,  that  this  misfortune  was  foretold  to  the  king, 
so  that  he  might  have  prevented  it  by  correcting  his  morals; 
and,  therefore,  it  is  not  probable  that  it  befell  him  in  the 
course  of  nature.  But  we  know  that  those  things,  which 
God  executes  either  through  clemency  or  vengeance,  are 
fre(iuently  performed  by  the  assistance  of  natural  causes. 
Thus,  having  threatened  Hezekiah  with  death,  and  being 
afterwards  moved  by  his  prayers,  he  restored  him  to  life, 
and  made  use  of  figs  laid  on  tlie  tumour,  as  a  medicine  for 
his  disease.  He  ordered  king  Herod,  upon  account  of  his 
pride,  to  be  devoured  by  worms.  And  no  one  doubts  but 
that  the  plague,  which  is  generally  attributed  to  the  divine 
wrath,  most  commonly  owes  its  origin  to  corrupted  air.* 

8.  The  Palsv  of  the  New  Testament  is  a  disease  of  very 
wide  imp'Tt,  and  the  Greek  word,  which  is  so  translated, 
comprehended  not  fewer  than  five  different  maladies,  viz. 
{\.\  .ipopkxt/, -A  \)7\XA\yiic  shock,  which  affected  the  whole 
body  ; — (•2.)  Ihniipks;f/,  which  affects  and  paralyzes  only 
one  side  ot  the  body ;  the  case  mentioned  in  Matt.  ix.  2. 
appears  to  have  been  of  this  sort ; — (3.)  Farapki/;ij,  which 
paralyzes  all  parts  of  the  system  below  the  neck; — (4.) 
'Cataiepst/,  which  is  caused  by  a  contraction  of  the  muscles 
in  the  whole  or  part  of  the  body  ;  the  hands,  for  instance. 
This  is  a  very  dangerous  disease ;  and  the  effects  upon  the 
parts  seized  are  very  violent  and  deadly.  Thus,  when  a 
person  is  struck  with  it,  if  his  hand  hai)pens  to  be  extended, 
ne  is  unable  to  draw  it  back  :  if  the  hand  be  not  extended, 
when  he  is  so  struck,  he  is  unable  to  extend  it.  It  seems  to 
be  diminished  in  size,  and  dried  up  in  appearance ;  whence 
the  H»brews  were  accustomed  to  call  it  a  withered  hand. 
The  impious  Jeroboam  was  struck  with  catalepsy  (1  Kings 
xiii.  4 — G.)  ;  the  prophet  Zechariab,  among  tne  judgments 
he  was  commissioncil  to  denounce  against  the  idul  shepherd 
tliat  leaveth  the  flock,  threatens  that  his  arm  shall  be  dried  up. 
(Zech.  xi.  17.)  Other  instances  of  this  malady  occur  in 
Matt.  xii.  10.  and  John  v.  3,  5. — (5.)  The  Cramp.  This, 
in  oriental  countries,  is  a  fearful  malady,  and  by  no  means 
unfreiiuent.  It  orio^inates  from  the  chills  of  the  night :  the 
limbs,  when  seized  with  it,  remain  immoveable,  sometimes 
turned  in  and  sometimes  out,  in  the  very  same  position  as 
when  they  were  first  seized.  The  person  afflicted  resembles 
a  man  undergoing  the  torture,  ^ua-Mi^c/xivai,  and  experiences 
nearly  the  same  sufferings.  Death  follows  this  disease 
in  a  few  days.  Alcimus  was  struck  with  it  (1  Mace.  ix. 
55 — 58.),  as  also  was  the  centurion's  servant.  (Matt, 
viii.  6.)  , 

9-   The  disease,  which  in  Matt.  ix.  20.  Mark  v.  25.  and 
Luke  viii.  43.  is  denominated  an  Issue  of  Blood,  is  too  well 

«  See  Aetius.  Lib.  Medicin.  lib.  vi.  and  Paul.  jEgmeta,  lib.  iii.  c.  16. 
"  ^clog.  vi.  43.  3  Metamorph.  xv.  325. 

*  Obsen-atioaes  Medica;  Rar.  de  Lycanthrop.   Obs.  1. 

*  Medica Sacra,  pp.58— 61. 


known  to  require  any  explanation.  Physicians  confess  it  to 
i)e  a  disorder  which  is  very  diflicult  of  cure.  (Mark  v.  26.y 
How  does  this  circumstance  magnify  the  benevolent  miracle, 
wrought  by  Jesus  Christ  on  a  woman  who  had  laboured 
un(l(!r  it  for  twelve  years  ! 

10.  The  Bi.i.NnNKSs  of  the  sorcerer  Elymas  (.Vets  xiii.  G — 
12.)  is  in  the  Greek  denominated  'JX'"'i  and  witii  great  pro- 
priety, being  rather  an  obscuration  than  a  total  extinction  of 
sight.  It  was  occasioned  by  a  thin  coat  or  tunicle  of  hard 
substance,  which  spread  itself  over  a  portion  of  the  eye,  and 
interrupted  the  power  of  vision.  Hence  the  disease  is  like- 
wise called  srxwcf,  or  darkness.  It  was  easily  cured,  and 
soiiietiiiies  even  healed  of  itself,  without  resorting  to  any 
medical  prescription.  Therefore;  St.  Paul  addcfl  in  his  de- 
nunciation, that  the  impostor  should  not  see  the  sun  for  a  sea- 
son. But  the  blindness  of  the  man,  of  whose  miraculous 
restoration  to  sight  we  have  so  interesting  an  account  in 
John  ix.,  was  total,  and  being  inveterate  from  his  birth,  was 
incurable  by  any  human  art  or  skill.  See  an  examination 
of  this  miracle  in  Vol.  I.  pp.  104,  105. 

11.  Lastly,  in  tlu;  New  Testament  we  meet  with  repeated 
instances  of  what  are  termed  DEMoM.\r,AL  Possession.  The 
reality  of  such  possessions  indeed  has  been  denied  by  some 
authors,  and  attempts  have  been  made  by  others  to  account 
for  them,  either  as  the  effect  of  natural  disease,  or  the  influ- 
ence of  imagination  on  persons  of  a  nervous  habit.  But  it 
is  manifest,  that  the  persons  who  in  the  New  Testament  are 
said  to  be  possessed  with  devils  (more  correctly  with  demons) 
cannot  mean  only  persons  afflicted  with  some  strange  dis- 
ease; for  they  are  evidently  here  as  in  other  places — par- 
ticularly in  Luke  iv.  33 — 36.  41. — distinguished  from  the 
diseased.  Further,  Christ's  speaking  on  various  occasions 
to  these  evil  spirits,  as  distinct  from  the  persons  possessed 
by  them, — his  commanding  them  and  asking  them  questions, 
and  receiving  answers  from  them,  or  not  suffering  them 
to  speak, — and  several  circumstances  relating  to  the  ter- 
rible preternatural  effects  which  they  had  upon  the  pos- 
sessed, and  to  the  manner  of  Christ's  evoking  them, — 
particularly  their  requesting  and  obtaining  permission  to 
enter  the  herd  of  swine  (.Matt.  viii.  31,  32.)  and  precipitating 
them  into  the  sea ;  all  these  circumstances  can  never  be 
accounted  for  by  any  distemper  whatever.  Nor  is  it  any 
reasonable  objection  that  we  do  not  read  of  such  frequent 
possessions  before  or  since  the  appearance  of  our  Redeemer 
upon  earth.  It  seems,  indeed,  to  have  been  ordered  by  a 
special  providence  that  they  should  have  been  permitted  to 
have  then  been  more  common  ;  in  order  that  He,  who  came 
to  destroy  the  works  of  the  Devil,  might  the  more  remarka- 
bly and  visibly  triumph  over  him  ;  and  that  the  machina- 
tions and  devices  of  Satan  might  be  more  openly  defeated, 
at  a  time  when  their  power  was  at  its  highest,  both  in  the 
souls  and  bodies  of  men ;  and  also,  that  plain  facts  might 
be  a  sensible  confutation  of  the  Sadducean  error,  which  de- 
nied the  existence  of  angels  or  spirits  (Acts  xxiii.  8.),  and 
prevailed  among  theprincipal  men  both  for  rank  and  learn- 
ing in  those  days.  The  cases  of  the  demoniacs  expelled  by 
the  apostles  were  cases  of  real  possession  ;  and  it  is  a  well 
known  fact,  that  in  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  aera, 
the  apologists  for  the  persecuted  professors  of  the  faith  of 
Christ  appealed  to  their  ejection  of  evil  spirits  as  a  proof  of 
the  divine  origin  of  their  relimon.  Hence  it  is  evident  that 
the  demoniacs  were  not  merely  insane  or  epileptic  patients, 
but  persons  really  and  truly  vexed  and  convulsed  by  unclean 
demons.' 


SECTION  n. 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  DEAD. FUNERAL  RITES. 

I.  Je~.vish  notions  of  death. — II.  J\Tosaic  la-ws  relating  to  the 
dead. — III.  Preparations  for  interment. — IV.  Rites  of  sepul- 
ture.— Lainentations  for  the  dead. — V.  S\'otice  of  the  tombs 
of  the  Je-Jis. — JMonumental  inscriptions. — VI.  Funeral  feasts. 
— Duration  of  mournitig. 

So  Strong  was  the  love  of  life  among  the  Hebrews,  that 
instances  of  suicide  are  of  extremely  rare  occurrence  in  the 

e  Jahn's  ArchKologia  Biblic^^  §  199. 

■>  For  a  suiiiinary  of  the  evidence  that  the  demoniacs,  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament,  were  persons  really  possessed  by  evil  spirits,  see  Bp. 
Newton's  Worfes,  vol.  Iv.  pp.  52t>— 301.,  and  Mr.  Townsend's  Harmony  of 
the  New  Test  vol.  i.  pp.  157—100. 


198 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  DEAD. 


[Pakt  IV.  Chap.DC 


history  of  that  people.  Saul,  Ahithophel,  and  the  traitor  Judas 
are  the  only  persons  recorded  to  have  laid  violent  hands  upon 
themselves,  in  a  fit  of  desperation.  (ISam.  xxxi.  4,5. 
2  Sam.  xvii.  23.  Matt,  xxvii.  3 — 5.)  In  the  last  period  of 
the  Jewish  state,  however,  the  custom  of  the  Romans  ap- 
pears to  have  greatly  lessened  the  horror  of  suicide  among 
the  Jews  ;•  but  that  most  terrible  of  all  diseases,  the  leprosy, 
seems  to  have  rendered  its  victims  utterly  regardless  of  life. 
(Job  vii.  15.) 

I.  The  Hebrews,  in  common  with  many  other  ancient 
nations,  especially  in  the  East,  were  accustomed  to  re- 
present death  by  various  terms  which  were  calculated  to 
mitigate  the  appalling  image  inspired  by  that  last  enemy  of 
mankind.  Hence  they  often  called  death  a  journey  or  depar- 
ture. (Josh,  xxiii.  14.  1  Kings  ii.  2.  Eccles.  v.  15.  vi.  6. 
Luke  ii.  29.)  Frequently  also  they  compared  it  to  sleep, 
and  to  rest  after  the  toils  of  life  were  over  (Gen.  xlvii.  30. 
Job  iii.  13,  17—19.  Isa.  xiv.  8.  Ivii.  2.  Matt.  ix.  29.  xxvii. 
52,  John  xi.  11.  Acts  vii.  60.  1  Cor.  xi.  30.  iThess.  iv.  13. 
2  Pet.  iii.  4.  Rev.  xiv.  13.)  ;  and  it  was  a  very  common  ex- 
pression to  say,  that  the  party  deceased  had  gone,  or  was 
gathered  to  his  fathers  or  to  his  people.  (Gen.  xv.  15.  xxv. 
8.  17,  XXXV.  29.  xlix.  29.  33.  Num.  xx.  24.  xxvii.  13.  xxxi. 
2,  Deut.  xxxii.  50.  Judg.  ii.  10.  2  Kings  xxii.  20.)^ 

II.  By  the  law  of  Moses  a  dead  body  conveyed  a  legal 

EoUution  to  every  thing  that  touched  it, — even  to  the  very 
ouse  and  furniture, — which  continued  seven  days,  (Num. 
xix.  14,  15,  IG.)  And  this  was  the  reason  why  the  priests, 
on  account  of  their  daily  ministrations  in  holy  things,  were 
forbidden  to  assist  at  any  funerals,  but  those  of  their  nearest 
relatives  (Lev.  xxi,  1—4.  10—12.) ;  nay,  the  very  dead 
bones,  though  they  had  lain  ever  so  long  in  the  grave,  if  dig- 
ged up,  conveyed  a  pollution  to  any  one  who  touched  them. 
This  circumstance  will  account  for  Josiah's  causing  the  bones 
of  the  false  priests  to  be  burnt  upon  the  altar  at  Bethel 
(2  Chron.  xxxiv,  5,),  in  order  that  these  altars,  being  thus 
polluted,  might  be  held  in  the  greatest  detestation, ^ 

III.  After  the  principle  of  life  was  extinguished,  the  fol- 
lowing ceremonies  were  performed  by  the  Jews  : — 

1,  The  eyes  of  the  deceased  were  closed  by  the  nearest  of 
kin,  who  gave  the  parting  kiss  to  the  lifeless  corpse  :  thus, 
it  was  promised  to  Jacob,  when  he  took  his  journey  into 
Egypt,  that  Joseph  should  put  his  hands  upon  his  eyes  (Gen. 
xlvi.  4.) ;  and  accordingly  we  read  that,  when  Jacob  ex- 
pired, Joseph  fell  upon  Ms  face  and  kissed  him.  (Gen.  1.  1.) 
From  the  Jews,  Calmet  observes,  this  practice  passed  to  the 
heathens,  who  gave  the  dying  farewell  kiss,  and  received 
their  last  sigh,  in  token  of  their  affectionate  union, 

2,  The  next  office  was  the  ablution  of  the  corpse,  which 
(except  when  it  was  buried  immediately)  was  laid  out  in  an 
upper  room  or  chamber.  Thus,  when  Tabitha  died,  it  is 
said,  that  they  luashed  her  body,  and  laid  it  in  an  upper  cham- 
ber. (Acts  ix.  37.)  This  rite  was  common  both  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,''  in  whose  writings  it  is  frequently  men- 
tioned. In  Egypt,  it  is  still  the  custom  to  wash  the  dead 
body  several  times, 

3,  The  bodies  of  persons  of  distinction  were  embalrned  : 
this  process  the  Jews  probably  derived  from  the  Egyptians, 
whose  various  methods  of  embalming  their  dead  with  spices 
and  nitre  are  minutely  described  by  Herodotus,  and  Diodo- 
rus  Siculus,*  The  patriarch  Jacob  was  embalmed  according 
to  the  Egyptian  process:  his  remains  lay  in  nitre  thirty 
days,  for  the  purpose  of  drying  up  all  superfluous  and  noxious 
moisture ;  and  during  the  remaining  forty  days,  they  were 
anointed  with  gums  and  spices,  to  preserve  them ;  which 
unction,  it  appears  from  Gen,  1.  2,  3,,  was  the  proper  em- 
balming. The  former  circumstance  explains  the  reason  why 
the  Egyptians  mourned  for  Jacob  threescore  and  ten  days  ;  the 
latter  explains  the  meaning  of  the  forty  days,  which  were 
fulfilled  for  Israel. ^ 

In  later  times,  where  the  deceased  parties  were  persons  of 
rank  or  fortune,  after  washing  the  corpse,  the  Jews  "  em- 
balmed it,  by  laying  all  around  it  a  large  quantity  of  costly 
spices  and  aromatic  drugs,''  in  order  to  imbibe  and  absorb 

1  Josephus,  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  8.  §§4—7. 

»  Pareau,  Antiquitas  Hebr.  pp.  468,  469. 

»  Home's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  p.  362.  Michaelis  has  examined  at 
length  the  reason  and  policy  of  tlie  Mosaic  statutes  on  this  subject.  Com- 
mentaries, vol.  iii.  pp.  322—330. 

«  Sophoclis  Electra,  verse  1143.    Virgil,  .^Eneid.  lib.  vi.  218,  219. 

'  Herodotus,  hb.  ii.  cc.  86—88.  torn.  li.  pp.  131,  132.  Oxon.  1809.  Diodo- 
rus  Siculus,  hb.  i.  cc.  91—93.  edit.  Bipont. 

«  Paxton's  Illustrations,  vol.  iii.  p.  249.  2d  edit. 

'  Matt.  xxvi.  12.  For  in  that  she  hath  poured  this  ointment  on  my  body, 
the  did  itjor  my  funeral,  ^rpoj  to  6VT»ifi»»(r»<  (ti,  to  embalm  me.  The  word 


the  humours,  and  by  their  inherent  virtues  to  preserve  it  as 
long  as  possible  from  putrefaction  and  decay.  Thus  we 
read  that  Nicodemus  brought  a  mixture  of  myrrh  and  aloes, 
about  a  hundred  pounds  weight,  to  perform  the  customary 
office  to  the  dear  deceased.  This  eiubalming  was  usually 
repeated  for  several  days  together,  that  the  drugs  and  spices 
thus  applied  might  have  all  their  efficacy  in  the  exsiccation 
of  the  moisture  and  the  future  conservation  of  the  body.^ 
They  then  swathed  the  corpse  in  linen  rollers  or  bandages, 
closely  enfolding  and  wrapping  it  in  that  bed  of  aromatic 
drugs  with  which  they  had  surrounded  it.  Thus  we  find 
that  Joseph  of  Arimathea  and  Nicodemus  took  the  body  of 
Jesus  and  wrapt  it  in  line?!,  clothes  with  the  spices,  as  the  man' 
ner  of  the  Jews  is  to  bury.  (John  xix.  40.)  This  custom  we 
behold  also  in  the  Egyptian  mummies,  round  which,  Theve- 
not  informs  us,  the  Egyptians  have  sometimes  used  above  a 
thousand  ells  of  filleting,  besides  what  was  wrapped  about 
the  head.  Thus,  when  our  Lord  had  cried  with  a  loud  voice, 
'•  Lazarus,  come  fi/rth!''  it  is  said, /Ae  dead  came  forth,  bound 
haiid  and  foot  in  grave-clothes.  (John  xi.  44. )"  We  learn 
from  Scripture,  also,  that  about  the  head  and  face  of  the 
corpse  was  folded  a  napkin,  which  was  a  separate  thing,  and 
did  not  communicate  with  the  other  bandages  in  which  the 
body  was  swathed.  Thus  we  read,  that  the  face  of  Lazarus 
was  bound  about  with  a  napkin  (John  xi.  44.) ;  and  when 
our  Lord  was  risen,  Peter,  who  went  into  the  sepulchre,  saw 
the  linen  clothes  lie,  and  the  napkin  that  had  been  folded 
round  his  head,  not  lying  with  the  linen  clothes,  but  wreathed 
together  in  a  place  by  itself,  lying  at  some  distance  from  the 
rollers  in  which  his  body  had  been  swathed,  and  folded  up, 
exactly  in  the  state  it  was  when  first  wrapped  round  his  head." 
(John  XX.  7.)'o 

Besides  the  custom  of  embalming  persons  of  distinction, 
the  Jews  commonly  used  great  burnings  for  their  kings,  com- 
posed of  large  quantities  of  all  sorts  of  aromatics,  of  which 
they  made  a  fire,  as  a  triumphant  farewell  to  the  deceased. 
In  these  they  were  wont  to  burn  their  bowels,  their  clothes, 
armour,  and  other  things  belonging  to  the  deceased.  Thus, 
it  is  said  of  Asa,  that  they  made  a  very  great  burning  for  him 
(2  Chron.  xvi.  14.),  which  could  not  be  meant  of  his  corpse 
in  the  fire,  for  in  the  same  verse  it  is  said,  they  buried  him  in 
his  own  sepulchre.  This  was  also  done  at  the  funeral  of  Zede- 
kiah.  (Jer.  xxxiv.  5.)  And  it  was  very  probably  one  reason 
why,  at  the  death  of  Jehoram,  the  people  made  no  burning 
for  him  like  the  burning  of  his  fathers  (2  Chron.  xxi.  19.' 
because  his  bowels  being  ulcerated  by  his  sickness,  they  fell 
out,  and  to  prevent  the  stench,  were  immediately  interred  or 
otherwise  disposed  of;  so  that  they  could  not  well  be  burnt 
in  this  pompous  manner  after  his  death ;  though  as  he  was  a 
wicked  king,  this  ceremony  might  possibly  have  been  omit-  , 
ted  on  that  account  also. 

The  burning  of  dead  bodies  in  funeral  piles,  it  is  well ' 
known,  was  a  custom  prevalent  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro-  I 
mans,  upon  which  occasion  they  threw  frankincense,  myrrh, ' 
cassia,  and  other  fragrant  articles  into  the  fire :  and  this  in 
such  abundance,  that  Pliny  represents  it  as  a  piece  of  pro- 
faneness,  to  bestow  such  heaps  of  frankincense  upon  a  dead 
body,  when  they  offered  it  so  sparingly  to  their  gods.     And 
though  the  Jews  might  possibly  Igarn  From  them  the  custom 
of  burning  the  bowels,  armour,  and  other  things  belonging 
to  their  kings,  in  piles  of  odoriferous  spices,  yet  they  very 
rarely,  and  only  for  particular  reasons,  burnt  the  dead  bodies 
themselves.     We  are  told,  indeed,  that  the  people  of  Jabesh- 
Gilead  took  the  bodies  of  Saul  and  his  sons  (from  the  place 

does  not  properly  signify  to  bury.  The  note  of  Beza  is  accurate.  Ad 
funerandum  me,  n-por  to  ivTx<fix<rx.i  fn.  Vulg.  el  Erasutus,  ad  me 
sepeliendum,  male.  Nam  aliud  est  da-TTTttv  quam  ti/ra^iac^tiv :  ut  Latinis 
sepelire  est  sepulchre  condere  :  funerare  vero  poUincire,  cadaver  sepul- 
chre mandandum  prius  curai'e.  Beza  ad  Matt.  xxvi.  12.  EvTu^icto-ai  est 
corpus  ad  funus  componere,  et  ornamentis  sepulchralibus  ornare.  Wet- 
stein,  iif  loc. 

8  Habebat  consuetude,  ut  carissima  capita,  et  quae  plurimi  fierent  cada- 
vera,  non  semel  tantuni  ungerentur,  sed  sffipius,  pluribusque  continuis 
diebus,  donee  exsiccate,  et  absorpte  vi  aromatura  oinni  reliquo  humore, 
imme  tabefacti  carne  aridft,  et  quasi  arnea  redditil,  diu  servari  possint 
Integra  et  immuniaa  putrefactione.    Lucas  Brugerisis,  in  Marc.  xvi.  ^ 

s  AsJs^evo; — zufiais.  Phavorinus  explains  Kiipta,  by  calling  them 
EiTiT»9io.  Jso-itoi,  sepulchral  bandages.  Xtipia  a-ynixivu  tm  o-xoiwioi  t» 
£VT«<pii».    Btyuiol. 

»«  He  went  into  the  sepulchre,  and  then  he  plainly  saw  the  hnen  clothes, 
jKo I'M,  alone,  or  without  the  body,  and  xnfuvx  lying,  that  is,  undisturbed, 
and  at  full  length,  as  when  the  body  was  in  them.  The  cap,  or  napkin,  also, 
which  had  been  upon  our  Lord's  head,  he  found  separate,  or  at  a  httle  dis- 
tance from  the  open  coffin;  but  ivTir\i\iyfitvav,  folded  up  in  wreaths,  in 
the  form  of  a  cap,  as  Jt  had  been  upon  our  Lord's  head.  Dr.  Benson's 
Life  of  Christ,  p.  524.  Wrapped  together  in  a  place  by  itself;  as  if  the 
body  had  miraculously  shpt  out  of  it,  which  indeed  was  the  real  fact.  Dr.- 
Ward's  Dissertations,  p.  149.  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  135 
—137. 


Sect.  II.] 


PREPARATIONS  FOR  INTERMENT. 


IS9 


where  the  Philistines  had  hung  tnem  \\\)),  and  came  toJabes/i, 
and  bumf  thetn  there  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  12.)  ;  hut  hy  tliis  time  their 
hodies  must  have  heoii  in  suc-li  a  state,  tiial  tliey  were  not  fit 
to  he  embalmed;  or,  perliaps,  tliey  wen*  apprehensive  that 
if  they  siiouhl  embalm  tbem,  and  so  bury  them,  the  people 
of  Uetlishaii  mi^ht  at  some;  future  time  diir  tliem  up,  and  fix 
them  a  second  time  a<raiiist  tlieir  walls;  and,  therefore,  the 

fieople  of  .labesii  miiriit  tliiuk  it  more  a(lvisal)le  to  recede 
rom  their  coinmou  practice,  and  for  }^reat(!r  security  to  imi- 
tate the  heathen  in  tills  particular.  Amos  also  speaks  of  the 
burniiiCT  of  bodies  (vi.  10.) ;  i)ut  it  is  evident  from  the  words 
themstuvcs,  and  from  the  context,  tiiat  this  was  in  tlie  tinu? 
of  a  great  pestilence,  not  oidy  when  there  were  few  to  bury 
the  dead,  but  wluui  it  was  unsafe  to  iro  abroad  and  perform 
the  fimeral  rites  by  interment,  in  which  case  the  burning  was 
certainly  the  best  expedient. 

In  some  cases  the  rites  of  sepulture  were  not  allowed ;  and 
to  this  it  has  been  thought  tliat  then;  is  an  allusion  in  .lob 
xxvii.  19.  It  was  the  opinion  of  tin;  jjagan  Arabs  that,  upon 
the  death  of  any  person,  a  bird,  by  them  called  Ahuuih,  issued 
from  the  brain,  which  haunted  the  sepulchre  of  the  deceased, 
uttering  a  lamentable  scream.  This  notion,  also,  the  late 
protessor  Carlyle  thinks,  is  evidently  alluded  to  in  Job  xxi. 
32.,  whore  the  venerable  patriarch,  speaking  of  the  fate  of 
the  wicked,  says: — 

lie  shall  be  brought  to  the  grave, 

And  shall  watch  ujioii  the  raised  up  heap.« 

The  .Tews  showed  a  great  regard  for  the  burial  of  their 
dead  ;  to  be  deprived  of  it  was  thought  to  be  one  of  the  great- 
est dishonours  that  could  be  done  to  any  man  :  and,  there- 
fore, ill  Scripture  it  is  reckoned  one  of  the  calamities  that 
should  befall  the  wicked.  (Eccles.  vi.  3.)  In  all  nations 
there  was  generally  so  much  humanity  as  not  to  prevent  their 
enemies  from  burying  their  dead.  The  people  of  Gaza  al- 
lowed Samson's  relations  to  come  and  take  away  his  body 
(Judg.  xvi.  31.);  though  one  would  have  thought  that  this 
last  slaughter  which  he  made  among  them  might  have  pro- 
voked them  to  some  acts  of  outrage  even  upon  his  dead  body. 
liut  as  he  stood  alone  in  what  he  did,  none  of  the  Israelites 
joining  with  him  in  his  enleri)rises,  they  might  possibly  be 
apprehensive,  that,  if  they  denied  him  burial,  tiie  God  of 
Israel,  who  had  given  him  such  extraordinary  strength  in  his 
lifetime,  would  not  fail  to  take  vengeance  on  them  in  that 
case,  and,  therefore,  they  were  desirous,  it  may  be,  to  get 
rid  of  his  body  (as  afterwards  they  were  of  the  ark),  and 
glad,  perhaps,  that  any  one  W'ould  remove  such  a  formidable 
object  out  of  their  sight.  .leremiah  prophesied  of  .lehoiakim, 
that  he  should  be  buried  with  the  burial  of  an  ass  (Jer.  xxii. 
19.),  meaning  that  he  should  not  be  buried  at  all,  but  be  cast 
forth  beyond  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  exposed  to  the  air  and 
putrefaction  above  ground,  as  beasts  are,  which  is  more 
j)laiiily  expressed  alterwards,  by  telling  us,  that  his  body 
ahoulJ  be  cant  out  in  the  diuj  to  the  heat,  and  in  the  night  to  the 
frost.  (Jer.  xxxvi.  30.)  The  author  of  that  affecting  elegy, 
the  seventy-ninth  psalm,  when  enumerating  the  calamities 
which  had  befallen  ids  unhap|)y  countrymen,  particularly 
specifies  the  denial  of  the  rites  of  sepulture,  as  enhancing 
their  afllictions.  The  dead  bodies  of  thy  servants  have  they 
given  to  lie  meat  unto  the  fowls  of  heaven  ,-  the  flesh  of  thy 
saints  unto  the  beasts  of  the  earth.  (Psal.  Ixxix,  2.) 

IV.  'J'he  Rites  of  Sepulture  were  various  at  different 
times,  and  also  according  to  the  rank  or  station  of  the  de- 
ceased. 

1.  Before  the  age  of  Moses,  the  funeral  took  place  a  few 
days  after  death,  ((ien.  xxiii.  19.  xxv.  9.  xxxv.  29.)  In  Kgypt, 
a  longer  time  elapsed  before  the  last  offices  were  piTfurmed 
for  Jacob  and  Joseph,  on  account  of  the  time  wiiich  was 
requisite  for  the  Egyptian  process  of  embalming,  in  order 
th.it  the  corpse  might  be  preserved  for  a  long  time.  (Gen. 
xlix.  29.  1.  3.  24 — 26.)  As  it  is  probable  that  the  Israelites, 
when  in  Kgypt,  had  been  accustomed  to  keep  their  dead  for 
a  considerable  period,  the  Mosaic  laws,  respecting  the  un- 
cleanness  which  arose  from  a  dead  body,  would  compel 
them  to  a  more  speedy  interment.  At  length,  after  the 
return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  it  became  customary 
for  the  Jews  to  bury  the  dead  on  the  same  day,  and  as  soon 
as  poss'djle  after  the  vital  spark  was  extinguished.  Jahn 
affirms  (but  without  assigning  any  authority  for  his  asser- 
tion), that  the  Jews  did  ihls  in  imitatiftn  of  the  Persians ;  but 
it  is  more  likely,  that  the  custom  arose  from  a  superstitious 
interpretation  of  Deut.  xxi.  22,  23.,  which  law  enjoined,  that 

>  Carlyle'8  Specimens  of  Arabian  Poetry,  p.  14.  2d  edit. 


the  body  of  one  who  had  been  hanged  on  a  tree  should  he 
taken  down  before  night.  The  burial  of  Tabitha  was  de- 
layed, on  account  of  the  disciples  sending  for  the  apostle 
Peter.  (Acts  ix.  37.) 

2.  The  poorer  classes  were  carrie<J  forth  to  interment  lying 
on  an  open  bier  or  couch,  as  is  the  universal  practice  in  the 
East  to  this  day,  not  screwed  into  a  coffin.  In  this  way  the 
son  of  the  widow  of  Nainwas  borne  to  his  grave  without  the 
city  :  and  it  should  si^em  that  the  bearers  at  that  time  moved 
with  as  much  rapidity  as  th(;y  do  at  the  present  time  among 
the  modern  Jews.^  The  rich,  and  persons  of  rank,  were  car- 
ried forth  on  more  costly  biers.  Josephus  relates  that  the 
body  of  Herod  was  carried  on  a  golden  bier,  richly  embroi- 
dered;^ and  we  may  presume,  that  the  bier  on  which  Abner 
was  carried  was  more  costly  than  those  used  for  ordinary  per- 
sons. (2  Sam.  iii.  31.) 

But  whatever  the  rank  of  the  parties  might  be,  the  superin- 
tendence and  charge  of  the  funeral  were  undertaken  by  the 
nearest  relations  and  friends  of  the  deceased.  Thus,  Abra- 
ham interred  Sarah  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah  (Gen.  xxiii.  19.); 
Isaac  and  Ishmael  buried  Abraham  (Gen.  xxv.  9.) ;  Esau 
and  Jacob  buried  Isaac  (Gen.  xxxv.  29.);  Moses  buried 
Aaron  on  Mount  llor  (Num.  xx.  29.)  ;  the  old  prophet  laid 
the  disobedient  prophet  in  his  own  grave  (1  Kings  xiii.  30.)  ; 
Joseph  of  Arimathea  interred  Jesus  Christ  in  his  own  new 
tomb  (Matt,  xxvii.  59,  60.) ;  and  the  disciples  of  John  the 
Baptist  performed  the  last  office  for  their  master.  The  sons 
ana  numerous  relations  of  Herod  followed  his  funeral  pro- 
cession.^  Sometimes,  however,  servants  took  the  charge  of 
interring  their  masters,  asin  thecaseof  Josiah  kingof  Judah. 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  30.)  Devout  men  carried  Stephen  to  his 
burial.  (Acts  viii.  2.)  The  funeral  obsequies  were  also  at- 
tended by  the  friends  of  the  deceased,  both  men  and  women, 
who  made  loud  lamentations  for  the  deceased,  and  some  of 
whom  were  hired  for  the  occasion.  David  and  a  large  body 
of  the  Israelites  mourned  before  Jibner.  (2  Sam  iii.  31,32.) 
Solomon  mentions  the  circumstance  of  mourners  going  about 
the  streets  (Eccles.  xii.  5.) ;  who,  most  probably,  were  per- 
sons hired  to  attend  the  funeral  obsequies,  to  wail  and  lament 
for  the  departed.'  From  Jer.  ix.  17.  it  appears,  that  women 
were  chiefly  employed  for  this  purpose ;  and  Jerome,  in  his 
commentary  on  that  passage,  says,  that  the  practice  was  con- 
tinued in  Judaea,  down  to  his  days,  or  the  latter  part  of  the 
fourth  century.*  In  Jer.  xlviii.  30.,  the  use  of  musical  instru- 
ments by  these  hired  mourners  is  distinctly  recognised  ;  and 
Amos  (v.  17.)  alludes  to  such  mourning  as  a  well-known 
custom. 

In  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles,  the  funeral 
dirges  sung  by  these  hired  mourners  were  accompanied  by 
musical  instruments.  "  The  soft  and  plaintive  melody  of  the 
flute  was  employed  to  heighten  these  doleful  lamentations 
and  dirges.  Thus  we  read,  that  on  the  death  of  the  daugh- 
ter of  Jairus,  a  company  of  mourners,  with  players  on  the 
flute,  according  to  the  Jewish  custom,  attended  upon  this  sor- 
rowful occasion.  When  Jesus  entered  the  governor's  house, 
he  saw  the  minstrels  and  the  people  wailing  greatly.  (Matt, 
ix.  23.)  The  custom  of  employing  music  to  heighten  public 
and  private  grief  was  not  in  that  age  peculiar  to  the  Jews. 
We  find  the  flute  also  employed  at  the  funeral  solemnities  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  their  lamentations  for  the  de- 
ceased, as  appears  from  numerous  testimonies  of  classic 
authors."''  Tiie  same  custom  still  obtains  among  the  Moors  in 
Africa,  the  Turks  in  Palestine,  and  the  modem  Greeks.  "At 
all  their  principal  entertainments,"  says  Dr.  Shaw,  "and  to 
show  mirth  and  gladness  upon  other  occasions,  the  women 
welcome  the  arrival  of  each  guest,  by  squalling  out  for  seve- 

■»  Not  to  detail  the  observations  of  the  earlier  travellers,  it  may  suffice  to 
adduce  three  instances  from  recent  and  intelligent  English  travellers.— 
At  Cairo,  savs  Mr.  Came,  "  we  met  an  Arab  funeral :  about  twenty  men, 
friends  of  tiie  deceased,  arlvaiicod  under  a  row  of  palm  trees,  singing  in  a 
mournful  tone,  and  bearing  Ihe  body.  The  corpse  was  that  of  a  woman 
neatly  dressed  in  while,  and  borne  on  an  open  bier,  with  a  small  awning  of 
red  silk  over  it."  (Letters  from  the  East,  p.  lt>3.)  At  Uaglitchisarai  in  the 
Ci  imea,  Dr.  Henderson  saw  a  corpse  conveyed  to  the  iniblic  cemetery  of 
the  Christians  :  it  "  was  simply  wrapped  round  with  a  white  cloth,  laid  upon 
a  /)icr  or  buard,  and  borne  by  four  men  lo  the  grave.  This  mode  of  per- 
foruiing  the  funeral  obsequies  obtains  equally  among  the  Jews,  Christians, 
and  Mohammedans  in  these  parts,  will,  the  exception  of  the  European 
families,  who  naturally  conform  to  the  rite  of  their  ancestors."  (Biblical 
Researches,  p.  304.)  Mr.  Hartley  ohscrvtd  a  similar  mode  of  interment 
in  «reece.  -The  corpse  is  always  exhibited  to  full  view  :  it  is  placed  upon 
a  bier  which  is  borne  aloft  upon  the  shoulders,  and  is  dressed  in  the  best 
and  gayest  garments  possessed  by  Ihe  deceased."  (llesearches  in  Greece, 

3  .ioscphus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvii.  c.  8.  §3.    Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.  33.  §9. 
«  Holden's  translation  of  Ecclesiastes,  p.  171. 

5  Ur.  Blavney's  translation  of  Jeremiah,  p.  270.  8vo.  edit. 

6  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp-  132.  134-,  where  various  pasagesof 
classic  authors  are  cited. 


200 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  DEAD. 


[Patit  IV.  Chap.  X. 


ral  times  together,  Loo !  Loo !  Loo !'  At  their  funerals, 
also,  and  upon  other  mplanchol)^  occasions,  they  repeat  the 
same  noise,  only  they  make  it  more  deep  and  hollow,  and 
end  eacii  period  with  some  ventriloquous  sighs.  The  axaxi- 
^cvT-JL(  iToxA-j,  or  wailing  greatly  (as  our  version  expresses  it, 
Mark  v.  38.),  upon  the  death  of.Iairus"s  daughter,  was,  pro- 
bably, performed  in  this  manner.  For  there  are  several 
women,  hired  to  act  upon  these  lugubrious  occasions,  wlio, 
like  the  prstficx,  or  mourning  women  of  old,  are  skilful  in 
liimenft'tion  (Amos  v.  IG.),  and  great  mistresses  of  the&3  me- 
lancholy expressions :  and,  indeed,  tliey  perform  their  parts 
"with  such  proper  sounds,  gestures,  and  commotions,  that  they 
rarely  fail  to  work  up  the  assembly  into  some  extraordinary 
pitch  of  thoughtfulness  and  sorrow.  The  British  factory  has 
often  been  very  sensibly  touched  wath  these  lamentations, 
whenever  they  were  made  in  the  neighbouring  houses."^ 
The  Rev.  William  Jowett,  during  his  travels  in  Palestine, 
arrived  at  the  town  of  Napolose,  which  stands  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Shechem,  immediately  after  the  death  of  the 
governor.  "  On  coming  within  sight  of  the  gate,"  he  relates, 
"  we  perceived  a  numerous  company  of  females,  who  were 
singing  in  a  kind  of  recitative,  far  from  melancholy,  and  beat- 
ing time  with  their  hands.  On  our  reaching  the  gate,  it  was 
suddenly  exchanged  for  most  hideous  plaints  and  shrieks ; 
which,  with  the  feeling  that  we  were  entering  a  city  at  no 
time  celebrated  for  its  nospitality,  struck  a  very  dismal  im- 
pression upon  my  mind.  They  accompanied  us  a  few  paces, 
but  it  soon  appeared  that  the  gate  was  their  station  ;  to  which, 
having  received  nothing  from  us,  they  returned.  We  learned 
in  the  course  of  the  evening  that  these  were  only  a  small  de- 
tachment of  a  very  numerous  body  of  cunning  women,  who 
were  filling  the  whole  city  witli  their  cries, — taking  up  a 
wailing  with  the  design,  as  of  old,  to  make  the  eyes  of  all 
the  inhabitants  ru?i  down,  with  tears,  and  their  eyelicls  gush  out 
with  waters.  (Jer.  ix.  17,  18.)  For  this  good  service  they 
would,  the  next  morning,  wait  upon  the   government  and 

Srincipal  persons,  to  receive  some  trifling  fee."'  The  Rev. 
ohn  Hartley,  during  his  travels  in  Greece,  relates,  that,  one 
morning,  while  taking  a  solitary  walk  in  iEgina,  the  most 
plaintive  accents  fell  upon  his  ear  which  he  had  ever  heard. 
He  followed  in  the  direction  from  which  the  sounds  pro- 
ceeded, and  they  conducted  him  to  the  newly-made  grave  of 
a  young  man,  cut  down  in  the  bloom  of  life,  over  which  a 
woman,  hired  for  the  occasion,  was  pouring  forth  lamentation 
and  mourning  and  wo,  with  such  doleful  strains  and  feelings, 
as  could  scarcely  have  been  supposed  other  than  sincere.'' 

Li  proportion  to  the  rank  of  the  deceased,  and  the  estima- 
tion in  which  his  memory  was  held,  was  the  number  of  per- 
sons who  assisted  at  his  funeral  obsequies,  agreeably  to  the 
very  ancient  custom  of  the  East.  Thus,  at  the  funeral  of 
Jacob,  there  were  present  not  only  Joseph  and  the  rest  of  his 
family,  but  also  the  servants  and  elders  (or  superintendents 
of  Pharaoh's  house)  and  the  principal  E  gyptians,  who  attended 

»  Dr.  Shaw  conceives  this  word  to  be  a  corruption  of  Hallelujah.  He 
remarks,  A\»>.>),  a  word  of  the  like  sound,  was  used  Ijy  an  army  either  be- 
fore they  gave  the  onset,  or  when  they  had  obtained  the  victory.  The 
Turks  to  this  day  call  out,  Allah !  Allah  !  Allah  !  upon  the  like  occasion. 
Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  435.  note*.  (8vo.  edit.) 

»  Ibid.  pp.  435,  436. 

»  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  194.  The  mourning  of  the 
Montenegrins  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  that  of  the  oriental  nations. 
On  the  death  of  any  one,  nothing  is  heard  but  te^rs,  cries,  and  groans  from 
the  whole  family  :  the  women,  in  particular,  beat  themselves  in  a  frightful 
manner,  pluck  otf  their  hair  and  tear  their  faces  and  bosoms.  The  de- 
ceased person  is  laid  out  for  twenty-four  hours,  in  the  house  where  he  ex- 
pire.s,  with  the  face  uncovered ;  and  is  jierfuuied  with  essences,  anti 
strewed  with  flowers  and  aromatic  leaves,  after  the  custom  of  the  ancients. 
The  lamentations  are  renewed  every  moment,  particularly  on  the  arrival 
of  a  fresh  person,  and  especially  of  the  priest.  Just  before  the  defunct  is 
carried  out  of  the  house,  his  relations  whisper  in  his  ear,  and  give  him  com- 
missions for  the  other  world,  to  their  departed  relatives  or  friends.  After 
these  singular  addresses,  a  pall  or  winding-sheet  is  thrown  over  the  dead 
.  person,  whose  face  continues  uncovered,  and  he  is  carried  to  church :  while 
on  the  road  thither,  women,  hired  for  the  purpose,  chant  his  praises,  amid 
their  tears.  Previously  to  deposilinghim  in  the  ground,  the  next  of  kin  lie 
a  piece  of  cake  to  his  neck,  and  put  a  i^iece  of  money  in  his  hand,  after 
the  manner  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  During  this  ceremony,  as  also  wliile 
they  are  carrying  him  to  the  burial-ground,  a  variety  of  apostrophes  is 
addressed  to  the  defunct,  which  are  interrupted  only  by  mournful  sobs, 
asking  him  why  he  quitted  them  ■?  Why  he  abandoned  his  family?  He, 
whose  poor  wife  loved  him  so  tenderly,  and  provideci  everv  thing  for  him 
to  eat !  Whose  children  obeyed  him  with  sucli  respect,  while  his  friends 
succoured  him  whenever  he  wanted  assistance  ;  vvho  possessed  such  beau- 
tiful flocks,  and  all  whose  undertakings  were  blessed  by  heaven  !  When 
the  funeral  rites  are  performed,  the  curate  and  mourners  return  home, 
and  partake  of  a  grand  entertainment,  which  is  frequently  interrupted  by 
jovial  songs,  intermixed  with  prayers  in  honour  of  the  deceased.  One  of 
the  guests  is  commissioned  to  chant  a  "lament"  impromptu,  which  usually 
draws  tears  from  the  whole  company  ;  the  performer  is  accompanied  bv 
three  or  four  monochords,  whose  harsh  discord  excites  both  laughter  and 
tears  at  the  same  time.  Voyage  Historique  et  Politique  a  Montenegro,  par 
M.  Ic  Colonel  Vialla  de  Sommieres,  torn.  i.  pp.  275—278.     Paris,  1820.  8vo. 

«  Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece,  pp.  119.  120 


to  do  honour  to  his  memory,  and  wlio  accompanied  the  pro- 
cession into  the  land  of  Canaan.  (Gen.  1.  7 — 10.)  At  the 
burial  of  Abner,  David  commanded  Joab  and  all  the  people 
that  were  witli  hiin  to  rend  tlieir  garments,  and  g^ird  them- 
selves with  sackcloth,  and  to  mourn  befnre  Abncr,  or  make 
lamentations  in  honour  of  that  general;  and  the  kinor  himself 
followed  the  bier.  (2  Sam.  iii.  31.)  MlJudah  and  the  inha- 
Ijltants  of  Jerusalem  did  honour  to  Hezekiah  at  his  death. 
(-2  (/hron.  xxxii.  33.)  Much  people  of  the  citt/  ivere  with  the 
widow  of  Nain,  who  was  following  her  only  son  to  the 
grave.  (Luke  vii.  1-2.)  Josephus  informs  us  that  Herod  was 
attended  to  Herodium  (a  journey  of  twcnty-rfivc  days),  where 
he  had  commanded  that  he  should  be  interred,  first,  by  his 
sons  and  his  numerous  relations;  next,  by  his  guards,  and 
after  them  by  the  whole  army,  in  the  same  order  as  when 
tliey  marched  out  to  war ;  and  that  these  were  followed  by 
five  hundred  of  his  domestics,  carrying  spices.^ 

Further,  it  was  usual  to  honour  the  memory  of  distin- 
guished individuals  by  a  funeral  oration  or  poem :  thus 
David  pronounced  a  eulogy  over  the  grave  ot  Abner.  (2 
iSam.  iii.  33,  3i.)  Upon  the  death  of  any  of  their  princes, 
who  had  distinguislied  themselves  in  arms,  or  who,  by  any 
religious  actions,  or  by  the  promotion  of  civil  arts,  had 
merited  well  of  their  country,  they  used  to  make  lamentations 
or  mournful  sonirs  for  them:  from  an  expression  in  SChron. 
xxxv.  25.  Behold  they  are  ivritten  in  the  Lamentations,  we 
may  infer  that  they  had  certain  collections  of  this  kind  of 
composition.  The  author  of  the  book  of  Samuel  has  pre- 
served the  exquisitively  beautiful  and  affecting  elegy  which 
David  coinposed  on  occasion  of  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jona- 
than; but  we  have  no  reinalns  of  the  naournful  poem  which 
Jeremiah  made  upon  the  immature  death  of  the  pious  king 
Josiah,  mentioned  in  the  last-cited  chapter:  which  loss  is 
the  more  to  be  deplored,  because  in  all  probability  it  was  a 
masterpiece  in  its  kind,  since  never  was  there  an  author 
more  deeply  alTected  with  his  subject,  or  more  capable  of 
carrying  it  through  all  the  tender  sentiments  of  sorrow  and 
compassion,  than  Jeremiah.  But  no  funeral  obsequies  were 
conferred  on  those  who  laid  violent  hands  on  themselves: 
hence  we  do  not  read  that  the  traitor-suicide  Judas  was  la- 
mented by  the  Jews  (Matt,  xxvii.  4.),  or  by  his  fellow-dis- 
ciples. (Acts  i.  16.) 

Among  many  ancient  nations,  a  custom  prevailed  of  throw- 
ing nieces  of  gold  and  silver,  together  with  other  precious  .• 
articles,  into  the  sepulchres  of  those  who  were  buried  :  this 
custom  was  not  adopted  by  the  Jews.  But  in  Ezek.  xxxii. 
27.  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  custom  which  obtained  among 
almost  all  ancient  nations,  of  adorning  the  sepulchres  of 
heroes  with  their  swords  and  other  military  trophies.  The 
prophet,  foretelling'  the  fall  of  Meshech  and  Tubal,  and  all 
her  multitude,  says  that  they  are  gone  down  to  hell  (or  the 
invisible  state)  with  their  weapons  of  ivar ,-  and  they  have 
laid  their  stvords  under  their  heads.  In  INIingrelia,  Sir  John 
Chardin  informs  us,  they  all  sleep  with  their  swords  under 
their  heads,  and  their  other  arms  by  their  sides ;  and  they 
bury  them  in  the  same  manner,  their  arms  being  placed  in 
the  same  position.  This  fact  greatly  illustrates  the  passage 
above  cited,  since,  according  to  Bochart  and  other  learned  I 
geographers,  Meshech  and  Tubal  mean  Mingrelia,  and  the 
circumjacent  country .6  * 

V.  The  most  simple  Tombs  or  monuments  of  old  consisted 
of  hillocks  of  earth,  heaped  up  over  the  grave,  of  which  we 
have  numerous  examples  in  our  own  country.  In  the  East, 
where  persons  have  been  murdered,  heaps  of  stones  are 
raised  over  them  as  signs ,-  and  to  this  custom  the  prophet 
Ezekiel  appears  to  allude,  (xxxix.  15.)' 

The  earliest  sepulchres,  in  all  probability,  were  caverns. 
Abraham  purchased  the  cave  of  Machpelati  of  Ephron  the 
Hittite  for  a  fainily  burial-place.  (Gen.  xxiii.  8 — 18.)  Here 
were  interred  Abraham  ana  Sarah,  Isaac  and  Rebekah ;  here 
also  J'acob  buried  Leah,  and  charged  his  sons  to  deposit  his 
remains.  (Gen.  xlix.  29 — 32.  1.  13.)  The  ancient  Jews 
seem  to  have  attached  much  irnportance  to  interment  in  the 
sepulchre  of  their  fathers,  and  particularly  to  being  buried 
in  the  land  of  Canaan  (Gen.  xlvii.  30.  xlix.  29.  1.  25.'),  in 
which  affection  for  the  country  of  their  ancestors  the_y  are 
not   surpassed    by   their   descendants,   the    modern   Jews. 

'  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvi.  c.  8.  §  3. 

0  Harmer's  Observations  on  Scripture,  vol.  iii.  pp.  55,  56. 

■"  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  Pref.  p.  xviii. 

«  The  modern  Jews,  in  the  time  of  Rabbi  Solomon  Jarchi,  buried  their 
dead  immediately,  and'put  wooden  jn-ops  in  the  tombs  by  their  side,  by 
leaning  on  wliich  they  would  be  enabled  to  arise  more  easily  at  the  resur-- 
rection  of  mankind  from  death.    They  further  peisuade  tlieuiselves  that  . 
all  the  bodies  of  Jews  dying  out  of  Palestine,  wherever  they  may  be 


i 


Sf.ct.  II.] 


TOMB«, 


201 


In  Psal.  xxviii.  1,  cxliii.  7.  and  Prov.  i.  12.  the  £rrave  is 
repri'sentcul  as  a  pit  or  cavern,  intowhirrli  a  desfcnt  is  iiccfis- 
sary ;  contaiiiinur  dormitories  or  separate  cells  for  reci:ivin<r 
the  dead  (Isa.  xiv.  15.  Kzek.  xxxii.  2',i.\  so  that  eacli  person 
may  he  said  to  lie  in  his  own  house  (Isa.  xiv.  18.),  and  to 
rest  in  his  own  hed.  (Isa.  Ivii.  2.)  These  sepulchral  vaults 
seem  to  have  b(;en  excavated  for  the  use  of  the  persons  of 
high  rank  and  their  families.  The  vanity  of  Shchna,  wiio 
was  reproved  for  it  by  Isaiaii,  is  set  forth  hy  his  hcinK  so 
studious  and  careiful  to  have  his  sepulchre  on  liii;li,  in  a  lofty 
vault,  and,  probably,  in  an  elevated  situali(jn,  tli;ii  it  inifrbt 
be  the  more  conspicuous.  (Isa.  xxii.  Ki.)'  Of  this  kind  of 
sepulchres  there  are  remains  still  extant  at  Jerusalem,  some 
of  which  are  reported  to  be  the  sepulchres  of  the  kin<rs  of 
Judab,-  and  others,  those  of  the  .ludtjes.' 

The  followinir  description  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Kinnrs  (as 
they  are  tiirnied),  which  are  situated  near  the  villaire  of 
Gournou,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river  Nile,  will  illustrate 
the  nature  of  the  ancient  sepulchres,  which  were  excavated 
out  of  the  mountains.  "  Further  in  the  recesses  of  the 
mountains,  are  the  more  mafrnilicent  Tombs  of  the  Kinors ; 
each  consistinij  of  many  chambers,  adorned  with  hierojrly- 
I)hics.  The  scene  brinirs  many  allusions  of  Scripture  to  the 
mind ;  such  as  Mark  v.  -2,  3.  5.,  but  particularly  Isaiah  xxii. 
16,  T/iou  ha.st  hewed  thee  out  a  sepulchre  here,  u.s  he  that  hew- 
eth  him  oul  a  sepulchre  on  hii^h,  and  that  graveth  a  luibitalion 
fiir  himself  hi  a  rock,-  for  many  of  the  smaller  sepulchres 
are  excavated  nearly  halfway  up  the  mountain,  which  is 
very  hitrh.  The  kinijs  have  tlieir  ma<rnificent  abodes  nearer 
the  foot  of  the  mountain;  and  seem,  accordinsf  to  Isaiah  xiv. 
18.,  to  have  taken  a  |)rido  in  restinjj  as  mai^nificently  in  death 
as  they  had  done  in  life — Jill  the  kings  of  the  nations,  even  all 
of  them,  lie  in  glori/  ,■  everij  one  in  his  own  house.  The  stuc- 
coed walls  within  are  covered  with  hierotrlyphics.  Tlu^y 
cannot  be  better  described  than  in  the  words  of  Ezekiel,  viii. 
8 — 10.  Then  said  he  unto  me,  Son  of  man,  dig  now  in  the 
wall ;  and  when  I  had  digged  in  the  wall,  behold  a  door.  And 
he  said  unto  me,  go  in  ;  and  behold  the  wicked  abominations 
that  iheij  do  here.  So  I  went  in,  and  saw :  and  behold  even/ 
form  of  creeping  things  arid  abominable  beauts,  and  all  the 
idols  oj  the  house  of  Israel  portrat/ed  upon  the  wall  round  about. 
The  Israelites  w-ere  but  copyists  :  the  master-sketches  are  to 
be  seen  in  all  the  ancient  temples  and  tombs  of  Efjypt."^ 

Farther,  "  it  appears  from  the  Scriptures,  that  the  Jews 
had  family  sepulchres  in  places  contiguous  to  th(!ir  own 
houses,  and  generally  in  their  gardens  :"  and  tiie  same  usage 
obtained  among  the  Romans  and  other  nations.^  "  Such 
was  the  place  in  which  Lazarus  was  interred ;  and  such, 

interred,  will  perform  a  subterraneous  journey  into  Palestine,  in  order  that 
they  may  paiiicipale  in  the  resurrection.  S.  Jarchi  on  Gen.  xlvii. — Albor, 
h\M.  Henn.  Test.  toni.  i.  p.  31'J. 

'  Bp.  Lowth  on  Isaiali,  vol.  ii.  pp.  120.  170.  328,  329. 
,  »  "Above  half  a  mile  from  the  wall"  of  Jerusalem,  "are  the  Tombs  of 
the  Kings.  In  miiLst  of  a  hollow,  rocky  and  adorned  with  a  few  trees,  is  the 
entrance.  You  then  find  a  large  apartuieni,  above  lifty  feet  long,  at  the 
side  of  which  a  low  door  leads  into  a  series  of  small  chambers,  hewn  out 
of  the  rock,  of  the  size  of  the  human  body.  There  are  six  or  seven  of 
these  low  and  dark  aparUnenis,  in  which  are  hewn  recesses  of  different 
shapes  for  the  reception  of  bodies."  (Carne's  Letters  from  the  East,  p. 
294.     Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  75.) 

•  The  "Sepulchres  of  the  Judges,  .so  called,  are  situated  in  a  wild  spot, 
about  two  miles  from  the  city.  They  bear  much  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
Kings,  but  are  not  so  handsome  or  spacious."  (Carne's  Letters  from  the 
East,  p.  294.)  "  No  shadow,  not  even  of  a  rock,  is  spread  over  these  long 
enduring  relics,  in  which  tradition  has  placed  the  ashes  of  the  rulers  of 
Israel.  They  consist  of  several  divisions,  each  containing  two  or  three 
apartments  cut  oul  of  the  solid  rock,  and  entablatures  are  carved  with 
some  skill  over  the  entrance.  No  richly  carved  relics,  or  fragments  of 
sarcophagi  remain  here,  as  in  the  lotnbs  of  the  kings;  and  their  only  use 
Is  to  shelter  the  wandering  passenger  or  the  benighted  traveller,  who  finds 
no  other  rrstine-place  in  the  wild  around."  (Carne's  Recollections  of  the 
East,  pp.  135.  136.) 

«  .lowetl's  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  p.  133. 

'  Thu3,  the  Mausoleum  of  Augu.stus  was  erected  in  a  garden.  Dr.  Mim- 
(er  has  collected  numerous  classical  inscriptions,  which  aUest  the  applica- 
tion of  gardens  to  sepulchral  purposes.  (SvmholK  ad  Interprelalionem 
Evangelii  Johannis  ex  Mannoribus,  pp.  29,  30.)  The  modern  iuhabilanis 
of  Mount  Lebanon  liave  their  sepulcfires  in  gardens.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Jowelt, 
during  his  visit  to  DeirelKamar,  the  capital  of  the  Druses  on  that  moun- 
tain, says,  that  while  walking  out  one  evening  a  few  fields'  distance  will) 
the  son  of  his  host,  to  see  a  detached  garden  belonging  to  his  father,  the 
young  man  pointed  oul  to  him  near  it  a  small  solid  stone  building,  verv 
solemnly  adding,  "  Kabbar  Beily — the  sepulchre  of  our  family."  It  had 
neither  door  nor  window.  'lie  then"  (adds  Mr.  J.)  "directed  my  alien- 
ti  in  to  a  considerable  number  of  similar  buildings  at  a  dislanc;  ;  which  to 
the  eye  areVxactly  like  houses,  but  which  are,  in  fact,  family  mansions  for 
the  dead.     They  have  a  most  melancholy  appearance,  which  made  him 

shudder  while  he  explained  their  use." "Perhaps  this  custom,  which 

prevails  particularly  at  Deir-el-Kainar,  and  in  the  lonely  neighbouring  parts 
of  the  mountain,  may  have  been  of  great  anrupiity,  and  may  serve  to  e.\- 
plain  some  Scripture  phrases.  The  prophet  Samuel  was  buried  in  his 
house  at  Riimnh  (1  Sam.  xxv.  1);  it  could  hardly  be  in  his  dweljiniihouse. 
Joab  was  buried  in  his  otrn  house  in  Ike  trilderness.  (.1  Kiug;i  ii.  3i.)" 
Joweu's  Christian  Researches  in  Palestine,  p.  280. 

Vol.  II.  2  C 


also,  was  the  grave  in  which  the  body  of  our  Lord  was  de- 
posited. Joseph  of  Arimathea,  a  person  of  distinction,  by 
St.  .Mark  called  an  honourable  couiisellor"  (Mark  xv.  43.), 
or  member  of  the  sanhedrin,  "mindful  of  bis  mortality,  had 
hewn  out  of  the  rock  in  his  garden  a  sepulchre,  in  which  he 
intended  his  own  remains  should  be  reposited.  Now  in  the 
place  where  he  was  crucified  there  was  a  garden,  and  in  the 
garden  a  new  sepulchre,  wherein  was  no  man  yet  laid.  When 
Joseph,  therefore,  had  taken  the  body  of  Jesus,  and  wrapped 
it  in  a  clean  linen  cloth,  he  carried  it  into  the  tomb  which  he 
had  lately  hollowed  out  of  the  rock;  and  rolled  a  great  stone 
to  the  low  door  of  the  sepulchre,  effectually  to  block  up  the 
entrance,  and  secure  the  sacred  corpse  of  the  deceased,  both 
from  the  indignities  of  his  foes,  and  the  ofliciousness  of  his 
friends.  Sometimes,  also,  they  buried  their  dead  in  fields, 
over  whom  the  opulent  and  families  of  distinction  raised 
superb  and  ostentatious  monuments,  on  which  they  lavished 
great  splendour  and  magnificence,  and  which  they  so  reli- 
giously maintained  from  time  to  time  in  their  pristine  beauty 
and  glory. "«  To  this  custom  our  Saviour  alludes  in  the  fol- 
lowing apt  comparison  :  IFo  unto  you,  scribes  and  Pharisees, 
hypocrites  !  fur  ye  are  like  unto  whited  sepulchres,  which  in- 
deed appear  beautiful  outward,  but  are  unthin  full  of  dead 
inen''s  bones,  and  of  all  uncleanness.  Even  so  ye  also  outvmrdly 
appear  righteous  to  men,  but  within  ye  are  full  if  hypocrisy 
and  iniquity.  (Matt,  xxiii.  27.)'  But  though  the  sepulchres 
of  the  rich  were  thus  beautified,  the  graves  of  the  poor  were 
oftentimes  so  neglected,  that  if  the  stones  by  which  they 
were  marked  haiijjened  to  fall,  they  were  not  set  up  again, 
by  which  means  the  graves  themselves  did  not  appear ;  they 
were  oJmksl,  that  is,  not  obvious  to  the  sight,  so  that  men 
might  tread  on  them  inadvertently.  (Luke  xi.  44.)"  From 
Jer.  xxvi.  23.  we  may  collect  that  the  populace  of  the  lowest 
order  (Ileb.  sons  or  children  of  the  people)  were  buried  in  a 
public  cemetery,  having  no  distinct  sepulchre  to  themselves, 
as  all  persons  of  rank  and  character,  and  especially  of  so 
honourable  an  order  as  that  of  the  prophets,  used  to  have.9 

After  the  deceased  had  been  committed  to  the  tomb,  it  was 
customary  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  to  put  the  tears 
shed  by  the  surviving  relatives  and  friends  into  lachrymatory 
urns,  and  place  these  on  the  sepulchres,  as  a  memorial  of 
their  distress  and  affection.  From  Psal.  Ivi.  8.  it  should  seem 
that  this  custom  was  still  more  anciently  in  use  among  the 
eastern  nations,  especially  the  Hebrews.  These  vessels  were 
of  dilTerent  materials,  and  were  moulded  into  different  forms. 
Some  were  of  glass,  and  some  were  of  earthenware,'"  being 
diminutive  in  size  and  of  delicate  workmanship. 

In  order  to  do  honour  to  the  memory  of  the  dead,  their 
sepulchres  were  sometimes  distinguished   by  monuments. 

«  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  139.  141,  142.  Tlie  sepulchres, 
described  and  delineated  by  Mr.  Emerson,  completely  elucidate  the  tbrm 
of  the  Jewish  tombs.     Letters  from  the  jEgean,  vol.  ii.  pp.  55 — 59. 

■<  The  following  passage  from  Dr.  Shaw'sTravels  affords  a  striking  illustra- 
tion of  Matt,  xxiii.  27.  "If  we  except  a  few  persons,  who  are  buried  within 
the  precincts  of  the  sanctuaries  of  iheir  Marabults,  the  rest  are  carried 
out  at  a  smaller  distance  from  their  cities  and  villages,  where  a  great  extent 
of  ground  is  allotted  for  the  purpose.  Each  family  has  a  particular  part 
of  it  walled  in,  like  a  garden,  where  the  bones  of  their  ancestors  have 
remained  for  many  generations.  For  in  these  enclosures  the  graves  are 
all  distinct  and  separated,  each  of  them  having  a  stone  placed  upright  both 
at  the  head  and  feet,  inscribed  with  the  name  and  title  of  the  deceased; 
while  the  iiitermeiliale  space  is  either  planted  with  flowers,  bordered  round 
with  stones,  or  paved  with  tiles.  The  graves  of  the  principal  citizens  are 
further  distinguished,  by  having  cupolas  or  vaulted  chambers  of  three,  four 
or  more  square  yards  built  over  them :  and  as  these  very  frequently  lie 
open,  and  occasionally  shelter  us  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  the 
demoniac  (Mark  v.  5.)  might  with  propriety  enough  have  had  his  dwelling 
among  the  tombs:  and  others  are  said  (Isa.  Ixv.  4.)  to  remain  among  the 
graves  and  to  lodge  in  the  monuments  (mountains).  And  as  all  these  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  tombs  and  sepulchres,  with  the  very  walls  likewise  of  their 
respective  cupolas  and  enclosures,  are  constantly  kept  clean,  whitewashed, 
and  beautified,  they  continue  to  illustrate  those  expressions  of  our  Saviour 
where  he  mentions  the  garnishing  of  sepulchres,  and  compares  the  scribes, 
Pharisees,  and  hypocrites  to  whited  sepulchres,  which  indeed  appear  beau- 
tiful outward,  but  within  were  full  of  dead  men's  bones  and  all  unclean- 
ness."   Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  395,  396. 

«  Macknight's  Harmony,  sect.  87.  vol.  ii.  p.  473. 

»  Ur.  Blaney's  Jeremiah,  p.  319. 

i»  Dr.  Chandler's  Life  of  David,  vol.  i.  p.  106.  Among  the  valuable  re- 
mains of  ancient  art  collected  by  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke  among  the  ruins  of 
Sicyon,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  were  lachrymatories  of  more  ancient  form 
anil  materials  than  any  thing  he  had  ever  before  observed  of  the  same 
kind;  "the  lachrymatory  phials,  in  which  the  Sicyonians  treasured  up 
Iheir  tears,  deserve  rather  the  name  of  buttles:  Ihey  are  nine  inches  long, 
two  inches  in  diameter,  and  contains  as  much  fluid  as  would  fill  a  phial  of 
three  ounces;  consisting  of  the  coarsest  materials,  a  heavy  blue  clay  or 
inarle..  ..  Sometimes  the  vessels  found  in  ancient  sepulchres  are  of  sue 
diminutive  si/.e,  that  ihey  are  only  capable  of  holding  a  few  drops  of  tluid 
in  these  instances  lliere  seems  to  he  no  other  use  for  which  they  were 
fitted.  Small  lachrymal  phials  of  glass  have  been  found  in  the  tombs  of  the 
Romans  in  f^reat  Britain;  and  the  evident  allusion  to  this  practice  in  the 
i^acied  Scriptures— /*«/  those  my  tears  into  thy  bottle  (Psal.  Ivi.  8  ) — seems 
decisive  as  lo  the  purpose  for  which  these  vessels  were  designed."  Tra- 
vels in  various  Countries  of  Eiuope,  kc.  vol.  vi.  pp  54!,  542. 


202 


MOURNING  FOR  THE  DEAD 


[Part  IV.  Chap.  IX. 


The  custom  of  erecting  these  seems  to  have  obtained  even 
from  the  patriarchal  age.  Thus,  Jacob  erected  a  jjillar  upon 
the  grave  of  his  beloved  wife  Rachel.  (Gen.  xxxv.  20.)  This 
is  llie  earliest  monument  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  :  it  is 
evident  from  that  passage  that  it  was  standing  when  Moses 
wrote  ;  and  its  site  seems  to  have  been  known  in  the  time  of 
Samuel  and  Saul.  (1  Sam.x.2.)  The  monument  now  shown 
in  the  vicinity  of  Bethlehem,  as  Rachel's  tomb,  is  a  modern 
and  Turkish  structure,  which  muy,  perhaps,  be  the  true  place 
of  her  interment.'  In  later  times,  inscriptions  appear  to  have 
been  placed  on  tombstones,  denoting  the  persons  who  were 
there  interred.  Such  was  the  title  or  inscription  discovered 
by  Josiah,  which  proved  to  be  the  burial-place  of  the  prophet 
who  was  sent  from  Judah  to  denounce  the  divine  judgments 
acainst  the  altar  which  Jeroboam  had  erected  more  than  three 
centuries  before.  Simon  Maccabeus  built  a  splendid  monu- 
ment at  JNIodin  in  honour  of  his  father  and  his  brethren. 
(1  Mace.  xiii.  25 — 30.)  In  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  it  appears 
that  the  hypocritical  scribes  and  Pharisees  repaired  and 
adorned  the  tombs  of  the  prophets  whom  their  ancestors  had 
murdered  for  their  faithfulness,  under  a  sanctimonious  ap- 
pearance of  respect  for  their  memory.  The  ancient  Arabs 
raised  a  heap  ol  stones  over  the  body  of  the  dead  (Job  xxi. 
32.  marginal  rendering),  which  was  guarded.  In  tiie  year 
1820,  Mr.  Rae  Wilson  observed  on  the  plain  of  Zebulun,  not 
far  from  Cana,  piles  of  stones  covering  over  or  marking  the 
place  of  graves.  Similar  cairns,  also  the  remains  of  remote 
antiquity,  exist  both  in  England  and  in  Scotland.^  Among 
the  Hebrews,  great  heaps  of  stones  were  raised  over  those 
whose  death  was  either  infamous,  or  attended  with  some  very 
remarkable  circumstances.  Such  were  the  heaps  raised  over 
the  grave  of  Achan  (Josh.  vii.  26.),  over  that  of  the  king  of 
Ai  (viii.  29.),  and  over  that  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xviii.  17.) ; 
all  which  were  sepulchral  monuments  to  perpetuate  the  place 
of  their  interment. 

VI.  A  Funeral  Feast  commonly  succeeded  the  Jewish 
burials.  Thus,  after  Abner's  funeral  was  solemnized,  the 
people  came  to  David  to  eat  meat  with  him,  though  they 
could  not  persuade  him  to  do  so.  (2  Sam.  iii.  35.)  He  was 
the  chief  mourner,  and  probably  had  invited  them  to  this 
banquet.  Of  this  Jeremiah  speaks  (xvi.  7.),  where  he  calls 
it  the  cup  of  consolation,  which  they  drank  for  their  father  m 
their  mother ,-  and  accordingly  the  place  where  this  funeral 
entertainment  was  made,  is  called  in  the  next  verse  the 
house  of  feasting.  Hosea  calls  it  the  In-ead  of  mourners. 
(Hos.  ix,  4.)  Funeral  banquets  are  still  in  use  among  the 
oriental  Christians." 

Tlie  usual  tokens  of  mourning  by  which  the  Jews  ex- 
pressed their  grief  and  concern  for  the  death  of  their  friends 
and  relations,  were  by  rending  their  garments,  and  putting 
on  sackcloth  (Gen.  xxxvii.  34.),  sprinkling  dust  on  their 
heads,  wearing  of  mourning  apparel  (2  Sara.  xiv.  2.),  and 
covering  the  face  and  the  head.  (2  Sam.  xix.  4.)  They 
were  accustomed  also  in  times  of  public  mourning  to  go  up 
to  the  roofs  or  platforms  .of  their  houses,  there  to  bewail 
their  misfortunes,  which  practice  is  mentioned  in  Isaiah  xv. 
3.  and  xxii.  1.  Anciently,  there  was  a  peculiar  space  of 
time  allotted  for  lamenting  the  deceased,  which  they  called 

1  Maunfirell's  Journey  from  Aleppo,  p.  117.  "It  has  all  the  appearance 
of  one  of  those  tombs  often  erected  to  the  memory  of  a  Turkish  Santon." 
Game's  Letters,  p.  277. 

»  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  voL  ii.  p.  5.  third  edition. 

•  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  p.  19. 


the  days  of  mourning.  (Gen.  xxvii.  41.  and  1.  4.)  Thus 
the  Egj-ptians,  who  had  a  gTcat  regard  for  the  patriarch 
Jacob,  lamented  his  death  threescore  and  ten  days,  (Gen. 
1.  3.)  The  Israelites  wept  for  Moses  in  the  plains  of  Moab 
thirty  days.  (Deut.  xxxiv.  8.)  Afterwards,  among  the  Jews, 
the  funeral  mourning  was  generally  confined  to  seven  days. 
Hence,  besides  the  mourning  for  Jacob  in  Ep"ypt,  Joseph 
and  his  company  set  apart  seven  days  to  mourn  for  his  father, 
when  they  approached  the  Jordan  with  his  corpse.  (Gen. 
1.  10.)  In  the  tiiue  of  Christ,  it  was  customary  for  the 
nearest  relative  to  visit  the  grave  of  the  deceased  and  to 
weep  there.  The  Jews,  who  had  come  to  condole  with 
Mary  on  the  death  of  her  brother  Lazarus,  on  seeing  her  go 
out  of  the  house,  concluded  that  she  was  going  to  the  grave 
to  ii-eep  there.  (John  xi.  31.)  The  Syrian  women  are  still 
accustomed,  either  alone^  or  accompanied  by  some  attendants, 
to  visit  the  tombs  of  their  relatives,  and  mourn  their  loss : 
and  the  same  usage  obtains  almost  throughout  the  East, 
among  Jews  as  well  as  Christians  and  Mohammedans ;  and 
in  Persia,  Egypt,^  Greece,  Dalmatia,  Bulgaria,  Croatia, 
Servia,  Wallachia,  and  Illyria. 

It  does  not  appear  that  there  was  any  general  mourning 
for  Saul  and  his  sons,  who  died  in  battle :  but  the  national 
troubles,  which  followed  upon  his  death,  might  have  pre- 
vented it.  David,  indeed,  and  his  men,  on  hearing  the  news 
of  their  death,  mourned  and  wept  for  them  until  even. 
(2  Sam.  i.  12.)  And  the  men  of  Jabesh-Gilead  fasted  fur 
ihcni.  seven  days  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  13.),  which  must  not  be  un- 
derstood in  a  strict  sense,  as  if  they  took  no  food  during  that 
time,  but  that  they  lived  very  abstemiously,  ate  little,  and 
that  seldom,  using  a  low  and  spare  diet,  and  drinking  water 
oidy. 

How  long  widows  mourned  for  their  husbands  is  nowhere 
told  us  in  Scripture.  It  is  recorded,  indeed,  of  Bathsheba, 
that  when  she  heard  that  Uriah  her  husband  was  dead,  she 
mourned  for  him  (2  Sam.  xi.  26.)  ;  but  this  could  neither  be 
long  nor  very  sincere. 

*  ''A  female,  w'th  part  of  her  robe  drawn  over  her  head,  or  veiled,  v/as 
seen  seated  by  the  tombs  of  her  relatives  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Moriah, 
or  along  its  sides,  just  beneath  the  walls  of  Jerusalem."  Carne's  Letters, 
p.  33-2. 

s  "  We  arrived"  (at  one  of  the  villages  of  Elephantina,  an  island  in  the 
Nile)  ".just  \n  time  to  witness  a  coronagh,  or  wailing  for  the  dead.  A  poor 
woman  of  the  village  had  that 'morning  received  the  melancholy  intelligence 
that  her  husband  had  been  drowned  in  the  Nile.  He  had  been  interred 
without  her  knowledge,  near  the  spot  where  the  body  was  found  ;  and  she, 
along  with  several  of  her  female  friends,  was  paying  the  unavailing  tribute 
of  lamentation  to  his  departed  shade."  (Riclia'rdson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p. 
355.)  "One  morning,"  says  the  same  intelligent  traveller,  "  when  standing 
among  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Syene,  on  tlie  rocky  promontory  above  the 
ferry,  I  saw  a  party  of  thirteen  females  cross  the  Nile  to  perform  the  lugu- 
brious dirge  at  tlie  mansions  of  the  dead.  They  set  up  a  piteous  wail  on 
entering  the  boat,  after  which  they  all  cowered  up  together,  wrapt  in  llieir 
dirty  robes  of  beteen.  On  landing  they  wound  their  way  slowly  and 
silently  along  the  outside  of  the  walls  of  the  ancient  town,  till  they  arrived 
at  their  place  of  destination,  when  some  of  them  placed  a  sprig  of  flowers 
on  the  grave,  and  sat  down  silently  beside  it;  others  cast  themselves  on 
the  ground,  and  threw  dust  over  their  heads,  uttering  mournful  lamenta- 
tions, which  they  continued  to  repeat  at  intervals,  during  the  short  time 
that  1  witnessed  their  procedure."  (Ibid.  vol.  i.  p.  3(50.)  Mr.  Jowett  wit- 
nessed a  similar  scene  at  Manfelout,  a  more  remote  town  of  Upper  Egypt. 
Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  p.  162.  Alber,  Inst.  Herm. 
Vet.  Test.  torn.  i.  pp.  311 — 319.  Calmet,  Dissertation  sur  les  Fumirailles 
des  Hi  breu.\.  Dissert,  tom.  i.  pp.  290 — 309.  Pareau,  Antiquilas  Hebraica, 
pp.  472—477.  Jahn,  Archpeol.  Bibl.  §§  204—211.  Slosch,  Compendium 
ArchcBologiaj  QEconomicaj  Novi  Testamenti,  pp.  121 — 132.  Briinings,  Com- 
pendium Antiquitatum  Graecarum,  pp.  388--400. ;  and  his  Compendium 
Antiquitatum  Hebrsearum,  pp.  257 — 2b4.  The  subject  of  Hebrew  sepul- 
chres is  very  fully  di.scussed  by  Nicolai,  in  his  treatise  De  SepulchrisHe- 
brffiorum  (Lug.  Bat.  1706),  which  is  illustrated  with  several  curious  plates, 
some  of  which,  however,  it  must  be  confessed,  are  rather  fanciful. 


( 


ON  THE 


ANALYSIS    OF    SCRIPTURE. 


PART  V. 

ANALYSIS    OF    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ON    THE    PENTATEUCH,    OR    FIVE    BOOKS    OF    MOSES. 

SECTION  L 

GENERAL   OBSERVATIONS   ON  THE   PENTATEUCH. 
L  Title. — IL  Argument  of  the  Pentateuch. — IIL  JYotice  of  other  Writings  ascribed  to  Moses. 


\.  The  Pentateuch,  by  which  title  the  five  books  of 
Moses  are  collectively  designated,  is  a  word  of  Greek  origi- 
nal,' which  literally  signifies  five  books,  or  volumes  ;  by  the 
Jews  it  is  frequently  termed  niin  (tor«h)  the  Law,  or  the  Law 
OF  Moses,  because  it  contains  the  ecclesiastical  and  political 
ordinances  issued  by  God  to  the  Israelites.  The  Pentateuch 
forms,  to  this  day,  but  one  roll  or  volume  in  the  Jewish 
manuscripts,  bein^  divided  only  into  paraschioth  and  siderim, 
or  larger  and  smaller  sections.^  This  collective  designation 
of  the  books  of  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and 
Deuteronomy,  is  of  very  considerable  antiquity,  though  we 
have  no  certain  information  when  it  was  first  introduced.'' 
As,  however,  the  names  of  tiiese  books  are  evidently  derived 
from  the  Greek,  and  as  the  five  books  of  Moses  are  expressly 
mentioned  by  Josephus,'  who  wrote  only  a  few  years  after 
our  Saviour's  ascension,  we  have  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  appellation  of  Pentateuch  was  prefixed  to  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version  by  the  Alexandrian  translators. 

11.  This  division  of  the  sacred  volume  comprises  an  ac- 
count of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  of  the  fail  of  man,  the 
outlines  of  the  early  annals  of  the  world,  and  a  full  recital  of 
the  Jewish  law,  and  of  the  events  which  happened  to  the  Isra- 
elites from  their  becoming  a  distinct  people  to  their  departure 
out  of  Egypt,  and  their  arrival  on  tne  confines  of  the  land 
of  Canaan, — a  period  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  and 
fifteen  years  according  to  the  vulgar  computation,  or  of  three 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty-five  years,  according  to 
the  computation  established  by  Dr.  Hales.  "  It  is  a  wide 
description  gradually  contracted ;  an  account  of  one  nation, 

Preceded  by  a  general  sketch  of  the  first  state  of  mankind, 
'he  books  are  written  in  pure  Hebrew,  with  an  admirable 
diversity  of  style,  always  well  adapted  to  the  subject,  yet 
characterized  with  the  stamp  of  the  same  author ;  they  are 
all  evidently  parts  of  the  same  work,  and  nmtually  strength- 
en and  illustrate  each  other.  They  blend  revelation  and 
history  in  one  point  of  view ;  furnish  laws,  and  describe 
their  execution ;  exhibit  prophecies,  and  relate  their  accom- 
plishment. "^ 

IIL  Besides  the  Pentateuch  the  Jews  ascribe  to  Moses 
ten  psalms,  from  psalm  xc.  to  xcix.  inclusive.  There  is, 
however,  no  solid  evidence  to  prove  that  these  psalms  were 
composed  by  him ;  for  the  title  of  the  ninetieth  psalm 
i^^'' a  prayer  of  Moses  the  man  of  God^''),  which,  they  pretend, 

t  UivTXTivxo?,  from  3-4VTS,  fivc,  and  riux'>i,  a  book  or  volume.    Bible  de 
Vence,  torn.  i.  p.  310. 
»  For  an  account  of  these  divisions,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  213. 

•  The  author  of  the  treatise  De  Mundo,  which  is  commonly  ascribed  to 
Philo  JufL-eus,  was  of  opinion  that  Moses  himself  divided  his  work  into  five 
books;  but  he  assigned  no  authority  for  such  opinion.  Jesus  Christ  and 
his  apostles  never  cite  the  five  books  of  Moses  under  any  other  name  than 
that  o( Moses,  or  the  Loir  of  Moses ;  as  the  Jews  ordinarily  do  to  this  day. 
Calmet  conjectures  that  Ezra  divided  the  Pentateuch  into  five  books.  Dis- 
tenalions,  torn.  ii.  p.  23. 

«  In  his  Jewish  Antiquities,  Josephus  terras  the  Pentateuch  the  "Holy 
Books  of  MOses"  (lib.  x.  c.  iv.  §2.);  and  in  his  Treatise  asainst  Apion  (lib. 
I.  c.  8.),  when  enumerating  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Jews,  he  says  that 
|PIVB  of  Ihem  belong  to  Moses." — Some  critics  have  imagined  that  this  dis- 
tinction of  the  Pentateuch  into  five  separate  books  was  known  to  and  recog- 
nised by  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  xiv.  19.),  by  the  term  fire  irords ;  bul  the  context 
of  that  passage  does  not  authorize  such  a  conjecture. 

*  Bp.  Gray's  Key  to  the  Old  Testament,  p.  76.  5th  edit 


must  be  applied  also  to  the  nine  following  psalms,  is  not 
sufllcient.  The  greater  part  of  the  titles  of  the  psalms  is 
not  original,  nor,  indeed,  very  ancient;  and  some  of  them 
are  evidently  misplaced  :  we  find  also  in  these  psalms  the 
names  of  persons,  and  other  marks,  which  by  no  means 
agree  with  Moses. 

Further,  some  of  the  ancient  fathers  have  thought  that 
Moses  was  the  author  of  the  book  of  Job:  Origen,  in  his 
commentary  on  Job,  pretends  that  Moses  translated  it  out  of 
Syriac  into  Hebrew ;  but  this  opinion  is  rejected  both  by 
Jews  and  Christians.  Besides,  ii  this  book  had  really  been 
composed  by  Moses,  is  it  likely  that  the  Jews  would  have 
separated  it  from  the  Pentateuch  '?'' 

riiere  are  likewise  ascribed  to  Moses  several  apocrj'phal 
books  ;  as  an  Apocalypse,  or  Little  Genesis,  the  Ascension  of 
Moses,  the  Assumption  of  Moses,  the  Testament  of  Moses, 
and  the  Mysterious  Books  of  Moses.  The  principal  part  of  the 
"  Little  Genesis"  was  transferred  by  Cedrenus  into  his  chro- 
nological history  :"  it  was  extant  in  Hebrew  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  tpra,  for  we  find  it  cited  by  Jerome.  From 
the  apocalypse  just  noticed,  it  has  been  pretended  that  Saint 
Paul  copied  Gal.  v.  6.  and  vi.  15.  ;  and  it  has  been  imagined 
that  what  is  said  in  the  Epistle  of  Jude  (verse  9.),  respecting 
the  archangel  Michael's  contention  with  Satan  for  the  body 
of  Moses,  was  taken  from  the  apocryphal  Ascension  of  Mo- 
ses. Such  was  the  opinion  of  Origen,  who,  though  he  cites 
it  in  another  place,  alludes  to  it  as  not  being  in  the  canon.* 
All  these  pretended  Mosaic  writings,  however,  are  confess- 
edly spurious,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  fabricated  in 
the  early  ages  of  Christianity. 

*#*  On  the  difference  between  the  Hebrew  and  Samaritan 
Pentateuchs,  or,  rather,  editions  of  the  Pentateuch,  see  Vo- 
lume I.  p.  204.;  for  r.  view  of  the  Genuineness  and  Credi- 
bility of  the  Pentateuch,  see  Volume  I.  pp.  3-2 — 38.  ;  and 
for  a  List  of  the  principal  Commentators  on  this  portion  ot 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  see  Volume  IL  Bibliographical  Ap- 
pendix, Part  IL  Chap.  V.  Sect.  HI.  §  4. 


SECTION  IL 

ON  THE  BOOK  OF  GENESIS. 

I.  THtle. — II.  Author   and   date. — III.    General   argument. — 

IV.  Scope. — V.   Types   of  the   Messiah. — VI.   Synopsis 

VII.  Literal  sense  of  the  first  three  chapters  of  Genesis  vin- 
dicated. 

1.  The  first  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  is  called  Ge- 
nesis (rENE2i2),  derives  its  appellation  from  the  title  it 

«  The  book  of  Job  was  composed  many  ages  before  the  time  of  Moses 
See  chap,  iii.sect.  i.  infra,  of  this  volume. 

■>  Cedrenus,  enumerating  the  authorities  consulted  by  him,  says,  that  he 
"collected  not  a  few  things  from  the  Little  Genesis,  i^ro  t>;;  AirrTi-s 
rivsrsai,-.  Historia  Compendiari.%  torn.  i.  p.  2.  edit.  Venet.  1729.  Cedrenus 
frequently  cites  this  apocrvphal  Ijook  in  the  course  of  his  work. 

'  See  the  passages  of  Origen  at  length  in  Dr.  Lardner's  works,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
483—512.  8vo.  or  vol  i.  pp.511— oo7.4lo. 

203 


204 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  V.  Chap.  I 


bears  in  the  Greek  Septuagint  "Version,  B1BA02  FENESEns ; 
which  signifies  the  Book  of  tlie  Generation  or  Production, 
because  it  commences  with  the  history  of  the  generation  or 
production  of  all  things.  The  Jews  name  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  either  from  their  autiiors,  or  the  principal 
subjects  treated  in  them, — as  the  five  books  of  Moses,  and 
the  Lament?.tions  of  Jeremiah, — or  from  the  first  Hebrew 
word  with  which  they  begin  :  thus,  the  book  of  Genesis  is 
in  Hebrew  called  n'^Nia  BtRESHiTH,  that  is,  in  the  beginning, 
from  its  initial  word.' 

IL  Although  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  this  book 
was  written  by  Moses,-  yet  it  is  by  no  means  agreed  whcnhe 
composed  the  history  wliich  it  contains.  Eusebius  and  some 
eminent  critics  after  him  have  conjectured,  that  it  was  writ- 
ten while  he  kept  the  flocks  of  Jethro  his  father-in-law,  in 
the  wilderness  of  Midian.  But  the  more  probable  opinion 
is  that  of  Theodoret,  which  has  been  adopted  by  Molden- 
hawer  and  most  modern  critics,  viz.  that  Moses  wrote  this 
book  after  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  and  the 
promulgation  of  the  law  from  Mount  Sinai ;  for,  previously 
to  his  receiving  the  divine  call  related  in  Exodus  iii.,  he  was 
only  a  private  individual,  and  was  not  endued  with  the  spirit 
of  prophecy.  Without  that  spirit  he  could  not  have  recorded, 
with  so  much  accuracy,  the  history  of  the  creation,  and  the 
subsequent  transactions  to  his  own  time :  neither  could  he 
have  foretold  events  then  future,  as  in  the  predictions  con- 
cerning the  Messiah,  and  those  respecting  the  descendants 
of  Ishmael  and  the  sons  of  Jacob  ;  the  verification  and  con- 
firmation of  which  depended  on  circumstances,  that  had  nei- 
ther taken  place  nor  could  have  happened  at  the  time  when 
the  history  was  written  in  which  they  are  recorded  :  but 
which  circumstances,  we  know,  did  take  place  exactly  as 
they  were  foretold,  and  which  may  be  said,  even  now,  to 
have  an  actual  accomplishment  before  our  eyes.  A  third 
conjecture  has  been  offered  by  some  Jewish  writers,  after 
rabbi  Moses  Ben  Nachman,  who  suppose  that  God  dictated 
to  Moses  all  the  contents  of  this  book,  during  the  first  forty 
days  that  he  was  permitted  to  hold  a  communication  with 
the  Almighty  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  that  on  his  descent  he 
committed  the  whole  to  writing.  This  hypothesis  they 
found  on  Exodus  xxiv.  12.  where  Jehovah  says  unto  Moses, 
— Come  up  to  me  in  the  mount,  and  be  thou  there,  and  I  will 
give  thee  the  tables  of  stone,  and  the  law,  and  the  precepts,  which 
I  have  written  to  teach  them  : — understanding  by  the  tables, 
the  decalogue ,-  by  the  precepts,  all  the  ceremonial  andjudicia. 
ordinances ,-  and  by  the  law,  all  the  other  writings  of  Moses, 
whether  historical  or  doctrinal.'  "  It  is,  however,"  as  a  pious 
writer  has  well  remarked,  "  as  impossible,  as  it  is  of  little 
consequence,  to  determine  which  of  these  opinions  is  best 
founded  ;  and  it  is  sufficient  for  us  to  know,  that  Moses  was 
assisted  by  the  spirit  of  infallible  truth  in  the  composition  of 
this  sacred  work,  which  he  deemed  a  proper  introduction  to 
the  laws  and  judgments  delivered  in  the  subsequent  books." 

III.  The  book  of  Genesis  comprises  the  history  of  about 
2369  years  according  to  the  vulgar  computation  of  time,  or 
of  30 19  years  according  to  the  larger  computation  of  Dr. 
Hales.  Besides  the  history  of  the  creation,  it  contains  an 
account  of  the  original  innocence  and  fall  of  man ;  the  propa- 
gation of  mankind ;  the  rise  of  religion ;  the  general  defection 
and  corruption  of  the  world  ;  the  deluge ;  the  restoration  of 
the  world ;  the  division  and  peopling  of  the  earth ;  the  call 
of  Abraham,  and  the  divine  covenant  with  him ;  together  with 
the  first  patriarchs,  to  the  death  of  Joseph.  This  book  also 
comprises  some  important  prophecies  respecting  the  Mes- 
siah. See  iii.  15,  xii.  3.  xviii.  18.  xxii.  18.  xxvi.  4.  xxviii. 
14.  and  xlix.  10. 

IV.  The  Scope  of  the  book  of  Genesis  may  be  considered 
as  twofold  : — 1.  To  record  the  history  of  the  world  from  the 
commencement  of  time  ;  and,  2.  To  relate  the  origin  of  the 
church,  and  the  events  which  befell  it  during  many  ages. 
The  design  of  Moses  in  this  book  will  be  better  understood, 

»  To  avoid  unnecessary  references  to  the  same  authorities,  it  may  here 
be  stated,  that  ijesides  the  treatises  refei-red  lo  for  particular  facts  and  argu- 
ments, in  this  and  the  following  sections  of  the  present  volume,  the  author 
has  throughout  consulted  the  dissertations  of  Calaiet,  Carpzov's  Introductio 
ad  Liliros  Biblicos  Veteris  Testaraenti,  Jahn's  Introductio  in  Libros  Sacros 
Veteris  Foederis,  and  Ackermann's  expurgated  edition  of  it ;  the  prefaces  of 
Alber  in  his  Interpretatio  Sacrm  Scriptural,  Heidegger's  Enchiridion  Bibli- 
cum,  on  which  treatise  Van  Til's  Opus  Analyticum  is  a  commentary,  and 
Moldenhawer's  Introductio  in  omnes  Libros  Canonicos  Veteris  et  Novi  Tes- 
taraenti. Of  all  these  works  an  account  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix  to 
vol.  ii.  For  the  plan  of  the  prefaces  to  most  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  the  author  is  indebted  to  the  excellent  works  of  Moldenhawer 
and  Heidegger. 

^  See  this  fact  fully  proved,  supra,  vol.  i.  pp.  32—38. 
■    »  Parens,  Proleg.  in  Geuesin,  pp.  9,  10.     Francofurti,  1647.    Roberts's 
Clavis  BibliorujD,  p.  5.  folio  edit. 


if  we  consider  the  state  of  the  world  when  the  Pentateuch 
was  written.  Maidiind  was  absorbed  in  the  grossest  idola- 
try, which  for  the  mostparthad  originated  hi  the  neglect,  the 
perversion,  or  the  misapprehension  of  certain  truths,  that  had 
once  been  universally  known.  Moses,  therefore,  commences 
his  narrative  by  relating  in  simple  language  the  truths  thus 
disguised  or  perverted.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan,  he  relates, 
in  the  book  of  Genesis,  the  true  origin  and  history  of  all 
created  things,  in  opposition  to  the  erroneous  notions  enter- 
tained by  the  heathen  nations,  especially  by  the  Egyptians: 
the  origin  of  sin,  and  of  all  moral  and  physical  evil ;  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  knowledge  and  worship  of  the  only  true 
God  amouff  mankind  ;  their  declension  into  idolatry ;  the 
promise  of  the  Messiah ;  together  with  the  origin  of  the 
church,  and  her  progress  and  condition  for  many  ages.  Fur- 
ther, it  makes  known  to  the  Israelites  the  providential  his- 
tory of  their  ancestors,  and  the  divine  promises  made  to  them ; 
and  shows  them  the  reason  why  the  Almighty  chose  Abra- 
ham and  his  posterity  to  be  a  peculiar  people  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  all  other  nations,  viz.  that  from  them  should  spring 
the  Messiah.  This  circumstance  must  be  kept  in  view 
throughout  the  reading  of  this  book,  as  it  will  illustrate  many 
otherwise  unaccountable  circumstances  there  related.  It  was 
this  hope  that  led  Eve  to  exclaim, — I  have  gotten  a  man, — 
the  Lord.  (Gen.  iv.  1.  Heb.)  The  polygamy  of  Lamech  may 
be  accounted  for  by  the  hope  that  the  Messiah  would  be  born 
of  some  of  his  posterity,  as  also  the  incest  of  Lot's  daugh- 
ters (Gen.  xix.  31 — 38.),  Sarah's  impatience  of  her  barren- 
ness (Gen.  xvi.),the  polygamy  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxix.),  the 
consequent  jealousies  between  Leah  and  Rachel  (Gen.  xxx.), 
the  jealousies  between  Ishmael  and  Isaac,  and  especially 
Rebekah's  preference  of  Jacob  to  Esau.  It  was  these  jea- 
lousies, and  these  pretensions  to  the  promise  of  the  Messiah, 
that  gave  rise  to  the  custom  of  calling  God  the  God  of  Abra- 
ham, the  God  of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob ;  and  not  the 
God  of  Lot,  Ishmael,  and  Esau,  the  promise  having  been  ^ 
particularly  made  and  repeated  to  those  three  patriarchs.''  ■ 

V.  TvPES  OF  THE  Messiah  are  Adam,  as  being  a  public    1 
person  and  federal  head  (compare  Rom.  v.  14.  Gr.  and  1  Cor. 

XV.  45.) ;  Mekhizedek  (Psal.  ex.  4.  Heb.  vi.  20.  and  vii.) ; 
and  Isaac.    (Gen.  xxii.  with  Heb.  xi.  18,  19.) 

VI,  The  Jews  divide  the  book  of  Genesis  into  twelve 
paraschioth  or  larger  sections,  and  forty-three  siderim  or 
smaller  sections ;  in  our  Bibles  it  consists  of  fifty  chapters, 
the  general  contents  and  leading  divisions  of  which  are  ex- 
hibited in  the  following  Synopsis  : — 

Part  I.   The  Origin  of  the  World.  (Ch.  i.  ii.) 

Part  II.    The  History  of  the  former  World,  (iii. — vii.) 

Sect.  1,  The  fall  of  man  and  his  expulsion  from  Paradise, 
(iii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  history  of  Adam  and  his  descendants  to  Noah, 
(iv.  V.) 

Sect.  3.  The  increase  of  wickedness  in  the  world,  and  its 
destruction  by  the  deluge,   (vi.  vii.) 
Part  111.   The  General  History  of  Mankind  after  the  Deluge, 

(viii. — xi.) 

Sect.  1.  The  restoration  of  the  world,   (viii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  intoxication  of  Noah,   (ix.) 

Sect.  3.  The  peopling  of  the  wOrld  by  his  descendants,   (x.) 

Sect.  4.  The  confusion  of  tongues  and  dispersion  of  man- 
kind,  (xi.) 
Part  IV.   The  Particular  History  of  the  Patriarchs,  (xii. — 1. ) 

Sect.  1.  History  of  Abraham  and  his  family  (xi. — xx.),  the 
birth  of  Isaac  (xxi.),  trial  of  Abraham  (xxii.),  the  death  of 
Sarah  (xxiii.),  marriage  of  Isaac  (_xxiv.),  and  death  of 
Abraham,  (xxv.) 

Sect.  2.  The  history  of  the  church  under  the  patriarch  Isaac, 
(xxv.  xxvi.) 

Sec,t.  3.  The  history  of  the  church  under  the  patriarch  Jacob, 
(xxvii. — xxxvi.) 

Sect.  4.  The  history  of  the  church  under  the  patriarch  Jo- 
seph, (xxxvii. — 1.) 

§  i.  The  afflictions  of  Jacob  and  Joseph  :— .loseph  sold  into  Egypt  (xxjrvii.), 
the  incest  of  Judah  (.x.xxviii.),  the  imprisonment  of  Joseph  by  Potiphar 
(xxxix.  xl.) 

§  ii,  The  deliverance  and  prosperity  of  Joseph  :— his  promotion  in  the 
court  of  Pharaoh  (xii.),  the  journeys  of  his  brethren  in  Egypt  to  pur- 
chase corn  (xlii  — xlv.),  the  descent  of  Jacob  into  that  country,  and 
settlement  there  with  his  family  (xlvi.— xlviii.),  his  prophetic  benedic- 
tions of  his  children  (xlix.),  the  burial  of  Jacob,  and  the  death  and 
burial  of  Joseph.  (L,) 

4  AUix'sRellectiorsupon  Genesis.  Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Tracts,  , 
vol  i.  pp.  ai7— 259. 


II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  GENESIS. 


205 


For  a  summary  of  the  reli<rious  doctrines  and  moral  pre- 
cepts of  the  p-.itriarclial  times,  as  exliibited  in  the  book  of 
GtMU'sis,  see  VoIiimh^  I.  pp.  1 12,  1 13. 

VII.  From  an  imaiiiiiary  difficulty  in  explaininjr  tlie  lite- 
ral sense  of  the  first  three  cha|)tcrs  of  (ienesis,  (a  rlillicnlty, 
however,  which  exists  not  willi  the  devout  nader  of  the 
sacred  volunu!),  some;  learned  men,'  wlio  admit  the  Penta- 
teuch to  have  h(M'n  written  l)y  Moses,  liave  contended  that 
the  narrative  of  the  crcsation  and  fall  is  not  a  recital  of  real 
events,  but  an  inirenious  philosophical  ini/lhos,  or  fable,  in- 
vented by  Moses  after  tlie  example  of  ancient  Cireek  writers, 
to  jrive  the  irrcater  weijriit  to  his  lei>islative  enactnu^nts!  and 
desifirned  to  account  for  the  orijriu  of  human  evil,  and  also 
as  an  introduction  to  a  history,  irrcat  part  of  which  they 
consider  to  he  a  mere  poetic  fiction.  But  the  inventors  of 
this  fiction  (for  such  oidy  can  we  term  it)  have  assumed  that 
as  provtd  which  never  /tad  ani/  existence,-  for  the  earliest 
Grecian  cosmojrony  extant,  namely,  that  of  Ilesiod,  was  not 
composed  until  at  least  five  hundred  and  forty-live  years 
after  the  death  of  Moses!  Further,  the;  style  of  these  chap- 
ters, as,  indeed,  of  the  whole  hook  of  (iciiisis,  is  strictly 
historical,  and  betrays  no  veslifje  whatc^ver  of  alle<forical  or 
figurative  description;  this  is  so  evident  to  any  one  that 
reads  with  attention,  as  to  need  no  proof.  And  since  this 
history  was  adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  the  commonest 
capacity,  Moses  speaks  accordinjr  to  optical,  not  physical 
truth:  that  is,  he  describes  the  elTects  of  creation  (ipticallij, 
or  as  they  would  have  appeared  to  the  eye,  and  without  any 
assignment  of  physical  causes.  In  doing  which  he  has  not 
merely  accoiniriodated  his  narrative  to  the  a])j)reliension  of 
mankind  in  an  infant  state  of  society,  and  employed  a 
method  of  recital  best  suited  to  a  vulgar  capacity ;  hut  he 
thereby  also  satisfies  an  important  requisition  of  experimen- 
tal philosophy,  viz.  to  describe  effects  accurately  and  faith- 
fully, according  to  their  sensible  appearances:  by  which 
means  the  mind  is  enabled  to  receive  a  clear  and  distinct 
impression  of  those  appearances,  and  thus  to  reduce  them  to 
their  proper  causes,  and  to  draw  from  them  such  conclusions 
as  they  are  qualified  to  yield  ;  for  the  determination  of  causes 
must  follow  an  actiuaiutance  with  their  effects.^  "  Besides, 
if  it  be  granted  that  Moses  was  an  inspired  lawgiver,  it 
becomes  impossible  to  suppose  that  he  wrote  a  fabulous 
account  of  the  creation  and  fall  of  man,  and  delivered  it 
as  a  divine  revelation,  because  that  would  have  been 
Utile,  if  at  all,  short  of  blasphemy ;  we  must,  therefore,  be- 
lieve this  account  to  be  true,  or  that  it  was  declared  and 
understood  by  the  people,  to  whom  it  was  addressed,  to  be 
allegorical.  No  such  declaration  was  ever  made ;  nor  is 
there  any  mention  of  such  an  opinion  being  generally  preva- 
lent among  the  Jews  in  any  early  writing.  The  rabbis  in- 
deed, of  later  times,  built  a  heap  of  absurd  doctrines  upon 
this  history:  but  this  proves,  if  it  proves  any  thing,  that 
their  ancestors  ever  understood  it  as  a  literal  and  true  ac- 
count; and,  in  fact,  the  truth  of  every  part  of  the  narrative 
contained  in  the  book  of  Genesis  is  positively  confirmed  by 
the  constant  testimony  of  a  people,  who  preserved  a  certain 
unmixed  genealogy  from  father  to  son,  through  a  long  suc- 
cession of  ages :  and  by  these  people  we  are  assured,  that 
their  ancestors  ever  did  believe  that  this  account,  as  far  as  it 
fell  within  human  cognizance,  had  the  authority  of  uninter- 
rupted tradition  from  their  first  parent  Adam,  till  it  was 
written  by  the  inspired  pen  of  Moses."' 

Further,  in  addition  to  the  collateral  testimony  already 
adduced,'  to  the  credibility  and  reality  of  the  facts  related  in 
the  first  three  chapters  of  the  book  of  Genesis,  there  are 
numerous  incidental  references,  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, to  the  creation,  temptation,  and  fall  of  our  first  parents, 
which  clearly  prove  that  they  w'ere  considered  as  acknow- 
ledged Facts,  not  requiring  proof,  and  handed  down  from 
primitive  tradition.  Of  these  we  select  the  following  in- 
stances, out  of  very  many  which  might  have  been  cited : — 

«  This  notion  is  current  among  ttie  divines  of  Gerniany,  and  Ilie  modern 
Socinians  in  tins  country  :  it  is  parlicularly  enlarged  upon  ijy  Bauer,  (Horm. 
Sacr.  pp.  351 — 3t5o.),  and  by  Gramt)erg  (Lil)ri  Gencseos  Adumbralio  nova, 

f)p.  16—18.  LipsKe,  ItfiS,  Svo.);  and  it  is  adopted  by  Dr.  Getldes  in  liis  trans- 
ition of  tlie  Bible  (vol.  i.),  and  also  in  his  Critical  Remarks,  of  which  the 
reader  will  tind  a  masterly  refutation  from  the  pen  of  the  late  eminently 
learned  Bishop  Horsley,  in  the  British  Critic  (O.  S.),  vol.  xix.  pp.  6—13.  The 
younger  llosenmUUer  hud  adopted  this  mythical  interpretation  in  the  first 
edition  of  hj^s  Schoha  on  the  Old  Testament;  but  maturer  consideration 
having  led  him  to  see  its  erroneousness,  lie,  greatly  to  his  honour,  returned 
to  \he  proper  and  literal  interpretation  in  the  new  edition  of  his  Schoha, 
lately  published.     (Dublin  Christian  Examiner,  May,  \&S!,  p.  388.) 

«  Penn's  Compai'ative  Estimate  of  the  Mineral  and  Mosaical  Geologies, 
vol.  i.  p.  163.  (2d  edit.)  In  pp.  165—263.  there  is  an  elaborate  examination 
and  vindication  of  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  tirst  chapter  of  Genesis. 

="  Bishop  Toniline's  Elements  of  Clirist.  TUeol.  voL  i.  p.tjl. 

•  See  vol.  i.  pp.  69—78. 


1.  Mlusio7is  to  the  creation. — Psal.  xxxiii.  9.  He  spake 
and  it  -wan  done;  he  coMM.*\nKn,  and  it  stood  fast.  This  ia 
manifestly  an  allusion  to  Gen.  i.  3.  et  scq. — Psal.  xxiv.  2.  He 
(Jehovah)  hath  fonnded  it  (the  earth)  xtpon  the  seas,  and 
estutdished  it  upoji  the  Jloods. — 2  Pet.  iii.  b.  By  the  ivord  of 
the  Lord  tite  heavens  were  of  old,  and  the  earth  standing  out 
of  the  -water  and  in  the  -water.  In  those  two  passages,  the 
siicrcd  writers  allude  to  Gen.  i.  fi.  9. — 2  Cor.  iv.  6.  Gon,  -ivho 
co.MMA.MiKi)  LKJHT  to  shine  out  of  darkness,  hath  shiiied  into 
our  hearts,  to  give  tlic  liffh(  of  the  knoivledffe  of  the  f(lory  of 
(iod  in  tlie  face  (rather  person)  of  Jesus  Christ.  Here  St. 
Paul  alludes  to  Gen.  i.  3.  in  so  specific  a  manner,  that  it  is  im- 
possiiilc  not  to  perceive  the;  designed  reference.  From  Eccl.  vii. 
29.  and  Epii.  iv.  24.  compared  with  Col.  iii.  10.  and  Jam.  iii.  9. 
vvc  learn,  that  the  divine  image,  in  which  man  is  said  to  have 
been  created,  is  the  moral  image  of  God,  viz.  uprightness  or 
righteousness,  true  holiness,  and  hno-w/rdge.  And  the  creation 
of  our  first  jiarcnts,  related  as  a  fact  in  Gen.  i.  27,  28.,  is  expli- 
citly mentioned  as  a  real  fact  by  our  Lord,  in  Matt.  xix.  4.  and 
Mark  x.  6.,  as  also  by  the  apostle  Paul.     Compare  I  Cor.  xi.  9. 

2.  ..illusions  to  the  tetnptation  and  full  of  our  first  parents, 
■which  are  related  in  Gen.  iii. — Job  xxxi.  33.  If  I  covered  my 
transgressions  like  Jldatn,  by  hiding  mine  iniquity  in  my  bosom. 
— Matt.  XXV.  41.  Depart  from  me,  ye  cur.sed,  into  everlasting 
fire,  jireparcd  for  the  devil  and  his  angels. — John  viii.  44.  Ye 
are  of  your  father  the  devil,  and  the  works  of  your  father  ye 
will  [rather,  wish  to]  do.  He  was  a  7nnrderer  from  the  be- 
ginning, and  abode  not  in  the  truth,  because  there  is  no  truth  in 
him.  When  he  speakcth  a  lie,  he  speakcth  of  his  own,  for  he 
is  a  liar,  and  the  father  of  it. —  1  Tim.  ii.  13,  14.  Adam  was  first 
formed,  then  Eve :  and  Adam  was  not  deceived ;  but  the  woman 
having  been  deceived,  was  in  the  transgression. — 2  Cor.  xi.  3. 
The  serpent  beguiled  Eve  through  his  subtilty. —  1  John  iii.  8. 
He  that  committeth  sin  is  of  the  devil;  for  the  devil  sinneth 
from  the  beginning.  For  this  purpo.se  was  the  Son  of  God  mani- 
fested, that  he  might  destroy  the  -works  of  the  devil. 

The  reality  of  the  facts  recorded  in  the  first  three  chapters  of 
the  book  of  Genesis  was  acknowledged  by  the  Jews  who  lived 
previously  to  the  time  of  Christ.  Vestiges  of  this  belief  are  to 
be  found  in  the  apocryphal  books  of  Wisdom  and  Ecclesiasticus. 
— God  created  man  to  be  immortal,  and  made  him  an  image 
of  his  o-wn  eternity.  JVevertheless,  through  envy  of  the  devil, 
came  death  into  the  -world,  and  they  that  hold  of  his  side  do 
find  it.  (Wisd.  ii.  23,  24.) — Wisdom  (that  is,  the  eternal  Son 
of  God)  preserved  the  first  formed  father  of  the  world,  who 
was  created  alone ;  and  brought  him  out  of  his  fall  (by  the 
promised  seed  of  the  woman,)  and  gave  him  power  to  rule  all 
things,  (x.  1,  2.) — Of  the  -woman  came  the  beginning  of  sin; 
and  through  her  lue  all  die.    (Ecclus.  xxv.  24.) 

If  words  have  any  meaning,  surely  the  separate  and  inde- 
nendent  testimonies,  here  colFectcd  together,  prove  that  the 
^losaic  narrative  is  a  relation  of  real  facts.*  To  consider  the 
whole  of  that  narrative  as  an  allegory  "  is  not  only  to  throw 
over  it  the  veil  of  inexplicable  confusion,  and  involve  the 
whole  Pentateuch  in  doubt  and  obscurity,  but  to  shake  to  its 
very  basis  Christianity,  which  commences  in  the  promise, 
that '  the  seed  of  the  woman  should  bruise  the  head  of  the 
serpent.'  In  reality,  if  we  take  the  history  of  the  fall  in 
any  other  sense  than  the  obvious  literal  sense,  we  plunge 
iiito  greater  perplexities  than  ever.  Some  well-meaning 
pious  commentators  have,  indeed,  endeavoured  to  reconcile 
all  difficulties,  by  considerincr  some  parts  of  the  Mosaic  his- 
tory in  an  allegorical,  and  other  parts  in  a  literal  sense ;  but 
this  is  to  act  in  a  manner  utterly  inconsistent  with  the  tenor 
and  spirit  of  that  history,  and  with  the  views  of  a  writer, 
th6  distinguishing  characteristics  of  whose  production  are 
simplicity,  purity,  and  truth.  There  is  no  medium  nor  pal- 
liation ;  the  whole  is  allegorical,  or  the  whole  is  literal. ""^ 

In  short,  the  book  of  Genesis,  understood  in  its  plain,  ob- 
vious, and  literal  sense,  furnishes  a  key  to  many  difficulties 
in  philosophy,  which  would  otherwise  ne  inexplicable.  Thus 
it  has  been  reckoned  a  ^reat  difhculty  to  account  for  the  in- 
troduction of  fossil  shells  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth :  but 
the  scriptural  account  of  the  delude  explains  this  fact  better 
than  all  the  romantic  theories  of  philosophers.''  It  is  impos- 
sible to  account  for  the  origin  of  such  a  variety  of  languages 
in  a  more  satisfactory  manner  than  is  done  in  the  narrative 

'  The  arguments  to  prove  the  literal  sense  of  the  first  three  chapters  of 
Genesis,  which  we  have  necessarily  given  with  brevity,  are  ably  and  fully 
slated  in  Mr.  Ilolden's  elaborate  Dissertation  on  the  Fall  of  Man,  Londoa. 
1823,  Svo.  ' 

«  Maurice's  History  of  Hindostan,  vol.  i.  p.  868. 

'  See  voL  i.  pp.  71,  72. 


206 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap  I 


of  the  confiin;ion  of  tongues  which  took  place  at  Babel. 
(Gen.  xi.  1 — 9.)  And  although  some  futile  objections  have 
been  made  agaiust  the  chronology  of  this  book,  because  it 
makes  the  world  less  ancient  than  is  necessary  to  support 
the  theories  of  some  modern  self-styled  pliilosophers ;  yet 
even  here,  as  we  have  already  shown  by  an  induction  of  par- 
ticulars,' the  more  rigorously  it  is  examined  and  compared 
with  the  extravagant  and  improbable  accounts  of  the  Chal- 
da;an,  Egyptian,  Chinese,  and  Hindoo  chronology,  the  more 
firmly  are  its  veracity  and  authenticity  established.  "  In 
fine,  without  this  history,  the  world  would  be  in  comparative 
darkness,  not  knowing  whence  it  came,  or  whither  it  goeth. 
In  the  first  page  of  this  sacred  book,  a  child  may  learn  more 
in  an  hour,  than  all  the  philosophers  in  the  world  learned 
without  it  in  a  thousand  years. "2 


SECTION  III. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  EXODUS. 


I.  Title. — II.  Author  and  date. — III.  Occasion  and  subject- 
matter. — IV.  Scope. — V.  Types  of  the  Messiah. — VI.  Sif- 
nopsis  of  its  contents. — VII.  Remarks  on  the  plagues  in- 
flicted upon  the  Egyptians. 

I.  The  title  of  this  book  is  derived  from  the  Septuagint 
Version,  and  is  significant  of  the  principal  transaction  which  it 
records,  namely,  the  EH0A02,  Exodus,  or  departure  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt.  By  the  Jews,  and  in  the  Hebrew 
copies,  it  is  termed  nictJ'  h^jni  Vc-Aleh  Shemoth,  "  these  are 
the  words,''''  from  the  initial  words  of  the  book,  or  sometimes 
merely  Shemoth.  It  comprises  a  history  of  the  events  that 
took  place  during  the  period  of  145  years,  from  the  year  of 
the  world  2369  to  2514  inclusive,  from  the  death  of  Joseph 
to  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle.  Twenty-five  passa^s,  ac- 
cording to  Rivet,  are  quoted  from  Exodus  by  our  Saviour 
and  his  apostles,  in  express  words ;  and  nineteen  allusions  to 
the  sense  are  made  in  the  New  Testament. 

II.  That  Moses  was  the  author  of  this  book  we  have 
already  shown,  though  the  time  when  it  was  written  cannot 
be  precisely  determined.  As,  however,  it  is  a  history  of 
matters  of  fact,  it  was  doubtless  written  after  the  giving  of 
the  law  on  Mount  Sinai  and  the  erecting  of  the  tabernacle ; 
for  things  cannot  be  historically  related  until  they  have  actu- 
ally taken  place,  and  the  author  of  this  book  was  evidently 
an  eye  and  ear-witness  of  the  events  he  has  narrated. 

III.  The  book  of  Exodus  records  the  crnel  persecution  of 
the  Israelites  in  Egypt  under  Pharaoh-Rameses  II.  ;  the 
birth,  exposure,  and  preservation  of  Moses  ;  his  subsequent 
flight  into  Midian,  his  call  and  mission  to  Pharaoh- Ameno- 
phis  11. ;  the  miracles  performed  by  him  and  by  his  brother 
Aaron  :  the  ten  plagues  also  miraculously  inflicted  on  the 
Egyptians  ;  the  institution  of  the  passover,  and  the  departure 
of  the  children  of  Israel  from  Egypt ;  their  passage  across 
the  Red  Sea,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Egyptian  army  :  the 
subsequent  journeyings  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  their 
idolatry,  and  frequent  murmurings  against  God;  the  promul- 
gation of  the  law  from  Mount  Sinai,  and  the  erection  of  the 
tabernacle. 

IV.  The  Scope  of  Exodus  is  to  preserve  the  memorial  of 
the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  and  to  represent 
the  church  of  God,  afflicted  and  preserved  ,-  together  with  the 
providential  care  of  God  towards  her,  and  the  judgments 
inflicted  on  her  enemies.  It  plainly  points  out  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  divine  promises  and  prophecies  delivered  to 
Abraham,  that  his  posterity  would  be  very  numerous  (com- 
pare Gen.  XV.  5.  xvii.  4 — 6.  and  xlvi.  27.  with  Num.  i.  1 — 
3.  46.)  ;  and  that  they  would  be  afflicted  in  a  land  not  their 
own,  whence  they  should  depart  in  the  fourth  generation 
with  great  substance.  (Gen.  xv.'  13 — 16.  with  Exod.  xii. 
35.  40,  41.)  Further,  "in  Israel  passing  from  Egypt, 
through  the  Red  Sea,  the  Wilderness,  and  Jordan,  to  tne 
promised  land,  this  book  adumbrates  the  state  of  the  church 
in  the  wilderness  of  this  world,  until  her  arrival  at  the  hea- 
venly Canaan, — an  eternal  rest."^  St.  Paul,  in  1  Cor.  x.  1, 
&c.  and  in  various  parts  of  his  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  has 
shown  that  these  things  prefigured,  and  were  applicable  to, 
the  Christian  church.  A  careful  study  of  the  mediation  of 
Moses  will  greatly  facilitate  our  understanding  the  mediation 
of  Jesus  Christ. 


'  See  vol.  i.  pp.  72—74. 

»  Fuller's  Expository  Discourses  on  Genesis,  vol. 

s  Roberts's  Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  12. 


p.l. 


V.  Types  of  the  Messiah  are  Aaron  (Heb.  iv.  14 — 16. 
V.  4,  5.)  ; — the  Paschal  Land}  (Exod.  xii.  46.  with  John  xix. 
36.  and  1  Cor.  v.  7,  8.); — the  Manna  (Exod.  xvi.  15.  wath 
1  Cor.  X.  3.); — the  Rock  in  Iloreb  (Exod.  xvii.  6.  with 
1  Cor.  x.  4.)  ; — the  Mercy  Seat  (Exod.  xxxvii.  6.  with  Rom. 
iii.  25.  Heb.  iv.  16.) 

VI.  By  the  Jews  the  book  of  Exodus  is  divided  into 
eleven  paraschioth  or  chapters,  and  twenty-nine  siderim  or 
sections  :  in  our  Bibles  it  is  divided  into  forty  chapters,  the 
contents  of  wliich  are  exhibited  in  the  annexed  Synopsis  : — 

Part  I.  Account  of  the  Transactions  previously  to  the  Depar- 
ture of  the  Lraeliies  from  Egypt. 

Sect.  1.  The  oppression  of  the  children  of  Israel,   (oh.  i.) 
Sect.  2.  The  youth  and  transactions  of  Moses,  (eh.  ii. — vi.) 
Sect.  3.  The  hardening  of  Pharaoh's  heart,  and  the  inflic- 
tion of  the  ten  plagues,   (ch.  vii. — xi.) 

Part  II.    The  Narrative  of  the  Beparture  of  the  Israelites. 

(ch.  xii. — xiv.) 
Part  III.   Transactions  subsequent  to  their  Exodus,  (ch.  xiv. 
— xviii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  miraculous  passage  of  the   Red  Sea,   and  the 
thanksgiving  of  Moses  and  the  people  of  Israel,  on  their  de- 
liverance from  Pharaoh  and  his  host.   (ch.  xiv.  xv.  1 — 22.) 
Sect.  2.  Relation  of  various  miracles  wrought  in  behalf  of  the 

Israelites,  (ch.  xv.  23 — 27.  xvi.  xvii.) 
Sect.  3.  The  arrival  of  Moses's  wife  and  children  with  Je- 
thro.   (ch.  xviii.) 

Part  IV.   The  Promulgation  of  the  Law  on  Mount  Sinai. 

Sect.  1.  The  preparation  of  the  people  of  Israel  by  Moses,  for 
the  renewing  of  the  covenant  with  God.   (ch.  xix.) 

Sect.  2.  The  promulgation  of  the  moral  law.   (ch.  xx.) 

Sect.  3.  The  judicial  law.   (ch.  xxi xxiii.) 

Sect.  4.  The  ceremonial  law,  including  the  construction 
and  erection  of  the  tabernacle,  (ch.  xxiv. — xxxi.  xxxv. — 
xl.)  In  ch.  xxxii. — xxxiv.  are  related  the  idolatry  of  the 
Israelites,  the  breaking  of  the  two  tables  of  the  law,  the 
divine  chastisement  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  renewal  of 
the  tables  of  the  covenant. 

VII.  The  circumstances  attending  the  plagues  inflicted 
upon  the  Egyptians  are  fully  considered  by  Mr.  Bryant  m 
his  learned  treatise  on  this  subject  (8vo.  London,  1810), 
from  which  the  following  particulars  are  abridged.  As  many 
of  the  Israelites  were  followers  of  the  idolatry  that  surround- 
ed them,  these  miracles  were  admirably  adapted  to  display 
the  vanity  of  the  idols  and  false  gods,  adored  by  their  op- 
pressors, the  proud  and  learned  Egyptians. 

1.  By  the  J^?**/ plague — IVaier  turned  into  blood  (Exod. 
vii.  14 — 25.) — was  demonstrated  the  superiority  of  Jehovah 
over  their  imaginary  rivex-gods,  and  the  baseness  of  the 
elements  which  they  reverenced.  The  Nile  was  religiously 
honoured  by  the  Egyptians,  who  valued  themselves  much 
upon  the  excellency  of  its  waters,  and  esteemed  all  the  na- 
tives of  the  river  as  in  some  degree  sacred.  The  Nile  was 
turned  into  blood,  which  was  an  object  of  peculiar  abhor- 
rence to  the  Egyptians. 

2.  In  the  plague  of  frogs  (Exod.  viii.  1 — 15.)  the  object 
of  their  idolatrous  worship,  the  Nile,  was  made  an  instru- 
ment of  their  punishment.  Frogs  were  deemed  sacred  by 
the  Egyptians;  but  whether  from  reverence  or  abhorrence  is 
uncertain.  By  this  plague,  the  waters  of  the  Nile  became 
a  second  time  polluted,  and  the  land  was  equally  defiled. 

3.  The  plague  of  lice  (Exod.  viii.  16 — 19.)  reproved  the 
absurd  superstition  of  the  Egpytians,  who  thought  it  would 
be  a  great  profanation  of  the  temple  into  which  they  were 
going,  if  they  entered  it  with  any  animalcula  of  this  sort 
upon  them.  The  people,  and  particularly  the  priests,  never 
wore  woollen  garments,  but  only  linen,  because  linen  is  least 
apt  to  produce  lice.  The  judgment,  inflicted  by  Moses  in 
this  plague,  was  so  proper,  that  the  priests  and  magicians 
immediately  perceived  from  what  hand  it  came,  and  con- 
fessed that  this  was  the  finger  of  God. 

4.  The  plague  oi  flies  (Exod.  viii.  20 — 32.)  which'was 
inflicted  in  the  midst  of  winter,  and  not  in  the  midst  of  sum- 
mer, when  Egypt  swarms  with  flies,  would  show  the 
Egyptians  the  folly  of  the  god,  whom  they  worshipped, 
that  he  might  drive  away  the  gad-fly,  whose  sting  is  ex- 
tremely painful. 

5.  The  fifth  plague — the  murrain  among  cattle  (Exod.  ix. 
1 — 7.)  destroyed  tne  living  objects  of  their  stupid  worship. ~ 
The  sacred  bull,  the  cow,  or  heifer,  the  ram,  and  the  he-goai, ' 
fell  dead  before  their  worshippers.     When  the  distemper 


Sect.  IV.] 

inflicted  by  this  jndjrment  spread  irresistibly  over  the  coun- 
try, the  E<rypti;iiis  not  only  sufirred  a  severe  Kjss,  but  also 
beheM  their  (l(!iti(!S  and  tlieir  representatives  sink  before  the 
God  of  the  Hebrews. 

6.  As  tlu!  Kifypdans  were  cehibrated  for  their  medical 
skill,  and  their  physicians  were  held  in  the  highest  repute, 
the  nixtk  j)lairn(!, — the  infliction  of  hdlls  iiaoinpanied  with 
blains  (Exod.  ix.  H — I'J.),  which  ncithi-r  their  deities  could 
avert,  nor  tiie  art  of  man  alleviate,  wonhl  furtiier  show  Ihe 
vanity  of  tlieir  (rods.  Aaron  and  .Moses  were  ordered  to  take 
ashes  of  ihi^  furnae(>,  and  to  scattf^r  thein  towards  heaven, 
that  they  mi<riit  be  wafted  over  tlie  face  of  the  country.  This 
was  a  siirnilicant  command.  The  ashes  were  to  be  taken 
from  that  fiery  furnace,  which  in  the  Scripture  was  used  as 
a  type  of  the  slavery  of  the  Israedites,  and  of  tiie  cruelty 
which  they  exncrieiiced  in  K<;yi)t.  (I)eut.  iv.  20.)  The 
process  has  still  a  further  allusion  to  an  idolatrous  and  cruel 
rite,  which  was  eoninion  among  tln^  Egyptians,  and  to 
which  it  is  opposed  as  a  contrast.  They  liad  several  cities 
styled  Typhonian,  such  as  Heliopolis,  Idythia,  Abaris,  and 
JJusiris.  In  these,  at  particular  seasons,  \\\vy  sacrificed  men.' 
The  objects  thus  destiiunl,  were  persons  with  bright  hair, 
and  a  particular  complexion,  sueli  as  were  seldom  to  be 
found  among  the  native  Egyptians.  Hence,  we  may  infer 
that  they  were  foreigners;  and  it  is  probable,  that  whilst 
the  Israelites  resided  in  Egypt,  they  wc^re  chosen  from  their 
body.  They  were  burnt  alive  upon  a  high  altar,  and  thus 
sacrificed  for  the  good  of  the  j)eople.  At  the  close  of  the 
sacrifice,  the  priests  gathered  together  the  ashes  of  these 
victims,  and  scattered  them  upwards  in  the  air,  with  the 
view,  probably,  that  where  any  atom  of  this  dust  was  car- 
ried, a  blessing  might  be  entailed.  The  like  was,  therefore, 
done  by  Moses,  though  with  a  different  intention,  and  to  a 
more  certain  effect. 

7.  The  plague  oi  hail,  rain,  and  fire  (Exod.  ix.  13 — 35.), 
demonstrated  that  neither  Osiris,  who  presided  over  fire,  nor 
Isis,  who  presided  over  water,  could  protect  the  fields  and 
the  climate  of  Egyijt  from  the  thunder,  the  rain,  and  the 
hail  of  .lehovah.  I  hese  phenomena  were  of  extremely  rare 
occurrence,  at  any  period  of  the  year :  they  now  fell  at  a 
time  when  the  air  was  most  calm  and  serene. 

8.  Of  the  severity  of  the  ravages,  caused  by  the  plague 
of  liicust.s,  (Exod.  X.  I — 20.)  some  idea  may  be  conceived 
from  Ihe  account  of  those  insects  in  tiiis  volume,  p.  39. 
The  Egj'ptians  had  gods,  in  whom  they  trusted  to  deliver 
their  country  from  these  terrible  invaders.  They  trusted 
much  to  the  fecundity  of  their  soil,  and  to  the  deities,  Isis 
and  Serapis,  who  were  the  conserwitors  of  all  plenty.  IJut 
by  this  judgment  they  were  taught  that  it  was  impossible 
to  stand  before  Moses  the  servant  of  God.  The  very  winds, 
which  they  venerated,  were  mad(;  the  instruments  of  their 
destruction;  and  the  sea,  which  they  regarded  as  their  de- 
fence against  the  locusts,  could  not  afford  them  any  pro- 
tection. 

IK  The  ninth  plague  consisted  in  three  days*  darkness  over 
all  the  land  of  E^ypt.  (Exod.  x.  21 — 27.)  The  Egj'ptians 
considered  light  and  fire,  the  purest  of  elenaents,  to  be  pro- 
per types  of  God.  They  regarded  the  sun,  the  great  fountain 
of  light,  as  an  emblem  of  his  glory  and  salutary  influence 
on  the  world.  The  sun  was  esteemed  the  soul  of  the  world, 
and  was  supposed  with  the  moon  to  rule  all  things :  and  not 
only  to  be  the  conservators,  but  the  creators  of  all  things. 
Accordingly  they  worshipped  them,  as  well  as  night  and 
darkness.  This  miraculous  darkness  would,  therefore,  con- 
firm still  further  (if  further  contirmation  were  wanting)  the 
vanity  of  their  idol-deities. 

10.  The  infliction  of  the  tenth  and  last  plague — the  de- 
struction  of  the  first-bwn  (Exod.  xi.  1 — 8.  xii.  29,  30.)  was 
most  equitable ;  because,  afier  the  Egyptians  had  been  pre- 
served oy  one  of  the  Israelitish  family,  they  had  (contrary 
to  all  right,  and  in  defiance  of  the  stipulation  originally 
made  with  the  Israelites  when  they  first  went  into  Egypt,) 
enslaved  the  people  to  whom  they  had  been  so  much  in- 
debted ;  had  murdered  their  children,  and  made  their  bond- 
age intolerable.  We  learn  from  Herodotus,^  that  it  was 
the  custom  of  the  Egyptians  to  rush  from  the  house  into  the 
street,  to  bewail  the  dead  with  loud  and  bitter  outcries  :  and 
every  member  of  the  family  united  in  the  bitter  expressions 
of  sorrow.  How  great,  then,  must  their  terror  and  their 
grief  have  been,  when,  at  midnight,  the  Lord  smote  all  the 
first-born  of  the  land  of  Egigpt,  from  the  first-born  of  Pha- 
raoh that  sat  on  his  throne,  unto  the  first-born  of  the  captive 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  LEVITICUS. 


20? 


»  Plutarch,  Is.  ct  Osir.  v.  1.  p.  380.  D. 


»  Lib.  ii.  cc.  85,  &a. 


that  was  in  the  dungeon ,-  and  all  the  first-born  of  cattle .-  and 
when  Pharaoh  rose  up  in  the  night,  he,  and  all  his  servants, 
and  all  the  Egyptians  ,•  and  there  was  a  great  cry  in  Egypt'.- 
for  there  was  iwt  a  house  where  there  was  not  one  dead  ! 


SECTION  IV. 


ON   THE  BOOK  OF  LEVITICUS. 


I.   Title,   author,  and  date. — II.   Scope, — III.  Synopsis  of  ita 
conlenla. 

I.  ThI':  third  book  of  the  Pentateuch  (by  the  .Tews  termed 
N-ip^i  VM-viKRA,  and  he  called,  from  its  initial  word)  is  in  the 
Septuagiiit  styled  AF.riTlKON,  and  in  our  version  l^eviticus, 
or  the  Levitical  book,  because  it  principally  contains  the 
laws  concerning  the  religion  of  the  Israelites,  which  chieflv 
consisted  of  various  sacrifices  ;  the  charge  of  which  was 
committed  to  Aaron  the  Levite  (as  he  is  termed  in  Exod.  iv. 
11.)  and  to  his  sons,  who  alone  held  the  priestly  office  in  the 
tribe  of  Levi ;  wliich  St.  Paul  therefore  calls  a  "  Levitical 
])ri(!Stliood."  (Heb.  vii.  11.)  In  the  IJabylonish  Talmud  it 
IS  called  the  law  (f  the  priests,  which  appellation  is  retained 
in  the  Arabic  and  Syriac  versions. 

The  author  of  this  book,  it  is  universally  admitted,  was 
Moses  ;  and  it  is  cited  as  his  production  in  several  books  of 
Scripture.  By  comparing  Exod.  xl.  17.  with  Num.  i.  1.  we 
learn  that  this  book  contains  the  history  of  one  month,  viz. 
from  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  to  the  numbering  of  the 
people  who  were  fit  for  war,  that  is,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  second  year  after  Israel's  departure  from  Egypt  to  the 
beginning  of  the  second  month  of  the  same  year,  which  was 
in  the  year  of  the  world  2511,  and  before  Christ  1490. 
The  laws  prescribed  upon  other  subjects  than  sacrifices 
have  no  chronological  marks  by  which  we  can  judge  of  the 
times  when  they  were  given. 

II.  The  general  Scope  of  this  book  is,  to  make  known  to 
the  Israelites  the  Levitical  laws,  sacrifices,  and  ordinances, 
and  by  those  "  shadows  of  good  things  to  come,"  to  lead  the 
Israelites  to  the  Messiah  (Heb.  x.  1.  with  Gal.  iii.  24.)  : 
and  it  appears  from  the  argument  of  Saint  Paul,  that  they 
had  some  idea  of  the  spiritual  meaning  of  these  various  in- 
stitutions. (1  Cor.  X.  1 — 1.) 

This  book  is  of  great  use  in  explaining  numerous  passages 
of  the  New  Testament,  especially  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, which,  in  fact,  would  be  unintelligible  without  it. 
In  considering,  however,  the  spiritual  tendency  of  Leviticus, 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  ap])ly  the  types  too  extensively : 
the  observation  of  Jerome  as  to  its  spiritual  import  is  un- 
doubtedly very  pious  and  just,  but  few  persons  will  acquiesce 
in  his  remark,  that  "  almost  every  syllable  in  this  book  breathes 
a  spiritual  sacrament."^ 

III.  Leviticus  is  divided  by  the  Jews  into  nine  paraschioth, 
which  in  our  Bibles  form  twenty-seven  chapters :  it  consists 
of  four  leading  topics  ;  comprising 

Part  I.  The  Laws  concerning  Sacrifices,  in  which  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  sacrifices  are  enumerated,  together  with  their 
concomitant  rites ;  as, 

Sect.  1.  The  Jiiirnt  Offering  (Lev.  i.),  which  prefigured  the 
full,  perfect,  and  sutlicient  sacrifice  of  Christ,  "  to  put  away 
sin  ;"  and  who,  by  his  "  one  offering  hath  perfected  for  ever 
them  that  are  sanctified."  (Heb.  ix.  26.  x.  14.  1  John  i.  7.) 
Sect,  2.  The  Meat  Offerings.  (Lev.  ii.) 
Sect.  3.  The  Peace  Offering  (Lev.  iii.),  which  represented 
both  Christ's  oblation  of  himself,  whereby  he  became  our 
peace  and  salvation  (Eph.  ii.  14 — 16.  Acts  xiii.  47.  Heb. 
v.  9.  ix.  28.)   and  also  our  oblation  of  praise,  thanksgiving, 
and  prayer  to  God. 
Sect,  4.  The  Offering  made  for  sins  of  ignorance  (Lev.  Iv. 
v.),  which,  being   consumed  without  the  camp,  signified 
Christ's  suffering  "  without  the  gate,  that  he  might  sanctify 
the  people  with  his  own  blood."  (Heb.  xiii.  11  — 13.) 
Sect.  5.  The   Trespass    Offering  for  si7is  knowingly  com- 
mitted (Lev.  vi.  vii.),  in  which  sacrifice  the  guilt  was  con- 
sidered as  being  transferred  to  the  animal  offered  up  to  Je- 
hovah, and  the  person  offering  it,  as  redeemed  from  the 

'  "Singula  sacrificia,  immo  singnim  pene  syllaboi,  et  vestes  Aaron,  et 
totus  Onto  Leviticus  spirant  ca?lestia  sacramenta." — Epist.  ad  Paulinunt, 
§  7.  Tliis,  and  the  subsequent  references  to  Jerome's  Prefaces,  are  made 
to  the  collection  of  them,  which  is  prefixed  to  the  Frttnkfort  edition  of  the 
Latin  Vulgate.  (1826.  8vo.) 


208 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Pakt  V,  Chap.  I 


penalty  of  sin.     Thus  Jesus  Christ  is  said  to  have  made  his 
soul  an  offering  for  sin.   (Isa.  liii.  10.  with  2  Cor.  v.  21.) 
Part  IL    The  Institution  of  the  Priesthood,  in  which  the  con- 
secration of  .iuron  and  his  sons  to  the  sacred  office  is  related, 
together  with  the  punishment  of  Nudub  and  Abihu.  (Lev. 
viii. — X.) 
Part  IIL    The  Laws  concerning  Purifications  both  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  Priests.  (Lev.  xi. — xxii.) 

Among  these,  the  regulations  concerning  leprosy  (xiii.)  as  re- 
presenting the  universal  taint  of  sin,  and  those  concerning 
the  scape-goat  and  the  great  day  of  atonement  (xvi.),  de- 
mand particular  attention ;  as  typifying  the  death  and  resur- 
rection of  Christ,  and  the  atonement  made  thereby  (Heb. 
ix.  7 — 12.  24 — 27.)  ;  while  they  at  the  same  time  inculcate 
the  halt  fulness  of  sin,  and  the  necessity  of  internal  purity. 
Chapters  xviii.  and  xix.  contain  various  cautions  to  the  Is- 
raelites to  avoid  the  sinful  practices  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Canaanitcs,  with  laws  adapted  to  the  peculiar  circumstances 
and  situations  of  the  children  of  Israel,  interspersed  with 
several  moral  precepts  inculcating  the  duties  of  humanity 
and  mercy,  and  the  necessity  of  strict  integrity. 
Part  IV.  The  Laws  concerning  the  Sacred  Festivals,  Vows, 
Things  devoted,  and  Tithes. 

Chapter  xxiii.  treats  of  the  seven  great  festivals,  viz.  the  Sab- 
bath, the  passover,  the  feast  of  first-fruits,  the  feast  of  Pente- 
cost, the  feast  of  trumpets,  the  great  day  of  atonement,  and 
the  feast  of  tabernacles.  The  celebration  of  these  solemn 
festivals  was  of  singular  use  for  maintaining  the  system  of 
divine  worship  among  the  Israelites  ;  for  distinguishing  them 
from  all  other  people  ;  for  the  solemn  commemoration  of  the 
many  and  great  benefits  conferred  on  them  by  Jehovah  ;  for 
the  preservation  and  continuance  of  the  public  ministry ; 
for  preserving  purity  and  unity  in  divine  worship ;  and, 
lastly,  for  prefiguring  the  manifold  and  great  blessings  be- 
stowed on  mankind  by  the  Messiah.  In  chap.  xxiv.  vari- 
ous ceremonial  and  judicial  rites  are  enjoined  :  and  in  chap. 
XXV.  is  recapitulated  the  law  respecting  the  sabbatical  year 
which  had  before  been  given  (see  Exod.  xxiii.  10,  11.)  ;  the 
observance  of  the  jubilee  is  enjoined,  with  various  precepts 
respecting  mercy,  benevolence,  &c.  The  jubilee  was  typi- 
cal of  the  great  time  of  release,  the  Gospel-dispensation. 
(See  Isa.  Ixi.  1 — 3.  with  Luke  iv.  19.)  Chap.  xxvi. presents 
various  prophetic  promises  and  threatenings  which  have 
signally  been  fulfilled  among  the  Jews.  (Compare  v.  22. 
with  Num.  xxi.  6.  2  Kings  ii.  24.  and  xvii.  25.  with  Ezek. 
V.  17.)  The  preservation  of  the  Jews  to  this  day,  as  a  dis- 
tinct people,  is  a  living  comment  on  v.  44.  The  twenty- 
seventh  and  last  chapter  comprises  regulations  concerning 
vows,  and  things  devoted,  as  well  as  the  tithes  which  were 
to  be  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  tabernacle. 


SECTION  V. 


ON   THE    BOOK    OF    NUMBERS. 


I.  Title,  author,  date,  and  argument. — II.  Scope. — III.  Types 
of  the  JMessiah. — IV.  Prediction  of  the  Messiah. — V.  Chro- 
nology.— VI.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. — VII.  Observations  on 
the  books  of  the  -wars  of  the  Lord,  mentio7ied  in  JViimbers 
xxi.  14. 

I.  In  conformity  with  the  Hehrew  custom,  this  fourth  book 
of  Moses  is  usually  termed  ->3T'1,  va-jeoaBaR,  and  he  spake, 
because  it  commences  with  that  word  in  the  original  text :  it 
is  also  called  -\3iro,  Beivn'DBaR,  "  In  the  Desert, "  which  is  the 
fifth  word  in  the  first  verse,  because  it  relates  the  transactions 
of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  By  the  Alexandrian 
translators  it  was  entitled  apigmoi,  which  appellation  was 
adopted  by  the  Greek  fathers  ;  and  by  the  Latm  translators 
it  was  termed  Numeri,  Numbers,  whence  our  English  title  is 
derived  ;  because  it  contains  an  account  of  the  numbering-  of 
the  children  of  Israel,  related  in  chapters  i. — iii.  and  xxvi. 
It  appears  from  xxxvi.  13.  to  have  been  written  by  Moses  in 
the  plains  of  Moab.  Besides  the  numeration  and  marshalling 
of  the  Israelites  for  their  journey,  several  laws  in  addition  to 
those  delivered  in  Exodus  and  Leviticus,  and  likewise  several' 
remarkable  events,  are  recorded  in  this  book. 

II.  The  Scope  of  the  Book  of  Numbers  is,  to  transmit  to 
posterity,  for  a  perpetual  example,  the  providential  care  of  the 


Almighty  over  the  Israelites,  during  their  wanderings  in  the 
wilderness,  and  the  temptations  and  murmurings  there  by 
which  they  provoked  and  offended  their  Heavenly  Protector; 
so  that,  at  length,  he  sware  in  his  wrath  that  they  should  not 
enter  into  his  rest.  (Psal.  xcv.  11.)  St.  Paul,  warning  the 
converted  Hebrews,  expressly  states  that  they  could  not  enter 
into  the  land  of  Canaan  because  of  their  unbelief  (Heb.  iii. 
19.)  ;  and  in  1  Cor.  x.  1. — 11.  he  states  that  all  these  things 
happened  unto  them  for  ensamples,  and  they  are  iwitten  for  our 
admonition.  The  method  pursued  in  this  book  is  precisely 
that  which  would  be  adopted  by  the  writer  of  an  itinerary  ; 
the  respective  stations  are  noted  ;  and  the  principal  occur- 
rences that  took  place  at  each  station  are  related,  omitting 
such  as  are  of  comparatively  less  importance.  This  circum- 
stance is  an  additional  internal  proof  that  Moses  was  the 
author  of  the  Book  of  Numbers,  which  is  cited  as  his  work 
in  many  parts  of  Scripture. 

III.  Types  of  the  Messiah,  in  this  book,  are.  The  Water 
that  issued  from  the  Rock  (Num.  xx.  with  1  Cor.  x.  4. 1 1 .)  ;  and 
the  elevation  of  the  Brazen  Serpent.  (Num..  xxi.  with  John 
iii.  14.) 

IV.  This  book  contains  only  one  Prediction  concerning 
the  Messiah,  viz.  Numbers  xxiv.  17.  19.  which,  Rosenmiiller 
and  some  other  eminent  biblical  critics  have  contended, 
cannot  apply  to  Jesus  Christ.  This  passage,  it  is  true,  in  its 
primary  and  literal  meaning,  intimates  that  from  the  people 
of  Israel  should  arise  a  mighty  prince,  who  would  obtain  an 
entire  conquest  and  bear  rule  over  the  kingdoms  of  Moab  and 
Edom:  and  it  was  fulfilled  in  David,  for  it  is  expressly 
recorded  of  him,  that  he  finally  subdued  those  nations. 
(2  Sam.  viii.  2.  14.)  But,  in  its  full  import,  it  has  invariably 
been  considered  as  referring  to  that  illustrious  personage,  of 
whom  David  was  a  type  and  a  progenitor  :  and  is,  in  fact,  a 
splendid  prediction  of  the  final  and  universal  sway  of  the 
Messiah,  when  the  middle  wall  of  partition  shall  be  broken 
down,  and  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  shall  become  one  fold 
under  one  shepherd.  This  explanation  is  perfectly  consonant 
to  many  other  prophecies  concerning  the  Saviour  ;  which,  in 
similar  language,  describe  him  as  acquiring  dominion  over 
heathen  countries,  and  destroying  the  enemies  of  his  church : 
and  it  is  observable,  that,  in  several  of  these  ancient  predic- 
tions, sortie  particular  opposers,  as  the  Moabites  and  Edom- 
ites,  are  put  for  the  "  adversaries  of  the  Lord, "  in  general. 
(See  Psal.  ii,  8.  Ixxii.  8.  ex.  6.  Isa.  xi.  14.  and  xxv.  10.)' 

In  this  passage,  an  eminent  critic  observes,  that  Balaam, 
in  prophetic  vision,  descries  the  remote  coming  of  Shiloh, 
under  the  imagery  of  a  star  and  a  sceptre,  or  an  illustrious 
prince.  Though  it  was  foretold  that  "  the  sceptre  should 
depart  from  Judah"  at  his  coming,  this  prophecy  confirms  to 
him  a  proper  sceptre  of  his  own  :  and  our  Lord  claimed  it 
when  he  avowed  himself  a  '■'•King  "  to  Pilate,  but  declared 
that  his  "kingdom  was  not  of  this  world."  (John  xviii.  36, 
37.)  This  branch  of  the  prophecy  was  fulfilled  about  1600 
years  after ;  when,  at  the  birth  of  Christ,  "  the  Magi  from 
the  East"  (who  are  supposed  by  Theophylact  to  have  been 
the  posterity  of  Balaam)  came  to  Jerusalem,  saying,  "Where 
is  the  [true]  born  king  of  the  Jews'?  for  we  have  seen  his 
star  at  its  rising,  and  are  come  to  worship  him.  "2  (Matt.  ii. 

V.  The  book  of  Numbers  contains  a  history  of  the  Israel- 
ites, from  the  beginning  of  the  second  month  of  the  second 
year  after  their  departure  from  Egypt,  to  the  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  month  of  the  fortieth  year  of  their  journey ings, 
— that  is,  a  period  of  thirty-eight  years  and  nine  or  ten  months. 
(Compare  Num.  i.  and  xxxvi.  13.  with  Dent.  i.  3.)  Most 
of  the  transactions  here  recorded  took  place  in  the  second  and 
thirty-eighth  years :  the  dates  of  the  facts  related  in  the  middle 
of  the  book  cannot  be  precisely  ascertained. 

VI.  According  to  the  Jewish  division,  this  portion  of  Holy 
Writ,  contains  ten  paraschioth  or  chapters ;  in  our  Bibles  it 

'  Robinson's  Scripture  Characters,  vol.  i.  p.  480. — The  same  author  adds 
— "Jesus,  then,  is  the  'Star,'  which  Balaam  forotold  ;  '  the  bright  and  morn- 
ing star,'  which,  'through  the  lender  mercy  of  our  God,  lialh  visited  us' 
(Luke  i.  78.  Rev.  xxii.  16.) ;  and  to  him  also  'the  sceptre'  of  universal  go- 
vernment is  committed.  '  He  shall  have  dominion  ;'  lor  '  he  must  reign  till 
he  hath  put  all  enemies  under  his  feet.'  (1  Cor.  xv.  25.)  Balaam  looked  for- 
ward to  the  time  of  hi.s  coining,  which  is  usually  called,  as  in  Num.  xxiv.  1-1., 
'the  latter  days:'  and  concerning  him,  he  said,  'I  shall  see  him,  but  not 
now  ;  I  shall  behold  him,  but  not  nigh  ;'  which  might  intimate,  that  his  ap- 
pearance was  far  removed,  and  that  he  should  see  him  only  by  the  spirit  of 
prophecy.  But  it  may  also  refer  to  the  second  advent  of  the  Saviour,  when 
indeed  both  Balaam  and  every  despiser  of  his  grace  '  shall  see  him'  in  his 
glory— 'shall  behold  him,  but,  not  nigh  :'  for  they  shall  be  driven  out. from 
him  with  shame  and  confusion,  and  'be  punished  with  everlasting  deslrup- 
tion  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  from  the  glory  of  his  power.'" 
Ibid.  p.  481. 

a  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  229. 


I 


Ski 


v.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  NUMBERS. 


209 


consists  of  thirty-six  chapters,  which  comprise  four  principal 

])arts  or  sections. 

Part  1.   The  Census  of  the  Israelites,  comprisin<r, 

Skct.  1.  The  enumeration  of  the  twelve  tribes,  and  the  mar- 
shalling of  them  into  a  regular  camp;  "each  tribe  by  itself 
under  its  own  captain  or  chief,  distinguished  by  its  own 
peculiar  standard."   (Num.  i.  ii.) 

The  standards  or  banners  of  the  tribes  are  not  men- 
tioned by  Moses  (ii.  2.)  ;  but  they  seem  to  be  pointed  out 
by  Rev.  iv.  7.  with  which  the  tradition  of  the  Jews  agrees. 
The  standard  of  Judah  is  a  lion;  of  Reuben,  a  man;  of 
Ephraim,  an  ox;  of  Dan,  an  eagle.  'I'his  agrees  with 
the  vision  of  the  cherubic  figures  in  Ezekiel  i.  10.' 

Skct.  2.  The  sacred  or  ecclesiastical  census  of  the  Levites ; 
the  designation  of  them  to  the  sacred  office,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  them  to  various  services  in  the  tabernacle,  (iii.  iv.) 
Besides  the  conveniency  which  would  naturally  result 
from  the  numeration  and  marshalling  of  the  tribes,  this 
census  would  demonstrate  to  the  Israelites  (as  it  does  to  us), 
how  faithful  Clod  had  been  to  the  promise  made  to  the  pa- 
triarchs Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  of  nmlliplying  and  pre- 
serving their  jjostcrity.  By  this,  also,  they  were  preserved 
from  all  intermixture  with  their  vicious  and  idolatrous  neigh- 
bours ;  each  true-born  Israelite  being  obliged  and  enabled  to 
deliver  a  clear  account  of  the  tribe,  and  even  the  family, 
from  which  he  wiis  descended ;  which  was  of  still  higher 
and  more  special  importance  for  preserving  the  certain  and 
unexceptionable  genealogy  of  Christ  the  Messiah,  who  was 
to  be  born  of  this  nation,  according  to  original  and  repeated 
promise.^ 
Part  II.   The  Institution  of  various  Legal  Ceremonies, — as, 

Sect.  1.  The  purification  of  the  camp,  by  the  removal  of  all 
unclean  persons  from  it,  and  the  trial  of  the  suspected  adul- 
teress by  the  waters  of  jealousy.   (Num.  v.) 

Sect.  2.  The  institution  of  the  Nazareate.   (vi.) 

Skct.  3.  An  account  of  the  oblations  made  to  the  tabernacle 
by  the  princes  or  heads  of  tribes,   (vii.) 

Sect.  4.  The  consecration  of  the  Levites.  (viii.) 

Sect   5.  The  celebration  of  the  passover.   (ix.) 

Sect.  6.  Regulations  concerning  the  moving  or  resting  of  the 
camp  of  Israel  during  their  progress,   (x.) 
Part  III.    The  History  of  their  Journey  from  Mount  Sinai  to 

the  Land  of  Moab,  comprising  an  Account  of  their  Ilighi 

Murmurings  in  the  Way. 

Sect.  1.  Thejivst  JMurnutring  of  the  People  on  account  of 
the  length  of  the  ■way;  which  was  punished  by  lire  at 
Taberah.   (x'i.  1—3.) 

Sect.  2.    Their  Loathing  of  .Manna,   and  Murmuring  for 
'     Flesh,  punished  by  the  sending  of  quails  and  a  pestilence, 
(xi.  4—35.) 

Sect.  3.  The  Murmuring  of  Aaron  and  Miriam  at  Moses, 
for  which  Miriam  was  smitten  with  a  leprosy,  but  was  healed 
at  the  intercession  of  Moses,   (xii.) 

Sect.  4.  The  instructions  given  to  the  spies  who  were  sent  to 
explore  the  promised  land,  and  their  "evil  report"  of  it. 
(xiii.)  The  Murmuring  of  the  People  at  Kadesh-Barnea  ; 
for  which  all  of  them,  who  were  twenty  years  old  and  up- 
ward, were  deprived  of  entering  into  Canaan :  and  the  men 
that  brought  up  "  the  evil  report  of  the  land  died  by  the 
plague,"  excepting  Joshua  and  Caleb.  In  ch.  xv.  some  or- 
dinances are  given  for  conducting  the  worship  of  Jehovah 
in  the  land  of  Canaan. 

Sect.  5.  The  Murmuring  and  Rebellion  of  Korah,  Dathan, 
and  Abiram,  and  their  followers,  with  their  punishment, 
(xvi.  1—40.) 

Sect.  6.  The  Murmuring  of  the  People  against  Moses  and 
Aaron,  on  account  of  their  preceding  judgment,  and  their 
punishment,  with  Aaron's  intercession  for  them.'  (xvi.  41 

»  Reeves's  erlition  of  the  Bible,  vol.  i.  on  Num.  ii.  2. 
.    •  Pyle's  Piiraphrase,  Ac.  on  the  Old  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  130. 
_  » In  .\aron  ..makinsr  intercession  for  the  rebel  Israelites,  we  behold  a 
lively  type  of  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  a  merciful  and/ail/iful  highpriesi,  in 
things  pei-taining  to  Ood,  to  ma/ce  intercession  for  tlie  sins  of  lite  people. 


— .50.)  The  miraculous  budding  of  Aaron's  rod  among  the 
rods  of  the  tribes,  as  a  confirmation  of  his  priesthood,  and 
as  a  monument  against  the  rebels  (xvii.);  which  was  suc- 
ceeded by  some  directions  concerning  the  dignity  and  supe- 
riority of  the  priestly  ollice  over  that  of  the  Levites,  and 
respecting  the  maintenance  of  both  (xviii.),  together  with 
regulations  concerning  the  water  of  separation  made  with 
the  ashes  of  a  red  heifer,  and  its  use  for  the  puriiicatioa  of 
those  who  were  unclean,   (xix.) 

Sect.  7.  I'heir  Murmuring  in  the  Desert  of  Zin  for  JVater, 
the  unbelief  of  Moses,  the  perfidy  of  the  Edomites,  and 
Aaron's  death,   (xx.) 

Sect.  8.  Their  Murmuring,  as  "  they  journeyed  to  compass 
the  land  of  Kdom,"  when  "  tlie  soul  of  the  people  was  dis- 
couraged l)ecause  of  the  length  of  the  way,"  and  also  their 
loathing  of  manna,  by  them  contemptuously  termed  "  light 
bread,"  for  which  they  were  punished  with  fiery  serpents, 
but  on  repentance  were  healed  by  looking  at  a  brazen  ser- 
pent,  (xxi.) 

Part  IV.  Jl  History  of  the  Transactions  which  took  place 
in  the  Plains  of  Moab  (.vxii. — xxxvi.)  ;  including, 

Sect.  1.  The  machinations  of  their  enemies  against  them,  their 
frustration,  and  the  prophecies  of  Balaam  respecting  the 
Jews  and  their  enemies,'  the  ensnaring  of  the  Israelites  to 
commit  idolatry  by  the  Moabites,  with  their  consequent 
punishment,  (xxii. — xxv.) 

Sect.  2.  A  second  enumeration  of  the  people  (xxvi.)  ;  in 
which  are  displayed  "the  singular  providence  of  God,  and 
the  further  accomplishment  of  his  promise  to  the  patriarchs, 
in  multiplying  the  people  of  Israel  so  exceedingly,  that  in 
all  the  tribes  there  were  only  01,020  men"  less  than  at  the 
first  census,*  "  notwithstanding  the  whole  of  that  murmuring 
generation"  (with  the  exception  of  Joshua,  Caleb,  and  a 
few  others)   "perished  in  the  wilderness."" 

Sect.  3.  The  remaining  chapters  relate  the  appointment  of 
Joshua  to  be  the  successor  of  Moses,  and  various  regula- 
tions concerning  sacrifices,  and  the  partition  of  the  pro- 
mised land,  (xxvii. — xxxvi.)  The  thirty-third  chapter  con- 
tains a  recapitulation  of  the  aeveral  stages  of  the  journey- 
ings  of  the  IsraeUtes.  As  the  best  elucidation  of  this  subject, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  accompanying  Map,  together 
with  the  table  on  the  following  page. 

(Hob.  ii.  17.)  "Does  not  He,  while  the  pestilence  of  siu  is  ra^ng  in  the 
world  at  large,  or  in  the  bodies  of  individual.s,  stand  between  us  and  sin 
with  the  incense  of  his  interces.-;ion,  and  the  olTcring  of  his  blood,  and 
make  an  atonement  and  stay  the  plague,  and  dealli  eternal,  to  all  who  havo 
a  lively  faith  in  Him!  He  is  able  to  sate  them  unto  the  uttermost  that 
come  unto  Gnd  by  him,  seeing  he  ever  lireth  to  inake  intercession  for  them. 
(Ileb.  vii.  25.)''  Plimiptre's  Poi)ular  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  vol.  i. 
p.  2o3. 

«  On  the  accomplishment  of  all  these  prophecies  delivered  by  Balaam, 
consult  Bishop  Newton's  Dissertations,  vol.  i.  diss.  v.  and  the  Dissertalioa 
sur  les  Pronlietios  de  Balaam,  in  the  Bible  de  Vence,  tom.  iii.  pp.  274 — 313, 
"Thoujih  God  had  probably  rejected  Balaam  as  an  apostate  prophet,  he 
deigned  to  employ  him  on  this  signal  occasion  as  the  herald  of  the  divine 
oracles ;  to  illustrate  the  impotcncy  of  the  heathen  arts,  and  to  demonstrate 
the  power  and  foreknowledge  of  the  Divine  Spirit"  (Bp.  Gray.)  Bishop 
Butler  has  a  fine  discourse  on  the  character  of  Balaam,  Works,  vol.  i. 
serm.  vii. 

»  Roberts's  Claris  Biblioriim,  p.  26.  The  following  comparative  state- 
ment will  show  how  much  some  of  the  tribes  had  increased,  and  others 
had  diminis/ied,  since  llie  first  enumeration  : — 


Reuben 

Simeon 

Gad 

Judah 

Issachar 

^ebulon 

Manasseh  . 

Ephraim 

Benjamin   . 

Dan 

Asher 

Naphtali 


tchole  in  3  years. 
Decrease  in  all  61,020.    Increase  in  all  50,020 
Ch.  iii.  Ch.  xxvi. 

Levites  22,300        .        23,300        .        increase  1,000 

Mr.  Reeves's  edition  of  the  Bible  with  Notes,  on  Num.  xsvi.62. 
Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Num.  xxvi.  51. 
6  Roberts's  Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  26.  j  -1. 


Ch.  i. 

Ch.  xxvi. 

46,.'-)00 

43,730 

2,770  decrease 

59,:JO0 

22.200 

37,100  decrease 

45,650 

40.. 500 

5,150  decrease 

74,600 

lliJiOO 

1,900  increase 

54,400 

64.300        . 

9,000  increase 

57,400 

6tl,.-*0 

3,100  increase 

h  .        32,200 

52,700 

30,500  increase 

40,500 

32,500 

8,000  decrease 

n   .        3.-J.400 

45,600 

10,200  increase 

62,700 

&1,400 

1,700  increase 

41,500 

53,400 

11,900  increase 

53,400 

45,400 

8,000  decrease 

Total  603,550 

601,730 

1,S20    decrease 

Vol.  II. 


2D 


210 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  Chap,  I 


TABLE  OF  THE  STATIONS  OF  THE  ISRAELITES  IN  THE 

WILDERNESS.' 

(.From  Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  Vol.  J.  pp.395— 400.) 


1.  Raneses,  near  Cairo 

2.  Succoth         . 

3.  Ethaiii,  or  AdsjfTud 

4.  Pihahiroth,  or  Valley  of( 

Bedea        .  .s 

5.  Shur ; — Ain  Musa  ) 
0.  Desert    of    Slmr,     or) 

Etham  .  .  .  ) 
7.  Marah, — "  bitter"    wa-  ? 

tars  healed  .  S 

a  Eli  in,  Valley  of  Corondel 
9.  Encampment    by    the  I 

Red  Sea     .        .        .\ 

10.  Desert  of  Sin,  Valley  of; 

Baharan     .        .        .\ 
Manna,  for  forty  years 
Quails,  for  a  d,\y  . 
Sabbath    renewed,   or  ? 

revived       .         .        .  ^ 

11.  Dopkah.    . 

U.  Akith     .... 

13.  Rephidim 

Water,  from  the  rock  ? 
Mas.^ah      .        .        .\ 
Amalekites  defeated 
Jethro's  visit 
Judges  appointed     . 

14.  Mount  Sinai,  or  Horeb 
The  Decalogue  given 
The  Covenant  made     . 
The  Golden  Calf     . 

The  Covenant  renewed 
The    first   Muster,  or ) 

Numbering  .  S 

The  Tabernacle  erected 
Aaron  consecrated  and  ? 

his  sons      .        .        .  5 
Sacritices  of  Atonement 
The  second  Passover  . 
The  second  Muster 
Nadab  and  Abihu  de- ) 

stroyed      .        .        .  S 

15.  Di'sert  of  Paran 

16.  Taberah 
Murmuring  of  the  peo-  > 

pie      .        .        .        .\ 

17.  Kihioth  Hattaavah,  or? 

Tophel       .        .        .(, 

Quails,  for  a  month  . 
Plague  of  the  People    . 
Council   of  LXX.  ap-  ; 
pointed       .        .        .  S 
13.  Hazeroth 

Miriam's  Leprosy 

19.  Kadesh  Barneajn  Rith-  ) 

mah,  or  "the  De- > 
seit"  of  Sin,  or  Paran  5 

Twelve  Spies  sent   . 

Their  return 

The  people  rebel     . 

Sentenced  to  wander^ 
forty  years         .         .  ] 

Ten  of  the  Spies  de-  ? 

stroyed  .  .  .] 
The  People  defeated  by  } 

the  Amaleliife.=  .  S 
Rebellion  of  Korali,  &c. 
Budding  nf  Aaron's  Rod 

20.  Rimmon  Parez 

21.  Libnali,  or  Leban 

22.  Rissah      . 
■23.  Kehelathah  . 

24.  Mount  Shaphar 

25.  Ilaradath,  or 
Hazar  Addar,  or  Adar 

26.  Makeloth       . 

27.  Tahath      . 

28.  Tarath  .... 

29.  Mitcah      . 

30.  Hashinonah,  or 
Azmon,  or  Selraonah  . 

31.  Beeroth    . 

32.  Moseroth,  orMosera   . 

33.  Benejaakan,  or  Banea 

34.  Horhagidgad,  or 
Gudgodah 

35.  Jotbatha,  or 
Etebatha,  or  Elath   . 

36.  Ebrona 

37.  Ezion  Geber,  or 
Dizahab    . 

38.  Kadesh  Barnea  again,  ? 

after  38  years  .  .  S 
Miriam's  Death 


xii. 

xii. 
xni. 

37. 

37. 

20. 

Mum.xxxiii. 

.wxiii. 

xxxiii. 

3 
3. 

xlv. 

1. 

xxxiii. 

7. 

XV. 

22. 

xxxiii. 

8 

XV. 

23. 

x-xxiii. 

8. 

XV. 

27. 

x.xxiii. 

9. 

xxxiii. 

10 

xvi. 

1. 

xxxiii 

11 

xvi. 
xvi. 

13. 
35. 

—  XVll. 

—  xvii. 

—  xviii. 

—  xviii. 

—  xix. 

—  XX. 

—  xxiv. 

—  xxxii. 
Neh.  ix. 
Exod.  xxxiv. 

xxxviii 

xl. 

Lev.  viii. 

ix. 

Num.  ix. 


Lev.   X. 

Num.  X. 


Deut.  i. 


XVI. 

Xvii. 


Deut.  i. 


Num.  xxxiv. 
Josh.  XV. 


Num.  XX. 
.losh.  Xv. 
Deut.  X. 


II. 

IKings  ix. 

Deut.  i. 

ii. 

Num.  XX. 


•  xxxiii.  12. 
xx.xiii.  13. 
■  xxxiii.  14. 


■  xxxiii.  16. 


•  xxxiii.  17. 

•  xxxiii.  IS. 


xxxiii.  19. 

xxxiii.  20. 
■  xxxiii.  21. 
•  x.\xiii.  22. 

xxxiii.  2:3, 

xxxiii.  24. 


•  XXXIII.  M. 

■  xxxiii.  26. 

■  xxxiii.  27. 

■  xxxiii.  28. 

■  xxxiii.  29. 


■  xxxiii-  30. 

■  xxxiii.  31 

•  xxxiii.  32. 

.  xxxiii.  33. 


xxxiii.  34. 
■  xxxiii.  35. 


■  xxxiii.  36. 


Water  from  the  rock  i* 

Meribah    .  .  <, 

Moses  and  Aaron  offend 

39.  Mount  Ilor,  or  Seir,  on  .* 

(he  edjie  of  Edoui     .  S 
Aaron's  Death 
King  Arad  attacks  the  / 

I.sraelitPS  .         .        .  \ 

40.  Kibroih  Hatataavah,  or  / 

Tophel,  again    .        .  (, 

41.  Zalmonali,  or  Hashmo-  / 

nail,  again  .  \ 

The  People   bitten  by/ 

fiery  Serpents  .  .  s 
The    Brazen    Serpent  / 

erected      .        .        .S 

42.  Punon 

43.  Oboth    .... 

44.  Jim,  or  Jie  Abarim  in  ? 

the  border  of  Moab  .) 

45.  The  valley  and  brook  ( 

Zered         .         .         .  S 

46.  Arnon 

47.  Beer,  or  Beer  Elim 


60. 


.Tahaz 

Heshbon       .        . 

Sihon  defeated 

Jaazar  .... 

Edrei 

Og  defeated  . 

DibonGad 

Aliiion  Diblathaim 

Mattanah . 

Nahiliel 

Baiuoth     . 

Pisgah  .... 

Abarim    . 

Shittim,  or  Abel  Shit-  ? 

tim     .         .        .         .  ^ 
In  the  Plains  of  Moab 
Idolatry  of  Baal  Peor  . 
Midianiles  punished 
The  third  Muster. 
Last  exhortation  of  Mose: 
Joshua   appointed    his  ? 

successor .        .        .] 
Death  of  Moses 
A  Month's  Mourning    . 
Joshua  sends  two  Spies 
Passage   of  the    river  ^ 

Jordan       .        .         .\ 


-Num.  XX. 

13. 

XX. 

12.,' 

X.Wll. 

14.  S 

XX. 

22. 

Num.xxxiil.  37. 

XX. 

23. 

xxxiii.  38. 

xxi. 

1. 

Num.  xxi. 


[)eui. 
Num. 

xxi. 

ii. 
xxi. 

12. 
13. 
12. 

saial 
Num. 

XXI. 
XV. 

xxi. 
xxi. 

lb. 
8. 
23. 
24. 



xxi. 

32. 



XXI. 

33. 

Ezek 
Nuin 

vi. 
xxi 

14. 

IS. 



XXI. 

lit. 



XXI. 

19. 



XXI. 

20. 

Nura 

XXV. 

1. 

.losh. 
Num 

iii. 

XXV. 

1. 
3. 



XXV. 

17. 

Deut 

XXVI. 

'2. 
2. 

Num 
Deut 

XXVII. 

xxxiv. 

18. 
9. 



XXXIV. 

b. 

Josh. 

XXXIV. 

ii. 

8. 
1. 

'  xxxiii.  41. 


xxxiii.  42. 
xxxiii  43. 
xxxiii.  44. 


•  xxxiii.  45. 
'  xxxiii.  46. 


■  xxxiii.  47. 
xxxiii.  48. 


I 


«  In  the  Bible  de  Vence,  tom.  iii.  pp.  365 — 405.  there  is  an  elaborate  Geo- 
graphical Dissertatiou  sur  les  xlii.  Slatioos  des  Israelites. 


Vn.  Few  passaofes  in  the  Pentateuch  have  more  exprcised 
the  ingenuity  of  biblical  critics,  than  the  Book  of  Ike  Wars  of 
the  Lord  mentioned  in  Num.  xxi.  14.  Aben-Ezra,  Hottin- 
ffer,  and  others,  are  of  opinion  that  it  refers  to  this  book  of 
the  Pentateuch,  because  in  it  are  related  various  battles  of  tlie 
Israelites  with  the  Amorites  :  Hezelius,  and  aftor  him  Mi- 
chaelis,  think  it  was  an  Ainoritish  writing,  containing  tri- 
umphal songs  in  honour  of  the  victories  obtained  by  Siiion 
king  of  the  Amorites,  from  which  Moses  cited  tlie  words  that 
immediately  follow.  Fonseca  and  some  others  refer  it  to  the 
book  of  Judges.  Le  Clerc  understands  it  of  the  wars  of  the 
Israelites,  who  fought  under  the  direction  of  .lehovah,  and, 
instead  of  book,  he  translates  it,  with  most  of  the  Jewish 
doctors,  narration;  and  proposes  to  render  the  verse  thus: — 
"  Wherefore,  in  the  narration  of  the  wars  of  the  Lord,  there 
is  (or  shall  be)  mention  of  what  he  did  in  the  Red  Sea,  and 
in  the  brooks  of  Arnon." — Lastly,  Dr.  Lightfoot  considers 
this  book  to  have  been  some  book  of  remembrances  and  direc- 
tions written  by  Moses  for  Jo.shua's  private  instruction,  for 
the  prosecution  of  the  wars  after  his  decease.  (See  Exod. 
xvii.  14 — 16.)  This  opinion  appears  to  us  the  most  simple, 
and  is,  in  all  probability,  the  true  one. 


SECTION  VI. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  DEUTERONOMY. 


I.  Title,  date,  and  chronology, — IL  Scope. — III.  Predictions 
of  the  Jllessiah. — IV.  Synopsis  of  contents. — V.  Observa- 
tions.— Table  or  harmony  of  the  Mosaic  laiv. 

I.  The  Jews  call  this  fifth  book  of  l\Ioses  i^na-in  nSw 
(ALfH  H«DfB«RiM),  that  is,  ^^Titcceare  the  word.","  because  the 
original  commences  with  these  words :  by  some  rabbins  it  is 
called  min  njiro  (m''sn?h  torch),  or  the  repetit  on  of  the  law, 
while  others  term  it -ied  ninom  (sepHfR  tukhhuth),  or  the 
Book  nf  Re  proofs,  on  account  of  the  numerous  reproofs  of  the 
Israelites  by  Moses.  The  Greeks  and  Latins  respectively 
call  it  aEtteponOmjON,  Deuteronomium  (whence  our 
English  title  Deuteronomy  is  derived),  that  is  to  say,  the 


l^-^^c 


r 


¥ 


KIIO/JIIKS 

dLKM     Jrricb4. 


'''■Ixi  At.uiaba 

I  0.1/,  III  i 

■■)<■/ //Iff'  ^ 
V,nn    '■■'      t. 


K/ /(h.i/yl  \  tgig  m    J  ,,     ^       Tidthrm,    \       t, 

^M 


I       a,  T,il\je 

^  ujk'hai.         ....  ,, 


f  lii:t:vni  I'xon^ 
iGKirAI.KSA 


^i' ^^-'^V?/  ;/*-'">""W\    '^.'v,fv.<'«,,.^,„ 


jf  •«"      ^        iifKinnM  ,/riiit/f/ii 

Km/cet      c.le/in-:e  (-tis 
^■/•v~  I  nrc4iriii 

\:~  J  /.iiiiii/tatti 


Sect.  VI. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  DEUTERONOMV. 


211 


second  law  ^^ixiUTifoi  Nc/ztc),  because  it  contains  a  second  state- 
ment of  llie  Iviws  whicli  Moses  had  formerly  prornulfraled  to 
the  Israelites.  I'^roui  a  com))arisoii  of  Dent.  i.  5.  with  xxxiv. 
1.  it  appears  to  hav(!  hcen  wriltcii  by  Moses  on  the  plains  of 
Moab,  a  short  time  before  iiis  dcalii ;  and  Ibis  circnmstanee 
will  aecount  for  that  alleetionate  earmstness  with  wbieh  be 
addresses  the  Israelites.  The  ])eriod  uf  time  comprised  in  this 
book  is  five  luiKir  weeks,  or,  according  to  some  cbronoiogers, 
about  two  monlbs,  viz.  from  llu'  lirst  day  of  the  eleventh 
month  of  the  forLietb  year  after  the  exodus  of  Israel  from 
Egypt,  to  tln^  eleventii  day  of  tlie  twelfth  month  of  the  sann; 
year,  a.  m.  255.'!,  n.  c.  1  l')l.  From  the  aecount  of  Moses's 
death  recorded  in  the  thirty-fourth  chapter  of  this  book,  and 
the  insertion  of  some  explanatory  words  in  other  parts  of 
Deuteronomy,  it  has  been  insinuated  that  Moses  could  not 
have  been  its  aullior :  i)ut  the  tollowing  remark  will  clearly 
prove  this  notion  to  be  uid'oimded.  Tiie  words  of  Moses  (as 
we  have  already  bad  occasion  to  remark)  evidently  conclude 
with  tbe  tbirty-lhird  chapter:  the  tiiirty-fourth  was  added  to 
complete  tbe  history,  the  first  eight  verses  probably  iumie- 
diatel)'  after  bis  death  by  bis  successor  Joshua,  the  last  four 
by  some  later  writer,  probaijly  Samuel  or  Ezra,  or  some  pro- 
phet that  succeeded  >Samuel.  Anoliier  and  equally  satisfac- 
tory solution  of  this  dilliculty  is  the  following;  viz.  that  what 
now  forms  the  last  chapter  of  Deuteronomy,  was  formerly  the 
first  of  Joshua,  but  was  removed  thence,  and  joined  to  Deu- 
teronomy by  way  of  supplement.  This  opinion  will  not 
appear  improbable,  when  it  is  considered  that  sections  and 
other  divisions,  as  well  as  points  and  pauses,  were  invented 
long  since  these  books  were  written :  lor,  in  those  early  ages 
several  books  wera  connected  together,  and  followed  each 
other  on  the  same  roll.  Tbe  beginning  of  one  book  might, 
therefore,  be  easily  transferred  to  tbe  end  of  another,  and  in 
process  of  time  be  considered  as  its  real  conclusion,  as  in  the 
case  of  Deuteronomy ;  especially  as  the  supplemeutal  chapter 
contains  an  account  of  the  last  transactions  and  death  nf  the 
great  author  of  the  Pentateuch.' 

II.  'i'he  Scopic  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  is,  to  repeat  to 
tbe  Israelites,  before  Moses  left  them,  the  chief  laws  of  God 
which  had  been  given  to  them;  that  those  who  were  not  born 
at  tbe  time  when  they  were  originally  delivered,  or  were  in- 
capable of  understanding  them,  might  be  instructed  in  these 
laws,  and  excited  to  attend  to  them,  and,  consequently,  be 
better  ])repared  for  the  promised  land  upon  which  they  were 
entering.  With  this  view  tiie  sacred  historian  recapitulates 
the  various  mercies  which  God  had  bestowed  upon  them  and 
their  forefathers,  from  their  departure  out  of  Egypt ;  the  vic- 
tories which  by  divine  assistance  they  had  obtained  over  their 
enemies ;  their  rebellion,  ingratitude,  and  chastisements.  Tbe 
moral,  ceremonial,  and  judicial  laws  are  repeated  with  addi- 
tions and  explanations  ;  and  the  people  are  urged  to  obedience 
in  the  most  affectionate  manner,  from  the  consideration  of  the 
endearing  promises  made  to  them  by  God,  which  he  would 
assuredly  perform,  if  they  did  not  trustrate  his  designs  of 
mercy  by  their  own  wilful  obstinacy.  That  no  person  mi^ht 
thereafter  plead  ignorance  of  the  divine  law,  he  commanded 
that  it  should  be  read  to  all  the  people  at  the  end  of  every 
eeventh  year;  and  concluded  his  ministerial  labours  among 
the  Israelites  by  a  most  admirable  ode,  which  he  commanded 
every  one  to  learn,  and  by  giving  his  prophetic  benediction 
to  tbe  twelve  tribes. 

III.  This  book  contains  only  one  Prophecy  relative  to 
THE  Messiah,  viz.  Deut.  xviii.  15.  18,  19.,  which  was  ful- 
filled fifteen  hundred  years  after  it  had  been  delivered,  and  is 
expressly  applied  to  Jesus  Christ  in  Acts  iii.  22,  23.  and  vii. 
37.  ;2  it  also  comprises  several  very  remarkable  predictions 
relative  to  the  Israelites,  some  of  which  are  fulfilled  before 
our  eyes.  "  These  prophecies,"  it  has  been  justly  remarked, ^ 
*'  become  more  numerous  and  distinct  towards  tbe  close  of 
his  life.  His  denunciations  with  respect  to  the  future  state 
of  the  Israelites ;  the  suft'erings,  the  dispersions,  and  the  de- 
vastations to  which  they  were  to  be  subject ;  the  prophetic 
blessings  which  he  pronounced  on  the  different  tribes  by 
name  ;  the  clear  foresight  wiiich  he  had  of  the  rapid  victories 
of  their  invaders,  and  of  the  extreme  miseries  which  they 
were  to  experience  when  besieged ;  his  express  predictions 
relating  to  the  future  condition  of  the  Jews,  which  we  see 

■» 

»  Alexander's  Hebrew  and  English  Pentateuch,  cite,  by  Dr.  Clarke  on 
Deut.  xxxiv.,  who  is  of  opinion  that  this  chapter  should  constitute  the  first 
chapter  of  the  book  of  Joshua. 

*  On  the  accoraplishnient  of  this  predicllon,  see  VoI.I.  ch.  I.  Sec.II.  App. 
Bishop  Newlon'a  Sixth  Dissertation,  and  Dr.  Jortin's  Remarks  on  Ecclesi- 
asUcal  History,  vol.  i.  pp.  130—149.  edit.  1768. 

»  By  Mr.  Hewlett,  Iiitrod.  to  Deut.  in  vol.  i.  of  his  Commentary  on  the 
Bible,  4to  edit. 


accomplished  in  the  present  day  : — all  these  circumstances, 
when  united,  bear  ample  testimony  to  the  truth  and  authen- 
ticity of  this  sacred  book,  and  present  to  our  minds  a  memo- 
rable instance  of  the  divine  justice." 

IV.  The  Jews  divide  this  book  into  ten  paraschioth  or 
chapters  :  in  our  Bibles  it  consists  of  thirty-four  chanters,  the 
contents  of  which  may  be  arranged  und<!r  the  four  following 
heads : — 

Part  I.  Jl  Repetition  of  the  Ili&tory  related  in  the  preceding 
Books ;  comprising. 

Sect.  1.  A  relation  of  the  events  that  took  place  in  the  wilder- 
ness, from  their  leaving  Mount  Horeb  until  their  arrival  at 
Kadosh.  (Deut.  i.) 
Sect.  2.  Their  journey  from  Kadcsh  till  they  came  to  the  land 
of  tbe  Ainorites,  and  tbe  defeat  of  Silion  their  kintj,  and  of 
Og  king  of  Uasban,  together  with  the  division  of  their  terri- 
tories among  the  tribes  of  Keubea  and  Gad  and  the  half 
tribe  of  Mana.sseh.  (ii.  iii.) 
Sect.  .3.  An  exhortation  to  obey  the  divine  law,  and  to  avoid 
idolatry,  founded  on  their  past  experience  of  the  goodness 
of  God.  (iv.) 

Part  II.  A  Repetition  of  the  Moral,  Ceremonial,  and  Judicial 
Law ;  containing. 

Sect.  1.  A  Repetition  of  the  AToral  Law  or  Ten  Command- 
ments (v.  1 — 22.)  and  its  effect  upon  the  people  of  Israel 
(v.  22 — 33.)  ; — an  exposition  of  the  first  commandment, 
with  an  exhortation  to  love  God  with  all  their  hearts  (vi.)  ; 
— an  exposition  of  the  second  commandment  against  idola- 
try, prohibiting  any  intercourse  with  the  idolatrous  nations, 
and  enjoining  the  extirpation  of  the  Canaanites  and  every 
vestige  of  their  idolatry  (vii.)  ; — strong  motives  to  obedi- 
ence, arising  from  a  review  of  their  past  mercies,  and  from 
the  consideration  that  Jehovah  was  about  to  conduct  them 
into  the  promised  land,  not  on  account  of  their  own  right- 
eousness, but  of  his  great  mercy,  (viii,  ix.  x.  xi.) 
Sect.  2.  A  Repetition  of  t lie  Ceremonial.  Laxo  (xii. — xvi.)  ; 
— a  command  to  abolish  all  idolatrj',  and  regulations  for  the 
worship  of  God  (xii.)  ; — laws  against  false  prophets,  and 
idolatrous  cities  (xiii.)  ; — prohibition  against  disfiguring 
themselves  in  mourning  (xiv.  1,  2.)  ; — a  recapitulation  of 
the  law  concerning  clean  and  unclean  animals  (xiv.  3 — 21.), 
— and  the  payment  of  tithes  to  the  Levites  (xiv.  22 — 29.)  ; 
— regulations  concerning  the  year  of  release  (xv.)  ; — con- 
cerning the  stated  annual  feasts,  the  Pjussover,  Pentecost, 
and  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (xvi.  1 — 17.)  ; — the  election  of 
judges,  and  administration  of  justice  (xvi.  18 — 20.)  ; — a 
prohibition  against  planting  groves  or  setting  up  idols  neax 
the  altar  of  God.  (xvi.  21,  22.) 
Sect.  3.  A  Repetition  and  Exposition  of  the  Judicial  Lav 
(xvii. — XX  vi.)  ; — a  command  to  put  idolaters  to  death,  regu- 
lations for  determining  difficult  controversies,  and  concern- 
ing the  election  and  qualifications  of  a  king  (xvii.)  ; — the 
maintenance  of  the  priests  and  Levites  (xviii,  1 — 8.)  ; — 
cautions  again.st  following  the  abominations  of  the  Gentile 
nations,  especially  divination  (xviii.  9 — 14.)  ; — a  prediction 
relative  to  the  great  prophet  that  should  arise  (xviii.  15 — 
19.)  ; — criteria  for  distinguishing  false  prophets  from  true 
ones  (xviii.  20 — 22.)  ; — laws  relative  to  the  cities  of  refuge 
(xix.  1 — 10.),  the  treatment  of  murderers  (xix.  11 — 13.), 
and  the  e^^dence  of  witnesses  (xix.  15 — 21.)  ; — laws  con- 
cerning war  and  the  treatment  of  the  Canaanites  (xx.)  ; — the 
expiation  of  uncertain  murder,  marriage  with  captives; 
rights  of  the  first-born,  punishment  of  a  disobedient  son, 
,&c.  (xxi.)  ; — regulations  concerning  things  lost  or  strayed, 
the  distinguishing  of  the  sexes  by  their  apparel,  punishment 
of  adultery,  &c.  (xxii.)  ; — who  may  or  may  not  enter  into 
the  congregation — prohibition  against  all  uncleanness — 
regulations  concerning  usury,  vows,  and  trespasses  (xxiii.)  ; 
— of  divorces,  the  privileges  of  newly  married  men,  pledges, 
manstealing,  wages,  the  execution  of  justice,  and  gleanings 
(xxiv.)  ; — concerning  lawsuits  and  punishments,  weights 
and  measures,  &c.  (xxv.)  : — ceremonies  to  be  observed  in 
offering  first-fruits  (xx\i.  1 — 15.) ; — the  covenant  between 
God  and  the  Israelites,  (xxvi.  16 — 19.) 
Part  III.  The  Confr/nation  of  the  Law  ,■  for  which  purpose 
the  law  was  to  be  written  on  stones,  and  set  up  on  Mount 
Ebal,  (xxvii.) ; — prophetic  promises  to  the  obedient,  and 
curses  against  the  disobedient  (xxviii.)  ;*—an  exhortation  to 
obedience  from  a  review  of  their  past  mercies,  and  to  dedicate 

*  On  the  prophecies  contained  in  this  chapter,  see  Bishop  Newton,  vol.  i 
diss.  vii. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE 

therr^elves  and  their  posterity  to  God  {^xj^^^^^ 

pardon  to  the  repentant   (xxx.  1— U.)  l—good  and  evU 

before  them.  (xxx.  15—20.) 
Part  IV.  The  Personal  History  of  Moses,  until  his  Death  ,■ 

containing,  . 

Sect  1.  His  appointment  of  Joshua  to  be  his  successor  (xxxi. 
l-s\  —and  his  deUverv  of  a  copj  of  the  law  to  the  priests 
to  be  deposited  in  the  ark,  and  publicly  read  every  seventh 
year   (xxxi.  9—14.)  ;— a  solemn  charge  given  to  Joshua, 

SFfT'^'^Thepe^le  convened  to  hear  the  prophetical  and  his- 
torical ode  of  Moses  (xxxi.  28-30.),  which  occupies  nearly 
the  whole  of  chapter  xxxii.  j  ^u  • 

Sect  3  His  prophetic  blessing  of  the  twelve  tribes  and  their 
peculiar  felicity  and  privilege  in  having  Jehovah  for  their 
God  and  protector,   (xxxiii.)  _ 

Sect.  4.  The  death  and  burial  of  Moses,  (xxxiv.) 
V  "  The  hook  of  Deuteronomy  and  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews contain  the  best  comment  on  the  nature,  design,  and 
use  of  the  law  :  the  former  may  be  considered  as  an  evan- 
Scal  commentary  on  the  four  preceding  books,  in  which 
SiesD  ritual  reference  and  signification  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  law  are  given,  and  given  in  such  a  manner  as  none 
could  gve,  who\ad  not  a  clear  discovery  of  the  glory  which 
was  tole  revealed.  It  may  be  safely  asserted  hat  very  few 
Darts  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  can  be  read  with 
|?eater  profit  by  the  genuine  Christian  than  the  book  of  Deu- 

^^ThHrnphetic  ode  of  Moses  is  one  of  the  noblest  composi- 
tions in  the  sacred  volume;  it  contains  a  justification  on  the 
Bart  of  God  against  the  Israelites,  and  an  explanation  ot  the 
Sre  and  design  of  the  divine  judgments.     The  exordmm 
Bishop  Lowth  remarks,  is  singularly  magnificent .  the  plan 
and  conduct  of  the  poem  is  just  and  natural,  and  well  accom- 
modated to  the  subfect,  for  it  is  almost  in  the  order  of  an  his- 
toical  narration.     It  embraces  a  variety  ot  subjects  and  sen- 
timents ;  it  displays  the  truth  and  justice  of  God  ;  his  pater- 
nal love  and  his  Unfailing  tenderness  to  his  chosen  people ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  their  ungrateful  and  contumacious 
spirit  —The  ardour  of  the  divine  indignation,  and  the  heavy 
denunciations  of  vengeance,  are  afterwards  expressed  in  a 
remarkable  personification,  which  is  not  to  be  paralleled  froni 
all  the  choicest  treasures  of  the  muses.     The  fervour   of 
wrath  is  however  tempered  with  the  mildest  beams  of  lenity 
and  mercy,  and  ends  at  last  in  promises  and  consolation.    1  he 
subject  and  style  of  this  poem  bear  so  exact  a  resemb  ance  to 
the  prophetic  as  well  as  to  the  lyric  compositions  of  the  He- 
brews, that  it  unites  all  the  force,  energy,  and  boldness  of  the 
latter,  with  the  exquisite  variety  and  grandeur  of  the  former. 
The   following  useful  Table  or  Harmony  of  the  entire 
Jewish  law,  digested  into  proper  heads,  with  references  to 
the  several  parti  of  the  Pentateuch  where  the  respective  laws 
occur,  will  assist  the  Bible  student  in  investigating  the  tenor 
and  design  of  the  Mosaic  Institutes,  and  also  facilitate  his 
references  to  every  part  of  them.     It  is  copied  from  Mr.  Wil- 
son's "  ArchcEological  Dictionary,"  article  Law  ;  where  it  is 
stated  to  be  "taken  from  a  manuscript  in  the  Library  ot  fet. 
John  Baptist's  College"  (Oxford),  "  given  by  Archbishop 
Laud,"  and  probably  either  compiled  by  him  or  by  his  direc- 
tion.    It  is  divided  into  three  classes,  exhibiting  the  Moral, 
Ceremonial,  and  Political  Law. 


OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  I 


The  Second  Class. 

The  Ceremonial  Latu  may  be  fitly  reduced  to  the  folio-wing 

Heads  ;  viz. 


Knmb. 


The  First  Class. 


Of  the  holy  place,       .        ■        •        • 
Of   the  iiiatler  and  structure  of  the 

tabernacle,     .        • ,      • 
Of  the  instruments  of  the  same  ;  viz. 
The  laver  of  brass,      •   .     • 
The  altar  of  barnl-offenng,     . 
The  altar  of  incense,  .        •        • 
The  candlestick  of  pure  gold, 
Thetable  of  show-bread,    .         ■        • 
Of  the  priests  and  their  vestments  lor 

irlory  and  beauty,  •   .     • 

Ot  tlie  choosing  of  theLevites,  . 
Of  the  priest's  otfice  in  general,     . 
Of  their  office  in  teaching, 

Of  their  office  in  blessing,       •        ■ 
Of  their  office  in  otTering,  which  func 
tion  largely  spreading  itself  is  divided 
into  these  heads;  viz. 
What  the  sacrifices  ought  to  be,     . 
Of  the  continual  fire,  .        ■     ~:  ■     ' 
Of  the  manner  of  the  burnt -offerings, 

of  the  peace-otierings, 

-of  the  sacrifices  accord- 

m"  to  their  several  kinds ;  viz. 
For  sin  committed  through  ignorance 

of  the  law,     •        •        •    ,    : 
For  sin  committed  through  ignorance 

of  the  fact,        .        ■    .    •        "        ' 
For  sin  committed  wittingly,  yet   no 

through  impiety,  .        ■        ■ 
The  special  law  of  sacrifices  for  sin,  . 
Of  things  belonging  to  the  sacrifices,     j 

Of  the  show-bread 

Of  the  lamps, 

Of  the  sweet  incense,         ..       •        • 
Of  the  use  of  ordinary  oblations,  where- 
of there  were  several  kinds  observed 
by  the  priests ;     .        ■        •        •. 
Of  the  consecration  of  the  high-pnests 
and  other  priests,     •    ,   •        •    ^  ;,^^ 
Of  the  consecrations  and  office  ol  tne 

Levites,         •        •,,••.' 
Of  the  dwelhngs  of  the  Levites, 
Of  the  anointing  the  altar,  and  aU  the 

instruments  of  the  tabernacle,    . 

Of  the  continual  daily  sacrifices,       . 

Of  the  continual  sabbath-days'  sacrifice, 

'  Of  the  solemn  sacrifice  for  feast-days, 

which  were  diverse,  and  had  pecu- 

harrites,distinguished  into  these;  VIZ 

Of  trumpets,     .        •.•,",>,■„ 

Of  kalends  or  beginning  of  months. 

Of  the   three  most   solemn  feasts  in 

general, 

Of  the  feast  of  passover. 

Of  the  feast  of  pentecost,   . 

Of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,    . 

Of  the  feast  of  blowing  the  trumpets. 

Of  the  feast  of  expiation,    . 

Of  the  first-fruits,    .        .        •        ■ 

Of  tithes,      .        •        •        ■        ■   f.    ■ 

Of  fruits  growing  and  not  eaten  oi. 

Of  the  first-born,         ■        •        •        • 

Of  the  sabbatical  year,   . 

Of  the  year  of  jubilee. 

Of  vows  in  general,        .         •         • 

What  persons  ought  not  to  make  vows. 

What  things  cannot  be  vowed. 

Of  redemption  of  vows,    _. 

Of  the  vows  of  the  Nazantes,        . 

Of  the  laws  proper  for  the  priests ;  viz 

Of  pollutions,       .        •         •.       •         • 

Of  the  high-priest's  mourning, 

Of  his  marriage,  ■        •        •    .    • 

Of  the  mourning  of  the  ordinary  priests, 

Of  their  marriage,    .        •       ;    .    •  , 

Of  their  being  forbid  the  use  of  wine,&c. 


—        15.  17. 


29,  30.       6.  8.  —  — 


_  _  35.  — 


29,  30. 
29. 
_  _  28. 


23,  34. 
12,13-25. 

34. 
23,  24. 
23.  34. 

30. 
•22,23.34 


13.22.34 
23. 


The  Moral  Law  -written  on  the  Two  Tables,  containing  the 
Ten  Commandments. 


The  first  Table,  which  includes 
The  First  Commandment,   . 

The  Second  Commandment,    . 
The  Third  Commandment, 
The  Fourth  Commandment,    . 

The  second  Table,  including 
The  Fifth  Commandment,    .        •  . 
The  Sixth  Commandment, 
The  Seventh  Commandment,      . 
The  Eighth  Commandment,     . 
The  Ninth  Commandment, 
The  Tenth  Commandment, 
The  sum  of  both  tables. 


10.  — 


9.28. 


1  Dr  A   Clarke  Pref  to  Deut.  p.  ii-  in  vol.  i.  of  his  Commentary, 
a  Bishtp  Lowth'^Lecturcson  flebvew  Poetry,  Lect.  28.  at  the  beginning, 
vol-  ii,  pp.  256,  257.  of  Dr.  Gregory's  translation. 


Of  sanctified  meats. 

Of  the  office  of  the  Levites;  viz. 

Teaching,        .  •        ■        •        • 

Other  promiscuous  ceremonial  laws;  viz 
Of  uncleanness  in  general,         .        • 
Of  uncleanness  in  meats  ;  viz. 
Of  blood,  •     .        .        •        •      Gen.  IX, 

Of  fat, 

Of  dead  carcasses,      .        •        • 
Other  meats  and  diverse  hving  crea 
lures,     .        •       • ,      :       '    r  '    ^a 
Of  uncleanness  in  the  issue  of  seed 

and  blood, 

In  the  dead  bodies  of  men,     . 
In  the  leprosv,     .        .        •        • 
Of  circumcision,     .        .        .  l-en.  xvn 
Of  the  water  of  expiation, 
Of  the  mourning  of  the  Israelites, 
Of  mixtures,         •••.•,      ,' 
Of  their  garments  and  writing  the  law 
privately,        .        •        ■         ■,        •    .,, 
Of  young   birds  not  to  be  taken  with 

the  dam,    ..•■■• 
Of  their  paddle  staves,    . 


23. 

22. 


15.  19. 


I2.15.ia 


■    - 


6.11.22. 


Sect.  VI.] 


ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 


213 


The  Third  Class. 
The  Political  Law. 


N.  n.  The  magistrate  is  the  keeper 
of  the  precepts  of  Ijoili  Tables,  and  to 
have  renpect  to  human  society  ; — there- 
fore the  political  laws  of  the  Israrlitin 
are  referred  to  both  the  Tables,  and  are 
to  be  reduced  to  the  several  precepts 
of 

The  Moral  I,aw. 
Laws  referred  to  the  first  Table,  namely, 

1st,   to    the    1st    and    2d  commuiid- 

nients ;  viz. 
Of  iilolatois  anil  apostates, 
Of  abolishin;;  idolatry,     . 
Of  diviners  and  false  prophets,  . 
Of  covenants  with  other  (f'Js, 
2d.  To  the  third  coiunianduient ;  viz. 
Of  hlaspliemie.s,  ..... 
3d.  To  the  fourtli  commandment;  viz. 
Of  breaking  the  sabbath, 
I'olitical  laws  referred  to  the  second 

table  : 
1st,  To  the  fifth  commandment,  viz. 

Of  magistrates  and  their  authority. 

Of  the  power  of  fathers, 

2d.  To  the  si.^th  coiiiinandraent ;  viz. 

Of  capiljil  punishments, 

Of  wilful  munier,     .... 

Of  manslaughter  unwittingly  commit' 

led,  and  of  the  cities  of  refuge. 
Of  heinous  injury,  .        •        .        . 
Of  puni.shmenis  not  capital, 

Of  the  law  of  war 

3d.  To  the  seventh  commandmenl ;  viz. 
Of  unlawful  marriages. 

Of  fornication 

Of  whoredom 

Of  adultery  and  jealousy, 

or  copulation  against  nature. 

Of  divurcemenis,  .         ,        •        , 


Exod. 

I.pvltlr. 

chap. 

■  ha,.. 

22. 

20. 

23,  21. 



22. 

19,  20. 

23.  31. 

— 

- 

21. 

31.  35. 

— 

18.  30. 

_ 

21. 

20. 

21. 

21. 

21. 

_ 

21. 

21. 

18.  20. 



19. 

22. 

21. 

19.  20. 

22. 

18.  20. 

— 

— 

Numb. 

Prut. 

cliup. 

cimp. 

13.    17. 

— 

7.  12. 

— 

18. 

7. 

15. 

- 

„.) 

16,   17. 
23. 

21. 



21.  24. 

35. 

19. 

35. 

19.21.22. 

— 

or, 

- 

20.  23. 



7.22. 

— 

23. 

5. 

22. 

— 

31. 

Other  matrimonial  laws,    . 

4th.  To  the  eighth  commandment ;  viz. 

Of  the  puni.shment  of  thefts, 

Of  sacrilege,    .  .        Joshua  vii. 

Of  not  injuring  strangers, 

Of  not  defrauding  hirelings. 

Of  just  weights,       .... 

Of  removing  the  landmark, 

Of  lost  goods, 

Of  stray  cattle, 

Of  corrupted  judgments, 

Of  fire  breaking  out  by  chance. 

Of  mail-stealing,        .... 

Of  the  fugitive  servant. 

Of  gathering  fruits,  .... 

Of  contracts;  viz, 

Horrowing, 

Of  the  pledge 

Of  USUI  y, 

Of  selling, 

Of  the  thing  lent,      .... 
Of  a  thing  committed  to  be  kept, 
Of  heirs 

5lh.  To  the  ninth  commandment ;  viz. 

Of  witnesses 

The  establishing  the  political  law,  . 
The  establishing  the  divine  law  in  ge 
neral, 

From  the  dignity  of  the  lawgiver,    . 

From  the  excellency  of  the  laws. 

From  the  promises,         .       .       .     < 

From  the  tbreatcnings, 


Sxod. 

tevlHc. 

Namb. 

Dfut. 

chap. 

ctiap. 

cliap. 

chap. 

21. 

18.  £0. 

< 

21,22.24, 
25. 

22. 

_ 

5. 





— 





22,  23. 

19. 

— 

10. 

— 

19. 

— 

24.14,15. 

— 

19. 

— 

25. 
19. 

22. 





22,  23. 

— 

— 

22. 

23. 

19. 

— 

10.  24. 

22. 

— 

— 

24. 
23. 







— 

19.  23. 

— 

23,  24. 

^ 

z 

— 

15. 
24. 

22. 

25. 

— 

2:}. 

21. 

25. 

— 

15. 

22. 

— 





22. 

— 





- 

-! 

■20,27.33. 
30. 

i«- 

- 

5. 

- 

17    19. 

4. 
6.11.29, 

^ 

^ 

30,  31. 

- 

19,20.22. 

,5.) 

5, 0, 7,  a 

10.26,27. 

— 

— 

4.  2(3. 

15.19.23, 
24. 

^  18.  20. 

-! 

4,  .5,  0.  7. 
10.11,12. 

-\ 

4.  7.  11. 

23. 

26. 

27,28,29, 

In  studying  the  Pentateuch,  particularly  the  four  last 
books,  the  "Lectures"  of  the  llev.  Dr.  Graves,  and  the 
"  Horae  Mosaicae"  of  the  Rev,  G.  S.  Faber,  will  be  found 
of  great  use. 


CHAPTER  II. 


ON  THE   HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 


SECTION  1. 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 


This  division  of  the  Sacred  W  ritings  comprises  twelve 
books;  viz.  from  Joshua  to  Esther  inclusive :  the  first  seven 
of  these  books  are,  by  the  Jom's,  called  the  former  prophets, 

5rol)ably  because  they  treat  of  tlie  more  ancient  periods  of 
ewish  history,'  and  because  they  are  most  justly  supjjosed 
to  be  written  by  prophetical  men.  The  events  recorded  in 
these  books  occupy  a  period  of  almost  one  thousand  years, 
which  commences  at  the  death  of  Moses,  and  terminates  with 
the  great  national  reform  eflccted  by  Nchemiah,  after  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

It  is  evident,  from  an  examination  of  the  historical  books, 
that  they  are  collections  from  the  autiientic  records  of  the 
Jewish  nation  ;  and  it  should  seem,  that  though  the  substance 
of  the  several  histories  was  written  under  divine  direction, 
when  the  events  were  fresh  in  memory,  and  by  persons  who 
were  evidently  contemporary  with  the  transactions  which 
they  have  narrated,  yet  that  under  the  same  direction  they 
were  disposed  in  the  form,  in  which  they  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  us,  by  some  other  person,  long  afterwards,  and  pro- 
bably all  by  the  same  hand,  and  about  the  same  time. 
Nothing,  indeed,  is  more  certain  than  that  very  ample  me- 
moirs or  records  of  the  Hebrew  republic  were  written  from 
the  first  commencement  of  the  theocracy,  to  which  the  authors 
of  these  books  very  frequently  refer.  Such  a  practice  is  ne- 
cessary in  a  well  constituted  state :  we  have  evidence  from 
the  Sacred  Writings  that  it  anciently  obtained  among  the 
heathen  nations  (compare  Esther  ii.  23.  and  vi.  1.) ;  and 
there  is  evident  proof  that  it  likewise  prevailed  among  the 
Israelites  from  the  very  beginning  of  their  polity.  (See  Exod. 
xvii.  11.)  Hence  it  is  that  we  find  the  book  of  Jasher  re- 
ferred to  in  Josh.  X.  13.  and  2  Sam.  i.  18.,  and  that  we  also 
find  such  frequent  references  to  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings 

•  On  the  Jewish  Divisions  of  the  Canon  of  Scripture,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  203. 


of  Israel  and  Judah  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  and 
also  to  the  books  of  Gad,  Nathan,  and  Iddo.  This  conjec- 
ture is  further  strengthened  by  the  two  following  circum- 
stances, namely,  Jirsf,  that  the  days  when  the  transactions 
took  place  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  being  long  since  past,* 
and,  seconcUy,  that  tilings  are  so  frequently  menFioned  as  re- 
maining lo  this  day  (as  stones,'  names  of  places,^  rights  and 
possessions,'  customs  and  usages)  ;'''  which  clauses  were 
subsequently  added  to  the  history  by  the  inspired  collectors 
in  order  to  confirm  and  illustrate  it  to  those  of  their  own  age. 
The  learned  commentator  Henry,  to  whom  we  are  indebted 
for  these  hints,  thinks  it  not  unlikely  that  the  historical  books, 
to  the  end  of  Kings,  were  compiled  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah, 
a  short  time  before  the  captivity :  he  founds  this  opinion  upon 
1  Sam.  xxvii.  6.,  where  it  is  said  of  Ziklag,  that  it  '■'■pertain- 
eth  to  the  kings  of  Judah  to  this  day,''''  which  form  of  expression, 
he  very  justly  remarks,  commenced  after  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon, and  consequently  terminated  at  the  time  of  the  captivity. 
The  remaining  five  books,  from  1  Chronicles  to  Esther,  he 
thinks  it  still  more  probable,  were  compiled  by  Ezra  the 
scribe,  some  time  after  the  captivity ;  to  whom  uninterrupted 
testimony  ascribes  the  completion  of  the  sacred  canon. 

But,  although  we  cannot  determine  with  certainty  the 
authors  of  the  historical  books,  "  yet  we  may  rest  assured 
that  the  Jews,  who  had  already  received  inspired  books 
from  the  hands  of  Moses,  would  not  have  admitted  any 
others  as  of  equal  authority,  if  they  had  not  been  fully  con- 
vinced that  the  writers  were  supematurally  assisted.    Next 

»  Thus  in  1  Sam.  ix.  9.,  "  he  that  is  now  called  a  prophet  was  beforeiime 
called  a  seer." 
3  See  Josh.  iv.  9.  vii.  26.  viii.  29.  x.  27.  1  Sam.  ti.  13. 
*  See  Josh.  v.  9.  Tii.  20.  Judg.  i.  20.  xv.  19.  xviU.  12.  2  Kings  xiv.  7. 
s  See  Judg.  i.  21.  and  1  Sam.  xxvii.  6. 
e  See  1  Sam.  t.  5.  and  2  Kings  xvii.  iL 


2U 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  II. 


to  the  testimony  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  which  corrobo- 
rates all  our  reasonin;r  respecting  the  inspiration  of  the  Old 
Testament  (and,  when  distinct  arouments  for  any  particular 
book  cannot  be  found,  supplies  their  place),  we  must  de- 
pend, in  the  case  before  us,  upon  the  testimony  of  the  Jews. 
And  althouy^h  the  testimony  of  a  nation  is  fir  from  being,  in 
every  instance,  a  sufficient  reason  for  believincr  its  sacred 
boolvs  to  be  possessed  of  th.u  divine  auiiiority  which  is 
ascribed  to  them ;  yet  the  tesiimony  of  the  Jews  has  a  pe- 
culiar title  to  be  credited,  from  the  circumstances  in  which 
it  was  delivered.  It  is  the  testimony  of  a  people,  who,  having 
already  in  their  possession  genuine  inspired  books,  were  thi^ 
better  able  to  judge  of  others  which  advanced  a  claim  to 
inspiration;  and  who,  we  have  reason  to  think,  far  from  be- 
ing credulous  with  respect  to  such  a  claim,  or  disposed  pre- 
cipitately to  recognise  it,  proceeded  witli  deliberation  and 
care  in  examining  all  pretensions  of  this  nature,  and  rejected 
them  when  not  supported  by  satisfactory  evidence.  They 
had  been  forewarned  that  false  prophets  should  arise,  and  de- 
liver their  own  fancies  in  the  name  of  the  Lord ;  and,  while 
they  were  thus  put  upon  their  guard,  they  were  furnished 
with  rules  to  assist  them  in  distinguishing  a  true  from  a 
pretended  revelation.  (Deut.  xviii.  20 — 22.)  We  have  a 
proof  that  the  ancient  Jews  exercised  a  spirit  of  discrimina- 
tion in  this  matter,  at  a  period  indeed  later  than  that  to 
which  we  refer,  in  their  conduct  with  respect  to  the  apocry- 
phal books ;  for,  although  they  were  w^ritten  by  men  of 
their  owa  nation,  and  assumed  the  names  of  the  most  emi- 
nent personages, — Solomon,  Daniel,  Ezra,  and  Baruch, — yet 
they  rejected  them  as  human  compositions,  and  left  the  ("n- 
JaUihlt  church  to  mistake  them  for  divine.  The  testimony, 
then,  of  the  Jews,  who  without  a  dissenting  voice  have  as- 
serted the  inspiration  of  the  historical  books,  authorizes  us 
to  receive  them  as  a  part  of  the  oracles  of  God,  which  were 
committed  to  their  care."' 

The  historical  books  are  of  very  great  importance  for  the 
right  understanding  of  some  other  parts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment :  those  portions,  in  particular,  which  treat  on  the  life 
and  reign  of  David,  furnish  a  very  instructive  key  to  many 
of  his  psalms;  and  the  prophetical  books  derive  much  light 
from  these  histories.  But  the  attention  of  the  sacred  writers 
was  not  wholly  confined  to  the  Jewish  people :  they  have 
given  us  many  valuable,  though  incidental,  notices  concern- 
ing the  state  of  the  surrounding  nations ;  and  the  value  of 
these  notices  is  very  materially  enhanced  by  the  considera- 
tion, that,  until  the  time  of  I^zra  and  Nehemiah,  the  two 
latest  Jewish  historians,  little  or   no   dependence   can   be 

E laced  upon  the  relations  of  heathen  writers.^  But  these 
ooks  are  to  be  considered  not  merely  as  a  history  of  the 
Jewish  church:  they  also  clearly  illustrate  the  proceedings 
of  God  towards  the  children  of  men,  and  form  a  perpetual 
comment  on  the  declaration  of  the  royal  sage,  that  "  Right- 
eousness exalteth  a  nation,  but  sin  is  a  reproach  to  any  peo- 
ple." (Prov.  xiv.  34.)  While  they  exhibit  a  mournful  but 
impartial  view  of  the  depravity  of  the  human  heart,  and  thus 
prove  that  "  man  is  very  far  gone  from  original  righteous- 
ness ;"  they  at  the  same  time  show  "  the  faithfulness  of  God 
to  his  promises,  the  certain  destruction  of  his  enemies,  and 
his  willingness  to  extend  mercy  to  the  returning  penitent. 
They  manifest,  also,  the  excellency  of  true  religion,  and  its 
tendency  to  promote  happiness  in  this  life,  as  well  as  in  that 
which  is  to  come ;  and  tney  furnish  us  with  many  propheti- 
cal declarations,  the  striking  fulfilment  of  which  is  every 
way  calculated  to  strengthen  our  faith  in  the  word  of  God." 


SECTION  IL 

ON   THE    BOOK    OF    JOSHUA. 

L  Author,  genuineness,  and  credibiUtirof  this  booh. — II.  Argu- 
ment.— III.  Scope  and  design. — IV.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. 
— V.  Observations  on  the  book  of  Jasher  mentioned  in 
Joshua  X.  13. 

I.  The  book  of  Joshua,  which  in  all  the  copies  of  the 
Old  Testament  immediately  follows  the  Pentateuch,  is  thus 

«  Dick's  Essay  on  the  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,  pp.  184.  186. 

«  Herodotus  and  Thucydides,  the  two  most  ancient  profane  historians 
extant,  were  contemporary  with  Ezra  and  Nehemiati,  and  could  not  write 
■with  any  certainty  of  events  much  before  their  own  time.  Bishop  StiUin"- 
fleet  has  admirably  proved  the  obscurity,  defects,  and  uncertainty  of  all 
ancient  profane  history,  in  the  first  book  of  his  Origines  Sacree,  pp.  1—65 
t>tn  edit,  folio. 


denominated,  because  it  contains  a  narration  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  Joshua  the  s  n  of  Nun,  who  had  been  t^je  minister 
of  Moses,  and  succeeded  him  in  the  command  of  tlie  chil- 
dren of  Israel;  but  by  whom  this  book  was  written  is  a 
question  concerning  which  learned  men  are  by  no  means 
agreed. 

I,  From  the  absence  of  Chaldee  words,  and  others  of  a 
later  date,  some  are  of  opinion,  not  only  tliat  the  hook  is  of 
very  great  anticpiity,  but  also  that  it  was  composed  by  Josliua 
himself.  Of  lliis  opinion  were  several  of  the  fathers,  and 
the  talmudical  writers,  and  among  the  moderns,  Gerliard, 
Diodati,  Huet,  Alber,  Bishops  Patrick,  Tomlinc,  and  (Jray, 
and  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  who  ground  their  hypothesis  principally 
upon  the  following  arguments  : — 

(I.)  Joshua  is  saia  (ch.  xxiv.  26.)  to  have  written  the 
transactions  there  recorded  '•  in  the  bouk  (f  (he  law  if  God,'''' 
so  that  the  book  which  bears  his  name  forms  a  continuation 
of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  the  last  two  chapters  of  which 
they  think  were  written  by  Joshua.  But,  if  we  examine 
the  context  of  the  passage  just  cited,  we  shall  find  that  it 
refers,  not  to  the  entire  book,  but  solely  to  the  renewal  of 
the  covenant  with  Jehovah  by  the  Israelites. 

(2.)  In  the  passage  (ch.  xxiv.  2[).  et  serj.)  where  the  death 
and  burial  of  Joshua  are  related,  the  style  difl'ers  from  the 
rest  of  the  book,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  style  of  Deut. 
xxxiii.  and  xxxiv.  varies,  in  which  the  decease  and  burial  of 
Moses  are  recorded ;  and  Joshua  is  here  called,  as  Moses  is 
in  Deuteronomy,  (he  servant  of  God,  which  plainly  proves 
that  this  passage  was  added  by  a  later  hand. 

(3.)  The  author  intimates  (ch.  v.  1.)  that  he  was  one  of 
those  who  passed  into  Canaan. 

(4.)  The  whole  book  breathes  the  spirit  of  the  law  of 
Moses,  which  is  a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  its  having 
been  written  by  Joshua,  the  particular  servant  of  Moses. 

The  last  three  of  these  arguments  are  by  no  means  desti- 
tute of  weight,  but  they  are  opposed  by  others  which  show 
that  the  book,  as  we  now  have  it,  is  not  coeval  with  the 
transactions  it  records.  Thus,  we  read  in  Josh.  xv.  63.  that 
the  children  of  Judah  could  not  drive  out  the  Jebusites,  the 
inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  "  but  the  Jtbusites  dwell  with  the 
children  of  Judah  at  Jerusalem  to  this  day.''''  Now  this  joint 
occupation  of  Jerusalem  by  these  two  classes  of  inhabitants 
did  not  take  place  till  after  Joshua's  death,  when  the  children 
of  Judah  took  that  city  (Judg.  i.  8.),  though  the  Jebusites 
continued  to  keep  possession  of  the  strong  hold  of  Zion, 
whence  they  were  not  finally  expelled  until  the  reign  of 
David.  (2  Sam.  v.  6 — 8.)  The  statement'  in  Josh.  iv.  9. 
(that  the  stones  set  up  as  a  memorial  of  the  passage  of  the 
Israelites  over  Jordan  are  standing  to  this  day)  was  evidently 
added  by  some  later  writer.  The  same  remark  will  apply 
to  Josh.  XV.  13 — 19.  compared  ^with  Judg.  i.  10 — 15.  Josh, 
xvi.  10.  with  Judg.  i.  29.  and  to  Josh.  xix.  47.  collated  with 
Judg.  xviii.  29.  Since,  then,  it  appears  from  internal  evi- 
dence that  the  book  was  not  written  by  Joshua  himself,  the 
question  recurs  a^ain,  by  whom  was  the  book  composed  or 
compiled?  Dr.  Lightfoot  ascribes  it  to  Phineas;  Calvin 
thinks  their  conjecture  most  probable,  who  refer  the  writing 
of  this  book,  or  at  least  the  compilation  of  the  history,  to  the 
high-priest  Eleazar  (whose  death  is  recorded  in  the  very  last 
verse  of  the  book) ;  because  it  was  ^e  high-priest's  duty 
not  only  to  teach  the  people  orally,  but  also  py  writing  to 
instruct  posterity  in  the  ways  of  God.'  Henry,  as  we  have 
already  seen,''  ascribes  it  to  Jeremiah ;  and  Moldenhawer^ 
and  Van  Til,  to  Samuel.^  But,  by  whatever  prophet  or  in- 
spired writer  this  book  was  composed,  it  is  evident  from 
comparing  Josh.  xv.  63.  with  2  Sam.  v.  6 — 8.  that  it  was 
written  before  the  seventh  year  of  David's  reign,  and,  conse- 
quently, could  not  have  been  written  by  Ezra. 

Further,  if  the  book  of  Judges  were  not  written  later  than 
the  beginning  of  Saul's  reign,  as  some  eminent  critics  are 
disposed  t9  think,  or  later  than  the  seventh  year  of  David's 
reign,  which  is  the  opinion  of  others,  the  book  of  Joshua 
must  necessarily  have  been  written  before  one  or  other  of 
those  dates,  because  the  author  of  the  book  of  Judges  not 
only  repeats  some  things  verbatim  from  Joshua,''  and  slightly, 
touches  upon  others  which  derive  illustration  from  it;»  but 
also,  in  two  several  instances  (Judg.  i.  1.  and  ii.  6 — 8.), 

»  Calvin,  Proleg.  in  Jos.  op.  torn.  i.  in  fine.  This  great  reformer,  how- 
ever, leaves  the  question  undetermined,  as  being  at  most  conjectural  and 
uncertain. 

*  See  p.  213.  supra.  '  Introd.  adLibros  Biblicos,  p.  36. 

«  Opus  Analyticum,  vol.  i.^.  410. 

'  Judg.  ii.  6—9.  is  repeated  from  Josh.  xxiv.  28—31.  and  Judg.  i.  29.  from 
Josh.  xvi.  10. 

s  Thus  Judg.  i.  10—15.  20.  derives  light  from  Josh.  xv. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOSHUA. 


21i 


commences  his  narrative  from  the  death  of  Joshua,  which 
was  rehited  in  tlie  close  of  the  precetlinff  hook.  If  the  hook 
of  Joshua  had  not  hecn  previously  extant,  the  author  of 
JuilfTcs  would  have  hrtruii  his  liistory  from  the  occupation 
and  division  of  the  land  of  O.inaan,  which  was  suilaDle  to 
his  desiijn  in  writinjr  that  hook. 

2.  VVliocvcr  was  the  author  of  the  hook  of  Joshua,  it  is 
manifest,  from  the  foUowinir  considerations,  that  it  was 
compiled  from  ancient,  authentic,  and  contemporary  docu- 
ments : — 

(I.)  The  example  of  Moses,  who  committed  to  writinjj 
the  transactions  fif  his  own  time,  leads  us  to  expect  that 
some  conlinualion  would  necessarily  he  made,  not  only  to 
narrate  the  siirnal  fulfilment  of  those  promises,  which  had 
been  friven  to  the  patriarchs,  hut  also  to  preserve  an  account 
of  the  division  of  tlu;  land  of  Canaan  amonir  the  particular 
tribes,  as  a  record  for  futures  ages;  and  thus  i)revent  disputes 
and  civil  wars,  which  in  process  of  time  might  arise  between 
powerful  and  rival  tribes. 

(2.)  'I^his  remark  is  corroborated  by  express  testimony  : 
for  in  Josh,  xviii.  we  not  only  read  that  the  great  captain 
of  the  Israelites  caused  a  survey  of  the  land  to  be  made  and 
described  in  a  book,  lint  in  xxiv.  25.  the  author  relates  that 
Joshua  committed  to  writing  an  aecoinit  of  the  renewal  of 
the  covenant  with  CJod  ;  whence  it  is  justly  inferred  that  the 
other  transactions  of  this  ])eriod  were  preserved  in  some 
authentic  and  contemporaneous  document  or  commentary. 

(.3.)  Without  some  such  document  the  author  of  this  book 
could  not  have  specified  tiie  limits  of  each  tribe  with  so  much 
minuteness,  nor  have  related  with  accuracy  the  discourses  of 
Caleb  (Josh.  xiv.  t> — 12.) ;  neither  could  he  have  correctly  re- 
lated the  discourses  of  Phinehas  and  the  delegates  who  accom- 
panied him,  to  the  tril)es  beyond  Jordan  (Josh.  xxii.  16 — 20.), 
nor  the  discourses  of  the  tribes  themselves  (xxii.  21 — 30.), 
nor  of  Joshua  (xxiii.  and  xxiv.)  ;  nor  could  he  have  so  ar- 
ranged the  whole,  as  to  be  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  law 
of  Moses. 

(1.)  Without  a  contemporaneous  and  authentic  document, 
the  author  would  not  have  expressed  himself,  as  in  ch.  v.  1., 
as  if  he  had  been  present  in  the  transactions  which  he  has 
related,  nor  would  lie  have  written,  as  he  has  done  in  vi.  25., 
tliat  "  she  dwelleth  in  Israel  unto  this  day  ;  "  and  this  docu- 
ment he  has  expressly  cited  in  x.  13,  by  the  title  of  the 
"  Book  (if  Jiisher, "  or  of  the  Upright.'  To  these  proofs  may 
be  added  the  two  following,  viz, : 

(5.)  "The  absence  of  any  traces  of  disputes  or  civil  wars 
aniong  the  tribes,  concerning  their  respective  boundaries. 

"  Some  document  of  acknowledged  authority,  accurately 
settling  the  bounds  of  the  several  tribes,  must  have  existed 
from  the  very  partition,  by  reference  to  which  disputes  of 
this  kind  might  be  settled,  or  the  peaceful  state  of  the  grow- 
ing tribes  would  have  been  entirely  without  any  example  in 
the  history  nf  mankind. 

(f).)  "  Without  the  existence  of  contemporaneous  and  au- 
thoritative records,  the  allotment  of  thirteen  cities  to  the 
priests  (ch.  xxi.  1.3 — 19.)  would  have  been  nugatory. 
Aaron's  family  could  not  have  been,  at  the  time  of  the  allot- 
ment, sufficientlv  nninerous  to  occupy  tliose  cities.  But  it 
is  altogether  unlikely  that  these,  with  the  adjoining  lands, 
were  left  entirely  unoccujiied  in  expectation  of  their  future 
owners.  To  attord  security,  therefore,  to  the  sacerdotal 
family  for  their  legitimate  rights,  when  they  should  be  in  a 
condition  to  claim  them,  some  document  contemporaneous 
with  the  appropriation  must  have  existed.  Without  such  a 
document,  iiinumerah!(;  disjnUes  must  have  arisen,  whenever 
they  attempted  to  claim  their  possessions.  "- 

3.  P^fjually  clear  is  it  that  the  author  of  this  book  has 
made  his  extracts  from  authentic  documents  with  religious 
fidelity,  and,  consequently,  it  is  worthy  of  credit :  for, 

(1.)  In  the  first  place  he  has  literol'li/  copied  the  speeches 
of  Caleb,  Phinehas,  of  the  tribes  beyond  Jordan,  and  of 
Joshua,  and  in  other  passages  has  so  closely  followed  his 
authority,  as  to  write  in  v.  1.  "«»///  we  were  passed  over," 
and  in  vi.  25.  that  Rahab  "  dwelleth  in  Israel  unlo  this  dat/." 
Hence,  also,  the  tribes  are  not  mentioned  in  the  geographical 
order  in  which  their  respective  territories  were  situate,  but 
according  to  the  order  pursued  in  the  original  document, — 
namely,  according  to  the  order  in  which  they  received  their 
tracts  of  land  by  lot.  (Josh.  xv. — xix.)  Lastly,  in  conformity 
to  his  original  document,  the  author  has  made  no  honourable 
•  Jahn  and  Ackerijiann,  Intrud.  in  Libros  Sacros  Vet  Feed,  part  ii.  §§ 

2j— as. 

»  For  the  two  preceding  Ternaries,  the  author  is  indebted  to  the  Rev  Dr. 
Turner's  and  Mr.  WUittinghain's  translation  of  Jahn's  Introduction,  d.227. 
New  \ork,  1827.  *^ 


mention  of  Joshua  until  after  his  death  ;  whence  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  commentary,  from  which  this  book  was 
compiled,  was  originally  written  hy  Joshua  himself. 

(2.)  This  book  was  received  as  authentic  by  the  Jews  in 
that  age  when  the  original  commentary  was  extant,  and  the 
author  s  fidelity  could  be  subjected  to  the  test  of  examina- 
tion ;  and, 

(3.)  Several  of  the  transactions  related  in  the  hook  of 
Joshua  are  recorded  by  other  sacred  writers  with  little  or  no 
material  variations;  thus,  we  find  the  conquest  and  division 
of  Canaan,  mentioned  hy  Asaph  (Psal.  Ixxviii.  5.3 — G5.  com- 
pared with  Psal.  xliv.  2 — 1.);  the  slaughter  of  the  Canaan- 
ites  by  David  H'sal.  Ixviii.  1.3 — 15.);  the  division  of  the 
waters  of  Jordan  (Psal.  cxiv.  1 — 5.  Hah.  iii.  8.);  tlie 
terrible  tempest  of  hailstones  aftf^r  the  slaughter  of  the 
southern  Canaanites  (Hab.  iii.  11 — 13.)  compared  with  Josh. 
X.  9 — 11.);  and  the  setting  up  of  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh 
(Josh,  xviii.  1.),  in  the  !)ooks  f  f  Judges  (xviii.  31.)  and 
Samuel.  (1  Sam.  i.  3.  9.  21.  and  iii.  21.) 

(4.)  Lastly,  ev(;ry  thing  related  in  the  book  of  Joshua  not 
only  accurately  corresponds  with  the  age  in  which  that  hero 
lived,  but  is  further  confirmed  by  the  traditions  current  among 
heathen  nations,  some  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  an- 
cient and  profane  historians  of  undoubted  character.^  Thus 
there  are  ancient  monuments  extant,  which  prove  that  the 
Carthaginians  were  a  colony  of  Tyrians  who  escaped  from 
Joshua  ;  as  also  that  the  inhabitants  of  Leptis  in  Afiicacame 
originally  from  the  Sidonians,  who  abandoned  their  country 
on  account  of  the  calamities  with  which  it  was  overwhelmed.^ 
The  fable  of  the  Plia?nician  Hercules  oriirinated  in  the  history 
of  Joshua;*  and  the  overthrow  of  Og  the  king  of  Hashan, 
and  of  the  Anakims  who  were  called  giants,  is  considered  as 
having  given  rise  to  the  fable  of  the  overthrow  of  the  giants." 
The  tempest  of  hailstones  mentioned  in  Josh.  x.  11.  was 
transformed  by  the  poets  into  a  tempest  of  stones,  with  which 
(they  pretend)  Jupiter  overwhelmed  the  enemies  of  Hercules 
in  Arim,  which  is  exactly  the  country  where  Joshua  fought 
with  the  children  of  Anak.' 

The  Samaritans  are  by  some  writers  supposed  to  have 
received  the  book  of  Joshua,  but  this  opinion  appears  to  have 
originated  in  mistake.  They  have  indeed  two  books  extant, 
bearing  the  name  of  Joshua,  which  differ  very  materially 
from  our  Hebrew  copies.  One  of  these  is  a  chronicle  of 
events  from  Adam  to  the  year  of  the  Hijra  898,  corresponding 
with  A.  D.  1492  ;8  and  the  other  is  a  similar  chronicle  badly 
compiled,  from  the  death  of  Moses  to  the  death  of  Alexander 
Severus.  It  consists  of  forty-seven  chapters,  filled  with  fa- 
bulous accounts,  written  in  the  Arabic  language,  but  in  Sa- 
maritan characters.^ 

II.  The  book  of  Joshua  comprises  the  history  of  about 
seventeen  years,  or,  according  to  some  chronologers,  of 
twenty-seven  or  thirty  years  :  "  it  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant documents  in  the  old  covenant;  and  it  should  never  be 
separated  from  the  Pentateuch,  of  which  it  is  at  once  both 
the  continuation  and  the  completion."  The  Pentateuch  con- 
tains a  history  of  the  acts  of  the  great  Jewish  leo'islator,  and 
the  laws  upon  which  the  Jewish  church  was  to  Ee  establish- 
ed :  and  the  book  of  Joshua  relates  the  history  of  Israel 
under  the  command  and  government  of  Joshua,  the  conquest 
of  Canaan,  and  its  subsequent  division  among  the  Israelites; 
together  with  the  provision  made  for  the  settlement  and  es- 
tablishment of  the  Jewish  church  in  that  country. 

III.  From  this  view  of  the  argument  of  Joshua,  we  may 
easily  perceive  that  the  Scope  and  Design  of  the  inspired 
writer  of  this  book  were  to  demonstrate  the  faithfulness  of 
God,  in  the  perfect  accomplishment  of  all  his  promises  to 

»  See  particularly  .Justin,  lib.  xxxvK  c.  2.  and  Tacitus,  Hist.  lib.  v.  cc.  2, 
3.  On  the  falsely  alleged  contradicljons  between  the  sacred  and  profane 
historians,  see  Vol.  I.  Part  VI.  chap.  vii. 

*  Allix's  Retlections  upon  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  chap.  ii. 
(Bishop  Watson's  Collection  ofTheolopical  Tracts,  vol.  1.  p.  3o4  ) 

>  Procopuis  (Vandal,  lib.  ii.  c.  10.)  ciies  a  Phoenician  inscription  ;  con- 
taining a  passage  which  he  has  translaied  into  Greek,  to  the  following  pur- 
port : — "  We  are  Ihey  tchojleefrom  Iheface  of  Jesus  (the  Greek  name  of 
Joshua)  the  robher,  the  son  of  Nave."  Sliiiilas  cites  Ihe  inscription  thus  : — 
"  Weave  the  Canaanites  trh'im  Jesus  Ihe  robber  expelled.''  The  dilfer- 
ence  between  these  two  writers  Is  not  material,  and  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  same  passage  being  ditferenlly  rendered  by  different  translators,  or 
being  quoted  from  memory,— no  unusual  occurrence  among  profane 
writers. 

«  Polybius,  Frag.  cxiv.  Sallust.  Bell.  Jngiirtbin.  c.  xxii. 

'  Aliix's  Reflections,  ut  supra.  Huet,  Demonstratio  Evangelica,  vol.  i. 
pp.  273—282.  Amstel.  1680.  8vo.  Some  learned  men  have  supposed  that 
the  poetical  fable  of  Phiieton  was  founded  on  the  miracle  of  the  sun  standing 
sliIl(Josh.  x.  12 — U.);  but  on  a  calm  investigation  of  the  supposed  resem- 
blance, there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  foundation  for  such  an  opinion. 

9  Jahn  and  Ackermann,  Introd.  in  Libros,  Vet.  Feed,  part  ii.  §  27.  note. 

9  Fabricii  Codex  Apocryphus  Veteris  Testamenti,  p.  876.  et  seq. 


21G 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IL 


the  patriarchs,  Abraham  (Gen.  xiii.  15.),  Isaac  (xxvi.  4.), 
.Tacob  (xxxv.  1:2.),  and  Joseph  (1.  24.),  and  also  to  Moses 
(Exod.  lii.  8.),  that  the  children  of  Israel  should  obtain  pos- 
session of  the  land  of  Canaan.  At  the  same  time  we  behold 
the  divine  power  and  mercy  signally  displayed  in  cherishing, 
protecting,  and  defending  his  people,  amid  all  the  trials  and 
difficulties  to  which  they  were  exposed  ;  and  as  the  land  of 
Canaan  is  in  the  New  Testament  considered  as  a  type  of 
heaven,  the  conHicts  and  trials  of  the  Israelites  have  been 
considered  as  figuratively  representing  the  spiritual  conflicts 
of  believers  in  every  age  of  the  church.  Although  Joshua, 
whose  piety,  courage,  and  disinterested  integrity  are  con- 
spicuous tiiroughout  his  whole  history,  is  not  expressly 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  as  a  type  of  the  Messiah, 
yet  he  is  universally  allowed  to  have  been  a  very  eminent 
one.  He  bore  our  Saviour's  name;  the  Alexandrian  version, 
giving  his  name  a  Greek  termination,  uniformly  calls  him 
xna-cui — Jesus ;  which  appellation  is  also  given  to  him  in 
Acts  vii.  45.  and  Heb.  iv.  8.  Joshua  saved  the  people  of 
God  (as  the  Israelites  are  emphatically  styled  in  the  Scrip- 
tures) from  the  Canaanites :  Jesus  Christ  saves  his  people 
from  their  sins.  (Matt,  i  21.) 

A  further  design  of  this  book  is  to  show  the  portion  which 
was  allotted  to  each  tribe.  With  this  view,  the  author  more 
than  once  reminds  the  Israelites  that  not  one  thing  had  failed 
of  all  the  good  things  which  the  Lord  spake  concerning 
them  ;  and  that  "  all  had  come  to  pass  unto  them,  and  not 
one  thing  had  failed  thereof."  (ch.  xxiii.  14.  with  xxi.  45.) 
Further,  the  historian  does  not  notice  any  subsecjuent  altera- 
tion of  the  division :  for  the  conquest  of  the  cities  of  He- 
bron and  Debir,  mentioned  by  Caleb  in  ch.  xv.  13 — 19., 
took  place  under  Joshua,  and  is  introduced  in  Judg.  i.  10 — 
15.  20.,  only  as  a  retrospective  notice  of  an  event  of  a  preced- 
ing age.  What  is  said  of  the  tribes  of  Judah,  Ephraim,  and 
Manasseh  (Josh.  xv.  63.  xvi.  10.  xvii.  12.),  does  not  prove 
that  the  book  is  of  recent  origin ;  although,  as  the  passages 
are  not  connected  with  the  series  of  the  narration,  they  may 
possibly  be  interpolations.  Lastly,  the  places  (xv.  9.  xviii. 
25.),  in  which  Kirjath-jearim  is  ascribed  to  the  tribe  of  Judah 
and  Gibeon,  Beeroth  and  Kephira  to  that  of  Benjamin,  al- 
though they  were  cities  of  the  Gibeonites,  have  no  relation 
to  the  transaction  mentioned  in  2  vSain.  iv.  2.  and  xxi.  6.,  for 
Gibeon  was  afterwards  given  (Josh.  xxi.  17.)  to  the  priests  : 
whence  it  is  evident  that  these  cities  were  left  in  possession 
of  the  Gibeonites,  who  were  servants  of  the  sanctuary,  and 
merely  subjected  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  tribes  to  which 
they  are  ascribed.' 

IV".  The  book  of  Joshua  may  be  conveniently  divided  into 
three  parts :  viz. 

Part  1.   The  History  of  the  Occupaiion  of  Canaan  by  the 
JaratUtes  (cc.  i. — xii.) ;  comprising. 

Sect.  1.  The  call  and  confirmation  of  Joshua  to  be  captain- 
general  of  that  people,  (i.) 
Sect.  2.  The  sending  out  of  the  spies  to  bring  an  account  of 

the  city  of  Jericho,  (ii.) 
Sect.  3.  The  miraculous  passage  of  the  Israelites  over  Jordan 

(iii.),  and  the  setting  up  of  twelve  memorial  stones,  (iv.) 
Sect.  4.  The    circumcision  of  the  Israelites  at  Gilgal,   and 
their  celebration  of  the  first  passovcr  in' the  land  of  Canaan  ; 
the    appearance    of  the   "  captain  of  the  Lord's  host"  to 
Joshua  near  Jericho,  (v.) 
Sect.  5.  The  capture  of  Jericho  (vi.)  and  of  Ai.  (vii.  viii.) 
Skct.  6.  The  politic  confederacy  of  the  Gibeonites  with  the 

children  of  Israel,  (ix.) 
Sect.  7.  The  war  with  the  Canaanitish  kings,  and  the  miracle 

of  the  sun's  standing  still,  (x.) 
Sect.  8.  The  defeat  of  Jabin  and  his  confederates,  (xi.) 
'  Sect.  9.  A  summary  recapitulation  of  the  conquests  of  the 
Israelites  both  under  Moses  in  the  eastern  part  of  Canaan 
(xii.  1 — 6.),  and  also  under  Joshua  himself  in  the  western 
part.  (xii.  7— 24.) 
Part  II.   Tlie  Division  of  the  conquered  Land ,-  containing, 
Sf.ct.  1.  A  general  division  of  Canaan,  (xiii.) 
Sect.  2.  A  particular  apportionment  of  it  among  the  Israelites, 
including  the   portion   of  Caleb  (xiv.)  ;  the  lot  of  Judah 
(xv.)  ;  of  Ephraim  (xvi.)  ;  of  Manasseh  (xvii.)  ;  of  Benja- 
min (xviii.)  ;  and  of  the  six  tribes  of  Simeon,  Zebulun,  Issa- 
char,  Asher,  Naphtali,  Dan,  and  of  Joshua  himself,    (xix.) 
Sect.  3.  The  appointment  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (xx.)  and  of 
the  Levitical  cities,   (xxi.) 

»  Jalm's  Introduction  by  Prof.  Turner,  p.  221. 


The  circumstances  observed  in  the  division  of  the  promised  land  he 
speak  a  most  wise  and  careful  provision  for  a  constant  and  uninterrupted 
distinction  of  tribes,  families,  and  genealogies  anions  the  Hebrews  ;  tlience 
lo  preserve  and  clearly  to  ascertain  the  genealoiry  of  Christ,  tlieirs  andour 
areat  Messiah  ;  "  the  end  of  tlie  law  for  riij;hteousness  ;"  in  whom  were  to 
be  completed  all  the  purposes  of  this  dispensation  :  it  pleasing  God,  by  the 
apparent  complelion  of  remarkable  prophecies  relatinfj  tliereto,  to  make 
this  one  of  the  satisfactory  and  convincing  evidencesofliis  divine  mission.* 

Sect.  4.  The  dismission  from  the  camp  of  Israel  of  the  militia 
of  the  two  tribes  and  a  half  who  settled  on  the  other  side  of 
Jordan,  their  consequent  return,  and  the  transactions  result- 
ing from  the  altar  which  they  erected  on  the  borders  of  Jor- 
dan in  token  of  their  communion  with  the  children  of 
Israel,   (xxii.) 

Part  III.   The  Dying  Addresses  and  Counsels  of  Joshua,  his 
Death  and  Burial,  (si'c. 

Sect.  1.  Joshua's  address  to  the  Israelites,  in  which  he 
reminds  them  of  the  signal  benefits  conferred  on  them  by 
God,  and  urges  them  to  "  cleave  mito  the  Lord  their  God." 
(xxiii.) 

Sect.  2.  Joshua's  dying  address  to  the  Israelites,  and  renewal 
of  the  covenant  between  them  and  God.   (xxiv.  1 — 28.) 

These  valedictory  speeches  of  Joshua  to  the  Israelites,  like  tliose  of  Mo- 
ses, give  us  an  idea  of  a  truly  great  man,  and  of  a  wise  and  religious  gover- 
nor, the  only  aim  of  whose  power  is  tlie  glory  of  God,  and  the  lasting  hap- 
piness of  the  connnunily  over  which  he  presides. — An  admirable  example 
to  be  imitated  in  due  proportion  by  all  the  princes  of  the  earlh.^ 

Sect.  3.  The  death  and  burial  of  Joshua,  the  burial  of  Joseph's 
bones,  and  the  death  of  Eleazar  the  high-priest,  (xxiv. 
29—33.) 

It  is,  however,  necessary  to  remark,  that  there  is  some  acci- 
dental derangement  of  the  order  of  the  chapters  in  this  book 
occasioned,  probably,  by  the  ancient  mode  of  rolling  up 
manuscripts.  If  chronologically  placed,  they  should  be  read 
thus  :  first  chapter  to  the  ninth  verse  ;  then  the  second  chap- 
ter ;  then  from  the  tenth  verse  to  the  end  of  the  first  chapter  ; 
after  which  should  follow  the  third  and  consecutive  chapters 
to  the  eleventh ;  then  the  twenty-second  chapter,  and  the 
twelfth  to  the  twenty-first  chanter,  inclusive ;  and,  lastly,  the 
twenty-third  and  twenty-fourth  chapters. 

V.  A  considerable  difference  of  opinion  subsists  among- 
learned  men  concerning  the  book  of  Jasher,  mentioned  in 
Josh.  X.  13.  \n  addition  to  the  observations  already  offered,* 
we  may  remark,  that  Bishop  Lowth  is  of  opinion,  that  it  was 
a  poetical  book,  no  longer  extant  when  the  author  of  Joshua 
and  Samuel  lived  and  wrote.* 


SECTION  III. 

ON    THE    BOOK    OF    JUDGES. 

I.  Title. — II.  Date  and  author. — III.  Scope,  chronology,  and 
synopsis  of  its  contents. — IV.  Observations  on  some  difficult 
passages  in  this  book. 

1.  The  book  of  Judges  derives  its  name  from  its  containing 
the  history  of  the  Israelites  from  the  death  of  Joshua  to  the 
time  of  Eli,  under  the  administration  of  thirteen  Judges, 
whom  God  raised  up  on  special  occasions  to  deliver  his 
people  from  the  oppression  of  their  gnemies,  and  to  manage 
and  restore  their  afiairs.     Concerning  their  po,wers  and  func- 

a  Pyle's  Paraphrase  on  the  Old  Testament,  vol.  ii.  p.  3. 
3  Ibid.  p.  4.  *  See  Vol.  I.  p.  57. 

5  The  book  of  Jasher  is  twice  (\\\o\.ed,  first  in  Josh.  x.  13.  where  the  quo- 
tation is  evidently  poetical,  and  forms  exactly  three  distiches. 
"Sun,  stand  tliou  still  upon  Gibeon, 
And  thou  moon,  hi  the  valley  of  Ajalon  : 
And  the  sun  stood  still,  and  the  moon  stayed  her  course, 
Until  the  people  were  avenged  of  their  enendes. 
And  the  sun  tarried  in  the  luidst  of  the  heavens, 
And  hasted  not  to  go  down  in  a  whole  day." 
The  second  passage  wliere  the  book  of  Jasher  is  cited  is  in  2  Sam.  i.  18, 
wlicre  David's  lamentation  over  Saul  is  said  to  be  extracted  from  it.     The 
custom  of  the  Hebrews,  in  giving  tides  to  their  books  from  the  initial  word 
is  well-known :  thus  Genesis  is  called  Bereshith,  &c.     They  also  some- 
times named  the  book  from  some  remarkable  word  in  the  first  sentence  ; 
thus  the  book  of  Numbers  is  sometimes  called  Bemidhar.     We  also  find 
in  their  writings  canlicles  which  had  been  produced  on  important  ocea- 
sions,  introduced  by  some  form  of  this  kind  :  az  jcishar  (then  sang),  or  re- 
jashar  peluni,  <kc.    Thus  az  jashir  Moshf/i,  "then  sang  Moses"  (Exod. 
XV.  1.   the   Samaritan   Pentateuch  reads  jasher);   rellias/iar  Deborah, 
"  and  Deborah  sang."  (Judg.  v.  1.)  See  also  the  inscription  of  Psal.  xviii.) 
Thus  the  book  of  Jasher  is  supposed  to  have  been  some  collection  of 
sacred  songs,  composed  at  ditferent  times  and  on  different  occasions,  and 
to  have  had  this  title,  because  the  book  itself  and  most  of  the  songs  began 
in.general  with  this  word,,re-_/nsAar.  Lowth's  Pra'lect.  pp.  306,  307.  notes  ; 
or  Dr.  Gregory's  translation,  vol.  ii.  pp.  1.'52,  153.  iioles.    The  book  of  .lasher,' 
published  at  London  in  17.31,  and  reprinted  at  Bristol  in  1829,  is  a  shameless 
lilt^rary  forgnrv.    All  account  of  it  will  be  found  in  tlie  Bibliographical  Ap- 
pendix to  Vol.  II. 


SicT.  III.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JUDGES. 


217 


lions  see  Vol.  IT.  p.  42.  The  .Tudges  frequently  acted  by  a 
divine  suo'siRStion,  and  were  en(ff)wed  with  preternatural 
slrenjrth  and  fortitude  (coir.p;ire  ii.  18.  vi.  14.  31.  \i.  29.  and 
xiv.  G.  19.) :  it  is  necessary  to  bear  this  in  mind  when  penis- 
intr  the  relation  of  some  of  their  achievements,  vvhicii  were 
jusliliable  only  on  tiie  supposition  of  their  being  jx'rformed 
under  the  sanction  of  a  divini;  warrant,  which  supersedes  all 
general  rules  of  conduct.  Besides,  "  in  some  cases  (such  as 
that  of  Samson's  suicide)  they  may  have  abused  tiieir  endow- 
ments, since  the  preternatural  jrifts  of  CJod  are  etjually  liable 
to  abuse  with  those  which  he  bestows  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  nature."' 

II.  From  the  expression  recorded  in  Judg.  xviii.  30.  some 
have  imacrined  that  this  book  was  not  written  till  after  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  but  this  conjecture  is  evidently  errone- 
ous ;  for,  on  coni|)arinir  Psal.  Ixxviii.  (iO,  (jl.  and  1  Sam.  iv. 
II.  with  that  passairc,  we  find  that  the  cajjtivity  intended  by 
the  historian  was  a  particular  captivity  of  the  inhahitants  of 
Dan,  wiiich  took  place  about  the  time  the  ark  was  taken  by 
the  Philistines.  Besides,  the  total  absence  of  Chaldee  words 
sulficiently  proves  the  date  of  the  book  of  Judges  to  have 
been  many  centuries  anterior  to  the  jrreat  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. '1  his  book,  however,  was  certainly  writt(-n  before 
the  second  book  of  Samuel  (compare  2  Sam.  xi.  21.  with- 
Judir.  ix.  53.),  and  before  the  capture  of  .Terusalcm  by  David. 
(Compare  2  Sam.  v.  G.  with  .)ud<y.  i.  21.) 

There  is  a  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  per- 
son by  whom  this  book  of  Jud<res  was  written  ;  it  being',  by 
some  writers,  ascribed  to  Phinehas,  Mezekiah,  .Teremiah, 
pjzekiel,  or  Ezra,  who  compiled  it  from  the  memoirs  of  his 
own  time  which  were  left  by  each  .ludge  ;  while  others  think 
that  it  was  compiled  by  some  prophet  out  of  the  public  regis- 
ters or  records  that  were  kept  by  the  priests  and  Levites. 
But  the  best  founded  opinion  seems  to  be,  that  it  was  written 
by  the  prophet  Samuel,  the  last  of  the  Judges ;  and  in  this 
opinion  the  Jews  themselves  coincide. 

III.  The  book  of  Judges  comprises  the  history  of  about 
three  hundred  years  :  it  consists  of  three  parts ;  the  first  em- 
braces the  history  of  the  Elders,  who  ruled  the  Israelites  after 
the  death  of  Joshua,  and  the  subsequent  transactions,  to  the 
comineueement  of  their  troubles,  (ch.  i. — iii.  4.)  The  second 
part  contains  the  history  of  the  Judges  from  Othniel  to  Eli 
(ch.  iii.  5. — xvi.) ;  and  the  third,  which  narrates  several 
memorable  actions  performed  not  long  after  the  death  of 
Joshua  (ch.  xvii.  21.),  is  thrown  to  the  end  of  the  book,  that 
it  might  not  interrupt  the  thread  of  the  narrative.  "  This  his- 
tory, observes  Dr.  Priestley,  "abundantly  verifies  the  fre- 
quent warnings  and  predictions  of  Moses ;  according  to 
which,  the  people,  being  under  the  immediate  government  of 
Ciod,  were  in  the  most  exemplary  manner  to  be  rewarded  for 
their  obedience,  and  punished  for  their  disobedience,  and 
especially  for  their  conformity  to  the  religions  of  their  neigh- 
bours, whom  God  had  devoted  to  destruction  on  account  of 
their  polytheism  and  idolatry."  There  is  considerable  dilfi- 
culty  in  settling  the  chronology  of  this  book,  several  of  the 
facts  related  in  it  being  reckoned  from  different  seras,  which 
cannot  now  be  exactly  ascertained  ;  many  of  the  Judges  also 
are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  successive  who  in  all 
probability  were  contemporaries,  and  ruled  over  diiferent  dis- 
tricts at  the  same  time.  In  the  following  synopsis  it  is 
attempted  to  reduce  the  chronology  to  sometliin^  like  order, 
and  also  to  present  a  correct  analysis  of  the  book. 

Part  I.  The  State  of  t/ie  Israelites  after  the  death  of  Joshua, 
until  they  be^an  to  turn  aside  from  serving  the  Lord.  (i. — iii 
4.)  B.  c.  1443—1413. 

Part  II.   The  History  of  the  Oppressions  of  the  Israelites,  and 
iiieir  Deliverances  hy  the  Judges,  (iii.  5. — xvi.) 

Sect.  1.  The  subjection  of  the  Eastern  Israelites  to  the  king 
of  Mesopotamia,  and  their  deliverance  by  Othniel.  (iii.  5 — 1 1.) 
B.  c.  1413—140.5. 

Sect.  2.  The  subjection  of  the  Eastern  Israelites  to  the  king 
of  Moab,  and  their  deliverance  by  Ehud.  The  Western 
Israelites  deUvered  by  Shamgar.  (iii.  12 — 31.)  b.  c.  1343 — 
1305. 

Sect.  3.  The  Northern  Israelites,  after  being  oppressed  by 
Jabin,  king  of  Canaan,  are  delivered  by  Deborah  and  Barak. 

•  Prof.  Turner's  translation  of  Jahn's  Introduction,  p.  243.  note. 

•>  The  triumphal  Ode  of  Deborah  is  analyzed  at  considerable  length  by 
Bishop  Lowtli  (Lect.  no.  28.),  who  considers  it  as  a  specimen  of  the  per- 
fectly sublime  ode.  In  the  fourth  and  fifth  verses,  the  e.\traordinary  dis- 
plays of  the  Divine  Majesty,  which  the  Israelites  had  witnessed  al  Mount 

Vol.  II.  2  E 


(iv.)  The  thanksgiving  song  of  Deborah  and  Barak.^  (v.) 
11.  c.  1285. 

Sect.  4.  The  Eastern  and  Northern  Israelites,  being  for  their 
sins  delivered  into  the  power  of  Midian,  are  delivered  by 
Gideon. — History  of  Gideon  and  his  family,  including  the 
judicature  of  Abimelcch.  (vi. — ix.)  ii.  c.  1252 — 1233. 

Sect.  5.  History  of  the  administralions  of  Tola  and  Jair.  The 
Israelites,  being  oj)prcsscd  by  the  Ammonites,  are  delivered 
bv  Jephthah.  The  administrations  of  the  Judges,  Ibzan, 
Eloii,  and  Abdon.  (x.— xii.)  b.  c.  1233—1157. 

Sect.  6.  The  birth  of  Samson. — Servitude  of  the  Israelites  to 
the  Philistines,  and  their  deliverance  by  Samson,  with  an 
aaount  of  his  death,   (xiii. — xvi.)  n.  c.  1155 — 1117. 

Part  III.  Jin  Account  of  the  Introduction  of  Idolatry  among 
the  Israelites,  and  the  consequent  Corruption  of  Religion  ana 
Miinners  among  them  ;  for  which  God  gave  them  up  into  the 
hands  of  their  enemies,  (xvii. — xxi.) 

Sect.  1.  Account  of  the  idol  of  Micah  and  it.s  worship,  at  first 
privately  in  his  family  (xvii.)  and  afterwards  publicly  in  the 
tribe  of  Dan.  (xviii.)  ii.  c.  1413. 
Sect.  2.  Account  of  a  very  singular  violence  and  detestable 
murder,  committed  by  the  Bcnjamites  of  Gibeah  (xiv.)  ;  the 
war  of  the  other  tribes  with  them,  and  the  almost  total 
extinction  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  (xx.  xxi.)  b.  c.  1413. 
IV.  The  book  of  Judges  fonns  an  important  link  in  the 
history  of  the  Israelites,  and  is  very  properly  inserted  between 
the  books  of  Joshua  and  Samuel,  as  the  Judges  were  the  in- 
termediate governors  between  Joshua  and  the  kings  of  Israel. 
It  furnishes  us  with  a  lively  description  of  a  fluctuating  and 
unsettled  nation  ;  a  striking  picture  of  the  disorders  and  dan- 
gers which  prevailed  in  a  rej)ublic  without  magistracy ;  when 
the  highways  were  unoccitjiied,  and  the  travellers  walked 
through  by-ways  (v.  G.)  ;  when  few  prophets  were  appointed 
to  control  the  people,  and  every  one  aid  that  which  was  right 
in  his  own  eyes,  (xvii;  G.)  It  exhibits  the  contest  of  true 
religion  witli  superstition  ;  displays  ihc  beneficial  eflfects  that 
flow  from  the  former,  and  represents  the  miseries  and  evil 
conseciuences  of  impiety  ;  it  is  a  most  remarkable  history  of 
the  long-suffering  of  God  towards  the  Israelites,  in  which  we 
see  the^most  sio-nal  instances  of  his  justice  and  mercy  alter- 
nately displayed.  The  people  sinned  and  were  puiiished ; 
they  repented  and  found  mercy.  Something  of  this  kind  we 
find  in  every  page  :  and  these  things  are  written  for  our  warn- 
ing. None  shmild  presume,  for  God  is  just;  none  need 
despair,  for  God  is  merciful.^  From  the  scenes  of  civil  dis- 
cord and  violence  which  darken  this  history,  St.  Paul  has 
presented  us  with  some  illustrious  examples  of  faith,  in  the 
characters  of  GnLon,  Buruli,  Samson,  and  Jephthah.  Inde- 
pendently of  the  internal  evidences  of  its  authenticity  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  style  of  this  book,  the  transactions  it 
records  are  not  only  cited  or  alluded  to  by  other  sacred 
writers  besides  St.  Paul,^  but  are  further  confirmed  by  tlie 
traditions  current  among  the  heathen  writers.  Thus,  we  find 
the  memorial  of  Gideoirs  actions  preserved  by  Sanchoniatho, 
a  Tyrian  writer  who  lived  soon  after  him,  and  whose  anti- 
quity is  attested  by  Porphyry,  who  was  perhaps  the  most 
inveterate  enemy  to  Christianity  that  ever  lived. ^  The  Vul- 
pinaria,  or  feast  of  the  foxes,  celebrated  by  the  Romans  in  the 
month  of  April  (the  time  of  the  Jewish  harvest,  in  which 
they  let  loo,se  foxes  with  torches  fastened  to  their  tails),^  was 
derived  from  the  story  of  Samson,  which  was  conveyed  into 

Sinai,  are  described  in  very  poetical  language,  and  compared  with  the  Di- 
vine interposilion  in  behalf  of  Israel.  The  presence  of  God  had  thrown  ail 
nature,  as  it  were,  into  convulsions,  the  thunders  and  lightnings  were  at- 
tended by  impetuous  showers  of  rain  ;  and  Mount  Sinai  was  in  such  agita- 
tion that  It  seemed  to  be  melted  from  before  the  Lord.  (Scott,  in  loc.)  The 
transaction  at  Mount  Sinai,  which  furnished  Uiis  magnificent  and  sublime 
pa.ssage,  took  places,  o.  1191 ;  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites,  under  De- 
borah and  Barak,  B.  c.  Viro,  or  according  to  some  chronologer.s  E.  c.  1206, 
that  is,  nearly  two  hundred  years  before.  Vet,  misled  by  the  ncologian 
interpretaiion  of  the  late  Professor  Eichhorn,  Professor  Jahn  has  gravely 
ascribed  the  victory  of  Barak  over  Sisera,  to  his  taking  advantage  of  a  rag- 
ing tempest.  (Introd.  in  Libros  Vet.  Feed,  part  ii.  §  3/.)  This  section  is 
almost  a  servile  transcript  of  Eichhorn.  Prof  Turner  and  Mr.  Whitting- 
hatii  have  exposed  the  fallacy  of  these  mischievous  interpretations  m  the 
notes  to  their  translation  ol'^Jahn.  (pp.  243—215.)  Dr.  Ackermann  m  his 
expurgated  edition  of  Jahn  has  altogether  omitted  this  section,  without  ap- 
prizing the  reader  of  such  omission.  ,       ,    , 

3  Bp.  Gray's  Key,  p.  157.    Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Pref  to  Ju<lges,  p.  vi. 

♦  Compare  Psal.  Ixxviii.  56-66.  LsxAiii.  11,  12.  cvi.  »4— 4b.  1  Sam.  xii.  9—1 1. 
2Sam.  .xi.  21.  Isa.  ix.  4.  and  x.  26.  ...  /■  .u     r    . 

s  Ho  e.vpressly  affirms  Sanchoniatho  to  have  derived  many  of  the  facts 
related  in  his  history,  .«  t-v  .,:r=,..,,uxT.,v  lifu^ox'^o-',  from  the  memoirs  of 
Jerunibalus,  or  Jerubaal,  another  name  for  Gideon.  Bocharu  i  haleg. 
lib.  ii.  C.7. 

6  Ovid,  Fasti,  lib.  iv.  6Si.  et  seq. 


218 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  V.  Chap.  H. 


Italy  by  the  Phoenicians:  and  to  mention  no  more,  in  the 
history  of  Samson  and  Delilah,  we  find  the  original  of  Nisns 
and  his  daughters,  who  cut  off  those  fatal  hairs,  upon  which 
the  victory  depended.' 


SECTION  IV. 

ON  THE  BOOK  OF  RUTH. 

I.   Title  and  argument. — II.  Date  and  chronoiogy. — III.  Au- 
thor.— IV.  Scope. — V.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. 

I.  The  book  of  Ruth  is  generally  considered  as  an  appendix 
to  that  of  Judges,  and  an  introduction  to  that  of  Samuel ;  it 
is  therefore  placed,  and  with  great  propriety,  between  the 
books  of  Judges  and  Samuel.  In  the  ancient  Jewish  canon 
of  the  Old  l%stament,2  Judges  and  Ruth  formed  but  one 
book,  because  the  transactions  which  it  contained  happened 
in  the  time  of  the  Judges ;  although  the  modern  Jews  sepa- 
rate it  from  both,  and  make  it  the  second  of  the  five  Megilloth 
or  volumes  which  they  place  together  towards  the  end  of  the 
Old  Testament.  It  is  publicly  read  by  them  in  the  syna- 
gogues on  the  feast  of  weeks  or  of  Pentecost,  on  account  of 
the  harvest  being  mentioned  in  it,  the  first-fruits  of  which 
were  offered  to  God  on  that  festival.  This  book  derives  its 
name  from  Ruth  the  Moabitess,  whose  history  it  relates,  and 
whom  the  Chaldee  paraphrast  supposes  to  have  been  the 
daughter  of  Eglon  kinff  of  Moab;  but  this  conjecture  is 
utterly  unsupported  by  Scripture ;  nor  is  it  at  all  likely  that 
a  king's  daugnter  would  abandon  her  native  country,  to  seek 
bread  in  another  land,  and  marry  a  stranger. 

II.  Augustine^  refers  the  time  of  this  history  to  the  regal 
government  of  the  Israelites;  Josephus  the  Jewish  historian, 
and  some  others  of  later  date,  to  the  time  of  Eli;  Molden- 
hawer,  after  some  Jewish  writers,  assigns  it  to  the  time  of 
Ehud;  Rabbi  Kimchi  and  other  Jewish  authors  conceive 
Boaz,  who  married  Ruth,  to  have  been  the  same  person  as 
Ibzan,  who  judged  Israel  immediately  after  Jephthah ;  Junius, 
comparing  the  book  of  Ruth  with  Matt,  i.,  is  of  opinion,  that 
the  events  recorded  in  this  history  took  place  in  the  days  of 
Deborah ;  and  the  learned  Archbishop  Usher,  that  they  liap- 
pened  in  the  time  of  Shamgar.  As  the  famine  which  caused 
Elimelech  to  leave  his  country,  "  came  to  pass  in  the  days 
when  the  Judges  ruled"  (Ruth  i.  1.),  Bishop  Patrick  has 
referred  the  beginning  of  this  history  to  the  judicature  of 
Gideon,  about  the  year  of  the  world  2759,  at  which  time  a 
famine  is  related  to  have  happened.  (Judg.  vi.  3 — 6.)''  Con- 
siderable difficulty  has  arisen  in  settling  the  chronology  of 
this  book,  in  consequence  of  its  being  mentioned  by^aint 
Matthew  (i.  5,  6.), — that  Salmon  the  father  of  Boaz  (who 
married  Ruth)  was  married  to  Rahab  (by  whom  is  generally 
understood  Rahab  the  harlot,  who  protected  the  spies  when 
Joshua  invaded  the  land  of  Canaan)  :  and  yet  that  Boaz  was 
the  grandfather  of  David,  who  was  born  al)out  three  hundred 
and  sixty  years  after  the  siege  of  Jericho, — a  length  of  time, 
during  which  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  that  only  three  per- 
sons, Boaz,  Obed,  and  Jesse,  should  have  intervened  between 
Rahab  and  David.  But  this  difficulty  may  readily  be  solved, 
either  by  supj)osing  that  some  intermediate  names  of  little 
consequence  were  omitted  in  the  public  genealogies  copied 
by  the  evangelist  (as  we  know  to  have  been  tlie  case  in  some 
other  instances)  ;  or  by  concluding,  with  Archlnshop  Usher, 
that  the  ancestors  of  David,  being  men  of  extraordinary  piety, 
or  designed  to  be  conspicuous  because  the  Messiah  was  to 
descend  from  them,  were  blessed  with  longer  life  and  greater 
strength  than  ordinarily  fell  to  the  lot  of  men  in  that  age.*  It 
is  certain  that  Jesse  was  accounted  an  old  man  when  his  son 
David  was  but  a  youth  (see  1  Sam.  xvii.  12.) ;   and,  since 

>  Ovid,  Metam.  lib.  vili.  fab.  1.  M.  de  Lavaur  in  bis  Confirence  de  la 
Fahle  avec  VHistoire  iiainte,  torn.  ii.  ppj^  1 — 13.;  has  sliown  that  Samson, 
the  judge  of  the  Israehtes,  is  the  orisjinal  and  essential  Hercules  of  pagan 
mythology;  thus  furnishing  an  additional  proof  how  much  the  heathens 
have  been  indebted  to  the  Bible.  As  his  treatise  is  by  no  means  of  com- 
mon occurrence,  the  reader  will  find  an  abridged  translation  of  the  pages 
cited  in  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  commentary  on  Judg.  xvi. 

a  .Jerome  expressly  states  that  this  was  the  case  in  his  time.— Deinde 
subtexunt  Soplietim,  id  est  Judicuin  librum,  et  in  eundcm  compingunt; 
quia  in  diebus  Judicum  facta  ejus  narratur  historia.  (Prologus  Galeatus.) 
Eusebius,  when  giving  Origan's  catalogue  of  the  sacred  books,  confirms 
Jerome's  account.    Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  vi.  c.  25. 

0  De  Doct.  Christ,  lib.  ii.  c.  8. 

*  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  9.  §  1.    Seder  Olam,  c.  12.    Moldenhawer, 
Introd.  ad  Libros  Canoniros  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.  p.  43.     Kimchi  on   Ruth, 
c.  i.    Junius,  Annotat.  in  Ruth  i.    Bishop  Patrick  on  Ruth  i.  1.     Leusdcn, 
Philol.  Ilcb.  pp.  13.  80. 
.  »  Chronologia  Sacra,  part  i.  c.  12.  pp.  69,  70.  ed.  Genevae,  1722,  folio. 


Boaz  is  represented  as  the  great  grandfather  of  the  royal 
Psalmist,  it  is  evident  that  the  date  of  the  history  of  Ruth 
cannot  be  so  low  as  the  time  of  Eli  assigned  by  Josephus, 
nor  so  high  as  the  time  of  Shangar :  the  most  probable  period, 
therefore,  is  that  stated  by  Bishop  Patrick,  viz.  during  the 
judicature  of  Gideon,  or  about  the  year  of  the  world  2759, 
B.  c.  1241. 

III.  Like  the  book  of  Judges,  Ruth  has  been  ascribed  to 
Hezekiah,  and  also  to  Ezra;  but  the  most  probable,  and,  in- 
deed, generally  received  opinion,  is  that  of  the  Jews,  who 
state  it  to  have  been  written  by  the  prophet  Samuel.  From 
the  genealogy  recorded  in  iv.  17 — 22.  it  is  evident  that  this 
history  could  not  have  been  reduced  into  its  present  form  be- 
fore the  time  of  Samuel. 

IV.  The  Scope  of  this  book  is  partly  to  deliver  the  gene- 
alogy of  king  David  through  the  line  of  Ruth,  a  heathen 
proselyte  to  the  Jewish  religion,  and  the  wife  of  Boaz,  whose 
adoption  into  the  line  of  Christ  has  generally  been  considered 
as  a  pre-intimation  of  the  admission  of  the  Gentiles  into  the 
Christian  church.  It  had  been  foretold  to  the  Jews  that  the 
Messiah  should  be  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  it  was  after- 
wards further  revealed  that  he  should  be  of  the  family  of  Da- 
vid :  and,  therefore,  it  was  necessary,  for  the  full  understand- 
ing of  these  prophecies,  that  the  history  of  the  family,  in  that 
tribe,  should  be  written  before  these  prophecies  were  revealed, 
to  prevent  the  least  suspicion  of  fraud  or  design.  And  thus 
this  book,  these  prophecies,  and  their  accomplishment,  serve 
to  illustrate  each  other.''  A  further  design  of  this  book  is  to 
evidence  the  care  of  Divine  Providence  over  those  who  sin- 
cerely fear  God,  in  raising  the  pious  Ruth  from  a  state  of  the 
deepest  adversity  to  that  of  the  highest  prosperity. 

V.  The  book  of  Ruth,  which  consists  of  four  chapters, 
maybe  conveniently  divided  into  three  sections  ;  containing. 

Sect.  1.  An  account  of  Naomi,  from  her  departure  from  Ca- 
naan into  Moab,  with  her  husband  Elimelech,  to  her  return 
thence  into  the  land  of  Israel  with  her  daughter-in-law  Ruth, 
(ch.  i.)  B.  c.  1241—1231. 
Sect.  2.  The  interview  of  Boaz  with  Ruth,  and  their  marriage. 

(ii.  iii.  v.  1. — 12.) 
Sect.  3.  The  birth  of  Obed,  the  son  of  Boaz  by  Ruth,  from 

whom  David  was  descended,  (iv.  13 — 18.) 
The  whole  narrative  is  written  with  peculiar  simplicity ; 
and  the  interviews  between  Boaz  and  Ruth  display  the  most 
unaffected  piety,  liberality,  and  modesty  ;  and  their  reverent 
observance  of  the  Mosaic  law,  as  well  as  of  ancient  customs, 
is  portrayed  in  very  lively  and  animated  colours. 


SECTION  V. 

ON  THE  TWO  BOOKS  OF  SAMUEL. 

I.  Title. — II.  Authors. — III.  Argument^  scope,  and  analysis 
of  the  first  book  of  Samuel. — IV.  Argument,  scope,  ana 
analysis  of  the  second  book  of  Samuel. — V.  General  ob- 
servations on  these  two  books. 

I.  In  the  Jewish  canon  of  Scripture  these  two  books  form 
but  one,  termed  in  Hebrew  the  Book  of  Samuel,  probably 
because  the  greater  part  of  the  first  book  wa«  written  by  that 
prophet,  whose  history  and  transactions  it  relates.  The  books 
of  Samuel  appear  to  have  derived  their  appellation  from 
1  Chron  xxix.  29. :  where  the  transactions  of  David's  reign 
are  said  to  be  ivritieji  in  ike  book  (Heb.  words')  of  Samuel  the 
setr.  In  the  Septuagint  version  they  are  called  the  first  and 
second  books  of  Kings,  or  of  the  Kingdoms;  in  the  Vulgate 
they  are  designated  as  the  first  and  second  books  of  Kings, 
and,  by  Jerome,  they  are  termed  the  books  of  the  Kingdoms ; 
as  being  two  of  the  four  books  in  which  the  history  of  the 
kings  ©f  Israel  and  Judah  is  related. 

II.  Jahn  is  of  opinion,  that  the  books  of  Samuel  and  the 
two  books  of  Kings  were  written  by  one  and  the  same  per- 
son, and  published  about  the  forty-fourth  year  of  the  Babylo- 
nish captivity :  and  he  has  endeavoured  tb  support  his  con- 
jecture with  much  ingenuity,  though  unsuccessfully,  by  the 
uniformity  of  plan  and  style  which  he  thinks  are  discernible 
in  these  books.  The  more  prevalent,  as  well  as  more  proba- 
ble opinion,  is  that  of  the  Talmudisis,  which  was  adopted 
by  the  most  learned  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  (who 
unquestionably  had  better  means  of  ascertaining  this  point 
than  we  have)  :  viz.  that  the  first  twenty-four  chapters  of  the 

6  Bedford's  Scripture  Chronology,  book  v.  c.  5. 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  TWO  BOOKS  OF  SAMUEL. 


219 


first  book  of  Samuel  were  written  by  the  prophet  whose  name 
they  bear ;  and  tlr.it  the  remainder  of  that  book,  to<rother  with 
the  whole  of  the  second  book,  was  committed  to  writing  by 
the  propliets  Gad  and  Nathan,  agreeably  to  the  practice  of 
the  prophets  who  wrote  memoirs  of  the  Iransaclions  of  their 
respective  times.  That  all  these  three  persons  were  writers 
is  evident  from  I  Chron.  xxix.  2'.K;  where  it  is  said:  Now 
the  ac/.i  of  David,  first  and  lu^l,  in  hold  lliiij  are  ivritlen  in  the 
book  of  Samuel  llie  seer,  and  In  thr.  Ixiol;  of  Nalhan  the  -prophet, 
and  of  Gad  the  seer :  the  memoirs  of  thest;  prophets  are  here 
referred  to  as  distinct  books  :  but  it  would  Le  natural  for 
Ezra,  by  whom  the  canon  of  .lewisli  Scrijitun^  was  cf)mpleted, 
to  throw  all  their  contents  into  the  two  hooks  of  Samuel. 
It  is  certain  that  Ihe  first  book  of  Samuel  was  written  l)efore 
the  first  book  of  Kings;  a  circumstance  related  in  the  former 
book  being  referred  to  in  the  latter.  (1  Sam.  ii.  31.  with  1 
Kings  ii.27.) 

Tlie  first  acts  of  David  declared  in  1  Chron.  xxix.  29.  to 
have  been  recorded  by  vSamuel,  were  such  as  happened  before 
tlie  death  of  Samuel ;  and  these  end  with  the  twenty-fourth 
chapter  of  the  first  book  of  Samuel.  What  parts  of  the  re- 
maininfT  history  of  Uavid  were  written  by  Nathan,  and  what 
by  Gad,  is  at  present  very  didicult  to  distinguish  with  exact- 
ness. Mr.  Iteeves  has  conjectured,  with  great  probability, 
that  as  it  appears  from  1  Sam.  xxii.  5.  that  CJad  was  then  with 
David  in  the  hold  or  place  where  he  kept  himself  secret  from 
Saul;  and  since  it  is  thought  that  Gad,  being  bred  under 
Samuel,  was  privy  to  his  having  anointed  David  king,  and 
had,  therefore,  resolved  to  accompany  him  during  his  trou- 
bles; it  has,  from  these  circumstances,  been  supposed  that 
the  history  of  what  happened  to  David,  from  the  death  of 
Samuel  to  his  being  made  kin^  at  Hebron  over  all  Israel,  was 
penned  by  the  prophet  Gad.  He  seems  the  most  proper  per- 
son for  that  undertaking,  having  been  an  eye-witness  to  most 
of  the  transactions. 

The  first  mention  of  the  prophet  Nathan  occurs  in  2  Sam. 
vii.  2.  a  short  time  after  David  was  settled  at  Jerusalem. 
Nathan  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  subsequent  part  of 
David's  reign  ;  and  he  was  one  of  those  who  were  appointed 
by  David  to  assist  at  the  anointing  of  Solomon,  (l  Kings 
i.  32.)  As  this  event  took  place  not  long  before  David  sdeatn, 
it  is  probable  Nathan  might  survive  the  royal  Psalmist ;  and, 
as  he  knew  all  the  transactions  of  his  reign  from  his  settle- 
ment at  .Jerusalem  to  his  death,  it  is  most  likely  that  he  wrote 
the  history  of  the  latter  part  of  David's  reign;  especially  as 
there  is  no  mention  of  Gad,  after  the  pestilence  sent  for 
David's  numbering  the  people,  which  was  about  two  years 
before  his  death,  during  which  interval  Gad  might  have  died. 
Gad  must  have  been  advanced  in  years,  and  might  leave  the 
continuation  of  the  national  memoirs  to  Nathan.  For  these 
reasons,  it  is  probably  thought  that  Nathan  wrote  all  the  re- 
maining chapters  of  the  second  book  of  Samuel,  after  the  first 
five." 

111.  The  FIRST  BOOK  of  Samuel  contains  the  history  of  the 
Jewish  church  and  polity,  from  the  birth  of  Samuel,  during 
the  judicature  of  Eli,  to  the  death  of  Saul,  the  first  king  ol 
Israel ;  a  period  of  nearly  eighty  years,  viz.  from  the  year  of 
the  world  2809  to  2949.  Its  Scope  is,  first,  to  continue  the 
history  of  the  Israelites  under  the  two  last  Judges,  Eli  and 
Samuel,  and  their  first  monarch  Saul,  and  the  reason  why 
their  form  of  government  was  changed  from  an  aristocracy  to 
a  monarchy  ;  thus  affording  a  strong  confirmation  of  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  Pentateuch,  in  which  we  find  that  this 
change  had  been  foretold  by  Moses,  in  his  prophetic  declara- 
tion to  the  assembled  nation,  a  short  time  before  his  death, 
and  upwards  of  four  hundred  years  before  the  actual  institu- 
tion of  the  regal  government.  This  book  also  exhibits  the 
preservation  of  the  church  of  God  amidst  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  Israelitish  polity ;  together  with  siornal  instances  of 
the  divine  mercy  towards  those  who  feared  Jehovah,  and  of 
judgments  inflicted  upon  his  enemies.  It  consists  of  three 
parts :  viz. 

Part  I.   The  Transactions  under  the  Judicature  of  Eli.  (clu 

i. — iv.) 

Sect.  1.  The  birth  of  Samuel  (eh.  i.),  with  the  thanksgiving 
and  prophetical  hymn  of  his  mother  Hannah,  (ii.)  The 
tenth  verse  of  this  chapter  is  a  prediction  of  the  Messiah. 
"This  admirable  hymn  excels  in  simplicity  of  composition, 
closeness  of  connection,  and  uniformity  of  sentiment ;  breath- 
ing the  pious  effusions  of  a  devout  mind,  deeply  impressed 
with  a  conviction  of  God's  mercies  to  herself  in  particular, 
and  of  his  providential  government  of  the  world  in  general ; 
»  Mr.  Reeves,  Preface  to  1  Sam. 


exalting  the  poor  in  spirit  or  the  humble-minded,  and  aba.sing 
the  rich  and  arrogant;  rewarding  the  righteous,  and  punish- 
ing the  wicked."  2 

Sect.  2.  The  call  of  Samuel,  bis  denunciations  against  Eli  by 
the  connnand  of  God,  and  his  establishment  in  the  prophetic 
office,  (iii.) 

Sect.  3.  The  death  of  Eli,  and  the  capture  of  the  ark  of  God 
by  the  Philistines,  (iv.) 

Part  11.   7'hc  JJislory  of  the  hraeliies  during  the  Judicature 
of  Samuel. 

Sect.  1.  The  destruction  of  the  Phili.stines'  idol  Dagon  (v.)  ; 
the  chiisti.scmcnt  of  the  Philistines,  their  restoration  of  liie 
ark,  and  the  slaughter  of  the  Bethshcmitcs  for  profanely 
looking  into  the  ark.  (vi.) 

Sect.  2.  The  reformation  of  divine  worship,  and  the  repent- 
ance of  the  Israelites  at  Mizjjeh,  with  the  discomfiture  of  the 
Philistines,  who  were  kept  under  during  the  remainder  of 
Sanmel's  judicature,  (vii.) 

Sect.  3.  The  Israelites'  request  for  a  regal  government;  the 
destination  of  Saul  to  the  kingly  ofTicc  (viii.  ix.)  ;  his  inau- 
guration (x.)  ;  and  victory  over  the  Ammonites,  (xi.) 

Sect.  4.  Samuel's  resignation  of  the  supreme  judicial  power 
(xii.)  ;  though,  in  a  civil  and  religious  capacity,  he  "judged 
Israel  all  the  days  of  bis  life."   (1  Sam.  vii.  1.5.) 

Part  III.   The  History  of  Saul,  and  the  Transactions  during 

his  Reign. 

Sect.  1.  The  prosperous  part  of  Saul's  reign,  comprising  his 
war  with  the  Philistines,  and  offering  of  sacrifice  (xiii.), 
with  his  victory  over  them,  (xiv.) 

Sect.  2.  The  rejection  of  Saul  from  the  kingdom  in  conse- 
quence of  his  rebellion  against  the  divine  command  in 
sparing  the  king  of  Amalck,  and  the  best  part  of  the  spoil. 

(XV.) 

Sect.  3.  The  inauguration  of  David,  and  the  events  that  took 
place  before  the  death  of  Saul  (xvi. — xxviii.);  including, 

§  i.  The  anointing  of  David  to  be  king  over  Israel  (xvi.) ;  liis  combat 
and  victory  over  Goliath,  (xvii.) 

§  ii.  Tlie  ptrsecution.s  of  Uavid  by  Saul ;— his  exile  and  covenant  with 
Jonathan  (xviii.) ;  bis  flight  (xix.)  ;  friendship  with  Jonathan  (xx.);; 
his  tfdiiis  to  Nob,  where  he  and  his  men  ate  of  the  shew-bread,  aiid 
Golialh'8  sword  was  delivered  to  him;  bis  llight,  first  to  tJie  couctof 
Achish  king  of  Gath,  and  subsequently  into  the  land  of  Moab  (xxi. 
xxii.  1 — 4.) ;  the  slaughter  of  the  priests  at  Nob,  with  the  exception 
ofAbiathar.  (xxii.  5— 2.3.) 

§  iii.  The  liberation  of  Keilah  from  the  Philistines  by  David  (xxiii.  1  — 
b.) ;  bis  flight  into  the  wilderness  of  Ziph  and  Maon  (xxiii.  7 — 29.); 
Saul's  life  in  David's  power  at  Engedi,  who  spares  it  (xxiv.) ;  the  in- 
human conduct  of  Nabal  (xxv.) ;  Saul's  life  spared  a  second  lime 
(xxvi.);  David's  second  flight  to  Acliish  king  of  Gath.  (xxvil.) 

Sect.  4.  The  last  acts  of  Saul  to  his  death ;  including, 

§  I.  Saul's  consultation  of  the  witch' of  Eiidor.  (xxviii.) 

§  ii.  The  encampment  of  the  Philistines  at  Aphek,  who  send  back 

David  from  their  army,  (xxix.) 
§  iii.  David's  pursuit  and  defeat  of  Ihe  Amalekites  who  had  plumlereil 

Ziklag,  and  from  whom  he  recovers  the  spoil,  (xxx.) 
§  iv.  The  suicide  of  Saul,  and  total  discomfiture  of  the  Israelites. 

(xxxi.) 

IV.  The  SECOND  BOOK  of  Samuel  contains  the  history  of 
David,  the  second  king  of  Israel,  during  a  period  of  nearly 
forty  years,  viz.  from  the  year  of  the  world  2948  to  2988 ;  ana, 
by  recording  the  translation  of  the  kingdom  from  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  to  that  of  Judah,  it  relates  the  partial  accomplish- 
ment of  the  prediction  delivered  in  Gen.  xlix.  10.  The  victo- 
ries of  David,  his  wise  administration  of  civil  government, 
his  efforts  to  promote  true  religion,  his  grievous  sins,  and  deep 
repentance,  together  with  the  various  troubles  and  judgments 

'^  Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  I.  p.  332. 

=■  Kew  passages  of  Scripture  have  been  discussed  with  more  warmth 
than  the  relation  contained  in  this  2Bth  chapter  of  the  first  book  of  Samuel : 
some  commentators  have  conje<:tured  that  the  whole  was  a  jugsile  of  tlie 
Pythoness  whom  Saul  consulted ;  others,  that  it  was  a  mere  vi.«ionary 
scene;  Augustine  and  others,  that  it  was  Satan  himself  who  assumed  the 
appearance  of  Samuel ;  and  others,  that  it  was  the  ghost  of  Samuel,  raised 
by  infernal  power,  or  by  force  of  magical  incantation.  All  these  hypo- 
theses, liowever,  contradict  the  historical  fact  as  related  by  the  author  of 
this  book :  for  it  is  evident  from  the  Hebrew  original  of  I  Sam.  xxviii.  14. 
more  closely  translated,  and  compared  throughout  with  itself,  that  it  was 
"  Samuel  himself"  whom  Saul  beheld,  and  who  (or  his  spirit)  was  actually 
raised  immediately,  and  before  the  witch  bad  any  time  to  utter  any  incan- 
tations, by  the  power  of  God,  in  a  glorified  form,  and  wearing  the  appear- 
ance of  the  ominous  mantle  in  which  was  the  rent  that  signified  the  rend- 
ing of  the  kingdom  from  Saul's  family.  The  rea/iVy  of  Samuel's  appearance 
oii^tliis  occasion  was  a  doctrine  of  the  primitive  .lewish  church  (compare 
Ecclus.  xlvi.  20),  and  was  also  thus  understood  by  Josephus,  who  has  not 
only  translated  the  original  passage  correctly,  but  likewise  expressly  states 
that  the  soul  of  Samuel  inquired  why  it  was  raised.  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  U. 
§  2.  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.  3r«— .3ri<).,  where 
the  subject  is  fully  discussed  and  proved.  See  also  Calmet's  Di.-:sertation 
stir  I'Apparition  de  Samuel,  Commentaire  Littoral,  tom.  ii.  pp.  331 — 336. 
That  it  was  Samuel  himself  is  further  evident  from  the  clearness  and  truth 
of  the  prediction  (which  could  only  come  from  God) ;  for  "  on  the  morrow^" 
that  is,  very  shortly  aAer,  Saul  and  his  sons  were  slaiiL 


220 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap,  U. 


inflicted  upon  him  and  his  people  by  God,  are  all  fully  de- 
scribed. This  book  consists  of  three  principal  divisions,  re- 
lating the  triumphs  and  the  troubles  of  David,  and  his  trans- 
actions subsequent  to  his  recovery  of  the  throne,  wlience  he 
was  driven  for  a  short  time  by  the  rebellion  of  his  son 
Absalom. 
Part  1.   The  Triumphs  of  David,  (ch.  i. — x.) 

Sect.  1.  His  elegant,  tender,  and  pathetic  elegy  over  Saul 

and  Jonathan,  (i.) 
Sect.  2.  His  triumph  over  the  house  of  Saul,  and  confirma- 
tion in  the  kingdom,   (ii. — iv.) 
Sect.  3.  His  victories  over  the  Jebusites  and  Philistines  (v.), 
and  the  bringing  up  of  the  ark  to  Jerusalem,  (vi.)    David's 
prayer  to  God  on  that  occasion,  and  the  divine  promises 
made  to  him  (vii.) ;  which,  though  they  primarily  related 
to  the  establishment  of  the  throne  in  his  posterity,  yet  ulti- 
mately prefigured  the  everlasting  kingdom  of  the  Messiah. 
(Compare  vii.  12 — 16.  with  Heb.  i.  5.) 
Sect.  4.  His  victories  over  the  Philistines,  Ammonites,  and 
other  neighbouring  nations,   (viii. — x.) 
Part  IL   The  Troubles  of  David,  and  their  Cause,  together  with 
his  Repentance,  and  subsequent  Recovery  of  the  Divine  Fa- 
vour, (ch.  xi. — xix.) 

Sect.  1.    The    cause    of  David's    troubles, — ^his  first  great 
offence  against  God, — his  sin  in  the  matter  of  Uriah,  and 
the  divine  judgments  denounced  against  him  on  that  ac- 
count,  (xi.  xii.) 
Sect.  2.  The  punishments  in  consequence  of  that  sin,  first, 
from  domestic  troubles  in  the  sin  of  Amnon   (xiii.)  ;  and, 
secondly,  public  troubles,  in  the  rebellion  of  Absalom,  which, 
for  a  short  time,  exiled  David  from  the  throne  (xiv. — xvii.)  ; 
the  death  of  Absalom  (xviii.)  and  David's  mourning  on  his 
account,  (xix.) 
Part  IIL  David^s  Restoration  to  his  Throne,  and  subsequent 
Transactions,  (ch.  xx. — xxiv.) 
Sect.  I.  David's  return  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  insurrection  of 

Sheba  quelled,  (xx.) 
Sect.  2.  His  punishment  of  the  sons  of  Saul,  and  successful 

battles  with  the  Philistines,  (xxi.) 
Sect.  3.  His  psalm  of  praise,  on  a  general  review  of  the  mer- 
cies of  his  life,  and  the  many  and  wonderful  deliverances 
which    he    had    experienced,    (xxii.)      This    divine    ode, 
which  contains  the  noblest  images,  perhaps,  that  were  ever 
expressed  in  words,   also  occurs  in    the  book   of  Psalms 
(Psal.  xviii.),  with  a  few  variations.     We  have  it  here,  as 
originally  composed  for  his  own  closet  and  his  own  harp ; 
but  there  we  have  it  as  delivered  to  the  chief  musician  for 
the  service  of  the  church,  with  some  amendments.     For, 
though  primarily  calculated  for  the  royal  prophet's  immedi- 
ate use,  yet  it  might  indifferently  assist   the  devotion  of 
others,  when  giving  thanks  for  their  deliverances  :  or,  it  was 
intended  that  his  people  should  thus  join  with  him  in  his 
thanksgivings ;  because,  being  a  public  person,  his  deliver- 
ances were  to  be  accounted  public  blessings,  and  called  for 
public  acknowledgments. 
Sect.  4.  The  last  words  of  David,  forming  a  supplement  or 
conclusion  to  the  preceding  sublime  hymn   (xxiii.  1 — 7.), 
which  are  followed  by  an  enumeration  of  his  mighty  men. 
(xxiii.  8—39.) 
Sect.  5.  David's  second  great  oflTence  against  God,  in  number- 
ing the  people  ;  its  punishment ;  David's  penitential  inter- 
cession and  sacrifice,   (xxiv.)' 
V.  This  second  book  of  Samuel  bears  an  exact  relation  to 
the  preceding,  and  is  likewise  connected  with  that  which  suc- 
ceeds.    We  see  throughout  the  effects  of  that  enmity  against 
other  nations,  which  had  been  implanted  in  the  minds  of  the 
Israelites  by  the  Mosaic  law,  and  which  gradually  tended  to 
the  extirpation  of  idolatry.     "  This  book,  likewise,  as  well  as 
the  former,  contains  other  intrinsic  proofs  of  its  verity.     By 
describing  without  disguise  the  misconduct  of  those  charac- 
ters, who  were  highly  reverenced  among  the  people,  the 
sacred  writer  demonstrates  his  impartial  sincerity :  and,  by 
appealing  to  monuments  that  attested  the  veracity  of  his  rela- 
tions when  he  wrote,  he  furnished  every  possible  evidence  of 

>  The  offence  of  David  seems  to  liave  chiefly  consisted  in  his  persisting 
to  require  a  muster  of  all  his  subjects  able  to  bear  arms,  without  the  divine 
command,  without  necessity,  in  a  time  of  profound  peace,  to  indulge  an 
idle  vanity  and  presumption,  as  if  he  put  his  trust  more  in  the  number  of 
his  subjects  than  in  the  divine  protection  ;  and  the  oflence  of  his  people 
might  also  have  been  similar,  always  elated  as  they  were,  and  provoking  the 
anger  of  the  Lord  in  prosperity  by  their  forgetfulness  of  him.  Deut  vi.  10 
— 12.    Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  p.  383. 


his  faithful  adherence  to  tnith.  The  books  of  Samuel  connect 
the  chain  of  s.icred  history  by  detailing  the  circumstances  of 
an  interesting  period.  They  describe  the  reformation  and  im- 
provements of  the  Jewish  church  established  by  David  :  and 
as  they  delineate  minutely  tlie  life  of  that  monarch,  they  point 
out  his  typical  relation  to  (Christ.  Many  heathen  authors 
have  borrowed  from  the  books  of  Samuel,  or  have  collected 
from  other  sources,  many  particulars  of  those  accounts  which 
he  gives."2  In  the  falls  of  David  we  behold  the  strength  and 
prevalence  of  human  corruption :  and  in  his  repentance  and 
recovery,  the  extent  and  efficacy  of  divine  grace. 

The  two  books  of  Samuel  are  of  very  considerable  im- 
portance for  illustrating  the  book  of  Psalms,  to  which  they 
may  be  considered  as  a  key.  Thus,  Psalm  iii.  will  derive 
much  light  from  2  Sam.  xv.  14.  et  seq. ; — Psal.  iv.  from  1  Sam.  . 
xxii.  xxiii.  xx^^ii.. ; — Psal.  vii.  from  2  Sam.  xvi.  2.  11. ; — Psal. 
xxiv.  from  2  Sam.  vi.  12.  et  seq.  ; — Psal.  xxx.  from  1  Sam.  v. 
11.; — Psal.  xxxii.  and  Ii.  from  2Sam.  xii.; — Psal.  xxxiv. 
from  2  Sam.  xxi.  10 — 15. ; — Psal.  xxxv.  from  2  Sam.  xv. — 
xvii. ; — Psal.  xlii.  and  xliii.  from  2  Sam.  xvii.  22 — 24. ; — 
Psal.  Iii.  from  1  Sam.  xxii.  9. ; — Psal.  liv.  from  1  Sam.  xxiii. 
19.  and  xxvi.  1.; — Psal.lv.  from  2  Sam.  xvii.  21,  22.; — 
Psal.  Ivi..  from  1  Sam.  xxi.  11 — 15. ; — Psal.  Ivii.  from  1  Sam. 
xxii.  1.  and  xxiv.  3. ; — Psal.  lix.  from  1  Sam.  xix.  11. ; — 
Psal.  Ix.  from  2  Sam.  viii.  3— 13.  and  x.  15— 19.;— Psal. 
Ixiii.  from  1  Sam.  xxii.  5.  and  xxiii.  14 — 16. ; — Psal.  Ixviii. 
from  2  Sam.  vi.  3 — 12. ; — Psal.  Ixxxix.  from  2  Sam.  vii.  12. 
et  seq.;  and  Psal.  cxlii.  from  1  Sam.  xxii.  1.  and  xxiv.  1. 
et  seq. 


SECTION  VI. 


ON   THE    TWO    BOOKS    OF    KINGS. 


I.  Order  and  title  of  these  books. — II.  Author. — III.  Argu- 
ment and  synopsis  of  the  first  bootc  of  Kings. — IV.  Argu- 
ment and  synopsis  of  the  second  book  of  Kings. — V.  Gene- 
ral observations  on  these  books. 

I.  The  two  books  of  Kings  are  closely  connected  with 
those  of  Samuel.  The  origin  and  gradual  increase  of  tlie 
united  kingdom  of  Israel  under  Saul  and  his  successor  David, 
having  been  described  in  the  latter,  the  books  now  under  con- 
sideration relate  its  height  of  glory  under  Solomon,  its  divi- 
sion into  two  kingdoms  under  his  son  and  successor  Reho- 
boain,  the  causes  of  that  division,  and  the  consequent  dtcline 
of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  until  their  final  sub- 
version ;  the  ten  tribes  being  carried  captive  into  Assyria  by 
Shalmaneser,  and  Judah  and  IBenjamin  to  Babylon  by  NeLu- 
chadnez'zar.  In  the  most  correct  and  ancient  editions  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  the  two  books  of  Kings  constitute  but  one, 
with  a  short  space  or  break  sometimes  oetween  them.  Some 
of  the  early  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  seem  to  have 
begun  the  first  book  of  Kings  at  the  death  of  David,  (ii.  12.) 
The  more  modern  copies  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  have  the  same 
division  with  our  authorized  version :  though  in  the  time  ef 
the  Masoretes,  they  certainly  formed  only  one  book  ;  as  both 
(like,  the  books  of  Samuel)  are  included  under  one  emimera- 
tion  of  sections,  versions,  &c.  in  the  Masora.  Tuey  have  evi- 
dently been  divided,  at  some  unknown  period,  into  two  parts, 
for  the  convenience  of  reading. 

The  titles  to  these  books  have  been  various,  though  it  ap- 
pears from  Origen  that  they  derived  their  name  from  the  ini- 
tial words  in  i'^'DI,  v«-JifLfCH  d«v/d,  Nviv  king  David ;  in  the 
same  manner  as  (we  have  seen)  the  ])ook  of  Genesis  does.  In 
the  Septuagint  Greek  version,  it  is  simply  termed  BASiAEifiN 
oi  reigns  or  kingdoms,  of  which  it  calls  Samuel  the  first  and 
second,  and  these  two  the  third  and  fourth.  The  Vulgate 
Latin  version  entitles  it.  Liber  Regum  tertius ,-  secundum  Hc- 
braeos.  Liber  Maluchirn,  that  is,  the  third  book  of  Kings  ;  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrews,  the  first  book  of  Malachim.  The  old 
Syriac  version  has  :  Here  follows  the  book  of  the  Kings  who 
flourished  among  the  ancient  people ;  and  in  this  are  also 
exhibited  the  history  of  the  prophets,  who  flourished  in  their 
times.  In  the  Arabic  it  is  thus  entitled  :—Jn  the  name  of  the 
most  merciful  and  compassionate  God  ;  the  Ijook  of  Solomon,  the 
son  of  David  the  prophet,  whose  benedictions  be  upon  us. — imen.^ 

II.  Concerning  the  author  or  authors  of  these  books,  the 
sentiments  of  learned  men  are  extremely  divided.  Some  have 
been  of  opinion  that  David,  Solomon,  and  Hezekiah  wrote 

.the  history  of  their  own  reigns ;  others,  that  Nathan,  Gad, 

a  Bp.  Gray's  Key,  p.  181. 

3  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Fret  to  1  Kings,  p.  1. 


Sect.  VI.] 


ON  THE  TWO  BOOKS  OF  KINGS. 


221 


Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  other  prophrts  who  flourished  in  the 
kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Jiidah,  iindortook  the  oliife  of  histo- 
riographers. We  know  that  sevc-ral  of  the  pro|)liets  wrote 
the  lives  of  those  kins^s  who  rcigiK'd  in  their  times;  for  the 
names  and  writings  of  lliese  propliets  are  mentioned  in  seve- 
ral plac(!S  in  the  hooks  of  Kings  and  (Chronicles;  wliieli  also 
cite  or  refer  to  the  original  annals  of  the  kings  of  Isracd  and 
Judali,  of  which  those  hooks  have  transmitted  to  us  abridg- 
ments or  summaries.  Thus,  in  I  Kings  xi.  41.  we  read  of 
the  ad.s  of  Sald/noii,  which  acts  were  recorded  in  Iftc  hook  of 
Ntdhan  the  pniplicl,  antl  in  ///'■  jinip/uri/  (if  Jlliijdh  tht:  Hliiltm- 
ite,  and  in  the  iv'.s/w/.v  (f  Iildo  tht  .ster  (2  CI  iron.  ix.  21)  )  ; 
which  Iddo  was  employed,  in  conjunction  with  Shcmaiah 
the  prnpluit,  in  writing  the  acts  of  Hehoboam.  (-2  (^liron.  xii. 
15.)  We  also  read  of  the  book  of  Jehu  the  prophet,  relating 
the  transactions  of  Jeliosiiaiihat  (2  Chron.  xx.  34.  1  Kinirs 
xvi.  1.);  and  Isaiah  the  ])ro])bet  wrot(!  the  acts  of  king  llx- 
ziah  (2  Ohron.  xxvi.  22.),  and  also  of  1  lez*  kiaii  (2  Chron. 
xxxii.  32.);  and  it  is  highly  prol)ul)!e  that  he  wrote  tlie  his- 
tory of  tlie  two  intermediate  kings  Jotham  and  Ahaz,  in 
whose  reigns  he  lived.  (Isa.  i.  1.) 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  two  descriptions  of  writers 
were  concerned  in  the  com])osilion  of  the  bcjoks  of  Kings : — 
^r.st,  those  original,  primitive,  and  contemporary  authors, 
who  wrote  the  annals,  journals,  and  memoirs  of  their  own 
tiuKis,  from  wliicli  the  authors  of  our  sacred  history  subse- 
quently derived  their  materials.  These  ancient  memoirs  have 
not  descended  to  us ;  but  they  unciuestionably  were  in  the 
ivands  of  those  sacred  penmen,  whose  writings  are  in  our 
possession,  since  they  cite  them  and  refer  to  them.  The 
secuiid  class  of  writers  consists  of  those,  by  whom  the  hooks 
of  Kings  were  actually  composed  in  the  form  in  which  we 
now  have  them.  The  Jews  ascribe  them  to  Jeremiah  ;  and 
their  opinion  has  been  adopted  by  Crotius  and  other  eminent 
comm(>ntators  :  others  again  assign  them  to  the  prophet  Isaiah. 
But  the  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  these  books  were  di- 
gested into  their  present  order  by  Ezra.  The  following  are 
the  grounds  on  which  this  opinion  is  founded  and  supported  : — 

1.  The  general  uniformity  of  style  and  manner  indicates 
that  these  books  were  written  by  one  person. 

2.  The  author  evidently  lived  after  the  captivity  of  Ba- 
bylon :  for,  at  the  end  of  the  second  book  of  Kings,  he 
speaks  of  the  return  from  the  captivity.  (2  Kings  xxv. 
22,  &c.) 

3.  He  says  that  in  his  time  the  ten  tribes  were  still  captive 
in  Assyria,  whitiier  they  had  been  carried  as  a  punishment 
for  their  sins.  (2  Kinjrs  xvii.  23.) 

4.  In  the  seventeenux  chapter  of  the  second  book  of  Kings, 
he  introduces  some  reflections  on  the  calamities  of  Judah  and 
Israel,  which  demonstrate  that  he  wrote  after  those  calamities 
had  taken  place.     Compare  2  Kings  xvii.  G — 21. 

5.  He  almost  every  where  refers  to  the  ancient  memoirs 
which  he  had  before  him,  and  abridged. 

G.  There  is  also  every  reason  to  believe,  that  the  author 
was  a  PRIEST  or  a  prophet.  He  studies  less  to  describe  acts 
of  heroism,  successful  battles,  conquests,  political  address, 
&c.  than  what  reg.irds  the  temple,  religious  ceremonies,  fes- 
tivals, the  worshii)  of  (iod,  the  piety  of  princes,  the  fidelity 
of  the  jjrophets,  the  punishment  of  crimes,  the  manifestation 
of  God's  anger  agamst  the  wicked,  and  his  regard  for  the 
righteous.  He  every  where  appears  greatly  attached  to  the 
house  of  David.  He  treats  on  the  kings  of  Israel  only  inci- 
dentally ;  his  princij)al  object  being  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
and  its  particular  atlairs. 

Now,  all  these  marks  correspond  with  F^zra,  a  learned 
priest,  who  lived  both  during  and  subsequently  to  the  capti- 
vity, and  might  have  collected  nvimerous  documents,  which, 
from  the  lapse  of  time  and  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews,  are 
now  lost  to  us.  Such  are  the  reasoiis  on  which  Calmet  has 
ascribed  the  books  of  Kings  to  Ezra,  and  his  opinion  is  ge- 
nerally received.  There  are,  however,  a  few  circumstances 
that  seem  to  militate  against  this  hypothesis,  which  should 
be  noticed,  as  not  agreeing  with  the  time  of  Ezra.  Thus, 
in  1  Kings  viii.  8.  the  ark  of  the  covenant  is  represented  as 
being  in  the  temple  "  to  this  day  :"  and  in  1  Kings  xii.  19. 
the  kingdoms  of  Israel  are  mentioned  as  still  subsisting.  In 
1  Kings  vi.  1.  37,  38.  the  author  mentions  the  months  of  Zif 
and  Bui,  names  which  were  not  in  use  after  the  captivity. 
Lastlj^,  the  writer  expresses  himself  throughout  as  a  contem- 
porary, and  as  an  author  who  had  been  an  eye-witness  of 
what  he  wrote.  But  these  apparent  contradictions  admit  of 
an  easy  solution.  Ezra  generally  transcribes  verbatim  the 
memoirs  which  he  had  in  his  possession  without  attempting 


to  reconcile  them.'  This  clearly  demonstrates  his  fidelity, 
exactness,  and  integrity.  In  other  places  some  reflections  or 
illustrations  are  insert<-d,  which  naturally  arise  from  his  sub- 
ject; this  shows  him  to  have  been  fully  master  of  the  matter 
lie  was  discussing,  and  that,  being  divinely  ins|)ired,  he  was 
not  afraid  of  intermixing  his  own  words  with  those  of  the 
prophets,  whose  writings  lay  before  liiin. 

'I'he  divine  authority  of  these  books  is  attested  by  the 
many  predictions  they  contain :  they  are  cited  as  authentic 
and  canonical  by  Jesus  Christ  (LuKe  iv.  25 — 27.),  and  by 
his  apostles  (Actsvii.47.  Hom.  xi.  2 — 1.  James  v.  17,  IB.), 
and  they  have  constantly  been  received  into  the  sacred  ca-ion 
by  the  Jewish  and  Christian  churches  in  every  age.  Their 
truth  and  authenticity  also  derive  additional  confirmation  from 
the  corn  spending  testimonies  of  ancient  profane  writers.* 

HI.  The  ^•llt^s^  Book  uv  Ki.ngs  embraces  a  period  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty-six  years,  from  the  anointing  of  Solomon 
and  his  admission  as  a  partner  in  the  throne  with  I)a\id, 
A.  M.  2'JH'J,  to  the  death  of  .lehoshapliat,  a.  m.  3115.  It  relates- 
the  latter  part  of  David's  life;  his  death,  and  the  accession 
of  Solomon,  whose  reign  comprehended  the  most  prosperous 
and  glorious  period  of  the  Israelitish  history;  and  prefigured 
the  peaceful  reign  of  the  Messiah ;  Solomon's  erection  and 
consecration  of  the  temi)le  at  Jerusalem  (the  beauty  and  per- 
fection of  which  was  a  type  of  the  beauty  and  perfection  of 
the  church  of  (iod) ;  his  aw  ful  defi'Ction  from  the  true  reli- 
gion ;  the  sudden  decay  of  the  Jewish  nation  after  his  di3ath, 
when  it  was  divided  into  two  kingdoms, — under  Hehoboam, 
who  reigned  over  the  kingdom  of  Jud,,h,  comprisinor  the 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  and  under  .leroboam,  who  was 
sovereign  of  the  other  ten  tribes  that  revolted  from  the  house 
of  David,  and  which  in  the  Sacred  Writings  are  designated 
as  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  the  reigns  of  Kenoboam's  succes- 
sors, Abijam,  Asa,  and  Jehoshaphat;  and  those  of  Nadab, 
Baasha,  Elah,  Zimri,  Omri,  Tinni,  the  wicked  Ahab,  and 
Ahaziah  (in  part),  who  succeeded  Jeroboam  in  the  throno 
of  Israel,  for  the  particular  order  of  succession  of  these 
monarchs,  and  of  the  prophets  who  flourished  during  their 
respective  reigns,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chronological 
table  inserted  in  Appendix  II.  to  this  volume,  'i'he  first 
book  of  Kings  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts  ; 
containing,  1.  The  history  of  the  undivided  kingdom  under 
Solomon ;  and,  2.  The  history  of  the  divided  kingdom  un- 
der Hehoboam  and  his  successors,  and  Jeroboam  and  his 
successors. 
Part  I.   The  History  of  Sobrnoii's  Reign  (ch.  i. — xi.)  contains 

a  narrative  of. 

Sect.  1.  The  latter  days  of  David;  the  inauguration  of  Solo- 
mon as  his  associate  in  the  kingdom,  and  his  designation  to 
be  his  successor,  (i.  ii.  1 — 11.) 

Sect.  2.  The  reign  of  Solomon  from  the  death  of  David  to 
his  undcrtaldng  the  erection  of  the  t/jmple.  (ii.  12 — 46 
iii.  iv.) 

Sect.  3.  The  preparations  for  building  the  temple,   (v.) 

Sect.  4.  The  building  of  the  temple  ('.  i.)  and  of  Solomon's 
own  house,  together  with  the  pre])aration  of  the  vessels  and 
utensils  for  the  temple  service,  (vii.) 

Sect.  5.  The  dedicatiim  of  the  temple,  and  the  sublime  prayer 
of  Solomon  on  that  occasion,   (viii.) 

Sect.  6.  Transactions  during  the  remainder  of  Solomon's 
reign : — his  commerce  ;  visit  from  tlic  queen  of  Sheba ;  the 
splendour  of  his  monarchy  ;  his  falling  into  idolatry,  and 
the  adversaries  by  whom  he  was  opposed  until  his  death, 
(ix.  X.  xi.) 
Part  II.    The  History  of  the  two  Kingdoms  of  Judah  mid 

Israel,  (ch.  xii.  xxii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  accession  of  Rehoboam,  and  division  of  the  two 
kingdoms,  (xii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  reigns  of  Rehoboam  king  of  Judah,  and  of  Jero- 
boam I.  king  of  Israel,  (xiii.  xiv.) 

Sect.  3.  The  reigns  of  Abijam  and  Asa  kings  of  Judah,  and 

«  The  consideration  Ihat  these  boolts  were  digested  from  memoirs,  writ- 
ten liy  different  persons  who  lived  in  the  re^pi-clive  limes  of  wliich  tliey 
wrote,  will  lielp  lo  reconcile  wliat  is  said  of  llezekiah  in  2  Kings  i-^iii.  5. 
that,  uj'ler  him  none  teas  like  him  uf  all  the  Aings  of  Judah,  with  what  is 
said  ofJosiah  in  chap,  xxiii.  25.  that,  //Ae  untu  him  was  there  no  kiiig  be- 
fore him  ;  for,  wliat  is  said  of  Hezekiah  was  true,  till  the  eighteenth  year 
ofJosiah,  when  that  pious  sovereign  began  the  reformation  of  wliich  so 
much  is  said  m  the  sacred  history.    Mr.  Reeves,  Pref.  to  Books  of  Kings. 

2  Joseplius,  Autiq.  Jud.  lib.  viii.  c.  2.  Eusebius,  Prep.  Evang.  lib.  x. 
Grolius  (le  Verilate,  lib.  iii.  c.  16.,  and  AUix,  Reliections  upon  tliellooks  of 
the  Old  TeslamenI,  chap.  ii.  have  collected  several  instances  of  tlie  confir- 
mation of  the  sacred  historians  from  profane  authors.  On  this  subject  also 
consult  the  testimonies  given  in  Vol.  1.  pp.  69 — 78.  supra. 


222 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  CuAP.  n. 


the  contemporary  reigns  of  Nadab,  Baasha,  Elah,  Zimri, 
Omri,  and  the  commencement  of  Ahab's  reign,  (xv.  xvi.) 
Sect.  4.  The  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah,  and  of  his 
contemporaries  Ahab  and  Ahaziah  (in  part),  during  which 
the  prophet  EHjah  flourished,  (xvii. — xxii.) 

IV.  The  SE':'OND  Book  of  Kings  continues  the  contempo- 
rary history  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  from 
the  death  of  Jehoshaphat,  a.  m.  3115,  to  the  destruction  of 
the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  a.  m. 
3416,  a  period  of  three  hundred  years.  The  last  three  verses 
of  the  jpreceding  book  have  been  improperly  disjoined  from 
this.  The  history  of  the  two  kingdoms  is  interwoven  in  this 
book,  and  presents  a  long  succession  of  wicked  sovereigns 
in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  from  Ahaziah  to  Hoshea,  in  whose 
reion  Samaria  was  captured  by  Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria, 
and  the  ten  tribes  were  taken  captive  into  that  country.  In 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  we  find  some  few  pious  princes 
among  many  who  were  corrupt.  Sixteen  sovereigns  filled 
the  Jewish  throne,  from  Jehoram  to  Zedekiah,  in  whose  reign 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  was  totally  subverted,  and  the  people 
carried  into  captivity  to  Babylon.  During  this  period  nu- 
merous prophets  flourished,  as  Elijah,  Elisha,  Jonah,  Joel, 
Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Jeremiah,  Habakkuk, 
Daniel,  Ezekiel,  &c.  The  second  book  of  Kings  comprises 
twenty-five  chapters,  which  may  be  divided  into  two  parts ; 
contaning,  1.  The  history  of  the  two  monarchies,  until  the 
end  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  and,  2.  The  history  of  Judah 
alone  to  its  subversion. 

Part  I.   The  Contemporary  History  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Israel 
and3udah,  to  the  End  of  the  former,  (ch.  i. — xvii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  contemporary  reigns  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  of  his 
associate  Jehoram,  kings  of  Judah,  and  of  Ahaziah  and 
Joram,  kings  of  Israel;  the  translation  of  Elijah,  and  desig- 
nation of  Elisha  to  be  his  successor  in  the  prophetic  office ; 
miracles  wrought  by  him.   (i. — viii.  2.) 

Sect.  2.  The  contemporary  reigns  of  Jehoram  king  of  Judah 
alone,  and  his  successor  Ahaziah,  and  of  Jehoram  king  of 
Israel,  (viii.  3—29.) 

Sect.  3.  Jehu  appointed  king  over  Israel ;  Jehoram  put  to 
death  by  him ;  the  reign  of  Jehu  ;  death  of  Ahaziah  king  of 
Judah,  and  the  usurpation  of  Athaliah.  (ix.  x.  xi.  1 — 3.) 

Sect.  4.  The  reign  of  Jehoash  king  of  Judah,  and  the  con- 
temporary reigns  of  Jehoahaz  and  his  son  Jehoash  kings  of 
Israel ;  the  death  of  the  prophet  Elisha ;  and  the  miracle 
performed  at  his  grave,   (xi.  4 — 21.  xii.  xiii.) 

Sect.  5.  The  reigns  of  Amaziah,  Azariah,  or  Uzziah,  and 
Jotham,  kings  of  Judah,  and  the  contemporary  reigns  of 
Jehoash,  or  Joash,  Jeroboam  II.,  Zechariah,  Shallum,  Mena- 
hem,  Pekahiah,  and  Pekah.  (xiv.  xv.) 

Sect.  6.  The  reign  of  Ahaz  king  of  Judah  ;  interregnum  in 
the  kingdom  of  Israel  after  the  death  of  Pekah  terminated 
by  Hoshea  the  last  sovereign,  in  the  ninth  year  of  whose 
reign  Samaria  his  capital  was  taken  by  the  king  of  Assyria, 
whither  the  ten  tribes  were  taken  into  captivity  ;  the  sub- 
version of  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  and  the  mixture  of  religion 
introduced  by  the  Cuthites  who  were  transplanted  to  Sama- 
ria, (xvi.  xvii.) 

Part  II.   The  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Judah.  (ch.  xviii.  xxv.) 

Sect.  1.  The  reign  of  Hezekiah ;  his  war  with  the  Assyrians  ; 
their  army  destroyed  by  a  plague ;  the  recovery  of  Heze- 
kiah from  a  mortal  disease ;  the  Babylonish  captivity  foretold  ; 
his  death,   (xviii.  xix.  xx.1 

Sect.  2.  The  reigns  of  Manasseh  and  Amon.  (xxi.) 
Sect.  3.  The  reign  of  Josiah.   (xxii.  xxiii.  1 — 30.) 
Sect.  4.  The  reigns  of  Jehoahaz^- Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  and 
Zedekiah  the  last  king  of  Judah ;    Jerusalem  taken ;    the 
temple  burnt ;  and  the  Jews  carried  into  captivity  to  Baby- 
lon,  (xxiii.  31 — 37.  xxi  v.  xxv.) 

v.  The  two  books  of  Kings,  particularly  the  second, 
abound  with  impressive  and  lively  narrations ;  and  the  strict 
impartiality  with  which  the  author  of  each  book  has  related 
events  and  circumstances  dishonourable  to  his  nation,  affords 
a  convincing  evidence  of  his  fidelity  and  integrity.  They 
delineate  the  long-suffering  of  God  towards  his  people,  and 
his  severe  chastisements  for  their  iniquitous  abuse  of  his 


mercy ;  at  the  same  time  they  mark  most  clearly  the  vera 
cityof  God,  both  inhis  promises  and  in  his  threatenings,  and 
show  the  utter  vanity  of  trusting  in  an  arm  of  flesh,  and  the 
instability  of  human  kingdoms,  from  which  piety  and  justice 
are  banished. 


SECTION  VIL 


ON  THE  BOOKS  OF  CHRONICLES. 


I.   Title. — II.  Author  and  date. — III.   Scope— \Y .  Analysis  of 
the  two  books  of  Chroiiicles. — V.   Observatiojis  on  them. 

I.  The  ancient  Jews  comprised  the  two  books  of  Chroni- 
cles in  one  book  :  but  in  the  Hebrew  Bibles,  now  printed  for 
their  use,  they  have  adopted  the  same  division  which  is  found 
in  our  Bibles,  apparently  (Calmet  thinks)  for  the  purpose  of 
conforming  to  our  mode  of  reference  in  concordances,  the  use 
of  which  they  borrowed  from  the  Romish  church.  The 
Jews  entitle  these  books  QiDin  '-\3^,  d/brcv  HttjaniiM,  that  is, 
The  Words  of  Days,  or  Annals  ,-  probably  from  the  circum- 
stance of  their  being  compiled  out  of  diaries  or  annals,  in 
which  were  recorded  the  various  events  related  in  these  books. 
In  the  Septuagint  version  they  are  termed  nAPAAEinOMENA 
(Paraleiponiena),  the  things  that  were  left  or  omitted ,-  because 
many  things  which  were  omitted  in  the  former  part  of  the 
sacred  history  are  here  not  only  supplied,  but  some  narra- 
tions also  are  enlarged,  while  others  are  added.  The  Greek 
translators  of  that  version  seem  to  have  considered  these 
books  as  a  supplement,  either  to  Samuel  and  to  the  books  of 
Kings,  or  to  the  whole  Bible,  The  appellation  of  Chroni- 
cles was  given  to  these  books  by  Jerome,  because  they  con- 
tain an  abstract,  in  order  of  time,  of  the  whole  of  the  sacred 
history,  to  the  time  when  they  were  written.^ 

II.  These  books  were  evidently  compiled  from  others, 
which  were  written  at  different  times,  some  before  and  others 
after  the  Babylonish  captivity :  it  is  most  certain  that  the 
books  of  Chronicles  are  not  the  original  records  or  memorials 
of  the  transactions  of  the  sovereigns  of  Israel  and  Judah, 
which  are  so  often  referred  to  in  the  books  of  Kings.  Those 
ancient  registers  were  much  more  copious  than  the  books  of 
Chronicles,  which  contain  ample  extracts  from  original  docu- 
ments, to  which  they  very  frequently  refer. 

Concerning  the  author  of  these  books  we  have  no  distinct 
information.  Some  have  conjectured  that  he  was  the  same 
who  wrote  the  books  of  Kings  :  but  the  great  difference, 
Calmet  remarks,  in  the  dates,  narratives,  genealogies,  and 
proper  names, — together  with  the  repetitions  of  the  same 
things,  and  frequently  in  the  same  words, — strongly  militates 
against  this  hypothesis.  The  Hebrews  commonly  assign 
the  Chronicles  to  Ezra;  who,  they  say,  composed  them 
after  the  return  from  the  captivity,  and  was  assisted  in 
this  work  by  the  prophets  Zechariah  and  Haggai,  who  were 
then  living.  This  opinion  they  endeavour  to  support,  ^rs^, 
from  the  similarity  of  style  (the  last  three  verses  of  the  se- 
cond book  of  Chronicles  corresponding  very  nearly  with  the 
first  three  verses  of  Ezra),  from  the  recapitulations  and  gene- 
ral reflections  which  are  sometimes  made  on  a  long  series 
of  events : — secondly,  the  author  lived  after  the  captivity, 
since,  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  second  book  he  recites  the 
decree  of  Cyrus,  which  granted  liberty  to  the  Jews,  and  he 
also  continues  the  genealogy  of  David  to  Zerubbabel,  the 
chief  of  those  who  returned  from  the  captivity :  thirdly,  these 
books  contain  certain  terms  and  expressions,  which  they 
think  are  peculiar  to  the  person  and  times  of  Ezra. 

However  plausible  these  observations  may  be,  there  are 
other  marks  discernible  in  the  books  of  Chronicles,  which 
tend  to  prove  that  Ezra  did  not  compose  them.  In  the  first 
place,  the  author  continues  the  genealogy  of  Zerubbabel  to 
the  twelfth  generation :  but  Ezra  did  not  live  to  that  time, 
and,  consequently,  could  not  have  written  the  genealogy  in 
question : — secondly,  the  writer  of  these  books  was  neither  a 
contemporary  nor  an  original  writer;  but  compiled  and 
abridged  them  from  ancient  memoirs,  genealogies,  annals, 
registers,  and  other  works  which  he  frequently  quotes,  and 
from  which  he  sometimes  gives  copious  extracts,  without 

«  In  the  first  volume  of  Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Tracts  (pp.  134 — 
138.)  there  are  some  admirable  reflections  on  the  moral  causes  of  the 
Pabylonish  captivity,  and  the  propriety  of  that  dispensation,  which  will  am- 
ply repay  the  trouble  of'perusal. 

a  Calmet's  and  Dr.  Clarke's  Prefaces  to  the  two  Books  of  Chronicles. 


Sect.  VII.] 


ON  THE  BOOKS  OF  CHRONICLES. 


22a 


changing  the  words,  or  attempting  to  reconcile  inconsisten- 
cies. It  is  evident,  therefore,  thiit  t!ie  author  of  these  hooks 
!iv'.;d  afier  ihe  captivity,  and  derived  his  materials  from  the 
memoirs  of  writers  contemporary  with  the  events  recorded, 
and  who  flourislied  long  before  his  time.  The  authenticity 
of  these  books  is  abundantly  supported  hy  tlie  gentjral  mass 
of  external  evidence;  by  which  alsotlieir  divine  authority  is 
fully  established,  as  well  as  by  the  indirect  attestations  of 
our  Lord  and  his  apostles.' 

III.  The  principal  Scope  of  these  books  is  to  exhibit  with 
accuracy  the  genealogies,  the  rank,  the  functions,  and  the  or- 
der of  the  priests  anclLevitcs  ;  that,  after  the  caotivity,  they 
might  more  easily  assume  their  pro|)er  ranks,  ami  re-enter  on 
their  ministry.  The  author  had  further  in  view,  to  show  how 
the  lands  had  been  distril)uted  among  tlu;  families  before  the 
captivity;  so  that  the  res])ective  tribes  migiit  on  their  return 
obtain,  as  far  as  was  practicable,  the  ancient  inheritance  of 
their  fathers.  He  quotes  old  records  hy  the  name  of  ancient 
thinirs  (1  Chron.  iv.  22.),  and  recites  four  several  rolls  or 
numberings  of  the  people ; — one  taken  in  the  time  of  David, 
a  second  in  the  time  of  .leroboam,  a  third  in  the  time  of 
Jotham,  and  a  fourth  in  the  time  of  the  captivity  of  tlu^  ten 
tribes.  In  other  places  he  speaks  of  the  numbers  which  had 
been  taken  by  order  of  king  David,  but  which  .loab  did  not 
finish.  Hence  we  may  perceive  the  extreme  accuracy  affect- 
ed by  the  Jews  in  their  historical  documents  and  genealogies  : 
the  latter,  indeed,  could  not  be  corrupted yi'r//(f;/y  (for  most 
of  the  people  could  repeat  them  memoriter) ;  although,  from 
frc(iuent  transcription,  much  confusion  has  been  introduced 
into  many  of  the  names,  which  it  is  now,  perhaps,  impossi- 
ble to  clear  up.  It  is,  however,  most  evident  that  the  basis 
of  the  books  of  Chronicles  was  a  real  history  and  real  gene- 
alogies :  for  such  particulars  of  names  and  other  circum- 
stances would  never  have  been  invented  by  any  person,  as  no 
imaginable  purpose  could  be  answ-ercd  by  it ;  and  the  hazard 
of  making  mistakes,  and  being  thereby  exposed  when  they 
were  first  published,  would  be  very  great. 

IV,  The  Chronicles  are  an  abridgment  of  all  the  sacred 
history,  but  more  especially  from  tne  origin  of  the  Jewish 
nation  to  their  return  from  the  first  captivity.  The  first 
Book  traces  the  rise  and  propagation  of  the  people  of  Israel 
from  Adam,  and  afterwards  Jfives  a  circumstantial  account  of 
the  reign  and  transactions  of^David.  In  the  second  Book  the 
narrative  is  continued,  and  relates  the  progress  and  dissolution 
of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  to  the  very  year  of  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity :  as  very  little  notice  is 
taken  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  it  is  not  improbable  that  this  book 
was  chiefly  extracted  from  the  records  of  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah. The  period  of  time  embraced  in  the  books  of  Chronicles 
is  about  3 1G8  years ;  and  they  may  be  commodiously  divided 
into  four  parts;  viz. — 1.  The  genealogies  of  those  persons 
through  w^om  the  Messiah  was  to  descend,  from  Adam  to  the 
captivity,  and  to  the  time  of  Ezra  ; — 2.  The  histories  of  Saul 
and  David  ; — 3.  The  history  of  the  uniu^d  kingdoms  of 
Israel  and  Judah  under  Solomon;  and,  4.  The  history  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  after  the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes  from 
Hehoboam,  to  its  utter  subversion  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
Pakt  I.   Gcnealoirical  Tables  from  Adam  to  the  time  of  Ezra- 

(1  Chron.  i.— IX.  1—34.) 

Sect.  1.  Genealogies  of  the  patriarchs  from  Adam  to  Jacob, 
and  of  the  descendants  of  Judah  to  David,  and  his  posterity 
to  Zerubbabel,  from  whom  the  Messiah  was  to  descend. 
( 1  Chron.  i. — iii.) 

Sect.  2.  Genealogies  of  other  descendants  of  Judah  by  Pharez, 
and  of  the  remaining  eleven  sons  of  Jacob,  (iv. — viii.  ix.  1.) 

Sect.  3.  Genealogies  of  the  first  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem, 
after  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  (ix.  2 — 34.) 
This  long  series  of  genealogies  is  a  signal  testimony  10  the  origin  and 
preservation  of  the  Jewish  church  among  mankind  ;  and  of  llie  lul- 
fihncnt  of  the  divine  promises  to  Abraham,  tliat  his  seed  should  be 
multiplied  as  the  sand  upon  the  sea-shore.  (Gen.  xxii.  17.)    These 

Senealogies  are  also  of  very  great  importance,  as  exhibiting  the 
etail  of  the  sacred  line,  through  which  the  promise  of  the  Messiah 
was  transmiued  :  so  that  "when  in  the  fulnessof  time  this  promised 
Mediator  was  revealed  in  the  Ilesh,  Uie  church  and  the  people  of 
God  might  infallibly  know  that  Uiis  was  that  very  promised  seed  of 
the  woman,  the  son  of  Abraham  and  the  son  of  David."»  In  perus- 
ing the  Hebrew  genealogies,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remember  that 
the  terms  "father,"  "  son,"  "  begat,"  and  "  ifg'o/fen,"  which  are 
of  such  frequent  occurrence  in  tliem,  do  not  always  denote  imme- 
diate procreation  or  filiation,  but  extend  to  any  distant  progenitor.' 


'  CoHipare  I  Chron.  xxiii.  13.  with  Heb.  v.  4.  and  xxiv.  10.  with  Luke  i. 
5.  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  1.  with  Matt.  xii.  42.  and  Luke  xi.  31. ;  and  2  Chron.  xxiv. 
20.  21.  with  Matt,  xxiii.  35.  and  Luke  xi.  51. 

«  Roberts's  Clavis  BibUorum,  p.  105. 

»  Thus  m  Gen.  xxix.  5  Laban  is  called  the  son  of  Nahor,  though,  in  fact, 
he  was  only  his  "grandson!'  by  Bethucl.  Similar  instances  are  often  to 
be  found  in  the  Scriptures. 


It  is  further  to  be  observed,  that  "these  genealogical  tables  are  ex- 
cfedingly  brief.  Nothing  is  to  be  found  of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  That 
of  Ucnjamin  is  twice  introduced.  (1  Chron.  vii.  6 — 12.  and  viii.)  The 
genealogies  of  the  priests  and  Lcvites  are  given  most  in  detail,  and 
terminate  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  They  are,  however, 
very  far  from  bemg  comi)lete  :  even  those  of  the  high-priests,  ex- 
lending  through  one  thousand  years,  comprehend  oidy  twenty-two 
successions,  where  thirty  might  be  expected.  (1  Chron.  vi.)  Those 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah  are  pretty  copious  (1  Chron.  ii.  3—17.  iv.  1 — 
Zi.),  and  the  register  of  David's  descendants  runs  down  to  the  fourth 
century  before  Christ.  (1  (;hron.  iii.)  AU  these  tables  relate  to  dis- 
linguishrd  families  and  individuals  :  they  occasionally  contain  many 
important  hl.storical  notices,  which  prove  that  historical  matters 
were  occasionally  Introduced  in  the  original  tables.  See  1  Chron.  iv. 
9,  10.  V.  19—22.  and  vii.  21-23."* 

Part  II.  The  Histories  of  Saul  and  David.  (1  Chron.  ix.  35— 
44.  X.— xxix.  1—22.) 

Sect.  1.  The  pedigree  of  Saul  and  his  death.  (1  Chron.  ix. 

35 — 44.  X.) 
Sect.  2.  The  hi.story  and  transactions  of  the  reign  of  David ; 

including, 

S  i.  Ills  inauguration  ;  list  of  his  worthies,  and  account  of  his  forces, 
(xi.  xii.) 

§  11.  The  bringing  up  of  the  ark  from  Kirjath-jearim,  first  to  the  house 
of  Obcdcdom,  and  thence  to  Jerusalem  ;  ami  the  solemn  serviceand 
thanksgiving  on  that  occa.iion.  (xlil. — xvi.)  David's  intention  of 
huilclmg  a  temple  ajiproved  of  by  Jehovah,  (xvil.) 

§  iii.  The  victories  ol  David  over  the  Phillslinee,  Moabitcs,  Syrians, 
and  Edomites  (xviii);  and  over  the  Ammonites,  Syrians,  and  Phihs- 
tlnes.  (xix.  xx.) 

§  iv.  David  takes  a  census  of  the  people  ;  a  plague  inflictetl,  which  is 
stayed  at  his  intercession,  (x.^i.  1 — 27.) 

§  v.  An  account  of  David's  regulations  for  the  constant  service  of  the 
temple  : — His  preparations  and  directions  concerning  the  building  of 
it  (xxi.  27 — 30.  xxii.  xxiii.  1.);  regulations  concerning  the  Levilcs 
(xxiii.  2— 32.);  the  priests  (xxiv.),  singers  (xxv.),  and  porters  or 
keepers  of  the  gates,  (xxvi.) 

S  vi.  Regulations  for  the  administration  of  his  kingdom  ;  list  of  his  mili- 
tary and  civil  officers,  (xxvil.) 

§  vii.  David's  address  to  Solomon  and  his  princes  concerning  the 
building  of  the  temple  (xxvlii.);  the  liberal  contribution;*  of  David 
and  his  subjects  for  tills  purpose,  and  his  thanksgiving  for  Iheu. 
(xxix.  1 — 22.) 

Part  III.   The  History  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Israel  and 

Judah  under  Solomon.  (1  Chron.  xxix.  23 — 30.  2  Chron. 

i. — ix.) 

Sect.  1.  The  second  Inauguration  of  Solomon: — Death  of 
David ;  the  piety,  wisdom,  and  grandeur  of  Solomon. 
(1  Chron.  xxix.  2.3—30.  2  Chron.  i.) 

Sect.  2.  Account  of  the  erection  and  consecration  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  of  some  other  edifices  erected  by  him.  (2  Chron.  ii. 
— viii.  16.) 

Sect.  3.  The  remainder  of  Solomon's  reign  to  his  death,  (viii. 
N       17,  18.  ix.) 

Part  IV.  The  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah,  from  the  se- 
cession of  the  Ten  Tribes,  under  Jeroboam,  to  its  Termination 
by  Nebuchadnezzar.  (2  Chron.  x. — xxxvi.) 

Sect.  1.  The  accession  of  Rchoboam  to  the  throne  of  the 

united   kingdom;    its   division;    Jerusalem  plundtred  by 

Shishak.  (2  Chron.  x. — xii.) 
Sect.  2.  The  reigns  of  Abijah  and  Asa  kings  of  Judah.  (xiii. 

— xvi.) 
Sect.  3.  The  reign  of  Jehoshaphat.  (xvii. — xx.) 
Sect.  4.  The  reigns  of  Jchoram  and  Ahaziah ;  the  usmpation 

of  Athaliah.  (xxi.  xxii.) 
Sect.  .5.  The  reig^  of  Joash.  (xxiii.  xxiv.) 
Sect.  6.  The  reigns  of  Amaziah,  Uzziah,  and  Jotham.  (xxv. 

— xxvii.) 
Sect.  7.  The  reign  of  Ahaz.  (xxviii.) 
Sect.  8.  The  reign  of  Hezekiah.   (xxix. — xxxii.^ 
Sect.  9.  The  reigns  of  Manasseh  and  Ammon.  (xxxiii.) 
Sect.  10.  The  reign  of  Josiah.  (xxxiv.  xxxv.) 
Sect.  11.  The  reigns  of  Jehoahaz,  Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  and 

Zedekiah,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  of  the  temple. 

(xxxvi.)* 

«  .Tahn's  Introduction  by  Prof  Turner,  p.  260. 

»  The  last  two  verses  of  the  second  book  of  Chronicles  are  evidently  the 
beginning  of  the  book  of  Ezra,  which  follows  next  in  the  order  of  Oie 
canon;  and  must  have  been  copied  from  it  before  the  transcriber  was 
aware  of  his  error  :  but,  finding  his  mistake,  he  abruptly  broke  off,  and  be- 
gan the  book  of  Ezra  at  the  customary  distance,  without  publishing  his 
error  by  erasing  or  blotting  out  those  lines  which  he  had  inadvertently 
subjoined  to  the  book  of  Chronicles.  This  copv,  however,  being  in  other 
respects  of  authority,  has  been  followed  in  all  subsequent  copies,  as  well  as 
in  all  the  ancient  versions.  This  circumstance  affords  a  proof  of  the  scru- 
pulous exactness  with  which  the  copies  of  the  canonical  books  were  after- 
wards taken.  No  writer  or  translator  would  take  upon  himself  to  correct 
even  a  manifest  error.  How  then  can  we  think  that  any  other  alteration, 
diminution,  or  addition,  would  voluntarily  be  made  by  any  of  the  Jewish 
nation,  or  not  have  been  detected  if  it  had  been  attempied  by  any  person  •{ 
Dr.  Kennicott,  Diss.  i.  pp.  491—494.  Dr.  Priestley,  Notes  on  Scripture, 
vol.  ii.  p.  9i. 


224 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap,  tl. 


V.  Independently  of  the  important  moral  and  relin^ious  in- 
struction to  be  derived  from  tlie  two  books  of  Chronicles,  as 
illustrating  tiio  divine  dispensation  towards  a  hii)hly  favoured 
but  unirrafeful  people,  the  second  book  is  extremely  valuable 
in  a  cruical  point  of  view  ;  not  only  as  it  contains  some  histo- 
rical particulars  which  are  not  mentioned  in  any  other  part  of 
the  Old  Testament,  but  also  as  it  affords  us  many  genuine 
readings,  wliich,  by  the  inaccuracy  of  transcril)ers,  are  now 
lost  in  the  older  boc.ks  of  tlie  IJible.  The  discrepancies  be- 
tween the  books  of  Kings  and  (Jhroaicles,  though  very 
numerous,  are  not  of  any  great  moment,  and  admit  of  an  easy 
solution,  being  partly  caused  by  various  lections,  and  partly 
arising  from  the  nature  of  the  books  ;  which  being  supple- 
meiitaTy  to  those  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  onut  what  is  there 
related  more  at  large,  and  supply  what  is  there  wanting.i  It 
should  further  be  recollected,  that,  aflcr  the  cajHivity,  the 
Hebrew  language  was  slightly  varied  from  wliat  it  had  for- 
merly been  ;  that  different  places  had  received  new  names,  or 
undergone  sundry  vicissitudes  :  that  certain  things  were  now 
betterknown  to  the  returned  .Tews  under  other  appellations, 
than  under  those  by  which  they  had  formerly  been  distin- 
g-uished ;  and  that,  from  the  materials  to  which  the  author 
fiad  access  (and  which  frequently  were  different  from  those 
consulted  by  the  writers  of  the  royal  histories),  he  has 
selected  those  passages  which  appeared  to  him  best  adapted 
to  his  purpose,  and  most  suitable  to  the  time  in  which  he 
wrote.  It  must  also  be  considered,  that  he  often  elucidates 
obscure  and  ambiguous  words  in  former  books  by  a  different 
mode  of  spelling  them,  or  by  a  different  order  of  the  words 
employed,  even  when  he  does  not  use  a  distinct  phraseology 
of  narration,  which  he  sometimes  adopts.^ 

As  the  books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles  relate  the 
same  histories,  they  should  each  be  constantly  read  and  col- 
lated together  ;  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  more 
comprehensive  view  of  Jewish  history,  but  also  in  order  to 
illustrate  or  amend  from  one  book  what  is  obscure  in  either 
of  the  others. 

The  following  table  of  the  more  remarkable  parallel  pas- 
sages of  the  books  of  Chronicles  and  those  of  Samuel  and 
Kintrswill  assist  the  reader  in  his  collation  of  these  books  -.^ — ■ 


SECTION  VIII. 


ON    THE    BOOK    OF    EZRA. 


1  Cliron.  X.  1—12.  ... 

1  Chron.  xi.  1—9.       .... 
I  Chron.  xi.  lO-U.       - 
1  Cliron.  x/ii.  1 — 14.  .... 
1  Chron.  liv.  1 — 7.        .        .        .        . 

i  Chron.  xvii. 

1  Chron.  .iviii. 

1  Chron.  .tix.     ..... 

1  Chron.  ix.  1 — 3.         .        .        .        . 

1  Chron.  xx.  4—8.     .... 

1  Chron.  Kxi. 

2Cliron.  i.  3— 13.      .... 

2  Cliron.  i.  14—17.        .        .        .        . 
2  Chron.  ii. 

2  Cliron.  iii   iv. 

2Chron.  V.  2.  vh.  10. 

2  Chron.  vii.  11— 22.      .        .        .        . 

2  Chron.  vjii. 

2  Chron  ix.  1—12.        ... 
2  Chron  ix.  13—31.  -        .        ■    .    . 
2  Chron.  x.  1.  xi.  4.       . 
2  Chron.  xii.  2—11.   .... 
2  Chrofi.  xvi.  1 — 6.        .        .        .        . 

2  Chrcn.  xviii. 

2  Chroi;.  xx.  31—37.      . 

2  Chroii.  xxi.  6 — 10.  .... 

2  Chron.  xxii.  2— b.      ... 

2  Chror,.  xxii.  10.  xxiii.  21. 

2  Chroo.  xxiv.  1 — 14.    . 

2  Chron.  xxv.  1^1.  11.  17—21.  27,  28. 

2  Chrofi.  xx\'i.  1,  2.      ■ 

2  Chron.  xxvii.  1 — 3. 

2  Chron,  xxviii.  1 — 4.  . 

2  Chron.  xxix.  1,  2 

2  Chron.  xxxii.  9—21.  . 
2  Chron.  xxxii.  24—31.     - 
2  Chron.  xxxiii.  1 — 10. . 
2  Chron.  xxxiv.  1,  2.  8—28.      . 
■2Chron.  xxxiv.  29— 33. 
2  Chron.  xxxv.  18.  20—25. 
2  Chron.  xxxvi.  1.         .        .        . 
2  Chron.  xxxvi.  2 — 4. 


1  Sam.  xxxi. 

2  Sam.  V.  1—10. 

1  Sam.  xxiii.  8 — 39. 

2  Sam.  vi.  3— 11. 

,  2  Sam.  V.  11—25. 
2  Sam.  vii. 
2  Sam.  viii. 
2  Sam.  X. 

2  Sam.  xi.  1.  xii.  30.  etseq. 
2  Sam.  xxi.  18—22. 
2  Sam.  xxiv. 
]  Kmss  iii.  4—14. 
]  Kings  X.  213-29. 
1  Kings  V.  15—32. 
1  Kinjis  vi.  vii. 
1  Kings  viii. 
1  Kings  ix.  1—9. 
1  Kings  xi.  15 — 28. 
1  Kings  X.  1—13. 
1  Kings  X.  14—29. 
1  Kings  xii.  1—24. 
1  Kings  xiv.  2.5—28. 
1  Kings  XV.  17-22. 
1  Kings  xxii.  2—35. 

1  Kings  xxii.  41—50. 
,2  Kings  viii.  17—94. 

2  Kings  viii.  26— 29. 
2  Kings  xi. 

2  Kings  xii.  1—16. 

2  Kings  xiv.  1—14.  19,  20. 

2  Kings  xiv.  21,  22. 

2  Kings  XV.  33.  35. 

2  Kings. xvi.  2 — 4. 

2  Kings  xviii.  2,  3. 

2  Kings  xviii.  17—37 

2  Kings  XX.  1—19. 

2  Kings  xxi.  1—10. 

2  Kings  xxii. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  1—20. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  22,  23. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  29,  30. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  31—34. 


»  The  abovn  remark  will  be  clearly  illustrafecl  by  comparing  2  Kings  xxiv. 
6.  wilh  2Cliron.  xxxvi.  6.  and  Jer.  xxxvi.  30. ;  1  Kings  xv.  2.  with  2Chron. 
.\v.  19.  ;  1  Kings  xxii.  44.  with  2Chron.  y\'ii.6. ;  2Kingsix.  27.  with  2 Chron. 
xxii.  9.  See  also  Profes.sor  Dahler's  learned  Disquisition  "DeLibrorum 
I'aralipomen  ■'"  aiictoritate  atque  fide  historica"  (8vo.  Argentorati  et  Lipsice, 
1919) ;  in  which  he  has  instituted  a  minute  collation  of  the  books  of  Chro- 
nicles with  the  books  of  Samuel  and  of  Kings ;  and  has  satisfactorily  vindi- 
cated their  genuineness  and  credibility  against  the  insinuations  and  objec- 
tions of  some  recent  sceptical  German  critics. 

2  Calmet's  Dictionary,  article  Chronicles,  in  fine. 

»  Tliis  table  is  copied  from  Prof.  Turner's  aiid  Mr.  Whittingham's  trans- 
lation of  .Tahn,  p.  272.  note. 


I.  Title  and  author. — II.  ,'lrgiiment,  scope,  and  synopsis  of  its 
contents. — III.  Observations  on  a  spurious  passage  ascribed 
to  Ezra. 

I.  The  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  Avere  anciently 
reckoned  by  the  Jews  as  one  volume,  and  were  divided  by 
them  into  the  first  and  second  books  of  Ezra.  The  same  di- 
vision is  recognised  by  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  :  but 
the  third  book,  assigned  to  Ezra,  and  received  as  canonical  by 
the  Greek  church,  is  the  same,  in  substance,  as  the  book 
which  properly  bears  his  name,  but  interpolated.  And  the 
four/h  book,  Avhich  has  been  attributed  to  him,  is  a  manifest' 
forgery,  in  which  the  marks  of  falsehood  are  plainly  discern- 
ible, and  which  was  never  unanimously  received  as  canonical 
either  by  the  Greek  or  by  the  Latin  church,  although  some 
of  the  fathers  have  cited  it,  and  the  Latin  church  has  bor- 
rowed some  words  out  of  it.  It  is  not  now  extant  in  Greek, 
and  never  was  extant  in  Hebrew. 

It  is  evident  that  the  author  of  the  book  of  Ezra  was  per- 
sonally present  at  the  transactions  recorded  in  it,  the  narrative 
being  in  the  first  jierson.  It  also  bears  upon  the  face  of  it 
every  character  of  natural  simplicity,  and  contains  more  par- 
ticulars of  time,  persons,  and  places,  than  could  have  been 
introduced  by  any  other  individual.  That  the  last  four  chap- 
ters of  this  book  were  written  by  Ezra  himself  there  can  be 
no  doubt,  as  he  particularly  describes  himself  in  the  beginning 
of  the  seventh  chapter,  and  likewise  frequently  introduces 
himself  in  the  subsequent  chapters.  The  Jews,  indeed, 
ascribe  the  whole  of  this  book  to  Ezra,  and  their  opinion  is 
adopted  by  most  Christian  commentators.  But  as  the  writer 
of  the  first  six  chapters  appears,  from  ch.  v.  4.,  to  have  been 
at  Jerusalem  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  and  it  is  evident 
from  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  chapter  that  Ezra  did  not 
go  thither  until  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (a  dis- 
tance of  sixty  years),  some  persons  have  ascribed  the  first  six 
chapters  to  a  more  ancient  author.  This,  however,  does  not 
necessarily  follow :  and  we  apprehend  it  will  appear  that 
these  chapters  were  written  by  Ezra  as  well  as  the  last 
four : — 

In  the  first  place,  from  tlie  intimate  connection  of  the  sixth 
chapter  with  tlie  seventh:  for  the  diversity  of  speech  and  nar- 
ration observable  in  them  may  readily  be  accounted  for  by 
the  circumstance  of  Ezra's  having  copied,  or  extracted  from, 
the  authentic  memoirs,  which  he  found  on  his  arrival  at  Jeru- 
salem, of  the  transactions  that  had  happened  since  the  return 
of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

Secondly,  the  same  method  of  narration  prevails  in  hath 
parts:  for,  as  in  the  second  part  (ch.  vii.  12 — 26.),  the  royal 
decree  is  inserted,  entire,  in  the  Chaldee  dialect;  so,  in  the 
first  part,  the  edict  of  Cyrus,  the  epistle  of  the  Samaritans  to 
the  Pseudo-Smerdis,  and  his  reply  to  them,  together  with 
part  of  the  fourth  chapter,  are  also  given  in  Chaldee. 

And,  lastly,  in  the  third  place,  it  is  not  likely  that  a  short 
historical  compendium,  like  the  book  of  Ezra,  should  be  the 
work, of  more  than  one  author:  nor  ought  we  to  assign  it  to 
several  authors,  unless  we  had  either  express  declarations 
or  internal  evidence  that  they  were^concerned  in  it ;  all  these 
evidences  are  wanting  in  the  book  of  Ezra.' 

This  book  is  written  in  Chaldee  from  chapter  iv.  8.  to 
chapter  vi.  18.  and  chapter  vii.  12 — 26.  As  this  portion  of 
Ezra  chiefly  consists  of  letters,  conversations,  and  decrees, 
expressed  in  that  language,  the  fidelity  of  the  historian  pro- 
bably induced  him  to  take  down  the  very  words  which  were 
used.  The  people,  too,  having  been  accustomed  to  the 
Chaldee  during  the  captivity,  were  in  all  probability  better 
acquainted  with  it  than  with  the  Hebrew  ;  for  it  appears  from 
Nehemiah's  account  that  they  did  not  all  understand  the  law 
of  Moses  as  it  had  been  delivered  in  the  original  Hebrew 
tongue. 

II.  The  book  of  Ezra  harmonizes  most  strictly  with  the 
prophecies  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  which  it  materially  elu- 
cidates. (^Compare  Ezra  v.  with  Hagg.  i.  12.  and  Zecn,  iii. 
iv.)  It  evinces  the  paternal  care  of  Jeliovah  over  his  chosen 
people,  whose  history  it  relates  from  the  time  of  the  edict 
issued  by  Cyrus,  to  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
manus,— a  period  of  about  seventy-nine  or,  according  to  some 
chronologers,  of  one  hundred  years.  This  book  consists  of 
two  principal  divisions :  the  first  contains  a  narrative  of  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon  under  the  conduct  of  Zerub- , 


SfiCT.  IX.] 

bal)(;l ;  and  the  second  gives  an  account  of  the  reformation  of 
relijrion  under  Ezra. 

Pakt  I.  From  the  Return  of  the  Jews  under  Zerubbabel  to  the 
Rcbuildiiiir  of  the  Temple,  (ch.  i. — vi.) 

Hv.v/T.  1.  The  edict  of  Cyrus,  permitting  the  Jews  to  return  into 
Jud.-ea  and  rebuild  the  temi)lc  ;  account  of  the  people  who 
firBt  returned  under  the  conduct  of  Zeruhliahel,  and  of  their 
oflerings  towards  rebuilding  the  temj)le.  (i.  ii.)  On  this 
joyous  occasion  it  is  probable  that  the  hundred  and  twenty- 
sixth  psahn  was  composed. 
Skct.  2.  'J'he  building  of  the  temple  commenced,  but  hindered 

by  the  Samaritans,  (iii.  iv.) 
Skct.  3.  The  temple  finished  in  the  sixth  year  of  Darius  Hys- 
taspes,  by  the  encouragement  of  the  decree  issued  in  the 
second  year  of  his  reign,  (v.  vi.) 
Tlin  history  ri>iil.iiiic(l  in  ilie  biiok  of  K.Nlhrr  should  bo  road  after  these 
two  chapters,  as  it  relates  lo  this  period  of  Jewish  liistory. 

Paht  II.   The  Jlrrival  of  Ezra  at  Jenisaleni,  and  the  licforma- 
tioii  mude  thereby  him.  (vii. — x.) 

Skct.  1.  The  departure  of  Ezra  from  Babylon  with  a  commis- 
sion from  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  (vii.) 
Skct.  2.  Account  of  his  retinue  and  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  (viii.) 
Skct.  3.  Narrative  of  the  reformation  eflectcd  by  him.  (ix.  x.) 
The  zeal  and  piety  of  Ezra  appear,  in  this  book,  in  a  most 
conspicuous  point  of  view :  liis  memory  lias  always  been 
held  in  the  highest  reverence  by  the  Jews,  who  consider  him 
as  a  second  Moses  :  though  not  expressly  styled  a  prophet, 
he  wrote  nnder  the  influence  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  antl  the 
canonical    authority  of  his  book   has  never  been  disputed. 
He  is  said  to  have  died  in  the  hundred  and  twentieth  year  of 
his  age,  and  to  have  been  buried  at  Jerusalem. 

III.  In  Justin  the  Martyr's  conference  with  Trypho  the 
Jew,  there  is  a  very  extraordinary  passage  respecting  the 
typical  import  of  the  passover,  cited  by  that  father :  in  which 
Ezra,  in  a  speech  made  before  the  celebration  of  the  passover, 
expounds  the  mystery  of  it  as  clearly  relating  to  Christ ;  and 
which,  Justin  concludes,  was  at  a  very  early  day  expunged 
from  the  Hebrew  copies  by  the  Jews,  as  too  manifestly 
favouring  the  cause  oi  Christianity.  The  passage  may  be 
thus  translated:' — '■'■  And  Ezra  said  unto  the  people.  This 
PASSOVER  is  our  Saviour  and  our  refuge  ;  and  if  ye  shall  un- 
derstand and  ponder  it  in  your  heart,  that  we  are  about  to  hum- 
ble HIM  in  this  sign,  and  aftenvards  shall  believe  on.  him,  then 
this  place  shall  not  be  made  desolate  for  ever,  suilh  the  Lord,  of 
hosts.  But  if  ye  will  not  believe  on  him,  nor  hear  his  preach- 
vkg,  ye  shall  be  a  laughing-stock  to  the  Gentiles."  As  this  pas- 
sage never  existed  in  the  Hebrew  copies,  and  is  not  now  to 
be  found  either  in  them  or  in  any  copies  of  the  Septua- 
gint  version,  it  is  the  opinion  of  most  critics  that  it  originally 
crept  into  the  Greek  Bibles  from  a  marginal  addition  by  some 
early  (christian,  rather  than  that  it  was  expunged  from  the 
later  copies  by  the  Jews. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  NEHEMIAH. 


225 


SECTION  IX. 

ON  THE  BOOK  OF  NEHEMIAH. 

I.  Title  and  author. — II.  Argument  and  synopsis  of  its  co?i- 
tents. 

I.  The  book  of  Nehemiah,  we  have  already  observed,  is 
in  some  versions  termed  the  second  book  of  Ezra  orEsdras, 
from  an  opinion  which  anciently  obtained,  and  was  adopted 
by  Athanasius,  Epiphaiiius,  Chrysostom,  and  other  eminent 
fathers  of  the  churcli,  that  Ezra  was  the  author  of  this  book. 
In  the  modern  Hebrew  Bibles  it  has  the  name  of  Nehemiah 
prefixed  to  it,  which  is  also  retained  in  our  English  Bibles. 
The  author  of  this  book  was  not  the  Nehemiah  who  returned 
to  Jerusalem  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel. 

That  Nehemiah,  whose  name  this  book  bears,  and  who 
was  cup-bearer  to  Artaxerxes  Logimanus,  was  the  author  of 
it,  there  cannot  be  any  reasonable  doubt:  the  whole  of  it 
being  written  in  his  name,  and,  what  is  very  unusual  when 
compared  with  the  preceding  sacred  historians,  being  written 
in  the  first  person.  The  insertion  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
register  in  chap.  xii.  1 — 26.  (which  is  supposed  to  militate 
against  this  generally  received  opinion)  may  be  accounted 

«  Justin.  Martyr.  Dial,  cum  Tryphone,  pp.  292,  293.  edit,  by  Thirlby,  or 
vol.  u.  p.  196.  ed.  Oberther.  Mr.  Whitaker  (Oriain  of  Arianism,  p.  305.) 
advocates  its  genunieness  ;  and  concludes  that  the  passsase  in  question  ori- 
ginally stood  in  Ezra  vi.  19-'>2.,  probably  between  I  lie  20lh  and  21sl  verses. 
Dr.  Grabe,  Dr  Thirlby,  and  after  thein  Archhp.  Magee  (Disc,  on  Atone- 
inent,  vol.  i.  p.  306.  note),  doubt  its  senuinencss.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  is  disposed 
to  behove  it  authentic.  (Disc,  on  Eucharist,  p.  83.) 

Vol.  II  a  F 


for  by  supposing  it  either  to  have  been  added  by  some  subse- 
quent author,  or,  perhaps,  by  the  authority  of  the  great  syna- 
gogue :  for  it  seems  to  be  unconnected  with  the  narrative  of 
Noliemiah,  and,  if  genuine,  must  ascribe  to  him  a  degree  of 
loii'.revity  which  appears  scarcely  credible.2 

II.  Nehemiah,  according  to  some  writers,  was  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi,  but,  in  the  opinion  of  others,  of  the  royal  house  of 
Judah  :  as  tlie  oflice  he  held  in  the  Persian  court  (that  of 
cup-bearer)  was  a  post  of  great  honour  and  iiilluence,  it  is 
certain  that  he  was  a  man  of  illustrious  family ;  and  of  his 
ititegrity,  prudence,  and  piety,  the  whole  of  this  book  presents 
abuiulant  evidtmce.  He  arrived  at  Jerusalem  thirteen  years 
after  Ezra,  with  the  rank  of  governor  of  the  province,  and 
vested  with  full  power  and  authority  to  encourage  the  re- 
builrling  of  the  wails  of  that  city,  and  to  promote  the  welfare 
of  his  countrymen  in  every  possible  way. 

Having  governed  Juda;a  for  twelve  years  (Neh.  xiii.  6.), 
NelieiTiiah  returned  to  his  royal  patron  (ii.  C),  and  after  a 
short  time  he  obtained  pemnssion  to  return  to  his  country, 
where  he  is  supposed  to  have  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
His  book  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  four  parts;  viz. 
Part  I.    The  Departure  of  Nehemiah  from  Shushaii,  with  a 
Royal  I'ommission  to  rebuild  the  Walls  of  Jerusalem,  and 
his  first  ./Irrival  there,  (ch.  i.  ii.  1 — 11.) 
Part  II.  .Account  of  the  Building  of  the  Walls,  notwithstand- 
ing the  Obstacles  interposed  by  Sanballat.  (ii.  12 — 20.  iii.— 
vii.  4.) 

Part  III.   The  first  Reformation  accomplished  by  Nehemiahi 
containing, 

Sect.  1.  A  register  of  the  persons  who  had  first  returned  from 
Babylon,  and  an  account  of  the  oblations  at  the  temple, 
(vii.  .5—72.) 
Sect.  2.  Account  of  the  reading  of  the  law,  and  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,   (viii.) 
Sect.  3.  A  solemn  fast  and  humiliation  kept ;  and  the  renewal 

of  the  covenant  of  the  Israelites  with  Jehovah,   (ix.  x.) 
Sect.  4.  List  of  those  who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem,  and  of  other 
cities  occupied  by  the  Jews  that  returned  ;  register  and  suc- 
cession  of  the    high-priests,   chief  licvites,   and    principal 
singers,  (xi.  xii.  1 — 26.)  The  completion  and  dedication  of 
the  wall.   (xii.  27—47.) 
Part  IV.   The  fiecond  Reformation  accomplished  by  Nehemiah 
on  his  second  return  to  Jerusalem,  and  his  Correction  of  the 
Abuses  which  had  crept  in  during  his  Absence,  (xiii.) 
In  Nehemiah  we  have  the  shining  character  of  an  able 
governor,  truly  zealous  for  the  good  of  his  country  and  for 
the  honour  of  his  religion  :   who  quitted  a  noble  and  gainful 
post  in  the  greatest  court  in  the  world  ;  generously  spent  the 
riches  he  had  there  acquired  for  the  public  benefit  of  his  fel- 
low Israelites;  and  waded  through  inexpressible  diflSculties 
with  a  courage  and  spirit,  which  alone  could,  with  the  divine 
blessing,  procure  the  safety  and  reform  the  manners  of  such 
an  unhappy  and  unthoughtful  nation. ^     The  administration 
of  this  i)ious  and  truly  patriotic  governor  lasted  about  thirty- 
six  years,  to  the  year  of  the  world  3574  according  to  some 
chronologers,  but  Dr.  Prideaux  has  with  more  probability 
fixed  it  to  the  year  3.59.5.     The  Scripture  history  closes  with 
the  book  of  Nehemiah. 


SECTION  X. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  ESTHER. 


I.  Title. — II.  Author. — HI.  Argument. — IV.  Synopsis  of  ita 
contents. 
I.  This  book,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  person 
whose  history  it  chiefly  relates,  is  by  tiie  Jews  termed  Me- 
gillah  Esther,  or  the  volume  of  Esther.  The  history  it  con- 
tains comes  in  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  chapters  of 
Ezra  :  its  authenticity  was  questioned  by  some  of  the  fathers, 
in  consequence  of  the  name  of  God  being  omitted  through- 
out,'' but  it  has  always  been  received  as  canonical  by  the 
Jews,  who  hold  this  book  in  the  highest  estimation,  placing 
it  on  the  same  level  with  the  law  of  Moses.  They  believe 
that  whatever  destruction  may  attend  the  other  Sacred  Writ- 

«  Prideaux,  Connection,  sub  anno  458,  vol.  i.  p.  296.  et  seq.  8th  edition. 

3  Pyle's  Paraphrase  on  the  Old  Testament,  vol.  iv.  p.  642. 

«  Oh  this  account.  Professor  De  Wette,  who  objects  to  all  the  other 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  their  theocrafico-mylhological  spirit,  con- 
demns this  for  its  want  of  relisii<>i !  (Prof.  Tunier's  Translation  of  J^in,  p. 
2S9.)    Such  is  the  consistency  of  ncologian  critics  ! 


226 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[PartV.  Chap.    IL 


ings,  the  Pentateuch  and  the  book  of  Esther  will  always  be 
preserved  by  a  special  providence. 

n.  Concerning  the  author  of  this  book,  the  opinions  of 
biblical  critics  are  so  greatly  divided,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  by  whom  it  was  written.  Augustine  and  some  of 
the  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  ascribe  it  to  Ezra.  By 
other  writers  it  is  ascribed  to  the  joint  labours  of  the  wrcat 
synagogue,  who,  from  the  time  of  Ezra  to  Simon  the  Just, 
superintended  the  edition  and  canon  of  Scripture.  Pliilo  the 
Jew  assigns  it  to  Joachin,  the  son  of  Joshua  the  high-priest, 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel.  Cellerier  ascribes  it  to  an 
unknown  author,  who  was  contemporary  with  the  fiicts 
recorded  in  this  book.'  Others  think  it  was  composed  by 
Mordecai:  and  others,  again,  attribute  U  to  Esther  and  Mor- 
deeai  jointly.  The  two  latter  conjectures  are  grounded  on 
the  following  declaration  in  Esther  ix.  20.  23. : — Jind  Mor- 
decai wrote  i/iese  things,  and  sent  letters  unto  all  the  Jews  tliat 
were  in  all  the  provinces  of  king  Jihasuerus ,-  and  the  Jews 
tmdertooh  to  do  as  they  had  begun,  and  as  Mordecai  hud  lurit- 
ten  unto  them.  But  the  context  of  the  passage  clearly  shows 
that  these  words  do  not  relate  to  the  Ijook  itself,  but  to  the 
circular  letters  which  Mordecai  sent  to  the  Jews  in  all  the 

firovinces  of  the  Persian  empire,  announcing  the  mighty  de- 
iverance  from  their  enemies  which  had  been  vouchsafed  to 
them,  and  instituting  a  perpetual  anniversary  in  commemora- 
tion of  such  deliverance.2  The  institution  of  this  festival, 
and  its  continued  observance  to  the  present  time,  is  a  con- 
vincing evidence  of  the  reality  of  the  history  of  Esther,  and 
of  the  genuineness  of  the  book  which  bears  her  name :  since 
it  is  impossible,  and,  in  fact,  inconceivable,  that  a  nation 
should  institute,  and  afterwards  continue  to  celebrate,  through 
a  long  succession  of  ages,  this  solemn  annual  festival,  merely 
because  a  certain  man  among  them  had  written  an  agreeable 
fable  or  romance. 

A  more  probable  opinion  (and  which  will  enable  us  satis- 
factorily to  account  for  the  omission  of  the  name  of  God  in 
this  book)  is,  that  it  is  a  translated  extract  from  the  memoirs 
of  the  reign  of  the  Persian  monarch  Ahasuerus.  The  Asiatic 
sovereigns,  it  is  well  known,  caused  annals  of  their  reigns  to 
be  kept:  numerous  passages  in  the  books  of  Kings  and 
Chronicles  prove  that  the  kmgs  of  Israel  and  Judah  had  such 
annals;  and  the  book  of  Esther  itself  attests  that  Ahasuerus 
had  similar  historical  records,  (ii.  23.  vi.  1.  x.  2.)  It  was 
indispensably  necessary  that  the  Jews  should  have  a  faith- 
ful narrative  of  their  history  under  Queen  Esther.  Now, 
from  what  more  certain  source  could  they  derive  such  history 
than  from  the  memoirs  of  the  king  her  consort  ]  Either  Ezra, 
or  Mordecai,  had  authority  or  credit  enough  to  obtain  such  an 
extract.  In  this  case,  we  can  better  account  for  the  retaining 
of  the  Persian  word  Furim,  as  well  as  for  the  details  which 
we  read  concerning  the  empire  of  Ahasuerus,  and  (which 
could  otherwise  be  of  no  use  whatever  for  the  history  of 
Esther)  for  the  exactness  with  which  the  names  of  his  minis- 
ters and  of  Haman's  sons  are  recorded.  The  circumstance 
of  this  history  being  an  extract  from  the  Persian  annals  will 
also  account  for  the  Jews- being  mentioned  only  in  the  third 
person,  and  why  Esther  is  so  frequently  designated  by  the 
title  of  queen,  and  Mordecai  by  the  epithet  of  "the  Jew." 
It  will  also  account  for  those  numerous  parentheses  which 
interrupt  the  narrative  in  order  to  subjoin  the  illustrations 
which  were  necessary  for  a  Jewish  reader;  and  by  the  abrupt 
termination  l-'of  the  narrative  by  one  sentence  relative  to  the 
power  of  Ahasuerus,  and  another  concerning  Mordecai's 
greatness.     Finally,  it  is  evident  that  the  author  of  this  ex- 

«  Introduction  a  la  Lecture  des  Livres  Saints  (Ancien  Testament),  p.  320. 
1  For  an  account  of  this  festival,  called  the  feast  of  Purim,  see  Vol.  It. 
Partlll.  Cliap.  IV.  §VIII. 


tract,  whoever  he  was,  wished  to  make  a  final  appeal  to  the 
source  whence  he  derivi  d  it.  (x.  2.)  This  very  plausible 
conjecture,  we  apprehend,  will  satisfactorily  answer  the  ob- 
jection that  this  Dook  contains  nothing  peculiar  to  the  Israel- 
ites, except  Mordecai's  genealcgy.  There  is,  unquestionably, 
no  mention  made  of  Divine  Providence,  or  of  the  name  of 
God,  in  these  memoirs  or  chronicles  of  Ahasueriis ;  and  if  the 
autiior  of  the  extract  had  givin  it  a  more  Jewish  complexion, 
— if  he  had  spoken  of  the  God  of  Israel, — instead  of^  render- 
ing his  narrative  more  credible,  he  would  have  deprived  it 
of  an  internal  character  of  truth. •'' 

III.  The  transactions  recorded  in  this  book  relate  to  the 
time  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,^  the  same  who  reigned 
during  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  They  commence 
about  the  year  of  the  world  3544,  and  continue  through  a 
period  not  exceeding  eighteen  or  twenty  years.  The  book 
of  Esther  relates  the  elevation  of  a  Jewish  captive  to  the 
throne  of  Persia,  and  the  providential  deliverance  of  herself 
and  people  from  the  machinations  of  the  cruel  Haman  and 
his  associates,  whose  intended  mischief  recoiled  upon  them- 
selves :  thus  affording  a  practical  comment  on  the  declaration 
of  the  royal  sage: — "Though  hand  join  in  hand,  the  wicked 
shall  not  be  unpunished :  but  the  seed  of  the  righteous  shall 
be  delivered."  (Prov.  xi.  21.) 

IV.  The  book  consists  of  two  parts :  detailing, 

Part  I.   Tlie  Froniotion  of  Esther ,-  and  the  essential  Service 
rendered  to  the  King  by  Mwdecui,  in  detecting  a  Flat  against 
his  Lift.  (i.  ii.) 
Part  II.   The  Mvancement  of  Haman  .•  his  Designs  against 
the  Jews,  and  their  Frustration. 

Sect.  1.  The  promotion  of  Haman,  and  the  occasion  of  which 
he  availed  himself  to  obtain  an  edict  for  massacring  the 
Jews,   (iii.) 
Sect.  2.  The  consequent  affliction  of  the  Jews,  and  the  mea- 
sures pursued  by  them,   (iv.) 
Sect.  3.  The  defeat  of  Haman's  particular  plot  against  the 

life  of  Mordecai.   (v.  vi.  vii.) 
Sect.  4.  The  defeat  of  his  general  plot  against  the  Jews. 

(viii.  ix.  1 — 16.) 
Sect.  .5.  The  institution  of  the  festival  of  Purim,  to  comme- 
morate their  deliverance  (ix.  17- — 32.) ;  and  the  advancement 
of  Mo'rdecai.   (x.) 
In  our  copies  the  book  of  Esther  terminates  with  the  third 
verse  of  the  tenth  chapter :  but  in  the  Greek  and  Vulgate 
Bibles,  there  are  ten  more  verses  annexed  to  it,  together  with 
six  additional  chapters  which  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches 
account  to  be  canonical.      As,  however,  they  are  not  ex- 
tant in  Hebrew,  they  are  expunged  from  the  sacred  canon  by 
Protestants,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  compiled  by  some 
Hellenistic  Jew. 

3  Coquerel,  Biographic  Sacroe,  torn.  i.  pp.  361 — 363.  (Amsterdam,  1825.) 
■•  Chronologers  are  greatly  divided  in  ojiinioii  \vl]o  was  the  Aliasiievus 
of  tlie  sacred  historian.  Scaliger,  who  has  liocn  followed  by  .lahi),  has  ad- 
vanced many  ingenious  argumeiifs  to  show  that  it  was  Xerxes  wiio  was 
intended;  Arctdiisliop  Usher  supposes  to  liave  been  Darius  llie  son  of 
fly  staspes.  Tlie  most  probable  opinion  is  tliat  of  Dr.  Prideaux  (Connection, 
si:b  aniio4.''>9,  vol.  1.  pp.  270.  el  seij) ;  who,  after  a  very  minute  discussion, 
maintains  that  tlie  Ahasuerus  ofEBtlier  vfas  Artaxerxes  Lonjiinianus,  apree- 
ably  to  the  account  of  .Tosephus,  (Antiq.  .Tud.  lib.  xi.  c.  C.)  of  the  Sepiua- 
fiint  version,  and  of  the  apocryphal  addilijnis  to  the  bool<  of  Ksther.  The 
opinion  of  Prideaux  is  adopted  by  Bishops  Toniline  and  Gray,  and  the  very 
accurate  chronolofjer.  Dr.  Hales.  (See  Gray's  Key,  p'  227.  Tomline's 
Elements,  vol.  i.  p.  93.  Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  524.  et  srq.^ 
We  may  therefore  conclude,  tliat  the  permission  given  to  Nehemiah  to  re- 
build the  walls  of  .Jerusalem  was  owing  totlie  influence  of  Esther  and  Mor- 
decai, and  that  the  emancipiillon  of  the  .lows  from  the  Persian  yoke  was 
gradually,  though  silently,  effected  by  the  same  influence.  It  is  not  impro- 
bable that  llifi  pious  reason,  assigned  by  Artaxerxes  (Ezra  vii.  23.)  for  tlie 
regulations  given  to  Ezra,  originated  in  the  correct  views  of  religion  which 
were  communicated  to  him  by  his  queen  Esther. 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


227 


CHAPTER  III. 


ON  THE   POKTICAL  BOOKS. 


Though  some  of  tlio  Sarrod  Writintrs,  wliirh  prrscnt  them- 
selves to  our  notice  in  the  ])r(»si'iit  clmpter,  are  anterior  in 
point  of  date  to  the  llistorii-al  IJonks,  ^'ct  tiiey  are  nsiially 
classed  by  thi^mselves  under  (he  title  ot  the  Purlical  liuiikx  ,- 
because  they  are  almost  vvlioUy  conipf)sed  in  Ilchrew  verse. 
This  apptOlation  is  of  coiisid(>ral)le  aiiliipiity.  (Jn'irory  iS'a- 
zianzen  calls  them  Ihe  Fire  Mitriciil  Ji<iii/(.^ ,-  Anijihilocliius, 
bishop  of  Iconium,  in  his  ianii)ie  poem  addressed  to  Seleucus' 
enumerates  them,  and  jrives  them  a  similar  denomination  ;  as 
also  do  Epii)lianins  and  Cyril  of  .It  riisaleni.'  The  Poetical 
Books  are  hve  in  number,  vi/.  Job,  I'salms,  Proverbs,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  and  the  ("aiiticles  or  Song  of  Solomon:  in  the 
Jewish  canon  of  Scripture  they  are  classed  amonjr  the 
Hagiographa,  or  IIolv  Writings;  and  Iti  oiir  Hibles  they  are 
placed  between  tlie  Historical  and  Prophetical  liooks. 


sE(rrioN  I. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


I.  Title  of  the  book. — II.  Reality  of  Jol>'a  person. — TIL  .^^e 
iniv/iich  he  lixted. — IV.  Scene  of  the  poem  of  Joh. — V.  Au- 
thor and  canonical  authoritij. — VI.  Structure  of  the  poem. 
VII.  Arifument  and  scope. — Vlil.  Spurious  addition  to  this 
booh  in  the  Scpluai^itit  Version. — IX.  Rules  for  studying 
this  booh  to  advantage. — X.  Synopxis. — XI.  Idea  of  the 
patriarchal  theology,  as  contained  in  the  booh  of  Job. 

I.  This  book  has  derived  its  title  from  the  venerable  patriarch 
Joi),  whose  prosperity,  afflictions,  and  restoration  from  the 
deepest  adversity,  are  here  recorded,  together  with  his  exem- 
plary and  unecpialled  patience  under  all  his  calamities.  No 
Dook,  perhaps,  has  more  exercised  the  ingcmiity  of  critics 
and  commentators  than  this  of  .Tob ;  and  though  the  limits 
necessarily  assigned  to  this  article  prevent  us  from  detailing 
all  the  various  and  discordant  hypotheses  which  have  been 
offered  concerning  it,  yet  a  brief  retrospect  of  the  principal 
opinions  that  have  been  entertained  respecting  this  portion  of 
Scripture  can  at  no  time  be  either  uninteresting  or  unimpor- 
tant. 

II.  Although  this  book  professes  to  treat  of  a  real  person, 
yet  the  actual  existence  of  the  patriarch  has  been  questioned 
ny  many  eminent  critics,  who  have  endeavoured  to  prove  that 
the  whole  poem  is  a  mere  fictitious  narration,  intended  to 
instruct  through  the  medium  of  parable.  This  opinion  was 
first  announced  by  the  celebrated  Jewish  Rabbi  iMaimonides,^ 
and  has  since  been  adopted  by  Le  Clerc,  Michaelis,  Semler, 
Bishop  Stock,  and  others.  The  reality  of  Job's  existence, 
on  the  contrary  (independently  of  its  being  the  uniform  be- 
lief of  the  Jewish  ana  Christian  church),  has  been  maintain- 
ed with  ecpial  ability  by  Leusden,  Calmet,  Heidegger,  Carp- 
zov.  Van  Til,  Spanheim,  Moldenhaw'er,  Schultens,  Ilgen, 
Archbishop  Magee,  Bishops  Patrick,  Sherlock,  Lowth, 
Tomline,  and  Gray,  Drs.  Kennicott  and  Hales,  ^Icssieurs 
Peters  and  Good,  Drs.  Taylor  and  Priestley,  and,  in  short, 
by  almost  every  other  modern  commentator  and  critic. 

The  principal  arguments  commonly  urged  against  the  re- 
ality of  Job's  existence  are  derived  from  the  nature  of  the 
exordium  in  which  Satan  appears  as  the  accuser  of  Job ; 
from  the  temptations  and  sufferings  permitted  by  the  Al- 
mighty Governor  of  the  world  to  befall  an  upriHit character; 
from  the  artificial  regularity  of  the  numbers  by  which  the 
patriarch's  possessions  are  described,  as  seven  thousand, 
three  thousand,  one  thousand,  five  hundred,  &c. 

With  regard  to  the  first  argument,  the  incredibility  of  the 
conversation  which  is  related  to  have  taken  place  between 
the  Almighty  and  Satan,  "  who  is  supposed  to  return  with 
news  from  the  terrestrial  regions," — an  able  commentator  has 
remarked,  Why  should  such  a  conversation  be  supposed  in- 
credible 1  The  attempt  at  wit  in  the  word  news  is  somewhat 
out  of>place;  for  the  interrogation  of  the  Almighty,  "  Hast 

'  Greg.  Naz.  Carm.  33.  v.  16.    Op.  torn.  ii.  p.  9=1.    Paris,  1611.    Epipha- 
nms  (le  Pom),  et  Mens.  p.  533.    Suicer's  Thesaurus,  toQi.  ii.  voce  rxif. 
»  Moreh  Nevocliim,  part  ii,  sect.  22. 


thou  fixed  thy  view  upon  my  servant  Job,  a  perfect  and  up 
right  man]"  (i.  8.)  instead  of  aiming  at  the  acquisition  of 
n(!ws,  is  intended  as  a  severe  and  most  appropriule  sarcasm 
n|)on  the  fallen  sjjirit.  "Hast  thou, — who,  with  superior 
faculties  and  a  more  comprehensive  knowledge  of  my  will, 
hast  not  continued  perfect  and  upright, — fixed  thy  view  upon 
a  subordinate  being,  far  weaker  and  less  informed  than  thy- 
self, who  has  continued  so]" — "'i'he  attendance  of  the  r.pos- 
tat(!  at  the  tribunal  of  the  Almighty  is  plainly  desigm  d  to 
show  us  that  gorxl  and  evil  angels  are  equally  amenable  to 
him,  and  e(pr.dly  subject  to  his  authority; — a  doctrine  com- 
mon to  every  part  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures, 
and,  except  in  the  mythology  of  the  Parsees,  recognised  by, 
perhaps,  every  ancient  system  of  religion  whatever.  Tiie 
part  assigned  to  Satan  in  the  present  work  is  th.it  expressly 
assigned  to  him  in  the  case  of  Adain  and  Eve  in  the  garden 
of  Eden, and  of  our  Saviour  in  the  wilderness;  and  vvhiej)  is 
assigned  to  him  generally,  in  regard  to  mankind  at  large,  by 
all  the  evangelists  and  apostles  whose  writings  have  reached 
us,  both  in  their  strictest  historical  narratives,  and  closest 
argumentative  inductions.  And  hence  the  argument  which 
should  induce  us  to  regard  the  present  passage  as  fabidous, 
should  induce  us  to  regard  all  the  rest  in  the  same  light  «  hich 
are  imbued  with  the  same  doctrine : — a  view  of  the  sulqect 
which  would  sweep  into  nothingness  a  much  larger  portion 
of  the  Bible  than,  we  are  confident,  M.  Michaelis  would 
choose  to  part  with. 

"Tlie  other  arguments  are,  comparatively,  of  small  mo- 
ment. We  want  not  fable  to  tell  us  that  good  and  upright 
men  may  occasionally  become  tlie  victims  of  accmnulated 
calamities;  for  it  is  a  living  fact,  which,  in  the  mystery  of 
Providence,  is  perpetually  occurring  in  every  country  :  while 
as  to  the  roundness  of  the  numbers  by  which  the  patriarch's 
possessions  are  described,  nothing  could  have  been  more 
ungraceful  or  superfluous  than  for  the  poet  to  have  descended 
to  units,  had  even  the  literal  numeration  demanded  it.  And 
although  he  is  stated  to  have  lived  a  hundred  and  forty  years 
after  his  restoration  to  prosperity,  and  in  an  «ra  in  which  the 
duration  of  man  did  not,  perhaps,  much  exceed  that  of  the 
present  day,  it  should  be  recollected,  that  in  his  person  as 
well  as  in  liis  property  he  was  specially  gifted  by  the  Al- 
mighty :  that,  from  various  passages,  he  seems  to  have  been 
younger  than  all  the  interlocutors,  except  Elihu,  and  much 
younger  than  one  or  two  of  them  :  that  nis  longevity  is  ;  ar- 
ticularly  remarked,  as  though  of  more  than  usual  extent :  and 
that,  even  in  the  present  age  of  the  world,  we  have  well 
authenticated  instances  of  persons  having  lived,  in  different 

Sarts  of  the  globe,  to  the  age  of  a  hundred  and  fifty,  a  hun- 
red  and  sixty,  and  even  a  hundred  and  seventy  years. ^ 
"  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  historical  truth  of  the  book  of 
Job,  that  its  language  should  be  a  direct  transcript  of  that 
actually  employed  by  the  different  characters  introauced  into 
it;  for  in  such  case  we  should  scarcely  have  a  single  book 
of  real  history  in  the  world.  The  Iliad,  the  Shah  Nameh, 
and  the  Lusiad,  must  at  once  drop  all  pretensions  to  such  a 
description ;  and  even  the  pa^es  of  Sallust  and  Caesar,  of 
Rollin  and  Hume,  must  stanu  upon  very  questionable  au- 
thority. It  is  enough  that  the  real  sentiment  be  given,  and 
the  general  style  copied  :  and  this,  in  tnith,  is  all  that  is 
aimed  at,  not  only  in  our  best  reports  of  parliamentary 
speeches,  but  in  many  instances  (which  is  indeed  much 
more  to  the  purpose),  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament, 
in  their  quotations  from  the  Old."^ 

Independently  of  these  considerations,  which  we  think 
sufficiently  refute  the  objections  adduced  against  the  reality 
of  Job's  existence,  we  may  observe,  that  there  is  every  pos- 
sible evidence  that  the  boolc,  which  bears  his  name,  contains 
a  literal  history  of  the  temptations  and  sufferings  of  a  real 
character. 

In  the  first  place,  that  Job  was  a  real,  and  not  a  fictitious 

»  Sne  Pantalogia,  art.  Life;  and  Encyclopaedia  Brilannica,  art  Lon- 
gerittj. 

*  Ur.  Good's  Introductory  Pissertaiion  to  hiS  version  of  Job,  pp.  xv. — 
xvii.  See  also  Archbishop  Masec's  Disconrses  and  Dissertations  o  the 
Atonement,  vol.  ii.  pp.  49 — 53.  Dr.  Gregory's  translation  of  Bishop  Lowth's 
Lectures,  vol.  ii.  pp.  358—330.  in  notes. 


228 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  Chap.  IH 


character,  may  be  inferred  from  the  manner  in  which  he  is 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  Thus,  the  prophet  Ezekiel 
spealvs  of  him  : — Though  these  three  men.,  Noah,  Daniel,  and 
fob,  were  in  it,  they  should  deliver  but  their  own  souls  by  their 
righteousness,  sait'h  the  Lord  God.  (Ezek.  xiv.  14.)'  In  this 
passage  the  prophet  ranks  Noah,  Daniel,  and  Job,  togfether, 
as  powerful  intercessors  with  God;  the  first  for  his  family; 
the  second  for  the  wise  men  of  Babylon ;  and  the  third  for 
his  friends :  now,  since  Noah  and  Daniel  were  unquestionably 
Teal  characters,  we  must  conclude  the  same  of  Job.  Behold, 
says  the  apostle  James,  ive  count  them  happy  which  endure.- 
ye  have  heard  of  the  patience  of  Job,  and  have  seen  the  end  of 
the  Lord,  that  the  Lord  is  very  pitiful,  and  of  tender  mercy. 
(James  v.  11.)  It  is  scarcely  to  be  believed  that  a  divinely 
inspired  apostle  would  refer  to  an  imaginary  character  as  an 
example  of  patience,  or  in  proof  of  the  mercy  of  God.2  But, 
besides  the  authority  of  the  inspired  writers,  we  have  the 
strongest  internal  evidence,  from  the  book  itself,  that  Job 
was  a  real  person :  for  it  expressly  specifies  the  names  of 
persons,  places,  facts,  and  other  circumstances  usually  related 
m  true  histories.  Thus  we  have  the  name,  country,  piety, 
wealth,  &c.  of  Job  described  (ch.  i.)  ;  the  names,  number, 
and  acts  of  his  children  are  mentioned  ;  the  conduct  of  his 
wife  is  recorded  as  a  fact  (ii.') ;  his  friends,  their  names, 
countries,  and  discourses  with  him  in  his  afflictions,  are  mi- 
nutely delineated,  (ii.  U.  &c.)  And  can  we  rationally 
imagine  that  these  were  not  realities  1 

Further,  no  reasonable  doubt  can  be  entertained  respecting 
the  real  existence  of  Job,  when  we  consider  that  it  is  proved 
by  the  concurrent  testimony  of  all  eastern  tradition :  he  is 
mentioned  by  the  author  of  the  book  of  Tobit,  who  lived 
during  the  Assyrian  captivity ;'  he  is  also  repeatedly  men- 
tioned by  Mohammed  ^  as  a  real  character.  The  whole  of 
his  history,  with  many  fabulous  additions,  was  known  among 
the  Syrians  and  Chaldaans ;  many  of  the  noblest  families 
among  the  Arabians  are  distinguished  by  his  name,*  and 
boast  of  being  descended  from  him.  So  late  even  as  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century,  we  are  told,  that  there  were  many  per- 
sons who  went  into  Arabia  to  see  Job's  dunghill,''  which,  in 
the  nature  of  things,  could  not  have  subsisted  through  so 
many  ages ;  but  the  fact  of  superstitious  persons  making 
pilgrimages  to  it  sufficiently  attests  the  reality  of  his  exist- 
ence, as  also  do  the  traditionary  accounts  concerning  the 
place  of  Job's  abode.' 

III.  Since,  then,  the  book  of  Job  contains  the  history  of  a 
real  character,  the  next  point  to  be  considered  is  the  age  in 
which  he  lived, — a  question  concerning  which  there  is  as 
great  a  diversity  of  opinion,  as  upon  any  other  subject  con- 
nected with  this  venerable  monument  of  sacred  antiquity. 
Thus,  some  think  that  he  lived  in  the  days  of  Moses,  from  a 
supposed  resemblance  between  the  style  of  Moses  and  that 
of  Job ;  others  in  the  time  of  the  Judges,  from  an  expression 
in  Job  xxvii.  12.,  because  at  that  time  all  was  vanity,  and 
every  man  did  that  which  was  good  in  his  own  eyes.  Others, 
again,  refer  him  to  the  time  of  Ahasuerus  or  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  on  account  of  the  search  then  made  for  beauti- 
ful women,  from  whom  the  monarch  might  select  a  consort 
(Esth.  ii.  2.  &c.),  and  because  Job's  daughters  are  mentioned 
(Job  xlii.  15.)  as  being  the  fairest  in  the  whole  land.  Some 
make  him  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Solomon  and  the 
queen  of  Sheba,  if  not  Solomon  himself,^  because  the  Sabeans 

«  To  evade  the  strong  proof  afforded  by  EzekiePs  express  recognition  of 
the  reality  of  Job's  person,  Jalin  remarl<s  thai  fictitious  personajtes  may  be 
brought  upon  the  stage  along  with  real  ;  as  is  evident  from  Luke  xvi.  19 — 
31.,  where  Abraham  is  introduced  with  the  fictitious  characters  Lazarus 
and  the  rich  man.  But  there  is  an  evident  difference  between  a  parable 
expressly  purporting  to  be  fictitious,  and  a  solemn  rebuke  or  warning  to  a 
whole  nation.  Besides,  in  Luke,  the  circumstances  predicated  of  all,  the 
characters  are  fictitious;  in  Ezekiel  they  are  unquestionably  true  with  re- 
lation to  Noah  and  Daniel,  and  might  be  reasonably  expected  to  be  so  in 
the  other  instance  associated  with  these  two.  (Prof.  Turner's  translation 
of  Jahn,  p.  407.  note.) 

■»  Elements  of  Christian  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  94.- 

«  Tobit  ii.  12.  in  the  Vulgate  version,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  exe- 
cuted from  a  more  extended  history  of  Tobit  than  the  original  ofthe  Greek 
version. 

■"  Sale's  Koran,  pp.  271.  375.  4to.  edit.  See  also  D'Herbelot's  Bibliotheque 
Orientale,  voce  Aiiib,  torn.  i.  p.  145.  4to  edit. 

'  As  the  father  of  the  celebrated  Sultan  Saladin  (Elmancin,  Hist.  Sara- 
cen, p.  3.);  and  also  Saladin  himself,  whose  dynasty  is  known  in  the  East 
by  the  name  of  Aiubiah  or  Jobitcs.     D'Herbelot,  torn.  i.  pp.  146,  147. 

6  Chrysostom.  ad  pop.  Antioch.  Hom.  5.     Op.  torn.  ii.  p.  59.  A. 

'  Thevenol's  Voyage,  p.  447.  La  Roque,  Voyages  en  Syrie,  torn.  i.  p.  2.39. 

»  Staeudlin  (a  modern  German  critic,  who  plainly  disbelieves  any  inspi- 
ration of  the  Old  Testament),  takes  a  middle  course.  Conceiving  that  lie 
has  discovered  in  the  book  of  Job  phrases,  sentiments,  and  pictures  of 
manners  which  belong  to  a  later  date,  and  that  its  composition  is  more  ela- 
borate and  exquisite  than  thatofthegenerality  of  the  other  Hebrew  books, 
he  does  not  ascribe  to  it  such  a  remote  antiquity  as  many  scholars  of  the 
present  day  suppose  :  but  since  it  exhibits  other  indubitable  marlcs  of  a 


are  noticed  in  Job  i.  15.  &c. ;  and  others,  with  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, because  the  Chaldoeaus  are  introduced  in  Job  i.  17. 
Lastly,  some  state  him  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Jacob, 
whose  daughter  Dinah  they  suppose  him  to  have  married : 
and  this  conjecture  they  ground  upon  the  resemblance  be- 
tween the  expression  in  Job  ii.  10.  {^thou  speukest  lilce  a  foulit^h 

woman)  and  that  in  Gen,  xxxiv.  7.  ( hath  wrought  folly 

in  [more  correctly  against']  Isruel.y  The  puerility  of  these 
conjectures  sufficiently  indicates  their  weakness  ;  one  things 
however,  is  generally  admitted  with  respect  to  the  age  of 
Job,  viz.  the  remote  antiquity  of  the  period  when  he  must 
have  lived.  Even  those  who  contend  for  the  late  production 
of  the  book  of  Job,  are  compelled  to  acquiesce  in  this  par- 
ticular. Grotius  thinks  the  events  of  the  history  are  such 
as  cannot  be  placed  later  than  the  sojourning  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  Wilderness.  Bishop  Warburton,  in  like  manner, 
admits  them  to  bear  the  marks  of  high  antiquity ;  and 
Michaelis  confesses  the  manners  to  be  perfectly  Abrahamic, 
that  is,  such  as  were  common  to  all  the  seed  of  Abraham, 
Israelites,  Ishmaelites,  and  Iduma;ans.'o  The  following  are 
the  principal  circumstances  from  which  the  age  of  Job  may 
be  collected  and  ascertained:" — 

1.  The  Usserian,  or  Bible  chronology,  dates  the  trial  of 
Job  about  the  year  1520  before  the  Christian  asra,  twenty- 
nine  years  before  the  departure  ofthe  Israelites  from  Egypt; 
and  that  the  book  was  composed  before  that  event,  is  evident 
from  its  total  silence  respecting  the  miracles  which  accom- 
panied the  excde :  such  as  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  the 
destraction  of  the  Egyptians,  the  manna  in  the  desert,  &c, ; 
all  of  which  happened  in  the  vicinity  of  Job's  country,  and 
were  so  apposite  in  the  debate  concerning  the  ways  of  Pro- 
vidence, that  some  notice  could  not  but  have  been  taken  of 
them,  if  they  had  been  co  val  with  the  poem  of  Job. 

2.  That  it  was  composed  before  Abraham's  migration  to 
Canaan  may  also  be  inferred,  from  its  silence  respecting  the 
destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  the  other  cities  of 
the  plain,  which  were  still  nearer  to  Iduma;a,  where  the 
scene  is  laid. 

3.  The  length  of  Job's  life  places  him  in  the  patriarchal 
times.  He  survived  his  trial  one  hundred  and  forty  years 
(xlii.  16.),  and  was  probably  not  less  than  sixty  or  seventy 
at  that  time :  for  we  read  that  his  seven  sons  were  all  grown 
up,  and  had  been  settled  in  their  own  houses  for  a  consider- 
able time.  (i.  4,  5,)  He  speaks  of  the  "  sins  of  his  youth" 
(xiii,  26,),  and  of  the  prosperity  of  "  his  youth  ;"  and  yet 
Eliphaz  addresses  him  as  a  novice  : — "  With  us  are  both  the 
very  aged,  much  elder  than  thy  fat  her. ^^  (xv.  10.) 

4.  That  he  did  not  live  at  an  earlier  period  may  be  collect- 
ed from  an  incidental  observation  of  Bildad,  who  refers  Job 
to  their  forefathers  for  instruction  in  wisdom  : 

Inquire,  I  pray  thee,  of  \hc  former  sae. 

And  prepare  thyself  to  the  search  of  their  fathers  : 

Assigning  as  a  reason,  the  comparative  shortness  of  life  and 
consequent  ignorance  of  the  present  generation  : 

(For  we  are  but  o( yesterday,  and  know  nothing 
Because  our  days  upon  earth  are  a  shadow). 

But  the  "  fathers  of  the  former  age,"  or  grandfathers  of  the 
present,  were  the  contem])oraries  of  Peleg  and  Joktan,  in  the 
fifth  generation  after  the  deluge :  a^d  they  might  easily  have 
learned  wisdom  from  the  fountain-head  b}"  conversing  with 
Shem,  or  perhaps  with  Noah  himself;  whereas,  in  the  seventh 
generation,  the  standard  of  human  life  was  reduced  to  about 
two  hundred  years,  which  was  a  shadow  compared  with 
the  longevity  of  Noah  and  jiis  sons, 

5.  The  general  air  of  antiquity  which  pervades  the  man- 
ners recorded  in  the  poem,  is  a  further  evidence  of  its  remote 
date.     The  manners  and  customs,  indeed,  critically  corres- 

venerable  antiquity,  he  is  led  to  suppose  that  it  was  composed  by  some 
Hebrew,  author  of  a  lower  age,  perhaps  by  Solomon  himself,  out  of  certain 
very  ancient  remains  otpnclry,  history,  and  philosopliy,  to  which  that  au- 
tlior  added  some  things  of  his  own,  and  had  thrown  the  whole  into  its  pre- 
sent practical  form  and  arrangement. — Staeudlin's  Theol.  Moratis  Ilebrao- 
rum  ante  Christum  Hist.  (Gotting.  1794,)  cited  in  Dr.  Smith's  Scripture 
Testimony  ofthe  Messiah,  vol.  i.  p.  210. 

9  Mercerus,  Prfef  ad  Job.  The  Bishop  of  Killala  (Dr.  Stock),  'after 
Bishop  Warburton,  refers  the  time  of  Job  to  that  of  Ezra,  whom  he  sup- 
poses to  be  its  author.  (Preface  to  his  translation  of  Job,  pp.  v.  vi.)  His 
argnmciUs  are  very  largely  examined  and  refuted  by  Archbishop  Magee, 
Discourses,  vol.  ii.  pp.  87—^154.  See  also  British  Critic,  vol.  xxix.  O.  S.  pp. 
369-372. 

1"  Grotius,  Prief.  ad  .Tob.  Warburton's  Divine  Legation,  book  vi.  sect  2. 
Michaelis,  Notae  et  Epimetra  in  Lowthii  Prrelectiones,  p.  181.  Magee,  vol. 
Ii.  p.  57.  " 

11  These  observations  are  digested  from  the  united  remarks  of  Dr.  Hales,  - 
in  his  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.  55 — 59.  and  of  Archbishop 
Magee,  in  his  Discourses,  vol.  ii.  pp.  58 — 63. 


Sept.  I.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


229 


pond  with  that  early  period.  Thus,  Job  speaks  of  the  most 
iiiicieiit  kiml  of  writiiitr,  by  sculpture  (xix.  21.)  :  bis  ric-lirs 
also  are  reckoned  by  Ins  cattle,  (xlii.  1'2.)'  Kurtber,  Job 
acted  as  hi<>h-priest  in  bis  family,  acconJincr  to  liic  patriarchal 
usajre  ((ien.  viii.  20.) :  for  tlie  institution  of  an  established 
priesthood  does  not  appear  to  liavc  taktii  plact!  anywliere 
until  the  timt;  of  Abraiumi.  Melchi/.c(lc(!  kinjr  of  Salem  was 
a  priest  of  the  primitive  onh^r  ((ien.  xiv.  IH.) :  sncb  also 
Was  Ji'thro,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Idmn.va.  (Kxod.  xviii.  12.)  TIk;  first  refrnlar  priesthood 
was  probably  instituted  in  lOjrypt,  wberc!  Joseph  was  mar- 
ried t,(j  the  (lauirhter  of  the  priest  of  On.   ((ien.  xli.  ITj.) 

6.  'J'be  slavish  liomajre  of  prostrati(jn  to  princes  and  irreat 
men,  which  ))revailed  in  KfJ^ypt,  Pcirsia,  and  tlu^  ]Oast  in 
general,  and  wbii-h  still  subsists  tbcire,  was  unknown  in 
Arabia  at  that  time.  Thoutrh  Job  was  one  of  the  "  greatest 
men  of  all  the  East,"  we  do  not  find  any  such  adoration  i)aid 
to  him  by  his  contemporaries,  in  the  zenith  of  his  |)ri)s|)erity, 
ainonjr  tne  marks  of  respect  so  minutely  described  in  the 
twenty-ninth  chapter.  "  When  the  yuiit^  men  saw  him, 
they  hid  tlntnxelves  (rather,  n/iruii/f  hac/t),  throu<>h  respect  or 
rustic  bashfulness ;  t/ie  af^eil  arose  uiid  stood  up  in  bis  presence 
(more  correctly,  raii!^ed  t/irmselres  (dntul  him'),  the  princes 
refrained  from  t(dkinir,  and  laid  their  ha?ul  u/ion  their  mouth  ,- 
the  nolites  held  their  peace,  and  were  all  attention  while  !i(> 
spoke."  AH  this  was  hiirbly  respectful  indeed,  but  still  it 
was  manly,  and  showed  no  cringing  or  servile  adulation. 
Willi  this  description  correspond  the  manners  and  conduct 
of  the  genuine  Arabs  of  the  ))res(Mit  day, — a  majestic  race, 
who  were  n(>ver  con(|uered,  and  who  have  ret.iined  their 
primitive  customs,  features,  and  character,  with  scarcely  any 
alteration.2 

7.  The  allusion  made  by  Job  to  that  species  of  idolatry 
alone,  which  by  general  consent  is  admitted  to  have  been  the 
most  ancient,  namely,  Zabianism,  or  the  worship  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  and  also  to  the  exertion  of  the  judicial  authority 
affiinst  it  (xxxi.  2() — 28.),  is  an  additional  and  most  com- 
plete proof  of  the  high  anticjuity  of  the  poem,  as  well  as  a 
decisive  mark  of  the  patriarchal  age.'' 

8.  A  further  evidence  of  the  remote  antiquity  of  this  book 
is  the  language  of  Job  and  bis  friends;  who,  being  all  Idu- 
ma;ans,  or  at  least  Arabians  of  the  adjacent  country,  yet  con- 
versed in  Hebrew.  This  carries  us  up  to  an  age  so  early  as 
that  in  which  all  the  posterity  of  Abraham,  Israelites,  Idu- 
majans,  and  Arabians,  yet  continued  to  speak  one  common 
language,  and  had  not  branched  into  ditferent  dialects.^ 

9.  Lastly,  Dr.  Hales  has  adduced  ^.tiewand  more  particu- 
lar proof,  drawn  from  astronomy,  which  fixks  the  time  of  the 
patriarch's  trial  to  184  years  before  the  birth  of  Abraham : 
for,  by  a  retrograde  calculation,  the  principal  stars  referred  to 
in  Job,^  by  the  names  of  Chimah  and  Cht.sil,  or  Taurus  and 
Hcorpio,  are  found  to  have  been  the  cardinal  constellations  of 
spring  and  autumn  in  the  time  of  Job,  of  which  the  chief 
stars  are  Mdebarun,  the  bull's  eye,  and  Jlntares,  the  scor- 
pion's heart.  Knowing,  therefore,  the  longitudes  of  these 
stars  at  present,  the  interval  of  time  from  thence  to  the 
assumed  date  of  Job's  trial  will  give  the  difference  of  their 
longitudes,  and  ascertain  their  positions  then,  with  respect  to 
the  vernal  and  autumnal  points  of  intersection  of  the  equinoc- 
tial and  ecliptic  ;  which  aitference  is  one  degree  in  71  i  years, 
according  to  the  usual  rate  oi  X\\e  precession  of  the  e(juinoxes." 

'  The  word  kescliitali,  which  is  translalod  a  piece  of  iiinnci/  (xlii.  II.), 
there  is  (jooil  reason  to  iinilcrslarirj  a.s  .signil'ying  a  lamb.  See  Archbishop 
Maijee's  critical  nolo,  Discourses,  vol.  ii.  pp.  fiO— -(il. 

«  They  are  thus  de.scriljed  by  Sir  VVilliaiii  Jones  :— "  Tlieir  eyes  are  full 
of  vivacity;  their  speecli  voluble  and  arhculate ;  their  deportment  manly 
and  dignihed  ;  their  apprehension  ipiick  ;  their  minds  always  present  ami 
attentive  ;  with  a  spirit  of  independence  appearing  in  the  coimlenance  of 
the  lowest  amon;  lliein.  Men  will  always  ditfer  in  their  ideas  of  civiliza- 
tion, each  measuring  it  by  the  habits  and  prejudices  of  their  own  country  ; 
but  if  courtesy  and  urbanity,  a  love  of  poetry' and  eloquence,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  exalted  virtues,  beajusterprool  of  civilized  society,  we  have  certain 
proof  that  the  people  of  Arabia,  both  on  plains  and  in  cities,  in  rejiublican 
and  monarchical  states,  were  eminently  civilized  for  many  ages  belt)re  their 
conquest  of  Persia."  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  ii.  p.  3.  or  Works,  vol.  iii.  p. 
60.  8vo.  edit.  >  r  if 

'  Bishop  I.owth's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  p.  355.  note.  Although  Sir  William 
Jones  could  obtain  but  little  accurate  information  concerning  the  Zabian 
faith,  yet,  he  remarks,  "  This  at  least  is  certain,  that  the  people  of  Yemen 
(Arabia)  very  soon  fell  into  the  common  but  fatal  error  of  adoring  the  sun 
and  the  lirmament :  for  even  the  third  in  descent  from  Yoktan,  who  was 
consequently  as  old  as  Nahor,  took  the  surname  of  Ahdu-sliamf,  or  ser- 
vant of  the  sun  :  and  his  family,  we  are  assured,  paid  particular  honour  to 
that  luiHinary.  Other  tribes  worshipped  the  planets  and  fixed  stars." 
Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  ii.  p.  8.  or  Sir  WiUiam  Jones's  Works,  vol  iii 
p.  ;>7. 

•  Bishop  Lowth,  lect.  xxxil.  vol.  ii.  pp.  350,  351. 
»  ix.  9.  xxxviii.  31,  ,"«. 

•  For  an  explanation  of  this  astronomical  phenomenon,  and  its  applica- 
13on  to  chronology,  see  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  i.  pp.  185—187.    F^r  the 


"In  A.  D.  1808,  Aldebaran  was  in  2  signs,  7  deg.  east 
longitude.  But  since  the  date  of  Job's  trial,  b.  c.  2338, 
added  to  IHOO,  makes  4138  years,  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes amotinted  to  I  sign  27  deg.  5.S  min.  which,  being  sub- 
tracted from  the  former  quantity,  left  Aldebaran  in  only  9 
deg.  7  mill,  longitude,  or  distance  from  the  vernal  intersec- 
tion, which,  falling  within  the  constellation  'J'annis,  conse- 
qiiently  rendered  it  the  cardinal  constellation  of  spring,  as 
Pisces  is  at  present. 

"In  A.  I).  IHOO,  Antares  was  in  8  signs  6  deg.  58  min.  east 
longitiithf,  or  2  signs  (>  deg.  .08  min.  east  of  the  autumnal 
intersection;  from  which  subtracting,  as  before,  the  amount 
of  the  precession,  Jlntares  was  left  only  9  Ac^.  5  min.  east. 
Since,  then,  the  autumnal  equinox  was  found  within  Scorpio^ 
this  was  then  the  cardinal  constellation  of  Autumn,  as  Virgo 
is  at  present. 

"  .Since,  then,  these  calculations  critically  correspond  with 
the  positions  of  the  equinoxes  at  the  as.suined  date  of  Job's 
trial,  but  disagree  with  the  lower  dates  of  the  age  of  Moses, 
and  still  more  of  Ezra,  furnishing  different  cardinal  constel- 
lations, we  may  rest  in  the  assumed  date  of  the  trial  as  cor- 
rect. Such  a  combitiation  and  coincidence  of  various  rays 
of  evidence,  derived  from  widely  different  sources,  history, 
sacred  and  profane,  chronoU>i^y,  and  astronomy,  and  all  con- 
verging to  the  same  common  focus,  tend  strongly  to  establish 
the  time  of  Job's  trial  as  rightly  assigned  in  the  year  b.  c. 
2337  (2130  of  the  common  computation),  or  818  years  after 
the  delu^re;  184  years  before  the  birth  of  Abraham;  474 
years  before  the  settlement  of  Jacob's  family  in  Egy])t,  and 
GH9  years  before  their  exotle  or  departure  from  thence.'^  The 
preceding  arguments  receive  additional  weight,  from  a  con- 
sideration of  the  manner  in  which  God  has  vouchsafed  to 
deal  with  mankind.  In  Gen.  xi,  we  read  that  the  erection 
of  the  tower  of  Babel  for  idolatrous  purposes  had  occa.sioiied 
the  dispersion.  Idolatry  "was  gradually  encroaching  still 
further  on  every  family,  which  had  not  yet  lost  the  know- 
ledge of  the  true  God.  Whoever  has  studied  the  conduct  of 
Providence,  will  have  observed,  that  (iod  has  never  left  him- 
self without  witnesses  in  the  world,  to  the  truth  of  his 
religion.  To  the  old  world,  Noah  was  a  preacher,  and  a 
witness  ;  to  the  latter  times  of  patriarchism,  Abraham  and  his 
descendants ;  to  the  ages  of  the  Levitical  law,  Moses,  David, 
and  the  Prophets  :  and  to  the  first  ages  of  (Jbristianity,  the 
apostles  and  the  martyrs  were  severally  witnesses  of  the 
truth  of  God.  But  we  have  no  account  whatever,  unless  Job 
be  the  man,  that  any  faithful  confessor  of  the  one  true  God 
arose  between  the  dispersion  from  Babel  and  the  call  of 
Abraham,  If  it  be  said,  that  the  family  of  Shem  was  the 
visible  church  of  that  age;  it  will  be  answered,  that  it  is 
doubtful  whether  even  this  family  were  not  also  idolaters : 
for  Joshua  tells  the  Israelites  (Josh.  xxiv.  2.),  that  the  an- 
cestors of  Abraham  were  worshippers  of  images. 

"Job,  therefore,  in  the  age  of  error,  may  he  considered  as 
the  faithful  witness,  in  his  day,  to  the  hope  of  the  Messiah : 
he  professed  the  true  religion,  and  his  belief  in  the  following 
important  truths  :  the  creation  of  the  world  by  one  Supreme 
Being;  the  government  of  that  world  by  the  Providence  of 
God ;  the  corruption  of  man  by  nature ;  the  necessity  of  sa- 
crifices, to  proj)itiate  the  Deity ;  and  the  certainty  of  a  future 
resurrection.  These  were  the  doctrines  of  the  patriarchal 
a^e,  as  well  as  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  covenants. 
'Ihey  are  the  fundamental  truths  of  that  one  system  of  reli- 
gion, which  is  alone  acceptable  to  God,  by  whatever  naine 
It  may  be  distinguished  in  the  several  ages  of  the  world."' 

On  the  evidence  above  offered  respecting  the  antiquity  of 
the  hook  of  Job,  the  reader  will  form  his  own  conclusions. 
At  this  distance  of  time,  it  is,  perhaps,  difficult  to  determine 
its  precise  date ;  but  topics  like  these  are  of  comparatively 
little  importance,  and  do  not  affect,  in  any  degree,  either  the 
sentiments  expressed,  or  the  moral  inculcated,  in  this  part 
of  the  inspired  volume. 

IV.  The  country,  in  which  the  scene  of  this  poem  is  laid, 
is  stated  (Job  i.  1.)  to  be  the  land  of  Uz,  which  by  some 
Geographers  has  been  placed  in  Sandy,  and  by  others  in 
Stony,  Arabia.  Bochart  strenuously  advocated  the  former 
opinion,  in  which  he  has  been  powerfully  supported  by 
Spaidieim,   Calmet,  Carpzov,  Heidegger,  and   some   later 

calculations  given  in  the  text,  he  makes  acknowledgments  to  Dr.  Brinkley 
Andrews,  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  university  of  Dublin  (now  Bishop 
of  Cloyne):  subsequently  to  the  making  of  this  calculation,  Dr.  H.  disco- 
vered that  it  had  been  anticipated  and  published  at  Paris  by  M.  Ducou- 
tant,  in  1765. 

I  Townsend's  Old  Testament  arranged  in  Historical  and  Chronological 
Order,  vol.  i.  p.  29.  note. 


230 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  Chap.  Ill 


writers ;  Michaelis,  Ilgen,  and  .Tahn,  place  tlie  scene  in  the 
valley  of  Damascus;  but  Bishop  Lowth  and  Archbishop 
Macree,  Dr.  Hales,  Dr.  Good,  and  some  later  critics  and 
philologers,  have  shown  that  the  scene  is  laid  in  Idumaea. 

That  the  land  of  Uz,  or  Gnii/z  (Job  i.  1.),  is  evidently 
Idumaea,  appears  from  Lam.  iv.  21.  Uz  was  the  grandson 
of  Seir  the  Horite.  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20,  21.  28.;  1  Chron.  i. 
38.  42.)  Seir  inhabited  that  mountainous  tract  which  was 
called  by  his  name  antecedent  to  the  time  of  Abraham,  but, 
his  posterity  being  expelled,  it  was  occupied  by  the  Idu- 
maeans.  (Deut.  ii.  12.)  Two  other  men  are  mentioned  of 
the  name  of  Uz ;  one  the  grandson  of  Shem,  the  other  the 
son  of  Nachor,  the  brother  of  Abraham;  but  whether  any 
district  was  called  after  their  name  is  not  clear.  Idumaea  is 
a  part  of  Arabia  Petraea,  situate  on  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Num.  xxxiv.  3.  Josh.  xv.  1.  21.): 
the  land  of  Uz,  therefore,  appears  to  have  been  between 
Egypt  and  Philistia  (Jer.  xxv.  20.),  where  the  order  of  the 
places  seems  to  have  been  accurately  observed  in  reviewing 
the  different  nations  from  Egypt  to  Babylon;  and  the  same 
people  seem  again  to  be  described  in  exactly  the  same  situa- 
tions. (Jer.  xlvi. — 1.)  Nor  does  the  statement  of  the  inspired 
writer,  that  Job  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  men  of  the  East 
(Job  i.  3.),  militate  against  the  situation  of  the  land  of  Uz. 

The  expressions,  men  of  the  East,  children  of  the  East,  or 
Eastern  people,  seems  to  have  been  the  general  appellation 
for  that  mingled  race  of  people  (as  they  are  called,  Jer.  xxv. 
20.)  who  inhabited  the  country  between  Egypt  and  the 
Euphrates,  bordering  upon  Juda;a  from  the  south  to  the  east; 
the  Idumaeaus,  the  Amalekites,  the  Midianiles,  the  Moabites, 
the  Ammonites  (see  Judg.  vi.  3.  and  Isa.  xi.  14.) ;  of  these 
the  Iduma;ans  and  Amalekites  certainly  possessea  the  south- 
ern parts.  (See  Num.  xxxiv.  3.  xiii.  29. ;  1  Sam.  xxvii.  8. 
10.)  This  appears  to  be  the  true  state  of  the  case:  the 
whole  region  between  Egypt  and  the  Euphrates  was  called 
the  East,  at  first  in  respect  to  Egypt  (where  the  learned 
Joseph  Mede  thinks  the  Israelites  acquired  this  mode  of 
speaking),'  and  afterwards  absolutely  and  without  any  rela- 
tion to  situation  or  circumstances.  Abraham  is  said  to  have 
sent  the  sons  of  his  concubines,  Hagar  and  Keturah,  "  east- 
ward to  the  country  which  is  commonly  called  the  East" 
(Gen.  xxv.  6.),  where  the  name  of  the  region  seems  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  same  situation.  Solomon  is  reported 
"to  have  excelled  in  wisdom  all  the  Eastern  people,  and  all 
Egypt"  (1  Kings  iv.  30.):  that  is,  all  the  neighbouring 
people  in  that  quarter :  for  there  were  people  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  Egypt,  and  bordering  on  the  south  of  Judaea, 
who  were  famous  for  wisdom,  namely,  the  Idumajans  (see 
Jer.  xlix.  7. ;  Obad.  8.),  to  whom  we  may  well  believe  this 
passage  might  have  some  relation.  Thus  Jehovah  addresses 
the  Babylonians  :  "  Arise,  ascend  unto  Kedar,  and  lay  waste 
the. children  of  the  East"  (.ler.  xlix.  28.),  notwithstanding 
these  were  really  situated  to  the  west  of  Babylon.  Although 
Job,  therefore,  be  accounted  one  of  the  Orientals,  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  his  residence  must  be  in  Arabia  Deserta. 

In  effect,  nothing  is  clearer  than  that  the  history  of  an  in- 
habitant of  Idumaea  is  the  subject  of  the  poem  which  bears 
the  name  of  Job,  and  that  all  the  persons  introduced  into  it 
were  Idumaeans,  dwelling  in  Idumaea,  in  other  words,  Edom- 
ite  Arabs.  These  characters  are.  Job  ■  himself,  of  the  land 
of  Uz;  Eliphaz  of  Teman,  a  district  of  as  much  repute  as 
Uz,  and  which,  it  appears  from  the  joint  testimony  of  Jere- 
miah, Ezekiel,  Amos,  and  Obadiah,^  formed  a  principal  part 
ofldumaja;  Bildad  of  Shuah,  who  is  always  mentioned  in 
conjunction  with  Sheba  and  Dedan,  the  first  of  whom  was 
probably  named  after  one  of  the  brothers  of  Joktan  or  Kahtan, 
and  the  last  two  from  two  of  his  sons,  all  of  them  being 
uniformly  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  Idumaea  (Gen.  xxv.  2, 3. ; 
Jer.  xlix.  8.)  ;  Zophar  of  Naama,  a  city  importing  pleasant- 
ness, which  is  also  stated  by  Joshua  (xv.  21.  41.)  to  have 
been  situate  in  Idumaja,  and  to  have  Iain  in  a  southern  di- 
rection towards  its  coast,  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea ;  and 
Elihu  of  Buz,  which,  as  the  name  of  a  place,  occurs  only 
once  in  sacred  writ  (Jer.  xxv.  23.),  but  is  there  mentioned 
in  conjunction  with  Teman  and  Dedan ;  and  hence,  neces- 
sarily, like  them,  a  border  city  upon  Uz  or  Idumaea.  Allow- 
ing this  chorography  to  -be  correct  (and  such,  upon  a  fair 
review  of  facts,  we  may  conclude  it  to  be),  there  is  no  diffi- 
culty in  conceiving  that  hordes  of  nomadic  Chaldeans  as 
well  as  Sabeans, — a  people  addicted  to  rapine,  and  roving 
about  at  immense  distances  for  the  sake  of  plunder, — should 

'  Mede's  Works,  p.  580. 

»  Jer.  xlix.  7.  20. ;  Ezek.  xxv.  13. ;  Amosi.  11,  12, ;  Obad.  8,  9. 


have  occasionally  infested  the  defenceless  country  of  Idumaea, 
and  roved  from  the  Euphrates  even  to  Egypt."* 

To  the  preceding  considerations  we  may  add,  that  "the 
contents  oi  the  book,  and  the  customs  which  it  introduces, 
agree  with  the  opinion,  that  Idumeea  was  the  country  of  Job's 
friends.  Idumaea,  in  the  earliest  ages,  was  distinguished  for 
its  wise  men,  and  sentences  of  Arabian  wisdom  fiow  from  the 
mouths  of  Job  and  his  friends.  The  Jordan  is  represented  as 
a  principal  stream,  as  it  was  to  the  Edomites ;  and  chiefs, 
such  as  those  of  Edom,  are  frequently  mentioned.  The  addi- 
tion,'' which  is  found  at  the  end  of  the  Septuagint  version, 
places  Job's  residence  on  the  confines  of  Idumaea  and  Arabia."^ 

V.  The  different  parts  of  the  book  of  Job  are  so  closely 
connected  together,  that  they  cannot  be  detached  from  each 
other.  The  exordium  prepares  the  reader  for  what  follows, 
supplies  us  with  the  necessary  notices  concerning  Job  and 
his  friends,  unfolds  the  scope,  and  places  the  calamities  full 
in  our  view  as  an  object  of  attention.  The  epilotrue,  or  con- 
clusion, again,  has  reference  to  the  exordium,  and  relates  the 
happy  ternunation  of  Job's  trials ;  the  dialogues  which  in- 
tervene flow  in  regular  order.  Now,  if  any  one  of  these 
parts  were  to  be  taken  away,  the  poem  would  be  extremely 
defective..  Without  the  prologue  the  reader  would  be  ut- 
terly ignorant  who  Job  was,  wTio  were  his  friends,  and  the 
cause  of  his  being  so  grievously  afflicted,  With*ut  the  dis- 
course of  Elihu  (xxxii. — xxxvii.),  there  would  be  a  sudden 
and  abrupt  transition  from  the  last  words  of  Job,  to  the  ad- 
dress of  God,  for  which  Elihu's  discourse  prepares  the 
reader.  And  without  the  epilogue  or  conclusion,  we  should 
remain  in  ignorance  of  the  subsequent  condition  of  Job. 

Hence  it  is  evident,  that  the  poem  is  the  composition  of  a 
single  Author,  but  who  that  was,  is  a  question  concerning 
which  the  learned  are  very  much  divided  in  their  sentiments. 
Elihu,  Job,  Moses,  Solomon,  Isaiah,  an  anonymous  writer 
in  the  reign  of  Manasseh,  Ezekiel,  and  Ezra,  have  all  been 
contended  for.  The  arguments  already  adduced  respecting 
the  age  of  Job,''  prove  that  it  could  not  be  either  of  the  latter 
persons.  Dr.  Lightfoot,  from  an  erroneous  version  of  xxxii. 
16,  17.,  has  conjectured  that  it  is  the  production  of  Elihu: 
but  the  correct  rendering  of  that  passage'  refutes  this  notion. 
Ilgen  ascribes  it  probably  to  a  descendant  of  Elihu.  Lu- 
ther, Grotius,  and  Doederlein,  are  disposed  to  regard  it  as 
the  production  of  Solomon  ;  Cellerier  considers  it  as  the  pro- 
duction of  an  unknown  author.^  Another  and  more  generally 
received  opinion  attributes  this  book  to  Moses  :  this  conjec- 
ture is  founded  on  some  apparently  striking  coincidences  of 
sentiment,^  as  well  as  from  some  marks  ot  later  date  which 
are  supposed  to  be  discoverable  in  it.  But,  independently  of 
the  characters  of  antiquity  already  referred  to,  and  which 
place  the  book  of  Job  very  many  centuries  before  the  time 
of  Moses,  the  total  absence  of  every  the  slightest  allusion  to 
the  manners,  customs,  ceremonies,  or  history  of  the  Israel- 
ites, is  a  direct  evidence  that  the  great  legislator  of  the  He- 
brews was  not,  and  could  not  have  been,  the  author.  To 
which  may  be  added,  that  the  style  of  Job  (as  Bishop  Lowth 
has  remarked)  is  materially  diflierent  from  the  poetical  style 
of  Moses ;  for  it  is  much  more  compact,  concise  or  condensed, 
more  accurate  in  the  poetical  conformation  of  the  sentences : 
as  may  be  observed  also  in  the  prophecies  of  Balaam  the 
Mesopotamian,  a  foreigner,  indeed,  with  re.spect  to  the 
Israelites,  but  not  unacquainted  either  with  their  language  or 
with  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 

Upon  the  whole,  then,  we  have  sufficient  around  to  con-      \ 
elude  that  this  book  was  not  the  production  of  Moses,  but  of 
some   earlier   age.     Bishop  Lowth  favours  the  opinion   of 
Schultens,   Peters,  and    others  (which  is  also  adopted  by 

3  Bishop  Lowlh's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  pp.  347 — 351.  Good's  Introd.  Diss,  to 
Job,  pp.  ii. — xi. 

4  See  a  translation  of  this  addition  in  pp.  234,  235.  note,  infra. 

5  Prof.  Turner's  translation  of  Jalin,  p.  471.  note. 
0  See,§  111.  pp.  228—2.30.  of  tliis  volume. 

■>  See  Good's  translation  of  Job,  in  loe.  pp.  380,  381.  BLshop  Lowth,  taking 
the  passage  in  question  as  it  stands  in  our  English  Bibles,  observes  that 
tliis  conjecture  of  Liglitfoot's  seenjs  at  first  siglit  rather  countenanced  by 
tlie  e.vordiuinof  the  first  speech  of  Elihu  (xxxii.  15,  Iti.),  in  which  he  seems 
to  assume  the  character  of  the  author,  by  continuing  the  narrative  in  his 
own  person.  But  that  passage  which  appears  to  interrupt  the  speech  of 
Elihu,  and  to  be  a  part  of  the  narrative,  the  Bishop  conceives  to  be  nothing 
more  than  an  apostrophe  to  Job,  or  possibly  to  himself:  for  it  manifestly 
consistsof  two  distichs  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  well  known  that  all  the 
narrative  parts — all  in  which  the  author  himself  appears — are  certainly 
written  in  prose.    Lecture  xxxii.  vol.  ii.  p.  352. 

8  Introduction  a  la  Lecture  des  Livres  Saints  (Ancien  Testament),  p.  499. 

9  Dr.  Good,  who  adopts  this  hypothesis,  has  collected  these  seeming  coin- 
cidences, Introd.  Diss.  pp.  Ivi. — Ixii.     Archbishop  Magee  has  examinedaiid 
refuted  at  considerable  length  the  arguments  of  Huel,   Dr.  Kennicott,  ^ 
Heath,  Bishop  Warburton,  and  others  who  have  advocated  the  same  notion.  j 
Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  ii.  pp.  63—80.                                            '      I 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


231 


Bishop  Tomline  and  Dr.  Hales),  who  suppose  Job  himself,  or 
some  contemporary,  to  have  bticn  the  author  of  tliis  poem  : 
and  there  seems  to  he  no  jrood  reason  for  supposing  that  it 
was  not  written  by  .loh  liimseif.  It  appears,  indeed,  hi<rhly 
prohahle  tliat  .loh  was  tiie  writer  of  his  own  story,  of  whose 
inspiration  we  have  the  clearest  evidence  in  the  forty-second 
chapter  of  tliis  book,  in  which  he  thus  addresses  the  Al- 
mi<rhty  : — "  I  have  heard  of  lliet;  by  the  liearinjr  of  tin;  ear, 
but  now  mine  eye  sceth  thee."  (xlii.  5.^  It  is  |)lain  that  in 
this  ])assa}ie  some  privilejre  is  inlendecl  whieh  he  ni-ver  liad 
enjoyed  l)efore,  and  which  he  (v.dls  the  sijrht  of  (iod. 

He  liad  lu^ard  of  him  l)y  the  "  heariiijr  of  tiie  ear,"  or  the 
tradition  delivered  down  to  him  from  ids  for(;falhers,  but  lie 
now  had  a  clear  and  sensible  perception  of  his  b(Mnjr  and  di- 
vine perfections, — some  light  tlirown  in  ui)on  iiis  mind  wiiicli 
carried  its  own  evidence,  and  of  wldch,  perhaps,  we  i-an 
form  no  notion,  because  we  have  never  felt  it,  l)nt  whicli  to 
him  had  all  tin;  certainty  and  clearness  even  of  sight  itself — 
some  manifestations  of  the  Deity  made  to  him  in  vision, 
such  as  the  prophets  had,  and  from  which  they  derived  their 
very  name  of  seers.  If  we  allow  .lob  liinis(df  to  have 
been  tlie  writer  of  the  book,  two  important  advantages  will 
be  evich-ntly  obtained  : — First,  all  ohjcctions  to  historical 
truth  will  vanish  at  once  :  no  one  could  tell  us  his  own  story 
so  well  as  .loh,  nor  have  we  any  reason  to  (pustion  its  vera- 
city. The  dialogue,  too,  will  then  ajipear  to  have  been  the 
substance  of  a  real  conversation,  for  no  dialogue  was  ever 
more  natural.  If  the  story  be  told  us  in  verse,  or  in  the 
prophetic  style  and  language,  as  the  first  of  these  was  a  prac- 
tice of  the  highest  antiquity,  the  other  adds  tlie  most  sacred 
and  unquestionable  authority  to  it :  so  that  neither  truth  nor 
ornament  is  here  wanting,  any  more  than  dignity  of  subject, 
to  render  this  a  book  of  inestimable  value.  The  second  ad- 
vantage alluded  to  is  this, — that  if  Job  liimseif  were  the 
writer  of  the  book,  then  every  point  of  history  and  every 
doctrine  of  religion  here  treated  of,  which  coincide  with 
those  delivered  in  the  books  of  Moses,  arc  an  additional 
proof  and  confirmation  of  the  latter,  as  being  evidently  de- 
rived from  some  other  source,  not  borrowed  from  the  Penta- 
teuch.' 

"  But  whether  we  suppose  Job  the  author  of  the  book,  or 
not,  its  great  anthpiity,  and  even  its  priority  to  the  age  of 
Moses,  seems  to  stand  on  strong  grounds.  And,  upon  the 
whole,  perhaps  we  may  not  unreasonably  conjecture  the  his- 
tory of  the  book  to  be  this : — The  poem,  bein^  originally 
written  either  bj'  Job,  or  some  contemporary  of  his,  and  ex- 
isting in  the  time  of  Moses,  might  fall  into  iiis  hands,  whilst 
residing  in  the  land  of  Midian,  or  afterwards  when  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Iduma^a;  and  might  naturally  be  made  use 
of  by  him,  to-  represent  to  the  Hebrews,  either  whilst  re- 
pining under  their  Egyptian  bondage,  or  murmuring  at  their 
long  wanderings  in  the  wilderness,  the  great  duty  o(  submis- 
siuti  to  t/ie  will  of  God.  The  encouragement  which  this  book 
holds  out,  that  every  good  man  suffering  patiently  will  finally 
be  rewarded,  rendered  it  a  work  peculiarly  calculated  to 
minister  mingled  comfort  and  rebukt;  to  the  distressed  and 
discontented  Israelites,  and  might,  therefore,  well  have  been 
employed  by  Moses  for  this  jmrpose.  We  may  also  sup- 
pose, that  Moses,  in  transcribing,  might  have  made  some 
small  and  unimportant  alterations,  which  will  sufficiently 
account  for  occasional  and  partial  resemblances  of  expression 
between  it  and  the  Pentateuch,  if  any  such  there  be. 

"This  hypothesis  both  furnishes  a  reasonable  compromise 
between  the  opinions  of  the  great  critics,  who  are  divided 
upon  the  point  of  Moses  being  the  author ;  and  supplies  an 
answer  to  a  question  of  no  small  difficulty,  which  hangs 
upon  almost  every  other  solution  ;  namely,  when,  and  where- 
fore, a  book  treating  manifestly  of  the  concerns  of  a  stranger, 
and  in  no  way  connected  with  their  affairs,  was  received  by 
the  Jews  into  their  sacred  canon  ]  For  Moses  having  thus 
applied  the  book  to  their  use,  and  sanctioned  it  by  his  au- 
thority, it  would  naturally  have  been  enrolled  among  their 
sacrea  writings :  and  from  the  antiquity  of  that  enrolment 
no  record  would  consequently  appear  of  its  introduction."' 
Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  its  introduction  into  the 

»  Poters'  Criiical  Dissertation  on  Job,  n.  123.  et  seq. 

»  Miigee's  Discourses,  vol.  ii.  p.  82.  This  notion,  Arctibishop  Magee  re- 
marks, is  not  witliout  support  from  many  respectable  authorities.  The 
ancienl  commentator  on  Job,  under  (he  title  of  Origen,  has  handed  down  a 
piece  of-traditional  history,  which  perfectly  accords  with  it.  See  Patrick's 
Preface  to  Job.  Many  of  the  most  respectable  early  writers  seem  to  have 
adopted  the  same  idea,  as  may  be  seen  in  Huct  (Dem.  Evan?,  p.  326.),  and, 
with  some  slight  variation,  it  has  been  followed  by  that  learned  author. 
Patrick  also  and  Peier  speak  of  it  as  a  reasonable  hypothesis.  (Crit.  Diss. 
Pref  pp.  xxxiv.  xxxv.)  And  certainly  it  posse.sses  tliis  decided  advantage, 
thai  It  solves  all  t/ie  plienoincita.    Ibid.  pp.  83,  84. 


canon  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  on  any  other  supposition  than 
that  it  was  writt(;n  by  a  Hebrew  ;  since  the  language  is  He 
brew,  and  it  is  written  in  the  style  of  Hebrew  poetry.  "The 
Hebrews  were  j(v,dons  of  their  ndigious  prerogatives.  Woidd 
they  have  admitted  into  their  sacred  volume  a  poem  written 
by  a  foreigner]  The  supposition  that  the  [original]  author 
travtdled  or  residiid  a  considerable  time  in  Arabia  will  ac- 
count for  the  Arabian  imagi'S  and  words  contained  in  it."-* 

The  poi-rn  of  Job  being  thus  early  introduced  into  the 
sacred  volume,  wr.  have  abundant  (ivitlence  of  its  sidjsetpient 
n^cogiution  as  a  canonical  and  ins|)ired  book,  in  the  circum- 
stance of  its  being  occasionally  quoted  or  co|)ied  by  almost 
«!very  Hebrew  writer  who  had  an  oi)|)ortnnity  of  reu'.rring  to 
it,  from  the  age  of  .Moses  to  that  of  .Malachi;  especially  by 
tiie  Psalmist,  by  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel  (not  to  men- 
tion several  of  tli(!  apocryphal  writers).'  The  reality  of  Job's 
[lerson,  we  have  already  n^marked,'  was  particularly  recog- 
nised by  the  |)ro|)hel  Ky.ekiel'  (xiv.  11.  IK.  20.),  aiui,  conse- 
t|uently,  the  reality  and  canoincal  authority  of  his  book  :  a 
similar  admission  of  it  was  made  by  the  apostle  James  (v. 
11.);  and  it  is  expressly  cited  by  St.  Paul  (compare  1  (^or. 
iii.  19.  and  Job  v.  Hi.),  who  prefaces  his  tiuotation  by  the 
words,  "//  is  written,''''  agreeal)ly  to  the  common  form  of 
mioting  from  other  parts  of  Scripture.  All  these  testimonies, 
direct  and  collateral,  when  taken  together,  afl'ord  such  a  body 
of  convincing  evidence  as  fully  justifies  the  primitive  fathers 
and  early  councils  in  their  reception  of  it  as  an  inspired  book  : 
and, — independently  of  its  comph^ting  the  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian canons  of  Scripture,  by  uniting  as  full  an  account  as  is 
necessary  of  the  patriarchal  dispensation,  with  the  two  other 
dispensations  by  which  it  was  i)rogressively  succeeded, — 
the  enrolment  of  the  history  of  Job  in  the  sacred  volume  may, 
perhaps,  have  been  designed  as  an  intimation  of  the  future 
admission  of  the  Gentiles  into  the  church  of  Christ.^ 

V'l.  All  commentators  and  critics  are  unanimously  agreed, 
that  the  poem  of  Job  is  the  most  ancient  book  extant :  but 
concerning  its  species  and  structure  there  is  a  considerable 
diversity  of  opinion,  some  contending  that  it  is  an  epic  poem, 
while  others  maintain  it  to  be  a  drama. 

M.  Ilgen  on  the  Continent,  and  Dr.  Good  in  our  own 
country,  are  the  only  two  commentators  that  have  come  to 
the  writer's  knowledge,  who  advocate  the  hypothesis  that 
the  book  of  Job  is  a  regular  epic.  The  former  critic  contends 
that  it  is  a  regular  epic,  the  subject  of  which  is  tried  and 
victorious  innocence ;  and  that  it  possesses  unity  of  action, 
delineation  of  character,  plot,  and  catastrophe, — not  exactly, 
indeed,  in  the  Grecian,  but  in  the  Oriental  style.*  Dr.  Goods 
observes,  that,  were  it  necessary  to  enter  minutely  into  the 
question,  this  poem  might  easily  be  proved  to  possess  all  the 
more  prominent  features  of  an  epic,  as  laid  down  by  Aris- 
totle hiinself,  such  as  unity,  completion,  and  grandeur  in  its 
action;  loftiness  in  its  sentiments  and  language ;  multitude 
and  variety  in  the  passions  which  it  developes.  Even  the 
characters,  though  not  numerous,  are  discriminated  and  well 
supported;  the  milder  and  more  modest  temper  of  Eliphaz 
(compare  Job  iv.  2,  3.  with  xv.  3.)  is  well  contrasted  with 
the  forward  and  unrestrained  violence  of  Bildad ;  the  terse- 
ness and  brevity  of  Zophar  with  the  pent-up  and  overflowing 
fulness  of  Elihu:  while  in  Job  himself  we  perceive  a  dig- 
nity of  mind  thnj  nothing  can  humiliate,  a  firmness  that  no- 
tbinw  can  subdue,  still  habitually  disclosing  themselves 
amidst  the  tumult  of  hope,  fear,  rage,  tenderness,  triuiTiph, 
and  despair,  with  which  he  is  alternately  distracted.  This 
hint  is  offered  by  Dr.  Good,  not  with  a  view  of  ascribing  any 
additional  merit  to  the  poem  itself,  but  merely  to  observe,  so 
far  as  a  single  fact  is  possessed  of  authority,  that  mental 
taste,  or  the  internal  discermuent  of  real  beauty,  is  the  same 

»  United  States'  Review  and  Literary  Oazette,  vol.  ii.  p.  343. 

<  Ilnet,  Demon.str.  Evang.  tom.  i.  pp.  324,  325.,  and  Dr.  Good,  in  the  notes 
to  liis  version  of  Job,  have  pointed  out  numerous  instances  of  passages 
thus  directly  copied  or  referred  to. 

s  Seep.  is.  supra,  of  this  volume. 

«  As  Job  lived  so  many  ages  before  the  time  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel, 
mere  oral  tradition  of  such  a  person  could  not  have  sub-sisled  through  so 
long  a  period  of  time,  without  appearing  at  last  as  unccrt;iin  or  fabulous. 
There  must,  therefore,  have  been  some  history  of  Job  in  Ezekiel's  lime ; 
no  other  history  but  that  which  we  now  have,  and  which  has  always  had  a 
place  in  the  Hebrew  code,  was  ever  heard  of  or  pretended.  Therefore  this 
must  have  been  the  history  of  .lob  in  Ezekiel's  time,  and  must  have  been 
generally  known  and  read  as  true  and  authentic,  and,  consequently,  nmst 
have  been  written  near  to  [rather  in]  the  age  when  the  fact  was  transacted, 
and  not  in  after-times,  when  its  credibihty  would  have  b- en  greally  dimi- 
nished. Dr.  Taylor's  Scheme  of  Scripture  Divinity,  ch.  22:  in^/je,  (in  Bishop 
Watson's  Collection  of  Tracts,  vol.  i.  p.  93.) 

t  Gregorii  Praefat.  in  Jobum.     Masee,  vol.  ii.  p.  81.     Good's  Job,  p.  briv. 

8  Ilgen,  Jobi  aotiquissimi  Caiminis  Uebraici  Nalura  alque  Virlutes,  cap. 
3.  pp.  JO— 89. 

9  Introd.  Diss,  to  Job,  section  2. 


232 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT, 


[Part  V.  Chap,  HI 


in  all  ages  and  nations,  and  that  the  rules  of  the  Greek  critic 
are  deduced  from  a  principle  of  universal  imjiulse  and  ope- 
ration. 

The  dramatic  form  of  this  poem  was  strenuously  affirmed 
by  Calmet,  Carpzov,  and  some  other  continental  critics,  and 
after  them  by  Dr.  Garnett,  and  Bishop  Warburtfin ;  who,  in 
support  of  this  opinion,  adduced  the  metrical  form  of  its 
style,  excepting  in  liie  introduction  and  conclusion, — its  sen- 
timents, which  are  delivered,  not  only  in  verse,  but  in  a  kind 
of  poetry  animated  by  all  tiie  sublimity  and  floridness  of 
description  (whence  he  concludes  this  book  to  be  a  work  of 
imagination), — and,  in  short,  the  whole  form  of  its  composi- 
tion? Bishop  Lowth  has  appropriated  two  entire  lectures' 
to  an  examination  of  this  question ;  and  after  inquiring 
whether  the  poem  is  possessed  of  any  of  the  properties  ot 
the  Greek  drama,  and  considering  a  variety  of  circumstances 
wiiich  are  here  necessarily  omitted,  he  affirms,  without  hesi- 
tation, that  the  poem  of  Job  contains  no  plot  or  action  what- 
ever, not  even  of  the  most  simple  kind ;  that  it  uniformly 
exhibits  one  constant  chain  of  things,  without  the  smallest 
change  of  feature  from  beginning  to  end  ;  and  that  it  exhibits 
such°a  representation  of  manners,  passions,  and  sentiments 
as  micrht  be  naturally  expected  in  such  a  situation.  But 
though  the  book  of  .lob  is  by  no  means  to  be  considered  as  a 
draina  written  with  fictitious  contrivance ;  or  as  resembling 
in  its  construction  any  of  those  much  admired  productions 
of  the  Grecian  dramatic  poets  which  it  preceded  by  so  many 
centuries, — yet,  he  concludes,  it  may  still  be  represented  as 
being  so  far  dramatic,  as  the  parties  are  introduced  speaking 
with^o-reat  fidelity  of  character ;  and  as  it  deviates  from  strict 
historTcal  accuracy  for  the  sake  of  effect.  It  is  a  complete 
though  peculiar  work,  and  regular  in  its  subject  as  well  as 
in  the  distribution  of  its  parts :  the  exordium  and  conclusion 
are  in  prose,  but  all  the  intermediate  dialogues  are  in  metre. 
But,  whatever  rank  may  be  assigned  to  Job  in  a  comparison 
with  the  poets  of  Greece,  to  whom  we  must  at  least  allow 
the  merit  of  art  and  method ;  among  the  Hebrews  it  must 
certainly  be  allowed,  in  this  respect,  to  be  unrivalled.  Such 
is  a  brief  outline  of  Bishop  Lowth's  arguments  and  conclu- 
sions, which  have  been  generally  adopted. 

It  only  remains  that  we  notice  the  opinion  of  Professor 
Bauer,2  viz.  that  the  book  of  Job  approximates  most  nearly 
to  the  Mekaniat  or  moral  discourses  of  the  philosophical 
Arabian  poets.  He  has  simply  announced  his  hypothesis, 
without  offering  any  reasons  in  its  support ;  but  the  following 
considerations  appear  not  unfavourable  to  the  conjecture  ot 
Bauer.  The  Mekama  treats  on  every  topic  which  presented 
itself  to  the  mind  of  the  poet,  and  though  some  parts  are 
occasionally  found  in  prose,  yet  it  is  generally  clothed  in  all 
the  charms  of  poetry  which  the  vivid  imagination  of  the 
author  could  possibly  bestow  upon  it.  The  subjects  thus 
discussed,  however,  are  principally  ethical.  The  Arabs  have 
several  works  of  this  description,  which  are  of  considerable 
antiijuity ;  but  the  most  celebrated  is  the  collection  of  Meka- 
mats,  composed  by  the  illustrious  poet  Hariri,''  which  are 
read  and  admired  to  this  day.  Now,  it  will  be  recollected, 
that  the  scene  of  the  book  of  Job  is  laid  in  the  land  of  Uz  or 
lduma;a,  in  the  Stony  Arabia;  the  interlocutors  are  Edomite 
Arabs  ;  the  beginning  and  termination  are  evidently  in  prose, 
though  the  dialogue  is  metrical;  the  language  is  pure  He- 
brew, which  we  Know  for  a  considerable  time  was  the  com- 
mon dialect  of  the  Israelites,  Idumaeans,  and  Arabs,  who 
were  all  descended  from  Abraham ;  the  manners,  customs, 
and  allusions,  too,  which,  it  is  well  known,  have  not  varied 
in  any  material  degree,  are  supported  by  those  of  the  modern 
Arabs.  Since,  then,  the  book  of  Job  is  allowed  on  all  sides 
to  be  a  poem,  single  and  unparalleled  in  the  sacred  volume, 
may  we  not  consider  it  as  a  prototype  of  the  Mekama  of  the 
Arabians  ■?    This  conjecture,  which  is  offered  with  deference 

«  Lcct.  xxxiii.  and  xxxiv. 

2  Bauer,  Henneneutica  Sacra,  p.  386.  -The  Arabic  word  Mekama  signi- 
fies an  assembly  and  conversation,  or  discourse  (U'Herbelot,  Bibliotheque 
Orientate,  vol.  ii.  p.  500.) ;  the  name  is  derived  from  the  circumstance  of 
these  coniposilions  being  read  at  the  meetings  or  conversazioni  of  eminent 
literary  characters. 

s  He  composed  his  MekSma,  or  Mecamat,  as  D'Herbelot  spells  the  word, 
at  the  request  of  Abu  Shirvan  Khaled,  vizir  of  the  Seljuk  Sultan  Mahmoud. 
It  is  esteemed  a  masterpiece  of  Arabian  poesy  and  eloquence  ;  and  con- 
sists of  fifty  discourses  or  declamatory  conversations  on  various  topics  of 
morality,  each  of  which  derives  its  name  from  the  place  where  it  was  re- 
cited. So  highly  were  these  productions  of  Hariri  valued,  that  Zamakshari, 
the  most  learned  of  the  Arabian  grammarians,  pronounced  that  they  ought 
only  to  be  written  on  silk.  The  Mekamat  of  Hariri  were  published  by 
Schultens,  and  six  of  his  "Assemblies"  were  translated  into  English  from 
the  Arabic,  and  published  by  Professor  Chappelow,  in  8vo.  London,  1767. 
See  an  account  and  extract  from  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review,  O.  S. 
vol.  xxxvii.  pp.  22—28. 


to  the  names  and  sentiments  of  so  many  learned  men,  pos- 
sesses at  least  one  advantage;  it  furnishes  a  compromise 
between  the  opinions  of  the  great  critics  who  are  divided  in 
sentiment  upon  the  class  of  poetry  to  which  this  book  is  to 
be  referred,  and  perhaj)s  reconciles  difficulties  which  could 
not  otherwise  be  solved  respecting  its  real  nature. 

The  reader  will  now  determine  for  himself  to  which  class 
of  poetry  this  divine  book  is  to  be  referred.  After  all  that 
has  been  said,  it  is,  perhaps,  of  little  consequence  v.hether 
it  be  esteemed  a  didactic  or  an  ethic,  an  epic  or  dramatic 
poem;  provided  a  distinct  and  conspicuous  station  be  assi<)n- 
ed  to  it  in  the  highest  rank  of  Hebrew  poesy  :  for  not  oi\ly  is 
the  poetry  of  the  book  of  Job  equal  to  that  of  any  other  of 
the  Sacred  Writings,  but  it  is  superior  to  them  all,  those  of 
Isaiah  alone  excepted.  As  Isaiah,  says  Dr.  Blair,  is  the 
most  sublime,  David  the  most  pleasing  and  tender,  so  Job  is 
the  most  descriptive  of  all  the  inspired  poets.  A  peculiar 
glow  of  fancy  and  strength  of  description  characterize  this 
author.  No  writer  whatever  abounds  so  much  in  metaphors. 
He  may  be  said  not  only  to  describe,  but  to  render  visible, 
whatever  he  treats  of.  Instances  of  this  kind  every  where 
occur,  but  especially  in  the  eighteenth  and  twentieth  chap- 
ters, in  which  the  condition  of  the  wicked  is  delineated.^ 

VII.  The  subject  of  this  book  is  the  history  of  a  real 
sufferer,  the  patriarch  Job,  who  at  the  period  in  question  was 
an  emir,  or  Arab  prince  of  distinguished  wealth,  eminence, 
and  authority,  resident  in  the  country  of  Uz  or  Idumaea. 
His  three  friends,  Elijihaz,  Bildad,  and  Zophar,  were  also 
probably  emirs  of  the  cities  or  places  whence  they  are  de- 
nominated ;  but  of  Elihu,  the  fourth  interlocutor  in  the  poem, 
we  have  no  notice  whatever.*  The  principal  object  offered 
to  our  contemplation  in  this  production  is  the  example  of  a 
good  man,  eminent  for  his  piety,  and  of  approved  integrity, 
suddenly  precipitated  from  the  very  summit  of  prosperity 
into  the  lowest  depths  of  misery  and  ruin :  who,  having  been 
first  bereaved  of  his  wealth,  his  possessions,  and  his  children, 
is  afterwards  afflicted  with  the  most  excruciating  anguish  of 
a  loathsome  disease  which  entirely  covers  his  body.  (i.  ii.) 
He  sustains  all  with  the  mildest  submission,  and  the  most 
complete  resignation  to  the  will  of  Providence :  In  all  this, 
says  the  historian.  Job  sinned  not,  nor  charged  God  foolishly. 
(i.  22.)  And  after  tlie  second  trial.  In  all  this  did  not  Job  sin 
with  his  lips.  (ii.  10.)  The  author  of  the  history  remarks 
upon  this  circumstance  a  second  time,  in  order  to  excite  the 
observation  of  the  reader,  and  to  render  him  more  attentive 
to  what  follows,  which  properly  constitutes  the  true  subject 
of  the  poem ;  namely,  the  conduct  of  Job  with  respect  to  his 
reverence  for  the  Almighty,  and  the  changes  which  accumu- 
lating misery  might  produce  in  his  temper  and  behaviour. 
Accordingly  we  find  that  another  still  more  exquisite  trial  of 
his  patience  yet  awaits  him,  and  which,  indeed,  as  the  writer 
seems  to  intimate,  he  scarcely  appears  to  have  sustained  with 
equal  firmness,  namely,  the  unjust  suspicions,  the  bitter 
reproaches,  and  the  violent  altercations  of  his  friends,  who 
had  visited  him  on  the  pretence  of  affording  consolation. 
Here  commences  the  plot  or  action  of  the  poem  :  for  when, 
after  a  long  silence  of  all  parties,  the  grief  of  Job  breaks 
forth  into  passionate  exclainations  and  a  vehement  execration 
of  the  day  of  his  birth  (iii.) ;  the  minds  of  his  friends  are 
suddenly  exasperated,  their  intentions  are  changed,  and  their 
consolation,  it  indeed  they  originally  intended  any,  is  con- 
verted into  contumely  and  reproaches.  Eliphaz,  the  first  of 
these  three  singular  comforters,  reproves  his  impatience ; 
calls  in  question  his  integrity,  by  indirectly  insinuating  that 
God  does  not  inflict  such  punishments  upon  the  righteous ; 
and,  finally,  admonishes  him  that  the  chastisement  of  God 

♦  Blair's  Lectures,  vol.  iii.  p.  188. 

5  From  the  circumstance  of  Elipha!^,  Zophar,  and  Bildad  being  termed 
kings  in  the  Stptuagint  version,  some  critics  have  supposed  that  they  as 
well  as  Job  were  monarchs  :  but  this  conjecture  is  destitute  of  .support. 
For,  1.  Job  is  not  represented  as  losing  his  kingdom,  but  his  children,  ser- 
vants, and  Hocks  ;  2.  He  possessed  no  army  or  forces  with  which  he  could 
pursue  the  predatory  Saboeans  and  Chaldeans  ;  3.  Tliough  his  friends  ac- 
cused him  of  various  crimes,  and  among  others  of  harshly  treating  his  ser- 
vants, yet  they  nowhere  charge  him  with  tyranny  towards  his  subjects ; 
4.  Job  gives  an  account  of  his  private  lite  and  conduct  towards  his  domes- 
tics, but  is  totally  silent  as  to  his  conduct  towards  his  subjects ;  lastly, 
when  he  does  meution  kings  (iii.  14.  xxix.  25.),  he  by  no  means  placesliim- 
self  upon  an  equality  with  them.  Hence  we  see  the  erroneousness  of  the 
appendix  to  tlie  Seiituagint  version  of  Job,  of  which  some  notice  is  taken 
in  p.  2.f4.  infra,  and  which  makes  him  to  be  the  same  as  Jobab  king  of  the 
rjdomites.  (Gen.  xxxvi.  33.)  It  is  equally  clear  that  Job  was  not  subject  to 
any  sovereign,  fur  neither  he  nor  his  friends  make  any  mention  of  his  alle- 
giance to  any  king  ;  on  the  contrary,  when  he  entered  the  gate  of  the  city 
wliere  the  magistrates  sat  in  a  judicial  capacity,  the  first  place  was  reserved 
•to  him,  and  his  opiniou  was  asked  with  the  utmost  deference.  From  all 
these  circumstances,  therefore,  coupled  with  his  extensive  flocks  and 
ample  possessions,  we  conclude  with  Herder,  Jahn,  and  Dr.  Good,  that  he 
was  emir,  prince,  or  chief  magistrate  of  the  city  of  Uz. 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


233 


is  not  to  be  despised,  (iv.  v.)     The  next  of  them,  not  less 
intemperate  in   his  reproofs,  takes  it  for  {rranted,  tiiat  tiie 
cliildren  of  Job  had  only  received  the  reward  due  to  their 
olfences;  and  with  regard  to  himself,  intimates,  that  if  he  be 
innocent,  and  will  apply  with  proper  humility  to  the  divine 
mercy,  he  may  be  restored,  (viii.)     The  thini  upbraids  liim 
with  arrogance,  with  vanity,  and  even  with  falselujod,  because 
he  has  presumed  to  defend  himself  against  the  unjust  accu- 
sations of  his  companions,  and  exhorts  liim  to  a  sounder 
mode  of  reasoning,  and   a  nioni  holy  life,  (xi.)     They  all, 
with  a  manifest  though  indirect  allusion  to  Job,  discoursi; 
very  copiously  concerning  the  divine  judgments,  which  are 
always  openly  dis|)layed  ag.iinst  the  wickcid,  and  of  the  cer- 
tain destruction  of  hyjiocritical  pretenders  to  virtue  and  reli- 
gion.    In  reply  to  this,  Job  enumerates  his  sullerings,  and 
complains  bitterly  of  the  inhumanity  of  his  friends,  and  of 
the  severity  which  he  has  experienced  from  tht;  hand  of  (iod  ; 
he  calls  to  witness  both  C»od  and  man,  that  Ik;  is  unjustly 
oppressed;  he  intimates,  that  he  is  weak  in  comparison  with 
God,  that  the  contention  is,  consetiuently,  unetjual,  and  that, 
be  his  cause  ever  so  righteous,  he  cannot  hone  to  prevail, 
(vi.  vii.)     He   expostulates  with  Cod    himself  still    mon; 
vehemently,  and   with   greater  freedom,  alhrmiiig,  that  he 
does  not  discriminate  characters,  but  etiually  afllii-ts  the  just 
and  the  unjust,  (x.)     The  expostulations  of  Job  serve  only 
to  irritate  still  more  the  resentment  of  his  pretended  friends ; 
they  reproach  him  in  severer  terms  with  pride,  impiety,  pas- 
sion, and  madness ;  they  repeat  the  same  arguments  respecting 
the  justice  of  God,  the  punishment  of  the  wicked,  and  their 
certain  destruction  after  a  short  period  of  apparent  prosperity. 
This  sentiment  they  confidently  pronounce  to  be  confirmed 
both  by  their  experience  and  "by  that  of  their  fathers ;  and 
they  maliciously  exaggerate  the  ungrateful  topic  by  the  most 
splendid  imagery  and  the  most  forcible  language,  (xi.)     On 
the  part  of  Job,  the  general  scope  of  the  ar^nnent  is  much 
the   same   as   before,   but   the   expression   is   considerably 
heightened  ;  it  consists  of  appeals  to  the  Almighty,  assevera- 
tions of  his  own  innocence,  earnest  expostulations,  complaints 
of  the  cruelty  of  his  friends,  melancholy  reflections  on  the 
vanity  of  human  life,  and  upon  his  own  severe  misfortunes, 
ending  in  grief  and  desperation  :  he  aflirms,  however,  that  he 
places  his  ultimate  hope  and  confidence  in  God ;  and  the 
more  vehemently  his  adversaries  urtje  that  the  wicked  only 
are  objects  of  the  divine  wrath,  ana  obnoxious  to  punish- 
ment, so  much  the  more  resolutely  docs  Job  assert  their 
perpetual  impunity,  prosperity  and  happiness,  even  to  the 
end  of  their  existence.     'Ihe  first  of  his  opponents,  Eliphaz, 
incensed  by  this  assertion,  descends  directly  to  open  crimina- 
tion and  contumely :  he  accuses  the  most  upright  of  men  of 
the  most  atrocious  crimes,  of  injustice,  rapine,  and  oppression  : 
inveighs  against  him  as  an  impious  pretender  to  virtue  and 
religion,  and  with  a  kind  of  sarcastic  benevolence  exhorts 
him  to  penitence.     Vehemently  aireclcd  with  this  reproof, 
Job,  in  a  still  more  animated  and  confident  strain,  appeals  to 
the  tribunal  of  AU-secing  Justice,  and  wishes  it  were  only 
permitted  him  to  plead  his  cause  in  the  presence  of  God 
liimself.     He   complains   still   more   intemperately    of   the 
unequal  treatment  of  Providence ;  exults  in  his  own  integrity, 
and  then  more  tenaciously  maintains  his  fprmer  opinion  con- 
cerning the  impunity  of  the  wicked.     To  this  another  of  the 
triumvirate,   Bildad,  replies,  by  a  masterly  though  concise 
dissertation  on  the  majesty  and  sanctity  of  the  Divine  Being, 
indirectly  n  buking  the  presumption  of  Job,  who  has  dared 
to  question  his  decrees.    In  reply  to  Bildad,  Job  demonstrates 
himself  no  less  expert  at  wielding  the  weapons  of  satire  and 
ridicule  than  those  of  reason  and  argument;  and  reverting  to 
a  more  serious  tone,  he  displa)'s  the  infinite  power  and  wis- 
dom of  God  more  copiously  and  more  poetically  than  the 
former  speaker.     The  third  of  the  friends  making  no  return, 
and  the  others  remaing  silent.  Job  at  length  opens  the  true 
sentiments  of  his  heart  concerning  the  fate  ot  the  wicked ; 
he  allows  that  their  prosperity  is  unstable,  and  that  they  and 
their  descendants  shall  at  last  experience  on  a  sudden  that 
God  is  the  avenger  of  iniquity.     In  all  this,  however,  he 
contends  that  the  divine  counsels  do  not  admit  of  human 
investigation,  but  that  the  chief  wisdom  of  man  consists  in 
the  fear  of  God.     He  beautifully  descants  upon  his  former 
jirosperity ;  and  exhibits  a  striking  contrast  between  it  and 
his  presj»nt  aflliction  and  debasement.     Lastly,  in  answer  to 
the  crimination  of  Eliphaz,  and  the  implications  of  the  others, 
he  relates  the  principal   transactions  of  his  past  life;    he 
asserts  his  integrity  as  displayed  in  all  the  duties  of  life, 
and  in  the  sight  of  God  aind  man ;  and  again  appeals  to  the 
Vol.  II.  -2  G 


justice  and  omniscience  of  God  in  attestation  of  his  vera- 
city. 

If  these  circumstances  were  fiiirly  collected  from  the  gene- 
ral tenor  and  series  of  the  work,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to 
trace  them  through  the  plainer  and  more  conspicuous  pas- 
sages, it  will  be  no  very  difficult  task  to  explain  and  define 
the  subject  of  this  part  of  the  poem,  which  contains  the  dis- 
pute between  Job  and  his  friends.  The  argument  seems 
chiefly  to  relate  to  the  piety  and  integrity  of  Jol),  and  turns 
upon  this  point,  whether  he,  who  by  the  divine  providence 
and  visitation  is  so  severely  punished  and  afllicted,  ought  to 
be  account(!d  pious  and  innocent.  This  leads  into  a  more 
extensive  field  of  controversy,  into  a  dispute,  indeed,  which 
less  admits  of  any  definition  or  limit,  concerning  the  nature 
of  the  divine  counsels  in  the  dispensations  of  happiness  and 
misery  in  this  life.  The  antagonists  of  Job  in  tins  dispute, 
observing  him  exposed  to  such  severe  visitations,  conceiving 
that  this  aflliction  had  not  fallen  upon  him  iinrneritedly,  ac 
cuse  him  of  hypocrisy,  and  fals<dy  ascribe  to  him  the  guilt  ot 
some  atrocious  but  concealed  oflTence.  Job,  on  the  contrary, 
conscious  of  no  crime,  and  wounded  by  their  unjust  suspi- 
cions, defends  his  own  innocence  before  God  with  rather 
more  confidence  and  ardour  than  is  commendable;  and  so 
strenuously  contends  for  his  own  integrity,  that  he  seems 
virtually  to  charge  God  himself  with  some  degree  of  injus- 
tice.' 

The  argument  of  Job's  friends  may,  in  substance,  be  com- 
prised in  the  following  syllogism  : 

God,  trho  is  just,  hes/oirs  blessings  vpon  the  godly,  but  afflicts  Ihe  wicked-' 
Hut  Jul)  is  must  heavily  afflicted  by  (iod: 

TherefoPe  Job  is  iricked,  and  deserves  the  punishment  of  his  sina ;  and 
tlierefore  he  is  bound  to  repent,  that  is,  to  confess  and  bewail  his  sins. 

To  the  major  proposition  Job  replies,  that  God  ajjlicts not  only 
the  wicked,  Init  also  the  pious,  in  order  that  their  faith,  pa- 
tience, and  other  virtues,  may  be  proved,  and  that  the  glory 
of  God  may  become  more  conspicuously  manifest  in  their 
wonderful  deliverances.  But  overwhelmed  with  grief  and 
the  cruel  suspicions  of  his  friends,  he  defends  his  cause  with 
hard  and  sometimes  impatient  expressions. 

This  state  of  the  controversy  is  clearly  explained  by  what 
follows  :  for  when  the  three  friends  have  ceased  to  dispute 
with  Job,  because  he  seemeth  just  in  his  oivn  eyes  (xxxii.  1.), 
that  is,  because  he  has  uniformly  contended  that  there  was 
no  wickedness  in  himself  which  could  call  down  the  heavy 
vengeance  of  God,  Elihu  comes  forward,  justly  offended 
with  both  parties  ;  with  Job,  because  he  justified  himself  in 
preference  to  God  (xxxii.  2.  compare  xxxv.  2.  xl.  8.),  that  is, 
because  he  defended  so  vehemently  the  justice  of  his  own 
cause,  that  he  seemed  in  some  measure  to  arraign  the  justice 
of  God:  against  the  three  friends,  because  though  they  were 
unable  to  anjuoer  Job,  they  ceased  not  to  condemn  him  (xxxii. 
3.),  that  is,  they  concluded  in  their  own  minds  that  Job  was 
impious  and  wicked,  while,  nevertheless,  they  had  nothing 
specific  to  object  against  his  assertions  of  his  own  innocence, 
or  upon  which  they  mi^ht  safely  ground  their  accusation. 

The  conduct  of  Ellhu  evidently  corresponds  with  this 
state  of  the  controversy ;  he  professes,  after  a  slight  prefa- 
tory mention  of  himself,  to  reason  with  Job,  unbiassed 
equally  by  favour  or  resentment.  He  therefore  reproves  Job 
from  his  own  mouth,  because  he  had  attributed  too  much  to 
himself;  because  he  had  aflirmcd  himself  to  be  altogether 
free  from  guilt  and  depravity ;  because  he  had  presumed  to 
contend  w'lth  God,  and  had  not  scrupled  to  insinuate,  that 
the  Deity  was  hostile  to  him.  He  asserts,  that  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary for  God  to  explain  and  develope  his  counsels  to 
men ;  that  he  nevertheless  takes  many  occasions  of  admo- 
nishing them,  not  only  by  visions  and  revelations,  but  even 
by  the  visitations  of  his  providence,  by  sending  calamities 
and  diseases  upon  them,  to  repress  their  arrogance  and  re- 
form their  obduracy.  He  next  rebukes  Job,  because  he  had 
pronounced  himself  upright,  and  affirmed  that  God  had  acted 
inimically,  if  not  unjustly,  towards  him,  which  he  proves  to 
be  no  less  improper  than  indecent.  In  the  third  place,  he 
objects  to  Job,  that  from  t'le  miseries  of  the  good  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  wicked,  he  has  falsely  and  perversely  con- 
cluded, that  there  was  no  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the 
practice  of  virtue.  On  the  contrar}',  he  affirms,  that  when 
the  afllictions  of  the  just  continue,  it  is  because  they  do  not 
place  a  proper  confidence  in  God,  ask  relief  at  his  hands, 
patiently  expect  it,  nor  demean  themselves  before  him  with 
Dccoming  humility  and  submission.  This  observation  alone, 

'  Lowth's  Lectures,  No.  xxiii.  vol.  ii.  pp.  371—378. 


234 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  HI 


he  adds  very  properly,  is  at  once  a  sufficient  reproof  of  the 
contumacy  of  Job,  and  a  fall  refutation  of  the  unjust  suspi- 
cions of  his  friends,  (xxxv.  4.)  Lastly,  he  explains  the 
purposes  of  the  Deity,  in  chastening  men,  which  are  in 
general  to  prove  and  to  amend  them,  to  repress  their  arro- 
gance, to  aiford  him  an  opportunity  of  exemplifying  his  jus- 
tice upon  the  obstinate  and  rebellious,  and  of  showing  favour 
to  tlie  humble  and  obedient.  Ke  supposes  God  to  have 
acted  in  this  manner  towards  Job :  on  that  account  he  ex- 
liorts  him  to  humble  himself  before  his  righteous  Judge,  to 
beware  of  appearing  obstinate  or  contumacious  in  his  sight, 
and  of  relapsing  into  a  repetition  of  his  sin.  He  entreats 
him,  from  the  contemplation  of  the  divine  power  and  ma- 
jesty, to  endeavour  to  retain  a  proper  reverence  for  the  Al- 
mighty. To  these  freqiiently  intermitted  and  often  repeated 
admonitions  of  Elihu,  Job  makes  no  return. 

The  address  of  God  himself  follows  that  of  Elihu,  in 
which,  disdaining  to  descend  to  any  particular  explication  of 
his  divine  counsels,  but  instancing  some  of  the  stupendous 
effects  of  his  infinite  pov/er,  he  insists  upon  the  same  topics 
which  Elilm  had  before  touched  upon.  Li  the  first  place, 
having  reproved  the  temerity  of  Job,  he  convicts  him  of  ig- 
norance, in  being  unable  to  comprehend  the  works  of  his 
creation,  which  were  obvious  to  every  eye ;  the  nature  and 
structure  of  the  earth,  the  sea,  the  light,  and  the  animal 
kingdom.  He  then  demonstrates  his  weakness,  by  chal- 
lenging him  to  prove  his  own  power  by  emulating  any  single 
exertion  of  the  divine  energy,  and  then  referring  him  to  one 
or  two  of  the  brute  creation,  with  which  he  is  unable  to 
contend  : — how  much  less,  therefore,  with  the  Omnipotent 
Creator  and  Lord  of  all  things,  who  is  or  can  be  accovrntable 
to  no  being  whatever?  (xli.  2,  3.)' 

The  scope  of  this  speech  is,  to  humble  Job,  and  to  teach 
others  by  his  example  to  acquiesce  in  the  dispensations  of 
Jehovah,  from  an  unbounded  confidence  in  his  equity,  wis- 
dom, and  goodness : — an  end  this,  which  (Bishop  Stock 
truly  remarks)  is,  indeed,  worthy  of  the  interposition  of  the 
Deity.  The  method  pursued  in  the  speech  to  accomplish  its 
design,  is  a  series  of  questions  and  descriptions,  relative  to 
natural  things,  admirably  fitted  to  convince  this  complainant, 
and  all  others,  of  their  incapacity  to  judge  of  God's  moral 
administi'ation,  and  of  the  danger  of  striving  with  their  Maker. 
Nothing,  in  the  whole  compass  of  language,  can  equal,  much 
less  surpass,  the  inimitable  grandeur  and  sublimity  of  this 
divine  address,  which  extends  from  chapter  xxxviii.  to  xli. 

On  the  conclusion  of  the  speech  of  Jehovah,  Job  humbles 
himself  before  God,  acknowledging  his  own  ignorance  and 
imbecility,  and  "  repents  in  dust  and  ashes."  He  then  offers 
sacrifice  for  his  friends,  and  is  restored  to  redoubled  pros- 
perity, honour,  and  comfort. 

From  a  due  consideration  of  all  these  circumstances, 
IJishop  Lowth  concludes  that  the  principal  object  of  the 
})oem  IS  this  third  and  last  trial  of  Job  from  the  injustice  and 
unkindness  of  his  accusing  friends;  the  consequence  of 
which  is,  in  the  first  place,  the  anger,  indignation,  and  con- 
tumacy of  Job,  and  afterwards,  his  composure,  submission, 
and  penitence.  The  desi<Tn  of  the  poem  is,  therefore,  to 
teach  men,  that,  having  a  due-  respect  to  the  corruption,  in- 
firmity, and  ignorance  of  htiman  nature,  as  well  as  to  the 
infinite  wisdom  and  majesty  of  God,  they  are  to  reject  all 
confidence  in  their  own  strength,  in  their  own  righteousness, 
and  to  preserve  on  all  occasions  an  unwavering  and  unsullied 
faith,  and  to  submit  with  becoming  reverence  to  his  decrees. 
It  is,  however,  to  be  carefully  observed,  that  the  subject  of 
the  dispute  between  Job  and  his  friends  differs  from  the  sub- 
ject of  the  poem  in  general ;  and  that  the  end  of  the  poetical 
])art  differs  from  the  design  of  the  narrative  at  large.  For, 
tlie  bishop  remarks,  although  the  design  and  subject  of  the 
poem  be  exactly  as  they  are  above  defined,  it  may,  neverthe- 
less, be  granted  that  the  whole  history,  taken  together,  con- 
tains an  example  of  patience,  tojrcther  with  its  reward;  and 
he  considers  much  of  the  j)erplejiity  in  which  the  subject 
lias  been  involved,  as  arising  ])rincipuUy  from  this  point  not 
liaving  been  treated  with  sullicient  distinctness  by  tlie 
learned. 

Moldeiihawer  and  some  other  critics  have  considered  the 
passage  in  Job  xix.  25 — 27.  as  a  prediction  of  the  Messiah. 
It  cannot,  however,  be  clearly  shown  that  this  book  contains 
any  prophecies,  strictly  so  called;  because  the  passages 
which  might  be  adduced  as  prophetical  may  also  be  consi- 
dered as  a  profession  of  faith  in  a  promised  Redeemer,  and 
concerning  a  future  resurrection.     A  learned  commentator 

»  Lowlh's  Lectures,  No.  xxxii.  vol.  ii.  pp.  378— 3S2, 


of  the  present  day  has  remarked,  that  there  are  but  few  parts 
of  the  Old  Testament  which  declare  more  explicitly  the 
grand  outlines  of  revealed  truth,  nay  even  of  evang-elical 
cloctrine :  so  that  they,  who  speak  of  it  as  consisting  chiefly 
o{  natural  religion,  seem  entirely  to  have  mistaken  its  scope. 
The  book  of  Jol),  he  continues,  is  full  of  caution  and  encou- 
ragement to  the  tempted  and  afllicted,  and  of  warning  to 
those  who  hastily  judge  their  brethren.  It  throws  great 
light  upon  the  doctrine  of  Providence,  and  upon  the  agency 
and  influence  of  evil  spirits  under  the  control  of  God,  In  the 
patriarch  Job  we  see  an  eminent  type  of  the  suffering  and 
glorified  Saviour,  and  a  pattern  of  the  believer's  "passing 
through  much  tribulation  to  the  kingdom  of  God,"  In  short, 
the  whole  is  replete  with  most  important  instruction:  and 
among  the  rest  we  are  reminded  of  the  ill  effects  of  acrimo- , 
nious  religious  dispute.  These  four  pious  men  argued  toge- 
ther, till,  becoming  angry,  they  censured  and  condemned 
each  other,  and  uttered  many  irreverent  things  concerning 
the  divine  character  and  government;  and  having  lost  their 
temper,  they  would  also  have  lost  their  labour,  and  have  be(m 
at  more  variance  than  ever,  if  another  method  had  not  been 
taken  to  decide  the  controversy.'-^ 

"The  character  of  each  person  is  well  sustained  through 
the  whole  book:  Job,  everywhere  consistent,  pious,  con- 
scious of  his  own  uprightness,  but  depressed  by  misery, 
weighed  down  by  disease,  and  irritated  by  the  clamorous 
accusations  of  his  friends,  is  hurried  on  to  make  some  rash 
assertions.  Confident  in  his  own  innocence,  his  appeals  to 
God  are  sometimes  too  bold,  and  his  attacks  upon  his  friends 
too  harsh,  but  he  always  ends  in  complaints,  and  excuses- 
his  vehemence  on  account  of  the  magnitude  of  his  calamity. 
His  friends,  all  sincere  ■worshippers  of  the  true  God,  and 
earnest  advocates  of  virtue,  agree  in  the  opinion,  that  divine 
justice  invariably  punishes  the  wicked,  and  rewards  the 
good  with  present  happiness.  They  endeavour  to  prove  this 
by  appeals  to  more  ancient  revelations,  to  the  opini-ons  of 
those  who  lived  in  former  times,  and  to  experience, — appre- 
hensive lest  the  contrary  assertion  of  Job  should  injure 
morals  and  religion.  They  all  speak  of  angels.  Neverthe- 
less, they  differ  from  each  other  in  many  other  matters. 
Eliphaz  is  superior  to  the  others  in  discernment  and  in  deli- 
cacy. He  begins  by  addressing  Job  mildly,  and  it  is  not 
until  irritated  by  contradiction,  that  he  reckons  him  among 
the  wicked. — feildad,  less  discerning  and  less  polished, 
breaks  out  at  first  in  accusations  against  Job,  and  increases 
in  vehemence :  in  the  end,  however,  he  is  reduced  to  a  mere 
repetition  of  his  former  arguments. — Zophar  is  inferior  to 
his  companions  in  both  these  respects ;  at  first,  his  discourse 
is  characterized  by  rusticity;  his  second  address  adds  but 
little  to  the  first ;  and  in  the  third  dialogue  he  has  no  reply 
to  make. — Elihu  manifests  a  degree  of  veneration  for  Job 
and  his  friends,  but  speaks  like  an  inflated  youth,  wishing 
to  conceal  his  self-sufficiency  under  the  appearance  of  mo- 
desty.— God  is  introduced  in  all  his  majesty,  speaking  from 
a  tempestuous  cloud  in  the  style  of  one,  with  whose  honour 
it  is  not  consistent  to  render  an  account  of  his  government, 
and  to  settle  the  agitated  question,  which  is  above  the  reach 
of  human  intellect.  He,  therefore,  merely  silences  the  dis- 
putants. The  feelings  of  the  interlocutors,  as  is  natural,  be- 
come warm  in  the  progress  of  tlie  controvers}s  and  each 
speaker  returns  to  the  stage,  with  an  increased  degree  of 
eao-erness  and  impetuosity,-' 

Vlil.  At  the  end  of  the  Septuagint  version  of  this  book, 
after  the  account  of  Job's  death  (xlii,  16.),  there  is  the  fol- 
lowing addition  ;  Viygu.-rrxt  efs,  -rctKiv  a.yu.g-ha-i<r^Ai  auTov,  /uid-'  &l|^ 
0  Ku^to;  cuvig-no-iv. — "  BiU  it  is  Written  that  he  shall  rise  again 
along  with  those  xvlioni  the  Lord  raiseili  up.''''  Where  it  was 
so  written  concerning  Job,  is  not  easily  to  be  found,  unlesa 
in  his  own  celebrated  confession,  /  know  that  my  kEDEEiviKR 
liveth,  &c.  (xix.  25 — 27.)  The  remark,  however,  is  so  far 
of  importance  as  it  proves  the  popidar  belief  of  the  doctrine 
before  the  coming  of  Christ, — a  belief,  to  which  this  inesti- 
mable book,  we  may  test  assured,  conlriijuted  not  a  little.* 
To  this  additional  passage  there  is  also  annexed  iu  the  Sep- 
tuagint version  a  subscription  or  appendix,  containing  a 
brief  genealogical  account  of  the  patriarch,  derived  from  an 
old   Syriac  version,-'  and  identifying  him  with  Jobab,  king 

»  Scotl'.-<  Prefnce  tn  Job. 

3  Prof.  Turner's  iraiLslation  of  Jalin'.s  Inlroihirlion,  p.  463. 

♦Dr.  Hali's's  Analysis  of  Cliroi\ology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  102. 

5  This  subscripiiou  is  also  I'ouiul  in  the  Arabic  version,  where  it  is  less 
circumstantial,  and  in  the,  old  J.atin  Vulgate  translation  of  Job.  The  follow- 
ing version  is  (jivon  from  the  Septuagint  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  vol. 
iii.  p.  86. : — "This  is  translated  out  of  a  book  in  the  Syrian  language  ;  for 
he  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Ausitis,  on  the  confiiies  of  Iduma^a  and  Arabia. 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


235 


of  the  Edomites,  and,  conspqnontly,  malcing  him  nearly 
contemporary  with  Moses.  This  siiliscription  was  received 
and  creditod  hy  tlie  pseiido-Aristcas,  l*liilo,  and  Polyhistor : 
it  was  also  heliev(>d  m  the  tiiiK!  of  Origin,  and  is  preserved 
by  Tlieodotion  at  the  end  of  his  version  of  ihi;  book  of  Job. 

This  peiiealojiy  is  received  by  ("ahnet  and  Herder'  as 
genuine,  but  it  is  manifestly  spurious;  for  not  oidy  was  it 
never  extant  in  tiie  llchrew  copies,  l)ut,  even  admittiii<r  the 
geneaUjiry  in  (pieslioii  to  he.  \moT  to  tlie  time  of  our  Saviour, 
It  is  too  recent  to  1)0  aduiitlcd  as  evidenci^  in  a  fiiet  of  sucii 
remote  anticpiity,  esi)eci;d!y  as  it  is  drawn  oidy  from  conjec- 
ture supported  hv  the  slender  resemblance  between  tiie  two 
names  Job  and  .fobab :  and  wbt^n  we  consider  that  it  is  con- 
tradicted by  the  arirumenls  already  adduced  to  prove  tliat 
the  patriarcli  lived  so  many  ajres  anterior  to  the  irreat  letris- 
lator  of  the  Hebrews,-  as  well  as  by  the  internal  evidence 
derived  from  llu^  poem  itself  res|)ectinij  the  rank  and  condi- 
tion of  Job,  we  camu)t  <l()id)t  for  a  moment  that  the  subscrip- 
tion is  both  erroneous  and  spurious. 

l.V.  Allhoujrh  the  iirecedinfj  view  of  the  scope  and  arcfu- 
nieut  will  convey  to  the  reader  an  accurate  idea  of  this  very 
ancient,  but  in  many  passa<res  confessedly  obscure  poem; 
yet  the  following  rules  contain  so  many  useful  hints  for  the 
right  understaudinir  of  its  contents,  that,  long  as  this  section 
necessarily  is,  the  author  is  unwilling  to  omit  them.^ 

RULES   TO    BE    OBSERVED    IN   STUDVING    THE    BOOK    OF    JOB. 

1.  He  that  would  rightly  explain  this  book  must,  as  much  as 
he  can,  imagine  himself  in  the  same  aillictcd  condition. 

2.  Every  daring  thought,  or  ardent  ex])ression,  which  occurs 
in  the  speeches  of  this  afllicted  and  exasperated  man,  is  not  to 
be  vindicated  ;  yet,  as  he  was  a  great  man,  and  a  prince,  he  may 
be  allowed  to  use  bold  and  animated  language. 

3.  We  shall  certainly  judge  amiss,  if  we  think  every  thing 
■wrong  which  will  not  suit  with  the  politeness  of  our  manners. 
Allowance  must  be  made  for  the  simplicity  of  those  times. 

4.  In  judging  of  Job's  character,  we  must  set  the  noble  strains 
of  his  ])icty  against  the  unguarded  expressions  of  his  sorrow. 

.').  It  is  not  his  innocence,  strictly  speaking,  which  Job  insists 
on,  but  his  sincerity,  (chap.  vii.  20,  21.) 

().  Except  their  hard  censures  of  Job,  his  friends  speak  well 
and  religiously. 

7.  His  friends  encouraged  Job  to  hope  for  a  temporal  deliver- 
ance (chap.  v.  18,  &c.  vii.  20,  &c.  xi.  14,  &c.) ;  but  Job  de- 
spaired of  it,  and  expected  his  bodily  disorder  would  terminate 
in  death  (chap.  vi.  11,  12. ;  vii.  6,  7,8.  21.;  xvii.  1.  13,  14,  1.5.; 
xix.  10.)  ;  though,  in  the  increasing  heat  of  the  dispute,  they 
seem  to  drop  this  sentiment  in  their  following  answers,  as  if 
they  supposed  Job  to  be  too  bad  to  hope  for  any  favour  from 
God.  He  hoped,  however,  that  his  character  would  be  cleared 
in  the  day  of  judgment;  though  he  was  greatly  concerned  that 
it  could  not  be  cleared  before  ;  that,  after  a  life  led  in  the  most 
conspicuous  virtues,  his  reputation,  in  the  opinion  of  his  nearest 
friends,  would  sit  under  a  black  cloud,  and,  with  regard  to  the 
ignorant  and  profiine,  leave  an  odious  reproach  upon  a  profession 
of  religion.  This  touched  him  to  the  heart,  exasperated  all  his 
sufferings,  and  made  him  often  wish,  that  God  would  bring  him 
to  his  trial  hero  in  this  life,  that  his  integrity  might  be  vindicated, 
■and  that  all,  friends  and  enemies,  might  understand  the  true  end 
or  design  of  God  in  his  sullcrings,  and  the  honour  of  religion 
might  be  secured,  (chap.  x.  2,  3.)  It  is  ffoo<l  unto  thee,  that 
thou  shouUlst — shine  ttpon  the  counsel  of  the  ivicked?  who 
from  my  case  take  occasion  to  reproach  and  vilify  true  religion, 
and  to  confirm  themselves  in  their  wicked  and  idolatrous  prac- 
tices, (chap.  viii.  20 — 22.;  xi.  17—20.;  xvi,  9 — 11.) 

His  first  name  was  Jobab  ;  and  havinj  married  an  Arabian  woman,  he  had 
by  her  a  son  whose  name  was  Ennon.  Now  he  himself  was  the  son  of 
Zave,  one  of  the  sons  of  Esau  :  so  that  he  was  the  fillh  in  descent  from 
Abraham.  Now  these  were  the  kings  who  roi^iucd  in  Edom,  over  which 
couniry  he  also  bare  rule.  The  first  was  Halak  the  son  of  Beor,  and  the 
name  of  his  city  was  Dannabn :  and  after  Balak,  .lohab,  who  is  called  Joh  : 
and  after  him,  Ason,  who  was  general  over  the  region  of  Thieinanitis  (Te- 
man) ;  and  after  him,  Adad,  the  son  of  Barad,  who  smote  Madiam  in  the 
land  of  Moab  :  and  the  name  of  his  city  was  Oethaim.  And  the  friends 
who  came  to  Job  were  Eliphaz  of  the  sons  of  Esau  king  of  the  Tha^ina- 
niles .  Baldad,  the  sovereign  of  the  Saiicheans  (Shuhites) ;  and  Sophar 
(Zophar),  the  king  of  the  Minains  "  (Naamalhitcs). 

'  Calmet's  Dictionary,  vol.  i.  art.  Job.  Herder  on  Hebrew  Poetry  in 
M.  R,  (O.  S.)  vol.  1.X.XX.  p.  &14. 

»§nPpp.  228,  229.  si/pra. 

»  These  rules  are  extracted  from  Dr.  .lohnTavlor's  Scheme  of  Scripture 
Divinity,  chap,  xxiii.  in  Bishop  Watson's  Collcciion  of  Theological  Tracts, 
vol.  I.  pp.  97,  93.  Dr.  Taylor  of  Norwich  was  an  eminent  divine  of  the  last 
century  ;  who  was  distinguished  for  his  command  of  temper,  benevolent 
gelmg,  and  deep  acquaintance  with  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  Scriptures. 
His  Scheme  of  Divinity,  it  is  deeply  to  be  regrette<l,  wasArian,  and,  there- 
fore, cannot  be  recommended  to  students,  indiscriminately.  , 


8.  He  could  only  affirm  his  integrity,  l)ut  could  give  no  special 
satisfactory  reason  why  God  should  afflict  him  in  a  manner  so 
very  extraordinary,  and  beyond  all  preceding  cases  that  were 
ever  known  in  the  world.  This  very  much  perplexed  and  em- 
barrassed his  min<l,  and  laid  him  under  a  great  disadvantage  in 
the  di.sputc.  And  for  one  thing,  it  is  on  this  account  that  he  i» 
so  earnest  to  come  to  a  conference  with  God,  to  know  his  mind 
and  meaning  (chap.  x.  2.)  ;  Show  me  ivherefore  thou  contend- 
est  -with  me?*  He  knew  very  well  he  could  not  absolutely 
justify  himself  before  God.  (chap.  ix.  2 — 17.)  Fur  he  breaks 
me  with  a  tempcut,  he  multijilieth  my  ivounds  luithovt  a  cause, 
or  without  any  apparent  reason,  (chap.  vii.  12.  20.)  'J'he  whole 
twenty-third  chapter  relates  to  this  point;  in  which  he  wishes 
he  could  come  to  the  dwi-liing-placc  of  God  (ver.  3.),  and  spread 
his  case  lieforc  him,  and  argue  aliout  it  at  large  (ver.  4.),  for  he 
had  turned  his  thoughts  every  way,  an<l  could  make  nothing  of 
it  (ver.  8,  0.),  only  he  was  sure  God  knew  he  was  an  upright 
man.  (ver.  10 — 12.)  Jiut  (ver.  13.)  he  is  in  one  -\nN3,  or  in 
unity,  supreme  above  all  others,  absolutely  entire,  kccjiiiig  his 
mind  and  designs  to  himself;  and  none  can  turn,  or  oblige  him 
to  alter  his  resolution.  All  that  we  can  say  is,  that  he  doth 
whatever  is  agreeable  to  his  own  wisdom.  For  (ver.  14.)  what 
he  hath  resolved  to  inflict  upon  me  he  hath  accomplished ;  and 
many  such  things  he  doth,  of  which  he  will  not  give  us  the 
reason.  To  the  same  purpose  understand  chap,  xxvii.  2 — 4.  14, 
and  chap,  xxviii.  2.  He  hath  taken  aiviiy  my  Judgment,  i.  e. 
the  rule  by  which  I  might  judge  of  the  reason  of  my  afilictions. 
This  point,  in  reference  to  God,  Elihu  tells  him  (chaj).  xxxiii. 
13.)  he  had  urged  to  no  purpose,  seeiu^/-  he  ffives  no  account 
of  his  mutters,  or  will  not  reveal  to  us  the  secrets  of  his  provi- 
dence. 

9.  In  such  a  noble  performance,  if  any  thing  seems  to  be  said 
not  in  consistency,  or  not  in  character,  we  should  rather  suspect 
our  own  judgment  than  the  good  sense  of  the  author.  The  fault 
is  not  in  the  book-,  but  in  our  underslundinff. 

10.  That  sense  which  best  agrees  with  the  subject,  or  the  point 
in  hand,  or  which  stands  in  the  best  connection  with  the  context, 
should  always  be  judged  the  best  sense. 

X.  Nothing,  perhaps,  has  contributed  more  to  render  the 
poem  of  Job  obscure,  than  the  common  division  into  chapters 
and  verses  ;  by  which,  not  only  the  unity  of  the  general  sub- 
ject, but  frequently  that  of  a  single  jiaragraph  or  clause,  is 
broken.  The  commentators,  critics,  and  analysts,  indeed,  are 
not  agreed  as  to  the  exact  number  of  parts  of  \\  hieh  it  con- 
sists :  thus  Heidegger  and  the  elder  Carpzov  institute  two 
leading  divisions,  with  a  multitude  of  subdivisions;  Van 
Til  divides  it  into  four  leading  parts,  Moldenhawer  into  three, 
and  Mr.  Noyes  into  two,*  with  a  nund^er  of  subordinate 
heads  ;  Dr.  Good  divides  it  into  six  books  or  parts;  and  Dr 
Hales  into  five  parts,  independently  of  the  exordium  and  con- 
clusion: but  as  these  are  requisite  to  the  unity  of  the  book, 
it  does  not  appear  that  they  should  be  excluded  from  the  ar- 
rangement. The  poem,  then,  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into  six  parts :  the  first  of  these  contains  the  exordium  or 
narrative  part  (ch.  i.  ii.) ;  the  second  comprises  i\\e  first  de- 
bate or  dialogue  of  Job  and  his  friends  (iii. — xiv.)  ;  the  third 
includes  the  icco/irf  series  of  debate  or  controversy  (xv. — xxi.) ; 
the  fourth  com])rehends  the  third  series  of  controversy  (xxii. 

'  Sec  Bishop  Patrick's  Paraphrase  on  Job  x.  2—8. 

'  The  following  Synopsis  exhibits  the  divisions,  and  subdivisions,  adopted 
bv  Mr.  Noyes  in  his  "Amended  Version  of  the  Book  of  Job;"  (Cambridge, 
North  Am.  1S27.)— 
I.  Historical  Introduction  in  Prose.  Ch.  I.  H. 
U.  Controversy  in  Verse.  Ch.  UI.— XUI.  7. 

The  Speech  of  Job,  in  which  he  curses  his  birth-day,  is  succeeded  by 
I.  The  first  series  of  Controversy.  Ch.  IV.— XIV. 

1.  Speech  of  Eliphaz..  Ch.  IV.  V. 

2.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  VI.  VIL 

3.  Speech  of  Bildad.  Ch.  VIII. 

4.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  IX.  X. 

5.  Speech  of  Zophar.  Ch.  XI. 

C.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  XII.  XIII.  XFV^ 
n.  Second  series  of  Controversy.  Ch.  XV. — XXI. 

1.  Speech  of  Eliphaz.  Ch.  XV. 

2.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  XVI.  XVII. 

3.  Speech  of  Bildad.  Ch.  XVIU. 

4.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  XIX. 

."i.  Speech  of  Zophar.  Ch.  XX. 

6.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  XXI. 

III.  Third  series  of  Controversy.  Ch.  XXII.— XXXI. 

1.  Speech  of  Eliphaz.  Ch.  XXII. 

2.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  XXIII.  XXIV. 

3.  Speech  of  Bildad.  Ch.  XXV. 

4.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  XXVI.— XXXI. 

IV.  The  Judgment  of  Elihu  respecting  the  Discussion.    Ch.  ■XXXII. 

— XXXMI. 
V.  The  Speech  of  the  Deity,  which  terminates  the  Discusston.    Ch. 
XXXNin— XLII.  7. 
III.  The  Conclusion,  in  Prose.  Ch.  XLII.  7.  to  the  end. 


236 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paiit  V.  Chap,  III 


xxxi.)  ;  in  the  fifth  part  Elihu  sums  up  the  ar^iment  (xxxii. 

xxxvii.)?  and  in  the  sixth  part  Jehovah  determines  the  con- 
troversy; Job  humbles  himself,  is  accepted,  and  restored  to 
health  and  prosperity,  (xxxiii. — xlii.) 
Part  I.    The  Exordium,  containing  the  Narration  of  Job^s 

Circumstances  and  Trials  (ch.  i.  ii.)  which  is  written  in 

prose. 

Sect.  1.  The  situation  and  circumstances  of  Job.  (i.  1 — 6.) 

Sect.  2.  The  Jirst  trial  of  Job  by  Satan,  with  divine  permis- 
sion, in  the  loss  of  his  property  and  children ;  the  integrity 
of  Job  declared,   (i.  7—22.) 

Sect.  3.  The  second  trial  of  Job  by  Satan,  in  the  severe  af- 
fliction of  his  person  (ii.  1 — 10.),  and  the  visit  of  his  friends 
to  console  him. 
Part  IL   T7ie  first  Dialogue  or  Controversy  between  Job  and 

his  friends,  (iii. — xiv.) 

Sect.  1.  The  complaint  of  Job  on  his  calamitous  situation, 
which  is  the  ground-work  of  the  following  arguments,   (iii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  speech  of  Eliphaz,  in  which  he  reproves  the 
impatience  of  Job,  and  insinuates  that  his  suft'erings  were 
the  punishment  of  some  secret  iniquity,   (iv.  v.) 

Sect.  3.  Job's  reply,  in  which  he  apologizes  for  the  intempe- 
rance of  liis  grief  by  the  magnitude  of  his  calamities,  prays 
for  speedy  death,  accuses  his  friends  of  cruelty,  and  expos- 
tulates with  God,  whose  mercy  he  supplicates,   (vi.  vii.) 

Sect.  4.  The  argument  of  Eliphaz  resumed  by  Bildad,  who 
reproves  Job  with  still  greater  acrimony,  and  accuses  him  of 
irreligion  and  impiety,   (viii.) 

Sect.  5.  Job's  rejoinder,  in  which,  while  he  acknowledges  the 
justice  and  sovereignty  of  God,  he  argues  that  his  afflictions 
are  no  proof  of  his  wickedness,  and  in  despair  again  wishes 
for  death,  (ix.  x.)     This  passionate  reply  calls  forth, 

Sect.  6.  Zophar,  who  prosecutes  the  argument  begun  by 
Eliphaz,  and  continued  by  Bildad,  with  still  greater  severity  ; 
and  exhorts  him  to  repentance,  as  the  only  means  by  which 
to  recover  his  former  prosperity,   (xi.) 

Sect.  7.  The  answer  of  Job,  who  retorts  on  his  friends,  cen- 
suring their  pretensions  to  superior  knowledge,  and  charging 
them  with  false  and  partial  pleading  against  him,  and  ap- 
peals to  God,  professing  his  hope  in  a  future  resurrection. 
(xii. — xiv.) 
Part  IIL   The  second  Dialogue  or  Controversy  (xv. — xxi.)  ; 

in  which  we  have. 

Sect.  1.  The  argument  renewed,  nearly  in  the  same  manner 
as  it  had  been  commenced  by  Eliphaz,  who  accuses  Job  of 
impiety  in  justifying  himself,   (xv.) 

Sect.  2.  Job's  reply,  who  complains  of  the  increasing  un- 
kindness  of  his  friends,  protests  his  innocency,  and  looks 
to  death  as  his  last  resource,   (xvi,  xvii.) 

Sect.  3.  Bildad,  going  over  his  former  line  of  argument,  with 
increased  asperity,  applies  it  to  Job,  whose  aggravated  suf- 
ferings, he  urges,  are  justly  inflicted  upon  him.  (xviii.) 

Sect.  4,  Job's  appeal  to  the  sympathy  of  his  friends,  and 
from  them  to  God :  professing  his  faith  in  a  future  resur- 
rection, he  cautions  his  friends  to  cease  from  their  invec- 
tives, lest  God  should  chastise  them,   (xix.) 

Sect.  5,  Job's  appeal  is  retorted  upon  himself  by  Zophar 
(xx.)  ;  to  whom  the  patriarch  replies  by  discussing  at  large 
the  conduct  of  Divine  Providence,  in  order  to  evince  the 
fallacy  of  Zophar's  argument  of  the  short-lived  triumph  of 
the  wicked,   (xxi.) 

Part  TV.  77te  third  Debate  or  Controversy  (xxii. — xxxi.)  ;  in 

which. 

Sect.  1.  Eliphaz  resumes  the  charge,  representing  Job's  vin- 
dication and  appeal  as  displeasing  to  God :  contends  that 
certain  and  utter  ruin  is  the  uniform  lot  of  the  wicked,  as 
was  evinced  in  the  destruction  of  the  old  world  by  the  de- 
luge ;  and  concludes  with  renewed  exhortation  to  repent- 
ance and  prayer,  (xxii.) 

Sect.  2.  In  reply.  Job  ardently  desires  to  plead  his  cause  be- 
fore God,  whose  omnipresence  he  delineates  in  the  sublim- 
est  language,  urging  that  his  suifcrings  were  designed  as 
trials  of  his  faith  and  integrity ;  and  he  shows  in  various 
instances  that  the  wicked  frequently  escape  punishment  in 
this  life,  (xxiii.  xxiv.) 

Sect.  3.  The  rejoinder  of  Bildad,  who  repeats  his  former  pro- 
position, that,  since  no  man  is  without  sin  in  the  sight 
of  God,  consequently  Job  cannot  be  justified  in  his  sight. 
Cxxv.) 


Sect.  4,  The  answer  of  Job,  who,  having  reproved  the  harsh 
conduct  of  Bildad,  re-vindicates  his  own  conduct  with  great 
warmth  and  animation,  and  takes  a  retrospect  of  his  for- 
mer character  in  the  relative  situations  of  life,  as  a  husband, 
as  a  master,  and  as  a  magistrate :  and  concludes  by  repeat- 
ing his  ardent  wish  for  an  immediate  trial  with  his  calum- 
niator before  the  tribunal  of  God.  (xxvi — xxxi.) 

Part  V.  Contains  the  summing  vp  of  the  whole  argu 
nient  by  Elihu  ,•  who.  having  condemned  the  conduct  of  ah 
the  disputants,  whose  reasonings  were  not  calculated  to  pro- 
duce conviction  (xxxii.),  proceeds  to  contest  several  of  Job^s 
positions,  and  to  show  that  God  frequently  afflicts  the  chil- 
dren of  men  for  the  best  of  purposes,  and  that  in  every  in- 
stance our  duty  is  submission.  He  concludes  with  a  grand, 
description  of  the  omnipotence  of  the  Creator,  (xxxiii. — 
xxxvii.) 

Part  VI.  The  Termination  of  the  Controversy,  and  the  Re- 
storation of  Job  to  his  former  Prosperity  (xxxviii. — xlii.) ; 
containing. 

Sect.  1.  The  appearance  of  Jehovah  to  pronounce  judg- 
ment ;  who  addresses  Job,  out  of  a  whirlwind,  in  a  most 
subhme  and  magnificent  speech,  the  substance  of  which  is 
nearly  a  counterpart  to  that  of  Elihu.  In  it  are  illustrated 
the  omnipotence  of  God,  and  man's  utter  ignorance  of  his 
ways,  and  works  of  creation  and  providence,  (xxxvii. — xli.) 
Sect.  2.  The  submission  of  Job,  which  is  accepted,  his  re- 
storation to  his  former  prosperity,  and  the  increase  of  his 
substance  to  double,  (xlii.  1 — 10.) 
Sect.  3.  A  more  particular  account  of  Job's  restoration  and 

prosperity,  (xlii.  11 — 17.)' 
XI.  Independently  of  the  important  instruction  and  bene- 
fit which  may  be  derived  from  a  devout  perusal  of  the  book 
of  Job,  this  divine  poem  is  of  no  small  value,  as  transmit- 
ting to  us  a  faithful  delineation  of  the  patriarchal  doctrines 
of  religion ;  that  confirms  and  illustrates  the  notices  of  that 
religion  contained  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  an  outline  of  which 
has  been  given  in  the  first  volume.^  On  this  account,  we 
trust,  the  reader  will  not  be  reluctantly  detained,  if  we  take 
a  brief  retrospect  of  the  patriarchal  creed, — more  especially 
as  some  vejy  learned  men  have  denied  that  it  contained  any 
reference  either  to  fallen  angelic  spirits,  or  to  a  future  resur- 
rection of  the  body  from  the  grave,  and  consequently  to  a 
future  state  of  existence. 

The  two  grand  articles  of  patriarchal  faith,  from  the  earli- 
est days,  according  to  Saint  Paul  (Heb.  xi.  6.),  were,  1. 
That  there  is  a  God,  and,  2.  That  he  is  a  rewarder  of  them 
that  diligently  seek  him.  These  articles  are  particularly  con- 
tained in  Job's  declaration, 

I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth, 

And  that  he  shall  stand  at  the  latter  day  upon  the  earth. 

But  there  are  several  other  important  points  of  doctrine 
either  directly  stated,  or  which  may  be  legitimately  inferred 
from  different  parts  of  this  book ;  they  may  be  reduced  to 
the  following  nine  articles : — 

1.  The  creation  of  the  -world  by  one  supreme,  omnipresent, 
and  eternal  Heing,  of  boundless  wisdom,  irresistible  power,  in- 
describable glory,  inflexible  justice,  sftid  infinite  goodness.  This 
first  great  principle  of  what  is  usually  called  ilalural  religion,  is 
laid  down  throughout  the  whole  book  as  an  incontestable  truth  ; 
but  it  is  particularly  illustrated  in  the  speech  of  Jehovah  him- 
self in  Job  xxxvii. — xh. 

2.  The  government  of  the  -world  by  the  perpetual  and  super- 
intending providence  of  God.  This  article  of  the  patriarchal 
creed  is  particularly  noticed  in  Job  i.  9.  21. ;  ii.  10. ;  v.  8 — 27. ; 
ix.  4 — 13. ;  and  in  almost  every  other  chapter  of  the  book  :  in 
every  instance,  this  doctrine  is  proposed,  not  as  a  matter  of  nice 
speculation,  but  as  laying  mankind  under  the  most  powerful 
obligations  to  fear  and  serve,  to  submit  to  and  trust  in  their 
Creator,  Lord,  and  Ruler. 

3.  That  the  providential  government  of  the  Almighty  is 
carried  on  by  the  ministration  of  a  heavenly  hierarcliy  (i.  6, 
7.;  iv.   18,   19.;  v,  1.;  xxxiii.  22,  23.),  which  is   composecl  of 

>  Dr.  Hales  is  of  opinion  tliat  the  last  six  verses  of  this  chapter,  11 — 17. 
(which  particularize  the  increase  of  Job's  family,  the  names  of  his  daugh- 
ters, who,  according  to  primitive  usage  were  made  co-heiresses  with  their 
brothers,  together  with  the  number  of  years  during  which  he  survived  hia 
trial),  form  an  appendix  ;  which  was  probably  added  in  later  times  from 
tradiiion,  either  by  Moses,  who  resided  so  long  in  his  neighbourhood,  or 
by  Saamel,  or  by  the  person  (whoever  he  was)  that  introduced  the  book 
into  the  sacred  canon.    Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  101. 

a  See  Vol.  I.  Chap.  V.  Sect.  I.  §  1.  pp.  142,  143. 


Skct.  II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS. 


237 


various  ranks  and  orders,  possessing  different  names,  dignities, 
and  oHices.' 

4.  .4«  aprjstacy  or  defection  in  some  rank  or  order  of  these 
pmuL-rs  (iv.  18.;  xv.  1.5.)  ;  of  vvliich  Satan  sccraa  to  have  been 
one,  and  perhaps  chief,  (i.  6 — VZ.  ;  ii.  2 — 7.) 

fj.  Till:  good  and  evil  powers  or  firiiici/iles,  equally  formed 
by  the  Creator,  and  hence  eiiually  doiioinitiiiled  "  SSoiis  of  God  ;" 
bolli  of  them  employed  by  him  in  the  administration  of  his  Pro- 
vidence :  and  both  amenable  to  him  at  stated  courts,  held  for  the 
j)uri)ose  of  receiving  an  account  of  their  respective  missions.^ 
(i.  0,  7.;  ii.  1.) 

6.  That  Zabianism,  or  the  idolatrous  worshif)  of  the  stars, 
ivas  a  Judicial  offence,  cognizable  by  the  pclilim  or  jude;eK  ; 
who  were  arbitrators,  consisting  of  the  heads  of  tribes  or  fami- 
lies, appointed  by  common  consent  to  try  olfences  against  the 
community,  and  to  award  summary  justice.''  Such  was  the 
case  of  the  Trans-jordanite  tribes,  who  were  suspected  of  a[)Os- 
tacy,  and  were  threatened  with  extirpation  by  liie  heads  of  the 
ten  tril)es  on  the  western  side  of  Jordan.  (Josh.  xxii.  16 — 22.)' 

7.  Original  sin,  or  "  that  corruption  of  the  nature  of  every 
man  that  naturally  is  engendered  of  the  offupring  of  Jldam."^ 
"  It  is  certain,"  as  Bishop  Burnet  has  well  remarked,  "  that  in 
Scripture  this  general  corruption  of  our  nature  is  often  men- 
tioned :""  and  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  this  article  of  doc- 
trine, however  repugnant  to  the  pride  of  man,  sliould  be  omitted 
in  the  book  of  Job.  Accordingly  we  find  it  expressly  asserted 
in  chap.  xiv.  4.;  xv.  14 — 16.  and  xxxv.  3. 

8.  JVie  propitiation  of  the  Creator  in  the  case  of  human 
transgressio}is  by  sacrifices  (i.  5. ;  xlii.  8.),  and  the  mediation 
and  intercession  of  a  righteous  person,  (xlii.  8,  9.)  In  his  in- 
tercession for  his  friends.  Job  is  generally  regarded  as  a  type  of 
Him  "  who  ever  liveth  to  make  intercession"  for  transgressors. 
If  any  evidence  were  wanting  to  prove  sacrifices  of  divine  insti- 
tution, the  declaration  in  xlii.  8.  alone  would  be  sufficient.' 

9.  That  there  -will  be  a  day  of  future  resurrection  (xiv. 
7 — 11.  with  verses  12 — 1.5.  of  the  same  chapter),  judgment 
(xix.  2.5 — 29.),  and  retribution  to  all  mankind,  (xxvii.  8. ;  xxxi. 
13,  14.) 

The  passage,  in  which  Job  expresses  his  firm  faith  in  a 
Redeemer  (xix.  '25 — 29.),  has  been  frreatly  contested  among 
critics  ;  some  of  whom  refer  it  simply  to  his  deliverance 
from  his  temporal  distresses,  maintaining  that  it  has  no  allu- 
sion whatever  to  a  future  state ;  while  others  understand  it 
in  the  contrary  sense,  and  consider  it  a  noble  confession  of 
faith  in  the  Redeemer.  The  latter  opinion  has  been  ably  ad- 
vocated by  Pfeifter,  the  elder  Schultens,  Michaelis,  Velthu- 
sen,  Rosenmiiller,  Dr.  Good,  and  the  Rev.  Drs.  Hales  and 
J.  P.  Smith,  and  is  now  generally  received.  The  following 
is  Dr.  Hales's  version  of  this  sublime  passage  of  Job : — 

I  know  that  my  Redeemer  [is]  living, 

And  that  at  the  last  idni/] 

lie  will  arise  [in  judgment]  upon  dust  [mankind]. 

And  after  my  skin  be  inanKlcd  thus, 

Yet  ever  from  ray  llesh  sliall  I  see  God  : 

Whom  I  shall  see  for  me  [on  my  side], 

And  mine  eyes  shall  behold  liim  not  estranged  ; 

[T/iough]  my  reins  be  [now]  consumed  within  me. 

nut  ye  should  say,  "Why  persecute  we  him  [furl/wr]V' 

Since  the  strength  of  the  argument  is  found  in  me. 
Fear  ye  for  yourselves,  from  the  ("ace  of  the  sirord ; 
For  [divine]  wrath  [punisheth]  iiiii|uilies  [with]  thesword; 
That  ije  may  know  there  is  a  judgment.* 


«  As  ofterf/m,  servants;  malacbim,  ani^els;  mrtizim,  intercessors;  me- 
mitim,  destinies  or  destroyers;  ale.p,  the  miliad  or  thousand;  kedosim, 
SANCTi,  the  heavenly  saints  or  hosts  generally.  Good's  Introd.  Diss,  to  his 
Version  of  Job,  p.  Ixv.  See  ch.  iv.  13.  xxxii'i.  22,  •£).  v.  1.  xv.  15.  of  his 
translation,  compared  with  p.  Lxxiv.  of  his  Dissertation,  and  his  notes  on 
the  p;iss:iges  cited. 

»  ibid.  p.  Ixv. 

'  Job  xxxi.  26 — 28.    Dr.  Elales,  to  whose  researches  we  are  indebted  for 
the  si.\th  article  of  the  patriarchal  creed,  translates  the  28lh  verse  thus  : — 
Even  this  would  be  a.  judicial  crirne, 
Por  I  should  have  lieU  unto  God  above. 

*  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.  lO.'i,  106. 

»  Article  ix.  of  the  Confession  of  the  Anglican  Cliurch. 

•  Burnett  on  Art.  ix.  p.  130.  Having  cited  several  passages  at  length,  he 
thus  concludes:  "These,  with  many  other  places  of  Scripture  to  the  same 
purpose,  when  they  ace  joined  to  the  unirersal  ex/mrience  of  all  mankind 
concerning  the  corruption  of  our  whole  race,  leail  us  to  settle  this  point, 
that  in  fact  it  has  overrun  our  whole  kind,  the  contagion  is  spread  over  all." 

■■  Archbp.  Magee  has  collected  all  the  evidence  on  this  important  sub- 
ject with  great  ability.  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp. 
6."i— 46, 

«  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  pp.  83 — 86.  For  the  very  elaborate  notes 
with  which  he  has  supported  and  vindicated  his  translation,  we  must 
refer  the  reader  to  his  work.  Other  illustrations  of  this  passage  may  be 
seen  in  Pfeiffer's  Dubia  Ve.xata  Scripture,  Centuria  III.  No.  39.  (Op. 
torn.  i.  pp.  169—272.) ;  and  Dr.  Smith's  Scripture  Testimony  to  the  Messiah, 
vol.  i.  pp.  199—211.  In  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Cummentary,  there  is  a  good  illus- 
tration of  Job  xix.  25 — ^29. 


Nor  was  the  morality  of  Job  less  excellent  than  his  theo- 
logy. He  thus  expresses  his  undeviating  obedience  to  the 
laws  of  God,  and  his  delight  therein  : — 

xxili.  11.  My  foot  hath  hold  his  steijs, 

His  way  have  I  kept  and  not  declined  : 
12.  Neither  have  I  gone  back  from  the  commandment  of  His  lips. 
I  have  esteemed  the  words  of  His  mouth, 
More  than  my  necessary  food. 

From  this  and  other  passages,  Dr.  Hales  w  ith  great  pro- 
bability thinks  it  evident,  that  there  was  some  coUcction  of 
certain  precepts,  or  rules  of  religion  and  morality,  in  use 
among  the  patriarchs  ; — such  were  the  precepts  of  the  Noa- 
chida;  or  sons  of  Noah  :  and  there  is  grt^at  reason  to  believe, 
that  the  substance  at  least  of  the  decalogue,  given  at  Sinai, 
was  of  primitive  institution.  Compare  Gen.  ix.  1 — G.  How 
well  the  venerable  patriarch  observed  the  duties  of  morality, 
will  be  manifest  to  every  one  who  will  take  the  trouble  of 
perusing  chap.  xxix.  11 — 17.  and  xxxi.  6 — 22. 

There  is  a  remarkable  reference  in  the  book  of  Job  to  the 
former  destruction  of  tiie  world  by  water,  and  to  its  final 
dissolution  by  fire;  which  was  prophesied  by  Knoch  before 
the  deluge,  whence  it  must  have  been  known  to  Noah ;  ami 
no  doubrtransmitted  by  him  to  his  family;  and  so  might  be 
communicated  to  Job  and  his  friends.  It  occurs  in  the  last 
speech  of  Kliphaz,  the  most  intelligent  of  tlie  three. 

xxii.  15.  Dost  [not] //lou  keep  the  oW  irny, 
Which  wicked  men  liave  trodden  1 

16.  Who  were  cut  off,  before  their  time, 
77ie7?««rf  overthrew  their  foundation  : 

17.  Who  said  unto  God,  "  Depart f rum  us  :" 
And,  "  n Via/ can  THE  Almighty  rfo /or US?" 

18.  Yet  lie  filleth  their  hou.ses  with  good, 

Though  the  coun.sel  of  tlie  wicked  was  far  from  Hiin. 

19.  The  righteous  saw,  and  were  glad. 
And  the  innocent  [Noah]  derided  them  : 

20.  "  Is  not  their  su/islance  cut  down  7 

And  the  fire  shall  consume  the  remnant  of  them  !" 

As  if  Noah  had  said.  Though  this  judgment  by  water, 
however  universal,  may  not  so  thoroughly  purge  the  earth, 
as  that  iniquity  shall  not  spring  up  again,  and  wicked  men 
abound  :  yet  know  that  a  final  judgment  by  fire  will  utterly 
consume  the  remnant  of  such  sinners  as  shall  then  be  found 
alive,  along  with  the  earth  itself.' 


SECTION  11. 

ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS. 

I.  General  title  of  this  book. — II.  Strrictnre  of  the  Psalms. — 
III.  Their  canonical  authority. — IV.  Authors  to  -whom  they 
are  ascribed. — 1.  JMoses. — 2.  David. — 3.  Asaph. — 4.  The 
sons  of  Korah. — 5.  Jeduthvn. — 6.  Heman  and  Ethan. — 
7.  Solomon. — 8.  Anonymous  psalms. — V.  Chronological  ar- 
rangement of  the  Psalms  by  Calmet. — VI.  Collection  of  the 
Psalms  into  a  volume. — VII.  The  i7iscriptions  or  titles  pre- 
fixed to  the  different  psalms. — VIII.  Probable  meaning  of 
the  -word  Selah. — IX.  Scope  of  the  book  of  Psalms. — 
X.  Rules  for  better  understanding  them. — XI.  A  table  of 
the  psalms  classed  according  to  their  several  subjects. 

I.  This  book  is  entitled  in  the  Hebrew  o^S^nn  idd  (s^ph^r 
TfniL/iM),  that  is  the  Buoh  of  Hymns  or  Praises ,-  because  the 
greater  part  of  them  treat  of  the  praises  of  God,  while  the 
remainder  consist  either  of  the  complaints  of  an  afflicted  soul, 
or  of  penitential  effusions,  or  of  the  prayers  of  a  heart  over- 
whelmed with  grief.  In  the  Roman  edition  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint  Version  printed  in  1587,  which  professes  to  follow 
the  Vatican  manuscript,  this  book  is  simply  denominated 
f  A AMO I,  the /*««/'«»;  and  in  the  Alexandrian  manuscript, 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  it  is  entitled  >1'AathpjON 
MET'  n^AlS,  the  Psalter  with  Odes  or  Hymns.'"     The  Syriac 

»  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  il.  book  i.  pp.  Ill,  112. 
10  These  Odes  or  llvmns,  which  are  thirteen  in  number,  are  printed  ia 
Dr.  Grabe's  edition  of* the  Sepluagint :  they  are  thus  entitled: — 

1.  The  Ode  of  Moses  in  Exodus,  (ch.  xv.  v.  1.  et  si-qq.) 

2.  The  Ode  of  Moses  in  Deuteronomy,   (ch.  xxxii.  v.  1.  seqq.) 

3.  The  Prayer  of  Hannah  the  Mother  of  Samuel.  (1  Sara.  ch.  ii.  v.  1.  seqq.) 

4.  The  Prayer  of  Isaiah  (in  the  margin,  of  Hezekiah).  Isa.  ch.  xxvi. 
v.  9.  seqq. 

5.  The  Prayer  of  .Tonah.   (Jon.  ch.  Ii.  v.  3.  se??  ) 

6.  The  Prayer  of  Habakkuk  (Sept.  Ambakoura).  Hab.  ch.  iii.  v.  2.  seqq. 

7.  The  Prayer  of  Hezekiah.  (Isa.  ch.  xxxviii.  v.  10.  seqq.) 

8.  The  Prayer  of  Manasseh.  (2  Chron.  ch.  xxxili.  according  to  some 
copies,  but  one  of  theapocryphal  pieces  in  our  Bibles.) 

9.  The  Prayer  of  Azariah.   (Dan.  ch.  iii.  v.  26.  seqq.) 

10.  The  Hymn  of  our  Fathers.  (Dan.  ch.  iii.  v.  52.  seqq.) 

11.  The  Prayer  of  Mary,  the  Mother  of  God.  (Luke  ch.  i.  v.  46.  aeqq.) 

12.  The  Prayer  of  Simeon.  (Luke  ch.  ii.  v.  29.  seqq.) 

13.  A  Morning  Hvmn,  the  first  part  of  which  nearly  corresponds  with  the 
sublime  hymn  in  'the  post-communion  service  of  the  church  of  England. 


238 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Patit  V.  Chap.  IH. 


Version,  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  denominates  it  the 
Book  of  Psalms  of  David,  the  Krng  and  Fropliet ,-  and  the 
Arahie  Version  commences  witli  the  first  Book  of  Fsalrns  of 
David  the  Prophet,  King  of  the  Sons  of  hruel. 

n.  Augiisti,  Ue  Wette,  and  some  other  German  critics, 
have  termed  the  Book  of  Psalms  the  Hebrew  Antholoiry, 
that  is,  a  collection  of  the  lyric,  moral,  historical,  and  elefriac 
poetry  of  the  Hebrews.  This  book  presents  every  possible 
variety  of  Hebrew  poetry.  All  the  Psalms,  indeed,  may  be 
termecl  poems  of  the  lyric  kind,  that  is,  adapted  to  music,  but 
M-ith  great  variety  in  the  style  of  composition.  Thus  some 
are  simply  odes.  "An  ode  is  a  ditjnihed  sort  of  song,  nar- 
rative of  the  facts,  either  of  public  history,  or  of  private  life, 
in  a  highly  adorned  and  figured  style.  But  the  figure  in  the 
Psalms  is  that,  which  is  peculiar  to  the  Hebrew  language,  in 
which  the  figure  gives  its  meaning  with  as  much  perspicuity 
as  the  plainest  speech."'  Others,  again,  are  ethic  or  didactic, 
"delivering  grave  maxims  of  life,  or  the  precepts  of  religion, 
in  solemn,  but  for  the  most  part  simple,  strains."  To  this 
class  we  may  refer  the  hundred  and  nineteenth,  and  the  other 
alphabetical  psalms,  which  are  so  called  because  the  initial 
letters  of  each  line  or  stanza  follow  the  order  of  the  alphabet.^ 
Nearly  one-seventh  part  of  the  Psalms  is  composed  of  elegiac, 
or  pathetic  compositions  on  mournful  subjects.  Some  are 
enigmatic,  delivering  the  doctrines  of  religion  in  enigmata, 
sentences  contrived  to  strike  the  imagination  forcibly,  and  yet 
easy  to  be  understood ;  while  a  few  may  be  referred  to  the 
class  of  idyls,  or  short  pastoral  poems.  But  the  greater  part, 
according  to  Bishop  Horsley,  is  a  sort  of  dramatic  ode,  con- 
sisting of  dialogues  between  certain  persons  sustaining  certain 
characters.  "In  these  dialogue-psalms  the  persons  are  fre- 
quently the  psalmist  himself,  or  the  chorus  of  priests  and 
Levites,  or  the  leader  of  the  Levitical  band,  openmg  the  ode 
with  a  proem  declarative  of  the  subject,  and  very  often  closing 
the  whole  with  a  solemn  admonition  drawn  from  what  the 
other  persons  say.  The  other  persons  are,  Jehovah,  some- 
times as  one,  sometimes  as  another  of  the  three  persons; 
Christ  in  his  incarnate  state,  sometimes  before,  sometimes 
after  his  resurrection ;  the  human  soul  of  Christ,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  divine  essence.  Christ,  in  his  incarnate 
state,  is  personated  sometimes  as  a  priest,  sometimes  as  a 
king,  sometimes  as  a  conqueror;  and  in  those  psalms  in 
which  he  is  introduced  as  a  conqueror,  the  resemblance  is 
very  remarkable  between  this  conqueror  in  the  book  of 
Psalms,  and  the  warrior  on  the  white  horse  in  the  book  of 
Revelations,  who  goes  forth  with  a  crown  on  his  head  and  a 
bow  in  his  hand,  conquering  and  to  conquer.  And  the  con- 
quest in  the  Psalms  is  followed,  like  the  conquest  in  the  Re- 
velations, by  the  marriage  of  the  conqueror.  These  are  cir- 
cumstances of  similitude,  which,  to  any  one  versed  in  the 
prophetic  style,  prove  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  mystical  con- 
queror is  the  same  personage  in  both."^ 

III.  The  right  of  the  book  of  Psalms  to  a  place  in  the 
sacred  canon  has  never  been  disputed :  they  are  frequently 
alluded  to  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  are  often  cited  by  our 
Lord  and  his  apostles  as  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  They 
are  generally  termed  the  Psalms  of  David,  that  Hebrew 
monarch  being  their  chief  author.  Origen,  Chrysostom,  Au- 
gustine, Ambrose,  Euthymius,"*  and  others  of  the  ancient 
fathers,  indeed,  were  of  opinion  that  he  was  their  sole  author  : 
but  they  were  opposed  by  Hilary  and  Athanasius''  (or  the 
author  of  the  synopsis  attributed  to  him),  Jerome,  Eusebius, 
and  other  fathers  of  equal  eminence.  And  indeed  this  notion 
is  manifestly  erroneous ;  for  an  attentive  examination  of  the 
Psalms  will  immediately  prove  them  to  be  the  compositions 
of  various  authors,  in  various  ages,  some  much  more  ancient 
than  the  time  of  David,  some  of  a  much  later  age ;  and 
others  were  evidently  composed  during  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. Some  modern  commentators  have  even  n  ferred  a  few 
to  the  time  of  the  Maccabees :  but  for  this  opinion,  as  we 
shall  show  in  a  subsequent  page,6  there  does  not  appear  to 

«  Bishop  Horsley's  translation  of  the  Psalms,  vol.  i.  p.  xv. 

»  The  alphabetical  psalms  are  xxv.  xxx\v.  xxxvii.  cxi.  cxii.  cxix.  and 
cxlv.  On  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  Hebrew  alphabetical  poems,  see 
Vol.  I.  Part  II.  Cliap.  II.  §VI.  7.  supra. 

3  Bisliop  Horsley's  Psalms,  vol.  i.  p.  xvi. 

*  Chrysostom  in  Psal.  i.  Ambros.  Praefat.  in  Psal.  i.  Augustin  de 
Civitate  Dei,  lib.  xvii.  c.  14.  Theodoret,  Praer  in  Psal.  Cassiodorus, 
Proleg.  in  Psal.  Euthymius,  Prref  in  Psal.  Philastrius,  Haeres.  129.  Huet. 
Dem.  Ev.  torn.  i.  prop.  iv.  p.  330. 

'  Hilarii  Proleg.  in  Psal.  et  comment,  in  Psal.  cxxxi.  Athanasli 
Synopsis.  Hieronymi  Epist.  ad  Sophronium.  Eusebii  Cresariensis  Prpef 
in  Psalmos,  pp.  7,  8.  et  in  Inscrip.  Psal.  p.  2.  et  in  Psal.  xli.  Ix.  Ixii.  Cal- 
met,  Prajf.  Gtntirale  sur  les  Pseaumes.  (Com.  torn.  iv.  pp.  v.  vi.)  Huet, 
ut  supra. 

«  See  p.  240.  infra. 


be  any  foundation.  Altogether  they  embrace  a  period  of  about 
nine  hundred  years. 

The  earliest  composer  of  sacred  hymns  unquestionably 
was  Moses  (Exod.  xv.)  ;  the  next  who  are  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures,  are  Deborah  (Judg.  v.)  and  Hannah  (1  Sam.  ii.): 
but  It  was  David  himself,  an  admirable  composer  and  per- 
former in  music  (1  Sam.  xvi.  18.  Amos  vi.  5.),  who  gave  a 
regular  and  noble  form  to  the  musical  part  of  the  .Tewish 
service,  and  carried  divine  poetry  and  psalmody  to  perfec- 
tion ;  and  therefore  he  is  called  the  sweet  psalmist  of  Israel. 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  1.)  He,  doubtless  by  divine  authority,  ap- 
pointed the  singing  of  psalms  by  a  select  company  of  skil- 
ful persons,  in  the  soleinn  worship  of  the  tabernacle  ( 1  Chron. 
vi.  31.  xvi.  4 — 8.);7  which  vSolomon  continued  in  the  first 
temple  (2  Chron.  v.  1-2,  13.),  and  it  was  re-established  by 
Ezra,  as  soon  as  the  foundation  of  the  second  temple  was 
laid.  (Ezra  iii.  10,  11.)  Hence  the  Jews  became  well  ac- 
quainted with  these  songs  of  Sion ;  and,  having  committed 
them  to  memory,  were  celebrated  for  their  melodious  sinonlng 
among  the  neighbouring  countries.  (Psal.  cxxxvii.  3.)  The 
contiimance  of  this  branch  of  divine  worship  is  confirmed 
by  the  practice  of  our  Lord,  and  the  instructions  of  St.  Paul 
(Matt.  xxvi.  30.  Mark  xiv.  26.  Eph.  v.  19.  Col.  iii.  16. 
compared  with  Rev.  v.  9.  xiv.  1,  2,  3.)  ;  and  the  practice  of 
divine  psalmody  has  subsisted  through  every  succeedincr  age 
to  our  own  time,  not  more  to  the  delight  than  to  the  edifica- 
tion of  the  church  of  Christ.  "  There  are,  indeed,  at  this 
time"  (to  use  the  words  of  a  sensible  writer),^  "very  few 
professing  Christians  who  do  not  adopt  these  sacred  hymns 
in  their  public  and  private  devotions,  either  by  reading  them, 
composing  them  as  anthems,  or  singing  poetical  translations, 
and  imitations  of  them.  In  this  particular  there  ever  has 
existed,  and  there  still  exists,  a  wonderful  communion  of 
saints.  The  language,  in  which  Moses,  and  David,  and 
Solomon,  Heman,  Asaph,  and  Jeduthun,  worshipped  God, 
is  applicable  to  Christian  believers.  They  worship  the  same 
God,  through  the  same  adorable  Redeemer ;  they  give  thanks 
for  similar  mercies,  and  mourn  under  similar  trials ;  they  are 
looking  for  the  same  blessed  hope  of  their  calling,  even  ever- 
lasting life  and  salvation,  through  the  prevailing  intercession 
of  the  Messiah.  The  ancient  believers,  indeed,  worshipped 
him  as  about  to  appear;  we  adore  him  as  having  actually 
appeared,  and  put  away  sin  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself.  They 
saw,  as  through  a  glass,  darkly  :  hut  we  face  to  face." 

IV.  The  Jewish  writers  ascribe  the  book  of  Psalms  to  te7i 
different  authors,^  viz.  Adam,  to  whom  they  ascribe  the 
ninety-second  psalm ;  Melchizedec ;  Abraham,  whom  they 
call  Ethan,  and  give  to  him  the  eighty-ninth  psalm  ;  Moses, 
Asaph,  Heman,  Jeduthun,  and  the  three  sons  of  Korah :  and 
they  make  David  to  be  merely  the  collector  of  them  into  one 
volume  or  book.  But  this  opinion  is  evidently  fabulous:  for, 
1.  The  ninety-second  psalm,  which  is  ascribed  to  Adam,  ap- 

5 ears  from  its  internal  structure  and  style  to  be  of  a  later 
ate,  though  no  author  is  mentioned  in  its  title  or  inscrip- 
tion :  besides,  if  Adam  had  left  any  sacred  odes,  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  some  notice  would  have  been  taken  of 
them  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  which,  however,  is  totally 
silent  concerning  any  such  compositions.  2.  That  the  hun- 
dred and  tenth  psalin,  which  is  attributed  to  Melchizedec, 
was  certainly  written  by  David,  i*evident,  not  only  from  the 
title,  which  claims  him  for  its  author,  but  also  from  its  style 
and  manner,  which  correspond  with  the  acknowledged  pro- 
ductions of  the  royal  prophet ;  and  especially  from  tlie  testi- 
mony of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostle  Peter.  (Matt.  xxii.  43 
— 45.  Mark  xii.  36.  Luke  xx.  42.  Acts  ii.  34.)  And,  3.  It 
is  most  certain  that  David  was  the  author  of  very  many 
psalms,  not  merely  of  those  which  have  his  name  in  their 
respective  titles,  but  likewise  of  several  others,  to  which  his 
name  is  not  prefixed,  especially  of  psalms  ii.  and  xcv.,  as 
we  are  assured  by  the  inspired  apostles.  (Acts  iv.  25,  26. 
Heb.  iv.  7.)  To  make  David,  therefore,  merely  the  collector 
and  editor  of  those  divine  compositions,  is  alike  contradic- 
tory to  the  clearest  evidence,  derived  from  the  book  of  Psalms 
itself,  and  from  the  testimony  of  the  inspired  writers  of  the 
New  Testament,  as  well  as  contrary  to  the  whole  current,  of 
antiquity. 
A  careful  investigation  of  these  divine  odes  will  enable 

'  On  the  subiect  of  Jewish  psalmody,  there  is  much  curious  information 
collected  in  "The  Temple  Music;  or,  an  Essay  concerning  the  Method 
of  singing  the  Psalms  of  David  in  the  Temple,  before  tlie  Babylonish 
Captivity.     By  Arthur  Bedford.     London,  1706."  8vo. 

8  The  editor  of  the  4to.  Bible  of  1810,  with  the  notes  of  several  of  the 
venerable  reformers. 

»  Francisci  Junii  Proleg.  ad  Librura  Psalmorum,  §  2. 


Sect.  IL] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS. 


239 


us  to  form  a  better  opinion  concorninjr  their  rospeotive  au- 
thors, wlioui  the.  modern  .lews,  ami  vill  iiioih-rn  ediniiieiitntors, 
uiuicrstaiid  to  be  Moses,  Daviii,  Soloinou,  Asaph,  Memari, 
Ethan,  Jeduthun,  and  the  three  sons  of  Korah.  Other  authors 
have  l)een  conjectured  by  some  eminent  critics,  whose  liypo- 
tiieses  will  i)resenlly  be  noticed. 

1.  To  Moses  the  Tahnudical  writers  ascribe  ten  psalms, 
viz.  from  xc.  to  xcix.  inchisivo.  The  niii(!teoiith  psalm,  in 
the  Hebrew  manuscripts,  is  inscribed  with  his  name;  -.uul 
from  its  general  coincidence  in  style  and  niann(;r  with  iiis 
sacred  hymns  in  Exod.  xv.  and  Dent,  xxxii.  it  is  {renerally 
considered  as  the  composition  of  the  trreat  lawtriver  of  the 
Jews.  15nt  Dr.  Kennicott  and  other  critics  think  that  it  was 
written  in  a  later  acre,  and  consequently  cannot  he  of  that 
date  which  the  title  imports:  bt^cause  in  the  time  of  Moses 
most  of  the  persons  nuinlioned  in  .Scripture  lived  to  an  ajre 
far  exceedinjr  the  standard  of  threescore  _i/eiirs  and  ten  or  fmir- 
scM-e,  which  in  the  ninetieth  psalm  is  assiirned  as  the  limit 
of  human  life.  But  this  "  opinion  seems  founded  on  the  ex- 
C(>ptions  from  the  ireneral  rule,  rather  than  on  the  ruh^  itself. 
The  life  of  Aaron,  Moses,  .loshua,  and  Oaleb,  untpiestionably 
exceeded  the  a<!;e  of  fourscore  considerably,  and  ran  on  from 
a  hundred  and  ten  to  a  hundred  and  twenty;  but  all  these 
were^  ])robably  instances  of  special  favour.  The  decree 
which  abbreviated  the  life  of  man,  as  a  general  rule,  to 
seventy  or  eighty  years,  was  given  as  a  chastisement  upon 
the  whole  race  of  Israelites  in  the  wilderness;  and,  with 
these  few  exceptions,  none  of  them  at  the  date  of  this  psalm 
could  have  reached  more  than  seventy,  and  few  of  them  so 
high  a  number.  But  it  does  not  appear  that  the  term  of  life 
was  lenirthened  afterwards.  Samuel  died  about  seventy 
years  old,  David  under  seventy-one,  and  Solomon  under 
sixty ;  and  the  history  of  the  world  shows  us  that  the  ab- 
l)reviation  of  life  in  other  countries  was  nearly  in  the  same 

1)roportion."'  The  other  nine  psalms,  xci.  to  xcix.,  are  attri- 
)uted  to  Moses  by  the  Jews,  by  virtue  of  a  canon  of  criticism 
which  t/iei/  have  established,  namely,  that  all  anonymous 
psalms  are  to  be  referred  to  that  author  whose  name  occurred 
in  the  title  last  preceding  them.^  But  for  this  rule  no  foun- 
dation whatever  exists :  it  is  certain  that  the  ninety-ninth 
psalin  could  not  liave  been  written  by  Moses,  for  in  the  sixth 
verse  mention  is  made  of  the  prophet  Samuel,  who  was  not 
born  till  two  hundred  and  ninety-tive  or  six  years  after  the 
death  of  Moses. 

2.  The  name  of  David  is  prefixed  to  seventy-one  psalms 
in  the  Hebrew  copies,  to  which  the  Septuagint  version  adds 
eleven  others :  but  it  is  evident,  from  tne  style  and  subject- 
matter  of  the  latter,  that  many  of  them  cannot  be  the  compo- 
sition of  David,  particularly  the  hundred  and  second,  which 
is  in  no  rts|wt  whatever  applicable  to  him,  but  from  its  subject- 
matter  must  be  referred  to  some  pious  Jew  who  composed  it 
after  the  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  while  the 
temple  was  in  ruins,  and  the  country  in  a  state  of  desolation. 
The  hundred  and  thirty-eighth  psalm,  also,  though  attributed 
in  the  Septuagint  to  David,  could  not  have  been  written  by 
him,  for  reference  is  made  in  it  to  the  tenipli\  which  was  not 
erected  till  after  his  death  by  Solomon.  On  the  contrary, 
some  of  the  psalms  thus  ascribed  to  David  in  the  Septuagint 
version  are  unquestionably  his,  as  well  as  some  which  are 
anonymous :  of  the  former  class  is  the  ninety-fifth,  and  of 
the  latter  the  second  psalm,  both  of  which  are  cited  as 
David's  psalms  by  the  inspired  writers  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. Compare  Acts  iv.  25 — 2d.  xiii.  33.  Heb.  iii.  7 — 11. 
iv.  7—13. 

Many  of  the  psalms,  which  bear  the  royal  prophet's  name, 
were  composed  on  occasion  of  remarkable  circumstances  in 
his  life,  his  dangers,  his  atHicti'US,  his  deliverances.  "  But 
of  those  which  relate  to  the  public  history  of  the  natural  Is- 
rael, there  are  few  in  which  the  fortunes  of  the  mystical 
Israel  are  not  adumbrated;  and  of  those  which  allude  to  the 
life  of  David,  there  are  none  in  which  the  Son  of  David  is 
wot  the  principal  and  immediate  subject.  David's  complaints 
against  his  enemies  are  Messiah's  complaints,  first  of  the 
unbelieving  Jews,  then  of  the  heathen  persecutors,  and  of 
the  apostate  faction  in  later  ages.  David's  afllictions  are 
Messiah's  sufferings.  David's  penitential  supplications  are 
Messiah's,  under  the  burden  of  the  imputed  guilt  of  man. 
David's  songs  of  triumph  and  thanksgiving  are  Messiah's 

'  Extiracl  from  Dr.  Good's  (unpublislieil)  Version  of  the  Book  of  Psalms, 
in  Professor  Gregory's  Memoirs  of  his  Life,  p.  316. 

»  This  opinion  is  very  ancient :  it  wns  adopled  by  Oripen  (Select,  in 
Psalmos,  Opp.  torn.  ii.  p.  574.  edit.  Benedict.),  and  by  Jerome  (Kpist.  c.xxxix. 
adCyprianum,  p.  3SS.  edit.  Plantin.),  who  says  it  was  derived  from  a  tra- 
dition recorded  by  lulhis,  patriarch  of  the  Jews.  Advers.  Ruffin.  lib.  i. 
•ap.  3.  p.  235.    Roseniniiller,  Scholia  in  Psaluios,  toui.  i.  p.  ix\. 


songs  of  triumph  "and  thanksgiving  for  his  victory  over  sin, 
and  death,  and  hell.  In  a  word,  there  is  not  a  ])age  in  this 
book  of  Psalms,  in  whicii  the  pious  reader  will  not  find  his 
Saviour,  if  he  reads  with  a  view  of  finding  hiin."^ 

From  the  variety  of  circumstances  and  situations  in  which 
David  was  placed  at  dillerent  times,  and  the  various  alTec- 
tious  which  consetpiently  were  called  into  exercise,  we  may 
readily  cont^eive  that  his  style  is  exceedingly  various.  The 
remark,  indetul,  is  a|)|)licable  to  the  entire  book  of  Psalms, 
but  (eminently  so  to  the  odes  of  David.  Hence  it  is  that 
those,  which  are  expressive  of  the  natural  character  and  state 
of  man,  and  of  sin,  seem  to  bear  marks  of  difficulty,  and,  as 
it  were,  disgust  in  their  com|)osition.  "The  stJiitences  are 
laboured  and  move  heavily,  and  cannot  be  perused  with  that 
lividy  pleasure,  which, on  tht;  contrary,  is  received  from  those 
themes  of  the  psalmist  which  place  before  us  the  glorious 
attributes  of  (iod,  and  express  eiiher  His  love  to  man,  or  the 
believer's  love  to  Him.  These  strains  flow  with  viororous 
and  well  adapted  expressions,  as  if  the  subject  was  felt  to  be 
most  delightful,  entered  on  with  alacrity,  and  pursued  with 
holy  joy."'  Some  of  David's  psalms  ])ossess  great  std)li- 
inity,  as  the  twenty-fourth ;  but  softness,  tenderness,  and 
pathos,  are  their  prtivailing  characteristics. 

3.  With  the  name  of  Asaph,  a  very  celebrated  Levite, and 
chief  of  the  choirs  of  Israel  in  the  time  of  David  (1  C!hron. 
xvi.  4,  5.),  twelve  ])salms  are  inscribed,  viz.  1.  Ixxiii. — - 
Ixxxiii.  But  the  seventy-fourth  and  seventj'-ninth  psalms 
evidently  cannot  be  his,  because  they  dejjlore  the  overthrow 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  conflagration  of  the  temjde,  and  ia 
point  of  siyle  approach  nearest  to  the  Lamentations  of  Jere- 
miah. Either,  therefore,  they  are  errt^neously  ascribed  to 
him,  or  were  composed  by  another  Asaph,  who  lived  during 
the  captivity.  The  subjects  of  Asaph's  psalms  are  doctrinal 
or  preceptive :  their  style,  though  less  sweet  than  that  of 
David,  is  much  more  vehement,  and  little  inferior  to  the 
grandest  parts  of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  and  Habakkuk. 
The  fiftieth  psalm,  in  particular,  is  characterized  by  such  a 
deep  vein  ol  thought  and  lofty  tone  of  sentiment  as  place 
him  in  the  number  of  poets  of  the  highest  order.  In  Asaph 
the  poet  and  the  philosopher  were  combined.  "  He  was," 
says  Eichhorn,  "one  of  those  ancient  wise  men,  who  felt 
the  insufliciency  of  external  religious  usages,  and  urj>ed  the 
necessity  of  cultivating  virtue  and  purity  of  mind."  It  may 
be  well  said  of  him,  as  of  the  scribe  in  the  New  Testament, 
that  he  ivas  not  fur  from  the  kingdom  of  Goct.^ 

4.  Ten  psalms,  viz.  xlii. — xlvii.  Ixxxiv.  Ixxxv.  Ixxxvii. 
and  Ixxxviii.  are  inscribed,  '■'■For  the  sons  of  Korah  :"  but 
who  these  persons  were  is  not  altogether  certain  ;  and  such 
is  the  uncertainty  of  the  prepositional  prefix,  that  tiie  most 
eminent  critics  have  not  been  able  to  decide  whether  these 
psalms  were  written  iy  them,  or  were  composed  for  them, 
and  to  be  performed  by  them  with  music  in  the  temple. 
Professor  Stuart  thinks  it  probable  that  they  were  the  de- 
scendants of  Korah,  who  perished  in  the  rebellion.  (Num. 
xvi.)  It  is  certain  that  all  his  children  did  not  perish  with 
him  (Num.  xvi.  11.)  :  it  is  certain  also  that  some  of  their  de- 
scendants were  among  those  who  presided  over  the  tabernacle 
music.  (1  Chron.  vi.  22.  37.)  In  1  Chron.  ix.  19.  we  find 
Shallum  a  descendant  of  Korah,  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
overseers  of  the  tabernacle,  and  it  appears  that  he  belonged 
to  a  family  called  Korahilcs.  These  last  are  mentioned  also 
in  1  Chron.  xxvi.  1.  and  2  Chron.  xx.  19.  as  being  among 
those  engaged  in  sacred  music.  Hence  it  would  appear,  that 
there  were  men  of  eminence  among  the  Korahites  in  the 
time  of  David  and  Solomon  ;  and  the  probability  is,  that  the 
psalms  above  enumerated,  which  bear  their  names,  belong  to 
them  as  authors.  In  style  they  difler  very  sensibly  from  the 
compositions  of  David  ;  and  they  are  some  of  the  most  ex- 
quisite of  all  the  lyric  compositions  which  the  Book  of 
Ps  ilms  contains,  'fhe  title  was,  probably,  afl^xod  by  some 
editor  of  a  later  age,  who  knew  only  the  generil  report  that 
the  psalms  in  question  belonged  to  the  sons  of  Korah,  and 
could  obtain  nothing  certain  as  to  the  individuals  who  were 
their  respective  authors."^ 

5.  By  whom  psalms  xxxix.  Ixii.  and  Ixxvii.  were  com- 

'  Bishop  Ilorsley's  Psalms,  vol.  i.  p.  x. 

«  Memorial  Sketches  of  the  late  Rev.  David  Brown,  p.  93.— a  very  In- 
structive piece  of  clerical  biograpliy.  Mr.  B.,  to  whom  we  are  indebted 
for  the  above  remark,  was  most  accurately  inliniatc  with  the  psalms  in 
their  original  Hebrew.  "He  accustomed  himself  to  them,"  says  his 
biojrrapher,  "in  the  orijjinal,  as  the  medium  of  his  most  private  and 
eariie.st  devotions,  whether  of  contrition,  supplication,  or  praise.  In  all 
aiilirtion,  and  in  all  rejoicing,  he  alike  called  upon  God  in  Ihe  language  of 
David."   Ibid. 

5  Noyes's  translation  of  the  Psalms,  p.  xiii. 

«  Stuart's  Hebrew  Christomalhy,  p,  206. 


240 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IIT. 


posed,  is  not  now  known :  their  titles  are  inscribed  to  Jedu- 
THUN,  who  was  one  of  the  three  directors  of  music  in  the 
national  worship,  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  xxv.  1. 

G.  To  Heman  the  Ezrahite  is  ascribed  the  eighty-eighth 
psalm;  and  to  Ethan  the  Ezrahite  the  following  psalna. 
They  were  both  probably  descendants  from  Zerah,  who  is 
mentioned  in  I  Chron.  ii.  G. ;  but  at  what  time  they  lived  is 
uncertain.  They  are,  however,  supposed  to  have  flourished 
during  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

7.  It  is  highly  probable  that  many  of  the  psalms  were 
composed  during  the  reign  of  Solomon,  who,  we  learn  from 
1  Kinirs  iv.  32.  "  wrote  a  thousand  and  five  songs,"  or 
poems. 

There  are  only  two  psalms,  however,  which  hear  his 
name,  viz.  the  seventy-second  and  the  hundred  and  twenty- 
seventh  psalms.  The  title  of  the  former  may  be  translated 
for  as  well  as  of  Solomon  ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  evident,  from 
considering  its  style  and  subject-matter,  that  it  could  not 
have  been  composed  by  him.  But,  as  he  was  inaugurated 
iust  before  David's  death,  it  was  in  all  probability,  one  of 
bavitPs  latest  odes.  The  hundred  and  twenty-seventh  psalm 
is  most  likely  Solomon's,  composed  at  the  time  of  his  nup- 
tials :  it  strongly  and  beautifully  expresses  a  sense  of  depen- 
dence upon  Jehovah  for  every  blessing,  especially  a  nume- 
rous offspring,  which  we  know  was  an  object  of  the  most 
ardent  desire  to  the  Israelites. 

8.  Besides  the  preceding,  there  are  upwards  of  thirty 
psalms  which  in  the  Hebrew  Bibles  are  altogether  Anony- 
mous, although  the  Septnagint  version  gives  names  to  some 
of  them,  chiefly,  it  should  seem,  upon  conjecture,  for  which 
there  is  little  or  no  foundation.  Thus  the  Alexandrian  Greek 
translators  ascribe  the  hundred  and  thirty-seventh  psalm  to 
.Teremiah,  who  could  not  have  written  it,  for  he  died  before 
the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  which 
joyous  event  is  most  pleasingly  commemorated  in  that  ode. 
In  like  manner,  the  hundred  and  forty-sixth  and  hundred  and 
forty-seventh  psalms  are  attributed  by  them  to  the  prophets 
Haggai  and  Zechariah,  for  no  other  reason,  it  should  seem, 
thau^ecause  jisalm  cxlvi.  7 — 10.  treats  of  the  deliverance 
of  the  captives  and  those  who  were  oppressed,  and  cxlvii. 
of  the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  church.  Psalms  ii.  and  xcv. 
however,  as  we  have  already  remarked,'  though  anonymous, 
are  ascribed  by  the  inspired  apostles  to  David.  Some  mo- 
dern critics  have  imagined,  that  there  are  a  few  of  the  un- 
titled psalms  which  were  composed  so  lately  as  the  time  of 
the  Maccabees.  Thus  Rudinger  assigns  to  that  period  psalms 
i.  xliv.  xlvi.  x'.ix.  and  cviii. ;  Herman  Vonder  Hardt,  psalm 
cxix. ;  and  Veneuia,  psalms  Ixxxv.  xciii.  and  cviii.2  This  late 
date,  however,  is  impossible,  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament 
Scriptures  beino;  closed  by  Ezra,  nearly  three  centuries  be- 
fore the  time  of  the  Maccabees.  But  "  whether  David,  or 
any  other  prophet,  was  employed  as  the  instrument  of  com- 
municating to  the  church  such  or  such  a  particular  psalm  is 
a  question,  which,  if  it  cannot  always  be  satisfactorily  an- 
swered, needs  not  disquiet  our  minds.  When  we  discern, 
in  an  epistle,  the  well-known  hand  of  a  friend,  we  are  not 
solicitous  about  the  pen  with  which  it  was  written. "^ 

V.  The  following  Chronological  Arrangement  of  the 
Psalms,  after  a  careful  and  judicious  examination,  has  been 
adopted  by  Calnict,'  who  has  further  sjiecified  the  probable 
occasions  on  which  they  were  composed  : — 

1.  Pnalnis  (f  which  the  Date  is  uncertain.  These  are  eight 
in  number ;  viz. 

Psal.  i.  This  is  a  preface  to  the  whole  book,  and  is  by  some 
ascribed  to  David,  by  others  to  Ezra,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  collected  the  psalms  into  a  volume. 

Psal.  iv.  The  expressions  of  a  devout  person  amid  the  cor- 
rupt manners  of  the  age.     An  evening  prayer. 

Psal.  viii.  The  prerogatives  of  man  :  and  the  glory  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

Psal.  xix.  A  beautiful  eulogy  on  the  law  of  God.  A  psalm 
of  praise  to  the  Creator,  arising  from  a  consideration  of 
his  works,  as  displayed  in  the  creation,  in  the  heavens,  and 
in  the  stars. 

'  See  p.  230.  supra. 

«  KostniiMuller,  Scholia  in  PsalTnos,  Prolegom.  c.  2.  pp.  xi.— xix.  He 
adopts  Uie  Diitenaljlo  hypothesis  of  Rudinger. 

3  Bisliop  Home's  C'o'imnentary  on  tlie  Psahns,  vol.  i.  Pref.  p.  v. 

*  Commenlaire  I.itti'ral,  tow.  iv.  pp.  Ixii.— Ixvi.  As  some  of  the  P.salms 
in  the  Vulgate  Latin  version,  which  was  used  by  Calinet,  are  divided  and 
niniibered  in  a  ditterent  manner  from  tliat  in  which  they  appear  in  our 
liihl.'s,  we  have  adapted  the  references  to  the  psalms  to  the  authorized 
EngUsjh  version. 


Psal.  Ixxxi.  This  psalm,  which  is  attributed  to  Asaph,  was 
sung  in  the  temple,  at  the  fea.st  of  trumpets,  held  in  the 
beginning  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews,  and  also  at  the 
feast  of  tabernacles. 

Psal.  xci.  This  moral  psalm,  though  assigned  to  Mo.'!es,  was 
in  all  probability  composed  during  or  after  the  captivity.  It 
treats  on  the  happiness  of  those  who  place  their  whole  con 
fidcnce  in  God. 

Psal.  ex.  The  advent,  kingdom,  and  generation  of  the  Mes- 
siah ;  composed  by  David. 

Psal.  cxxxix.  A  psalm  of  praise  to  God  for  his  all-seeing 
providence  and  infinite  wisdom. 

2.  Psalms  composed  by  David  during  the  Persecution  of 
Saul.     These  are  seventeen  ;  namely, 

Psal.  xi.  David,  being  entreated  by  his  friends  to  withdraw 
from  the  court  of  Saul,  professes  his  confidence  in  God. 

Psal.  XX xi.  David,  proscribed  by  Saul,  is  forced  to  withdraw 
from  his  court. 

Psal.  xxxiv.  Composed  by  David,  when,  at  the  court  of  Achi.sh 
king  of  Gath,  he  counterfeited  madness,  and  was  permitted 
to  depart. 

Psal.  hi.  Composed  in  the  cave  of  AduUam,  after  David's 
escape  from  Achish. 

Psal.  xvi.  David  persecuted  by  Saul,  and  obliged  to  take 
refuge  among  the  Moabites  and  Philistines. 

Psal.  liv.  David  pursued  by  Saul  in  the  desert  of  Ziph,  whence 
Saul  was  obliged  to  withdraw  and  repel  the  Philistines. 
David's  thanksgiving  for  his  deliverance. 

Psal.  lii.  Composed  by  David  after  Saul  had  sacked  the  city 
of  Nob,  and  put  the  priests  and  all  their  families  to  the 
sword. 

Psal.  cix.  Composed  during  Saul's  unjust  persecution  of 
David.  The  person,  against  whom  this  psalm  was  directed, 
was  most  probably  Doeg.  Bishop  Horsley  considers  it  as  a 
prophetic  malediction  against  the  Jewish  nation. 

Psal.  xvii.  A  prayer  of  David  during  Saul's  bitterest  perse- 
cution of  him. 

Psal.  xxii.  David,  persecuted  by  Saul,  personates  the  Messiah, 
persecuted  and  put  to  death  by  the  Jews. 

Psal.  XXXV.  Composed  about  the  same  time,  and  under  the 
same  persecution. 

Psal.  Ivii.  David,  in  the  cave  of  En-gedi,  implores  divine  pro- 
tection, in  sure  prospect  of  which  he  breaks  forth  into 
grateful  praise.   (1  Sam.  xxiv.  I.) 

Psal.  Iviii.  A  continuation  of  the  same  subject.  Complaints 
against  Saul's  wicked  counsellors. 

Psal.  cxlii.  David  in  the  cave  of  En-gedi. 

Psal.  cxl.  cxli.  David,  under  severe  persecution,  implores  help 
of  God. 

Psal.  vii.  David  violently  persecuted  by  SauL 

3.  Psalms  composed  hy  David  at  the  beginning  of  his  lieign, 
and  after  t/ie  Death  of  Saul,  Of  this  class  there  are  six- 
teen ;  viz. 

Psal.  ii.  Written  by  David,  after  he  had  fixed  the  scat  of  his 
government  at  Jerusalem,  notwithstanding  the  malignant 
opposition  of  his  enemies.  It  is  a  most  noble  prediction  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah. 

Psal.  Ixviii.  Composed  on  occasion  of  conducting  the  ark 
from  Kirjath-jearim  to  Jerusalem. 

Psal  ix.  and  xxiv.  Sung  by  David  on  the  removal  of  the  ark 
from  the  house  of  Obededom  to  Mount  Sion. 

Psal.  ci.  David  describes  the  manner  in  which  he  guided  his 
people  in  justice  and  equity. 

Psal.  xxix.  A  solemn  thanksgiving  for  the  rain  that  fell  after 
David  had  avenged  the  Gibeonites  on  the  hou.se  of  Saul, 
by  whom  they  had  been  unjustly  persecuted.  3  Sam.  xxi. 
et  seq, 

Psal.  XX.  Composed  by  David  when  he  was  on  the  point  of 
marching  against  the  Ammonites  and  Syrians  who  had 
leagued  together  against  him.  2  Sam.  x. 

Psal.  xxi.  A  continuation  of  the  preceding  subject.  David's 
thanksgiving  for  his  victory  over  the  Ammonites.  i 

Psal.  vi.  xxxviii.  and  xxxix.  Composed  by  David  during  sick- 
ness; although  no  notice  is  taken  of  this  sickness  in  the 
histoiy  of  David,  yet  it  is  the  opinion  of  almost  every  com- 
mentator that  these  psalms  refer  to  some  dangerous  illness 
from  which  his  recovery  was  long  doubtful. 

.  Psal.  xl.  A  psalm  of  thanksgiving  for  his  recovery  from  sick-, 
ness. 


Sfxt.  II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS. 


241 


Psal.  li.  xxxii.  and  xxxiii.  were   all  composrd  by  David  after  I  the  Lord  God  of  7.-imd,fir>m  everlasting  to  everlasting.    Jnicn 

' ' and  JImen.  (xli.  13.)     It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  titles 

of  all  these  psalms  (exreptinjr  i.  ii.2  x.  xxxiii.)  ascribe  them 
to  David  :  hence  it  has  been  supposed  that  this  first  book  of 
psalms  was  collected  by  the  Hebrew  monarch. 

2.  The  sKfoND  BOOK  is  termed  ^jir  -\ed  (sfi'UfR  sHmi  )  :  it 
includes  psalms  xlii.  to  Ixxii.  and  ends  with — Blessed  be  the 
Lord  (iiid  of  Israel,  icho  onli/  doeth  wondrous  things.  JInd 
bltfsid  be  his  glorious  name  for  ever  :  and  hi  the  uhole  earth  he 
filled  with  his  glory,  .Hmen  and  Jlnicn.  The  pruyers  nf  David 
the  son  of  Jeste  are  ended.  (Ixxii.  18 — 20.)  From  this  termi- 
nation of  the  second  book  of  Psalms,  some  have  conjectured 
that  David  also  collected  it,  as  nineteen  out  of  the  thirty-one 
bear  liis  name:  but  it  is  more  likely  that  the  concluding 
sentence  of  psalm  Ixxii.  simply  means  the  psalms  of  David 
ill  that  book,  because  several  of  his  compositions  are  to  bo 
found  in  the  follovvinir  books  or  collections. ^ 

3.  Th(!  THIRD  BOOK  is  Called  ivhiv  ica  (s'PufR  SHrusin)  : 
it  compreh<'iids  psalms  Ixxiii.  to  Ixxxix.  which  is  ihus  con- 
cluded :  Blessed  be  the  hoRD  for  evcrinore.  JImen  and  Amen, 
(Ixxxix.  52.)  Of  the  seventeen  psalms  included  in  this 
book,  one  only  is  ascribed  to  David  ;  one  to  Heman ;  and 
one  to  Kthan  :  three  of  the  others  are  directed  to  the  sons  of 
Korah,  without  specifyinjj  the  author's  name;  and  eleven 
hear  the  name  of  Asajdi,  who  has  been  supposed  to  be  the 
collector  of  this  book. 

4.  The  FOURTH  BOOK  is  inscribed  <j!3t  nco  (s^'phcr  RfB'Noi), 
and  also  contains  seventeen  psalms,  viz.  from  xc.  to  cvi. 
This  book  concludes  with  the  following  doxoloorj^ ;  Blessed 
be  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  from  everlaaling  to  everlasting .-  and 
let  all  the  people  say,  JImen.  Praise  ye  the  Lord.  (cvi.  48.) 
One  of  these  psalms  is  ascribed  to  mioses,  and  two  have  the 
name  of  David  in  their  title.  The  rest  have  no  authors' 
names,  or  titles  prefixed  to  them.  The  collector  of  this  book 
is  unknown. 

5.  The  FIFTH  and  last  book  is  called  >!f>cn  ico  (sepH^R 
CHffMisHi),and  consists  of  forty-four  psalms,  viz.  from  psalm 
cvii.  to  the  end  of  cl.  It  terminates  the  whole  book  of 
Psalms  thus  : — Let  every  thing  that  hath  breath  praise  the 
Lord.  Praise  ye  the  Lord.  ^1.  6.)  Of  these  forty-four 
psalms,  fifteen  are  ascribed  to  David  :  the  rest  have  for  the 
most  part  no  titles  at  all,  and  are  anonymous.  This  book  is 
supposed  to  have  been  collected  in  the  time  of  .Tudas  Mac- 
cabanis,  but  by  w'hom  it  is  impossible  to  conjecture.'' 

This  division  of  the  Psalms  into  five  books  is  of  great 
antiquity,  because  it  was  in  existence  before  the  Septuagint 
Greek  version  was  executed  ;*  and  as  there  are  many  Chaklee 
words  in  those  composed  during  or  after  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity, the  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  the  difierent  collec- 
tions then  extant  were  formed  into  one  volume  by  Ezra, 
when  the  Jewish  canon  of  Scripture  was  completed.  But 
whatever  subordinate  divisions  may  have  existea,  it  is  certain 
that  the  Psalms  composed  but  one  book  in  that  canon :  for 
they  are  cited  by  our  Lord  collectively  as  the  " /".va/ms" 
(Luke  xxiv.  44.),  and  also  as  "the  Book  of  PWw.?"  (Luke 
XX.  42.),  by  which  last  title  they  are  cited  by  St.  Peter  in 
Acts  i.  20. ;  and  they  are  reckoned  only  as  one  book  in  all 
subsequent  enumerations  of  the  Scriptures,  both  by  Jews  and 
Christians. 

The  number  of  the  canonical  psalms  is  one  hundred  and 
fifty  :  but  in  the  Septuagint  version,  as  ■«  ell  as  in  the  Syriac, 
Arabic,  and  ^thiopic  translation,  there  is  extant  another 
which  is  numbered  ci,i.  Its  subject  is  the  combat  of  David 
with  Goliath  (related  in  1  Sam.  xvii.)  but  it  is  evidently 


Nathan  had  convinced  him  of  his  sin  with  Balhslicba.' 

4.  Psalms  during  the  litbellioa  of  Absalom..  This  class 
com[)rises  eight  Psalms. 

Psal.  iii.  iv.  Iv.  Composed  when  David  was  driven  from  Jeru- 
salem by  Absalom. 

Psal.  Ixii.  David  professes  his  trust  in  God  during  the  unnatu- 
ral persecution  of  his  son. 

P.sal.  Ixx.  Ixxi.  A  prayer  of  David  when  pursued  by  Absalom. 

Psal.  cxiiii.   Written  during  tiie  war  with  Absalom. 

Psal.  cxliv.  A  thanksgiving  for  his  victories  over  Absalom, 
Sheba,  and  other  rebels.    2  Sam.  xviii.  20. 

5.  The  Psalms  written  between  the  Death  of  Absalom  and 
the  Captivity  are  ten  in  number;  viz. 

Psal.  xviii.  David's   solemn  thanksgiving  for  all  the  blessings 

he  had  received  from  God.     Compare  2  Sam.  xxii. 
Psal.  XXX.  Composed  on   occasion  of  dedicating  the  altar  on 

the  thresbiiig-lloor  of  Araunah.     2  Sam.  xxiv.  2.5. 
Psal.   xlv.    Composed   on    the   marriage   of    Solomon  with  a 

king's  daughter.     It  is  throughout  prophetical  of  the  victo- 
rious Messiah. 
Psal.  Ixxviii.  Composed  on  occasion  of  Asa's  victory  over  the 

forces  of  the  king  of  Israel.     See  2  Chron.  xvi.  4.  6. 
P.sal.  Ixxxii.  Instructions  given  to  the  judges,  during  the  reign 

of  Jchoshaphat  king  of  Judah.     Sec  2  Chron.  xix.  5,  6. 
P.sal.  Ixxxiii.  A  triumphal  ode,  composed  on  occasion  of  Jc- 

hoshaphat's    victory   over    the  Ammonites,    Moabites,  and 

other  enemies.     See  2  Chron.  xx.  1.  et  se'/. 
Psal.  Ixxvi.  Composed  after  the  destruction  of  Sennacherib's 

army.     See  2  Chron.  xxxii. 
Psal.  Ixxiv.  and  Ixxix.     A  lamentation  for  the  desolation  of 

the  temple  of  Jerusalem :  it  was  most  probably  composed 

at  the  beginning  of  the  captivity. 

6.  Psalms  composed  during  the  Captivity ,-  the  authors  of 
which  are  unknown.  Calmet  ascribes  them  chiefly  to  the 
descendants  of  Asaph  and  Korah. 

Their  subjects  are  wholly  of  a  mournful  nature,  lamenting 
the  captivity,  imploring  deliverance,  and  complaining  of 
the  oppression  of  the  Babylonians.  These  psalms,  forty  in 
number,  are  as  follow: — x.  xii.  xiv.  xv.  xxv.  xxvi.  xxvii. 
xxviii.  xxxvi.  xxxvii.  xlii.  xUii.  xliv.  xlix.  1.  liii.  Ix.  Ixiv. 
Ixvii.  Ixix.  Ixxiii.  Ixxv.  Ixxvii.  Ixxx.  Ixxxiv.  Ixxxvi.  Ixxxviii. 
Ixxxix.  xc.  xcii.  xciii.  xciv.  xcv.  xcix.  cxx.  cxxi.  cxxiii. 
cxxx.  cxxxi.  cxxxii, 

7.  Psalms  composed  after  Cyrus  issued  his  Edict,  allowing 
the  Jews  to  return  from  their  Captivity. 

This  class  consists  of  thanksgiving  odes  for  their  release,  and 
also  on  occasion  of  dedicating  the  walls  of  the  city,  as  well 
as  of  the  second  temple.  They  abound  with  the  most  live- 
ly expressions  of  devotion  and  gratitude,  and  amount  to 
fifty-one ;  viz.  cxxii.  Ixi.  Ixiii.  cxxiv.  xxiii.  Ixxxvii.  Ixxxv. 
xlvi.  xlvii.  xlviii.  xcvi.  to  cxvii.  inclusive,  cxxvi.  cxxxiii.  to 
exxxvii.  inclusive,  cxlix  cl.  cxlvi.  cxlvii.  cxlviii.  lix.  Ixv. 
Ixvi.  Ixvii.  cxviii.  cxxv.  cxx^^i.  exxviii.  cxxix.  cxxxviii. 

According  to  this  distribution  of  Calmet,  only  forty-five 
of  these  ps.ums  were  composed  by  David. 

VI.  At  what  time  and  by  whom  the  book  of  Psalms  was 
collected  into  ou«  volume,  we  have  no  certain  information. 
Many  are  of  opinion  that  David  collected  such  as  were  ex- 
tant in  his  time  into  a  book. for  the  use  of  the  national  wor- 
ship :  this  is  not  unlikely ;  but  it  is  manifest  that  such  a 
collection  could  not  include  all  the  psalms,  because  many  of 
David's  odes  are  scattered  throughout  the  entire  series.  Some 
have  ascribed  the  general  collection  to  the  friends  or  servants 
of  Hezekiah  before  the  captivity ;  but  this  could  only  apply 
to  the  psalms  then  extant,  for  we  read  that  Hezekiah  caused 
the  words  or  psalms  of  David  to  be  sung  in  the  temple  when 
he  restored  the  worship  of  Jehovah  there  (2  Chron.  xxix.  25 
— 30.):  the  collection  by  the  men  of  Hezekiah  could  not 
comprise  any  that  were  composed  either  under  or  subsequent 
to  the  captivity.  That  the  psalms  were  collected  together 
at  different  times  and  by  different  persons  is  very  evident  firom 
an  examination  of  their  contents.  Accordingly,  in  the  Maso- 
retic  copies  (and  also  in  the  Syriac  version)  they  are  divided 
into  five  books;  viz. 

1.  The  FIRST  BOOK  is  entitled  inN  idd  (srpHfR  achwd)  :  it 
comprises  psalms  i.  to  xli.  and  concludes  thus : — Blessed  be 

«  Dr.  Hales  refers  to  this  period  psalm  ciii.  wliich  is  a  psalm  of  thanks- 
giving. He  considers  it  as  David's  eucharlstical  ode,  after  God  had  par- 
doned his  sreat  sin.    Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  il.  pp.  376,  377. 

Vol.  II.  2  H 


»  The  second  psalm,  however,  is  expressly  declared  to  be  David's  in 
Acts  iv.  a">,  26. 

»  Bishop  Horsley,  however,  is  of  opinion  that  this  is  the  close  of  the 
particular  psalm  in  question,  and  not  a  division  of  the  book,  as  if  these 
first  seventy-two  psalms  were  all  of  David's  composition.  "  The  sense  is, 
that  David  the  son  of  .lesse  had  nothing  to  pray  for,  or  to  wish,  beyond 
the  great  things  described  in  this  psalm.  Nothing  can  be  more  animated 
than  this  conclusion.  Having  described  the  blessings  of  Messiah's  reign, 
he  closes  the  whole  with  this  magnificent  doxology : — 

"Blessed  be  Jehovah  God, 
God  of  Israel  alone  perfonning  wonders  ; 
And  blessed  be  his  name  of  glory. 
And  let  his  glory  till  the  whole  of  the  earth. 
Amen  and  Amen. 
Finished  are  the  prayers  of  David,  the  son  of  Jesse." 

Bishop  Horsley's  Psalms,  vol.  ii.  p.  195. 

«  Rosenmliller,  Scholia  in  Psalmos,  Proleg.  pp.  xx. — xxv.  c.  3.  de 
Psalmoruin  CoUectione,  Partitione,  et  Numero ;  Roberts's  Clavis  Biblio- 
rum,  p  166. 

5  Euscbius  and  Theodoret,  in  their  respective  Prefaces  to  the  book  of 
Psalms,  consider  this  book  as  ranking  next  in  priority  to  the  Pentateuch  ; 
on  which  account  it  was  divided  into  five  parts  or  books,  like  the  writings 
of  Moses. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


242 

spurious,  for,  besides  that  it  possesses  not  a  particle  of  Da- 
vid's genius  and  style,  it  never  was  extant  in  the  Hebrew, 
and  has  been  uniformly  rejected  by  the  fathers,  and  by  every 
council  that  has  been  held  in  the  Christian  church.  It  is 
certainly  very  ancient,  as  it  is  found  in  the  Codex  Alexan- 
drinus.' 

Although  the  number  of  the  psalms  has  thus  been  ascer- 
tained and  fixed,  yet,  between  tnt  Hebrew  originals  and  the 
Greek  and  Vulgate  Latin  versions,  there  is  considerable 
diversity  in  the  arrangement  and  distribution.  In  the  latter, 
for  instance,  what  is  numbered  as  the  ninth  psalm  forms  two 
<listinct  psalms,  namely  ix.  and  x.  in  the  Hebrew ;  the  tenth 
ps-ilm  commencing  at  verse  22.  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
translations ;  so  that,  from  this  place  to  the  hundred  and 
tliirtcenth  psalm  inclusive,  the  quotations  and  numbers  of  the 
Hebrew  are  different  from  these  versions.  Again,  psalms 
cxiv.  and  cxv.  of  the  Hebrew  form  but  one  psalm  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin,  in  which  the  hundred  and  sixteenth  psalm 
is  divided  into  two.  In  the  Greek  and  Latin  copies  also,  the 
hundred  and  forty-seventh  psalm  is  divided  into  two,  thus 
completing  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  fifty.  The  Pro- 
testant churches,  and  our  authorized  English  version,  adhere 
to  the  Hebrew  notation,  which  has  been  invariably  followed 
in  the  present  work. 

The  following  table  exhibits  at  one  view  the  different  nu- 
merations in  the  Hebrew  and  in  the  Septuagint  version : — 

Psal.  i. — viii.  in  the  Hebrew  are     Psal.  i. — viii.  in  LXX. 

Psal.  ix.  X.      -         -         -         -     Psal.  ix.  in  LXX. 

Psal.  xi. — cxiii.    -         -         -         Psal.  x. — cxii.  in  LXX. 

Psal.  cxiv.  cxv.        ...     Psal.  cxiii.  in  LXX. 

Psal.  cxvi.  ...         Psal.  cxiv.  cxv.  in  LXX. 

Psal.  cxvii. — cxlvi. ...     Psal.  cxvi. — cxiv.  in  LXX. 

Psal.  cxlvii.         ...         Psal.  cxlvi.  cxlvii.  in  LXX. 

Psal.  cxlviii. — el.    ...     Psal.  cxlviii. — cl.  in  LXX. 
To  which  is  added,  -         Psal.  ch.  in  LXX. 

VII.  To  most  of  the  psalms^  are  prefixed  inscriptions  or 
TITLES,  concerning  the  import  of  which  expositors  and  in- 
terpreters are  by  no  means  agreed.  Some  hold  them  in  the 
profoundest  reverence,  considering  them  as  an  original  part 
of  these  divine  odes,  and  absolutely  necessary  to  the  right 
understanding  of  them,  while  others  regard  the  titles  as  sub- 
sequent additions,  and  of  no  importance  whatever.  In  one 
thing  only  are  they  all  unanimous,  namely,  in  the  obscurity 
of  these  titles. 

That  all  the  inscriptions  of  the  psalms  are  canonical  and 
inspired,  we  have  no  authority  to  affirm.  Augustine,  Hilary, 
Theodoret,  Cassiodorus,  and  many  other  ancient  fathers, 
admit  that  they  have  no  relation  to  the  body  of  the  psalm, 
and  that  they  contribute  nothing  to  the  sense.  The  Septua- 
gint and  other  Greek  versions  have  added  titles  to  some  of 
the  psalms,  which  have  none  in  the  Hebrew :  the  Protestant 
and  Romish  churches  have  determined  nothing  concerning 
them.  If  the  titles  of  the  psalms  had  been  esteemed  ca- 
nonical, would  it  have  been  permitted  to  alter  them,  to  sup- 
press them,  or  to  add  to  them]  Which  of  the  commenta- 
tors, .Tewish  or  Christian,"  Catholic  or  Protestant,  thinks  it 
incumbent  upon  him  to  follow  the  title  of  the  psalm  in  his 
commentary!  And  yet  both  Jews  and  Christians  receive 
the  book  of  Psalms  as  an  integral  part  of  Holy  Writ.  Al- 
though, therefore,  many  of  the  titles  prefixed  to  the  psalms 

>  The  following  is  a  translation  of  tliis  pretenrled  psalm,  from  the  Septua- 
gint, made  as  complete  as  possiljle  by  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  from  the  ditfurent 
versions.     See  his  Commentary  on  Psalm  cli. 

"A  psalm  in  the  hand  writing  uf  David,  beyond  the  number  of  the 
psal7)is,  composed  by  Uavid,  when  he  fought  in  single  combat  with  Go- 
liath." 

"  1.  I  was  tlie  least  among  my  brethren,  and  the  youngest  in  my  father's 
house  ;  and  I  kept  also  my  father's  slieep.  2.  My  haiid.s  made  tlie  organ, 
and  my  fingers  jointed  the  psaltery.  3.  And  wlio  told  it  to  my  Lord  ! 
{Ami).  And  who  is  he  who  lauglit  me?]  The  Lokd  hunsclf,— lie  is  my 
master,  and  the  hean  r  of  all  thai  call  upon  lihn.  4.  lie  sent  his  angel, 
and  look  me  away  from  my  father's  sheep  :  and  anointed  me  with  the  oil 
of  his  anointing."  \_0l hers  have  i\\n  n\\  oi  \\\s  mtxcy.]  5.  "  My  brethren 
were  taller  and  more  beautiful  than  I  :  n*>V(.'rlhcless,  the  Lokd  delighted 
not  in  them.  C.  1  went  out  (o  meet  the  PhlliLstine,  and  he  cursed  me  by 
his  idols.  7.  [In  liie  strength  of  the  Lord  1  cast  tliree  stones  at  him.  / 
stnoli:  him  in  the  forehead,  and  felled  limi  lo  the  earth.  Arab.]  8.  And  1 
drew  out  his  own  sword  from  ils  .shealh,  and  cut  otf  his  head,  and  look 
away  the  reproach  from  the  children  of  Israel." — How  vapid !  How  un- 
like the  songs  of  Sion,  composed  by  the  .sweet  p.sahnistof  Israel  ! 

%  The  number  of  psalms  without  titles  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is 
twenty-six,  viz.  i.  ii.  x.  xxiv.  xx.xiii.  xliii.  Ixxl.  xci.  xciii.  to  xcix.  inclusive, 
civ.  cv.  cvii.  cxiv.  to  cxix.  inchisive,  c-\xxvi.  and  cxxxvii.  ;  by  the  Tahnudi- 
cal  writers  tliey  are  termed  oryj/tara  josa/OTs.  The  untitled  psalms  in  our 
EngUsh  version  amount  to  thirty-seven;  but  many  of  these  are  llallelujah 
psalms,  which  have  lo.st  their  inscriptions,  because  the  venerable  tran.sla- 
tors  have  rendered  the  Hebrew  word  Hallelujah  by  Ihc  expression  "Praise 
the  Lord,"  which  they  have  made  a  part  of  the  p.salm,  though  in  the 
Septuagint  version  i  stands  as  a  distinct  title 


[Paut  V.  cuAP.  m 


are  of  very  questionable  authority,  as  not  being  extant  in 
Hebrew  manuscripts,  and  some  of  them  are  undoubtedly  not 
of  e(iual  antiquity  with  the  text,  being,  in  all  probability, 
conjectural  atrditions,  made  by  tiie  collectors  of  the  psvilms, 
at  different  periods,  who  undertook  to  supply  the  deficiency 
of  titles  from  their  own  judgment  or  fancy,  without  a  due 
regard  to  manuscripts,  yet  we  have  no  reason  to  sujjpose  that 
very  many  of  them  are  not  canonical  parts  of  the  psalms ; 
because  they  are  perfictly  in  unison  with  the  oriental  manner 
of  giving  titles  to  books  and  poems. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  seven  poems,  composed  in  Ara- 
bic by  as  many  of  the  most  excellent  Arabian  bards  (and 
which,  from  being  originally  suspended  around  the  caaba  or 
temple  at  Mecca,  were  called  3Iuullulmt,  or  siispenfleff),  were 
called,  al  Modhudhibui,  or  the  golden  verses,  because  they 
were  written  in  characters  of  gold  on  Egyptian  pai)yrus. 

Might  not  the  six  psalms,  which  bear  the  title  ot  Miclilam, 
or  golden,^  be  so  called  on  account  of  their  having  been  on 
some  occasion  or  otiier  written  in  letters  of  gold,  and  hung 
up  in  the  sanctuary  1  D'Herbelot,  to  wliom  we  are  indebted 
for  the  preceding  fact,  also  relates  that  Sherfeddin  al  Baus- 
siri,  an  Arabian  poet,  called  one  of  his  poems,  in  praise  ot 
Mohammed  (who  he  affirmed,  had  cured  him  of  a  paralytic 
disorder  in  his  sleep).  The  Habit  of  a  Dcrvecsh ,-  and,  because 
he  is  there  celebrated  for  having  (as  it  is  pretended)  given 
sight  to  a  blind  person,  this  poem  is  also  entitled  by  its 
author  The  Bright  Sfar.'^  D'Herbelot  I'urther  tells  us  that  a 
collection  of  moral  essays  was  named  The  Garden  of  Jlne- 
monies. 

The  ancient  Jewish  taste,  Mr.  Harmer  remarks,  may  rea- 
sonably be  supposed  to  have  been  of  the  same  kind  :  and 
agreeable  to  this  is  the  explanation  given  by  some  learned 
men  of  David's  commanding  the  boiv  to  be  taught  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  (2  Sam.  i.  18.) ;  which,  they  apprehend,  did 
not  relate  to  the  use  of  that  weapon  in  war,  but  to  the  hymn 
which  he  composed  on  occasion  of  the  death  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan ;  and  from  which  they  think  that  he  entitled  this 
elegy  the  Bow.  The  twenty-second  psalm  might  in  like 
manner  be  called  The  Hind  of  the  Morning  {^Aijeleth  Sha- 
har) ;  the  fifty-sixth.  The  Dumb  in  diatant  Places  {Joneth- 
elemrechokini) ,-  the  sixtieth.  The  Lily  of  the  Testimony  (A7/o- 
shan-eduth) ;  the  eightieth.  The  Lilies  of  the  Testimony  {Sho- 
shannin-edLuth),  in  the  plural  number;  and  the  forty-fifth, 
simply  The  Lilies  {Shoshannim^,  That  these  appellations 
do  not  denote  musical  instruments,  Mr.  Harmer  is  of  opin- 
ion, is  evident  from  the  names  of  trumpet,  timbrel,  harp, 
psaltery,  and  other  instruments  with  which  psalms  were 
sung,  being  absent  from  those  titles.  If  they  signified  tunes 
(as  ne  is  disposed  to  think),  they  must  signify  the  tunes  to 
which  such  songs  or  hymns  were  sung  as  were  distinguished 
by  these  names ;  and  so  the  inquiry  will  terminate  in  this 
point,  whether  the  psalms  to  which  these  titles  are  affixed 
were  called  by  these  names,  or  whether  they  were  some 
other  psalms  or  songs,  to  the  tune  of  which  these  were  to  be 
sung.  Now,  as  we  do  not  find  the  bow  referred  to,  nor  the 
same  name  twice  made  use  of,  so  far  as  our  information  goes, 
it  seems  most  probable  that  these  are  tiie  names  of  the  very 
psalms  to  which  they  are  prefixed.  The  forty-second  psalm, 
It  may  be  thought,  might  very  well  have  been  entitled  the 
Hind  of  the  Mvrning ,-  because,  as  that  panted  after  the 
water-brooks,  so  panted  the  soul  of  the  psalmist  after  God ; 
but  the  twenty-second  psalm,  it  is  certain,  might  equally  well 
be  distinguished  by  this  title, — Dogs  have  encompassed  me, 

3  Psalms  vl.  Ivi.  Ivii.  Iviii.  lix.  Ix.  D'Herbelot,  Bibliotheque  Orientale, 
vol  i.  pp.  3*3,  41.5.    . 

4  D'Herbelot,  Bibliotheque  Orientale,  vol.  ii.  p.  624.  It  were  easy  to 
multiply  examples  of  this  kind  from  the  works  of  oriental  writers  ;  a 
few  must  suffice : — Among  the  works  of  modirn  Hebrew  poets,  enumera- 
ted by  Sarchi,  in  his  Essay  on  Hebrew  Poelry  (pp.  116 — 125.),  A  Treatine  on 
Morals,  by  Rabbi  Clonimoiis  ben  Clonimous,  is  termed  A  Tried  Stone  ;  a  col- 
lection oi Festixial  Odes  and  Hymnsior  the  Jewish  year,  by  R.  Joseiili  Sa- 
lom,  is  designali'd  Speeches  vf'ISeaitly  ;  a  collection  of  Songs  by  K.  Levi  Har 
Abraham  Bar  Cliaim,  on  various  scientific  topics,  is  railed  The  Tablets  a7nl 
Earrings  ;  a  C'iillertio7i  of  Prayers  \xl\in  (lUte  uf  J'enilenre  :  and  another 
of  Hon  gs  and  1 1  y  mns  on  moral  I'opics,  Itan  the  liiiilisoimdiiig  apj)ellatioii 
of  The  Book  nf  tlie  Uiuut. — In  Casiri's  li.st  of  works  vvritren  by  the  cele- 
brated Spanisli-Arah  slatesman  Ibn-D-lKhaMb,  this  author's  History  of 
Granada  is  eiililled  A  Specimen  of  the  /'"iitl  JShmn  ;  his  Vlironology  uf 
tlie  Kings  of  Africa  and  Spain  has  Ihe  lolly  appellation  of  (he  Sitien- 
Vest  embroidered  trith  the  Needle  ;  his  Lives  of  eniittent  Spanish  Aral/s, 
who  were  distinguished  for  their  learning  and  virtue,  are  termed  Fragiaut 
Plants  ;  a  tract  on  Constancy  of  Mind  is  Approved  Butter  ;  and,  to  mcn- 
lioji  no  more,  a  trealise  on  the  Choice  of  Senteiices  is  designated  Pure 
Gold.  These  works  are  still  extant  among  the  Arabic  manuscripts  pre- 
served in  the  library  of  the  Escurial.  (Casiri,  Bihliotheca  Arabico-E.scu- 
rialensis,  tom.  ii.  p.  72.)  The  Gnlistan,  Bed  of  Hoses,  ox  Floirer  Garden 
of  the  Persian  poet  Sady,  lias  been  translated  into  English  by  Mi.  Glad- 
\Viti  ;  and  the  Jiahar  Lfanvsh,  or  Garden  of  Knowledge,  of  the  Persian 
bard  Einaul-Oollah,  by  Mr.  Scott.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  lias  collected  some  ad- 
ditional iublauces  in  his  Coumientary  on  the  Bible.    See  Psalm  Ix.  Title. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS. 


243 


the  usxevtbly  of  ihe  wicked    have  enclosed   me  ;^  wnA  as  the ,  titlos  are  gfenerally  considered  as  names,  either  of  musical 
i.-:_.   :_  xi     X- _...  1     __!-_.   _-.L        1  instruments  or  of  tunes. 

1.  The  first  of  these  is  Nei^hioth,  which  is  prefixed  to 
psalms  IV.  VI.  liv.  Iv.  Ix.  Ixi.  Ixxvi. :  it  signifies  strino-od 
instruments  of  music  to  be  played  on  by  the  fingers.  CJal- 
met  proposes  to  translaU?  the  titles  of  those  psalms,  whore 
this  word  is  to  be  found,  in  the  following  manner : — i  Psalm 
of  JJ/ivid,  to  the  niiuter  of  music  w/w  presides  over  the  stringed 
in.f/ninients. 

2.  Nehiloth,  which  is  in  the  title  of  psalm  v.,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  wind  instrument;  but  whether  of  the  organ 
kind  as  liosenm  iller  thinks,  or  of  the  flute  kind  as  Calmet 
supposes,  it  is  now  impossible  to  determine. 

3.  Shemitiith  (Psalms  vi.  and  xii.)  is  supposed  to  have 
been  an  octochord,  or  harp  of  eight  strings;  from  the  circum- 
stance of  its  being  united  with  the  Neginoth  in  the  title  of 
Psalm  vi.,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  accompaniment  to 
the  latter  instrument. 

4.  Shi'fjrgaion  (Psalm  vii.),  according  to  Houbiganl,  Park- 
hurst,  and  some  others,  means  a  wandering  songl  and  is  so 
called,  because  it  was  composed  by  David  whim  a  fngilivo 
from  the  persecution  of  Saul.  Hut  Calmet  snys,  that  i7  sig- 
nifies a  song  of  consolation  in  distress,  synonymous  with  an 
eleay ;  with  him  coincide  Dr.  Konnicott  and  Rosenm  Her, 
who  derive  the  word  from  an  Arabic  root,  importing  that  the 
inspired  writer  of  this  psalm  was  overwhelmed  witii  sorrow 
and  anxiety  at  the  time  he  composed  it. 

5.  Gitlith  (Psalms  viii.  Ixxxi.  Ixxxiv.),  accordingto  Rabbi 
Jarchi,  signifies  a  musical  instrument  brought  from  Oath  : 
but  as  the  original  Hebrew  denotes  wine-presses,  Calmet 
thinks  that  it  probably  is  an  air  or  song  which  was  sung  at 
the  time  of  vintage.  Ilosenmiiller  prefers  the  former  derTva- 
tion  :  both,  however,  may  be  true.  The  instrument  bearing 
this  name  mi^rbt  have  been  used  by  the  people  of  Gath,  from 
whom  it  might  have  been  adopted  by  the  Jews,  with  whom 
it  afterwards  became  a  favourite  instrument  during  the  fes- 
tivity and  dances  of  the  vintage. 

6.  Yox  Mnthhibben,  which  appears  in  the  title  of  Psalm  ix^ 
upwards  of  twenty  manuscripts  of  Dr.  Kennicott's  collation, 
and  more  than  forty  of  De  Rossi's,  read  ulnmth,  which  signi- 
fies vir^ns.  Calmet  thinks  that  a  chorus  of  virgins  is  intend- 
ed, and  that  La  Ben,  that  is  to  Ben,  refers  to  Ben  or  Benaiah, 
who  was  their  precentor,  and  who  is  mentioned  in  1  Chron. 
XV,  18.  20. 

7.  Mahalath  (Psalm  liii.)  denotes  a  dance,  such  as  was 
used  at  some  peculiar  festivals  and  occasions.  (Compare 
Exod.  XV.  20.  Judg.  xxi.  21,  1  Sam.  xviii.  6.)  According 
to  Calmet,  the  title  of  this  ode  is  —  "  An  instructive  psalm 
of  David  for  the  chief  master  of  dancing;  or,  for  the  chorus 
of  singers  and  dancers."  Muhalath-Leamwtli  (Psalm  Ixxxix.) 
probably  means  a  responsive  psalm  of  the  same  description.* 

VIII,  Of  the  word  Selah,  which  occurs  upwards  of  seventy 
times  in  the  book  of  Psalms,  and  three  times  in  the  prophecy 
of  Habakkuk,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  determine  tne  mean- 
ing :  in  the  Septuagint  it  occurs  still  more  frequently,  beino- 
placed  where  it  does  not  occur  in  the  Hebrew  original,  an3 
rendered  by  aia^'Aama  {diapsalma),  which  signifies  a  rest 
or  pause,  or,  according  to  Suidas,  a  change  of  the  sono-  or 
modulation.  Some  imagine  that  it  directed  the  time  o^the 
music,  and  was  perhaps  equivalent  to  our  word  slow,  or 
according  to  some  of  our  provincial  dialects,  "  slaw,"  which, 
in  a  rapid  pronunciation  might  easily  be  taken  for  Selah. 
Dr.  Wall  conjectures  that  it  is  a  note,  directing  that  the  last 
words  to  which  it  is  added  should  be  repeated  by  the  chorus ; 


Esalmist,  in  tlu^  fnrty-second  psalm,  rather  chose  to  comparf 
imself  to  a  hurl  than  a  hind  (see  ver.  1.),  the  twenty- 
second  psalm  much  Ix-ttcr  answers  tliis  titl(>,  in  which  he 
speaks  of  his  hunted  soul  in  the  frmiiiinege-ndiT,  Deliver  my 
soul  from  the  sword,  my  dirliiii^  (which  in  the  original  is 
feminine)  from  the  power  (f  Ihe  (h><^.  Every  one  that  reflects 
on  the  circumstances  of  David,  at  the  time  to  which  the 
fifty-sixth  psalm  refers  (see  1  Sam.  xxi.  II — 15.  xxii.  1.), 
and  considers  the  oriental  taste,  will  not  wonder  to  see  that 
psalm  entitled  l\w  dunth  in  ilislnnt  jihires ,-  nor  are  lUies  more 
improper  to  be  made  the  title  of  other  psalms,  with  proper 
distinctions,  than  a  garden  of  unemunies  is  to  be  the  name  of 
a  Cullection  of  moral  discourses.^ 

B<'sides  tlu^  psalins,  whose  titles  have  tliiis  been  consider- 
ed and  explained,  then;  are  yi/Wy^fY-  called  Mismor  or  psalms  ,- 
viz.  iii.  iv.  v.  vi.  viii.  ix.  xii,  xiii.  xv.  xix.  xx.  xxi.  xxii. 
xxiii.  xxiv.  xxix.  xxxi.  xxxvii.  xxxix.  xl.  xli.  xlvii.  xlix.  1. 
li.  Ixii.  Ixiii.  Ixiv.  Ixxiii.  Ixxv.  Ixxvii.  Ixxix.  Ixxx.  Ixxxii. 
Ixxxiv.  Ixxxv.  xcviii.  c.  ci.  cix.  ex.  cxxxix.  cxl,  cxii.  and  cxlii. 
One  is  called  Shir,  or  son<;  (Psal,  xlvi,)  ;  seven  are  called 
Allsmor-Shir,  or  psalm-soni^s,  viz,  xxxi.  Ixv,  Ixvii,  Ixviii, 
Ixxv.  Ixxvii.  and  cxii. ;  and  i\vo  arc  called  Sliir-Mismor,  or 
aong-psalms,  xlviii.  Ixvi.  Ixxxiii.  Ixxxviii.  and  cviii.  In  what 
respects  these  titles  differed,  it  is  now  impossible  to  ascer- 
tain, as  Rabbi  Kimchi,  one  of  the  most  learned  Jews,  inge- 
nuously acknowledges  ;  but  we  may  infer  that  they  combined 
both  music  and  singing,  which  are  indicated  by  the  respect- 
ive words  psalm  and  song,  with  some  modifications.  In  the 
Septuagint  version  these  are  called  a  psalm  (f  anode,  and  an 
ode  of  u  psalm.  Four  are  called  Tlieophilah,  or  prayers, 
namely,  xvii.  Ixxxvi.  xc.  and  cii, ;  and  the  hundred  and 
forty-hfth  psalm  is  called  Tehilluh,  or  praise.  So  excellent, 
indeed,  was  this  composition  always  accounted,  that  the  title 
of  the  whole  Book  of  Psalms,  Scpher  Tehillim,  or  the  Book 
of  Praises,  was  taken  from  it.  It  is  wholly  filled  with  the 
praises  of  God,  expressed  with  such  admirable  devotion  that 
the  ancient  Jews  used  to  say, "  He  could  not  fail  of  being  an 
inhabitant  of  the  heavenly  Canaan,  who  repeated  this  psalm 
three  times  a  day,"^ 

Fifteen  psalms,  cxx,  to  cxxxiv.  arc  entitled  Sliir-Hamma- 
chaloth,  literally  Songs  of  Ihe  Steps  (in  our  English  version, 
Songs  of  Degrees) ;  or,  as  Bishop  Lowth  terms  them,  Udes 
of  Ascension.^  They  are  supposecl  to  have  derived  this  name 
Kom  their  being  sung,  when  the  people  came  up  either  to 
■worship  in  Jerusalem,  at  the  annual  festivals,  or  perhaps 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity.  In  Ezra  vii,  9,  the  return 
from  captivity  is  certainly  called  "  the  ascension,  or  coming 
up  from  Babylon."  The  hundred  and  twenty-sixth  psalm 
favours  the  latter  hypothesis  :  but  as  some  of  these  odes 
were  composed  before  the  captivity,  the  title  may  refer  to 
either  of  these  occasions,  when  the  Jews  went  up  to  Jeru- 
salem, which,  it  will  be  recollected,  stood  on  a  steep  rocky 
ascent,  in  large  companies,  after  the  oriental  manner,  and 
perhaps  beguiled  tlieir  way  by  singing  these  psalms,  Eor 
such  an  occasion,  Jahn  remarks,*  the  appellation  of  ascen- 
sions was  singularly  adapted,  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  East, 
when  speaking  of  a  journey  to  the  metropolis  of  their  coun- 
try, delight  to  use  the  word  ascend. 

To  ten  psalms,  viz,  cvi,  cxi.  cxii,  cxiii,  cxxxv.  cxlvi.  to 
cl.  inclusive,  is  prefixed  the  title  Hallelujah,  which,  as 
already  intimated,  forms  part  of  the  first  verse  in  our  Eng- 
lish translation,  and  is  rendered — Praise  the  Lord. 

The  title  Maschil  is  prefixed  to  psalms  xxxii.  xlii.  xliv.  Hi. 
liii.liv.lv.  Ixxiv.  Ixxviii.  Ixxxviii.  Ixxxix.  and  cxlii.;  and 
■as  it  is  evidently  derived  from  the  Hebrew  root  "^ov  shakal, 
to  be  wise,  to  behave  wisely  or  prudently,  Calmet  thinks  it 
merely  signifies  to  give  instniction,  and  that  the  psalms  to 
which  it  IS  prefixed  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  that  jmrpose  : 
Rosenmiiller  coincides  with  him,  as  tar  as  his  remark  ap- 
plies to  psalm  xxxii.,  but  rather  thinks  it  a  generic  name  for 
a  particular  kind  of  poem. 

It  only  remains  that  we  briefly  notice  those  psalms,  whose 

>  According  to  Dr.  Shaw,  the  eastern  mode  of  hunting  is,  by  assembling 
great  numbers  of  people,  and  enclosing  the  creatures  they  hunt.  Travels 
in  Barbary  and  the  Levant,  4to.  p.  235.  or  vol.  i.  pp.  422,  423.  8vo.  edit. 

»  llarmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  146 — 149. 

»  Bishop  Patrick,  in  loc.  And  therefore  he  thinks  it  was  composed 
alphabetically,  i.  e.  every  verse  beginning  with  a  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet,  in  order  that  it  might  be  the  more  readily  committed  to  memory. 

*  Bishop  Lowth,  Prelect,  xxv.  in  fine. 

»  Introd.  ad  Vet.  Feed.  pp.  471,  472'.  Calmet  and  Dr.  T.  A.  Clarisse  are 
of  opinion  that  the  whole  of  the  Psalms  of  Ascensions  wore  sung  at  the 
time  of  the  return  from  the  captivity.  Dissert,  sur  les  Pseaunies  quinze 
graduels.— Dissert,  toni.  ii.  part  ii.  pp.  323, 324.  Clarisse,  Psalmi  Quinde- 
cim  HiuumaKloth,  p.  23. 


and  observes,  that  it  is  always  put  after  some  remarkable  or 
pathetic  clause,  Parkhurst  ana  others  are  of  opinion,  that  it 
was  intended  to  direct  the  reader's  particuliu  attention  to  the 
passage :  others,  that  it  makes  a  new  sense  or  change  of 
the  metre.  Jerome  says,  that  Selah  connects  what  follows 
with  what  went  before,  and  further  expresses  that  the  words 
to  which  it  is  afiixed  are  of  eternal  moment ;  that  is,  are  not 
applicable  to  any  particular  person  or  temporary  circum- 
stances, but  ought  to  be  remembered  by  all  men,  and  for 
ever :  whence  the  Chaldee  paraphrast  renders  it  "  for  ever," 
Aquila,  Symmachus,  Geier,  Forster,  Buxtorf,  and  others,  are 
of  opionion  that  Selah  has  no  signification  but  that  it  is  a 
note  of  the  ancient  music,  the  use  of  which  is  now  lost. 
Aben  Ezra  says,  that  it  is  like  the  conclusion  of  a  prayer, 
answering  nearly  to  amen.  IMeibomius,  and  after  him  Jahn, 
think  that  it  means  a  repeat,  and  that  it  is  equivalent  to  the 
Italian  Da  Capo.     Calmet  is  of  opinion  that  the  ancient  He- 

•  Calmet,  Commentaire  Litterale,  torn.  iv.  pp.  xi.— xiv.  liii.  liv.  Rosen- 
muUer,  Scholia  in  Psahnos,  torn.  i.  cap.  4.  De  Psalmorum  Inscriptionibus, 
et  Explicatio  Dictionum  in  Psalmorum  Titalis  obviarum,  pp.  zzr. — Iviij, 


244 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Pabt  V.  Chap.  III. 


brew  musicians  sometimes  put  Selah  in  the  margin  of  their 
psalters,  to  show  whore  a  musical  pause  was  fo  be  made, 
and  where  the  tune  ended ;  just  as  in  the  copies  of  the  Gos- 
pels,' which  were  solemnly  read  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
Cliristian  church,  the  Greek  word  Tsxoc,  tehs,  or  the  Latin 
word  finis,  was  written  in  the  margin,  either  at  length  or 
with  a  contraction,  to  mark  the  place  where  the  deacon  was 
to  end  the  lesson  ;  the  divisions  of  chapters  and  verses  being 
unknown  at  that  time ;  or  else  he  thinks,  tlie  ancient  Hebrews 
saner  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  modern  Arabians  do,2 
with  lono-  pauses,  ending  all  at  once,  and  beginning  all  at 
once ;  and  therefore  it  was  necessary,  in  the  public  services, 
to  mark  in  the  margin  of  the  psalm  as  well  the  place  of  the 
pause  as  the  end,  in  order  that  the  whole  choir  might  suspend 
their  voices,  or  recommence  their  singin^  at  the  same  time. 
Kosenm  Her,  after  Herder  and  A.  F.  Pfeiffer,  declares  in 
favour  of  Selah  bein^  a  rest  or  pause,  for  the  vocal  perform- 
ers, during  which  the  musical  instruments  only  were  to  be 
hea'rd.  INfr.  Hewlett  thinks  it  resembled  our  concluding 
symphonies.  It  only  remains  that  we  notice  the  sentiment 
of  Kabbi  Kimchi,  which  has  been  adopted  by  Grotius  and 
others.  That  eminent  Jewish  teacher  says,  that  Selah  is 
both  a  musical  note,  and  a  note  of  emphasis  in  the  sense,  by 
which  we  are  called  to  observe  something  more  than  usually 
remarkable.  It  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  word  hho  swlol, 
which  sifrnifies  Ite  raised  or  elevated,-  and  denotes  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  voice  in  singing  ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  lifting 
up  of  the  heart,  the  serious  considering  and  meditating  upon 
the  thing  that  is  spoken. 

That  this  word  was  of  use  in  music  and  singino-  is  evident 
from  the  manner  in  which,  we  have  already  remariced,  it  was 
rendered  by  the  Septuagint  translators  ;  and  that  it  is  al»*si 
mark  of  observation  and  meditation,  may  be  inferred  from 
its  being  joined  in  Psal.  ix,  16.  with  the  word  ILggaion, 
which  signifies  meditation.  Now,  though  in  some  passages 
Selah  may  appear  to  be  used  where  there  is  no  emphatic 
word  or  sense,  yet  it  may  be  applied  not  only  to  the  imnie- 
diately  preceding  word  or  verse,  but  also  to  the  whole  series 
of  verses  or  periods  to  which  it  is  subjoined.  And  if  it  be 
thus  considered,  we  shall  find  that  it  is  used  with  great 
propriety,  and  for  the  best  of  purposes,  viz.  to  point  out  to  us 
somethino-  well  worthy  of  our  most  attentive  observation ; 
and  that  ft  calls  upon  us  to  revolve  in  our  minds,  with  great 
seriousness,  the  matter  placed  before  us.^ 

IX.  "The  hearts  of  the  pious  in  all  ages  have  felt  the 
value  of  the  Psalms  as  helps  to  devotion;  and  many  have 
laboured  for  expressions,  in  which  to  set  forth  their  praise." 
All  the  fathers  of  the  church  are  unanimously  eloquent  in 
their  commendation  of  the  Psalms.  Athanasius  styles  them 
an  epitome  of  the  whole  Scriptures  :  Basil,  a  compendium 
of  all  theology ;  Luther,  a  little  Bible,  and  the  summary  of 
the  Old  Testament ;  and  Melancthon,  the  most  elegant  writ- 
intr  in  the  whole  world.  How  highly  the  Psalter  was 
valued  subsequently  to  the  Reformation,  we  may  easily 
conceive  by  the  very  numerous  editions  of  it  which  were 
executed  in  the  infancy  of  printing,  and  by  the  number  of 
commentators  who  have  undertaken  to  illustrate  its  sacred 
pages.  Carpzov,  who  wrote  a  century  ago,  enumerates  up- 
wards of  one  hundred  and  sixty ;  and  of  the  subsequent 
modern  expositors  of  this  book  it  would  perhaps  be  difficult 
to  procure  a  correct  account.     "The  Psalms,"  as  their  best 

1  Shimon,  Histoire  Critique  du  Nouv.  Test.  ch.  xxxiii. 

«  U'Arvieux's  Travels  in  Arabia  the  Desert,  p.  5i  English  translation, 
1718.  12nio. 

'  Calmot,  Dissertation  snr  Sela,  Commentaire,  torn.  iv.  pp.  xvi.— xviii. 
Hewlett  in  loc.  RosemnUller,  Scholia  in  Psaluios,  torn.  i.  Jip.  lix.— Ixii.  Dr. 
John  Edwards,  on  the  Authority,  Style,  and  Perfection  of  Scripture,  vol. 
iii.  p.  373.  .lahn,  Iiilrod.  ad  Vet.  Fosd.  p.  471.  Biel  and  Schleusner,  Lexi- 
con in  LXX.  voce  A.x-J/x;t/i.K.  In  addition  to  the  observation  alreaily 
otTered,  it  may  be  stated  that  Professor  Wilson  has  announced  the  follow- 
ing in;;enious  conjecture  respecting  the  derivation  and  import  of  the  word 
Selati'— The  root  of  the  word,  he  remarks,  appears  evidently  to  lie  in  the 
two  first  letters  "70  which  are  in  contraction  for  ^'O-  lo  raise,  to  exalt, 
to  magnify.  The -|  he  considers  as  an  abbreviation  for  nM  i  so  that  the 
word  n'7p  (setaH)  is  a  contracted  form  of  nilSo,  celebrate  ye  Jehovah,  or 
exalt  the  Lord,  viz.  in  songs  of  praise  accompanied  with  musical  instru- 
ments, and  is  nearly  of  the  same  import  with  n'l'7'7n,  in  our  characters 
Hallelujah,  in  Greek  letters  '  AwtiXouix,  that  is.  Praise  ye  the  Lord.  This 
conjecture  receives  strong  confirmation  from  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
verse  of  Psalm  Ixviii.  which  is  thus  translated.  Extol  him  that  ridelh  upon 
the  heavens  by  the  name  jah.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  meaning  here 
assigned  to  Selah  is  the  true  one,  as  it  corresponds  to  the  dignity  and  chief 
end  of  devotional  music,  in  which  the  singers  and  players  were  frequently 
reminded  of  the  sacred  intention  of  their  solemn  prayers,  praises,  and 
adoration.  All  were  designed  to  magnify  the  name,  the  nature,  the  per- 
fections, excellences,  and  works  of  Jehovah  the  only  true  God.  In  this 
sublime  exercise  the  church  on  earth  are  fellow-worshippers,  in  perfect 
concord  with  the  church  in  heaven.  See  Rev.  xix.  1 — 3.  (Wilson's  Ele- 
ments of  Hebrew  Grammar,  pp.  315,  316.  4th  edit.) 


interpreter  in  our  language  has  remarked,  with  equal  piety 
and  oeauty,''  "  are  an  epitome  of  the  Biltle,  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  devotion.  They  treat  occasionally  of  tlie  crea- 
tion and  formation  of  the  world  ;  the  dispensations  of  Pro- 
vidence, and  the  economy  of  grace ;  the  transactions  of  the 
patriarchs  ;  the  exodus  of  the  children  of  Israel ;  their  jour- 
ney through  the  wilderness,  and  settlement  in  Canaan  ;  their 
law,  priesthood,  and  ritual ;  the  exploits  of  their  great  men, 
wrought  through  faith  ;  their  sins  and  captivities;  their  re- 
pentances and  restorations  ;  the  sufferings  and  victories  of 
David ;  the  peaceful  and  happy  reign  of  Solomon  ;  the  ad- 
vent of  Messiah,  with  its  effects  and  consequences ;  his  in- 
carnation, birth,  life,  passion,  death,  resurrection,  ascension, 
kingdom,  and  priesthood;  the  eff'usion  of  the  Spirit;  the 
conversion  of  the  nations  ;  the  rejection  of  tlie  Jews ;  the 
establishment,  increase,  and  perpetuity  of  the  Christian 
church;  the  end  of  the  world;  the  general  judgment;  the 
condemnation  of  the  wicked,  and  the  final  triumph  of  the 
righteous  with  their  Lord  and  King.  These  are  the  subjects 
here  presented  to  our  meditations.  We  are  instructed  how  to 
conceive  of  them  aright,  and  to  express  the  different  aflTec- 
tions,  u'hich,  when  so  conceived  of,  they  must  excite  in  our 
minds.  They  are,  for  this  purpose,  adorned  with  the  figures, 
and  set  off"  with  all  the  graces,  of  poetry ;  the  poetry  itself 
is  designed  yet  farther  to  be  recommended  by  tlie  charms  of 
music,  thus  consecrated  to  the  service  of  God :  that  so  de- 
light may  prepare  the  way  for  improvement,  and  pleasure 
become  the  handmaid  of  wisdom,  while  every  turbulent  pas- 
sion is  calmed  by  sacred  melody,  and  the  evil  spirit  is  still 
dispossessed  by  the  harp  of  the  son  of  Jesse.  This  little 
volume,  like  the  paradise  of  Eden,  affords  us  in  perfection, 
though  in  miniature,  every  thing  that  groweth  elsewhere, 
every  tree  that  is  pleasant  to  the  sight,  and  good  for  food  : 
and  above  all,  what  was  there  lost,  but  is  here  restored — Me 
tree  of  life  in  tlie  midst  of  the  garden.  That  Avhich  we  read, 
as  matter  of  speculation,  in  the  other  Scriptures,  is  reduced 
to  practice,  when  we  recite  it  in  the  Psalms  ;  in  those,  re- 

Eentance  and  faith  are  described,  but  in  these  they  are  acted : 
y  a  perusal  of  the  former,  we  learn  how  others  served  God, 
but,  by  using  the  latter,  we  serve  him  ourselves.  '  What  is 
there  necessary  for  man  to  know,'  says  the  pious  and  judi- 
cious Hooker, '  which  the  psalms  are  not  able  to  teach  1  They 
are  to  beginners  an  easy  and  familiar  introduction,  a  mighty 
augmentation  of  all  virtue  and  knowledge  in  such  as  are 
entered  before,  a  strong  confirmation  to  the  most  perfect 
among  others.  Heroical  magnanimity,  exquisite  justice, 
grave  moderation,  exact  wisdom,  repentance  unfeigned,  un- 
wearied patience,  the  mysteries  of  God,  the  sufferings  of 
Christ,  the  terrors  of  wrath,  the  comforts  of  grace,  the 
works  of  Providence  over  this  world,  and  the  promised  joys 
of  that  world  which  is  to  come,  all  good  necessarily  to  be 
either  known,  or  done,  or  had,  this  one  celestial  fountain 
yieldeth.  Let  there  be  any  grief  or  disease  incident  unto 
the  soul  of  man,  any  wound  or  sickness  named,  for  wiiich 
there  is  not,  in  this  treasure-house,  a  present  comfortable 
remedy  at  all  times  ready  to  be  found.'*  In  the  language  of 
this  divine  book,  therefore,  the  prayers  and  praises  of  the 
church  have  been  offered  up  to  the  throne  of  grace,  from  age 
to  age.  And  it  appears  to  nave  been  the  manual  of  the  Son 
of  God,  in  the  days  of  his  flesh  ;  who,  at  the  conclusion  of 
his  last  supper,  is  generally  supposed,  and  that  upon  good 
grounds,  to  have  sung  a  hymn  taken  froiti  it ;''  who  pro- 
nounced, on  the  cross,  the  beginning  of  the  twenty-second 
psalm,  '  My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me  V 
and  expired  with  a  part  of  tlie  thirty-first  psalm  in  his 
mouth,  '  Into  thy  hands  I  commend  my  spirit.'  Thus  He, 
who  had  not  the  Spirit  by  measure,  in  whom  were  hidden 
all  the  treasures  of  wisdom  and  knowledge,  and  who  spake 
as  never  man  spake,  yet  chose  to  conclude  his  life,  to  solace 
himself  in  his  greatest  agony,  and  at  last  to  breathe  out  his 
soul,  in  the  psalmist's  form  of  words,  rather  than  his  own. 
No  tongue  of  man  or  angel,  as  Dr.  Hammond  justly  ob- 
serves, can  convey  a  higher  idea  of  any  book,  and  of  their 
felicity  who  use  it  aright."' 

The  number  of  psalms,  which  are  throughout  more  emi- 
nently and  directly  prophetical  of  the  Messiah,  is  indeed 
comparatively  small :  but  the  passages  of  particular  psalms 
which  are  predictive  of  him  in  various  ways  are  very  nume- 

*  The  late  Bishop  Home. 

'  Hooker,  Ecclesiast.  Pol.  book  v.  sect.  37. 

6  Matthew  informs  us,  chap.  xxvi.  30.  that  he  and  his  apostles  sung  an 
hymn  ;  and  the  hymn  usually  sung  by  the  Jews,  upon  that  occasion,  was 
what  they  called  "the  great  Hallel,"  consisting  of  the  Psalms  from  tb« 
cxiiith  to  the  cxviiith  inclusive. 

■>  Bishop  Home  on  the  Psalms,  vol.  i.  Preface,  pp.  i.— iv. 


8gcT.  III.]  ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PROVERBS. 

rous,  no  pari  of  the  Old  Testament  being  cited  in  the  New 
8o  fre(iueiUly  as  this  booli.  That  those  psahns  which  were 
composed  hy  David  liimsclf  wi  re  pronhetic,  we  iiave  IJavid's 
own  aulliority  :  "which,"  IJi.slioj)  llorsU-y  remarks,  "may 
be  allowed  to  overpower  a  host  ol  modern  expositors.  For 
thus  Kinjr  David,  at  the  close  of  his  life,  describes  himself 
and  his  sacred  songs  :  David  the  .wn  of  Jense  sitid,  and  the 
muii  who  was  rained  up  on  hii^h,  the  anointed  (if  the  God  oj 
Jacob,  and  the  .sweet  p.sulmi.sl  df  hniel,  mid,  'I  he  Spirit  of 
Jehovah  spafie  1)1/  nil,  ant!  hix  ii'ord  ii'iis  in  mi/  tongue.  (2  Sani. 
xxiii.  1,  2.)  It  was  tlie,  word,  tlnriforc,  of  .bhovah's  Spi- 
rit which  was  uttered  by  David's  tongue.  I5ut,  it  should 
seem,  the  Spirit  of  Jehovah  would  not  be  wanting  to  enable 
a  mere  man  to  make  comjjlaint  of /(/.v  own  enemies,  to  describe 
hin  own  xiiJU'irinifs  jimt  «.v  he  fit  thcni,  and  hin  own  escape" 
Just  an  thn/  hap/iened.  Hut  the  Spirit  of  Jehovah  described, 
by  David's  utterance,  what  was  known  to  that  Spirit  oidy, 
and  that  Spirit  only  could  describe.  So  that,  if  David  be 
allowed  to  have  had  any  knowledge  of  the  true  subject  of 
his  own  compositions,  it  was  nothing  in  his  own  life,  but 
something  put  into  his  mind  by  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God,  and 
tJie  misai)plication  of  the  Psa'lms  to  tlie  literal  David  has 
done  more  mischief  than  the  misapjiiication  of  any  other 
parts  of  the  Scriptures,  among  those  who  profess  the  belief 
of  the  Christian  religion."' 

For  a  table  of  those  portions  of  the  Psalms  which  are 
strictly  prophetical  of  the  Messiah,  see  Vol.  1.  Part  1.  Chap. 
IV.  Sect.  II.  §  1. 

X.  The  hook  of  Psalms  being  composed  in  Hebrew  verse, 
must  generally  be  studied  and  investigated  agreeably  to  the 
structure  of  Hebrew  poetry ;  but  in  addition  to  the  remarks 
already  offered  on  this  suhiect,^  there  are  a  few  observations 
more  particularly  applicable  to  these  songs  of  Sion,  which 
will  enable  the  reader  to  enter  more  fully  into  their  force  and 
meaning. 

1.  Investigate  the  Argument  of  each  Psalm. 

This  is  Roiiii'liiiips  inlimatod  in  llie  prefixed  title  :  but  as  these  inscrip- 
tions are  not  always  genuine,  it  will  be  preferable,  in  every  case,  to  deduce 
tile  argument  from  a  diligent  and  attentive  reading  of  the  psalm  itself,  and 
then  to  form  our  opinion  concerning  the  correcliiess  of  the  title,  if  there 
be  any. 

2.  With  this  vieiu,  examine  the  Historical  Origin  of  the 
Psalm,  or  the  circumstatices  that  led  the  sacred  poet  to  com- 
pose it. 

Besides  investigating  the  occasion  upon  wbirh  a  psalm  was  written, 
mucli  advantage  and  assistance  may  be  derived  from  studying  the  psalms 
clironologiraUy,  and  comparing  them  with  the  historical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  j)articularly  those  ^lich  treat  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews,  from 
the  origin  oftheir  monarchy  to  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 
Of  the  benefit  that  may  be  obtained  from  such  a  comparison  of  the  two 
l>ooks  of  Samuel,  we  have  already  given  some  striking  examples.' 

3.  Ascertain  the  Author  of  the  Psalm. 

This  is  frequently  intimated  in  the  inscriptions ;  but  as  these  are  not  al- 
ways to  be  depended  upon,  we  must  look  for  other  more  certain  criteiia 
by  which  to  ascertain  correctly  tlie  real  author  of  any  psalm.  The  hislnri- 
cal  circumslances.  which  are  very  frequently  as  well  as  clearly  indicated, 
and  the  poetical  cliaracter  impressed  on  the  compositions  of  each  of  the 
inspired  poet.s,  will  enable  us  to  accomplish  this  very  important  object. 
Let  us  take,  for  instance,  the  Psalms  of  Uavid.  Not  only  does  he  allude 
to  his  own  personal  circumstances,  to  the  dangers  to  which  he  was  ex- 
posed, the  persecutions  he  endured,  the  wars  in  which  he  was  engaged, 
his  heinous  sin  againU  God,  and  the  signal  blessings  conferred  upon  him  ; 
but  his  psalms  are  further  stamped  with  a  peculiar  character,  by  which, 
if  it  be  carelully  attended  to,  we  may  easily  distitiguish  him  from  every 
other  inspired  autlior  of  the  Psalms.  Hence  we  find  him  repeating  the 
same  words  and  ideas  almost  perpetually  ;  complaining  of  his  aJtlictions 
and  troubles ;  imploring  help  from  God  in  tlie  most  earnest  supplications  ; 
professing  his  confidence  in  Rod  in  the  strongest  manner;  rejoicing  in  the 
answers  graciously  vouchsafed  to  his  prayers  ;  and  labouring  to  exjtress 
his  gratitude  for  all  the  blessings  conferred  upon  him.  Again,  in  what 
ardent  language  does  he  express  his  longing  desire  to  behold  the  sanc- 
tuary of  God,  and  join  with  the  multitude  of  those  who  kept  holyday  ! 
With  what  animation  does  he  describe  the  solemn  pomp  with  which  the 
ark  was  conducted  to  Jerusalem !  &c.  Of  all  the  sacred  poets,  Uavid  is 
the  most  pleasing  and  tender. 

The  style  of  David  has  been  imitated  by  the  other  psalmists,  who  have 
borrowed  and  incorporated  many  of  iiis  expressions  and  images  in  their 
odes;  but  these  imitations  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  their  arche- 
type, by  the  absence  of  that  elegance  and  force  which  always  characterize 
the  productions  of  an  original  author. 

4.  Attend  to  the  Structure  of  the  Psalms. 

The  Psalms,  being  principally  designed  for  the  national  worship  of  the 
Jews,  are  adapted  to  choral  singing;  attention,  therelore,  to  the  choral 
structure  of  these  compositions  will  enable  us  better  to  enter  into  their 
spirit  and  meaning.*  Dr.  Good  has  happily  succeeded  in  showing  the 
onoral  divisions  of  many  of  these  sacred  poems,  in  his  version  of  the 
Psalms. 


245 

XI.  We  shall  conclude  this  section,  the  importance  of 
whose  subject  must  apologize  for  its  api)an'ntly  dispronortion- 
ate  length,  with  the  following  common  hut  very  useful 

TABLE    OF   THE    PSALMS, 

classed  according  to  their  several  subjects,  and  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  private  devotion. 

I.  Prayers. 

1.  Prayers  for  pardon  of  sin,  Psal.  vi.  xxv.  xxxviii.  li.  cxxx.  Fsalms 
slyleil  penitential,  vi.  xxii.  xxxviii.  li.  cii.  cxxx.  cxliii. 

2.  Prayers,  composed  when  the  Psalmist  was  deprived  of  an  oppor- 
tunity of  the  public  exercise  of  religion,  Psal.  xlii.  xliii.  Ixiii.  Ixxxiv. 

3.  Prayers,  in  which  tlie  Psalmist  seems  exireuiely  dejected,  though  not 
totally  deprived  of  consolation,  under  his  attlictioiis,  Psal.  xiii.  xxii.  Ixix. 
Ixxvii.  Ixxxviii.  cxliii. 

4.  Prayers,  in  which  the  Psalmist  asks  help  of  God,  in  consideration  of 
his  own  integrity,  and  the  uprightness  of  his  cause,  Psal.  vii.  xvii.  xxvi. 

XXXV. 

5.  Prayers,  expressing  the  firmest  trust  and  confidence  in  God  under 
alllictions,  Psal.  lii.  xvi.  xxvii.  xxxi.  liv.  Ivi.  Ivii.  Ixi.  Ixii.  Ixxi.  Ixxxvi. 

6.  Prayers,  composed  when  the  people  of  God  were  under  attliclion  or 
persecution,  Psul.  xliv.  Ix.  Ixxiv.  Ixxix.  Ixxx.  Ixxxlii.  Ixxxix.  xciv.  cii. 
cxxiii.  cxxxvii. 

7.  The  following  are  likewise  prayers  in  time  of  trouble  and  affliction, 
Psal.  iv.  V.  xi.  xxviii.  xli.  Iv.  lix  Ixiv.  Ixx.  cix.  cxx.  cxI.  cxii.  cxliii. 

8.  Prayers  of  intercession,  Psal.  xx.  Ixvii.  cxxii.  cxxxii.  cxiiv. 

II.  Psahns  of  Thanksgivinff. 

1.  Thanksgivings  for  mercies  voucb.safed  to  particular  person.^,  Psal.  ix. 
xviii.  xxii.  xxx.  xxxiv.  xl.  Ixxv.  ciii.  cviii.  cxvi.  cxviii.  cxxxviii.  cxliv. 

2.  Thanksgivings  for  mercies  vouch.safed  to  the  Israelites  in  general, 
Psal.  xlvi.  xlviii.  Ixv.  Ixvi.  Ixviii.  Ixvi.  Ixxxi.  Ixxxv.  xcviii.  cv.  cxxiv.  cxxvi. 
cxxix.  cxxxv.  cx.xxvi.  cxlix. 

III.  Psalms  of  Praise  and  Adoration,  displaying  the  Attri- 
butes of  God. 

1.  General  acknowledgments  of  God's  goodness  and  mercy,  and  par- 
ticularly his  care  and  protection  of  good  men,  Psal.  xxiii.  xxiv.  xxxvi.  xci. 
c.  ciii.  cvii.  cxvii.  cxxi.  cxlv.  cxlvi. 

2.  P.salms  displaying  the  power,  majesty,  glory,  and  other  atlribules  of 
the  Divine  Being,  Psal.  viii.  xix.  xxiv.  xxix.  xxxiii.  xlvii.  1  Ixv.  Ixvi.  Ixxvi. 
Ixxvii.  xciii.  xcv.  xcvi.  xcvii.  acix.  civ.  cxi.  cxiii.  cxiv.  cxv.  cxxxiv.  cxxxix, 
cxlvii.  cxlviii.  cl. 

IV.  Instructive  Psalms. 

1.  The  different  characters  of  good  and  l)ad  men, — the  happiness  of  the 
one,  and  the  misery  of  the  other, — are  represented  in  the  following 
psalms :— i.  v.  vii.  ix.  x.  xi.  xii.  xiv.  xv.  xvii.  xxiv.  xxv.  xxxii.  xxxiv.  xxxvi. 
xxxvii.  1.  lii.  liii.  Iviii.  Ixxii.  Ixxv.  Ixxxiv.  xci.  xcii.  xciv.  cxii.  cxix.  cx\i.  cxiy. 
cxxvii.  cxx\'iii.  cxxxiii. 

2.  The  excellence  of  God's  laws,  Psal.  xix.  cxix. 

3.  The  vanity  of  human  life,  Psal.  xxxix.  xlix.  xc. 

4.  Advice  to  magistrates,  Psal.  Ixxxii.  ci. 

5.  The  virtue  of  humility,  Psal.  cxxxi. 

V.  Psalms  more  eminently  and  directly  Prophetical. 
Psal.  ii.  xvi.  xxii.  xl.  xlv.  Ixviii.  Ixxii.  Ixxxvii.  ex.  cxviii. 

VI.  Historical  Psahns. 
Psal.  Ixxviii.  cv.  cvi. 


SECTION  in. 


■  Bishop  Horsley's  Psalms,  vol.  i.  p.  xiv.  Calmet  has  a  very  fine  pas- 
sage on  the  scope  of  the  book  of  Psalms,  as  pointing  to  the  Messiah  ;  it  is 
too  long  to  cite,  and  would  be  impaired  by  abridgment.  See  his  Commen- 
Uire,  vol.  vi.  pp.  vi.  viii.,  or  Dissertations,  torn.  ii'.  pp.  197—199. 

»  See  Vol  1.  Part  U.  Chap.  IL  S  VUl. 

»  See  p.  220.  of  this  volume. 

*  Bauer,  Herm.  Sacr.  pp.  392—391 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PROVERBS. 

I.  Title,  author,  and  canonical  authority. — IT.  Scope. — IH. 
Synopsis  of  its  contents. — IV.  Observations  on  its  style, 
use,  and  importance. 

I.  The  book  of  Proverbs*  has  always  been  ascribed  to 
Solomon,  whose  name  it  bears,  though,  from  the  frequent 
repetition  of  the  same  sentences,  as  well  as  from  some  vari- 
ations in  style  which  have  been  discovered,  doubts  have  been 
entertained  whether  he  really  was  the  author  of  every  maxim 
it  comprises.  "  The  latter  part  of  it,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  twenty-fifth  chapter,  forming  evidently  an  appendix,  was 
collected  after  his  death,  and  acmed  to  what  appears  to  have 
been  more  immediately  arranged  by  himself.""  The  proverbs 
in  the  thirtieth  chapter  are  expressly  called  The  nord.s  of 
As;ur  the  sun  of  Jukeh  ,•  and  the  thirty-first  chapter  is  entitled 
The  words  ofkinu;  Lemuel.  It  seems  certain  that  the  collection 
called  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon  was  arranged  in  the  order 
in  which  we  now  have  it  by  different  hands ;  but  it  is  not 
therefore  to  be  concluded  that  they  are  not  the  productions 
of  Solomon,  who,  we  are  informed,  spoke"  no  less  than  three 
thousand  proverbs.  (1  Kings  iv.  32.)  As  it  is  nowhere  said 
that  Solomon  himself  made  a  collection  of  proverbs  and 

•  On  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  Hebrew  Proverbs,  see  Vol.  I.  Part  H. 
Chapter  I.  Section  VI. 

«  E.\tract  from  Dr.  Mason  Good's  unpublished  translation  of  the  Book 
of  Proverbs,  in  Prof  Gregory's  Memoirs  of  his  Life,  p.  289. 

1  It  is  not  said  that  these  proverbs  were  irritten  compositions,  but  sim- 
ply that  Solomon  spake  them.  Hence  Mr.  Holden  tliinks  it  not  improbable 
that  the  Hebrew  monarch  spoke  them  in  assemblies  collected  for  thepur> 
pose  of  hearing  him  discourse.  Attempt  to  Illustrate  the  Book  of  Eccle- 
siastes,  p.  xliv. 


246 


Ayk^^YSlS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[PartV.  Chap.  III. 


sentences,  the  trcneral  opinion  is,  that  several  persons  made 
a  collection  of  them,  ])erhaps  as  tln3y  were  uttered  ])y  him. 
Hezekinh,  amnnjr  others,  as  mentioned  in  the  twenty-fitth 
chapter:  Agur,  Isaiah,  and  Ezra  might  have  done  the  same. 
The  Jewish  writers  affirm  tliat  Solomon  wrote  the  Canticles, 
or  song  bearing  his  name,  in  his  youth,  the  Proverbs  in  his 
riper  years,  and  Ecclesiastes  in  his  old  age. 

Michaelis  has  observed,  that  the  book  of  Proverbs  is 
frequently  cited  by  the  apostles,  who  considered  it  as  a  trea- 
sure of  revealed  morality,  wiience  Christians  were  to  derive 
their  r\iles  of  conduct ;  and  the  canonical  authority  of  no 
book  of  the  Old  Testament  is  so  well  ratified  by  the  evidence 
of  quotations  as  that  of  the  Proverbs:'  whence  he  justly 
infers  tliat  every  commentator  on  the  Greek  Testament  ought 
to  be  intimately  acquainted  with  the  Septuagint  version  of 
the  book  of  Proverbs,  and  that  every  Christian  divine  should 
consider  it  as  the  chief  source  of  scriptural  morality .2 

II.  The  Scope  of  this  book  is,  "  to  instruct  men  in  the 
deepest  mysteries  of  true  wisdom  and  imderstanding,  the 
height  and  perfection  of  whicli  is,  the  true  knowledge  of  the 
divine  will,  and  the  sincere  fear  of  the  Lord.  (Prov.  i.  2 — 7. 
ix.  10.)"^  To  this  end,  the  book  is  filled  with  the  choicest 
sententious  aphorisms,  infinitely  surpassing  all  the  ethical 
sayings  of  the  ancient  sages,  and  comprising  in  themselves 
distinct  doctrines,  duties,  &c.  of  piety  towards  God,  of  equity 
and  benevolence  towards  man,  and  of  sobriety  and  temper- 
ance ;  together  with  precepts  for  the  right  education  of 
children,  and  for  the  relative  situations  of  subjects,  magis- 
trates, and  sovereigns. 

III.  The  book  of  Proverbs  is  divided  by  Moldenhawer  and 
Heidegger  (whose  arrangement  was  followed  in  the  former 
editions  of  this  work)  into  five  parts :  but  the  late  Dr.  John 
Mason  Good  has  divided  it  into  four  distinct  books  or  parts, 
"  each  of  which,"  he  observes,  "  is  distinguished  both  by  an 
obvious  introduction  and  a  change  of  style  and  manner, 
though  its  real  method  and  arrangement  seem,  hitherto,  to 
have  escaped  the  attention  of  our  commentators  and  interpre- 
ters."< 

Part  I.   TJie  Proem  or  Exordium,  (ch.  1. — ix.) 

In  this  part  heavenly  wisdom  and  the  true  knowledge  of  God 
are  set  forth  with  great  copiousness  and  variety  of  expression, 
as  the  only  source  and  foundation  of  true  virtue  and  happi- 
ness. "  It  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  conduct  of  juvenescence 
or  early  life,  before  a  permanent  condition  is  made  choice  of. . . . 
All  the  most  formidable  dangers  to  which  this  season  of  life  is 
exposed,  and  the  sins  which  most  easily  beset  it,  are  painted 
with  the  hand  of  a  master.  And,  whilst  the  progress  and  issues 
of  vice  are  exhibited  under  a  variety  of  the  most  striking  de- 
lineations and  metaphors  in  their  utmost  deformity  and  horror, 
all  the  beauties  of  language,  and  all  the  force  of  eloquence,  are 
poured  forth  in  the  diversified  form  of  earnest  expostulation,  in- 
sinuating tenderness,  captivating  argument,  picturesque  descrip- 
tion, daring  personification,  and  sublime  allegory,  to  win  the 
ingenuous  youth  to  virtue  and  piety,  and  to  fix  him  in  the  steady 
pursuit  of  his  duties  towards. God  and  towards  man.  Virtue  is 
pronounced  in  the  very  outset  to  be  essential  wisdom  ;  and  vice 
or  wickedness,  essential  folly :  and  the  personifications,  thus 
forcibly  struck  out  at  the  opening  of  the  work,  are  continued  to 
its  close.  The  only  wise  man,  therefore,  is  declared  to  be  the 
truly  good  and  virtuous,  or  he  that  fears  God  and  reverences  his 
law  :  whilst  the  man  of  vice  or  wickedness  is  a  fool,  a  dolt,  an 
infatuated  sot,  a  stubborn,  froward,  or  perverse  wretch,  and  an 
abomination  to  Jehovah."^  This  portion  of  the  book  of  Pro- 
verbs, says  Bishop  Lowth,  is  varied,  elegant,  sublime,  and  truly 

•  Michaelis's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  i.  pp.  207,  208. 

»  The  following  table  of  the  quolalions  from  the  book  of  Proverbs  in 
the  New  Testament  is  given  from  Molrlenhawer  (Introductio  in  Libros 
Canonicos  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.  p.  93.)  and  from  Carpzov  Introductio  ab 
Libros  Canonicos  Vet.  Test.  p.  184. 
Prov.  i.  16.        -        -        -    cited  in    Rom.  iii.  10.  15. 

Prov.  iii.  7. Rom.  xii.  16: 

Prov.  iii.  11,  12.        -        -       •        -    lleb.-xii.  5,  6.  Rev.  iii.  19. 

Prov.  iii.  34. James  iv.  6. 

Prov.  X.  xii. 1  Pet.  iv.  8. 

Prov.  xi.  31.  -        -       -        -        -        1  Pet.  iv.  18. 

Prov.  xvii.  13.  -----    Kom.xii.  17.  IThess.v.  15.  lPet.iii.9. 

Prov.  xvii.  27.        .       -        -       .        James  i.  19. 

Prov.  XX.  9.      -       -        -        -        -    1  John  i.  8. 

Prov.  XX.  20.  -       -        -        -        -■      Matt.  XV.  4.  Mark  vii.  10. 

Prov.  XX.  22. Rom.  xii.  17. 

Prov.  XXV.  21.        -        -       -        -        Rom.  xii.  20. 
Prov.xxvi.il 2Pet.  ii.  22. 

8  Roberts's  Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  600. 

*  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  in  Professor  Gregory's  Memoirs 
of  Dr.  Good,  p.  292. 

»  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  in  Professor  Gregory's  Me- 
moirs of  Dr.  Good,  p.  294. 


poetical :  the  order  of  the  subject  is,  in  general,  excellently  pre- 
served, and  the  parts  arc  very  aptly  connected.  It  is  embellished 
wdth  many  beautiful  descriptions  and  personifications :  the  dic- 
tion is  polished,  and  abounds  with  all  the  ornaments  of  poetry, 
so  that  it  scarcely  yields  in  elegance  and  splendour  to  any  of 
the  Sacred  Writings.i^ 

Part  II.  To  wliich  is  prefixed  the  Title  of  "  T/ie  Proverbs 
of  Solomon,''''  comprises  sfiort  sententious  Dtrlitrations  frr  the 
Use  if  persons  ivlio  have  advanced  from  Youth  to  Manhood, 
(ch.  X. — xxii.  16.) 

These  eententlous  declarations  are  generally  unconnected, 
although  sometimes  a  connection  with  the  preceding  sentence 
may  be  discovered.  They  treat  on  the  various  duties  of  man 
towards  God,  and  towards  bis  fellow-men  in  every  station  of 
life.  "  The  great  object  in  each  of  the  proverbs  or  axioms  of  the 
present  part  is,  to  enforce  a  moral  principle  in  words  so  few,  that 
they  may  be  easily  learnt,  and  so  curiously  selected  and  arranged, 
that  they  may  strike  and  fix  the  attention  instantaneously  :  whilst 
to  prevent  the  mind  from  becoming  fatigued  by  a  long  scries  of 
detached  sentences,  they  are  perpetually  diversified  by  the  most 
playful  changes  of  style  and  figure."^ 

Part  III.  Contains  a  Miscellaneous  Collection  of  Proverbs, 
principalli/  relating  to  rich  Men  and  Nobles,  (ch.  xxii.  17. 
— xxiv.) 

Part  IV.  "  Is  a  Posthumous  Appendix,  consisting  of  various 
Parabolic  Compositions,  written  and  communicated  by  Solo- 
mmi  on  different  Occasions,  but  never  published  by  himself 
in  an  arranged  Form,-  yet  altogether  worthy  of  the  Place, 
they  hold  in  the  Saa-ed  Scriptures.''''^  (ch.  xxv. — xxxi.) 

Sect.  1.  Comprises  a  collection  of  Solomon's  Proverbs,  which 
(as  the  title  shows,  xxv.  1.)  was  made  by  the  learned  under 
the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  (xxv. — xxix.)  The  proverbs  in  this 
section  are  unconnected,  and  some  of  them  are  repetitions 
of  the  moral  aphorisms  which  are  delivered  in  the  former 
part  of  the  book. 

Sect.  2.  Is  composed  of  the  ethical  precepts  delivered  by 
"  Agur  the  son  of  Jakeh"  to  his  friends  Ithiel  and  Ucal. 

That  Agur,  Jakeh,  Ithiel,  and  Ucal,  are  proper  names,  admits 
of  no  contradiction,  though  it  is  impossible  at  this  distance  of 
time  to  ascertain  who  they  were.  Jerome  mistook  the  proper 
name  Agur  for  an  appellative,  and  in  the  Latin  Vulgate  has 
translated  the  expression  thus,  without  any  meaning  : — "  Verba 
Congregantis,  filii  Vomentis,"  which,  in  the  Anglo-Romish  ver- 
sion from  the  Vulgate,  is  with  equal  unintelligibility  rendered, 
"The  Words  of  Gatherer,  the  son  of  Vomiter."  Some  critics 
are  of  opinion,  that,  by  Jakeh,  David  is  meant,  and  by  Agur, 
Solomon  ;  and  some  fanciful  expositors  think  that  Ithiel  and  Ucal 
mean  Christ :  but  these  hypotheses  are  examined  and  refuted  by 
Mr.  Holden.9  The  same  close  observation  of  nature,  and  sen- 
tentious form,  which  characterize  the  precepts  of  Solomon,  are 
to  be  found  in  the  proverbs  of  Agur,  whose  admirable  prayer 
(xxx.  7 — 9.)  will  ever  be  justly  admired  for  its  piety,  and  for 
the  contented  spirit  which  it  breathes.  It  exactly  corresponds 
with  the  petition  in  the  Lord's  Prayer — Give  us  tfiis  day  roy 
oL/iTov  ytfj-m  Tov  ericiKTM, — not  our  daily  bread, — but  bread  or  food 
sufficient  for  ?<s.'o 

Sect.  3.  Contains  the  admonitions  given  to  King  Lemuel"  by 
his  mother  a  queen,  when  he  was  in  the  flower  of  youth 
and  high  expectation,  (xxxi.) 

These  admonitory  verses  "  are  an  inimitable  production,  as 
well  in  respect  to  their  actual  materials,  as  the  delicacy  with  which 
they  are  selected.  Instead  of  attempting  to  lay  down  rules  con- 
cerning matters  of  state  and  political  government,  the  illustrious 
writer  confines  herself,  with  the  nicest  and  most  becoming  art,  to 
a  recommendation  of  the  gentler  virtues  of  temperance,  benevo- 
lence, and  mercy  ;  and  a  minute  and  unparalleled  delineation  of 
the  female  character,  which  might  bid  fairest  to  promote  the  hap- 
piness of  her  son  in  connubial  life.  The  description,  though 
strictly  in  consonance  with  the  domestic  economy  of  the  highest 
sphere  of  life,  in  the  early  period  referred  to,  and  especially  in 
the  East,  is  of  universal  application,  and  cannot  be  studied  too 

8  Lectures  on  Hebrew  Poetry,  by  Dr.  Gregory,  vol.  ii.  p.  164. 

1  Professor  Gregory's  Memoirs  of  Dr.  Good,  p.  29S.  In  pp.  299—303. 
Dr.  G.  has  admirably  elucidated  the  beautiful  changes  of  style  in  the  tliird 
part  of  the  book  of  Proverbs. 

8  Ibid.  p.  305. 

»  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  pp.  xvii.— xxv.  366,  367. 

>o  Ibid.  p.  372. 

.»'  Some  critics  have  CQnjcctured  that  Lemuel  is  another  name  for  Solo; 
mon ;  but  this  hypothesis  is  satisfactorily  refuted  by  Mr.  Holden,  in  his 
Attempt  towards  an  Improved  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  "Pre- 
liminary Dissertation,"  pp.  xviii.— xxv. 


Sect.  IV.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  ECCLESIASTES. 


247 


closely."'  In  the  exquisite  description  of  a  virtuous  woman, 
in  xxxi.  10 — 31.,  the  initial  letters  of  the  verses  follow  the  order 
of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 

IV.  Tlio  Proverbs  of  Solomon  hold  a  conspicuous  rank 
amon<r  tlic  mi;trical  books  of  tb(5  Old  'IVstaniniit.  Not  only 
are  they  admirably  adapted  to  convey  instruction  by  the 
treasures  of  practical  wisdom  which  tliey  opi'ti  to  us,  but 
they  also  alTord  us  a  noble  specimen  of  tlx;  didactic  poetry 
(if  the  llebn^ws,  the  nature  of  which  they  enal)le.  us  to  un- 
derstand by  means  of  the  anlithetiir  parallels  with  which  they 
abound.''  Much,  indeed,  of  the  eleirnnce,  acutiuiess,  and 
force,  which  are  discernible  in  Solomon's  wise;  sayin<rs,  is 
derived  from  the  antithetic  form,  the  o|)pi)sitiou  of  diction 
and  sentiment.  Hence  a  careful  attention  to  the  parallelism 
of  members  (which  topic  has  already  been  hir^'ely discussed 
in  tlie  first  volume  of  this  work)  will  conlribule  to  remove 
that  obscurity  in  which  some  of  the  proverbs  appear  to  be 
involved.  Sometinu's,  also,  one  member  or  pari  of  a  pro- 
verb must  be  su])plied  from  the  other;  or,  as  (ilassius  has 
expressed  it  in  other  words,  sometimes  one  ihinir  is  expressed 
in  one  mend)er,  and  another  in  the  other,  and  yet  both  are  to 
he  understood  in  both  members.  Thus,  in  Prov.  x.  11.  wu 
read, 

Wise  mnn  lay  up  knowlodao  : 

But  the  iiiouih  of  tlie  foulisli  is  near  destruction. 

The  meanintr  of  which  is,  that  wise  men  communicate,  for 
the  benefit  of  others,  the  wisdom  thf^y  have  actjuired  and 
preserved ;  while  fools,  heinor  destitute  of  that  knowledfre, 
soon  exhaust  their  scanty  stock,  and  utter  not  merely  useless 
but  even  injurious  things.     Again, 

A  wise  son  maketh  a  glail  fatlier  : 

But  a  foolish  sou  is  the  heaviness  of  his  mother. 

Prov.  X.  1. 

Both  the  father  and  mother  are  to  be  understood  in  the  two 
members  of  this  passage,  although  in  the  first  the  father  only 
is  noticed,  and  in  the  second  the  mother  only  is  mentioned. 
Lastly,  many  things  which  are  spoken  generally,  are  to  be 
restrained  to  particular  individuals  and  circumstances:  as, 
however,  this  rule  has  already  been  illustrated  at  length,  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  multiply  additional  examples.-  The 
author,  with  much  pleasure,  refers  his  readers  to  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Holden's  "Attempt  towards  an  Improved  Translation  of 
the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,"  with  Notes,  as  the  best  critical 
help  to  an  exact  understanding  of  this  fine  compendium  of 
ethics  that  is  extant  in  the  English  language. 


SECTION  IV. 

ON   THE    BOOK   OF    ECCLESIASTES. 

I.   Title,  author,  and  canonical  authority. — II.   Scope  and 
synopsis. — III.  Observatioiis. 

I.  The  title  of  this  book  in  our  Bibles  is  derived  from  the 
Septuagint  version,  EKKAH2iA2THi'  signifying  a  preacher, 
or  one  who  harangues  a  public  congregation.  In  Hebrew 
it  is  termed,  from  the  initial  word  rh7\j  (K^HfLfTH),  "  the 
Preacher;"  by  whom  may  be  intended,  either  the  person 
assembling  the  people,  or  he  w  ho  addresses  them  when 
convened.  Although  this  book  does  not  bear  the  name  of 
Solomon,  it  is  evident  from,  several  passages  that  hp  was  the 
author  of  it.  Compare  ch.  i.  12.  lO.  ii.  4 — 9.  and  xii.  9, 10. 
The  celebrated  Rabbi  Kimchi,  however,  ascribes  it  to  the 
prophet  Isaiah;  and  the  Talmudical  writers  to  Hezekiah. 
Grotius,  from  some  foreign  expressions  which  he  thinks  are 
discoverable  in  it,  conceives  that  it  was  composed  by  oriler ' 
of  Zerubbabel  for  his  son  Abihud ;  .lahn,  alter  some  later 
German  critics,  for  the  same  reason,  thinks  it  was  written 
after  the  Babylonish  captivity ;  and  Zirkel  imagines  that  it 
was  composed  about  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  from 
some  traces  of  the  notions  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees 
which  he  conceives  he  has  discovered  in  this  book,  and 
against  which  he  supposes  it  to  be  directed.'  But  it  is  not 
likely  that  those  Jewish  sects  would  permit  a  work  levelled 

'  Dr.  Oonifs  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  in  Dr.  Gregory's 
MiMiiiiks of  hi,-i  Life,  p  305. 

»  On  the  Nature  of  the  Scripture  Proverbs,  see  Vol.  I.  Part  IL  BooklL 
Chap.  I.  Sect.  VL 

»  See  Vol.  I.  Part  II.  Book  n.  Chap.  VI.  Sect.  I. 

*  The  opinion  of  thes<"  and  of  other  writers  are  satisfactorily  refnird  by 
the  Rev.  Mi.  Ilolden,  in  his  ."Attempt  to  Illustrate  the  Book  of  Ecclcsias- 
tes."    (8vo.  London,  1S22.)  Preliiuiuary  Discourse,  pp.  v.— xwiii. 


against  themselves  to  be  inserted  in  the  sacred  canon ;  and 
with  regard  to  tlu;  foreign  expressions  alleged  by  (irotius 
(sujiposing  alt  of  them  to  be  really  foreign  exjjressions, 
which,  however,  is  not  the  case),''  tbi'ir  appearance  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  circumstance  of  Solomon's  having  in- 
dulged in  sinful  intercourse  "with  strange  women"  (I  Kings 
xi.  1,  2.),  whose  language  he  probably  ac(piin?d. 

The  beautiful  descriptions  which  this  book  contains  of  the 
jdienoinena  in  the  natural  world,  and  their  causes,  of  the 
circulation  of  tin;  blood  (as  the  late  Bishop  Ilorsley  thought),^ 
and  of  the  economy  of  the  human  frame,  all  show  it  to  be 
the  work  of  a  philosopher.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  writtt^n  by  Solomon  in  his  old  age,  after  he  had  repented 
of  his  sinful  j)ractices,  and  when,  having  seen  and  observed 
much,  as  well  as  having  enjoyed  every  thing  that  he  could 
wish,  he  was  fully  convinced  of  the  vanity  of  every  thing 
exctipt  |)iety  towards  God.  The  Rabbinical  writers  iiihjrm  us, 
and  their  account  is  corroborated  by  .lerome,  that  the  Jews, 
who,  after  tlie  captivity,  collected  the  Inspired  Writings  into 
the  canon,  at  first  refused  to  admit  this  book  into  the.  sacred 
code,  in  consi'ijuence  of  some  h(,resi(^s  and  contradictions, 
which,  from  inattention  to  the  author's  scope  and  design, 
they  imsigined  to  exist  in  it.  But,  after  considering  the  ex- 
pressions it  contains  towards  the  close,  relative  to  the  fear 
of  God  and  the  observation  of  his  laws,  they  concluded  to 
receive  it ;  and  its  canonical  authority  has  been  recognised 
ever  since.  There  can,  indeed,  be  no  doubt  of  its  title  to 
admission :  Solomon  was  eminently  distinguished  by  the 
illumination  of  the  divine  Spirit,  and  had  even  twice  wit- 
nessed the  divine  presence.  (1  Kings  iii.  5.  ix.  2.  xi.  9.) 
The  tendency  of  the  book  is  excellent  when  rightly  under 
stood ;  and  Solomon  speaks  in  it  with  great  clearness  of  the 
revealed  truths  of  a  future  life  and  of  a  future  judgment.' 

Bishop  Lowth  has  classed  this  book  among  the  didactic 
poetry  of  the  Hebrews  :  but  Mr.  Des  Voeux^  considers  it  as 
a  philosophical  discourse  A^Titten  in  a  rhetorical  style,  and 
interspersed  with  verses,  which  are  introduced  as  occasion 
served ;  whence  it  obtained  a  place  among  the  poetical  books. 
To  this  opinion  Bishop  Lowth  subsequently  declared  his 
assent. 

II.  The  Scope  of  this  book  is  explicitly  announced  in  ch. 
i.  2.  and  xiii.  13.,  viz.  to  demonstrate  the  vanity  of  all  earthly 
objects,  and  to  draw  off  men  from  the  pursuit  of  them,  as  an 
apparent  good,  to  the  fear  of  God,  and  communion  with  him, 
as  to  the  highest  and  only  permanent  good  in  this  life,  and 
to  show  that  men  must  seek  for  happiness  beyond  the  grave. 
We  may  therefore  consider  it  as  an  inquiry  into  that  most 
important  and  disputed  question, — What  is  the  Sitvereign 
Good  of  man, — that  which  is  ultimately  good,  and  which  in 
all  its  bearings  and  relations  is  conducive  to  the  best  inte- 
rests of  man  1  What  is  that  good  fur  the  sons  of  men,  which 
they  should  do  under  the  heaven  all  the  days  of  their  life? 
(ii.  3.)  "This  is  the  object  of  the  preacher's  inquiry;  and, 
after  discussing  various  erroneous  opinions,  he  finally  deter- 
mines that  it  consists  in  True  Wisno.M.  The  scope  of  the 
whole  argument,  therefore,  is  the  praise  and  recommendation 
of  WisDo.M,  as  the  supreme  good  to  creatures  responsible  for 
their  actions.  In  this  wisdom  is  not  included  a  single  par- 
ticle of  that  which  is  worldly  and  carnal,  so  frequently  pos- 
sessed by  men  addicted  to  vice,  the  minions  of  avarice,  and 
the  slaves  of  their  passicns;  but  that  which  is  from  above, 
that  which  is  holy,  spiritual,  and  undefilcd,  and  which,  in 
the  writings  of  Solomon,  is  but  another  word  for  Religion. 
Guided  by  this  clue,  we  can  easily  traverse  the  intricate 

»  Of  the  four  words  which  Grotius  asserts  to  be  foreign,  viz.  ^'D  (sin)  a 
THOKN,  Eccl.  vii.  6.  nj'aN  (ABjoNaH)  desire,  xii.  5.,  "VtfD  (pasHUR)  to  inter- 
pret, viii.  I.,  and  XDU  (or.Marz)  a  pit,  x.  8., — two  only  can  at  all  be  con- 
sidered as  belongini:  to  his  arijument ;  for  tlie  first  occurs  in  Kxod.  xvi.  3. 
and  2  Kings  iv.  cW.  (Heb.),  and  the  second  may  be  derived  from  the  He- 
brew root  n3N  (Annii)  loicish:  and  although  the  iKSt  two  are  at  present 
otdy  to  be  found  in  tiie  Chalilee.  it  does  not  therefore  necessarily  follow 
Ihiit  they  are  not  Hebrew,  for  how  many  other  words  are  there  in  the  He- 
brew laii<;iiaKe,  the  roots  of  which  are  now  only  to  be  found  in  (he  kindred 
.\rabic  or  Chaldee  dialect  I  And  if  they  shall  be  deemed  jreuuine  Hebrew 
words,  there  surely  is  no  reason  why  the  last  two  words  above  cited  should 
not  equally  be  true  and  proper  Hebrew.  It  is  indercl  wonderful,  as  Wit- 
sius  has  Ion;;  ago  remarked,  to  observe  of  what  trilbng  pretexts  learned 
men  souietinies  avail  themselves,  in  order  to  support  paradoxes.  (Witsii, 
Mi.icellanea  Sacra,  lib.  i.  p.  227.  Alber,  Iiireiprelatio  Scriptura?,  toni.  viii. 
p.  18*.).)  Hut  the  philological  speculations  of  Grolius  are  surpassed  by 
those  of  the  late  Professor  Eichhorii,  wbich  are  satisfactorily  refuted  by 
Mr.  Ilolden  in  his  translation  of  Ecclesiastes,  Prel.  Diss.  p.  xiii. 

6  Bp.  Horsley's  Sermons,  vol.  iii.  pp.  l.'^'J,  190.  Mr.  Holden  has  refuted 
this  hypothesis,  Ecclesiastes,  pp.  173,  174. 

1  Carpzov,  Introd.  ad  Libros  Vet.  Test,  part  ii.  p.  222.  Bp.  Gray's  Key, 
p.  292. 

8  In  his  "  Philosophical  and  Critical  Essay  on  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes,' 
Ito.  London,  1760. 


248 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  Ill 


•windinffs  and  mazes  in  which  so  many  commentators  upon 
the  Ecclesiastes  have  been  lost  and  bewildered.  By  keep- 
ing steadily  in  view  the  preacher's  object,  to  eulogize 
Heavenly  Wisdom,  the  whole  admits  of  an  easy  and  natural 
interpretation;  light  is  diflused  around  its  obscurities;  con- 
nection is  discovered  in  that  which  was  before  disjointed; 
the  argument  receives  additional  force,  the  sentiments  new 
beauty  ;  and  every  part  of  the  discourse,  when  considered  in 
reference  to  this  object,  tends  to  develope  the  nature  of  True 
Wisdom,  to  display  its  excellence,  or  to  recommend  its  ac- 
quirement. 

"  Hence  he  commences  with  the  declaration  that  all  is  va- 
nlfy,^  which  is  not  to  be  understood  as  implying  any  censure 
upon  the  works  of  creation,  for  God  does  notliing  in  vain, 
every  thing  being  properly  adapted  to  its  end,  and  excellently 
fitted  to  display  the  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of  the 
Almio-hty.  V  et  when  the  things  of  this  world  are  applied 
to  improper  purposes ;  when  they  are  considered  as  the  end, 
while  they  are  only  intended  to  be  the  means  ;  and  are  rested 
in  as  the  source  ot  happiness  which  they  were  not  designed 
to  afford,  vanity  is  discovered  to  be  their  character;  that 
which  is  most  excellent  becomes  useless,  if  not  injurious,  by 
the  abuse;  and  the  works  of  Omnipotence, however  wise  and 
good  in  themselves,  are  unprofitable  to  those  who  misuse  and 
pervert  them.  It  were  a  kind  of  blasphemy  to  vilify  what- 
ever has  proceeded  from  Omniscient  Power ;  and  Solomon 
can  only  be  supposed  to  pronounce  all  things  here  below 
vain,  when  they  are  applied  to  a  wrong  use,  by  the  ignorance 
and  wickedness  of  man.  Nor  does  he  so  denommate  all 
things  universally  and  without  any  exception,  but  only  all 
mrtfih/  things,  as  wealth,  pleasure,  pomp,  luxury,  power,  and 
whatever  is  merely  human  and  terrestrial.  If  these  are 
placed  in  competition  with  divine  and  heavenly  things,  or 
are  foolishly  regarded  as  the  means  of  real  happiness,  they 
become  useless  and  unprofitable,  because  they  are  uncertain 
and  transitory,  never  fully  satisfying  the  desires  of  the  soul, 
nor  producing  permanent  felicity.  If  worldly  things  are 
vain  in  these  respects,  it  would,  nevertheless,  be  presumption 
and  impiety  to  represent  them  as  actually  bad.  They  are 
good  in  themselves,  and,  when  rightly  used,  tend  only  to 
good,  since  they  contribute  to  the  enjoyment  of  life,  and,  in 
an  eminent  degree,  to  the  ultimate  and  real  interest  of  man. 
liufif  they  are  pursued  as  the  only  'portion  in  this  life,'  as 
constituting  the  happiness  of  beings  formed  for  immortality, 
they  are  nol  estimated  on  right  principles,  and  the  result  will 
be  vexation  and  disappointment.  Their  vanity  then,  arises 
from  the  folly  and  baseness  of  men,  who,  in  forgetfulness  of 
eternity,  are  too  apt  to  regard  this  world  as  their  sole  and 
final  abode,  and  to  expect  that  satisfaction  from  them  which 
they  cannot  give.  Nor  are  they  to  be  condemned  on  this 
account.  That  they  are  insufticient  to  render  man  happy  is 
itself  the  ordination  of  Infinite  Wisdom,  and,  consequently, 
best  suited  to  a  probationary  state ;  wisely  calculated  for  the 
trial  of  man's  virtue,  and,  by  weaning  him  from  too  fond 
attachment  to  things  on  earth,  to  stimulate  his  desires  and 
exertions  after  the  blessediiess  of  another  life. 

"  In  prosecuting  his  inquiry  into  the  Chief  Good,  Solomon 
has  divided  his  work  into  two  parts.  The  first,  which  ex- 
tends to  the  tenth  verse  of  the  sixth  chapter,  is  taken  up  in 
demonstrating  the  vanity  of  all  eartlily  conditions,  occupa- 
tions, and  pleasures ;  the  second  part,'  which  includes  the 
remainder  of  the  book,  is  occupied  in  eulogizing  Wisdom, 
and  in  describing  its  nature,  its  excellence,  its  beneficial 
effects.  This  division,  indeed,  is  not  adhered  to  throughout 
with  logical  accuracy;  some  deviations  from  strict  method 
are  allowable  in  a  popular  discourse ;  and  the  author  occa- 
sionally diverges  to  topics  incidentally  suggested  ;  but,  amidst 
these  dio-ressions,  the  distinctions  of  the  two  parts  cannot 
escape  tTie  attentive  reader.  It  is  not  the  manner  of  the 
sacred  writers  to  form  their  discourses  in  a  regular  series  of 
deductions  and  concatenated  arguments  :  they  adopt  a  species 
of  composition,  less  locrical  indeed,  but  better  adapted  to 
common  capacities,  in  which  the  subject  is  still  kept  in  view, 
though  not  handled  according  to  the  rules  of  dialectics. 
Even  St.  Paul,  whose  reasoning  powers  are  unquestionable, 
frequently  digresses  from  his  subject,  breaks  off  abruptly  in 
the  middle  of  his  argument,  and  departs  from  the  strictness 

1  The  finest  commentary  on  this  aphorism,  Vanity  of  vanities,  all  is 
vanity,  was  unintentionally  furnished  by  the  late  celebrated  Earl  of  Ches- 
terfield In  one  of  his  posthumous  letters.  See  the  passage  at  length  in 
Bishop  Home's  Works,  vol.  v.  discourse  xiii.  pp.  18.5—187.,  where  the 
frightful  picture,  exhibited  by  a  dying  man  of  the  world,  is  admirably  im- 
proved to  the  edification  of  the  reader. 


of  order  and  arrangement.  In  the  same  way  has  the  royal 
preacher  treated  the  subject ;  not  with  exact,  philosophical 
luethod,  but  in  a  free  and  popular  manner,  giving  an  uncon 
trolled  range  to  his  capacious  intellect,  and  sutfenng  himself 
to  be  borne  along  by  the  exuberance  of  his  thoughts  and 
the  vehemence  of  his  feelings.  But,  though  the  methodical 
disposition  of  his  ideas  is  occasionally  interrupted,  his  plan 
is  still  discernible;  and  perhaps  he  never  wanders  more  from 
his  principal  object  than  most  of  the  other  writers  in  the 
Sacred  Volume." 

For  the  preceding  view  of  the  scope  of  this  admirably 
instructive  Dook,  the  author  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Holden's 
learned  and  elaborate  attempt  to  illustrate  it.'-*  The  following 
Synopsis  (which  is  also  borrowed  from  Mr.  Holden)  will 
give  the  reader  a  clear  view  of  its  design : — 

Part  I.  The  vanity  of  all  earthly  conditions  occupa- 
tions, AND  PLEASURES. 

Sect.  I.  The  vanity  of  all  earthly  things,   (i.  2.) 

Sect.    II.    The    unprofitableness    of  human  labour,  and  the 

transitoriness  of  human  life.  (i.  3 — II.) 
Sect.    III.  The  vanity  of  laborious  inquiries  into  the  ways 

and  works  of  man.   (i.  12 — 18.) 
Sect.  IV.  Luxury  and  pleasure  are  only  vanity  and  vcxatioa 

of  spirit,   (ii.  1 — 11.) 
Sect.  V.  Though  the  wise  excel  fools,  yet,  as  death  happens 

to  them  both,  human  learning  is  but  vanity,   (ii.  12 — 17.) 
Sect.  VI.  The  vanity  of  human  labour,  in  leaving  it  they 

know  not  to  whom.   (ii.  18 — 23.) 
Sect.   VII.    The  emptiness  of   sensual  enjoyments,    (ii.  24 

—26.) 
Sect.  VIII.  Though  there  is  a  proper  time  for  the  execution 

of  all  human  purposes,  yet  are  they  useless  and  vain ;  the 

divine  counsels,  however,  are  immutable,   (iii.  1 — 14.) 
Sect.    IX.    The  vanity  of  human  pursuits  proved  from  the 

wickedness  prevailing  in  courts  of  justice,  contrasted  with 

the  righteous  judgment  of  God.   (iii.  15 — 17.) 
Sect.  X.  Though  life,  considered  in  itself,  is  vanity,  for  men 

die  as  well  as  beasts,  yet  in  the  end,  it  will  be  very  different 

with  the  spirit  of  man  and  that  of  beasts,   (iii.  18 — 22.) 
Sect.  XI.  Vanity  is  increased  unto  men  by  oppression,   (iv. 

1-3.) 
Sect.  XII.  The  vanity  of  pro.'iperity.  (iv.  4.) 
Sect.  XIII.  The  vanity  of  folly,  or  of  preferring  the  world  to 

True  Wisdom,   (iv.  5,  6.) 
Sect.  XIV.  The  vanity  of  covctousness.   (iv.  7,  8.) 
Sect.  X  V.  Though  society  has  its  advantages,  yet  domuiion 

and  empire  are  but  vanity,   (iv.  9 — 16.) 
Sect.  XVI.  Errors  in   the   performance  of  divine   worship, 

which  render  it  vain  and  unprofitable,   (v.  1 — 7.) 
Sect.  XVII.    The    vanity  of    murmuring  at  injustice ;    for 

though  the  oppression  of  the  poor  and  the  perversion  of 

judgment  greatly  prevail,  they  do  not  escape  the  notice  of 

the  Almighty,   (v.  8,  9.) 
Sect.  XVIII.  The  vanity  of  riches  ;  with  an  admonition  as 

to  the  moderate  enjoyment  of  them.   (v.  10 — 20.) 
Sect.  XIX.  The  vanity  of  avarice,  (vi.  1 — 9.). 

Part  II.  The  nature,  excellence,  and  beneficial  effects 

OF    wisdom    or    RIJLIGION. 

Sect.  XX.  Since  all  human  designs,  labours  and  enjoyments 

are  vain,  it  is  natural  to  inquire.  What  is  good  for  man  '! 

What  is  his  Supreme  Good '!    (vi.  10 — 12.)     The  answer 

is  contained  in  tlie  remainder  of  the  book. 

Sect.  XXI.  The  praise  of  character  and  reputation,  (vii.  1.) 

Sect.   XXII.  Affliction   improves   the  heart,   and  exalts   the 

character  of  the  wise.   (vii.  2 — 10.) 
Sect.  XXIII.  The  excellence  of  Wisdom,  (vii.  11—14.) 
Sect.  XXIV.  An  objection,  with  the  answer,  (vii.  15.  viii.  7.) 
Sect.  XXV.  The  evil  of  wickedness  shows  the  advantage  of 

True  Wisdom,   (viii.  8 — 13.) 
Sect.  XXVI.  An  objection,  with  the  answer,  (viii.  14.  ix.  1.) 
Sect.  XXVII.  An  objection,  with  the  answer,   (ix.  2.  x.  17.) 
Sect.  XXVIII.  The  banefulness  of  sloth.,  (x.  18.) 
Sect.  XXIX.  The  power  of  wealth,   (x.  19.) 
Sect.  XXX.  An  exhortation  against  speaking  evil  of  digni- 
ties,  (x.  20.) 
Sect.  XXXI.  Exhortation  to  charity  and  benevolence,  (xi 
1—10.) 

»  Prelim.  Diss.  pp.  Ixv.  Ixviii.^xxii. 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  SONG  OF  SOLOMON. 


249 


Skct.  XXA'II.  An  exhortation  to  the  early  cultivation  of  re- 
ligious habits,  (xiii.  1 — 7.) 
Sect.  XXXIII.  The  conclusion,  (xii.  8—14.)" 
III.  Hishop  Lowlh  pronounces  tiie  style  of  this  hook  to 
be  sinjrular:  its  lanorua|S^e  is  (rciieniUy  low,  frcunuMitly  loose 
and  unconnected,  approiichin<r  to  the  incorrectness  of  conver- 
sation ;  and  it  possesses  very  littit^  poetical  character,  even 
in  tli(!  composition  and  structure  of  the  periods:  which  pe- 
culiarity, he  thinks,  may  he  accounted  tor  from  the  nature 
of  the  subject.  Leusd(Mi  says,  that  in  his  time  (the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century)  the  hook  of  Kcch-siastes  was  read 
in  the  Jewish  synan;o<>ues  on  the  feast  of  tah(!rnacles  ;  be- 
cause, as  that  feast  couunemorates  the  jjlaiiness  and  content 
with  which  their  forefathers  dwelt  in  tents,  so  this  hook, 
while  it  shows  tin;  vanity  of  all  earthly  thin<rs,  inculcates  on 
every  one  the  duty  of  rejoicinir  and  bitinsr  content  with  such 
things  as  God  in  liis  providence  thinks  nt  to  bestow. 


SECTION  V. 


ON   THE    SONG    OF   SOLOMON. 


I.  Juthor. — II.  Canonical  authoritij. — III.  Stnictnrc  of  the 
poi-m. — Us  subject  and  scope. — The  Sonff  of  Solomon  a 
sublime  mystical  allegory. 

Few  poems  have  excited  more  attention,  or  have  found 
more  translators  and  commentators,  than  the  Stmsj:;  (f  Song.i  ,- 
but  the  learned  are  not  yet  agreed  respecting  its  arranwement 
and  design.  The  majority  consider  it  as  an  inspirecT  book, 
and  certainly  on  the  best  evidence,  while  others  affirm  it  to 
be  merely  a  human  composition  :  the  former  regard  it  as  a 
sacred  allegory ;  the  latter,  as  a  mere  amatory  effusion. 

I.  In  addition  to  other  divine  compositions  of  Solomon, 
we  are  informed  (I  Kin^s  iv.  32.)  that  his  soni^s  were  a  thou- 
sand and  five,  of  which  the  present  book  is  supposed  to  be  one. 
In  the  first  verse  it  is  called,  by  way  of  eminence  and  dis- 
tinction, according  to  the  Hebrew  idiom  o'Tiyn  n^c  (shir 
h«shiri.m)i  that  is,  a  Sung  of  Songs,  or,  the  most  beautiful 
Song.  Of  this  ancient  poem  the  author  is  asserted,  by  the 
unanimous  voice  of  antiquity,  to  have  been  Solomon;  and 
this  tradition  is  corroborated  by  many  internal  marks  of  au- 
thenticity .^  In  the  very  first  verse  it  is  ascribed  to  the  He- 
brew monarch  by  name  :  he  is  the  subject  of  the  piece,  and 
the  principal  actor  in  the  conduct  of  it.  Allusions  are  made 
to  the  rich  furniture  of  his  palace  (i.  5.)  ;  to  the  horses  and 
chariots  which  he  purchased  of  Pharoah  king  of  Kgypt  (i.  9. 
compared  with  1  Kings  x.  28,  29.)  ;  to  Aminadab,  w'ho  was 
eminent  for  such  chariots,  and  who  married  one  of  Solomon's 
daughters  (vi.  12.  with  1  Kings  iv.  11.);  to  his  building  of 
the  temple  under  the  figure  of  a  palanquin  or  coach  for  his 
bride  (iii.  9,  10.) ;  to  the  materials  of  which  it  was  formed. 
In  short,  all  the  leading  circumstances  in  Solomon's  life,  in 
a  religious  point  of  view,  appear  to  be  either  alluded  to  or 
implicul  in  this  ancient  poem,  and,  therefore,  render  it  proba- 
ble that  it  was  the  production  of  seme  writer  in  his  age,  if 
it  were  not  his  own  composition.  From  the  occurrence, 
however,  of  a  few  Aramsan  words,  some  later  critics  have 
imafined  that  this  book  was  written  in  the  latter  years  of 
the  .Jewish  monarchy,  not  long  before  the  ca])tivity ;  but  this 
conjecture  is  repelled  by  the  internal  evidences  above  cited 
in  favour  of  Solomon ;  ami  the  occasional  appearance  of 
Aramasan  words  will  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  when  we 
recollect  the  extensive  commercial  intercourse  that  existed  be- 
tween Solomon  and  the  neighbouring  nations.  Dr.  Kennicott 
was  of  opinion  that  this  poem  is  many  ages  later  than  Solo- 
mon, from  the  uniform  insertion  of  the  yod  in  all  copies,  in 
spelling  the  name  of  Uavid  ;  but  this  remark  is  not  conclusive, 
for  the  name  of  David  occurs  but  once  (iv.  1.)  :  and,  after  it 
had  been  written  erroneously  by  a  scribe  in  the  time  of  Ezra, 
it  might  have  been  inadvertently  copied  by  a  subsequent 
transcriber. 3 

•  Prelim.  Diss.  pp.  ci.t.  ex.  Mr.  Dps  Vocn.'c.  in  liis  loarnnii  and  inge- 
nious workonEcclosia.stes,  wasofopiiiionlhal  the  royal  author's  design  was 
to  prove  the  itninortality  of  the  soul,  or  rather  the  nece.ssily  of  anollier 
8'ate  after  this  life,  by  such  arguments  as  may  be  deduced  from  reason  and 
experience.  But  Mr.  IIoMen  has  satisfactorily  shown  that  this  is  not  the 
primary  design  of  the  book  in  question  ;  though  it  contains  some  strong 
proofs  of  this  article  of  religious  faith.    See  his  Prelim.  Diss.  pp.  xlvii. — Ix. 

»  Calmel  states  that  some  of  the  rabbins  ascribeil  this  poem  to  Isaiah  ; 
but  this  opinion  has  long  since  been  rejected.     Dissert,  toin.  ii.  p.  2.'>8. 

3  Dr.  Koniiicolt,  Diss.  i.  pp.  20 — ii.  Hewlett's  Commentary  on  the  Song 
of  Solomon,  Supplementary  Observations,  in  fine.  A  writer  of  the  present 
d.iy  (Mr.  Bellamy),  who  has  distinguished  himself  by  liis  bold  and  para- 
doxical as.«ertions,  has  stated  his  opinion  to  be,  that  it  was  a  book  of  great 

Vol.  II.  2  1  • 


II.  If  the  canon  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  was  settled  by 
Ezra  (which  we  have  already  seen  was  most  probably  the 
case),  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  Song  of  Solomon  is 
a  sacred  book  ;  for,  to  use  the  strong  language  of  Bishop 
Warburton,  "Ezra  wrote,  and  we  may  believe  acted,  'by 
the  ins|)iration  of  the  Most  High,'  amid  the  last  blaze  indeed, 
yet  in  tht;  full  lustre  of  expiritig  proj)hecy.  And  such  a  man 
would  not  have  placed  any  book  that  was  not  sacred  in  the 
samt!  volume  with  the  law  and  the  prophets."'  In  addition 
to  this  evidence,  the  following  considerations  will  authorize 
us  to  infer,  that  the  Song  of  Solomon  was,  from  the  most 
early  period,  deemed  a  sacred  book,  and  ranked  with  the 
Hagiographa  or  Holy  Writings  of  the  .lews,  and  thence 
was  received  among  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

A  Greek  translation  of  it  is  extant,  which  without  contra- 
diction is  ascribed  to  the  .lewish  authors  of  the  Septuagint, 
who  flourished  about  two  centuries  before  Christ,  and  which 
still  forms  a  part  of  the  Alexandrian  version.  With  the 
same  conviction  of  the  sacred  character  of  the  work,  it  was 
rendered  into  (Jreek  in  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
Bcra,  by  Atpiila,  Syrnmachus,  and  Theodolion.  Origen,  who 
wrote  early  in  the  third  century,  on  the  authority  of  those 
learned  .Tews  who  were  contemporary  with  him,  and  whom 
he  was  in  the  habit  of  consulting  respecting  the  authority 
and  literal  import  of  their  sacred  books,  inserted  it  in  his 
Hexapla,  and  wrote  some  homilies  upon  it,  explaining  its 
mystical  sense,  which  have  in  part  been  translated  into  iTatin 
by  Jerome.  Further,  that  the  ancient  Jews,  without  excep- 
tion, considered  it  as  a  divinely  inspired  production,  appears 
from  the  allegorical  signification  annexed  to  it  in  the  Cnaldee 
paraphrase.  Josephus,  in  his  answer  to  Apion,  gives  a 
catalogue  of  the  Jewish  books,  and  in  the  third  class  of 
such  as  related  to  moral  instruction  includes  the  Song  of 
Songs.*  From  the  Jewish  synagogue  this  book  was  received 
into  the  Christian  church  without  any  doubt  of  its  divine 
authority  :  it  occurs  in  the  catalogue  of  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  made  by  Melito,  Bishop  of  Sard  is  in  Lydia,  who 
is  placed  by  Cave  about  the  year  170,  who  travelled  into 
Palestine  on  purpose  to  learn  the  number  of  these  books, 
and  who  made  the  firs';  catalogue  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.^ 
It  is  cited  by  Ignatius,  who  had  been  a  disciple  of  the  apostle 
Saint  John  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  as  a 
book  of  authority  in  the  church  at  Antioch.  It  is  enumerated 
in  the  list  of  canonical  books  occurring  in  the  synopsis 
attributed  to  Athanasius,  who  flourished  in  the  third  century, 
and  in  the  catalogues  of  Jerome  and  Rufinus,  towards  the 
close  of  the  fourth  century,  in  which  also  we  find  it  cited  in 
the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  and  also  in  the  Apostolical 
Canons ;'  since  which  time  the  Song  of  Songs  has  maintain- 
ed its  place  in  the  sacred  canon. 

But,  though  the  Song  of  Songs  has  come  down  to  us  thus 
strongly  recommended  oy  the  voice  of  antiquity,  its  divine 
authority  has  been  questioned  in  modern  days.  Theodore, 
Bishop  of  Mopsuestia,  a  bold  critic,  and  a  determined  fee  to 
allegorical  interpretations,  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries, 
is  said  to  have  spoken  in  disrespectful  terms  of  this  poem, 
as  well  as  of  the  hook  of  Job  :  but,  as  those  accounts  appear 
among  the  charges  and  accusations  of  his  enemies.  Dr. 
Lardner  doubts  the  accuracy  of  such  representation.^  In  the 
early  part  of  the  last  century,  Simon  and  Le  Clerc  questioned 
its  authenticity,  but  were  refuted  by  the  elder  Carpzov;  and, 
subsequently,  the  eccentric  writer  VN  histon  boldly  affirmed 

antiquity  in  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  king,  and  is  the  same  which  is  referred 
to  in  the  Psalms  by  the  words  "  dark  sayings  of  old."  He  thinks  it  possi- 
ble that  Solomon  collected  and  incorporated  the  materials  of  this  book,  as 
David  did  other  sacred  songs  of  prophecy  and  praise,  which  were  in  use 
in  the  church  before  his  lime  ;  but  alTirms  that  the  idea  of  Solomon  being 
the  author  of  this  Song  of  Songs  is  fouijded  on  a  mis-translation  of  the  He- 
brew word  LisMomoh,  which  occurs  in  the  first  verse.  As  Mr.  H.  refers  to 
a  work  not  yet  published  in  support  of  his  hypothesis,  it  is  iui|)0£f'ible  to 
form  a  correct  judgment  respecting  it;  but  we  may  be  permitted  lo  ob- 
serve, that  the  internal  evidences  above  noticed,  which  makes  so  strongly 
against  Dr.  Kennicott,  afford  pretty  strong  corroboration  of  the  universally 
received  opinion,  as  well  as  of  the  uniform  lielief  of  the  Jews,  who  surely 
were  acciiiainted  with  their  native  tongue.  See  the  Classical  Journal,  vol. 
XV.  p.  100. 

«  Bishop  Gleig's  edition  of  Stackhouse,  vol.  i.  p.  xxiii. 

»  Josepiius  cont.  Aiiion,  book  i.  c.  8.  Eusebius,  following  the  Jewish 
historian,  makes  the  Bong  of  Songs  the  fifteenth  of  tJie  number  of  canoni- 
cal books.     Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  vi.  c.  25. 

«  Eusebius  has  preserved  this  catalogue  of  Melito  in  his  Eccl.  Uist.  lib 
iv.  c.  20. 

1  Constit.  Apn.stol.  lib.  vi.  cc.  13.  18.  torn.  i.  pp.  M5.  351.  Edit.  Amst.  1724. 
Canon.  Aposlol.  No.  Ixxvi.  Ibid.  p.  4.'>3.  Both  these  productions,  though 
pretending  to  be  of  apostolical  origin,  are  spurious  compilations  of  the 
fourth  century.  See  Dr.  Lardiiei's  Works,  vol.  iv.  pp.  3:^0— 354.  8vo. ; 
4to.  vol.  ii.  pp.  121—511. 

»  Jortin's  Keuiarks  on  Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  1-57.  2d  edit.  Dr.  Lardner's 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  iv.  pp.  509,  510. ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  p.  528. 


250 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IH. 


it  to  be  a  dissolute  love-song,  composed  by  Solomon  when 
advanced  in  years  and  dissolute  in  practice,  and  that,  conse- 
([uently,  it  ought  to  be  excluded  from  the  canon  of  the  sacred 
books.  This  preposterous  notion  (for  nothing  like  proof  has 
been  offered  in  its  support)  has,  with  some  slight  modifica- 
tion, been  adopted  by  several  later  writers ;  and  Semler, 
amono-  others,  declines  taking  any  notice  of  it,  as  a  work 
manifestly  spurious.'  These  objections,  however,  are  suffi- 
ciently counteracted  by  the  strong  internal  evidences  of  the 
authenticity  of  the  Canticles,  as  well  as  by  the  uninterrupted 
current  of  Jewish  and  Christian  antiquity. 

in.  That  this  book  is  a  poem,  all  critics  and  expositors 
are  agreed  ;  though  they  are  by  no  means  unanimous  to  what 
class'of  Hebrew  poetry  it  is  to  be  referred.  Michaelis,  to 
whose  profound  researches  biblical  students  are  so  deeply 
indebted,  is  of  opinion  that  the  object  of  tliis  poem  was 
simply  to  inculcate  the  divine  approbation  of  marriage;  and 
Mendelsohn,  a  learned  German  Jew,  considers  it  as  a  repre- 
sentation, by  Solomon's  son,  of  a  trial  of  skill  between  a 
shepherd  and  shepherdess;  but  the  ideas  of  Mr.  Harmer^ 
appear  much  more  rational,  who,  though  unwilling  to  give  it 
the  name  of  an  epithalamium  or  nuptial  dialogue,  considers 
it  to  be  a  nuptial  song,  which  will  best  be  explained  by 
compositions  of  a  similar  nature  in  Eastern  countries.  Bos- 
suet,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  is  of  opinion  that  this  song  is  a 
regular  drama,  which  is  to  be  explained  by  the  consideration 
that  the  Jews  were  wont  to  celebrate  their  nuptials  for  seven 
days  together,  distinguished  by  peculiar  solemnities.  He 
accordingly  divides  it'in  the  following  manner : — 
DAY        1      ------      CHAP.  i. — ii.  6. 

2 ii.  7—17. 

3 iii. — V.  1. 

4 V.  2.— vi.  9. 

5 "     -      vi.  10. — vii.  11. 

6 vii.  12. — viii.  3. 

7-- --  viii.  4 — 14. 

Calmet,3  Bishop  Percy,^  and  Mr.  Williams*  agree  with 
Bossuet.  Bishop  Lowth,  indeed,  who  has  devoted  two  of 
his  learned  and  elegant  lectures  to  an  examination  of  this 
poem,  adopts  the  opmion  of  Bossuet,  not  as  absolute  demon- 
stration, but  as  a  very  ingenious  and  probable  conjecture 
upon  an  extremely  obscure  subject.  He  therefore  deter- 
mines it  to  be  a  sacred  pastoral  drama,  though  deficient  in 
some  of  the  essential  requisites  of  a  regular  dramatic  com- 
position.'' 

Bauer,''  however,  affirms  this  poem  to  be  an  idyl ;  the 
same  opinion  is  intimated  by  Jahn,  who  makes  it  consist  of 
eight  idyls  :8  but  neither  of  these  eminent  critics  assign  any 
reasons  for  their  opinion.  Probably  they  derived  it  from  Sir 
William  Jones,  who,  having  compared  this  poem  with  some 
of  the  cassides  or  idyls  of  the  Arahian  poets,  concludes  with 

•  Apparatus  ad  liberalem  Vet.  Test.  Interpretation  em,  pp.  209—214. 

a  Outlines  of  a  Commentary  on  Solomon's  Song.  (8vo.  London,  1768,  re- 
printed in  1775.) 

3  Calmet,  Commentaire  Litttral,  torn.  v.  pp.  68,  69.,  or  Dissertationes,  tom. 
ii.  pp.  200—262. 

<  In  lii.s  "  Song  of  Solomon,  newly  translated  from  the  original  Hebrew, 
with  a  Commentary  and  Annotations."     12mo.  1764. 

5  In  "The  Song  of  Songs,  which  is  by  Solomon  ;  a  new  Translation,  \vilh 

Commentary  and  Notes."    8vo.  1801. 

o  There  Is,  however,  one  circumstance  in  which  Bishop  Lowth  thinks 
tlie  Song  of  Songs  bears  a  very  striking  affinity  to  the  Greek  drama  ;  the 
chorus  of  virgins  seems  In  every  respect  congenial  to  the  tragic  chorus  of 
the  Greeks.  They  are  constantly  present,  and  prepared  to  fulfil  all  the 
duties  of  advice  and  consolation  ;  they  converse  frequently  with  tlie  prin- 
cipal characters ;  they  are  questioned  by  them,  and  they  return  answers 
to  their  Inquiries  ;  they  take  part  in  the  whole  business  of  the  poem,  and 
it  does  not  appear  that  they  quit  tlie  scene  upon  any  occasion.  Some  of 
the  learned  iiave  conjectured,  that  Theocritus,  who  was  contemporary 
with  the  seventy  Greek  translators  of  the  Scriptures,  and  lived  with  tliem 
in  the  court  of  Ptolemy  Pliiladelphus,  was  not  unacquainted  with  the  beau- 
ties of  this  poem,  and  that  he  has  almost  liteially  introduced  some  jiassages 
from  it  into  his  elegant  idyls.  (Compare  Cant.  I.  0.  vl.  10.  with  Tlieoc.  xviii. 
30.  26.  ;  Cant.  iv.  11.  wltliTheoc.  x.\.  26.  ;  Cant.  viii.  6,  7.  with  Tiieoc.  .xxiii. 
23 — 26.)  It  might  also  be  suspected,  that  the  Greek  tragedians  were  indebted 
for  their  chorus  to  this  poem  of  Solomon,  were  net  the  probabilities  on  the 
other  side  much  greater,  that  the  Greeks  were  made  acquainted  with  it  at 
too  late  a  period  ;  and  were  It  not  evident,  lliat  the  chorus  of  the  Greeks 
bad  a  very  dlfTerent  origin  ;  were  it  not  evident.  Indeed,  that  the  chorus 
was  not  added  to  the  falile,  but  the  fable  to  the  chorus.  Prelect,  xxx.  in 
fine,  or  vol.  ii.  pp.  3t)7,  303.  of  Dr.  Gregory's  translation. 

■>  Herm.  Sacr.  p.  386. 

'  Introd.  ad  Libros  Sacros  Veteris  Fosderls,  pp.  506—508.  Jahn  divides 
he  poem  In  the  following  manner  : — 

soiiG  1  -       .-        -        -     CHAP.  i.  1.— ii.  7. 

2 ii.  8—111.  5. 

3 iii.  6.— V.  1. 

4 V.  2.— vi.  9. 

5 vi.  10.— viii.  3. 

6 viii.  4 — 7. 

7 viii.  8—12. 

8  -     ■  .       -       -       -  viii.  13,  14. 


expressing  his  judgment  that  this  song  ought  to  be  classed 
among  the  Hebrew  idyls.9 

Supported  by  the  high  authority  of  this  distinguished 
scholar.  Dr.  Good,'"  after  Signer  Melcsegenio  (a  learned 
Italian  translator  of  thi.s  poem),  considers  the  Song  of  vSongs 
as  forming,  not  one  continued  and  individual  poem,  but  a 
series  of  poems,  each  distinct  and  independent  of  the  other. 
These  he  designates  "  tlacred  Idyh,'^  and  makes  them  to  be 
twelve  in  number ;  viz. 

Idyl  1---------     chap.  i.  1 — R. 

2 i.  9.— ii.  7. 

3 ii.  8—17. 

4 iii.  1—5, 

5----------        iii.  G. — iv.  7. 

6 iv.  8.— V.  1. 

7 V.  2.— vi.  10. 

8 vi.  11—13 

9 vii.  1—9. 

10 vii.  10.— viii.  4. 

11--- viii.  5 — 7. 

12 viii.  8—14. 

In  support  of  this  mode  of  arrangement.  Dr.  Good  remarks 
that  the  Song  of  Solomon  cannot  be  one  coiniected  poem, 
since  the  transitions  are  too  abrupt  for  the  wildest  fiights  of 
the  Oriental  muse,  and  evidently  imply  a  variety  of  open- 
ings and  conclusions ;  while,  as  a  regular  drama,  it  is  defi- 
cient in  almost  every  requisite  that  could  give  it  such  a 
classification  ;  having  neither  dramatic  fable  nor  action,  invo- 
lution nor  catastrophe,  and  being  without  beginning,  middle^ 
or  end."  But  in  opposition  to  these  strictures  it  may  be 
observed,  that  bold  transitions  are  so  much  the  character  of 
Eastern  poetry,  that  this  circumstance  alone  cannot  decide 
against  the  individuality  of  the  poem. 

Further,  the  subject  of  the  poem  is  the  same  from  begin- 
ning to  end;  the  personages  introduced  as  speakers  are  the 
same ;  and,  though  to  a  modern  reader  the  transitions  in 
many  places  may  seem  abrupt,  and  the  thoughts  unconnect- 
ed, yet  the  conduct  of  the  piece  is  not  suspended,  but  is  car- 
ried on  under  a  fable  regularly  constructed,  and  terminating 
in  a  conclusion  interesting  and  unexpected. 

With  the  eminent  critics  above  cited  we  concur  in  con- 
sidering the  Song  of  Solomon  as  a  series  of  Hebrew  idyls, 
like  the  Cassides  of  the  poets  of  Arabia.  With  regard  to 
the  fair  bride  in  whose  honour  this  collection  of  exquisite 
poems  was  primarily  composed,  Bossuet,  Calmet,  Harmer,'^ 
Bishops  Percy  and  Lowth,  in  short,  we  believe  all  modern 
commentators,  have  supposed  the  object  of  Solomon's  at- 
tachment to  be  the  royal  daughter  of  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt. 
Dr.  Good,  however,  contends,  and  we  think  successfully, 
that  she  was  a  native  of  Palestine,  and  espoused  some  years 
later :  it  is  not  easy  to  believe  that  so  impassioned  a  compo- 
sition as  the  Song  of  Songs  should  have  resulted  from  a  slate 
alliance,  "  The  matrimonial  connection  of  the  Hebrew 
monarch  with  the  Egyptian  princess,"  Dr.  Good  observes, 
"was  probably,  indeea,  a  connection  of  political  interest 
alone ;  for  we  have  no  reason  to  conceive  that  it  had  been 
preceded  by  any  personal  intimacy  or  interchange  of  aliec- 
tion  :  the  offer  was  proposed  by  him  on  his  first  accession  to 
the  throne,  prior  to  his  having  received  from  JehoVah  the 
gift  of  superior  wisdom ;  at  a  tinae  when,  according  to  Arch- 
bishop Usher,'-*  he  could  not  have  been  more  than  twenlj' 
years  of  age,  when  he  was  surrounded  by  a  vast  body  of  op- 
ponents and  competitors,  and  when  an  alliance  with  the  royal 
family  of  Egy])t  was  likely  to  be  of  essential  advantage  to 
him:  from  which  also,  as  a  further  proof  of  his  political 
views  in  such  an  union,  he  received  the  city  of  Gezer  as  a 
dowry  with  the  princess  (1  Kings  ix.  IG.) — a  city  captured 
by  Piiaraoh  from  the  Canaauites,  and  rased  to  the  ground, 
])robably  from  the  obstinacy  of  its  resistance;  l)ut  afterwards 
rebuilt  by  Soluinou,  and  converted  into  a  place  of  considera- 
ble distinction.  The  matrimonial  connection  here  celebrated, 
on  the  contrary,  appears  to  have  proceedetl  from  recipro- 
cal affection  alone ;  and  from  the  gentleness,  modesty,  and 

9  Pocseos  Asiaticffi  Commentarii,  cap.  Hi.  (Works,  vol.  iv.  or  vi.  p.'7I 
8vo.  edit.) 

>o  In  his  "Song  of  Songs,  or  Sacred  Idyls,  translated  from  the  Hebrew, 
with  Notes,"  8vo.  1S03.  Tlie  Rev.  Mr.  Fry  has  adopted  Dr.  Good's  arrange- 
ment of  tlie  Canticles  into  twelve  idyls,  in  his  translation  of  this  book  of  the 
royal  poet.     London,  1811.  Svo. 

'1  Good's  Song  of  Songs.     Preface,  p.  iv. 

>-  On  the  sujiposition  that  Solomon  married  an  Egyptian  princess,  this 
learned  and  ingenious  writer  considers  the  Song  ol  Siilomon  as  a  lively 
emblem  of  the  Messiah's  admitting  Ihe  Gentiles  lo  equal  privileges  with  tho 
Jews.     Outlines  of  a  new  Commentary,  pp.  7-1 — 84. 

13  An.  Mund.  2971—2991. 


Sect,  v.] 


ON  THE  SONG  OF  SOLOMON. 


251 


I 


delicacy  of  mind,  which  are  uniformly  and  perpetunlly  attri- 
butfd  to  lliis  lipanlifii!  and  ac(•()^l|)li^^lu■d  f.iir  one,  she  must 
have  been  well  worthy  of  royal  love.  Instead  of  beinjr  of 
Kgyplian  origin,  she  herself  informs  us  that  she  was  a  native 
of^Sharon  (Oant,  ii.  1.),  whicji  was  a  canton  of  Palestine. 
'I'honcrh  not  of  royal  hlood,  and  it  should  seem  from  (/'ant.  i. 
(i.  of  low  extraction  in  coinpiirison  of  her  royal  bri(le<rroom, 
et  she  must  hav(^  heen  of  nut)l(>  hirth  ;  lor  she  is  addressed 
y  her  attendants  under  the  a|)pell;ition  of  princess  or  nohle 
lady  ((.'ant.  vii.  1.);  and  ihnnnh  she  could  not  aujrment  hy 
her  dowry  the  dimensions  of  the  national  territory,  she  pos- 
sessed for  her  marriajre-porlion  a  nol)le  and  fruitful  estate  in 
Haal-hammon  (Oant.  viii.  l"i.),  inireidously  sui)pose(l  hy  Mr. 
Ilarmer  to  have  heen  situated  in  the  delijrhiful  valley  of 
liocat  in  the  inmudiate  vicinity  of  IJalhec,"  leased  out  to  a 
variety  of  tenants,  willi  whose  nund)er  we  are  not  acquaint- 
ed, hut  every  one  cd"  whom  paid  her  a  clear  rental  of  a  thou- 
sand shekels  of  silver,  amountiu<r  to  ahout  120/.  1G».  Hd. 
sterling.  From  the  jiossession  of  this  property  it  is  natural 
to  conceive  that  her  tather  was  deceased  ;  more  especially  as 
the  house  in  which  she  resided  is  repeatedly  called  the 
house  of  her  mother  (Oant.  iii.  1.  viii.  2.),  as  it  was  her 
mother  who  betrothed  her  to  the  enamoured  monarch  (Oant. 
vifi.  5.),  and  as  no  notice  of  any  kind  is  taken  of  the  exist- 
enc(!  of  her  father.  She  appears  to  have  possessed  two  dis- 
tinct fainilics,  and,  conscciuently,  to  have  had  two  marriages : 
for  in  Oant.  i.  G.  the  royal  bride  speaks  of  an  oiVspring  con- 
siderably older  than  herself,  whom  she  denominates  not  her 
father's  out  her  mt.t/iir\s  children,  who  seem  io  have  taken 
an  undue  advanta<re  of  her  infancy,  and  to  have  behaved 
with  great  unkinduess  towards  her.  For  these  she  nowhere 
expresses  any  degree  of  afl'ection  ;  but  for  an  own  brother 
and  sister, — the  former  an  infant,  and  the  latter  considerably 
younger  than  herself, — she  evinces  the  tenderest  regard  of 
the  inost  affectionate  bosom.     (Cant.  viii.  1.  8.) 

"  Of  the  age  of  this  unrivalled  beauty,  at  the  time  of  her 
nuptials,  we  are  nowhere  informed.  Being  in  possession 
of  an  estate  beciucathed  to  her  by  her  lather,  or  seme  collateral 
relation,  she  must,  at  least,  have  acquired  her  majority  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrew  ritual ;  yet,  from  the  circumstance  of 
her  brother's  being  an  unweancd  infant,  she  could  not  have 
exceeded  the  prime  of  life ;  and  from  the  exquisite  delinea- 
tions of  her  person  by  her  companions  as  well  as  by  her 
lover,  she  must  have  been  in  the  full  flower  of  youth  and 
beauty.  As  to  the  age  of  king  Solomon,  we  may  fairly  cal- 
culate it,  from  collateral  circumstances,  to  have  been  about 
twenty-five  or  twenty-six,  and,  consequently,  that  the  nup- 
tials were  celebrated  about  the  year  1010  before  the  birth  of 
Christ.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  he  contracted  his  marriage 
of  political  interest  with  the  "Egyptian  princess;  and  if  he 
had  not  at  this  period  complied  with  the  luxurious  fashion 
of  his  age,  and  opened  his  harem  for  the  reception  of  the 
most  beautiful  women  who  could  be  found,  and  would  con- 
sent to  live  with  him,  it  is  obvious  that  this  establishment 
commenced  very  shortly  afterwards."- 

Before  we  proceed  to  offer  any  further  remarks  on  the 
style  of  this  sacred  poem,  justice  requires  that  we  notice 
another  \ie\v  of  it  which  has  been  given  by  a  learned  and 
ingenious,  though  anonymous,  writer  in  Dr.  Kees's  New 
(Cyclopaedia,  which  appears  to  be  a  modification  of  the  opinion 
entertained  by  Mr.  Harmer,  above  noticed.  He  regards  it 
as  a  parable,  in  the  form  of  a  drama ;  in  which  the  bride  is 
considered  as  representing  true  religion  ;  the  royal  lover  as 
the  Jewish  people;  the  younger  sister  as  the  Gospel  dis- 
pensation. The  g'radual  expansion  of  it,  from  its  first  dawn 
in  the  garden  of  Eden,  to  its  meridian  effulgence  produced 
by  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ,  is  supposed  to  be 
portrayed  in  these  beautiful  words  : — "  Who  is  he  that  look-, 
eth  forth  as  the  morning,  fair  as  the  moon,  bright  as  the 
sun,  and  si^rene  as  the  "starry  host]"  (See  vi.  10.)  The 
epilogue  in  chap.  viii.  respecting  the  younger  brother  and 
sister,  he  further  conceives,  demonstrates  that  its  views  ter- 
minate in  the  temple  service  :  while,  at  the  same  time,  the 
allusion  at  the  close  to  the  rise  of  the  Gospel  and  the  con- 
version of  the  Gentiles,  which  took  place  so  many  hundred 
years  after  Solomon,  proves  that  the  author  wrote  under 
divine  inspiration.  The  metaphorical  sense,  thus  capable 
of  being  put  upon  every  part  of  the  poem,  the  amnymous 
writer  apprehends  justifies  the  high  appellation  of  the  Song 
of  Songs,  which  has  been  given  to  it ;  and  also  accounts  fo'r 
its  being  regarded,  by  Jews  and  Christians,  as  a  sacred 

1  Outlines  of  a  New  Commentary,  pp.  35,  36, 
»  Good's  SoDg  of  Songs,  pp.  xi.— xvi. 


composition,  and  for  its  reception  first  into  the  Jewish  and 
then  into  the  ('hristian  church.' 

From  this  view  of  the  subject,  it  is  impossible  to  withhold 
the  praise  of  learning,  piety,  and  ingenuity  ;  but  we  conceive 
the  Song  of  Solomon  to  have  a  more  extended  meaning  than 
this  author  admits;  and  we  cainiot  accede  to  his  arrange- 
ment and  exposition  of  its  argument,  for  the  following 
reasons: — 

It  has  been  a  question  in  all  ages,  whether  the  literal  and 
obvious  meaning  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  be  the  whole  that 
was  ever  intended  by  the  royal  bard ;  or  whether  it  docs  not, 
at  the  same  time,  afford  the  veil  of  a  sublime  and  mystical 
allegory  delineating  the  bridal  union  between  Jehovah  and 
his  pure  and  uncorrupted  church  ]  Michaelis  and  most  of 
tlu^  modern  critics  on  the  ('ontinent  advocate  the  former 
opinion;  in  which  they  are  followed  by  some  eminent  critics 
in  our  own  country,' hut  the  latter  opinion  i.s  adopted  by 
most  commentators,  Jcswish  and  ('hristian. 

Among  those  who  hold  it  to  be  allegorical,  there  is  also 
much  disagreement;  some  conceiving  it  to  be  no  more  than 
a  simple  allegory,  while  Bishop  Lowlh  and  others  consider 
it  as  a  mystical  allegory,'  and  are  of  opinion  that  under  the 
figure  of  a  marriage  is  tj'pified  the  intimate  connection  l.'c- 
tween  God  and  his  church,  of  which  a  more  ci^ncise  model 
was  furnished  in  the  forty-fifth  psalm.  That  this  view  of 
the  sid)ject  is  correct,  we  think  will  appear  from  the  fol- 
lowing considerations,  principally  extracted  from  Bishop 
Lowth :« — 

The  narrowness  and  imbecility  of  the  human  mind,  he 
observes,  being  such  as  scarcely  to  comprehend  or  attain  a 
clear  idea  of  any  part  of  the  divine  nature  by  its  utmost  ex- 
ertions ;  God  has  condescended,  in  a  maimer,  to  contract  the 
infinity  of  his  glory,  and  to  exhibit  it  to  our  understandings 
under  such  imaTOry  as  our  feeble  optics  are  capable  of  con- 
templating. Thus  the  Almighty  may  he  said  to  descend, 
as  it  were,  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  from  the  height  of  his 
majesty,  to  appear  on  earth  in  a  human  shape,  with  human 
senses  and  affections,  in  all  respects  resembling  a  mortal — 
"with  human  voice  and  human  form."  This  kind  of  alle- 
gory is  called  anthropopathy,  and  occupies  a  considerable 
portion  of  theology,  properly  so  called, — that  is,  as  delivered 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  principal  part  of  this  imagery 
is  derived  from  the  passions;  nor,  indeed,  is  there  any  one 
affection  or  emotion  of  the  human  soul  which  is  not,  with  all 
its  circumstances,  ascribed  in  direct  terms,  without  any 
qualification  whatever,  to  the  supreme  God;  not  excepting 
those  in  which  human  frailty  and  imperfection  is  most 
evidently  displayed,  viz.  an^erand  grief,  hatred  and  revenge. 
That  love,  also,  and  that  of  the  tenderest  kind,  should  bear 
a  part  in  this  drama,  is  highly  natural  and  perfectly  con- 
sistent. Thus,  not  only  the  fondness  of  paternal  affection  is 
attributed  to  God,  but  also  the  force,  the  ardour,  and  the 
solicitude  of  conjugal  attachment,  with  all  the  concomitant 
emotions,  the  anxiety,  the  tenderness,  and  the  jealousy  inci- 
dental to  this  passion. 

After  all,  this  figure  is  not  in  the  least  productive  of  ob- 
scurity ;  the  nature  of  it  is  better  understood  than  that  of 
most  others ;  and  although  it  is  exhibited  in  a  variety  of 
lights,  it  constantly  preserves  its  native  perspicuity.  A  pe- 
culiar people,  of  the  posterity  of  Abraham,  was  selected  by 
God  from  among  the  nations,  and  he  ratified  his  choice  by  a 
solemn  covenant.  This  covenant  was  founded  upon  recipro- 
cal conditions ;  on  the  one  part,  love,  protection,  and  sup- 
Sort;  on  the  other,  faith,  obedience,  and  worship  pure  and 
evout.  This  is  that  conjugal  union  between  God  and  his 
church ;  that  solemn  compact  so  frec^uently  celebrated  by 
almost  all  the  sacred  writers  under  this  image.  It  is,  indee(f, 
a  remarkable  instance  of  that  species  of^ metaphor  which 
Aristotle  calls  analogical ;"  that  is,  when  in  a  proposition 
consisting  of  four  ideas,  the  first  bears  the  same  relation  to 
the  second  as  the  third  does  to  the  fourth,  and  the  corres- 
ponding words  may  occasionally  change  their  places  without 
any  injury  to  the  sense.  Thus,  in  this  form  of  expression, 
God  is  supposed  to  bear  exactly  the  same  relation  to  the 
church  as  a  husband  to  a  wife ;  God  is  represented  as  the 
spouse  of  the  church,  and  the  church  is  betrothed  to  God. 
Thus  also,  when  the  same  figure  is  maintained  with  a  dif- 
ferent mode  of  expression,  and  connected  with  different  cir- 
cumstances, the  relation  is  still  the  same :  thus  the  piety  of 

'  Dr.  Rees's  Cyclopsdia,  vol.  vi.  article  Canticles. 

*  Among  others  by  Mr.  Hewlett  In  liis  valuable  Commentary. 

»  On  the  nature  of  this  species  of  allegory,  see  Vol.  I.  Part  II.  Chap.  I. 
Sect.  IV. 

•  Pr<elect.  xxxi.  vol.  ii.  pp.  312—321. 
'  Poet.  chap.  xxii.  and  Rhet.  iii.  3. 


252 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  Chap.  HI 


the  people,  their  impiety,  their  idolatry,  and  rejection,  stand 
in  t!:e  same  relation  with  respect  to  the  sacred  covenant ;  as 
chastity,  modesty,  immodesty,  adultery,  divorce,  with  respect 
to  the  marriage-contract.  And  tliis  notion  is  so  very  fami- 
Jiar  and  well  understood  in  Scripture,  that  the  word  adultery 
(or  whoredom)  is  commonly  used  to  denote  idolatrous  wor- 
ship, and  so  appropriate  does  it  appear  to  this  metapliorical 
purpose,  that  it  very  seldom  occur.s  in  its  proper  and  literal 
sense. 

Of  this  mode  of  speaking,  the  sacred  writers  furnish  us 
with  ahundance  of  ex;ini})les.  Thus  the  evangelical  prophet, 
when  treating  of  the  reconciliation  of  the  church  to  Jehovah, 
and  her  restoration  to  the  divine  favour,  among  many  images 
of  a  similar  nature,  introduces  the  following  : — 

For  thy  husband  is  thy  Maker  ; 

Jehovah,  God  of  Hosts,  is  his  name  : 

And  thy  Rpdeeiner  is  tlie  Holy  One  of  Israel ; 

The  God  of  the  whole  earth  shall  he  be  called.— Isa.  liv.  5,  G. 

And  in  another  passage  in  the  form  of  a  comparison  : — 
For  as  a  yoiin>;  man  weddetli  a  virgin, 
So  shall  thy  Restorer  wed  thee : 
And  as  a  bridesrooiii  rejoiceth  in  his  bride, 
So  shall  thy  God  rejoice  in  thee. — Isa.  Ixii.  5. 

The  same  image  a  little  diversified,  and  with  greater 
freedom  of  expression,  as  better  adapted  to  the  display  of 
indignation,  is  introduced  by  Jeremiah  (ii.  2.  iii.  1,  &c.), 
when  he  declaiins  against  the  defection  of  the  Jews  from 
the  worship  of  the  true  God.  Upon  the  same  principle  the 
former  part  of  the  prophecy  of  Hosea  ought  also  to  oe  ex- 
plained ;  and  whetlier  that  part  of  the  prophecy  be  taken  in 
the  literal  and  historical  sense,  or  whether  it  be  esteemed 
altogether  allegorical,  still  the  nature  and  principles  of  this 
figure,  which  seems  consecrated  in  some  measure  to  this 
subject,  will  evidently  appear.  None  of  the  prophets,  how- 
ever, have  applied  the  image  with  so  much  boldness  and 
freedom  as  Ezekiel,  an  author  of  a  most  fervid  imagination, 
who  is  little  studious  of  elegance,  or  cautious  of  offendivig. 
His  great  freedom  in  the  use  of  this  image  is  particularly 
displayed  in  two  parables  (xvi.  and  xvii.),  in  which  he  de- 
scribes the  ingratitude  of  the  Jews  and  Israelites  to  their 
great  Protector,  and  their  defection  from  the  true  worships, 
under  imagery  assumed  from  the  character  of  an  adulterous 
wife,  and  the  meretricious  loves  of  two  unchaste  women. 
If  these  parables  (which  are  put  into  the  mouth  of  God  him- 
self with  a  direct  allegorical  application,  and  in  which,  it 
must  be  confessed,  that  delicacy  does  not  appear  to  be  par- 
ticularly studied,  according  to  our  refined  notions  of  deli- 
cacy)' be  well  considered,  we  are  persualed  that  the  Song 
of  Solomon  (which  is  in  every  part  chaste  ai;d  elegant)  will 
not  appear  unworthy  of  the  aivine  sense  in  which  it  is 
nsnalfy  taken,  either  in  matter  or  style,  or  in  any  degree 
inferior  either  in  gravity  or  purity  to  the  other  remains  ot  the 
sacred  poets.  To  these  instances  we  may  add  the  forty-fit'th 
psalm,  which  is  a  sacred  epithalamiitm,  of  the  allegorical 
application  of  which  to  the  union  between  God  and  the 
church  no  doubt  has  hitherto  been  entertained  ;  though  many 
suspect  it,  and  not  without  good  reason,  to  have  been  pro- 
duced upon  the  same  occasion,  and  with  the  same  relation 
to  a  real  fact,  as  the  Song  of  Solomon.  Neither  ought  we 
to  omit,  that  the  writers  of  the  New  Testami  nt  have  freely 
admitted  the  same  image  in  the  same  allegorical  sense  with 
their  predecessors,  a;nd  have  finally  consecrated  it  by  their 
authority. 

Thus  John  the  Baptist  beautifully  n  presents  Christ  as  the 
bridegroom ;  hiinselt,  as  his  friend  or  bridesman,  and  the 
church  as  his  spouse.^  (John  iii.  28.)  Oar  Lord  also  adopts 
the  title  of  Bridegroom  in  Matt.  ix.  15. ;  and  likewise  in  the 
parable  of  the  virgins  or  bride's  maids  attendant  upon  the 
marriage.  (Matt.  xxv.  1.)  "The  Lamb's  wife"  also,  the 
church,^  is  represented  as  a  "  bride  adorned  for  her  husband" 

«  On  the  alleged  Immorality  of  the  language  of  Scripture,  see  Vol.  I.  p. 
166. 

a  "In  the  prophetical  book  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,"  says  Bishop Hors- 
!ey,  "the  union  of  Christ  and  his  church  is  desci'ibed  in  iinaies  taken 
entirely  from  ihe  mutual  passion  and  early  love  of  Solomon  and  his 
bride.  Read  the  Song  of  Solomon,  you  will  find  the  Hebrew  king,  if  you 
know  any  thing  of  his  history,  produced,  indeed,  as  the  emblem  of  a 
greater  personage ;  but  you  will  find  Him  in  every  page."  Sermons,  vol. 
j.  p  73.  ad  edit. 

3  Commentators  in  communion  with  the  Romish  church,  not  content 
with  considering  the  Song  of  Solomon  as  adumbrating  the  union  of  Clu-ist 
and  his  church,  extend  it  also  to  tlie  union  of  Chri.'-t  with  the  Virgin  Mary. 
Such  is  the  notion  of  the  elegant  Italian  translator,  Melesigenio.  (Good's 
Song  of  Solomon,  Pref  p.  xxxiv.)  In  the  short  preface  prefixed  to  this 
lioiik  in  the  Dublin  edition  of  the  Anglo-Romish  liible  (1S25,  page  596.)  it  is 
afi'irmed,  that  "  the  spouse  of  Christis  the  church,  more  especially  as  to  the 
liiippiest  part  of  it,  viz.  perfect  souls,  every  one  of  which  is  his  beloved  ; 
but,  above  all  others,  the  immaculate  and  ever  blessed  virgin  mother ! !" 


(Rev.  xxi.  2 — 9.),  who  ought  to  be  "without  spot"  (Eph. 
v.  27.),  as  the  Shulamite  is  represented  to  be.  (Song  iv.  7.) 
And,  surely,  if  this  most  beautiful  pastoral  poem  had  not 
been  understood  in  a  sj)iritual  sense,  it  would  not  have  been 
admitted  into  the  sacred  canon  by  the  ancient  Jewish 
church.'  Nor  is  this  inconsistent  with  the  opinions  of  the 
ancient  Jews,  who,  as  well  as  Saint  Paul  ana  other  Chris- 
tian writers,  found  the  Messiaii  almost  every  Avhere  in  the 
Scriptures.  Lideed,  they  always  believed  their  economy  to 
be  peculiarly  under  the  protection  of  the  Messiah,  in  some 
one  or  other  of  his  characters,  as  the  Great  Angel  of  the 
covenant,  the  King  of  Israel,  or  the  Son  of  God.  In  particu- 
lar, they  applied  to  him  the  forty-fifth  psalm  (which,  of  all 
Scripture,  most  resembles  the  Song  of  Songs) ;  for  the  Chal- 
dee  paraphrase  on  the  second  verse  expressly  says, — "  Thy 
fairness,  0  King  Messiah/  exceedeth  the  sons  of  men."  In 
the  same  manner  they  applied  the  seventy-second,  liundred 
and  tenth,  and  various  other  psalms,  as  well  as  many  pas- 
sages of  the  prophets. 

Bishop  Lowth  restricts  this  sublime  allegory  to  the  uni- 
versal church,  and  conceives  that  it  has  no  reference  what- 
ever to  the  spiritual  state  of  individuals;  than  which  he 
conceives  nothing  can  be  more  inconsistent  with  the  nature 
and  ground-work  of  the  allegory  itself,  as  well  as  with  the 
general  practice  of  the  Hebrew  poets.  With  regard  to  the 
Psalms,  Bishop  Home  (we  think)  has  demonstrated  their 
spiritual  application  not  only  to  the  church  orenerally,  but 
also  to  believers  who  compose  the  individual  members  of 
that  church ;  and  that  the  Song  of  Solomon  is  to  be  legiti- 
mately and  soberly  interpreted  in  the  same  way,  it  is  appre- 
hended, will  satisfactorily  appear  from  the  following  addi- 
tional observations : — 

The  church  is  to  be  considered  as  composed  of  individual 
believers ;  and  that  there  is  an  analogy  between  the  conduct 
of  God  towards  his  church  in  general,  and  his  conduct  to- 
wards individuals,  is  plainly  indicated  in  many  parts  of  the 
New  Testament.  Thus,  sometimes  the  sacred  writers  com- 
pare the  whole  body  of  believers  to  a  temple,  in  which  they 
form  living  stones,  being  built  on  the  only  foundation,  Christ 
Jesus ;  at  other  times,  they  consider  individual  believers  as 
temples  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  (1  Cor.  iii.  16,  17.  Eph.  ii.  20 
— 22.)  So,  also,  they  sometimes  speak  of  the  church  as  one, 
— the  bride  the  Lamb's  wife ;  and  at  other  times,  of  distinct 
churches  or  individual  believers,  as  severally  married  to  the 
Lord.  (Rev.  xxi.  9.  2  Cor.  xi.  2.)  In  this  manner,  St.  Paul 
allegorizes  the  history  of  Hagar  and  her  mistress,  referring 
to  the  two  dispensations,  while  at  the  same  time  he  makes 
a  practical  application  of  it  to  the  consciences  of  the  Gala- 
tians.  (Gal.  iv.  22 — 31.) 

Further,  we  consider  the  allegory  as  designed  for  the 
purposes  of  piety  and  devotion,  which  cannot  be  so  well 
answered  without  such  an  application.  Though  this  argu- 
ment may,  at  first  view,  appear  weak,  it  will  be  strengthened 
when  we  recollect  the  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament,  that, 
"  whatsoever  things  were  written  aforetime  were  written  for 
our  learning;"  and  that  their  grand  design  is,  "to  make  us 
wise  unto  salvation,  through  faith  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus." 
This  shows  both  the  propriety  and  importance  of  a  particular 
application  of  scriptural  truths  to  the  circumstances  and  ex- 
perience of  individuals.  Religion  js  a  personal  thing;  and 
that  professor  is  a  hypocrite,  the  feelings  of  whose  heart  are 
not  influenced  by  it,  as  well  as  the  actions  of  his  life.^ 

The  fact  is,  that  much  of  the  language  of  this  poem  has 
been  misunderstood  by  expositors,  some  of  whom,  not  en- 
tering into  the  spirit  and  meaning  of  Oriental  poesy,  have 
caused  particular  passages  to  be  considered  as  coarse  and 

'  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  p.  400. 

5  Wdliari  s's  translation  of  the  Song  of  Songs,  pp.  113 — 115.  In  further 
confirmation  of  the  preceding  view  of  the  spiritual  design  of  this  sacred 
oriental  poem,  we  may  observe,  that  this  allegoric  mode  of  describing  the 
sacred  union  between  mankind  at  large,  or  an  individual  and  pious  soul, 
and  the  great  Creator,  is  common  to  almost  all  Eastern  poets  from  the 
earliest  down  to  the  present  age.  Without  such  an  esotci-ic  or  spiritual 
interpretation,  it  is  impossible  to  understand  many  passages  of  the  Persian 
poets  Sadi  and  Hafiz  :  and  the  Turkish  conmientators  on  them  have  uni- 
formly thus  inlorpreted  them ;  though  in  many  instances  they  have  pur- 
sued their  mystic  meaning  to  an  undue  length.  A  similar  emblenjatic 
mysticism  is  equally  conspicuous  in  the  bards  of  India  ;  and  the  Vedahtis 
or  Hindoo  commentators  liave  in  like  manner  attributed  a  double,  that  is, 
a  literal  and  spiritual  meaning  to  their  coujpositions.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  with  the  Gitagovinda,  or  Songs  of  Jayadeva,  the  subject  of  which 
is  the  loves  of  Chrishna  and  Radha,  or  the  reciprocal  attraction  between 
the  divine  goodness  and  the  soul  of  man  ;  and  the  style  and  imagery  of 
which,  like  those  of  the  royal  Hebrew  poet,  are  in  the  highest  degree 
llowery  and  amatory.  Good's  Song  of  Songs,  p.  xxii.  Kistenjaker,  Can- 
ticum  Canticorum  illustratum  ex  Hierographia  Orientalium,  PP- -^ — 40. 
Sir  William  Jones  has  given  several  examples  of  the  mystical  or  allegorical 
language  of  the  celebrated  Persian  poet,  Hafiz,  in  his  Dissertation  on  the 
Mystical  Poetry  of  the  Persians  and  Hindoos.  (Works,  vol.  iv.  p.  227.  Svo.) 


&ECT.  I.] 


ON  THE  PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRITINGS. 


253 


indelicate,  wiiioh,  in  the  oritrinnl,  are  altonrether  tlie  reverse; 
wliile  others  (as  tlie  learneii  Dr.  (Jill  for  instance)  have  so 
confounded  the  literal  and  allcgorieal  senses  as  to  {jive 
neither,  distinctly  or  conii)letcly ;  at  the  same  time,  they 
liave  applied  the  fiirurcs  to  siicii  a  variety  of  ohjeets,  as  to 
li-ave  the  reader  still  to  seek  the  right,  and,  by  their  minute 
dissection  of  llie  allegory,  they  have  not  only  destroyed  its 
o.onsist(,'ncy  and  heauty,  imt  have  also  ex])oscd  the  poem  to 
th(!  unmerited  ridicule!  of  profane;  minds.'  Mucii,  uM(|ues- 
lionahly,  has  been  done,  hy  later  writers,  towards  elucidating 
tlie  language  and  allusions  of  th(!  Song  of  Sonifs  hy  the  aid 
of  Oriental  literature  and  manners:  hut,  alter  all  the  lai)ours 
of  learned  me<n,  there  will  perliajjs  be  found  many  exjjres- 
sions  which  are  very  difficult  to  us,  both  as  to  the  literal 
meaning,  and  the  spiritual  instruction  intendiMl  to  he  convey- 
ed by  them;  and  sonii?  d<;scriptious  must  not  be  judged  by 
modern  notions  of  delicacy.  J5ul  the  grand  outlines,  nubtrhj 
iiUerprvltd,  in  the  obvious  meaning  of  the  allegory,  so  ac- 
cord with  tlie  alTections  and  ex])erience  of  the  sincere  Chris- 
tian, "that  he  will  hardly  ever  read  and  meditate  u])on  them, 
in  a  spirit  of  humble  devotion,  without  feeling  a  conviction 
that  no  other  poem  of  the  same  kind,  extant  in  the  world, 
could,  without  most  manifest  violence,  be  so  explained  as  to 
describe  the  state  of  his  heart  at  dillerent  times,  and  to  ex- 
cite admiring,  adoring,  grateful  love  to  God  our  Saviour,  as 
tliis  does."^ 

With  regard  to  the  style,  says  Bishop  I^owth,  this  poem 
is  of  the  pastoral  kind,  since  the  two  principal  personages 
are  represented  in  the  character  of  sheplierds.  The  circum- 
stanct!  is  by  no  means  incongruous  to  the  manners  of  tiie 
Hebrews,  whose  ])rincipal  occupation  consisted  in  the  care 
of  cattle  (CJen.  xlvi.  32 — 34.)  ;    nor  did  they  consider  this 


employment  as  beneath  the  dignity  of  the  highest  characters. 
Least  of  all,  could  it  be  supposed  to  be  inconsistent  vvitii  the 
character  of  Solomon,  whose  father  was  raised  from  tiie 
sheepfold  to  the  tiirone  of  Israel.  The  pastoral  life  is  not 
only  most  delightful  in  itself,  but  from  tlu>  jrarticular  circinu- 
stances  and  manners  of  the  Hebrews,  is  possei-sed  of  a  kind 
of  dignity.  In  this  poem  it  is  adorned  with  all  the  choicest 
colouring  of  language,  with  all  the  elegance  and  vari<;ty  of 
the  most  select  imagery.  "  Every  part  of  the  < -anticles," 
says  the  leariuul  and  eloijuent  IJossuet,  "abounds  in  poetical 
beauties;  the  objects,  wliicli  ])resent  themselves  on  every 
side,  are  the  choicest  j)lants,  the  most  beautiful  (lowers,  the 
most  delicious  fruits,  the  bloom  and  vigour  of  spring,  the 
sweet  verdure  of  the  fields,  flourishing  and  vvell-watcreci 
garilens,  phrasant  streams,  and  jierennial  fountains.  The  other 
senses  are  represented  as  regaled  with  the  most  precious 
odours  natural  and  artificial :  with  the  sweet  singing  of  birds, 
and  the  soft  voice  of  the  turtle;  with  milk  and  honev,  and 
the  choicest  of  wint;.  To  these  enchantments  are  added  all 
that  is  beautiful  and  graceful  in  the  human  fonn,  the  endear- 
ments, the  caresses,  the  delicacy  of  love ;  if  any  oi)ject  be 
introduced  which  seems  not  to  harmonize  with  this  delightful 
scene,  such  as  the  awful  prospect  of  tremendous  precipices, 
the  wildness  of  the  mountains,  or  the  haunts  of  lions,  its 
effect  is  only  to  heighten  by  the  contrast  the  beauty  of  the 
other  objects,  and  to  add  the  charms  of  variety  to  those  of 
grace  and  elegance."^ 

The  ("haklee  paraphrase  of  this  book  is  a  long  and  tire- 
some application  of  it  throughout  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
history  of  the  Jews.  The  Greek  version  of  it  is  tolerably 
exact ;  and  iios,  in  the  Frankfort  edition  of  the  Septuagiut 
(1709),  ascribes  it  to  Syminachus. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ON     THE      PROPHETS. 


SECTION  I. 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRITINGS. 

I.  The  prophetical  Boohs,  lohy  so  called. — II.  Different  kinds  of  Prophets  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. — III.  Situation  of  the 
Priphets,  and  their  J)dunner  of  JJvin^. — IV.  JMosaic  Statutes  concern'n^  Prophets. — Evidences  of  a  Divine  JMission. — 
V.  (Qualifications  of  the  Prophets. — VI.  JVatiire  of  the  prophetic  Inspiration. — VII  Jlnticjuity  and  Succession  of  the  Prophets. 
— VIII.  Collection  of  their  JVritings,  atidJilode  of  announcing  their  Predictions, — IX.  J\'umber  and  Order  of  the  Prophetic 
Books. 


T.  We  now  enter  on  the  fourth  or  prophetical  part  of  the 
Old  Testament,  according  to  the  division  which  is  generally 
adopted,  but  which  forms  the  second  division,  according  to 
the  Jewish  classification  of  the  sacred  volume.  This  portion 
of  the  Scriptures  is  termed  Prophetical,  because  it  chiefly 
consists  of  predictions  of  future  events ;  though  many  histo- 
rical passages  are  interspersed  through  the  writings  of  the 
prophets,  as  there  are  also  many  predictions  of  future  events 
scattered  through  those  hooks  which  are  more  strictly  histo- 
rical. But  these  books  also  contain  very  many  passages 
which  relate  to  other  subjects,  such  r.s  the  nature  and  attri- 
butes of  God ;  the  religious  and  moral  duties  of  man  ;  reproofs 
of  idolatry  and  other  sins ;  exhortations  to  the  practice  of 
true  religion  and  virtue;  together  with  advices  and  warnings 
respecting  the  political  state  of  the  country,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  affairs,  which  in  the  theocratical  f  >rni  of  govern- 
ment were  sent  to  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  Hebrews  by 
the  prophets  as  ambassadors  of  their  supreme  monarch, 
Jehovah.  The  authors  of  these  books  are,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, termed  Prophets,  that  is,  divinely  inspired  persons, 

>  The  chief  error  of  all  the  translators  of  this  book,  Dr.  Good  observes 
with  (jreat  tnUh,  "results  from  their  having  jjlven  reria/ renderings  of 
the  Hebrew  terms  and  idioms,  which  ousht  merely  to  have  been  translated 
eqiiivalenlly ;  a  method,  by  which  any  language  in  Itic  world,  when  inter- 
preted into  another,  may  not  only  occasionally  convey  a  meaning  altogether 
different  from  what  the  author  intended,  but  convert  a  term  or  phrase  of 
perfecf^iurity  and  delicacy,  in  its  original  import,  into  one  altogether  indeli- 
cate and  unchaste."  Song  of  Songs,  p.  xxvi.  Dr.  Good  illustrates  this 
remark  by  some  well-chosen  examples,  which  want  of  room  compels  us 
to  omit ;  but  the  result  of  its  application,  we  may  be  permitted  to  observe, 
was  his  very  elegant  and  delicate  version,  in  which,  though  he  a<lheres 
solely  to  the  literal  sense,  yet  he  decidedly  e.xprcsses  himself  (p.  xvili.)  in 
favour  of  the  mystical  meaning  of  the  poem. 

■>  Scott,  Prof  to  Sol.  Songs. 


who  were  raised  up  among  the  Israelites  to  be  the  ministers 
of  God's  dispensations.  Jehovah,  at  sundry  times  and  in 
divers  manners,  spake  unto  the  fathers  by  the  prophets  :  for 
prophecy  came  not  of  old  time  by  the  will  of  man,  but  holy 
men  of  God  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 
(Heb.  i.  1.  2Pet.  i.  21.) 

II.  To  these  messengers  of  heaven  frecjuent  reference  is 
made  in  various  parts  of  the  Sacred  Writings.  The  terra 
Prophet,  indeed,  is  of  general  signification.  It  was  applied 
by  the  heathens  to  all  persons  who  were  supposed  to  be  con- 
versant with  divine  things ;  and,  in  conformity  to  this  notion, 
St.  Paul,  in  his  Epistle  to  Titus  (i.  12.),  when  citing  a  pas- 
sage from  a  profane  poet,  calls  him  a  prophet,  because  the 
heathens  supposed  their  poets  to  be  inspired.  In  the  histori- 
cal books  ol^the  Old  Testament  we  meet  with  frequent  notice 
of  the  school  of  the  prophets,  that  is,  of  seminaries,  where  re- 
ligious truths,  or  the  divine  laws,  were  particularly  taught  :•> 
for  the  pupils  in  these  schools  were  not,  strictly  speaking, 
all  of  them  prophets ;  though  God  bestowed  upon  some  of 
them  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  or  of  predicting  future  events. 
(2  Kings  ii.  3.)  Further,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  nrophets 
are  spo^ten  of,  as  "  holy  men  of  God,""  as  "  seers,'  and  as 
'■'■prophets,''''  in  the  most  exalted  sense  of  the  term.  The  first 
denomination  seems  to  have  been  sometimes  applied  to  men 
of  exemplary  piety,  who  assiduously  studied  the  divine  law, 
as  communicated  by  their  legislator  Moses ;  who  firmly  be- 
lieved in  the  predictions  of  good  and  evil  that  should  attend 
the  Israelites  according  to  the  tenor  of  their  conduct;  who 
3  Bossuet,  Praef  in  Canlicum  Canticorum,  Oeuvres,  torn.  i.  p.  467.  4to. 

<  See  an  account  of  these  schools  in  Part  IV.  Chap.  VII.  Sect.  III.  §  I. 
of  tlus  volume. 


254 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE 


[Pakt  V.  Chap.  IV. 


were  observant  of  the  character  of  the  times  in  which  they 
lived ;  and  who  mirrht  he  able  to  discern  the  natural  and 
inevitable  consequences  of  particular  actions,  without  the 
necessity  of  immediate  inspiration.  These  men  of  God, 
however,  received  peculiar  communications  upon  certain 
emergencies.  They  were  divinely  appointed  to  execute  some 
important  commissions,  and  to  predict  events  which  were 
not  in  the  ordinary  course  of  thinjjs,  but  far  beyond  the  reach 
of  human  penetration.  It  was  tliis  which  sometimes  gave 
them  the  title  of  seers.  The  hjoher  class  of  prophets  were 
those  who  foretold  important  events  that  were  to  take  place 
at  distant  periods ;  which  no  human  sagacity  could  foresee, 
and  which  were  most  opposite  to  the  natural  conceptions  or 

foneral  expectations  of  mankind:  as  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Eze- 
iel,  and  the  minor  pro])hets.' 

III.  The  prophets,  according  to  Augustine,^  were  the  phi- 
losophers, divines,  instructors,  and  guides  of  the  Hebrews 
in  piety  and  virtue.  Tiiese  holy  men  were  the  l)ulwarks  of 
religion  against  the  impiety  of  princes,  the  wickedness  of 
individuals,  and  every  kind  of  immorality.  Their  lives,  per- 
sons, and  discourses  were  alike  instructive  and  prophetical. 
Raised  up  by  God  to  he  witnesses  of  his  presence,  and  living 
monuments  of  his  will,  the  events  that  frequently  happened 
to  them  were  predictions  of  what  was  about  to  befall  the 
Hebrew  nation.  Although  the  prophets  possessed  great 
authority  in  Israel,  and  were  highly  esteemed  by  pious  sove- 
reigns, who  undertook  no  important  affairs  without  consult- 
intf  them,  yet  their  way  of  life  was  exceedingly  laborious, 
an'd  they  were  very  poor,  and  greatly  exposed  to  persecution 
and  ill  treatment.  They  generally  lived  retired  in  some 
country  place,  and  in  colleges  or  communities,  where  they 
and  their  disciples  were  employed  in  prayer,  in  manual  la- 
bour, and  in  study.  Their  labour,  however,  was  not  such 
as  required  intense  application,  or  was  inconsistent  with  that 
freedom  from  secular  cares  which  their  office  required.  Thus, 
Elisha  quitted  his  plough,  when  Elijah  called  him  to  the 
prophetic  office  (I  Kings  xix.  19,  20.)  ;  and  Amos  (vii.  14.) 
tells  us  that  he  was  no  prophd,  neither  a  prophefs  son,  but  a 
herdsman,  and  a  gatherer  of  sycamore  fruit.  The  pupils  or 
sons  of  the  prophets,  who  lived  under  the  direction  of  Elijah 
and  Elisha,  erected  their  own  dwellings,  for  which  they  cut 
down  the  timber  that  was  requisite.  (2  Kings  vi.  1 — 4.) 

The  apparel  of  the  prophets  was  in  unison  with  the  sim- 
plicity of  their  private  life.  Elijah  was  clothed  with  skins, 
and  wore  a  leather  girdle  round  his  loins.  (2  Kings  i.  8.) 
Isaiah  wore  sackcloth  (xx.  2.),  which  was  the  ordinary  habit 
of  the  prophets.  Zechariah,  speaking  of  the  false  prophets 
who  imitated  externally  the  true  prophets  of  the  Lord,  says 
that  they  should  not  wear  a  rough  garment  (Heb.  a  garment 
of  hair)  to  deceive.  (Zech.  xiii.  4.)  Their  poverty  was  con- 
spicuous in  their  whole  life.  The  presents  they  received 
were  only  bread,  fruits,  and  honey ;  and  the  first-fruits  of  the 
earth  were  given  them,  as  being  persons  who  possessed 
nothing  themselves.  (2  Kings  iv.  42.)  The  woman  of  Shu- 
nem,  who  entertained  Elisha,  put  into  the  prophet's  chamber- 
only  what  was  plain  and  absolutely  necessary.  (2  Kings  iv. 
10. )  The  same  prophet  refused  the  costly  presents  of  Naaman 
(2  Kings  V.  16.),  and  pronounced  a  severe  sentence  upon  his 
servant  Gehazi,  who  had  clandestinely  obtained  a  part  of  them. 
(20 — 27.)  Their  frugality  appears  throughout  their  history  ; 
— for  instance,  the  wild  gourds,  which  one  of  the  prophets 
ordered  to  be  prepared  for  his  disciples.  (2  Kings  iv.  38 — 41.) 
The  angel  gave  Elijah  only  bread  and  water  for  a  long  jour- 
ney (1  Kings  xix.  6 — 8.)  ;  and  Obadiah,  the  pious  governor 
of  Ahab's  nousehold,  gave  the  same  food  to  the  prophets 
whose  lives  he  saved  in  a  cave.  (1  Kings  xviii.  4.  13.) 
Their  recluse,  abstemious  mode  of  living,  and  mean  apparel, 
sometimes  exposed  them  to  contempt  among  the  gay  and 
courtly:  it  was  probably,  the  singular  dress  and  appearance 
of  Elisha  which  occasioned  the  impious  scoffs  of  the  young 
men  of  Bethel.  (2  Kings  ii.  23.)  But,  in  general,  the  pro- 
phets were  regarded  with  high  esteem  and  veneration  by  the 
wise  and  good,  and  even  by  persons  of  the  first  rank  in  the 
state.  (1  Kings  xviii.  7.)  It  does  not  appear  that  the  prophets 
were  bound  by  any  vow  of  celibacy ;  for  Samuel  had  chil- 
dren, and  the  Scriptures  mention  the  wives  of  Isaiah  (viii.  3.) 
and  Hosea.  (L  2.)  But  the  prophets  maintained  a  very 
guarded  intercourse  with  the  female  sex,  as  is  evident  in  the 
conduct  of  Elisha  towards  his  benevolent  hostess.  (2  Kings 
iv.  27.) 

»  Dr.  Cohan's  Theological  Disquisition,  p.  275.  ef  seq.  Dr.  Gregory 
Sharpe's  Second  Argument  in  Defence  of  Christianity  from  Prophecy, 
pp.  1—20. 

»  De  Civitate  Dei  lib.  xviii.  c.  41. 


But,  however  they  might  be  respected  by  pious  monarchs, 
the  prophets  were  frequently  exposed  1o  cruel  treatment  from 
wicked  princes,  whose  impiety  they  reprehended,  and  to  in- 
sults and  jeers  from  the  people,  whose  immoral  practices 
they  censured  and  condemned;  and  many  of  them  were  even 
put  to  violent  deaths.  (Heb.  xi.  35 — 38.)  Yet,  amid  all 
these  persecutions  and  this  injurious  treatment,  they  despised 
dangers,  torments,  and  death,  and  with  wonderful  intrepidity 
attacked  whatever  was  contrary  to  the  law  and  worsliip  of 
Jehovah,  contemning  secular  honours,  riches,  and  favours 
with  astonishing  disinterestedness.^ 

IV.  "  Prophecy  being  necessary  in  the  early  ages  for  the 
preservation  of  tiie  knowledge  of  God,  in  the  Hebrew  com- 
monwealth prophets  were  not  merely  tolerated,  as  some  have 
supposed,  but  they  were*  also  promised,  lest  tiie  Hebrews 
should  have  recourse  to  soothsayers  who  were  idolaters,  and 
would  seduce  them  into  idolatry.  (Dent,  xviii.  9 — 22.)  But, 
that  advantage  might  not  be  taken  of  this  institution  l»y  false 
prophets,  Moses  decreed,  that  impostors  should  suffer  capital 
punishment;  and  furnished  the  judges  with  two  distinguish- 
ing marks,  by  which  a  false  prophet  might  be  known. 

"  1.  The  prophet,  who  should  endeavour  to  introduce  the 
worship  of  other  gods  beside  Jehovah,  was  to  be  considered 
as  an  impostor;  and,  as  a  rebel  against  their  king,  to  be 
capitally  punished.  (Deut.  xiii.  2 — 6.) 

"  2.  Whoever  should  predict  any  thing  which  was  not 
accomplished  by  the  event,  although  he  should  do  it  in  the 
name  of  Jehovah,  was  to  be  condemned  to  death,  as  an 
impostor  who  had  presumed  to  counterfeit  the  seal  of  their 
king.  (Deut.  xviii.  20 — 22.)  Hence  it  is  plain  that  the 
prophets  were  not  sagacious  men,  whose  perspicacity  enabled 
them  to  foresee  future  events ;  for  an  error  committed  by 
such,  and  unaccompanied  by  guilt,  would  never  have  receiv- 
ed from  Moses  so  severe  a  punishment." 

In  consequence  of  these  laws,  "  a  prophet  ran  a  great  risk 
in  undertaking  a  divine  mission,  unless  he  knew,  by  infallible 
proofs,  that  he  had  really  received  the  commands  of  the 
Deity,  and  was  not  deluded  by  his  own  imagination.  Of 
the  nature  of  these  proofs  we  are  not  informed,  although 
some  circumstances  are  recorded,  which  show  that  the 
prophets  were  certainly  possessed  of  them.  For  instance, 
it  is  mentioned  (1  Sam.  iii.  7.),  that,  at  first,  Samuel  did  not 
know  the  voice  of  God ;  and  Jeremiah  (xxxii.  6 — 9.)  con- 
fesses, that  it  was  the  correspondence  of  the  event,  which 
assured  him  that  the  direction  to  buy  the  field  of  his  relative 
had  come  to  him  from  God.  (Compare  also  Jer.  xxviii.  9.) 
The  proofs,  by  which  Moses  was  satisfied  respecting  his 
divine  commission,  are  recorded  at  length  in  Exod.  iii.  1. — 
iv.  17.  That  the  prophets  had  other  means  of  distinguishing 
divine  revelations  from  their  own  thoughts,  appears  from 
1  Sam.  xvi.  6,  7.  2  Sam.  vii.  1 — 17.  1  Chron.  xvii.  1 — 16. 
Isa.  xxxviii.  1 — 8.  2  Kings  xx.  1 — 11.  Occasionally,  the 
impression  made  by  the  revelation  was  so  strong,  that  it  was 
impossible  to  doubt  of  its  origin ;  so  that  they  confess  them- 
selves unable  to  refrain  from  speakino;,  as  in  Jer.  xx.  7 — 10. 
The  means,  indeed,  by  which  they  distinguished  their  own 
thoughts  from  divine  revelations,  they  could  not  express 
in  words;  just  as  it  is  impossible  to  explain  to  one  unac- 
quainted with  the  subject,  how  we  know  the  painter  of  a 
picture,  or  the  author  of  a  composition,  solely  by  his  style. 
To  the  hearers  and  first  readers  of  the  prophets  their  divine 
mission  was  proved  either  by  miracles  predicted,  and  accord- 
ingly performed ;  or,  if  such  were  not  granted,  by  the  event 
corresponding  with  the  prophecies:  for  the  prophecies  were 
of  a  twofold  description,  some  relating  to  proximate,  others 
to  remote  events.  Those  of  the  former  kind,  which  were 
clear,  and  contained  various  circumstances  of  the  predicted 
events,  which  must  necessarily  be  beyond  the  reach  of 
human  foresight,  afforded  by  their  completion  a  proof  to  the 
contemporaries  of  the  prophet  that  he  was  a  messenger  of 
God,  and  that  his  predictions  concerning  remote  events, 
coming  from  the  same  source  with  those  which  they  had 
seen  fulfilled,  were  worthy  of  equal  credit.'*  The  accom- 
plishment of  these  would  afford  to  posterity  the  proof  of  his 
divine  mission.  This  consequence  was  so  evident,  that  not 
a  few  even  of  the  heathens,  among  whom  Cyrus  may  be 
mentioned  as  a  most  remarkable  instance,  were  convinced 
by  it,  and  acknowledged  that  the  author  of  these  prophecies 

3  Calmet,  Preface  Gen6rale  sur  les  Prophi^tes,  Art.  3.  sur  la  Maniere  de 
Vie  desProphetes,  &c.  Dissert,  torn.  ii.  pp.  308—311. 

■<  Compare  1  Sam.  iii.  19—21.,  where  the  general  knowledge  of  the  fact; 
that  Samuel  was  a  divinely  commissioned  prophet,  is  stated  as  a  conse- 
quence of  God's  letting  none  of  his  words  fall  to  the  ground ;  that  is,  of  the 
regular  fulfilment  of  his  predictions. 


Sect.  I.] 

must  be  the  one  true  God 


It  was  necessary,  therefore, 
that  the  proplicts  should  secun;  the  credence  of  tlu'ir  contem- 
poraries HI  that  portion  of  tlieir  prophecies  wliich  ndatcd  to 
remote  events  l)y  some  predictions  respectinjr  events  of 
speedy  occurrence.  'I'his  accounts  for  the  I'act,  tiiat  the 
pro|)hetH  sometimes  predicted  proximate;  (ivents  of  litth?  mo- 
miMit  with  as  much  care  as  others  of  far  more  imj)ortance.^ 
('ompare  2  Sam.  xii.  14.  xxiv.  11 — 11.  1  Kin^s  xi.  31 — .'{!). 
xiii.  1 — 5.  xiv.  (>.  1'2.  Isa.  vii.  1 — KJ,'  xxxviii.  4 — H.  Jer. 
xxviii.  l(j,  17.  xxxvii.  1.  xxxviii.  '2H."' 

V.  In  consi(h'rinir  the;  circumotaiic(;s  ndativo  to  the  Hebrew 
pro|)h(ts,  tiie  tiuAJiUicATioNs  wliich  were  re(iuisitc  for  the 
prophetic  ollice  claim  distinctly  to  be  considered :  they  were 
two  in  number,  viz. 

1.  Thejirst  and  leading  qualification  was,  a  holy  charac- 
ter. 

"  As  this  is  tlie  uniform  sentiment  of  .Jewish  writers,  so 
it  is  confirnKMl  by  tbe  history  and  livens  of  tlir  ancient  |)ro- 
phets,  and  by  the  express  testimony  of  St.  Peter,  that  liolij 
men  of  God  spake  ua  they  were  moved  liij  the  llolij  Ghost, 
(2  Pet.  i.  21.)  Thoufrh  we  meet  with  some  instances  of 
wicked  men,  to  whom  God,  on  special  occasions,  imjtarted 
his  secret  counsels,  such  as  the  covetous  Balaam,  and  the 
idolatrous  kinjrs,  Pharaoh,  Abimelecb,an<l  Nebuebadiiezzar;'' 
yet  W(;  may  presume,  that  none  but  <rood  men  were  statedly 
honoured  willi  these  divine  communiealions  ;  and  especially 
tliat  none  but  such  were  employed  as  penmen  of  the  .Sacred 
Writinors.  The  declaration,  therefore,  of  Peter,  will,  doubt- 
less, apply  to  all  the;  prophetic  writers  of  the  Old  Testament. 
They  were  all  men  of  real  and  ex(Mnplary  liolincss.  The 
importance  of  personal  piety  and  virtue  in  the  extraordinary 
ministers  of  .Tehovah  will  account  for  his  wilbdrawiiiir  the 
spirit  of  prophecy  from  the  Hebrew  nation  in  the  latter 
stages  of  their  polity,  that  is,  from  Malachi  to  Christ; 
because  during  this  period  their  religious  and  moral  state 
was  universally  corrupt." 

2.  Tlie  mind  of  t/ie  prophet  must  be  in  a  serene  and  com- 
posed FRAME,  in  order  to  receive  the  spirit  of  inspiration. 

"  The  Jewish  doctors  tell  us,  that  a  mind  loaded  with 
fresh  guilt,  oppressed  with  sorrow,  or  disturbed  with  passion, 
could  not  duly  receive  and  exercise  this  heavenly  gift.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  David,  in  his  penitential  psalm,  after  the 
allair  of  Uriah,  prays  that  the  hulij  spirit  iiiii^ht  Ije  restored  to 
him,  that  God  would  give  him  joi/  and  gladness  and  a  free 
spirit ;  the  Hebrew  commentators  understand  by  these  ex- 
pressions, that  prophetic  spirit,  which  his  guilt  and  distress 
of  mind  had  banished,  and  that  peaceful  and  cheerful  frame, 
which  would  invite  its  return.  To  prove  that  passion  unfit- 
ted the  mind  for  the  prophetic  impulse,  they  plead  the  story 

»  The  j\ropliets  tliemselves  occasionally  refer  to  this  evidence  of  tlieir 
divine  mission,  and  draw  plainly  the  distinction  between  the  proximate 
events,  by  predicting  which  they  obtain  credence  for  their  other  prophe- 
cies, and  those  more  remote  which  it  was  their  principal  object  to  foretell. 
Compare  Isa.  xli.  22.  xlil.  9.  xliv.  7,  8.  .ler.  xxviii.  9. — For  an  eninneration 
of  prophecies  of  proximate  events,  and  tlieir  accomplislinient,  sec  Allix's 
Reflections  upon  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  ch.  3.  in  Bishop  \Vat- 
son's  Tracts,  vol.  i.  pp.  3.>S— 3G1. 

«  The  subject  of  tlic  evidence  of  the  divine  mission  of  the  projihets  is 
copiously  discussed  by  VVilsius  in  his  IMiscellanea  Sacra,  hb.  i.  c.  15.  de 
notis  vera.'  prophetia?  et  veri  proithetin;,  pp.  132 — 159. 

»  See  an  illustration  of  this  prediction  of  a  proximate  event  and  its  fulfil- 
niciil,  supra,  Vol.  1.  p.  121. 

«  I'rofessor  Turner's  and  Mr-  Whittingham's  translation  of  Jahn's  Intro- 
duction, pp.  31.3.  315. 

»  The  transient  vouchsafement  of  this  spirit  to  bad  men,  while  it  an- 
swered some  special  purpose  of  divine  wisdom,  admirably  displayed  the 
eovereisnty  of  God  in  using  the  inost  unliltcly  and  wickcil  instiunu'iits  Id 
serve  his  own  ilesign,  in  constraining  even  his  enemies  to  utter  lliofi' 
truths  and  predictions,  which  promoted  his  honour  and  interest,  and  sralcd 
their  own  condemnation  and  ruin.  Il  magnifieil  his  unsearchable  wisdom, 
holiness,  and  power  in  compelling  the  most  unhallowed  lips  to  proiiouuie 
his  pure  messases  without  the  lea.st  adulteration,  yea,  with  aslonisliing 
ennrgy  and  sublimity.  It  enforced  in  the  most  striking  manner  the  esscn- 
tial  distinctirm  between  splendid  and  even  miraculous  gifts,  and  sanctify- 
ing grace;  between  the  occasional  etTusio'ns  of  a  prophetic  spirit,  and 
the  genuine  workings  of  human  depravity.  These  lessons  are  forcibly 
tauahf  by  the  history  of  Balaam.  This  noted  macician  had  been  allured 
by  Balak,  king  of  Moab,  to  come  to  him,  with  a  view  to  curse  Israel,  wild 
then  lay  encamped  on  his  borders.  The  heathen  nations  believed  that 
prophets  or  iliviners  could,  by  reliirious  charms  or  ceremonies,  decoy  from 
their  enemies  their  tutelar  deities,  engage  the  celestial  powers  against 
them,  and  thus  ensure  their  destruction.  Thus  Homer  represents  the 
capture  of  Troy  as  di^pending  on  the  removal  from  that  city  of  the  sacred 
image  of  Minerva.  Tlie  pagans,  previously  to  a  military  engagement,  usu- 
ally employed  a  priest  to  pronounce,  at  the  head  of  the  army,  a  solemn 
imprecation  again.st  the  adverse  power.  But  though  Balaam  was  invited 
and  fully  inclined  to  perform  this  oflice  against  Israol,  infinite  goodness, 
power, -Olid  wisdom  turned  the  curse  into  a  blessing,  by  forcing  this  malig- 
nant enemy  of  his  people  to  announce,  in  the  most  lolty  strains,  their  pre- 
sent and  future  glory,  the  triumphs  of  their  divine  Lrader  and  future  Mes- 
siah, and  the  signal  destruction  of  his  and  their  adversaries.  We  see,  in 
this  and  similar  instances,  the  singular  beauty  of  the  divine  conduct ; 
which,  by  thus  inspiring  and  controlling  the  minds  of  sinful  men,  turned 
their  counsels  into  foolishness,  and  made  Uieir  wrath  and  wickedness  sub- 
servient to  his  praise. 


PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRITINGS. 


255 


of  Elisha;  who  being  requested  by  the  three  kings  of  Judah, 
Israel,  and  Edoin,  to  inquire  of  God  for  them  in  their  dis- 
trc'ss  for  water  during  a  military  expedition,  was  transported 
with  piotis  indignation  against  the  wicked  king  of  Israel : 
but  being  willing  to  oblige  the  good  king  of  Judah,  called 
for  a  minstrel  or  musician,  fur  the  apparent  purpose  of  calm- 
ing his  passion,  and  thus  prei)aring  liim  for  the  s])irit  of  in- 
spiration. Accordingly,  while  the  minstrel  idayed,  we  are 
told,  the  hand  of  tlie  Lord  came  upon  hint.  This  intimates 
one  important  reason  why  the  prophets  and  their  jiupils  cul- 
tivated sacred  music;  and  also  why  those  who  composed 
and  sung  divine  liyinns  are  sometimes  styled  prophets;  viz. 
because  in  many  cases  tiiis  iieavcnly  art  was  not  only  assist- 
ed by,  hut  wonderfully  fitted  persons  for,  celestial  coniinuni- 
cations."<i 

3.  Though  prophecy  was  a  perfectly  gratuitous  gift  of 
(»od,  and  independent  on  human  industry,  yet  it  did  not  ex- 
clude Ai'i'LicATio.N  A.ND  STLDY,  for  the  purposc  of  asccrtaiu- 
in<r  the  meaninir  of  a  particular  prophecy. 

Thus,  Daniel  prayed  and  fasted  in  order  that  he  niiglit 
know  the  mystery  of  the  seventy  weeks  which  had  been 
predicted  by  Jeremiah.  (Dan.  ix.  2.)  Zechariah  applied 
himself  seriously  to  the  study  of  prophecy  (2  Ciiron.  xxvi. 
5.)  ;  and  St.  I'eter  states,  that  this  was  the  employment  of 
th(!  ancient  prophets.  (1  Pet.  i.  10,  11.) 

VI.  (ireat  diversity  of  opinion  has  prevailed  respecting 
the  nature,  extent,  permanency,  and  different  degrees  of  in- 
spiration which  tbe  prophets  possessed.  Not  to  enter  into  a 
useless  discussion  or  conflicting  sentiments,  we  may  remark, 
that  the  communication  between  God  and  man  is  l)y  prayer, 
by  tbe  word  of  God,  and  by  his  works  :  in  old  times  it  was 
also  by  the  prophets,  and  before  them  by  the  angel  of  the 
Lord,  and  the  proper  symbols  of  the  divine  presence.  Man- 
kind, at  first,  consulted  God  by  prayers  and  sacrifices  at  his 
altars.  After  the  promulgation  of  the  law  from  Mount  Sinai, 
and  the  establishment  of  the  priesthood,  we  find  three  modes 
of  communicating  the  divine  will  mentioned  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament: — 1.  The  Shechinah: — 2.  The  Urim  and  Thurn- 
miin ;  and, — .3.  Revelation  by  Dreams,  Visions,  hy  Inspira- 
tion, or  by  immediate  Conversation  with  the  Deity.  When 
these  kinds  of  j)rophecy  ceased  under  the  second  temple,  ac- 
cordinoi^  to  the  Talmuaists,  they  were  succeeded,  4.  liy  the 
Bath  Kul,  or  voice  from  heaven. 

1.  The  Shechinah  was  the  sitting  or  dwelling  of  God 
between  the  cherubim  on  the  mercy-seat,  or  cover  of  the  ark 
(Psal.  Ixxx.  1.  and  xcix.  1.)  ;  whence  he  delivered  his  an- 
swers in  an  articulate  voice.  (Exod.  xxv.  22.  xxix.  42. 
Num.  vii.  89.) 

2.  The  Urim  and  Thummim,  which  was  on  the  high- 
priest's  breastplate  (Exod.  xxviii.  30.),  was  another  stand- 
ing oracle,  to  be  consulted  on  all  great  occasions  (Num. 
xxvii.  21.  1  Sam.  xxviii.  6.  xxiii.  9.  xxx.  7.  Ezra  ii.  63.); 
and  the  answers  were  returned  by  a  visible  signification  of 
the  divine  will.  This  oracle  was  not  only  venerable  among 
the  Jews,  but  was  also  celebrated  among  the  Greeks,  as 
Josephus  informs  us,^  for  its  infallible  answ"ers. 

3.  Another  mode  of  revealing  the  divine  will  was  by 
Dreanus  and  Visions,  by  Inspiration,  or  a  Conversation  with 
THE  Deity. 

(1.)  Dreams,  or  (to  adopt  the  elegant  expressions  of  the 
Temanite)  Thoughts  from  the  visions  of  the  night,  when  deep 
sleep  fulleth  on  man  (Job  iv.  1(5.),  are  frequently  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures  as  channels  by  which  the  divine  will  was 
communicated  to  mankind.  Abimelech  was  re|)roved  and 
admonished  in  a  dream  concerinng  Sarah  (Gen.  xx.  3.)  ;  and, 
to  Abraham,  by  a  prophetic  dream,  were  announced  the 
bondage  of  his  posterity  in  Egypt,  and  their  deliverance, 
accompanied  with  the  promise  of  long  life  to  himself  before 
he  should  he  gatherecl  to  his  fathers.  (Gen.  xv.  12 — IG.) 
The  dreams  ot  Joseph,  and  of  Pharaoh  and  his  servants, 
were  divine  (Gen.  xxxvii.  5.  xl.  5.  xli.  1.)  ;  as  also  was  that 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  concerning  the  fate  of  many  kingdoms 
(Dan.  ii.  1.)  All  these  were  worthy  of  the  divine  interpo- 
sition, and  carried  the  evidence  of  their  divine  original  by 
the  revelations  they  made,  and  the  strong  impressions  they 
left  upon  the  mind.s 

(2.)  Visions  were  revelations  made  in  a  trance  orecstacy, 
duritiff  which  ideas  and  symbolic  representations  were  pre- 
sented to  the  imagination  of  the  prophet,  when  awale,  or 

«  Tappan's  Lectures  on  .lewish  Antiquities,  pp.  191 — 193. 

■■  .\nt.  .lud.  lib.  iii.  c.  8.  (al.  9.)  §  9. 

'  Sharpe's  Second  Argmni'iit  in  Defence  of  Chri.stianily  from  Prophecy, 
pp.  '20—28.  Jalm,  Introductio  ad  Vet.  Feed.  §  86.  HI.  VVitsii  Miscellanea 
Sacra,  lib.  i.  c.  5. 


256 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE 


[Paht  V.  Chap.  IV. 


the  future  was  exhibited  as  it  were  in  distant  prospect. 
Thus,  Isaiah  beheld  the  Lord  sittiug  upon  a  lofty  throne,  his 
train  filling  the  temple,  above  Avhicli  stood  seraphim,  who 
alternately  proclaimed  liis  praises.  (Isa.  vi.  2,  3.)  While 
Ezekiel  was  among  the  captives  by  the  river  Chebar,  the 
heavens  were  opened,  and  he  beheld  the  visions  of  God, 
which  he  has  described,  (ch.  i.)  To  this  class  of  divine 
manifestations  is  supposed  to  belong  the  revelation  made  to 
Jeremiah,  concerning  the  girdle  which  he  was  commanded 
to  conceal  near  the  rTver  Euphrates,  and  to  resume  it  after  it 
had  become  decayed.  (Jer.  xiii.  1 — I).)  Indeed,  it  is  not 
credible,  that  the  prophet  should  have  been  sent  twice  upon 
a  journey  of  such  considerable  length  and  difficulty  (for  the 
Euphrates  is  computed  to  have  been  eighteen  or  twenty  days 
distant  from  Jerusalem),  to  a  very  great  loss  of  his  time, 
when  every  purpose  would  have  been  answered  altogether 
as  well,  if  the  transaction  had  been  represented  in  vision. 
The  same  supposition  of  a  vision  must  be  admitted  in  other 
cases  also,  particularly  in  Jer.  xxv.  15 — 29. ;  for  it  would  be 
absurd  to  believe  ihat  Jeremiah  actually  went  round  with  a 
cup  in  his  hand  to  all  the  kings  and  nations  enumerated  in 
that  chapter,  and  made  them  drink  of  its  contents.  Micaiah, 
in  vision,  beheld  the  Lord  sitting  upon  his  throne,  surround- 
ed by  the  celestial  host,  and  all  Israel  scattered  upon  the 
hills.  (1  Kings  xxii.  17 — 19.)  Other  instances  of  revela- 
tions by  visions  may  be  seen  in  Num.  xxiv.  15.  Ezek.  iii. 
1.  iv.  5.  12.  15.  viii.  1.  ct  scq.  Dan.  vii.  Acts  x.  9,  10.  2 
Cor.  xii.  1 — 3.  Many  of  the  scenes  represented  in  the  Apo- 
calypse were  in  vision.'  In  Job  iv.  13 — 16.  there  is  a  de- 
scription of  a  vision  by  Eliphaz  the  Temanite,  which,  for 
sublimity,  is  unrivalled  by  any  production  of  ancient  or  of 
modern  poetry.  "  Midnight,  solitude,  the  deep  sleep  of  all 
around,  the  dreadful  chill  and  erection  of  the  hair  over  the 
whole  body, — the  shivering  not  of  the  muscles  only,  but  of 
the  bones  themselves, — the  gliding  approach  of  the  spec- 
tre,— the  abruptness  of  his  pause, — his  undefined  and  inde- 
scribable form,  are  all  powerful  and  original  characters, 
which  have  never  been  given  with  equal  etfect  by  any  other 
writer."^ 

(3.)  Inspiration  was  a  third  mode  by  which  the  divine 
designs  were  manifested  to  the  prophets  ;  by  which  term  we 
are  to  understand  "  a  suggestion  of  ideas  to  the  understanding, 
without  such  representations  to  the  fancy  as  the  former  me- 
thods imply.  Maimonides,  one  of  the  most  rational  and 
learned  ot  the  Jewish  doctors,  explains  this  inspiration  to  be 
a  divine  impulse,  enabling  and  nrging  the  subject  of  it  to 
utter  psalms  and  hymns,  or  useful  moral  precepts,  or  matters 
civil,  sacred,  and  divine ;  and  that,  while  he  is  awake,  and 
has  the  ordinary  use  and  vigour  of  his  senses.  Such  was 
the  inspiration  of  Zacbarias  and  Elizabeth,  who  on  a  veiy 
interesting  occasion  are  said  to  have  '  btenfilkd  with  the  Holy 
Ghost,''  and  to  have  uttered  the  most  sublime  acknowledg- 
ments or  predictions.  (Luke  i.  41,  42.  G7 — 79.)  Such,  too, 
was  the  inspiration  of  the  ancient  prophets  in  general,  who 
^  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  GliostJ'  This  sacred 
impulse  was  of  a  calm  and  gentle  nature,  and  thus  was 
clearly  distintruished  from  the  fanatical  inspiration  of  heathen 
diviners.^  ifut  the  prophets  of  the  true  God  were  only 
'  moved,'  that  is,  calmly  influenced  by  his  inspiring  spirit. 
This  influence,  far  from  suspending,  added  vigour  and  ele- 
vation to  their  own  reason  and  prudence."'' 

(4.)  But  the  most  eminent  of  all  the  modes  of  communi- 
cating the  divine  will  to  man  was,  a  direct  Conversation 
WITH  God.  It  is  especially  recorded  of  Moses,  that  there 
arose  no  prophet  subsecpiently,  like  unto  him,  ivhom  the  Lord 
knew  face  to  face,  (Deut.  xxxiv.  10.)  This  lias  been  termed 
the  Mosaical  Im^piration  :  it  was  the  highest  degree,  and  was 
characterized  by  the  following  circumstances,  which  distin- 
guished it  from  the  revelations  made  to  the  rest  of  the  pro- 
phets: — 1.  Moses  was  made  partaker  of  these  divine  reve- 
lations, while  he  was  awake  (Num.  xii.  6 — 8.),  whereas 
God  manifested  himself  to  all  the  "other  prophets  in  a  dream 
or  vision. — 2.  Moses  prophesied  without  the  mediation  of 
any  angelic  power,  by  an  influence  derived  immediately  from 
God,  while  in  all  other  prophecies  some  angel  appeared  to 
the  prophet. — 3.  All  the   other  proj)hets  were   atraid,  and 

1  Wilsii  Miscellanea  Sacra,  lib.  i.  c.  3.  §  ix.  pp.  19,  20.  Dr.  Blayncy,  on 
Jer.  xiii.  4. 

»  Dr.  Good's  Translation  of  .lob,  p.  51. 

3  Virgil  in  his  sixlliiEneiii  represents  tlie  sibyl,  when  tlir  prophetic  spirit 
sei?;ed  lier,  as  perfectly  frantic,  as  struj;f;li'ig  in  vain  to  shal<c  off  tlie  deity 
that  inspired  her,  and  as  irresistibly  forced  to  utter  Jiis  dictates.  (JEn.  vi. 
47.  et  seq.  77.  et  sfq.)  Lucan  descrilies  the  Pythian  prophetess  in  the  same 
niamier.  (Lib.  v.  v.  142—218.) 

«  Tappaii's  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities,  p.  199. 


troubled  and  fainted ;  but  Moses  was  not  so.  To  him  the 
Lord  spake,  face  to  face,  us  a  man  speaketh  unto  his  friend 
(Exod.  xxxiii.  11.),  that  is,  freely  and  familiarly,  without 
fear  and  trembling. — 4.  Not  one  of  the  other  prophets  could 
utter  predictions  at  their  pleasure ;  but  INIoses,  on  whom  the 
spirit  of  pro])hecy  rested  at  all  times,  was  free  to  prophesy, 
and  might  have  recourse  at  any  time  to  the  sacred  oracle  in 
the  tabernacle,  which  spake  from  between  the  cherubim.* 

"  In  all  the  cases  here  described,  the  prophets  could  not, 
without  doubtiiiCT  the  clearest  and  most  pal])able  evidence, 
distrust  the  truth  of  the  revelations  which  they  received  ; 
and,  with  respect  to  us,  we  have  ample  reason,  from  a  col- 
lective consideration  of  their  writings,  to  be  convinced  that 
their  inspiration  was  accompanied  with  sufficient  characli  rs 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  dreams  of  enthusiasm,  or  the  vi- 
sions of  fancy.""  Though  their  bodily  strength  was  some- 
times overpowered  by  the  magnitude  of  their  revelations,  and 
their  eyes  were  dazzled  with  the  splendour  of  the  visionary 
light,  as  in  the  instances  of  Daniel  (x.  5 — 9.)  and  the  apostle 
John  (Kev.  i.  17.),  yet  they  retained  full  possession  ot  their 
understanding,  and  the  free  exercise  of  their  reason.  The 
prophetical  spirit,  seating  itself  in  the  rational  powers,  as 
well  as  in  the  imagination,  never  alienated  the  mind,  but  in 
formed  and  enlightened  it;  and  those  who  were  actuated  by 
it  always  maintained  a  clearness  and  consistency  of  reason, 
with  strength  and  solidity  of  judgment.  For  God  did  not 
employ  idiots  or  fools  for  the  purpose  of  revealing  his  will, 
but  those  whose  intellects  were  entire  and  perfect,  and  he 
imprinted  so  clear  a  copy  of  his  truth  upon  them,  that  it  be- 
came their  own  sense,  being  digested  fully  into  their  under- 
standings, so  that  they  were  able  to  represent  it  to  others  as 
truly  as  any  person  can  express  his  own  thoughts.'  And 
if  at  any  time  they  did  not  clearly  understand  the  prophetic 
revelation  communicated  to  them,  they  asked  for  an  expla- 
nation :  such  was  the  conduct  of  Daniel  (Dan.  ix.  18 — 23. 
X.  1.  et  seq.),  and  of  Zechariah.  (i.  9.  iv.  4.  vi.  4,  5.) 

When  the  various  kinds  of  prophecy  above  enumerated 
ceased  under  the  second  temple,  they  were  succeeded,  ac- 
cording to  the  Talmudist,  by 

4.  Ihe  Bath  Kol,  voice  from  heaven,  or  the  aerial  regions, 
daughter-voice,  or  duuglder  of  a  voice,-  because,  on  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  divine  cr?.cle,  this  came  in  its  place  as  its  daugh- 
ter or  successor.  Some  expositors  have  imagined,  that  this 
voice  is  alluded  to  in  John  xii.  28.,  but  there  appears  to  be  no 
foundation  for  such  a  conjecture.  Dr.  Prideaux,  however, 
has  shown,  that  the  Bath  Kol  was  no  such  celestial  voice  as 
the  Talmudists  pretend,  but  only  a  fantastical  way  of  divi- 
nation of  their  own  invention,  like  the  Sortes  llrgilianse 
among  the  heathens :  for  as,  with  them,  the  words  of  the 
poet,  upon  which  they  first  di])pcd,  were  the  oracle  whereby 
they  prognosticated  those  future  events,  concerning  which 
they  were  desirous  of  infornnition ;  so,  among  the  Jews, 
when  they  appealed  to  Bath  Kol,  the  next  words  which  they 
heard  from  any  one  were  regarded  as  the  desired  divine 
oracle.8 

Some  of  the  adversaries  of  the  Bible  have  represented  the 
Hebrew  prophets  as  public  incendiaries,  who  perpetually 
denounced,  and  frequently  brought,  calamities  upon  their 
country,  merely  on  account  of  religious  opinions.  For  such 
charge  there  is  no  other  ground  but-ttiis,  viz.  that  the  prophets 
constantly  testified  against  idolatry,  equally  among  rulers 
and  people.  It  will  be  recollected,  that  idolatry  in  the  He- 
brew nation  was  high-treason  aoainst  their  own  constitution, 
and  Jehovah  their  king.  Idolatry  directly  forfeited  their 
territory  and  privileges  :  it  was  an  inlet  to  every  abomination  ; 
it  defeated  tlie  great  end  for  w'hich  that  people  was  selected  ; 
and  in  their  fundamental  laws  the  most  tiestructive  calamities 
were  denounced  against  it.  Consequently,  the  prophels,  in 
boldly  arresting  tiiis  evil,  even  at  the  hazard  of  their  own 
lives,  showed  themselves  to  be,  not  the  malignant  disturbers, 
but  the -truest  and  most  disinterested  friends  of  their  country  : 
especially  as  by  this  condvict  they  executed  the  benevolent 
commission  with  which  Jehovah  had  intrusted  them; — a 
commission  intended  not  to  destroy,  but,  if  possible,  to  save 

'  Smith's  Select  Discourses  on  Prophecy,  ch.  xi.  Witsii  Miscell.  Sacr. 
lib.  i.  c.  7. 

6  l!p.  (.'ray's  Key,  p.  325. 

1  Siiiitti's  Select' Discourses,  pp.  100.  et  spq. 

8  Prideaiix's  (Connection,  part  ii.  bool<  5.  sub  anno  107.  vol.  ii.  pp.  328,  329. 
Tlie  Christians,  after  (.Mirislianity  began  to  be  corrupted,  learnt  from  the 
heathen  the  same  mode,  of  divination,  and  used  the  Bible  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  heathen'bad  employed  the  poems  of  Virgil.  In  [)p.  329, 
.330.  Dr.  Prideaux  has  given  some  remarkable  instances  of  this  absurd 
mode  of  penetrating  into  futurity.  See  also  Smith's  Select  Discourses :  on 
Prophecy,  ch.  10. 


SiECT.  I.] 


PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRITINGS. 


257 


that  people,  by  checking  those  crimes  which  were  pregnant 
with  ruin. I 

Vli,  Antiquity  and  vSuccession  of  the  Prophets. 

Prophecy  is  one  of  the  most  stril<ing  proofs  of  the  tnie 
religion  ;  and  as  religion  has  existed  in  every  age,  propiiecy 
equally  subsisted  from  the  commencement  of  the  world. 

The  Jews^  reckon  tbrty-(!ight  pro|)iiets,  and  seven  prophet- 
esses ;  Clement  of  Alexandria'  enumeratLS  thirty-live  proj)hets 
who  flourished  subsetjuenlly  to  Moses;  and  Kjiiphanius, 
sixty-three  i)ro))liets  aiid  twelve  prophetesses.  VVitsius,  an(l 
some  oth(!r  modern  critics,  divide  the  s<!ries  of  proj)het.s  into 
three  periods,  during  which  Gud  at  nundry  linien  una  in  divers 
tiianiicrs  npulic  unto  the  fallum  of  the  .lewish  nation  (lleb.  i. 
1.);  viz.  1.  Prophets  wiio  flourished  before  the  giving  of 
the  Law  of  Moses; — '2.  Pro|)liels  wiio  flourished  under  the 
Jjaw; — and,.*}.  Proi)hets  who  flourisiied  under  the  period 
comprised  in  the  New 'I'estament. 

I.  Prophets  who  Jlourixhcd  before  the  giving  of  the  Law  of 
Mones  were,  Adam,  Knoch,  Lamech  (Gen.  v.  2'J.),  Noah, 
Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Joseph,  Job,  and  his  friends,  and 
Balaam.  The  prophetesses  in  this  period  were  JSarali, 
Hagar,  and  Rebecca. 

II.  Prophets  who  Jlourished  under  the  Law,  of  whom  there  are 
four  series. 

1.  Prophets  in  the  Desert: — Moses,  Aaron,  the  prophetess 
Miriam,  the  seventy  elders.  (Num.  xi.  10,  17.  2i — 
30.) 

2.  Prophets  in  the  land  of  Canaan : — Joshua ;  an  anony- 
mous prophet  (Judg.  vi.  8 — 10.),  another  anonymous 
prophet  who  denounced  the  divine  judgments  to  Eli  (1 
tSam.  ii.  27 — 30.);  the  prophetesses  Deborah  and  Han- 
nah; Samuel,  Nathan,  Gad,  Asaph,  Heman,  Jeduthun, 
David,  Solomon,  Ahijah  the  Shilonite  (1  Kings  xi.  2^. 
xiv.),  Shcmaiah  (2  Chron.  xi.  2.  xii.  5.  10.),  Iddo  (2 
Chron.  xii.  15.  xiii.  22.),  the  man  of  God  who  went 
from  Judah  and  prophesied  against  the  altar  erected  by 
Jeroboam  at  LJethel,  and  the  old  projdiet  who  dwelt  at 
JJethel  (2  Kings  xiii.  19.),  Azariah  the  son  of  Oded  (2 
Chron.  xv.  1.),  Oded  (2  (Jhron.  xv.  8.),  who,  perhaps, 
is  the  same  with  Iddo  above  mentioned,  Hanauiah  the 
seer  (2  Chron.  xvi.  7.),  Jehu  the  son  of  Hananiah  (2 
Kings  xvi.  1.  2  Chron.  xix.  1.),  Elijah,  Micaiah  the  son 
of  Imlah  (2  Kings  xxii.  25.),  an  anonymous  prophet 
who  rebuked  Ahab  for  suflering  Henhadad  king  of  Sy- 
ria to  escape  (1  Kings  xx.  35 — 13.),  Jahaziel  the  son  of 
Zachariah  (2  Chron.  xx.  11.),  Eliezer  the  son  of  Doda- 
vah  (2  Chron.  xx.  37.),  Elisha,  Zachariah  the  son  of  Je- 
hoiaua  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  20,  21.),  an  anonymous  prophet 
who  dissuaded  Amaziah  the  son  of  Joash  from  under- 
taking an  expedition  against  the  Edomites,  with  an  auxi- 
liary army  of  Israelites  (2  Chron.  xxv.  7.),  Obed  (2 
Chron.  xxviii.  9.),  Urijah  the  son  of  Shemaiah,  of  Kir- 
jath-Jearim  (Jer.  xxvi.  20.),  Jonah,  Ilosea,  Amos,  Joel, 
Isaiah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Obadiah,  Zepha- 
niah,  Jeremiah,  and  the  prophetess  Huldah.  (2  Kings 
xxii.  It.) 

3.  Prophets  during  the  Babylonish  Captivity : — Ezekiel  and 
Daniel. 

•1.  Prophets  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  .Captivity : 
— H^ggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  who  was  the  last  of 
the  prophets  as  it  respects  the  prophetic  office,  but  not 
as  respects  the  gil"t  ot  prophecy,  it  we  may  credit  what 
Josephus  relates  of  the  high-priest  Jaddus  or  Jaddua, 
and  the  relation  of  the  author  of  the  second  book  of 
Maccabees  concerning  Judas  Maccabajus.  (2  Mace.  xv. 
12.) 

III.  Prophets  who  flourished  under  the  Period  comprised  tn  the 
New  Te.stumenI : — Zacharias,  Simeon,  and  John  the  Bap- 
tist, until  Christ;  and  after  his  ascension,  Agabus  (Acts 
xi.  28.  xxi.  11.),  the  apostles  Paul,  and  John  the  author 
ot  the  Apocalypse,  besides  other  prophets  who  are 
mentioned  in  1  Cor.  xii.  28.  xiv.  29 — 32.  Eph.  ii.  20.  iii. 
5.  and  iv.  11.,  of  whom  it  is  not  necessary  to  treat  in  this 
part  of  the  present  volume,  which  is  appropriated  to  the 
consideration  of  the  writings  of  those  prophets  who  flou- 
rished under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation,  which  have 
been  transmitted  to  us.^ 

VIII.  The  early  prophets  committed  nothing  to  writino- : 
their ■»  predictions    being   only,  or  chiefly,  of   a  temporary 

>  Tappan's  LocUires,  p.  205.  o  MegiUah,  c.  I. 

3  Siioiiiata,  lib.  i.  (Op.  torn.  i.  pp.  3ai— S,*^.  edit.  Potter.) 

*  (.^aliiiet,  Preface  Generate  sur  les  Propliete.s,  Ui:>sertalions,  torn   ii.  pp 

305—30/.     Wlusii  Misrell.  Sacr.  lib.  i.  cc.  16—21.  pp.  161—323.     Carnzovji 

lutnid.  ad  L:bios  Biblicos  Vet.  Test,  pars  iii.  pp.  68  61>. 
Voi..  11.  i:  K 


nature,  are  inserted  in  the  historical  books,  together  with 
their  fulfilment.  Such  appears  to  have  been  the  case  with 
Elijah,  Elisha,  Micaiah,  and  others;  but  those  who  were 
gifted  with  the  si)irit  of  prophecy  in  its  most  exalted  sense,  and 
were  commissioned  to  utU^r  predictions,  the  accomplishment 
of  which  was  as  yet  far  distant,  were  directed  to  write  them,  or 
cause  them  to  be  written,  in  a  book.  (Compare  Isa.  viii.  1. 
xxx.  8.  Jer.  XXX.  2.  xxxvi.  2.  28.  Ezek.xliii.il.  Ilab.  ii. 
2,  &e.')  The  predictions,  thus  committed  to  writing,  wero 
carefully  preserved,  under  a  conviction  that  tlicy  ct.^itained 
iiiijiortant  Inilhs,  thereafter  to  be  rnon;  fully  revealed,  which 
were  to  receive  their  accomplishment  at  the  a])pointed 
|)eri(;ds.  It  was  also  the  office  of  the  prophets  to  commit  to 
writing  the  history  of  the  Jews;'  and  it  is  on  this  account 
that,  in  the  Jewish  classification  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  we  find  several  historical  writings  arrano-ed 
among  the  nrophets.  Throughout  their  prophetic  and  his- 
torical books,  the  utmost  plainness  and  sineerity  prevail. 
'I'hey  record  the  idolatries  of  the  nation,  and  foretell  the 
judgments  of  tiod  which  were  to  befall  the  Jews  in  conse- 
(pience  of  their  forsaking  his  worship  and  service ;  and  they 
have  transmitted  a  relation  of  the  crimes  and  misconduct  of 
their  best  j)rinces.  David,  Solomon,  and  others, — who  wero 
types  of  the  Messiah,  and  who  expected  that  he  would 
descend  from  their  race,  regarding  the  glories  of  their  seve- 
ral reigns  as  nresages  of  His, — are  described  not  only  with- 
out flattery,  out  also  without  any  reserve  or  extenuation. 
They  write  like  men  who  had  no  regard  to  any  thing  but 
truth  and  the  glory  of  God. 

The //irt?i/it?- in  which  the  prophets  announced  their  pre- 
dictions varied  according  to  circumstances.  Sometimes  they 
uttered  them  aloud  in  a  public  place  ;  and  it  is  in  allusion  to 
this  practice  that  Isaiah  is  commanded  to  "  cry  aloud,  spare 
not,  lift  up  his  voice  like  a  trumpet,  and  show  the  people  of 
God  their  transgressions,  and  the  house  of  Jacob  their  sins." 
(Isa.  Iviii.  1.)  Sometimes  their  predictions  were  aflixed  to 
the  gates  of  the  temple,  where  they  might  be  generally  read 
(Jer.  vii.  2.);  but,  upon  important  occasions,  "when  it  was 
necessary  to  rouse  the  fears  of  a  disobedient  people,  and  to 
recall  them  to  repentance,  the  prophets,  as  objects  of  univer- 
sal attention,  appear  to  have  walked  about  publicly  in  sack- 
cloth, and  with  every  external  mark  of  humiliation  and 
sorrow.  They  then  adopted  extraordinary  modes  of  express- 
ing their  convictions  ot  impending  wrath,  and  endeavoured 
to  awaken  the  a))prehensions  of  their  countrj'men,  by  the 
most  striking  illustrations  of  threatened  punishment.  Thus 
Jeremiah  made  bonds  and  yokes,  and  put  them  on  his  neck 
(Jer.  xxvii.),  strongly  to  intimate  the  subjection  that  God 
would  bring  on  the  nations  whom  Nebuchadnezzar  should 
subdue.  Isaiah  likewise  walked  naked,  that  is,  without  the 
rough  garment  of  the  j)ropbet,  and  barefoot  (l.sa.  xx.),  as  a 
sign  ot  the  distress  that  awaited  the  Egyptians.  So,  Jere- 
miah broke  the  potter's  vessel  (xix.)  ;  and  Ezekiel  publicly 
removed  his  household  goods  from  the  city,  more  forcibly  to 
represent,  by  these  actions,  some  correspondent  calamities 
ready  to  fall  on  nations  obnoxious  to  God's  wrath ;''  this 
mode  of  expressing  important  circumstances  by  action  being 
customary  and  familiar  among  all  eastern  nations."' 

Sometimes  the  prophets  were  commanded  to  seal  and  shut 
up  their  prophecies,  that  the  originals  might  be  preserved 
utitil  they  were  accomplished,  and  then  compared  with  tlie 
event,  (Isa.  viii.  10.  Jer.  xxxii.  11.  Dan.  viii.  20.  and  xii. 
■1.)  For,  when  the  prophecies  were  not  to  be  fulfilled  till 
after  many  years,  and  in  some  cases  not  till  after  several 
ages,  it  was  reijuisite  that  the  original  writings  should  be 
kept  with  the  utmost  care ;  but  when  the  time  was  so  near 
at  liand,  that  the  prophecies  must  be  fresh  in  every  person's 
recollection,  or  that  tlie  originals  could  not  be  suspected  or 
supposed  to  be  lost,  the  same  care  was  not  recpiired.  (l?ev. 
xxii.  10.^  It  seems  to  have  been  customary  for  the  jirophets 
to  deposit  their  writings  in  the  tabernacle,  or  lay  them  up 
before  the  Lord.  (1  Sam.  x.  25.)"*  And  there  is  a  tradition,^ 
that  all  the  canonical  books,  as  well  as  the  law,  were  put 
into  the  side  of  the  ark. 

»  1  Cliron.  xxi.x.  2).  2 Chron.  xii.  15.  xiii.  22.  xx.  Jl.  xjni.22.  xxxii.  32.  In 
adililion  to  tlie  inloruiation  thus  coiiiuiunicated  in  the  sacred  volume,  we 
are  informed  by  Josephus,  that,  from  the  death  of  Moses  until  the  rcian  of 
Artaxerxes  king  of  Persia,  the  prophets  who  were  after  iMoses  conunitted 
to  writing  the  transactiona  of  their  own  limes.  Josephus  cont.  Apion. 
lib.  i.  c.  8. 

«  Ezek.  xii.  7.  compared  with  2  Kings  xxv.  4.  5.,  where  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  typical  prophecy  is  related.     Vide  also  Ezek.  xxxvii.  16 — 20. 

■>  Bp.  Gray's  Key,  pp.  33.3— :j3o. 

8  .losephus  confirms  the  statement  of  the  sacred  historian.  Ant.  Jud. 
lib.  iv.  c.  4.  §  6. 

s  Epiphanius,  de  Ponderlbus  ct  Mensuri.s,  c.  4.  Damascenus  de  Fide 
Ortliodoxii,  lib.  iv.  c- 17. 


258 


ON  THE  PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRITINGS, 


[Part  V.  Chap.  TV. 


It  is  certain  that  the  writings  of  the  ancient  prophets  were 
carefully  preserved  durintr  the  captivity,  and  they  were  fre- 
quently referred  to,  and  cited  by  the  later  prophets.  Thus, 
the  prophecy  of  Micah  is  quoted  in  .Ter.  xxvi.  18,  a  short 
time  before  the  captivity;  and,  under  it,  the  prophecy  of  Jere- 
miah is  cited  in  Dan.  ix,  2.,  and  the  prophets,  generally,  in 
ix.  6.  Zechariah  not  only  quotes  the  former  prophets  (i.  4.), 
but  supposes  their  WTitings  to  be  well  known  to  the  people, 
(vii.  7.)  The  prophet  Amos  is  cited  in  the  apocryphal  book 
of  Tobit  (ii,  C),  as  Jonah  and  the  urophets  in  general  are  in 
xiv.  4,  5.  8.  It  is  evident  that  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Daniel, 
Zechariah,  and  the  other  prophets,  who  flourished  during  the 
captivity,  carefully  preserved  the  writings  of  their  inspired 
predecessors  ;  for  they  very  frequently  cited  and  appealed  to 
them,  and  expected  deliverance  from  their  captivity  by  the 
accomplishment  of  their  predictions. 

Although  some  parts  of  the  writings  of  the  prophets  are 
clearly  in°prose,  instances  of  which  occur  in  the  prophecies 
of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Jonah,  and  Daniel,  yet  the 
other  books,  constituting  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  the 
prophetic  writings,  are  classed  by  Bishop  Lowth  among  the 
poetical  productions  of  the  Jews ;  and  (with  the  exception 
of  certain  passages  in  Isaiah,  Habakkuk,  and  Ezekiel,  which 
appear  to  constitute  complete  poems  of  different  kinds,  odes 
as  well  as  elegies)  form  a  particular  species  of  poesy,  which 
he  distino-uislies  by  the  appellation  of  Prophetic.  On  the 
nature  of^  which  see  Vol.  I.  Part  II.  Chap.  II.  §  VI.  1. ; 
and  for  some  Observations  on  the  Interpretation  and  Accom- 
])lishment  of  Scripture  Prophecies,  see  Part  II.  Chap.  IV. 
of  the  same  volume. 

IX.  The  prophetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are  six- 
teen in  number  (the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  being  usually 
considered  as  an  appendix  to  his  predictions) ;  and  in  all 
modern  editions  of  the  Bible  they  are  usually  divided  into 
two  classes,  viz.  1.  The  Greater  Prophets,  comprising  the 
writings  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel;  who 
were  thus  designated  from  the  size  of  their  books,  not  be- 
cause they  possessed  greater  authority  than  the  others,' 
2.  The  Minor  Prophets,  comprising  the  writings  of  Hosea, 
Joel,  Amos,  Jonah,  Obadiah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk, 
Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  These  books 
were  anciently  written  in  one  volume  by  the  Jews,  lest  any 
of  them  should  be  lost,  some  of  their  writings  being  very 
short.  The  order,  in  which  the  books  of  the  minor  prophets 
are  placed,  is  not  the  same  in  the  Alexandrian  or  Septuagint 
version  as  in  the  Hebrew.  According  to  the  latter,  they  stand 
as  in  our  translation ;  but  in  the  Greek,  the  series  is  altered 
to  the  following  arrangement : — Hosea,  Amos,  Micah,  Joel, 
Obadiah,  Jonah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  But  this  change  is  of  no  conse- 
quence, since  neither  in  the  original,  nor  in  the  Septuagint, 
are  they  placed  with  exact  regard  to  the  time  when  their 
sacred  authors  respectively  flourished. 

The  writings  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets  are  particularly 
valuable,  not  only  because  they  have  preserved  a  great  num- 
ber of  predictions  relating  to  .the  advent,  life,  death,  and  re- 
surrection of  the  Messiah,  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles,  the 
rejection  of  the  Jews,  the  ruin  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  abro- 
gation of  the  ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic  law ;  but  especially 
they  have  recorded  numerous  events,  concerning  the  history 
of  the  Idngdoms  of  Judah,  Israel,  Babylon,  Idumeea,  Egypt, 

I  Qui  propterea  dicuntur  Minores,  quia  sermones  eorumsunt  breves,  in 
eorum  coniparatione  qui  Majores  ideo  vocantur,  quia  prolixa  volumina 
coudiderunt.    Augustin.  de  Civ.  Dei,  lib.  xviii.  c  29. 


Moab,  and  Ammon.  These  memorials  of  events  are  the 
more  valuable,  as  very  few  of  tliem  are  noticed  in  the  sacred 
history,  and  profane  history  is  almost  totally  wanting  for  the 
periods  wliich  they  comprise.  The  writings  of  the  minor 
prophets,  therefore,  may  be  regarded  as  a  Kind  of  supple- 
ment for  the  history  of  their  own  times  and  the  age  imme- 
diately following.2 

Much  of  the  obscurity,  which  hangs  over  the  prophetic 
writings,  may  be  removed  by  perusing  them  in  the  ord(?r  of 
time  in  which  they  were  probably  written.  Difterent  gchemes 
of  arrangement  have  been  proposed  by  various  biblical  critics. 
Van  Til,  whose  order  was  adopted  by  Professor  Franck,  di- 
vides them  into  the  four  following  periods;  viz. 

I.  Prophets  who  delivered  their  Predictions  during  the  Continu- 
ance of  the  Jewish  Polity. 

1.  In  Judah  and  Lsuael,  under  Uzziah, — Hosea,  Ames, 
Isaiah  (ch.  i. — vi.)  ; — under  Jolham  and  Ahuz,  Hosea, 
Micah,  Isaiah  (vii. — xii.)  ; — xmi^ier  Hezekiah,  Hosea,  Micah, 
Isaiah,  (ch.  xviii. — xxii.) 

2.  Prophets,  who  delivered  predictions  against  other  Na- 
tions : — against  J\'ineveh,  under  Pul,  Jonah  ; — against  Pa- 
lestine, towards  the  commencement  of  Hezckiah's  reign, 
Isaiah  (xiv.  28.  xxxii.)  ; — against  JMoub  (xv.  xvi.) ; — 
against  Damascus  (xvii.),  and  Egypt,  (xix.  xx.) 

II.  Prophets  who  delivered  their  Predictions  between  the  carry- 
ing of  the  Israelites  into  Captivity  by  the  Assyrians,  and  the 
first  Expedition  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

1.  In  Judah,  under  Hezelciah,  Hosea  and  Isaiah  (xxiv.  Ivi.)  ; 
— under  ManasseJi,  Joel  and  Habakkuk; — under  JosirJi, 
Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah. 

2,  Prophets  who  delivered  predictions  against  otheh  Na- 
tions : — against  J^'ineveh  under  Hezekiah,  Nahum  ; — 
against  Edom,  Obadiah  ; — against  Arabia,  Isaiah  (xxi.), 
and  Tyre,  (xxxiii.) 

III.  Prophets  during  the  Babylonish  Captivity  who  delivered 
their  Predictions. 

1.  Concernivg  the  Jews,  in  Juda;a,  Jeremiah ;  in  Babylon, 
Daniel ;  in  Chaldaea,  Ezekiel ;  in  Egypt,  Jeremiah. 

2.  Against  the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  viz.  against  Babylon, 
Jeremiah  (1.  li.)  ;  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  Jeremiah  (xlvi.) ; 
and  Ezekiel  (xxvi. — xxviii.)  ; — Moab,  Jeremiah  (xlviii.), 
and  Ammon  (xlix.)  ; — JMoab,  Amnion,  Edom,  and  the 
Philistines,  Ezekiel.   (xxv.) 

IV.  Prophets  who  delivered  Predictions  in  Judsea  after  the 
Captivity. 

Under  Darius,  Zechariah  and  Haggai ; — aftei~wards,  Malachi.^ 
Although  the  preceding  arrangement  has  its  advantages 
as  exhibiting  the  order  of  the  prophets,  and  the  kingdoms 
or  nations  concerning  whom  they  prophesied,  yet  it  cannot 
be  conveniently  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  analyzing  the 
writings  of  each  prophet.  The  annexed  table  of  Bishop 
Gray  commodiously  exhibits  the  prophets  in  their  supposed 
order  of  time  according  to  the  taoles  of  Archbishop  New- 
come  and  Mr.  Blair,  with  a  few  variations  ;*  and  though  the 
precise  time,  in  which  some  of  them  delivered  their  predic- 
tions, cannot,  perhaps,  be  traced  in  every  instance,  yet  it  is 
hoped  that  this  table  will  be  found ^suiliciently  correct  for 
ascertaining  the  chronology  of  their  several  prophecies. 

»  Calmet.  Dissertations,  torn.  ii.  pp.  372 — 374. 

3  Franckii  Introductio  ad  Lectionem  Prophetarum,  pp.  39—42. 

«  Bishop  Gray's  Key,  p.  420. 


Sect.  IT.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PPOPHET  AMOS. 


259 


Jonah, 

Ucfm-e  Cnnsl. 

Hotweon  85(j 
and  784. 

A'.i.S.  of  Judah. 

Kingl  of  Itrtul. 

.lehii,  and  .lidioabaz, 
according    to    Bp. 
I.loyd;  bnlJcrobo- 
am  II.  according  to 
Illair.  (2 Kings  xiv. 

Amos, 

ami  78j. 

llzziali,  cli.  i.  1. 

Jeroboam  II.  ch.  i.  1. 

Ilosca, 

Hetwofn  910 
and  74o. 

lJzziah,.lntliam,  Ahaz, 
till'  ihlrdyearof  Ile- 
7.1-kiali. 

Jeroboam  II.  ch.  i.  1. 

I.sui»li, 

nplwnon  810 
and  (J'Jt?. 

Uzziati,  .lolhiiin,  Alia/., 
and  llfzckiali,  cli.i|i 
i.  1.  and|)crlia)i!iMu 
nasstdi. 

.loel, 

Il.lwei'n  810 
and  000,  or 
laliT. 

Uz/.iah,  or  possllily 
Manassuli. 

Micali, 

Hctwi'fn  7;W 
and  OW. 

Jothaiii,  Aliax,  and  llc- 
zukiali,  cli.  1.  1. 

Pekah  and  Iloaea. 

Ntiliuni, 

Bf  two  on  7-33 
and  098. 

Probahly  Inward,-^  llir 
close  of  HL'Zfkiali'.>; 
reign. 

Zeplianiah, 

Helweon  MO 

and  an. 

In  the  reign  of  Jusiali, 
ch.  i.  1. 

Jcrciniali, 

Bclwopn  C;28 
and  58(5. 

In  the  thirteenth  year 
of  Josiah. 

llabakkiik, 

Uotwoon  612 

and  .'J1I8. 

Probably  in  the  reign 
of  Ji'hoiakiin. 

Daniel, 

IJolwcon  tW) 
and  .■VJl. 

During  all  the  capti- 
vity. 

01)a(liah, 

Botwron  585 
and  083. 

Between  the  taking  of 
.Icru.-ialein  by  Neliu- 
cliadiifzzar,  and  the 
deslrnclion    of    the 
Edoiiiites  by  lilm. 

E;zekiel, 

Between  59o 
and  ri36. 

During  part  of  the  caji- 
livity. 

Ilaggai, 

About  rm  to 
518. 

After  the  rofiirn  from 
IJabylon. 

Zcchaiiali, 

From  5ii0  to 
')lS,or  longer. 

Malaclii, 

B(  twoon  136 
and  420. 

According  to  this  table,  the  times  when  the  prophets  flou- 
rished may  be  referred  to  three  periods,'  viz.  1,  Before  the 
Babylonian  captivity; — 2.  Near  to  and  diirino^  that  event; 
— and,  3.  After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon.  And 
if,  in  tiicse  three  periods,  we  parallel  the  prophetical  writings 
with  the  historical  books  written  during  the  same  times,  they 
will  materially  illustrate  each  other.  The  second  volume  of 
Mr.  Townseud's  Harmony  of  the  Old  Testament  will  be 
found  of  considerable  service  in  studying  the  writings  of  the 
prophets. 

For  a  sketch  of  the  profane  history  of  the  East,  from  the 
time  of  Solomon  to  the  Babylonian  captivity,  illustrative  of 
the  Prophetic  Writings,  see  the  articles  Assyria,  Babylon, 
Egypt,  Media,  and  Persia,  in  the  Historical  and  Geographi- 
cal Index  in  this  volume. 


SECTION  11. 

OF  THE    PROPHETS  WHO    FLOURISHED    BEFORE  THE  BABYLONIAN 

CAPTIVITV. 

§  1.  Oy  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  JONAn. 

I.  Title  mid  author. — II.  Occasion  of  the  prophecy  of  Jonah. — 
III.  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. 

BEFORE    CHRIST,  85G 784. 

1.  This  book  is,  by  the  Hebrews,  called  n:i'  -idd  (sfPHCR 
jonoh),  or  the  Book  of  Jonah,  from  its  author  Jonah,  the 

1  Professor  Jshn  and  Dr.  Ackermann  divide  the  prophets  into  four  pe- 
riods; viz.  1.  Those  who  prophesied  under  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and 
llezekiah;— 2.  Prophets  whose  age  has  not  been  recorded  ; — .'}.  Prophets, 
from  the  age  of  Josiah  to  the  end  of  the  captivity  ;  and,  4.  Prophets  who 
lived  aUer  the  captivity.  The  arrangement  above  given  is  preferably 
adopted,  as  being  more  simple  and  comprehensive. 


son  of  Amittai,  w'ho  was  a  native  of  CJath-Hephor  in  thr  tribe 
of  Zabulon,  which  fomiod  pnrt  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
and  afterwards  of  (Jalilee.  (Jon.  i.  1.  with  Josh.  xix.  1.3. 
and  2  Kings  xiv.  25.)  He  is  supposed  to  have  prophesied 
to  the  ten  tribes  according  to  Bishop  Lloyd,  towards  the 
close  of  Jehu's  reign,  or  in  the  hcginiiiiig  of  Jehoaiinz's 
reign;  though  W'itsius,  Blair,  and  Bishop  Newcome,  J;ihn, 
and  others,  with  greater  probability,  place  him  under  Jero- 
boam II.  about  forty  years  later.  Uitli  the  exception  of  his 
sublime  ode  in  the  second  chapter,  the  book  of  Jonali  is  a 
simple  narrative. 

II.  It  is  very  probable,  that,  at  the  time  Jonah  pronii.=;pd 
the  restoring  ana  enlarging  of  the  cuasts  of  Jsrail  in  the  <lnys 
of  Jeroboam  II.  (2  Kings  xiv.  27).),  when  botli  the  king  and 
people  were  exceedingly  wicked,  he  also  invited  them  to  re- 
pentance and  reformation.  But  the  Israelites  still  contitii.iiig 
iiTtpenitent  and  obdurate,  God  took  occasion  to  sentl  him  to 
Nineveh,  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  to  denounce 
the  impending  divine  judgments  against  its  abandoned  in- 
liabitants.  Jonah,  declining  the  commission,  was  cast  into 
the  sea  from  the  vessel  in  wliieh  he  was  sisiliiiir  to  Tar.shish, 
and  was  swallowed  by  a  large  fish  ;  not,  says  lren?pus,2  that 
he  might  be  swallowed  up,  hut  that,  by  his  miraculous  dp- 
liverance  (preparing  Jonah  to  preach  more  dutifulU',  and 
the  Ninevites  to  hear  more  elTectually),  the  people  of  Israel 
might  be  provoked  to  repent  by  the  repentance  of  Nineveh.'' 
The  time  of  Jonah's  continuance  in  the  belly  of  the  fish  was 
a  type  of  our  Lord's  continuance  in  the  grave.  (Luke  xi.  .30.) 
Tho  fame  of  the  prophet's  miraculous  ])reservation  was  so 
widely  propagated  as  to  reach  even  Greece :  whence,  as 
(irotius,  Huet,  Bochart,  and  other  learned  men  have  re- 
marked, the  story  was  derived  of  Hercules  having  escaped 
alive  out  of  the  fish's  belly.' 

III.  The  vScopE  of  this  book  is  to  show,  by  the  very 
striking  example  of  the  Ninevites,  the  divine  forbearance 
and  long-suffering  towards  sinners,  who  were  snared  on  their 
sincere  repentance.  From  the  conduct  of  the  Ninevites, 
Jesus  Christ  takes  occasion  to  reprove  the  perfidiousness  of 
the  Jews.  (Matt.  xii.  41.)  The  evidence  offered  i)y  Jf)nah 
was  sufficient  to  convince  and  lead  the  former  to  repentance  ; 
while  the  Jews,  who  had  the  greater  evidence  of  miracles, 
and  the  more  convincing  evidence  of  our  Saviour's  doctrine, 
continued  obstinately  impenitent.  Some  critics  have  imagin- 
ed that  the  prophecy  of  Jonah  is  a  parabolic  history ;  but 
from  the  manner  in  which  the  sacred  historians  and  Jesus 
Christ  speak  of  him  (2  Kings  xiv.  25.  Matt.  xii.  39.  41.  xvi. 
4.  and  Luke  xi.  29.)  it  is  evident  that  this  book  is  a  true 
narrative  of  a  real  person,  and  that  Jonah  was  a  prophet  of 
considerable  eminence.' 

IV.  The  book  of  Jonah  consists  of  two  parts;  viz. 
Part  I.  His  first  mission  to  Nineveh,  and  his  attempt  to  flee 

to  Tarshish,  and  its  frustration,  together  with  his  delivery 
from  the  stomach  of  the  great  fish  which  had  swallowed 
him.  (ch.  i.  ii.) 
Part  II.  His  second  mission,  and  its  happy  result  to  the 
Ninevites,  who,  in  consequence  of  the  prophet's  preaching, 
repented  in  dust  and  ashes  (iii.) ;  and  tne  discontent  of 
Jonah,  who,  dreading  lest  his  veracity  as  a  prophet  should 
be  questioned  in  consequence  of  God  s  merciful  change  of 
purpose,  repined  at  the  sparing  of  the  Ninevites  whose 
destraction  he  seems  to  have  expected,  (iv.)  No  reproof 
can  be  more  gentle  than  that  given  by  God  to  the  murmur- 
ing prophet  (10,  11.),  or  present  a  more  endearing  picture 
of  Him  "  whose  tender  mercies  are  over  all  his  works." 

§  2.    ON  the  book  of  the  PROPHET  AJIOS. 

I.  Author. — II.   Occasion  of  his  prophecy. — III.  Its   scope. — 
IV.  Synopsis  of  its  contents.-;-V.  Observations  on  its  style. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  810 785. 

1.  Amos  is  the  third  of  the  minor  prophets,  according  to 
the  order  adopted  in  our  modern  Bibles :  tie  is  supposeJ  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Tekoah,  a  small  town  in  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  situate  about  four  leagues  to  the  south  of  Jerusa- 
lem. There  is,  however,  no  proof  of  his  being  a  native  of 
this  place,  except  his  retiring  thither  when  driven  from  Bethel 

^  Adversus  Haires.  lib.  iii.  c.  22. 

»  Roberts's  Clavis  Biblioriim,  p.  667. 

♦  See  Grotius  de  Veritate,  lib.  i.  c.  )6.  in  notis.  Huet,  Demonstr.  Evan- 
gelica,  prop.  iv.  vol.  i.  p.  433.  8vo.  edit.  Bocharti  Opera,  torn.  iii.  p.  742. 
el  seq.  PfeifTer  in  Difficiliora  Loca  sScripturje,  Centuria  4.  Locus  Ixxxvi. 
(Opp.  torn.  i.  pp.  447,  448.) 

'  The  reality  of  the  history  and  prophecy  of  Jonah  is  fully  proved  against 
the  modern  neologians  by  Alber,  Institutiones  HermcneuticiBj  Vet.  Tost, 
torn.  iii.  pp.  399—407. 


260 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IV 


by  Amaziah,  tlie  high-priest  of  BetheL  (Amos  vii.  10.  13.) 
Cahnet  thinks  he  was  born  in  the  territories  of  Israel.  We 
have  more  certain  information  of  liis  ranlc  and  condition  in 
life;  for  he  himself  tells  us  that  he  was  "  no  prophet,  neither 
a  prophet's  son  :"  in  other  words,  that  he  was  not  educated 
in  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  but  was  called  to  the  prophetic 
office  from  being  a  lierdsman  and  a  gatherer  (or  cultivator) 
of  sycamore  fruit.  That  he  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of 
Uzziah  king  of  Judah,  and  of  .leroboam  11.  son  of  Joash, 
we  are  not  only  informed  from  the  first  verse  of  Ins  predic- 
tions, but  we  also  have  internal  evidence  of  it  from  the 
argument  or  subject-matter  of  his  book.  For  the  nrophet 
describes  the  state  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  particularly  in 

chap.  vi.  12 11.,  to  be  precisely  such  as  is  recorded  in 

2  Kings  xiv.  23.  et  seq.  We  further  learn  from  Amos  i.  1., 
that  he  began  to  prophesy  in  the  second  year  before  the 
earthquake,"  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah ;  which  is,  by  Josephus 
and  most  commentators,  referred  to  that  prince's  usurpation 
of  tiie  sacerdotal  office  when  he  attempted  to  offisr  incense. 
Consequently  Amos  was  contemporary  with  Hosea  (though 
he  is  supposed  not  to  have  lived  so  long  as  the  last-mentioned 
prophet),  with  Jonah,  and  probably  also  with  Joel. 

II.  The  Occasion  on  which  Amos  delivered  his  predictions, 
was  the  oppression  of  the  Jews  and  Israelites  by  the  neigh- 
bouring nations,  and  the  state  of  the  two  kingdoms  under 
Uzziah  and  Jeroboam  II.  (Amos  i.  compared  with  2  Kings 
xiv,  25  —  27.  and  2  Chron.  xxvi.  6  —  15.)  But  as  the 
inhabitants  of  those  kingdoms,  especially  the  Israelites, 
abandoned  themselves  to  idolatry,  effisminacy,  avarice,  and 
cruelty  to  the  poor,  contrary  to  the  divine  command,  the 
prophet  takes  occasion  thence  to  reprove  them  with  the 
utmost  severity  for  their  wickedness. 

III.  The  Scope  of  the  book  is  to  certify  to  the  twelve 
tribes  the  destruction  of  the  neighbouring  nations ;  to  alarm 
those  who  "  were  at  large  in  Zion,"  living  in  a  state  of  carnal 
security,  by  the  denunciation  of  imminent  punishment,  to 
lead  them  to  repentance ;  and  to  cheer  those  who  were  truly 
penitent  with  the  promise  of  deliverance  from  future  captivity, 
and  of  the  greater  prosperity  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom,  of 
which  we  have  a  particular  prediction  in  ch.  ix.  11. 

IV.  The  book  of  Amos  contains  nine  chapters  or  discourses, 
of  which  Calmet  thinks  that  the  seventh  is  first  in  order  of 
time  :  it  may  l3e  divided  into  three  parts ;  viz. 

Part  I.   The  Judgments  of  God  denounced  against  the  neigh- 
bouring  Gentile  Nations:   as  the  Syrians   (ch.  i.  1 — 5.), 
which  see  fulfilled  in  2  Kings  xvi.  9. ;  the  Philistines  (i. 
G — 8.),  recorded  as  accomplished  in  2  Kings  xviii.  8.  Jer. 
xlvii.  1.  5.  and  2  Chron.  xxvi.  6. ;  the  Tynans  (i.  9,  10.)  ; 
the  Edomites  (i.  11,  12.  compared  with  Jer,  xxv.  9.  21. 
xxvii.  3.  6.  and  1  Mace.  v.  3.)  ;  the  Ammonites  (13 — 15.)  ; 
and  the  Moabites.  (ii.  1 — 3.) 
Part  II.   The  divine  Judgments  denounced  against  Judah  and 
Israel  (ii.  4.  ix.  1 — 10.)  ;  and  herein  we  have, 
Sect,  1.  The  divine  judgments  against  Judah  (ii.  4,  5.)  which 
were  literally  executed  about  two  hundred  years  afterwards. 
Sect.  2.  Against  Israel,  to.  whom  the  prophet's  mission  was 
chiefly  directed,  and  to  whom  we  have  four  distinct  sermons 
delivered  by  him ;  viz. 
DiscounsB  I.  A  general  reproof  and  aggravation  of  their  various  sins 

against  God.  (ii.  6— Ki) 
DiscouiisE  11.  A  denunciation  of  the  divine  judgments,  with  a  parti- 
cular enumeration  of  the  several  causes,  (iii.) 
DISCOURSE  m.  A  reproof  of  tlie  Israelites  for  their  lu.\ury  and  oppres- 
sion, (iv.) 
DiscoiTRSE  IV.  A  lamentation  over  the  house  of  Israel,  with  an  earnest 
exliorlation  to  tliem  to  repent,  and  to  seek  the  Lord  ;  and  to  alian- 
don  their  idolatry,  lu.\urious  ease,  and  sinful    alliances  with  their 
idolatrous  neighbours,  (v.  vi.)  In  ch.  v.  6.  tlie  carrying  of  the  Israel- 
ites into  captivity,  lieyond  Damascus  into  Assyria,   is  explicitly 
announced:  see  its  fulfilment  in  2 Kings  xv.  29.  and  xvii.  5—^. 
The  certainty,  nearness,  and  severity  of  the  judgments  thus  de- 
nounced are  confirmed  IJy  several  prophetic  visions,  contained  in 
chapters  vii.  viii.'  and  ix.  1 — 10. 
Part  III.  Consolatory  or  Evangelical  Promises  describing  the 
Restoration  of  the  Church  hi;  the  3Iersiah,  first,  under  the 
type  of  raising  up  the  fallen  tabernacle  of  David  (ix.  11, 
12.);   and,   secondly,   announcing  magnificent  temporal 
blessings;   viz.  great  abundance,  return  from   captivity, 

»  An  eminent  commentator  is  of  opinion  that  the  prophet  Amos  in  viii. 
9,  10.  foretells  that,  during  their  solemn  festivals,  the  sun  should  be  dark- 
ened by  an  eclipse,  which  in  those  days  was  accounted  ominous,  and 
should  turn  their  joy  into  mourning.  According  to  Archbishop  Usher 
(A.  M.  3213.).  about  eleven  years  after  Amos  proiihcsied,  there  were  two 
great  eclipses  of  the  sun,  one  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  the  other  at  the 
time  of  the  passover.  This  prophecy,  therefore,  may  be  considered  as  one 
6f  those  numerous  predictions  which  we  have  already  shown  have  a  dou- 
ble meaning,  and  apply  tu  more  than  one  event  See  Lowth's  Commentary 
on  the  Prophets,  p.  453.  4th  edit. 


and  re-establishment  in  their  own  land,  all  of  which  were 

prophetic  of  the  blessings  to  be  bestowed  under  the  reign 

of  the  Messiah,  (ix.  13—15.) 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  supernatural  character  of  the  pre- 
dictions contained  in  this  book,  they  ought  to  be  compared 
with  the  history  of  the  times ;  from  which  it  appears,  that, 
when  they  were  made,  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah 
were  in  a  very  flourishing  condition.  See  2  Kings  xiv.  1 — 17. 
xvi.  1 — 7.  2  Chron.  xxv.  xxvi.;  also  2 Kings  xiii.  1 — 9. 
23.  10—20.  25.  2  Chron.  xxv.  17—24.  and  2  Kings  xiv. 
23—28.2 

V.  .Terome  calls  Amos  "rude  in  speech,  but  not  in  know- 
led  ge,"^  applying  to  him  what  St.  Paul  modestly  professes 
of  himself.  (2  Cor.  xi.  6.) 

Calmet  and  many  others  have  followed  the  authority  of 
Jerome,  in  speaking  of  this  prophet  as  if  he  were  indeed 
quite  rude,  ineloquent,  and  destitute  of  all  the  embellishments 
of  composition.  The  matter,  however,  as  Bishop  Lowth  has 
remarked,  is  far  otherwise  : — "  Let  any  person  who  has  can- 
dour and  perspicuity  enough  to  judge,  not  from  the  man,  but 
from  his  writings,  open  the  volume  of  his  predictions,  and 
he  will,  I  think,  agree  that  our  shepherd  '  is  not  a  whit  be- 
hind the  very  chief  of  the  prophets.  (2  Cor.  xi.  5.)  He  will 
agree,  that  as,  in  sublimity  and  magnificence,  he  is  almost 
equal  to  the  greatest,  so,  in  splendour  of  diction,  and  ele- 
gance of  expression,  he  is  scarcely  inferior  to  any.  The  same 
celestial  spirit,  indeed,  actuated  Isaiah  and  Daniel  in  the 
court,  and  Amos  in  the  sheepfolds  :  constantly  selecting  such 
interpreters  of  the  divine  will  as  were  best  adapted  to  the 
occasion,  and  sometimes  '  from  the  mouth  of  babes  and  suck 
lings  perfecting  praise,' — constantly  employing  the  natural 
i^loquence  of  some,  and  occasionally  making  others  elo 
quent."''  Many  of  the  most  elegant  images  employed  by 
Amos  are  drawn  from  objects  in  rural  life,  with  which  he 
was,  from  his  avocations,  most  intimately  conversant. 


§  3.  ON  the  book  of  the  prophet  hosea. 
I.  Author  and   date. — II.    Occasion   and    scope  of  the   pro' 
phecy. — III.    Synopsis   of  its    contents. — IV.    Observations 
on  its  style. 

BEFORE   CHRIST,  810 — 725. 

I.  Concerning  the  family  of  Hosea,  we  have  no  certain 
information,  except  what  is  furnished  to  us  by  the  first  verse 
of  his  prophecy,  which  states  that  he  was  the  son  of  Becri, 
whom  some  jTewish  commentators  confound  with  Beerah, 
a  prince  of  the  Reubenites,  who  was  carried  into  captivity 
with  the  ten  tribes  by  Tiglath-pileser  king  of  Assyria.  He 
prophesied  during  the  reijrns  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  and  Ahaz, 
and  in  the  third  year  otHezekiah,  kings  of  Judah,  and 
during  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  king  of  Israel ;  and  it  is 
most  probable  that  he  was  an  Israelite,  and  lived  in  the  king- 
doin  of  Samaria  or  of  the  ten  tribes,  as  his  predictions  are 
chiefly  directed  against  their  wickedness  and  idolatry.  But, 
with  the  severest  denunciations  of  vengeance,  he  blends 
promises  of  mercy ;  and  the  transitions  from  the  one  to  the 
other  are  frequently  sudden  and  unexpected.  Rosenm  llci 
and  Jahn,  after  Calmet,  are  of  opinion  that  the  title  of  this 
book  is  a  subsequent  addition,  and  that  Hosea  did  net  ])ro- 
phesy  longer  than  from  forty  to  sixtji years,  and  that  he  died, 
or  at  least  wrote  his  predictions,  before  the  year  725  before 
the  Christian  sera.  His  writings  unquestionably  were, 
originally,  in  a  metrical  form,  although  that  arrangement  is 
now,  perhaps,  irrecoverably  lost. 

II.  The  ten  tribes  (whom  this  prophet  often  collectively 
terms  Ephraim,  Israel,  and  Samaria)  having  revolted  from 
Rehoboam  the  son  of  Solomon  to  Jeroboam  the  son  of  INebat, 
who  set  up  the  two  idol  calves  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  conse- 
quently deprived  themselves  of  the  pure  worship  of  Jehovah 
at  Jerusalem,  and  speedily  fell  into  the  grossest  idolatry. * 
Jeroboan;!  II.  the  son  of  Joash  was  equally  wicked  with  the 
first  sovereign  of  that  name ;  and  the  Israelites  were  but  too 
prone  to  follow  the  bad  examples  of  their  wicked  kings, 
especially  if  their  affairs  were  prosperous,  as  we  learn  those 
of  Jeroboam  II.  were.  (Compare  2  Kings  Xiv.  25 — 27.)  In 
his  days,  therefore,  Jehovah  raised  up  the  prophet  Hosea,  to 
convince  them  of  their  apostacy,  and  recover  them  to  the 
worship  of  the  true  God.  Bishop  Horsley,  however,  is  of 
opinion  that  Hosea's  principal  subject  is  that,  which  is  the 

»  Professor  Turner's  translation  of  Jahn's  Introduction,  p.  325, 

3  Ilieronymi  Pra^f  Comment,  in  Amos. 

■•  Bishop  Lowtli's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  lect.  xxi.  p.  98. 

»  Roberts's  iClavJs  Bibliorum,  p.  05(j, 


Sect.  II.  §  3.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  HOSEA. 


261 


Srincipal  siil)jf'(;t  of  all  the  prophets,  viz.  "  the  guilt  of  the 
ewisn  nation  in  }Tcncr;il,  tlirir  disdhedicnt  refractory  sj)iril, 
the  heavy  judfrMieiits  that  awaited  tlieiii,  tiieir  final  conversion 
to  (<0(1,  tlieir  re-estal)lislini(Mit  in  tiie  land  of  promise,  and 
their  restoration  to  (ifxi's  favour,  and  to  a  condition  of  the 
greatest  national  prosperity,  and  of  iiiirli  ])r('-eniinene(>  amoufr 
the  nations  of  ihc.  earth,  undir  tiie  inuiie<liate  protection  of 
the  Messiah,  in  the  latter  ajrcs  of  the  worhl.  lie  confuies 
himself  more  closely  to  this  single.  sid)j(^ct  than  any  other 
prophet.  ll(!  seems,  indeed,  of  all  the  prophets,  if  I  may  so 
express  my  eonee])tion  of  his  j)eculiar  cliaraeter,  to  have  heen 
the  most  of  a  Jew.  ('omi)araliv(dy,  he  seems  to  cnro  hut 
little  about  other  ])eo])le.  Ih;  wan(lers  not,  like  Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah, and  K'/.ekiel,  into  tlu^  eollatrral  history  of  the  sur- 
roimdinir  heathen  nations.  He  meddles  not,  like  Daniel, 
with  the  revolutions  of  tht;  irreat  empires  of  the  world.  His 
own  country  scimtis  to  engross  his  whole  attention  ;  her  ))rivi- 
lepes,  her  crimes,  her  ])unishment,  her  pardon,  lie  predicts, 
indetul,  in  the  stroni>(;st  and  clearest  terms,  the  iiifrrafting  of 
the  (ientiles  into  tiie  church  of  Hod.  IJut  he  mentions  it 
only  frenc'rally  :  he  enters  not,  like;  Isaiah,  into  a  minute  de- 
tail of  th(^  progress  of  the  business.  Nor  does  he  describe, 
in  any  detail,  the  previous  contest  with  the  apostate  faction 
in  the  latter  ages.  He  makes  no  explicit  mention  of  the 
share  which  the  converted  Gentiles  are  to  have  in  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  natural  Israel  in  their  ancient  seats: 
subjects  which  make  so  striking  a  part  of  the  jironhecies  of 
Isaiah,  Daniel,  Zechariah,  Haggai,  and,  occasionally,  of  the 
other  prophets.  He  alludes  to  tlie  calling  of  our  Lord  from 
Egypt:  to  the  resurrection  on  the  third  day:  he  touches,  but 
only  in  general  terms,  upon  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Anti- 
chnstian  army  in  Pahstine,  by  the  immediate  interposition 
of  Jehovah  ;  and  he  celebrates,  in  the  loftiest  strains  of  tri- 
umph and  exultation,  the  Saviour's  final  victory  over  death 
and  hell.  13ut  yet,  of  all  the  prophets,  he  certainly  enters 
the  least  into  the  detail  of  the  mysteries  of  redemption.  We 
have  nothing  in  him  descriptive  of  the  events  of  the  interval 
between  the  two  advents  of  our  Lord.  Nothing  diffuse  and 
circumstantial,  upon  the  great  and  interesting  mysteries  of 
the  incarnation  and  the  atonement.  His  country  and  his 
kindred  is  the  subject  next  his  heart.  Their  crimes  excite 
his  indignation  ;  their  suflerings  interest  his  pity ;  their  future 
exaltation  is  the  object  on  which  his  imagination  fixes  with 
delight.  It  is  a  remarkable  dispensation  of  Providence,  that 
clear  notices,  though  in  general  terms,  of  the  universal  re- 
demption, should  be  fi)und  in  a  writer  so  strongly  possessed 
with  national  partialities.  This  Judaism  seems  to  make  the 
particular  character  of  Hosea  as  a  prophet.  Not  that  the  ten 
tribes  are  exclusively  his  subject.  His  country  is  indeed  his 
particular  and  constant  subject ;  but  his  country  generally, 
in  both  its  branches,  not  in  either  taken  by  itself!,"' 

According  to  this  view  of  the  subject,  the  general  argu- 
ment of  Hosea's  prophecy  "  appears  to  be  the  fortunes  of  the 
whole  Jewish  nation  in  its  two  great  branches ;  not  the  par- 
ticular concerns  (and  least  of  all  the  particular  temporal  con- 
cerns) of  either  branch  exclusively.  And  to  this  grand 
opening  the  whole  setpiel  of  the  prophecy  corresponds.  In 
setting  forth  the  vices  of  the  people,  the  picture  is  chiefly 
taken,  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  from  the  manners  of 
the  prophet's  own  times ;  in  part  of  which  the  corruption, 
in  either  kingdom,  was  at  the  greatest  height;  after  the 
death  of  Jeroboam,  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  in  the  reign 
of  Ahaz,  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  And  there  is  occasion- 
ally much  allusion,  sometimes  predictive  allusion,  to  the 
principal  events  of  the  prophet's  times.  And  much  more  to 
the  events  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  than  to  those  in  Judah. 
Perhaps,  because  the  danger  being  more  immediately  immi- 
nent in  the  former  kingdom,  the  state  of  things  in  that  was 
more  alarming,  and  the  occurrences,  for  that  reason,  more 
interesting.  Still  the  history  of  his  own  times  in  detail  in 
either  kingdom  is  not  the  prophet's  subject.  It  furnishes 
similes  and  allusions,  but  it  makes  no  considerable  part,  in- 
deed it  makes  no  part  at  all,  of  the  action  (if  I  may  so  call 
it)  of  the  poem.  The  action  lies  in  events  beyond  the  pro- 
phet's times ;  the  commencement,  indeed,  within  them ;  but 
the  termination,  in  times  yet  future;  and  although  we  may 
hope  the  contrary,  for  aught  we  know  with  certainty,  remote. 
The  deposition  of  Jehu's  family,  by  the  murder  of  Zedekiah, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Jeroboam,  was  the  commencement: 
the  tei^nination  will  be  the  restoration  of  the  whole  Jewish 
nation  under  one  head,  in  the  latter  days,  in  the  great  day 
of  Jezrael ;  and  the  intermediate  parts  of  the  action  are  the 

«  Bishop  Horsley's  Ilosea,  Preface,  pp.  vii.  viii 


judgments  which  "were  to  fall,  and  accordingly  have  fallen, 
u|)on  the  two  distinct  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  typified 
by  Lo-ruhamah  and  Lo-ammi."^ 

The  Scope  of  this  prophet's  prediction  is,  1.  Partly  to 
detect,  reprove,  and  convince  the  Jewish  nation  generally, 
and  the  Israelites  in  particular,  of  their  many  and  heinous 
sins,  especially  of  their  gross  idolatry ;  the  corrupt  state  of 
the  kingdom  is  also  incidentally  noticed  ; — 2.  I'artly  to  de- 
nounce the  imminent  and  utter  rejection,  final  captivity,  and 
destruction  of  the  Israeliu-s  by  the  Assyrians  Tif  the  former 
|)ersisted  in  their  wicked  career),  notwithslanuing  all  their 
vain  confidence  in  the  assistance  to  be  afforded  them  by 
Kgypt; — and,  .3.  Partly  to  invite  them  to  repentance  with 
|)romisis  of  mercy,  ana  evangelical  predictions  of  the  future 
restoration  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews,  and  their  ultimate  con- 
version to  Christianity. 3 

III.  The  prophecy  of  Ilosea  contains  fourteen  chapters, 
which  may  be  divided  into  five  sections  or  discourses,  exclu- 
sive of  the  title  in  ch.  i.  1. ;  viz.* 

DisrornsE  1.  Under  the  fiprurn  of  the  supposed'  infidelity  of  the 
prophet's  wife  is  represented  the  spiritual  infidelity  of  the  Isra- 
elites, a  remnant  of  whom,  it  is  promised,  shall  lie  saved  (i.  2 
— 11.),  and  they  arc  exhorted  to  forsake  idolatry,  (ii.  1 — 11.) 
Promises  are  then  introduced,  on  the  general  conversion  of  the 
t-wtlve  tribes  to  Christianity  ;  and  the  (rradmm  purposes  ot 
Jehovah  towards  the  ten  tribes,  or  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in 
particular,  are  represented  under  the  figure  of  the  prophet 
taking  back  his  wife  on  her  amendment,  (ii.  1 1 — 23.  iii.) 

DiscouitsE  2.  The  prophet,  in  direct  terms,  inveighs  against  the 

bloodshed  and  idolatry  of  the  Israelites  (iv.   1 — 14.  17 19.), 

against  which  the  inhabitants  of  Judah  are  exhorted  to  take 
warning.  (1.5,  16.)  In  chap.  v.  1 — 14.  the  divine  judgments 
arc  denounced  against  the  priests,  the  people,  and  the  princes 
of  Israel,  to  whom  are  held  out  promises  of  pardon  in  v,  1.5. 
which  arc  continued  through  verses  1 — 3.  of  chap.  vi.  7'hc 
metaphors  used  by  the  prophet  on  this  occasion  are  remark- 
ably strong  and  beautiful.  The  resurrection,  the  morning,  and 
the  refreshing  showers,  in  their  season,  supply  them ;  in  a 
more  immediate  sense  they  denote  a  speedy  and  gracious  de- 
liverance, but  in  a  remote  sense  they  refer  to  the  resurrection 
of  Christ  (compare  Hosea  vi.  2.  with  1  Cor.  xv.  4.)  and  the 
blessings  of  the  Gospel. 

DiscounsE  3.  The  prophet's  exhortations  to  repentance  proving 
ineffectual,  God  complains  by  him  of  their  obstinate  iniquity 
and  idolatry  (vi.4 — 11.  vii.  1 — 10.),  and  denounces  that  Israel 
will  be  carried  into  captivity  into  Assyria  by  Sennacherib,  not- 
withstanding their  reliance  on  Egypt  for  assistance,  (vii.  1 1 — 
16.  viii.) 

DisroLUSE  4.  The  captivity  and  dispersion  of  Israel  is  further 
threatened  (ix.  x.)  ;  the  Israelites  are  reproved  for  their  idol- 
atry, yet  they  shall  not  be  utterly  destroyt>d,  and  their  return 
to  their  own  country  is  foretold,  (xi.)*  Renewed  denuncia- 
tions are  made  on  account  of  their  idolatry,    (xii.  xiii.  1 — 8.) 

DiscoensE  5.  After  a  terrible  denunciation  of  divine  punish- 
ment, intermixed  with  promises  of  restoration  from  captivity 
(xiii.  9 — 16.),  the  prophet  exhorts  the  Israelites  to  repentance, 
and  furnishes  them  with  a  beautiful  form  of  prayer  adapted  to 
their  situation  (xiv.  1 — 3.)  ;  and  foretells  their  reformation 
from  idolatry,  together  with  the  subsequent  restoration  of  all 
the  tribes  from  their  dispersed  state,  and  their  conversion  to 
the  Gospel.   (4 — 9.) 

IV.  The  style  of  Hosea,  Bishop  Lowth  remarks,  exhibits 
the  appearance  of  very  remote  antiquity ;  it  is  pointed,  ener- 
getic, and  concise.  It  bears  a  distinguished  mark  of  poetical 
composition,  in  that  pristine  brevity  and  condensation  which 
is  observable  in  the  sentences,  and  which  later  writers  have 
in  some  measure  neglected.  This  peculiarity  has  not  escaped 
the  observation  of  Jerome,  who  remarks  that  this  prophet  is 

^  Bishop  Horsley's  Hosea,  Preface,  p.  xxvii. 

3  Uoberts's  Clavis  Biblioniiii,  p.  656. 

«  Bishop  Horsley  contends  at  great  Icn^h,  contrary  to  most  interpreters, 
that  ihe  prophet's  marriage  was  a  real  transaction,  and  i  type  of  the  whole 
Jewish  nation,  distinct  parts  of  which  were  typified  by  the  three  children 
.lezrael,  Lo-ruhamali,  and  Lo-anuni.  See  the  Preface  to  his  version  of 
Hosea,  pp.  viii. — xxv.  Witsius,  however,  has  shown  that  the  whole  was 
a  figurative  representation.    Miscell.  Sacr.  hb.  i.  pp.  90—92. 

»  The  prediction  in  Hosea  xi.  10,  11.,  respecting  the  return  of  the  Israel- 
ites to  tlieir  own  country,  was  partly  fulfilled  in  consequence  of  Cyrus's 
decree  (2Chron.  xxxvi.  22,2.'!.  Ezrai.  1— 4.);  but,  in  its  fullest  extent,  it 
remains  to  be  accomplished  in  the  future  restoration  of  the  Jews  to  their 
own  land.  This  is  one  instance,  among  many,  in  which  the  language  of  the 
prophets  is  adapted  to  two  or  more  events.  We  have  the  authority  of  an 
inspired  writer  to  extend  this  remark  to  another  part  of  the  same  chapter. 
(Compare  xi.  1.  with  Matt.  ii.  15.)  Smith's  Summary  View  of  the  Prophets, 
p.  177. 


262 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  V.  CuAP.  IV. 


altogether  laconic  and  sententious."  "  Cut  this  very  circum- 
stance, which  anciently  was  supposed  to  impart  uncommon 
force  and  elegance,  in  the  present  slate  of  Hebrew  literature, 
is  productive  of  so  much  ol)scnrity,  that  although  the  general 
subject  of  this  writer  is  sufTiciently  oltvious,  he  is  the  most 
difficult  and  perplexed  of  all  the  proplicts.  There  is,  how- 
ever, another  reason  for  the  obscurity  of  his  style.  Hosea, 
we  have  seen,  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  the  four  kings 
of  Judah,  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah :  the  dura- 
tion of  his  ministry,  therefore,  in  whatever  manner  we  calcu- 
late it,  must  include  a  very  considerable  space  of  time.  We 
have  now  only  a  small  volume  of  his  remaining,  which,  it 
seems,  contains  his  principal  prophecies ;  and  these  are 
extant  in  a  continued  series,  with  no  marks  of  distinction  as 
to  the  times  when  they  were  published,  or  of  which  they 
treat.  It  is,  therefore,  no  wonder  if,  in  perusing  the  pro- 
phecies of  Hosea,  we  sometimes  find  ourselves  in  a  similar 
predicament  with  those  who  consulted  the  scattered  leaves 
of  the  sybil."2 

§    4.  ON   THE    BOOK    OF   THE    PROPHET    ISAIAH. 
I.  Author  and  date. — II.  Genuineness  of  Isaialis  prophecies. — 
III.  Scope. — IV.  Analysis   of  the  contents  of  this    book. — 
V.    Observations  on  its  stt/le. 

BEFORE    CHRIST,  810 698. 

Though  fifth  in  the  order  of  time,  the  writings  of  the  pro- 
phet Isaiah  are  placed  first  in  order  of  the  prophetical  books, 
principally  on  account  of  the  sublimity  and  importance  of 
his  predictions,  and  partly  also  because  the  book,  which 
bears  his  name,  is  larger  than  all  the  twelve  minor  prophets 
put  together. 

1.  Concerning  his  family  and  descent  nothing  certain  has 
been  recorded,  except  what  he  himself  tells  us  (i.  1.),  viz. 
that  he  was  the  son  of  Amotz,  and  discharged  the  prophetic 
oflice  in  ike  days  of  Uzziah,  Jutham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah, 
kings  of  Judah,  who  successively  flourished  between  a.  m. 
3194  and  3305.  There  is  a  current  tradition  that  he  was  of 
the  blood-royal ;  and  some  writers  have  affirmed  that  his 
father  Amotz  or  Amos  was  the  son  of  Joash,  and,  conse- 
quently, brother  of  Uzziah  king  of  Judah.  Jerome,  on  the 
authority  of  some  rabbinical  writers,  says,  that  the  prophet 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Manasseh  king  of  Judah ; 
but  this  opinion  is  scarcely  credible,  because  Manasseh  did 
not  commence  his  reign  until  about  sixty  years  after  Isaiah 
had  begun  to  discharge  his  prophetic  functions.  He  must, 
indeed,  have  exercised  the  office  of  a  prophet  during  a  long 
period  of  time,  if  he  lived  in  the  reign  of  Manasseh  ;  for  the 
lowest  computation,  beginning  from  the  year  in  which  Uzziah 
died,  when  he  is  by  some  supposed  to  have  received  his 
first  appointment  to  that  office,  brings  it  to  sixty-one  years. 
But  the  tradition  of  the  Jews,  which  has  been  adopted  by 
most  Christian  commentators,  that  he  was  put  to  death  by 
Manasseh,  is  very  uncertain;  and  Aben  Ezra,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  Jewish  writers,  is  rather  of  opinion  that  he 
died  before  Hezekiah ;  which  Bishop  Lowth  thinks  most 
probable.  It  is,  however,  certain,  that  he  lived  at  least  to 
the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  year  of  Hezekiah ;  which  makes 
the  least  possible  term  of  the  duration  of  his  prophetic  office 
to  be  about  forty-eight  years. 

The  name  of  Isaiah,  as  Vitringa  has  remarked  after  several 

E receding  commentators,  is  in  some  measure  descriptive  of 
is  high  character,  since  it  signifies  the  Salvntion-nf- Jehovah  ,■ 
and  was  given  with  singular  propriety  to  him  who  foretold 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  through  whom  all  flesh  shall  see 
the  salvation  of  God.  (Compare  Isa.  xl.  5.  with  Luke  iii.  6. 
and  Acts  iv.  12.)  Isaiah  was  contemporary  with  the  pro- 
phets Amos,  Hosea,  Joel,  and  Micah. 

Isaiah  is  uniformly  spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures  as  a  pro- 
phet of  the  highest  dignity  :  Bishop  Lowth  calls  him  the 
Erince  of  all  the  prophets,  and  pronounces  the  whole  of  his 
ook  to  be  poetical,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  detached 
passages.  It  is  remarkable,  that  his  wife  is  styled  a  prophet- 
ess in  viii.  3.,  whence  the  rabbinical  writers  have  concluded 
that  she  possessed  the  spirit  of  prophecy :  but  it  is  very  pro- 
bable that  the  prophets'  wives  were  called  prophetesses,  as 
the  priests'  wives  were  termed  priestesses,  only  from  the 

1  Prsef.  in  xii  Proph. 

»  Lowth's  PrEelect.  xxi.  vol.  ii.  p.  96.  Bishop  Horsley  differs  in  opinion 
from  Bishop  Lowth,  as  to  the  cause  of  the  obscurity  which  is  observable 
in  the  prophecies  of  Hosea.  Bishop  Horsley  ascribes  it,  not  to  the  great 
antiquity  of  the  composition,  nor  to  any  thing  peculiar  to  the  language  of 
the  author's  age,  but  to  his  peculiar  idioms,  frequent  changes  of  person, 
his  use  of  the  nominative  case  absolute,  his  anomalies  of  number  and  gen- 
der, and  the  ambiguity  of  pronouns.  See  the  Preface  to  his  version  of 
Hosea,  pp.  xxix. — xliii 


qu;:uty  of  their  husbands.  Although  nothing  further  is 
recorded  in  the  Scriptures  concerning  the  wife  of  Isaiah,  we 
find  two  of  his  sons  mentioned  in  his  prophecy,  who  were 
types  or  figurative  pledges  of  God's  assurance ;  and  their 
names  and  actions  were  intended  to  awaken  a  religious  atten- 
tion in  the  persons  whom  they  were  commissioned  to  address 
and  to  instruct.^  Thus,  Shearjashub  (vii.  3.)  signifies  "a 
remnant  shall  return,''''  and  showed  that  the  captives,  who 
should  be  carried  to  Babylon,  should  return  thence  after  a 
certain  time;  and  Maher-shalal-hashbaz  (viii.  I.  3.),  which 
denotes  '■^  make  speed  (or,  run  swiffli/)  to  the  spoil,"  implied 
that  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Syria  would  in  a  short  time 
be  ravaged. 

Besides  the  volume  of  prophecies,  which  we  are  now  to 
consider,  it  appears  from  2  Chron.  xxvi.  22.  that  Isaiah  wrote  , 
an  account  of  the  .ids  of  Uzziah  kin^  of  Judah :  this  has 
perished  with  some  other  writings  of  the  prophets,  which, 
as  probably  not  written  by  inspiration,  were  never  admitted 
into  the  canon  of  fScripture.^  There  are  also  two  apocryphal 
books  ascribed  to  him,  viz.  "77/e  Ascension  of  Isaiah,''  and 
"  The  Apocalypse  of  Isaiah  ,•"  but  these  are  evidently  forgeries 
of  a  later  date ;  and  the  .Upocalypse  has  long  since  perished.^ 

II.  Until  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Isaiah 
was  universally  regarded  both  by  Jews  and  Christians  as  the 
sole  author  of  the  hook  which  bears  his  name.  Koppe  was 
the  earliest  writer  who  intimated  thatEzekiel,  or  some  other 
prophet  who  lived  during  the  exile,  might  have  been  the 
author;  as  Doederlein  was  the  first  of  the  German  commen- 
tators and  critics  who  expressed  a  definite  suspicion  against 
the  genuineness  of  those  predictions  which  were  delivered 
against  the  Gentiles,  but  especially  the  last  twenty-seven 
chapters.  Justi,  Eichhorn,  Bauer,  Paulus,  Rosenraiiller, 
Bertholdt,  De  Wette,  and  others,  have  adopted  the  notions 
of  Doederlein ;  and  by  various  arguments  have  endeavoured 
to  prove  that  the  chapters  in  question  first  originated  during 
the  Babylonian  captivity.  These  arguments  have  been  copi- 
ously examined  and  refuted  by  Professor  Jahn,'' whose  obser- 
vations may  be  arranged  under  the  following  heads : — viz. 
1.  Proofs  that  all  the  prophecies  ascribed  to  Isaiah  are  really 
his  productions ; — 2.  An  examination  and  refutation,  in  detail, 
of  objections  against  particular  predictions  ; — and,  3.  An  exa- 
mination of  the  questions  whether  Isaiah  was  the  author  of 
chapters  xxxvi. — xxxix. 

1.  Proofs  that  all  the  Predictions  ascribed  to  Isaiah 
are  really  his  productions. 

i.  "  The  Style  differs  scarcely  any  in  the  different  prophe- 
cies. We  find  every  where  the  same  descriptions  of  particu- 
lar objects,  and  the  same  images,  taken  from  trees,  especially 
cedars,  firs,  and  oaks ;  from  the  pains  of  childbirth,  from 
history,  and  from  the  golden  age.  The  beginning  of  the 
prophecy  constantly  enters  into  the  midst  of  the  subject,  and 
every  where  poetical  passages  are  inserted  ;  as  v.  1 — 6.  xii. 
1 — 6.  xiv.  4—20.  XXV.  1 — 5. ;  so,  exactly  in  the  same  man- 
ner, xlii.  10—13.  Iii.  9.  s.  Ixi.  10.  Ixiii.  7.  Ixiv.  11.  Every 
where  the  same  clearness  and  obscurity,  the  same  repetitions, 
and  the  same  euphony  of  language,  are  observable.  The 
visions  are  similar;  comp.  ch.  xxi.  and  ch.  xl.  with  ch.  vi. 
Even  the  same  phrases  occur  repeatedly:  e.g.  S^rsv  amp 
occurs  in  the  first  part  seventeen  times,  in  the  second  twelve 
times,  inin,  which  occurs  in  all  the  rest  of  the  Bible  only 
nine  times,  is  found  in  the  first  pari  of  Isaiah  ybt<r  times,  in 
the  second  six.  d^nxnx,  which  is  elsewhere'only  to  be  met 
with/o?ir  times  in  the  book  of  Job,  is  found  here  twice  in  the 
first  part,  -a-wAfive  times  in  the  second,  jna'  is  used  in  Ixv. 
10.  just  as  in  xxxiii.  9.  xxv.  2. :  nini  nns's  in  xl.  1.  xii.  7.  21. 
ixvi.  9.  just  as  in  i.  11.  18.  xxxiii.  10.,  instead  of  which  the 
other  prophets  say  run''  ion,  or  idnm.  The  expressions  ap- 
plied to  the  Sabasans,  li^DD  stretclted  out,  or  tall,  xviii.  2.  7., 
and  mD  ^tyjN,  vien  of  measure,  or  tall  men,  are  peculiar  to  our 
prophet,  as  well  as  many  others,  which  we  have  not  room 

3  Gray.'s  Key,  p.  36.5.  *  Ibid.  p.  372. 

s  Ascensio  enim  Isaia?  et  Apocalypsis  Isaia;  hoc  habent  testhinonium. 
Jerom.  Comment,  on  Isaiali,  ch.  Ixiv.  (Op  torn.  iii.  p.  473.)  See  also  torn, 
iv.  p.  344.  The  anabalieon  or  ascension  of  Isaiah  is  mentioned  by  Epi- 
phanius,  among  the  books  received  by  Hierax,  founder  of  the  sect  of 
the  Hieracites,  in  the  fourth  century.  Haeres.  67.  Dr.  Lardner's  Works, 
vol.  iii.  p.  402.  ' 

«  The  arguments  of  the  various  neologian  objectors  against  the  genuine- 
ness of  Isaiah's  predictions,  and  especially  those  of  Professor  Gesonius, 
are  also  very  fully  and  ably  renewed  and  xefuleA,  first,  by  Professor  Lee, 
in  his  Sermons  and  Dissertations  on  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
pp.  157 — 208. ;  and,  secondly,  by  Dr.  Hengstenberg  in  his  "  Christologie  des 
Alten  Testaments."  (Christology  of  the  Old  Testament.)  That  part  of  Dr. 
H.'s  treatise,  which  relates  to  the  genuineness  of  Isaiah's  predictions,  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Professor  Robinson  of  Andover  (Massa- 
chusetts), and  will  be  found  in  the  Biblical  Repository  for  the  year  1831. 
(vol.  i.  pp.  700 — 733.)  As  the  arguments  of  these  learned  writers  do  not  admit 
of  abridgment,  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred  to  their  publications. 


Sect.  II.  §  4.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH. 


263 


here  to  specify. — Thesubliniity  of  the  ulyk  does  not  vary  more 
throughout  ali  the  prophecies,  than  is  usual  in  poems  vvliich 
are  written  hy  the  same  autiior  at  dilTereiit  limes,  as  for  ex- 
anii)le,  till"  (lini'rent  J'sahiis  of  Uavid  ;  and  tiie  slyhi  in  all  is 
such  as  (-((uld  hy  no  means  he  expcn-ted  from  writers  of  the 
age  of  tiu!  liahylonian  captivity.  It  is  frranted  that  style 
does  not  dejx'nd  entirely  upon  the  ajje,  hut  in  some  measure 
upon  the  cullivati^d  jrinius  of  the  writer ;  yet  it  does  not, 
there'fore,  Ijocouk!  j)rol)al)le  that  such  poems  should  he  com- 
posfid  in  the  a<r(>  of  tiie  Hahylouian  captivity,  so  tliat  wc;  may 
assert  this  without  any  historical  testimony  or  tradition  :  more 
esi)ecially  as  we  find  nothiiijr  similar  in  tlit;  writinirs  of  .I(T(!- 
iniah  or  Kzelutd,  who  wanted  neither  crriiius  nor  jxilish. — The 
luii^iKiirc  itself  is  not  the  same  as  that  ohservahle  in  Jeremiah 
and  Ky.eUiel  :  it  is  not  prohalde  that  any  one  could  have  cul- 
tivated th(!  knowlcdot!  of  the  llchrew  durinjf  tin;  caijtivity 
more  tliorouolily  than  thi'y,  nor  is  such  a  slate  of  the  lan- 
"iiajre  discernible  in  Zecliariah,  who  is  usually  cited  as  an 
instance  of  it. — Lastly,  llu:  arruni:;einenl  anil  intllmd  of  Ircal- 
iiig  the  stiliject  are  the  same  in  all  these  propliecii  s.  Chap, 
vii.  contains  a  prophecy  interwoven  with  a  history,  which  is 
followed,  <'h.  viii. — xii.  hy  prophecies  without  tilfes  ;  so  also 
in  ch.  xxxix.  the  proj)hi'cy  is  woven  into  the  history,  and 
])ropliecies  without  a  title  "follow.  As  in  the  lirst  ])art  there 
are  several  propheci(>s  concerning  Senuacherih  ;  so  also  in  the 
second,  there  are  several  concerning  the  overthrow  of  the 
(yhaldiean  monarchy,  and  the  return  of  the  Hrhrcnvs  I'rom 
captivity.  As  in  the  vision  in  ch.  vi.  we  read,  that  the  pro- 
phet's elforts  should  not  he  accompaidcd  hy  a  hajijiy  result ; 
so  the  prophet,  ch.  xlii.  Id.  -2,'^.  xliii.  8.  xlv.  4.,  and  esneci- 
ally  xlix.  4.  lix.  G.,  complains  that  his  endeavours  had  been 
unsuccessful. 

ii.  "What  is  said  in  ch.  Ixvi.  1 — 6.  of  the  temple,  does 
not  suit  the  latter  part  of  the  period  of  exile,  in  which  Hag- 
gai  and  Zechariah  speak  altogether  dilVerently  on  the  same 
suhject.  Much  less  could  any  one  during  the  captivity  write, 
as  in  xlviii.  4 — 8.,  that  the  ruin  and  utter  destruction  of  the 
city  of  Bahylon  had  not  yet  been  foretold,  when  Jeremiah  1. 
li.  had  plainly  predicted  it;  or  speak,  as  in  lii.  4.,  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Assyrians  as  the  only  enemies  of  the  He- 
brews, and  pass  over  the  Chalda^ans. — The  severe  reproofs, 
Ivi.  9. — lix.  '20.  Ixv.  11 — 16.,  especially  those  denounced 
against  the  shepherds,  /.  e.  the  kings,  Ivi.  11,  &c. ;  the  re- 
proaches not  only  on  account  of  idolatry,  but  also  of  the  im- 
molation of  chiUfren,  Ivii.  1 — 13.,  and  of  enormous  corruption 
of  morals,  Iviii.  6 — 9.  lix.  1 — 8.,  are  entirely  at  variance 
with  the  times  of  the  captivity.  Then,  we  might  rather  ex- 
pect mention  to  be  made  of  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  as 
in  Dan.  ix.  2.  and  that  more  should  be  said  respecting  the 
Magians  or  worshippers  of  Ormuzd,  than  that  one  allusion 
to  the  two  principles  of  things,  xlv.  7.,  which  certainly  were 
maintained  by  very  many  in  an  age  older  than  that  of  the 
captivity. 

lii.  "  Jeremiah  shows  that  he  had  read  these  prophecies, 
seven  years  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Jer.  li.  49 — 
04. ;  for  the  connection  of  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  con- 
tained in  Jer.  1.  li.  with  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  is  evident: 
nor  can  it  be  said,  that  the  author  of  the  controverted  pro- 
phecies of  Isaiah,  living  toward  the  end  of  the  captivity, 
had  read  the  book  of  Jeremiah ;  for  he  is  an  original  and 
independent  author,  drawing  entirely  from  his  own  resources, 
and  never  imitating  others  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  well 
known  that  Jeremiah  had  read  the  older  prophets,  and  bor- 
rowed much  from  them,  especially  in  his  pro|)liecics  against 
foreign  nations.  Some  passages  have  been  observed  in  other 
prophets  also,  which  have  been  taken  from  the  controverted 
prophecies  of  Isaiah :  as  Zeph.  ii.  14,  &c.  from  Isa.  xiii.  21, 
&c.;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  from  Isa.  Ivii.  10,  &c. ;  Ezek.  xxvi.  20. 
xxxi.  11 — 17.  xxxii.  18 — 33.  from  Isa.  xiv.  8 — 28.  ;  Ezek. 
xxvi.  13.  from  Isa.  xxiii.  25.;  Ezek.  xxxviii.  xxxix.  from 
Isa.  Ixvi.  G — 9.  24.  That  Habakkuk  is  indebted  to  Isaiah, 
has  been  long  since  observed  :  compare  Hab.  i.  G.  with  Isa. 
xxiii.  13. 

iv.  "Cyrus,  in  his  written  proclamation  (Ezra  i.  2.), 
says,  that  the  God  of  heaven  had  given  him  all  kingdoms  of 
the  earth,  and  had  charged  him  to  build  to  Him  a  temple  at 
Jerusalem. — These  words,  as  well  as  the  acts  of  Cyrus, 
namely,  his  dismission  of  the  Jews  to  their  own  country, 
his  graqt  of  a  sum  of  money  for  the  building  of  the  temple, 
and  his  restitution  of  the  valuable  holy  vessels,  can  only  be 
explained  on  the  supposition  that  he  had  seen  the  prophe- 
cies of  Isaiah  concerning  him,  as  Josephus  states,  and  was 
nduced,  by  their   manifestly  divine  origin,  to  confer  such 


great  benefits  upon  the  Jews.  Nor  was  Cyras  the  man  to 
sulfer  recent  projjhecies  scarcely  yet  published  to  be  palmed 
u|)on  him  for  ancient;  not  to  mention  that  there  were  many 
who  would  have  been  glad  to  discover  to  him  the  fraud,  if 
any  had  existed.  Neither  would  (^yrus  the  Magian,  who 
built  nothing  but  pyres  to  Ormuzd,  have  been  so  easily  led 
to  construct  a  magnificent  temple  to  the  Cod  of  the  Jews. 

"  It  may,  indeed,  seem  strange  that  the;  |)roi)h(!t  should 
say  so  much  concerning  the  return  from  Ihibyloii,  and  yet 
make  no  express  mention  of  the  carrying  away.  But  he  cer- 
tainly does  say  something  concerning  tliis  subject,  as  xxxix. 
1—7.  vi.  11—13.  v.  5— 9.  xi.  II— IG. ;  and  Micah,  the 
contemporary  of  Isaiah,  speaks  clearly  of  this  carrying 
away,  and  of  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem  ;  so  that  it  woul3 
seem  probable  that  Isaiah  had  said  more  on  this  subject, 
which  has  not  been  preserved  to  us.  If  this  were  the  case, 
the  pro|)het  who  sings  the  glad  return  W'ould  no  more  con- 
tradict himself  by  predicting  the  carrying  away,  than  Jere- 
miah does,  who  has  ])redicled  both  events.'  To  all  this, 
analogy  is  said  to  b(!  opposed,  according  to  which,  it  is 
thought,  prophets  do  not  foretell  such  remote  events  as  those 
concerning  the  (Mialda'ans,  the  Medes  and  Persians,  ('yrus, 
and  iIk^  return  of  the  Hebrews,  which  Isaiah  has  pre(iict<'d. 
But  this  analogy  is  by  no  means  universal.  Besides,  in  this 
objection  it  is  supposed  that  the  Clialdaeans,  Medes,  and 
Persians,  were  in  the  age  of  Isaiah  obscure  nations,  or  en- 
tirely unknown ;  whereas,  in  fact,  the  Medes,  almost  100 
years  before  Isaiah  and  Hezekiah  (826  before  Christ,  149 
after  the  division),  had,  under  their  king  Arbaces,  joined  an 
alliance  with  Belesis  the  governor  of  Bal)ylon,  and  over- 
thrown the  first  Assyrian  monarchy.  It  is  true  that  the  Me- 
dian anarchy  of  seventy-nine  years  followed,  but  in  the 
tenth  of  Hezekiah  (728  before  Christ,  257  af^ter  the  divi- 
sion), they  elected  Dejoces  king,  who  founded  Ecbatana, 
and  whose  son  Phraortes  (665 — 643  before  Christ,  310 — 
332  after  the  division),  attacking  the  new  kingdom  of  the 
Assyrians,  was  slain  while  besieging  Nineveh  ;  and  under 
Cyaxares  I.,  Zoroaster  found  the  kmgdom  of  the  Medes 
again  flourishing.^ — Elam  was  a  celebrated  kingdom  even  in 
the  most  ancient  times.  Gen.  ch.  xiv.,  and  it  is  always  by 
the  ancient  name  dV'-j;,  Gen.  x.  22.  xiv.  1.  that  Isaiah  men- 
tions it,  and  never  by  the  modern  appellation  d-\d,  which  is 
given  it,  Dan  vi.  28.  Ezra  i.  1,2.  iv.  5.  2  Chron.  xxxvi. 
22.  s.  The  Elamites  are  mentioned  as  a  part  of  the  army 
of  the  Assyrians,  Isa.  xxii.  G.,  which  prophecy  is  certainly 
Isaiah's,  as  appears  from  v.  8 — 11.  compared  with  2  Chron. 
xxxii.  2 — 5.  Esarhaddon  sent  some  Elarnites  among  his 
other  colonists  to  Samaria.  (Ezra  iv.  9.  s.)  At  a  later 
period  Jeremiah,  chap.  xxv.  25.  xlix.  24,  &c.  mentions  Elam 
among  the  powerful  kingdoms  which  should  be  con(|uered 
hy  the  Chaldeans,  and  Ezekiel,  ch.  xxxii.  24.  beholds  Elam 
overthrown.  It  is  only  by  a  long  succession  of  time  and 
victories,  that  nations  are  enabled  to  conquer  the  surrounding 
people,  and  spread  themselves  so  widely  as  to  obtain  suf1> 
cient  celebrity  to  entitle  them  to  an  eminent  place  in  liis- 
tory.  It  was  not,  therefore,  in  a  short  space  of  time  that  the 
Chaldeans,  Medes,  and  Elamites  or  Persians,  emerged  from 
their  obscurity  into  so  great  a  light  as  to  become  conspicuous 
to  the  world  when  before  they  had  been  utterly  unknown. 
If,  then,  Isaiah  foretells  the  overthrow  of  the  Chaldeans  by 
the  Medes  and  Elamites,  his  prophecy  in  that  age  would 
have  been  neither  more  nor  less  obscure  than  Zechariah's 
(ix.  13.)  concerning  the  wars  of  the  Jews  against  the  Greeks 
in  Syria.  Isaiah  might  easily  have  used  the  name  Cyrus,  rio 
(or  Koresh),  xliv.  28.  xlv.  1.,  sinceit  means  nothing  more  than 
king;  for  in  the  lauOTage  of  the  Parsees  Khor  means  the 
sun,  and  Schid  splenduur,  whence  is  compounded  Korschid, 
the  splendour  of  the  sun,  and  with  the  addition  of  the  word 
PAE  or  PAi,  habitation,  Korschidpai,  the  habitation  of  the 
splendour  of  the  sun,  which  was  a  customary  appellation  of 
the  kings  of  Persia.  This  appellation  corrupted  into  v\n 
(Koresh),  might  become  known  to  the  Hebrews  by  means 
of  merchants  travellinir  between  Juda?a  and  Persia  ;  and 
Isaiah,  who  did  not  hesitate  to  call  Cyrus  the  anointed,  n'tro, 
may   have  called   him  by  the  appellative  of  the  kings  of 

»  Prophets  are  not,  like  historians,  confined  to  the  order  of  chronology 
in  announcing  future  events.  This  is  plain  from  their  wriiings.  which 
always  give  perspective  views.  Zechariah  predicted  a  kingdom  for  the 
hiilli-priest,  without  noticing  the  destniction  of  the  Persian  monarchy  and 
the  division  of  the  Greek  power.  Isaiah  foretold  the  return  of  the  Israel- 
ites from  the  Assyrian  captivity,  without  sayins  any  thing  of  the  interven- 
ing revolutions  by  the  Clialda?an3,  Medes,  and  Persians.  In  prophecy  the 
more  remote  events  are  often  introduced,  while  the  intermediate  are  unno- 
ticed. 

'»  C'ouip.  Prideaax,  Conn.  Part  I.  Book  I. 


264 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IV. 


Persia,  which  became  afterwards  the  proper  name  of  that 
particular  kinjr."i 

2.  Examination  and  Refutation  of  Objections  against 
particular  predictions  of  isaiah. 

These  may  be  referred  to  three  heads  ;  viz.  i.  Prophecies 
against  the  Egyptians,  Elamites,  Iduma;atis,  &c. ; — ii.  The 
prophecies  against  Tyre  ; — and,  iii.  The  prophecy  concerning 
the  subversion  of  the  Chaklteo-Babylonian  empire,  and  the 
return  of  the  Hebrews  from  captivity. 

i.  Fruphecies  against  the  Egyptians,  Elamites,  Idumxans, 
ISfc. 

(1.)  "  Some  have  said  that  the  passage  in  Isa.  ii.  2 — 4.  is 
inserted  by  mistake  by  the  person  whom  they  suppose  to 
have  collected  the  several  prophecies  into  this  one  book, 
about  the  end  of  the  Babylonish  captivity ;  but  others  have 
already  remarked  that  this  passage  may  have  been  taken  by 
Isaiali  from  Micah  iv.  1 — 3.,  or  by  Micah  from  Isaiah,  or  by 
botli  from  some  more  ancient  prophecy. 

(2.)  "  Chapters  xi.  and  xii.  have  been  supposed  not  to 
belong  to  Isaiah,  because  in  ch.  xi.  11 — 16.  the  very  distant 
event  of  the  return  of  the  Israelites  from  Assyria  and  Egypt 
and  other  regions  is  predicted.  But  this  return  was  predicted 
also  by  Micah,  the  contemporary  of  Isaiah,  by  Hosea,  and 
by  Amos. 

(3.")  "The  prophecy  in  chapters  xv.  xvi.  is  thought  to 
have  been  written  three  years  before  the  devastation  of  Moab 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  xiv.  13,  &c.,  because  Zenhaniah,  ii.  8, 
&c.  and  .Jeremiah,  ch.  xlviii.,  threaten  the  Moabites  with  the 
same  calamity.  But  who  can  show  that  Isaiah  did  not  speak 
of  another  calamity  to  be  inflicted  upon  them  by  the  Assy- 
rians ]  or  who  would  suppose  that  the  Assyrians  spared  the 
Moabites'?  Their  country  was  devastated,  therefore,  as 
Isaiah  foretold,  by  the  Assyrians,  and  then  again  by  the 
Chaldajans,  of  whom  Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah  prophesied. 
That  this  prophecy  of  Isaiah  was  much  older  than  the  time 
of  Jeremiah,  is  certain ;  for  Jeremiah,  ch.  xlviii.,  borrows 
many  ideas  from  it,  as  must  be  evident  to  every  one  who 
compares  the  two.  That  it  is  the  production  of  Isaiah 
himself  is  shown  by  the  time  of  its  fulfilment  being  stated, 
which  is  according  to  Isaiah's  usual  practice.  See  vii.  14 — 
17.  viii.  4. 

(4.)  "No  other  reason  is  brought  to  prove  that  the  passage 
ch.  xix.  18 — 25.  is  not  Isaiah's,  than  this,  that  in  the  same 
chapter,  ver.  1 — 15.,  a  prophecy  of  the  calamity  of  Egypt 
had  preceded,  whereas  ver.  18 — 25.  predict  prosperity.  But 
this  is  nothing  more  than  is  common  with  the  prophets — to 
promise  better  fortune  after  predicting  calamity.  As  the 
Egyptians  are  called,  ver.  25.,  the  people  of  Jehovah,  and 
the  Assyrians,  the  work  of  the  hands  of  Jehovah,  the 
prophecy  must  necessarily  have  been  the  production  of  a 
Hebrew,  and  it  is  much  more  probable  that  Isaiah  should 
have  written  it,  than  any  more  modern  author. 

(5.)  "  Isa.  xxii.  1 — 14.  is  rejected  as  spurious,  because 
the  Elamites  are  mentioned,  ver.  0.:  but  from  a  comparison 
of  ver.  8—11.  with  2  Chron.  xxxii.  2—5.  and  Isa.  vii.,  it 
ajipears  that  the  subject  is  the  irruption  of  Sennacherib  :  the 
mention  of  the  Elamites,  therefore,  must  be  at  least  as 
old  as  the  time  of  Isaiah  :  why,  then,  seek  for  any  other 
author  than  Isaiah,  who  is  mentioned  in  the  title  of  the 
prophecy  *? 

(G.)  "  They  who  contend  that  it  is  not  natural  that  Isaiah 
should  have  uttered  so  many  prophecies  concerning  the 
irruption  of  Sennacherib  alone,  do  not  consider  that  this 
event  was  one  of  great  importance,  and  contributed  very 
much  to  confirm  the  Hebrews  in  their  religion,  so  that  it 
well  deserved  a  multitude  of  prophetic  notices.  The  style 
and  construction,  too,  confirm  the  opinion  that  they  are  pro- 
ductions of  Isaiah,  since  they  do  not  differ  more  from  each 
other  in  this  respect,  than  do  the  various  Conferences  of 
Hariri,  or  the  different  Psalms  of  David. 

(7.)  "The  prophecy,  Isa.  xxiv. — xxvii.,  is  referred  to  a 
more  recent  date,  on  account  oLthe  frequent  occurrence  of 
paronomasias.  Now  we  know  that  these  are  considered 
singular  beauties  in  the  Oriental  style,  and  that  Micah,  the 
contemporary  of  Isaiah,  makes  frequent  use  of  them,  so  that 
they  are  no  proof  of  a  recent  date.  Besides,  Isaiah  himself 
elsewhere  frequently  uses  paronomasiae.  See  Isa.  i.  7.  23. 
iiL  1.  5.  vii.  7,  8.  22.  s.  xxix.  16. ;  compare  Hos.  i.  4.  s.  v.  1. 
and  Mic.  i.  14.  s.  iii.  12.  iv.  10. 

(8.)  "  The  xxxivth  chapter  of  Isaiah,  in  which  the  devas- 
tation of  Idumaea  is  predicted,  is  thought  to  be  of  later  origin, 

"-  Prof.  Turner's  and  Mr.  Whittingham's  translation  of  Jalin's  Introduc- 
tion, pp.  346—350. 


because  the  same  devastation  is  predicted  by  Jeremiah  xlix. 
7.  ss.,  and  by  Ezekiel  xxv.  12.  ss.,  and  after  a  long  time  was 
first  effected  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  which  is  thought  to  be  too 
distant  from  the  time  of  the  prophet.  But  it  has  not  been 
disproved  that  Isaiah  is  speaking,  ch.  xxxiv.,  of  another 
calamity,  to  be  inflicted  on  Idumaea  by  the  Assyrians,  of 
which  Amos,  ch.  i.  11 — 15.,  had  spoken  before  him. 

(9.)  "The  xxxvth  chapter  of  Isaiah  is  entirely  destitute 
of  any  thing  which  could  give  countenance  to  the  supposition 
of  a  more  recent  origin,  and  ver.  8.  compared  with  2  Kings 
xvii.  25.  proves  it  to^elong  to  the  age  ot  Hezekiah."^ 

ii.   The  Fmphecy  against  Tyre.     Isa.  xxiii. 

"The  prophecy  concerning  the  destruction  of  Tyre  by  tlie 
ChaldcBans,  Isa.  xxiii.,  points  out  its  own  age  in  ver.  13., 
where  the  Chalda;ans  are  said  to  be  a  recent  nation,  to  whom 
a  district  of  country  lying  on  the  Euphrates  had  been  assigned 
by  the  Assyrians,  who  must,  consequently,  have  been  at  that 
time  the  prevailing  power.  For  as  Habakkuk  also,  who 
lived  under  Manasseh,  asserts  (i.  6.)  that  the  Chaldseans 
were  a  late  people,  who  were  endeavouring  to  possess  them- 
selves of  the  territories  of  others,  it  is  plain  that  the  time  of 
the  delivery  of  the  prophecy  in  Isa.  xxiii.  could  not  have 
been  far  diste^nt  from  that  of  Habakkuk.  It  is,  indeed, 
imcertaih  whether  Isaiah  lived  till  the  reign  of  Manasseh  ; 
but  as  the  Chaldajans  made  frequent  irruptions  out  of  their 
own  settlements  in  the  eastern  and  northern  parts  of  Armenia 
into  the  more  southern  territories,  during  a  long  period  of  time, 
without  doubt  these  incursions  had  begun  as  early  as  the 
latter  years  of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  since  the  kingdom  of 
Assyria  was  at  that  time  so  much  weakened  by  the  assassi- 
nation of  Sennacherib  and  the  intestine  tumults  which  follow- 
ed that  event,  as  to  afford  a  sufficient  inducement  for  such 
expeditions. — Without  sufficient  reason  also  is  it  asserted 
that  the  70  years  mentioned  Isa.  xxiii.  10.  are  a  prophetic 
number  taken  from  Jeremiah  xxv.  11,  12.  xxix.  10.,  and  that 
therefore  the  whole  prophecy  must  be  later  than  the  time  of 
Jeremiah.  If  either  of  the  prophets  borrowed  this  number 
from  the  other,  it  is  certainly  more  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  Jeremiah,  who,  we  know,  has  borrowed  from  prophets 
more  ancient  than  himself,  took  it  from  the  prophecy  of 
Isaiah,  than  that  the  author  of  this  prophecy,  who  every 
where  else  appears  to  rely  solely  upon  his  own  resources, 
was  indebted  for  it  to  Jeremiah.  What  confirms  this  conclu- 
sion is,  that  particular  specifications  of  time  are  altogether 
in  character  with  Isaiah's  manner.  The  distance  of  the 
event  predicted  is  no  objection;  for  Amos  had  before  the 
time  of  Isaiah,  denounced  the  destruction  of  Tyre.  The 
Chaldaisms,  Isa.  xxiii.  11.  n''JtyD  idcS  will  disappear,  if  we 

point  the  words  n^JtjJD  leB'S,  to  destroy  her  weakened  or  expelled 
ones."^  ^   ■  ••■    "  "  ■ 

iii.  Prophecies  concerning  the  Subvei-sioji  of  the  Chaldsco- 
Babylonian  Etitpire,  and  the  return  of  the  Hf  brews  from  Cap- 
tivity. (Isa.  xiii.  1 — 14.  23.  xxi.  and  xl. — Ixvi.) 

These  predictions,  it  has  been  affirmed,  must  have  been 
written  in  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity,  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons ;  viz. 

(1.)  "  The  difference  of  style:  for  in  the  last  twenty-seven 
chapters,  the  better  part  of  the  people  is  distinguished  as  the 
servant  or  worshipper  r*/' Jehovah,  xli.  8,  9.  xlii.  1,  &Ci  xliv.  1, 
xlviii.  12.  20.  xlix.  7.  Iii.  13.,  wlfich  is  not  the  case  in  the 
former  part  of  the  book. — Idolatry  is  exposed  to  derision  and 
contempt,  xl.  19, 20.  xliv.  9 — 17.  xlvi.  5 — 7.,  an  exhibition  not 
to  be  found  in  those  passages  of  the  former  part;  e.  g.  ii.  19., 
wherein  idolatry  is  reprehended. — The  accomplishment  of 
former  prophecies  is  frequently  noticed,  xli.  21 — 24.  26 — 29. 
xliv.  6.  s.  xlv.  21.  xlviii.  5.,  which  argues  a  modern  author, 
and  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  first  part. — Lastly,  words  and 
phrases  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  first  part  are  not  dis- 
coverable in  the  second." 

To  this  objection  Professor  Jahn  replies,  that  "  the  lan- 
guage', style,  and  composition  are  certainly  not  such  as  nmst 
necessarily  be  referred  to  the  time  of  the  captivity,  and  could 
not  have  been  produced  by  Isaiah.  On  the  contrary,  the 
purity  of  the  language,  the  sublindty  of  the  style,  and  the 
elegance  of  the  composition,  are  such  as  could  not  be'  ex- 
pected from  the  leaden  age  of  Hebrew  literature ;  but  show 
their  origin  to  have  been  in  the  silver  age.  The  difference 
of  style  in  the  two  parts  is  not  greater  than  the  difference  of 
Micah  i. — v.  from  vi.  vii.,  and  is  less  than  that  which  may 
be  observed  in  Hosea  i.  iii.  compared  with  ii.  iv. — xiv.,  or 

"  2  .Talin's  Introduction  by  Prof.  Turner  and  Mr.  Whittingham,  pp.  352, 353.  ~ 

'  Ibid.  p.  351. 


S«CT.  11.  §  4.] 

in  Amos  i. — vi.  compared  with  vii.  viii.,  or  in  ibe  dilTeront 
])s;iliiis  of  Diivid.  TI16  coiicurreiicn  of  souk;  words  or  i)lirases 
not  to  bo  found  in  the  otiier  writings  of  tho  ajro  of  Isaiah 
j)ioves  nothinjr:  for  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  in  the  small 
remains  of  Hebrew  literature,  all  the  words  and  ])hrases  of 
any  particular  atre  should  repeatedly  occur.  Yet  there  are 
in  th(!  writings  in  ([uestion  exceedingly  few  words  or  phrases 
of  this  kind. I — On  the  contrary,  the  accustomed  vehemence! 
oi'  Isaiah,  the  same  dismemberment  of  objects,  and  the  same 
a'llilbesis  between  .lacob  and  Israel,  are  observable  in  both 
]),irts  of  these  prophecies.  All  the  dilferencc  is,  that  the 
))n.i)het,  who  in  the  first  j)art  was  censuring  wickednc^ss,  in 
till!  latter  endeavours  rather  to  t(vach  and  console,  as  the  na- 
tiir(>  of  his  subject  renuired  :  yet  civen  \ww  he  sometimes 
inveighs  against  different  vices,  Ivi.  i). — Ivii.  1'2.  Iviii.  1 — 7. 
lix.  1 — H.  Ixv.  11 — 11.  If  Isaiah  wrote  these  ])rophecies  in 
the  latti!r  years  of  his  life,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  the 
proi)het,  now  old  (in  the  time  of  Manasseh,  as  anpcsars  from 
every  part  of  these  prophecies),  filled  with  consolatory  pros- 
pects, chose  rather  to  teach  than  to  rebuke  :  but  it  was  pecu- 
liarly proper  for  a  teacher  to  address  the  people  as  the  servant 
of  (iod,  to  distinguish  the  better  part  of  the  nation,  and  to 
illustrate  the  madness  of  idolatry;  which  last,  however,  he 
liad  <lone  in  the  first  part,  not  only  ch.  ii.  IH.  s.,  but  also  ii. 
8.  viii.  19.21.,  although  with  more  brevity  than  in  the  latter 
part.  The  notice  of  the  fulfilment  of  lornier  prophecies  was 
especially  adapted  to  convey  instruction,  whether  the  author 
refers  to  the  carrying  away  of  the  ten  tribes,  or  to  the  de- 
liverance of  the  Jews  from  the  Assyrians,  or  to  some  other 
more  ancient  predictions:  this,  therefore,  is  no  proof  of  a 
modern  date.  Such  remarks  do  not  occur  in  the  first  part  of 
the  book,  because  there  the  prophet  neither  teaches  nor  con- 
soles, but  reproves. — The  occurrence  of  certain  phrases  in 
one  part  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  other  might 
prove  a  difference  of  authors,  if  the  genius  of  Isaiah  were 
dry  and  barren ;  but  not  otherwise." 

(2.)  "  The  pari icularifi/  of  the  prophecies,  and  the  distance 
of  the  events  from  the  time  of  their  prediction, 

"In  the  age  of  Isaiah  there  was  no  Chaldajan  monarchy, 
nor  were  the"Medcs  and  Elamites,  who  are  predicted  to  be 
the  destroyers  of  the  Chalda-an  monarchy,  nations  of  any 
celebrity.  From  the  fourteenth  year  of  Hezekiah  to  the 
founding  of  that  monarchy  was  ninety  years:  it  was  one 
hundred  and  fifteen  to  the  birth  of  Cyrus,  who  was  appoint- 
ed general  of  the  Median  army  in  the  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
fifth  year  after  Hezekiah,  and  it  was  not  until  the  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-sixth  year  that  he  overthrew  the  Chaldcean 
monarchy.  Yet  our  prophet  so  long  before  sees  Juda;a  and 
Jerusalem  devastated  by  the  Chalda;ans,  xlv.  2G — 28. ;  dis- 
cerns the  kingdom  which  had  brought  such  destruction  upon 
Judsa  verging  to  its  ruin,  and  its  enemies  already  rushing 
from  the  north,  xlii.  14.  xli.  2.  25.;  and  even  designates 
Cyrus  twice  by  his  very  name  as  the  deliverer  of  the  He- 
brews, xliv.  28.  xlv.  1." 

In  answer  to  this  objection,  it  is  urged  by  Jahn,  that "  the 
particularity  of  the  predictions  to  be  accomplished  at  a  pe- 
riod so  distant  is  indeed  extraordinary  :  but  the  projihet  Ire- 
cpiently  recommends  this  very  circumstance  to  the  attention 
of  the  reader  as  something  remarkable ;  whence  it  appears 
that  even  in  his  age  it  seemed  incredible  tn  many,  and  tliere- 
fore  the  fact  that  the  remoteness  of  the  fulfilment  is  noticed 
in  these  prophecies  is  a  proof  of  the  antiuuity  of  their  au- 
thor.— It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  Chalda;ans,  RIedes 
and  Persians,  or  Elamites,  were  not  in  the  time  of  Isaiah 
such  obscure  nations  as  that  the  prophet,  when  speaking  of 
them,  could  not  have  been  understood  as  far  as  was  neces- 
sary. That  the  prophets  have  sometimes  spoken  of  very  re- 
mote events  has  been  already  proved  by  several  examples, 
some  of  which  were  even  afforded  by  Isaiah  himself:  td 
these  may  be  added,  that  in  this  same  second  part,  Jesus  the 
Messiah  is  predicted,  ch.  lii.  13. — liii.  12.,  a  passage  so 
clear  that  all  attempts  to  explain  it  of  any  other  are  perfectly 
vain  and  fruitless.  Compare  also  ch.  Iv.  1 — 5.  Indeed,  in 
his  very  first  vision,  ch.  vi.,  the  prophet  foresees  the  entire 
dt^vastatio^  of  Judaea,  and  the  subsequent  restoration.  Lastly, 
the  propagation  of  religion,  predicted  in  the  same  second 

»  In  hia  larger  German  Introduction,  Prof.  Jahn  "declares  that  after  re- 
poateU  perusals,  he  can  find  only  two  such  words  :  nyx,  ch.  Ivi.  11.  l.\iii.  1. 
whiclh  occurs  elsewhere  only  in  Jer.  ii.  20.  xxviii.  Vi.  but  yet  is  not  Ara- 
niioan ;  and  a^JJO,  which  is  found  in  Isa.  xli.  25.  and  elsmvhere  only  in  Jere- 
niiali,  Ezekiel,  Ezra,  and  Neheniiali,  but  whicli  cannot  be  a  very  modern 

word,  as  it  was  in  use  among  the  Assyrians.      See  Ezek.  xxiii.  6   12  33 

liuileit.  S.  485."    NulM  of  Prof .  Turner  andJUr.  WultMsham. 

Vol.  II.  3  L 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH. 


265 


part,  was  itself  exceedingly  distnnt  from  the  end  of  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity ;  so  that  even  allowing,  for  argument's  sake, 
the  hypothesis  concerning  the  recent  origin  of  these  prophe- 
cies to  be  correct,  there  will  yet  remain  a  prophecy  verified 
in. a  remote  posterity,  the  Hebrew  people,  and  more  particu- 
larly the  better  part  of  that  people,  Ijeing  ]iointed  out  as  the 
instruments  of  its  comjjletion. — It  is  certainly  true  that  the 
j)roj)het  discerns  the  hostile  kingdom  of  the  Chaldaio-Baby- 
lomans,  the  cities  of  J iiduia  overthrown,  the  ruins  of  Jerusa- 
lem, and  the  downfall  of  the  Chalda^an  monarchy,  and 
names  not  only  tin;  Medes  and  Elamites,  but  even  Cyrus 
himself.  Hut  that  Isaiah,  receiving  such  revelations  in  the 
tiuK!  of  Hezekiah  or  Manasseh,  might  so  totally  have  lost 
hims(!lf  ill  tilt!  contemplation  of  a  very  distant  perif)d,  as  to 
forget  the  present  an<l  write  only  of  the  future,  will  not  be 
denied  by  any  one  who  has  observed  that  Micah,  Joel,  Ha- 
bakkuk,  and  Nahnm  are  altogether  conversant  with  far  dis- 
tant ages.  And  Isaiah  himself  warns  his  reader  of  this, 
ch.  xl.  1.  xli.  7.  21.  Ixvi.  9.,  by  the  expression  mn'  icn',  the 
LoRn  wii,i,  mi/.     Compare  Isa.  xliv.  5." 

(.'{.)  "  ^'he  prophecies  (f  events  u.s  far  as  the  time  of  Cyrus 
are  clear  and  perspicuous ,-  but  those  ichich  refer  to  later  times 
are  obscure ,-  hence  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  author  was 
contcmpm-aru  with  Cyrus. — For  if  it  had  pleased  God  to  grant 
such  very  clear  prophecies  in  times  so  far  remote,  andliven 
to  reveal  the  nauie  of  Cyrus;  why  is  it  said,  ch.  xlv.  14., 
that  the  Hebrews,  after  their  return  to  their  country,  should 
participate  in  the  commerce  of  the  Cushites  and  Sabteans, 
when,  as  is  evident  from  Ezra,  Neliemiah,  and  Malachi,  the 
event  was  not  so?  Nor  were  the  great  promises  made,  ch. 
Ix.  (; — 10.,  ever  fulfilled.  The  contemporaries  of  Isaiah 
certainly  never  could  have  been  able  to  discern  that  those 
things  which  were  prophesied  concerning  Cyrus  should  be 
literally  fulfilled,  but  the  others  only  in  part,  and  figuratively." 

To  this  objection  Jahn  answers,  "  That  the  prophecies 
relating  to  times  anterior  to  Cyrus  should  be  the  more  per- 
spicuous, but  those  referring  to  more  distant  periods  the 
more  obscure,  is  not  to  be  wondered  at ;  for  in  visions,  as  in 
prospects,  the  more  distant  objects  appear  the  more  indis- 
tinctly marked.  That  the  Cushites  and  Sabaans  formerly- 
carried  on  a  considerable  commerce  and  brought  merchandise 
to  the  Hebrews  even  after  the  captivity,  cannot  be  doubted : 
nor  were  the  Hebrews  of  that  time  so  universally  poor  as  is 
pretended ;  for,  Hag.  i.,  they  built  ceiled  houses,  and  sup- 
plied funds  for  the  building  of  the  temple,  and,  in  the  time 
of  ISiehemiah,  even  for  the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem.  Be- 
sides, these  nassages  relate  not  so  much  to  commercial  in- 
tercourse with  these  per^ple,  as  to  their  conversion  to  the 
worship  of  the  true  God.  That  not  a  few  of  them  did  em- 
brace Judaism,  and  visit  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  as  is  pre- 
dicted ch.  Ix.  6 — 10.,  is  certain  from  Acts  ii.  10,  11.  and 
viii.  27."2 

3.  Examination  of  the  Question  whether  Isaiah  was 
THE  Author  of  Chapters  xxxvi. — xxxix.  ■? 

These  "  cha])ters  agree  verbally  in  most  respects  with 
2  Kings  xviii.  13.— xx.  19. ;  yet  in  some  they  differ.  Thus 
the  song  of  Hezekiah,  Isaiah  xxxviii.  9 — 20.,  is  wanting  in 
2  Kings :  on  the  contrary,  the  reconciliation  of  Hezekiah 
with  Sennacherib,  2  Kings  xviii.  14 — 16,,  is  wanting  in 
Isaiah.  What  we  read,  2  Kings  xx.  7.  s.,  concerning  the 
lump  of  figs  to  be  placed  upon  the  boil  of  Hezekiah,  is,  in 
Isa.  xxxviii.,  introduced  where  it  does  not  belong:  its  natu- 
ral place  would  have  been  after  ver.  G.  There  are  also  some 
other  discrepancies  of  less  moment,  which  it  is  unnecessary 
to  adduce.  From  all  this  it  appears  that  the  text  of  these 
two  passagres  is  so  different  and  vet  so  similar,  that  ..../th 
would  seem  to  have  been  taken  from  one  common  source, 
namely,  from  the  history  of  Hezekiah,  which  Isaiah  wrote, 
2  Chron.  xxxii.  32.  The  speeches  of  the  ambassadors  of 
Sennacherib,  of  Hezekiah,  and  of  Isaiah,  and  the  attention 
paid  to  minute  circumstances,  show  that  the  narration  was 
written  by  a  contemporary  witness  Avho  was  himself  con- 
cerned, as  it  is  certain  that  Isaiah  was,  in  the  transactions 
which  he  has  recorded.  The  words  nns  and  p'-iin',  which 
occur  in  the  narration,  are  not  more  recent  than  the  time  of 
Isaiah,  and  even  if  nnc  were  of  Aramaean  origin,  that  would 
not  be  a  proof  of  a  modern  date,  since  some  exotic  words 
had  already  been  introduced  into  the  Hebrew  language,  in 
the  time  of  Isaiah,  as  may  be  observed  in  the  writings  of 
Hosea  and  Amos.  The  word  r\^-\-\r\->  has  not  in  this  place 
the  signification  which  it  acquired  after  the  captivity,  but 

«  Jahn's  Introduction  by  Prof.  Turner  and  Mr.  Whittingham,  pp.  355 
— 356, 


266 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IV 


designates  the  Hebrew  language,  which  at  that  time  flourish- 
ed only  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah."' 

in.  The  Scope  of  Isaiah's  predictions  is  three-fold  ;  viz. 

1.  To  detect,  reprove,  and  condemn  the  sins  of  the  Jewish 
people  especially,  and  also  the  iniquities  of  the  ten  tribes  of 
Israel,  and  the  abominations  of  many  Gentile  nations  and 
countries;  denouncing  the  severest  judgments  against  all 
sorts  and  degrees  of  persons,  whelher  Jews  or  Gentiles. 

2.  To  invite  persons  of  every  rank  and  condition,  both  Jews 
and  Gentiles,  to  repentance  and  reformation,  by  numerous 
promises  of  pardon  and  mercy.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
no  such  promises  are  intermingled  with  the  denunciations 
of  divine  vengeance  against  Babylon,  although  they  occur 
in  the  threatenings  against  every  other  people. 

3.  To  comfort  all  the  truly  pious  (in  the  midst  of  all  the 
calamities  and  judgments  denounced  against  the  wicked) 
with  prophetic  promises  of  the  true  Messiah.^  These  pre- 
dictions "  seem  almost  to  anticipate  the  Gospel  history,  so 
clearly  do  they  foreshow  the  divine  character  of  Christ  (ch. 
vii.  14.  compared  with  Matt.  i.  18 — 23.  and  Lukei.  27 — 35. ; 
vi.  ix.  G.  XXXV.  4.  xl.  5.  9,  10.  xlii.  6 — 8.  Ixi.  1.  compared 
with  Luke  iv.  18.  Ixii.  11.  Ixiii.  1 — 4.);  his  miracles  (ch. 
XXXV.  5,  6.) ;  his  peculiar  qualities  and  virtues  (ch.  ix.  2,  3. 
xl.  11.  xliii.  1 — 3.) ;  his  rejection  (ch.  vi.  9 — 12.  viii.  14,  15. 
liii.  3.);  and  sufferings  for  our  sins  (ch.  1.  6.  liii.  4 — 11.;)-' 
his  death,  burial  (ch. liii.  8,  9.),  and  victory  over  death  (ch. 
XXV.  8.  liii.  10 — 12.)  ;  and,  lastly,  his  final  glory  (ch.  xlix. 
7.  22,  23.  lii.  13—15.  liii.  4,  5.),  and  the  establishment, 
increase  (ch.  ii.  2 — 4.  ix.  7.  xlii.  4.  xlvi.  13.),  and  perfec- 
tion (ch.  ix.  2.  7.  xi.  4 — 10.  xvi.  5.  xxix.  18 — 24.  xxxii.  1. 
xl.  4,  5.  xlix.  9—13.  li.  3—6.  lii.  6—10.  Iv.  1—3.  lix. 
16-^21.  Ix.  Ixi.  1 — 5.  Ixv.  25.)  of  his  kingdom  ;  each  speci- 
fically pointed  out,  and  portrayed  with  the  most  striking 
and  discriminating  characters.  It  is  impossible,  indeed,  to 
reflect  on  these,  and  on  the  whole  chain  of  his  illustrious 
prophecies,  and  not  to  be  sensible  that  they  furnish  the  most 
incontestable  evidence  in  support  of  Christianity. "^ 

IV.  The  predictions  of  Isaiah  are  contained  in  sixty-six 
chapters ;  of  which  the  five  first  are  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  delivered  in  the  reign  of  iJzziah :  the  sixth  in  the 
reign  of  Jotham;  the  seventh  to  the  fifteenth  in  the  reign 
of  Ahaz  ;  and  the  remainder  in  that  of  Hezekiah.  Various 
modes  of  classifying  them  have  been  proposed,  in  order  to 
present  them  in  the  most  useful  and  lucid  arrangement ;  some 
commentators  and  critics  dividing  them  into  three  parts  : — 

1.  Evangelico-Legal,  which  contain  denunciations  of  the 
divine  vengeance,  intermixed  with  evangelical  promises ; — 

2.  Historical,  comprising  the  narrative  part; — and,  3.  Evan- 
gelical, comprising  prophecies  and  promises  relative  to  the 
deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  captivity,  and  the  yet  greater 
deliverance  of  mankind  from  the  bondage  of  sin,  by  the 
Messiah.  By  other  writers,  the  book  of  the  prophet  Isaiah 
is  divided  into, — 1.  Reprehensory,  including  sharp  reproofs 
and  threatenings  of  the  Jews  for  their  sins,  in  which  are 
mingled  promises  to  the  penitent; — 2.  Minatory,  containing 
threatenings  agaisst  the  enemies  of  the  Jewish  church,  ana 
also  against  the  Jews  themselves; — 3.  Narrative  or  Histori- 
cal,-— and,  4.  Consolatory  and  evangelical  promises  concern- 
ing Messiah  and  the  church.  Other  classifications  have 
been  proposed,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  specify ;  but, 
without  adopting  any  of  them,  we  apprehend  that  the  follow- 
ing synopsis  will  be  found  to  exhibit  a  clear  view  of  the 
various  topics  discussed  by  the  royal  prophet.  The  predic- 
tions of  Isaiah,  then,  may  be  divided  into  six  parts,  each 
containing  a  number  of  discourses,  delivered  by  the  prophet 
to  the  various  nations  or  people  whom  he  was  commissioned 
to  address.* 

«  Jahn's  Introduction,  p.  359.  Bishop  Lowth  considers  the  narrative- 
chapters  in  Isaiah  as  a  ditferent  copy  of  the  relation  in  the  second  book  of 
Kings,  the  account  of  Hezekiah's  sickness  only  excepted.  The  difference 
of  the  two  copies,  he  is  of  opinion,  is  little  more  than  what  has  manifestly 
arisen  from  the  mistakes  of  transcribers  :  they  mutually  correct  each 
other  ;  and  most  of  the  mistakes  may  be  perfectly  rectified  by  a  collation 
of  the  two  copies  with  the  assistance  of  the  ancient  versions.  Some  few 
sentences,  or  members  of  sentences,  are  omitted  in  this  copy  of  Isaiah, 
which  are  found  in  the  other  copy  of  the  book  of  Kings  ;  but  he  douijts 
whether  the^i  omissions  were  made  by  design  or  by  mistake.  Isaiah, 
vol.  ii.  p.  237. 

»  The  scope  of  Isaiah's  prophecies  above  given  is  abridged  from  Ro- 
berts's Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  61b. 

s  The  Ethiopian  eunuch  appears  to  have  been  made  a  proselyte  by  Saint 
Philip's  explication  of  this  chapter.  Vide  Acts  viii,  32.  The  whole  of  it  is 
so  minutely  descriptive  of  Christ's  passion,  that  a  famous  Rabbi,  likewise, 
on  reading  it,  was  converted  from  Judaism. — Who,  indeed,  can  resist  its 
evidence  1 

4  Gray's  Key,  pp.  369,  370. 

'  These  general  divisions  of  the  prophecy  are  according  to  the  scheme 
proposed  by  Vitringa  (Comment,  in  Bsaiain,  torn.  i.  p.  ai.)  and  Bishop 


Part  I.  contains  a  general  Description  of  the  Estate  and  Con- 
dition of  the  Jews,  in  the  several  Periods  of  their  History ; 
the  Promulgation  and  Success  of  the  Gospel  and  the  Coming 
of  Messiah  to  Judgment.  {c\i.  i. — v.) — The  Predictions  in 
this  Section  were  delivered  during  the  Heign  of  Uzziah  King 
of  Judah. 

DiscounsE  1.  (ch.  i.  throughout.)  The  prophecy  contained  in 
this  first  chapter"  stands  single  and  unconnected,  constituting 
an  entire  piece  of  itself.  If,  as  wc  suppose  to  have  been  the 
case,  it  was  delivered  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  the  desolation 
which  it  describes  may  refer  to  the  calamities  which  were 
occasioned  before  that  time  by  Jehoash  king  of  Israel  (compare 
2  Kings  xiv.  12 — 14.)  ;  or,  the  prophet  may  describe  scenes  yet 
future,  as  already  passing  before  his  eyes,  to  denote  their  cer- 
tainty. As,  however,  the  portrait,  which  it  presents  of  the 
desolate  and  distressed  state  of  the  land  of  Judah,  agrees  much 
better  with  the  wicked  and  afflicted  reign  of  the  apostate  Ahaz, 
than  with  the  flourishing  circumstances  in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah 
and  Jotham  (who  were  both,  in  the  main,  good  princes)  :  on 
this  account  the  learned  Dr.  John  Taylor  thinks  it  probable 
that  the  prediction  in  this  chapter  was  uttered  in  the  reign  of 
Ahaz.  and  intends  the  invasion  of  Judah  by  Resin  and  Pekah, 
kings  of  Syria  and  Israel.''  But  whichever  of  these  conjec- 
tures may  be  preferred,  the  chapter  contains  a  severe  remon- 
strance against  the  inclinations  to  idolatry,  want  of  inward 
piety,  and  other  corruptions,  prevailing  among  the  Jews  of 
that  time,  intermixed  with  powerful  exhortations  to  repentance, 
grievous  threatenings  to  the  impenitent,  and  gracious  promises 
of  better  times,  when  the  nation  shall  have  been  reformed  by 
the  just  judgments  of  God.  The  whole  of  this  discourse  aflbrds 
a  beautiful  example  of  the  prophet's  elegant  and  impressive 
manner  of  writing. 

Discourse  2.  (ch.  ii.  iii.  iv.)  contains  the  following  particulars  : — 

1.  The  kingdom  of  Messiah,  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles,  and  their 
admission  into  it.  (ii.  1 — 5.) 

2.  A  prediction  of  the  punishment  of  the  unbelieving  Jews,  for  their 
idolatrous  practices,  for  their  confidence  in  their  own  strength,  and 
distrust  of  God's  protection  ;  and  likewise  the  destruction  of  idolatry, 
in  consequence  of  the  establishment  of  Messiah's  kingdom,  (ii.  6—20.) 

3.  A  prophecy  of  calanjities  of  the  Babylonian  invasion  (perhaps  also 
of  the  invasion  by  the  Romans),  with  a  particular  amplification  of  the 
distress  of  the  proud  and  luxurious  daughters  of  Sion.  (iii.  1 — 26.8  jy.  i.) 

4.  A  promise  to  the  remnant  that  should  escape  this  severe  purgation, 
of  a  restoration  to  the  favour  and  protection  of  God.  (iv.  2 — 6.) 

This  prophetic  sermon  was  probably  delivered  in  the  time  of 
Jotham,  or  perhaps  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah. 
Discourse  3.  ch.  v.  This  chapter  likewise  stands  single  and 
alone,  unconnected  with  the  preceding  or  following  :  its  sub- 
ject is  nearly  the  same  with  that  of  ch.  i.,  but  it  exceeds  that 
chapter  in  force,  in  severity,  in  variety,  and  elegance.  It  is  a 
general  reproof  of  the  Jews  for  their  wickedness,  which  is  re- 
presented in  the  parable  of  the  vineyard  (verses  1 — 5.)  ;  and  it 
adds  a  more  express  declaration  of  vengeance  by  the  Babylo- 
nian invasion,  (verses  6 — 30.) 

Part  II.  comprises  the  Predictions  delivered  in  the  Reigns  of 
Jotham  and  Ahaz.  (ch.  vi. — xii.) 

Discourse  1.  The  vision  and  prophecy  of  Isaiah  in  the  reign 
of  Jotham.  (ch.  vi.)9  As  this  vision  seems  to  contain  a  solemn 
designation  of  Isaiah  to  the  prophetical  oflice,  it  is  supposed 
by  many  interpreters  to  be  the  first  in  order  of  his  prophecies 
Bishop  Lowth,  however,  conjectures  that  this  may  not  be  the 
case,  because  Isaiah  is  said,  in  the  general  title  of  his  predic- 
tions, to  have  prophesied  in  the  time  of  Uzziah;  and  is  of 
opinion,  that  it  is  a  new  designation,  to  introduce,  with  the 
greater  solemnity,  a  general  declaration  of  the  whole  course 

Tomline.  (Elements  of  Christ.  Theol.  vol.  i.  p.  107.)  In  the  analysis  of 
the  various  discourses,  or  prophetic  sermons  comprised  under  each  sec- 
lion,  we  have  principally  followed  Bishop  Lowth,  in  his  admirable  transla- 
tion of,  and  notes  upon,  the  prophet  Isaiah. 

6  Commentators  are  divided  in  opinion,  whether  the  title  in  verse  1.  (tht 
vision  of  Isaiah)  belong.s  to  the  whole  book,  or  only  to  the  prophecy  con- 
tained in.this  chapter.  The  former  part  of  the  title  seems  properly  to  be- 
long to  this  particular  prophecy  ;  the  latter  part,  which  enumerates  the 
kings  of  Judah,  under  whom  Isaiah  exercised  his  prophetic  office,  seema 
to  extend  it  to  the  entire  collection  of  prophecies  delivered  in  the  course 
of  his  ministry.  Vitringa  (with  whom  Bishop  Lowth  agrees)  has  solved 
this  doubt  very  judiciously.  He  supposes  that  the  former  part  of  the  title 
was  originally  prefixed  to  this  single  prophecy  ;  and  that,  when  the  collec- 
tion of  all  Isaiah's  prophecies  was  made,  the  enumeration  of  the  kings  of 
Judah  was  added,  to  make  it  at  the  same  time  a  proper  title  to  the  whole 
book.  As  such  it  is  plainly  taken  in  2  Chron.  xxxii.  32.  where  the  book  of 
Isaiah  is  cited  by  the  title  of  "The  Vision  of  Isaiah  the  Prophet,  the  Son  of 
Amos."     Vitringa,  torn.  i.  pp.  25 — 29.     Bishop  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  4. 

■>  Scheme  of  Scripture  Divinity,  chap,  xxxiv.  in  vol.  i.  of  Bishop  Watson's 
Collection  of  Tracts,  pp.  143,  144. 
•  a  See  a  striking  raedallic  illustration  of  Isa.  iii.  26.  in  Vol.  I.  p.  91. 

»  For  a  particular  elucidation  of  this  sublime  vision,  see  Bp.  Lowth's 
Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  pp.  72 — 77.  and  Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ij. 
book  i.  p.436.  et  seg. 


Sect.  II.  §  4.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH. 


867 


of  God's  dispensations  towards  his  people,  and  the  fates  of  the 
nation, — events  whicli  are  still  depending,  and  will  not  be  fully 
acfoniplished  until  the  final  restoration  of  Israel. 

DiscoiiisK  2.  (cli.  vii. — ix.  7.)  coinincnces  with  an  historical 
aecount  of  the  occasion  of  the  prophecy  (vii.  1 — 3.),  and  then 
follows  a  prediction  of  the  ill  success  of  the  designs  of  the 
Israelites  and  Syrians  against  Judalt  (vii.  1 — 16.)  ;  to  this 
succeeds  the  denunciation  of  the  calamities  that  were  to  be 
brought  upon  the  king  and  people  of  Judah  by  the  Assyrians, 
whom  th(!y  had  now  hired  to  assist  them.  (vii.  17 — 25.) 
These  preilictions  are  repeated  and  confirmed  in  ch.  viii.,  the 
ninth  and  tenth  verses  of  which  give  a  ri'peated  general  assu- 
rance that  all  the  designs  of  the  enemies  of  God's  people  shall 
ultimately  be  frustrated  ;  and  the  discourse  concludes,  after 
various  admonitions  and  threatenings  (viii.  11 — 22.  ix.  1.), 
with  an  illustrious  prophecy  (ix.  2 — 7.),  in  the  first  instance, 
perhaps,  of  the  restoration  of  prosperity  under  Hezekiah,  but 
principally  of  the  manifestation  of  the  Messiah,  the  transcen- 
dent dignity  of  his  character,  and  the  universality  and  eternal 
duration  of  his  kingdom. 

DiscoiKSE  3.  (ch.  ix.  8. — x.  4.)  contains  a  distinct  prophecy 
and  a  just  poem,  remarkable  for  the  regularity  of  its  disposi- 
tion and  the  elegance  of  its  plan.  It  has  no  relation  to  the 
preceding  or  to  the  following  prophecy,  but  is  exclusively  ad- 
dressed to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  its  subject  is  a  denunci- 
ation of  vengeance  awaiting  their  enemies. 

DiscouKSK  4.  (ch.  X.  5.  xii.)  foretells  the  invasion  of  Senna- 
cherib, and  the  destruction  of  his  army  (x.  5 — 34.  xi.)  ;  and, 
according  to  Isaiah's  usual  method,  he  takes  occasion,  from  the 
mention  of  a  great  temporal  deliverance  by  the  destruction  of 
the  Assyrian  host,  to  launch  forth  into  a  display  of  the  spirit- 
ual deliverance  of  God's  people  by  the  Messiah,  to  whom  this 
prophecy  relates  ;  for  that  this  prophecy  relates  to  the  Messiah 
we  have  the  express  authority  of  St.  Paul  in  Kom.  xv.  12. 
The  hymn  in  ch.  xii.  seems,  by  its  whole  tenor,  as  well  as  by 
many  of  its  expressions,  much  better  calculated  for  the  use  of 
the  Christian  than  for  the  Jewish  church  under  any  circum- 
stances, or  at  any  time  that  can  be  assigned ;  and  the  Jews 
themselves  seem  to  have  applied  it  to  the  times  of  the  Mes- 
siah. 

Part  III.  contains  various  Predictions  against  the  Babylonians, 
Assyrians,  Philistines,  and  other  Nations  with  whom  the 
Jews  had  any  intercourse  (ch.  xiii. — xxii.) ;  these  Predic- 
tions are  contained  in  nine  Prophetic  Poems  or  Discourses. 

Discourse  1.  (ch.  xiii.  xiv.  1 — 28.)  contains  one  entire  prophecy, 
foretelling  the  destruction  of  Babylon  by  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians :  it  was  probably  delivered  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  about 
two  hundred  years  before  its  completion.  The  captivity  itself 
of  the  Jews  at  Babylon  (which  the  prophet  does  not  expressly 
foretell,  but  supposes  in  the  spirit  of  prophecy  as  what  was 
actually  to  be  etlected),  did  not  take  place  till  about  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  years  after  this  prediction  was  delivered.  And 
the  Medes,  who  (in  xiii.  7.)  are  expressly  mentioned  as  the 
principal  agents  in  subverting  this  great  monarchy,  and  re- 
leasing the  Jews  from  that  captivity,  were  at  this  time  an 
inconsiderable  people,  having  been  in  a  state  of  anarchy  ever 
since  the  fall  of  the  great  Assyrian  empire,  of  which  they  had 
inade  a  part  under  Sardanapalus ;  and  did  not  become  a  king- 
dom under  Deioces,  until  about  the  seventeenth  year  of  Heze- 
kiah's  reign.  The  former  part  of  this  prophecy.  Bishop  Lowth 
remarks,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  examples  that  can  be 
given  of  elegance  of  composition,  variety  of  imagery,  and  sub- 
limity of  sentiment  and  diction  in  the  prophetic  style  ;  and  the 
latter  part  consists  of  a  triumphal  ode,  which,  for  beauty  of 
disposition,  strength  of  colour,  grandeur  of  sentiment,  brevity, 
perspicuity,  and  force  of  expression,  stands  unrivalled  among 
all  the  monuments  of  antiquity.  The  exact  accomplishment 
of  this  prophecy  is  recorded  in  Dan.  v.  Jerome  {in  loc.)  says, 
that,  in  his  time,  Babylon  was  quite  in  ruins  ;  and  all  modern 
travellers  unanimously  attest  that  Babylon  is  so  utterly  anni- 
hilated, that  even  the  place,  where  this  wonder  of  the  world 
once  stood,  cannot  now  be  determined  with  any  certainty. 
On  the  subject  of  this  prophecy,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  126. 

DiscocHSE  2.  (ch.  xiv.  29 — 32.)  contains  severe  prophetic  de- 
nunciations against  the  Philistines,  the  accomplishment  of 
wh^ch  is  recorded  in  2  Kings  xviii.  8. 

DiscocHSK  3.  (ch.  XV.  xvi.)  is  a  prophecy  against  the  Moabites ; 
it  was  delivered  soon  after  the  preceding,  in  the  first  year  of 
Hezekiah,  and  it  was  accomplished  in  his  fourth  year  when 
Shalmaneser  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  He  might,  pro- 
bably, march  through  Moab ;  and,  to  secure  eveiy  thing  be- 


hind him,  possess  himself  of  their  whole  country,  by  taking 
their  principal  strong  places.  Jeremiah,  says  Bishop  Lowth, 
has  happily  introduced  much  of  this  prophecy  of  Isaiah  into 
his  own  larger  prophecy  against  the  same  i>eople  in  his  forty- 
eighth  chapter ;  denouncing  God's  judgments  on  Moab  subse- 
quent to  the  calamity  here  foretold,  and  to  be  executed  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  by  which  means  several  mistakes  in  the  text 
of  both  prophets  may  be  rectified. 

DiscouiisK  4.  (ch.  xvii.)  is  a  prophecy  chiefly  directed  against 
Damascus  or  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  with  whose  sovereign  the 
king  of  Samaria  (or  Israel)  had  confederated  against  the  king- 
dom of  Judah.  Bishop  Lowth  conjectures  that  it  was  de- 
livered, soon  after  the  prophecies  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
chapters,  in  the  commencement  of  Ahab's  reign.  It  was  ful- 
filled by  Tiglath-Pileser's  taking  Damascus  (2  Kings  xvi.  9.), 
overrunning  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  and  carrying  a  great  number  of  the  Israelites  also  cap- 
tives into  Assyria ;  and  still  more  fully  in  regard  to  Israel,  by 
the  conquest  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  captivity  of  the  people, 
ellccted  a  few  years  after  by  Shalmaneser.  The  three  last 
verses  of  this  chapter  seem  to  have  no  relation  to  the  prophecy 
to  which  they  are  joined  :  they  contain  a  noble  description  of 
the  formidable  invasion  and  sudden  overthrow  of  Sennacherib, 
which  is  intimated  in  the  strongest  terms  and  most  expressive 
images,  exactly  suitable  to  the  event. 

Discourse  5.  (ch.  xviii.)  contains  one  of  the  most  obscure  pro- 
phecies in  the  whole  book  of  Isaiah.  Vitringa  considers  it  aa 
directed  against  the  Assyrians;  Bishop  Lowth  refers  it  to  the 
Egyptians ;  and  Rosenmuller,  and  others,  to  the  Ethiopians. 

Discourse  G.  (ch.  xix.  xx.)  is  a  prophecy  against  Egypt,  tlie 
conversion  of  whose  inhabitants  to  the  true  religion  is  inti- 
mated in  verses  IB — 25.  of  ch.  xix. 

Discourse  7.  (ch.  xxi.  1 — 10.)  contains  a  prediction  of  the 
taking  of  Babylon'  by  the  Medes  and  Persians.  "  It  is  a  pas- 
sage singular  in  its  kind  for  its  brevity  and  force,  for  the  variety 
and  rapidity  of  the  movements,  and  for  the  strength  and  energy 
of  colouring  with  which  the  action  and  event  are  painted." 
The  eleventh  and  twelfth  verses  of  this  chapter  contain  a  pro- 
phecy concerning  Dumah  or  Idumaea,  the  land  of  the  Edom- 
itcs,  Mount  Seir ;  which,  from  the  uncertainty  of  the  occasion 
on  which  it  was  delivered,  as  well  as  from  the  brevity  of  the 
expression,  is  very  obscure.  The  five  last  verses  comprise  a 
prophecy  respecting  Arabia,  which  was  fulfilled  within  a  year 
after  its  delivery. 

Discourse  8.  (ch.  xxii.)  is  a  prophecy  concerning  the  capture 
of  the  Valley  of  Vision,  or  Jerusalem  (verses  1 — 14.),  the 
captivity  of  Shebna  (15 — 19.),  and  the  promotion  of  Eliakim. 
(20 — 24.)  The  invasion  of  Jerusalem  here  announced  is 
either  that  by  the  Assyrians  under  Sennacherib ;  or  by  the 
Chaldseans  under  Nebuchadnezzar.  Vitringa  is  of  opinion 
that  the  prophet  had  both  in  view ;  viz.  the  invasion  of  the 
Chaldaans  in  verses  1 — 5.  and  that  of  the  Assyrians  in  verses 
8 — 11.  Compare  2  Kings  xxv.  4,  5.  and  2  Chron.  xxxii.  2 — 5. 

Discourse  9.  (ch.  xxiii.)  denounces  the  destruction  of  Tyre  by 
Nebuchadnezzar^  (1 — 17.),  the  restoration  of  its  prosperity, 
and  the  conversion  of  the  Tyrians.  Accordingly  a  Christian 
church  was  early  formed  at  Tyre,  which  became  a  kind  of 
mother-church  to  several  others,  which  were  connected  with 
it.     See  Acts  xxi.  1 — 6.' 

Part  IV.  contains  a  Prophecy  of  the  great  Calamities  that 
should  befall  the  People  of  God,  His  merciful  Preservation 
of  a  Remnant  of  them,  and  of  their  Restoration  to  their 
Country,  of  their  Conversion  to  the  Gospel,  and  the  Destruc- 
tion of  Antichrist .  (ch.  xxiv. — xxxv.) 

Discourse  1.  (ch.  xxiv.  xxv.  xxvi.)  was  probably  delivered  be- 
fore the  destruction  of  Moab  by  Shalmaneser,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  Hezekiah's  reign ;  but  interpreters  are  not  agreed 
whether  the  desolation  announced  in  ch.  xxiv.  was  that  caused 
by  the  invasion  of  Shalmaneser,  the  invasion  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, or  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  nation  by  the  Romans. 
Vitringa  is  singular  in  referring  it  to  the  persecution  by  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes ;  and  Bishop  Lowth  thinks  it  may  have  a 
view  to  all  the  three  great  desolations  of  the  country,  especially 
to  the  last.  In  verses  21 — 23.  it  is  announced  that  God  shall 
at  length  revisit  and  restore  his  people  in  the  last  age ;  and 

«  Bishop  Newton  has  collected  and  illustrated  the  various  predictions  of 
Isaiah  and  other  prophets  against  Babylon.  See  his  Dissertation  on  the 
Prophecies,  vol.  i.  diss.  ix.     See  also  Vol.  I.  p.  126.  supra. 

»  On  the  accomplishment  of  the  various  prophecies  against  Tyre,  see 
Bishop  Newton's  Dissertations,  voL  i.  diss.  xi.  See  also  VoL  L  pp.  13},  125. 

>  Scott,  un  Isa.  xxiii.  18. 


268 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IV. 


then  the  kingdom  of  God  shall  be  established  in  such  perfec- 
tion as  wholly  to  obscure  and  eclipse  the  glory  of  the  tempo- 
rary, typical,  preparatory  kingdom  now  subsisting.  On  a  re- 
view of  this  extensive  scene  of  God's  providence  in  all  its 
parts,  the  prophet  breaks  out  into  a  sublime  and  beautiful  song 
of  praise,  in  which  his  mind  seems  to  be  more  possessed  by  the 
prospect  of  future  mercies  than  by  the  recollection  of  past 
events  (xxv.)  ;  this  is  followed  by  another  hymn  in  ch.  xxvi. 
In  verse  19.  the  deliverance  of  the  people  of  God  from  a  state 
of  the  lowest  misery  is  explained  by  images  plainly  taken  from 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead. 

Discourse  2.  (ch.  xxvii.)  treats  on  the  nature,  measure,  and 
design  of  God's  dealings  with  his  people. 

DiscouKSE  3.  (ch.  xxviii.)  contains  a  prophecy  directed  both  to 
the  Israelites  and  to  the  Jews.  The  destruction  of  the  former 
by  Shalmaneser  is  manifestly  denounced  in  verses  1 — 5. ;  and 
the  prophecy  "  then  turns  to  the  two  tribes  of  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin, the  remnant  of  God's  people,  who  were  to  continue  a 
kingdom  after  the  final  captivity  of  the  Israelites.  It  com- 
mences with  a  favourable  prognostication  of  their  affairs  under 
Hezekiah;  but  soon  changes  to  reproofs  and  threatenings  for 
their  disobedience  and  profaneness."'  In  verses  23 — 29.  the 
wisdom  of  Providence  is  illustrated  by  the  discretion  of  the 
husbandman. 

DiscouRSi,  4.  (ch.  xxix. — xxxiii.)  predicts  the  invasion  of  Sen- 
nacherib, the  great  distress  of  the  Jews  while  it  continued 
(xxix.  1 — 4.),  and  their  sudden  and  immediate  deliverance  by 
God's  interposition  in  their  favour  ;  and  the  subsequent  pros- 
perous state  of  the  kingdom  under  Hezekiah ;  interspersed 
•with  severe  reproofs  and  threats  of  punishment  for  their 
hypocrisy,  stupidity,  infidelity,  their  want  of  trust  in  God,  and 
their  vain  reliance  on  assistance  from  Egypt;  and  with  pro- 
mises of  better  times  both  immediately  to  succeed  and  to  be 
expected  in  the  future  age.   (18 — 24.  xxx. — xxxiii.) 

DiscocRSE  5.  (ch.  xxxiv.  xxxv.)  makes  one  distinct  prophecy, 
an  entire,  regular,  and  beautiful  poem,  consisting  of  two  parts  ; 
the  first  containing  a  denunciation  of  the  divine  vengeance 
against  the  enemies  of  the  people  or  church  of  God ;  the  se- 
cond part  describing  the  flourishing  state  of  the  church  of 
God  consequent  upon  the  execution  of  those  judgments.  It  is 
plain  from  every  part  of  it,  that  this  chapter  is  to  be  understood 
of  Gospel  times.  The  fifth  and  sixth  verses  of  ch.  xxxv.  were 
literally  accomplished  by  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles.^  In  a 
secondary  sense,  Bishop  Lowth  remarks,  they  may  have  a  fur- 
ther view  ;  and,  running  parallel  with  the  former  part  of  the 
prophecy,  may  relate  to  the  future  advent  of  Christ,  to  the  con- 
version of  the  Jews,  and  their  restoration  to  their  own  land ; 
and  to  the  extension  and  purification  of  the  Christian  faith ; — 
events  predicted  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  preparatory  to  it. 

Part  V,  comprises  the  Historical  Part  of  the  Prophecy  of 
Isaiah. 

Ch.  xxxvi.  relates  the  history  of  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib, 
and  of  the  miraculous  destruction  of  his  army,  as  a  proper  in- 
troduction to  ch.  xxxvii.,  which  contains  the  answer  of  God  to 
Hezekiah's  prayer,  that  could  not  be  properly  understood  with- 
out it.  On  the  subject  of  these  chapters,  see  p.  265.  supra. 
Ch.  xxxviii.  and  xxxix.  relate  Hezekiah's  sickness  and  reco- 
very, and  his  thanksgiving  for  restoration  to  health,  together 
with  the  embassy  of  the  king  of  Babylon. 

Part  VI.  (ch.  xl. — Ixvi.)  comprises  a  series  (^  Prophecies,  deli- 
vered, in  all  probability ,  towards  the  close  of  Hezekiah'' s  Peign. 

This  portion  of  Isaiah's  predictions  constitutes  the  most  elegant 
part  of  the  sacred  writings  of .  the  Old  Testament.  ''  The 
chief  subject  is  the  restoration  of  the  church.  'J'his  is  pursued 
with  the  greatest  regularity  ;  containing  the  deliverance  of  the 
Jews  from  captivity — the  vanity  and  destruction  of  idols — the 
vindication  of  the  divine  power  and  truth — consolations  and 
invitations  to  the  Jews — denunciations  against  them  for  their 
infidelity  and  impiety — their  rejection,  and  the  calling  of  the 
Gentiles — the  happiness  of  the  righteous  and  the  final  destruc- 
tion of  the  wicked.  But,  as  the  subject  of  this  very  beautiful 
scries  of  prophecies  is  chiefly  of  the  consolatory  kind,  they  are 
introduced  with  a  promise  of  the  restoration  of  the  kingdom, 
and  the  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity,  through  the 
merciful  interposition  of  God.  At  the  same  time,  this  redemp- 
tion from  Babylon  is  employed  as  an  image  to  shadow  out  a 
redemption  of  an  infinitely  higher  and  more  important  nature.^ 

'  Smith's  Summary  View  of  the  Prophets,  p.  56. 

»  Compare  Matt.  xi.  5.  xv.  30.  xxi.  14.   John  v.  8,  9.   Acts  iii.  2.   viii.  7. 
xiv.  8—10. 
»  Smith's  Summary  View  of  the  Prophets,  p.  64. 


The  prophet.  Bishop  Lowth  remarks,  connects  these  two  events 
together,  scarcely  ever  treating  of  the  former  without  throwing 
in  some  intimations  of  the  latter  ;  and  sometimes  he  is  so  fully 
possessed  with  the  glories  of  the  future  more  remote  kingdom 
of  the  Messiah,  that  be  seems  to  leave  the  immediate  subject 
of  his  commission  almost  out  of  the  question.  This  part  con- 
sists of  twelve  prophetic  poems  or  discourses. 

Discourse  1.  (ch.  xl.  xli.)  contains  a  promise  of  comfort  to  the 
people  of  God,  interspersed  with  declarations  of  the  omnipo- 
tence and  onmiscience  of  Jehovah,  and  a  prediction  of  the 
restoration  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian  captivity  by 
Cyrus. 

Discourse  2.  The  advent  and  oflice  of  the  Messiah  are  foretold 
(xlii.  1 — 17.)  ;  for  rejecting  whom  the  incredulity  of  the  Jews 
is  reproved.  (18 — 25.)  A  remnant  of  them,  however,  it  is 
promised,  shall  be  preserved,  and  ultimately  restored  to  their 
own  land,  (xliii.  1 — 13.)  The  destruction  of  Babylon  and  the 
restoration  of  the  Jews  are  again  foretold,  as  also  (perhaps^ 
their  return  after  the  Roman  dispersion  (14 — 20.)  ;  and  the) 
are  admonished  to  repent  of  those  sins  which  would  otherwise 
bring  the  severest  judgments  of  God  upon  them.   (21 — 28.) 

Discourse  3.  contains  promises  of  the  pouring  out  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  intermingled  with  an  exposure  of  the  folly  of  idolatry 
(xliv.  1 — 20.),  which,  in  force  of  argument,  energy  of  expres- 
sion, and  elegance  of  composition,  far  surpasses  any  thing  that 
was  ever  written  upon  the  subject.  The  prophet  then  an- 
nounces by  name  the  instrument  of  their  deliverance,  Cyrus, 
(21 — 28.  xlv.  1 — 5.);'  and,  after  adverting,  in  splendid  imagery, 
to  the  happy  state  of  the  people  of  God,  restored  to  their  country, 
and  flounshing  in  peace  and  plenty,  in  piety  and  virtue,  he 
proceeds  to  answer  or  prevent  the  objections  and  cavils  of  the 
unbelieving  Jews,  disposed  to  murmur  against  God,  and  to 
arraign  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  his  dispensations  in  regard  to 
them ;  in  permitting  them  to  be  oppressed  by  their  enemies, 
and  in  promising  them  deliverance  instead  of  preventing  their 
captivity.  (6 — 25.)  St.  Paul  has  borrowed  the  prophet's 
imagery,  and  has  applied  it  to  the  like  purpose  with  equal 
force  and  elegance  in  Rom.  ix.  20,  21. 

Discourse  4.  foretells  the  canying  away  of  the  idols  of  Babylon 
(xlvi.  1 — 5.)  ;  the  folly  of  worshipping  them  is  then  strikingly 
contrasted,  with  the  attributes  and  perfections  of  Jehovah  (tl — 
13.)  ;  and  the  divine  judgments  upon  Babylon  and  Chaldaea 
are  further  denounced,    (xlvii.) 

Discourse  5.  contains  an  earnest  reproof  of  the  Jews  for  their 
infidelity  and  idolatry  (xlviii.  1—19.21,22.);  and  foretells 
their  deliverance  from  the  Babylonian  captivity.  (20.) 

Discourse  6.  The  Messiah  (whose  character  and  olFice  had  been 
generally  exhibited  in  ch.  xlii.)  is  here  introduced  in  person, 
declaring  the  full  extent  of  his  commission,  which  is,  not  only 
to  restore  the  Israelites,  but  to  be  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gen- 
tiles, to  call  them  to  the  knowledge  and  obedience  of  the  true 
God,  and  to  bring  them  to  be  one  church  together  with  the  Is- 
raelites, and  with  them  to  partake  of  the  same  common  salva- 
tion, procured  for  all  by  the  great  Redeemer  and  Reconciler  of 
man  to  God.  (xlix.) 

Discourse  7.  predicts  the  dereliction  of  the  Jews  for  their 
rejection  of  the  Messiah  (1.  1~3.),  whose  suficrings  and  exal- 
tation are  foretold.  (4 — 11.)  Thej)rophet  exhorts  the  believ- 
ing Jews,  after  the  pattern  of  Abraham,  to  trjist  in  Christ,  and 
foretells  their  future  restoration  after  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
as  also  their  ultimate  conversion  to  Christianity,  (li.  Iii.  1 — 12.) 

Discourse  8.  predicts  the  humiliation  of  Christ,  which  had  been 
intimated  in  1.  5,  6.,  and  obviates  the  oiTence  which  would  be 
occasioned  by  it,  by  declaring  the  important  and  necessary 
cause  of  it,  and  foreshowing  the  glory  which  should  follow  it. 
(Hi.  13—15.  liii.) 

Discourse  9.  foretells  the  amplitude  of  the  church,  when  Jews 
and  Gentiles  should  be  converted,  (liv.) 

D1SCOU.HSE  10.  is  an  invitation  to  partake  of  the  blessings  of  the 
Gospel,  from  which  none  shall  be  excluded  who  come  on  the 
terms  prescribed.   (Iv.  Ivi.  1 — 8.) 

Discourse  11.  denounces  calamities  against  the  inhabitants  of 
Judah,  who  are  sharply  reproved  for  their  idolatry  and  hypo- 
crisy.    Bishop  Lowth  is  of  opinion,  that  the  prophet  probably 

*  Isa.  xliv.  !S.  "There  is  a  remBrkable  beanty  and  propriety  in  this 
vevfe.  1.  Cyrus  is  called  God's  Sliepherd. — Shepherd  was  an  epithet 
which  Cyrus  took  to  himself,  and  which  he  gave  to  all  nood  kings.  2.  This 
Cyrus  should  say  to  tlie  temple — Thy  foundation  shallbe  laid  ;  not.  Thou 
shall  he  built.  The.fact>  is,  only  the  yot^fc/a/ro?!  was  laid  in  the  days  of 
Cyrus,  the  Ammonites  having  prevented  the  building  ;  nor  was  it  resumed 
till  the  second  year  of  Darius,  one  of  his  successors.  There  is  often  api'e- 
cision  in  the  e.xpressions  of  the  prophets,  which  is  as  honourable  to  (ruth, 
as  it  is  unnoticed  by  careless  readers."    Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Isa.  xliv.  23. 


Sect.  II.  §  4.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH. 


269 


has  in  view  the  destruction  of  their  city  and  polity  hy  the 
Chaldaeans,  anil  perhaps,  liy  the  Romans,   (hi.  9 — 12.  Ivii. — 
lix.  1  — 1.5. )     The  (ilty-ninlh  chapter,  lie  oliserve.s,  is  remark- 
able for  the  beauty,  Ktrenfrtli,  and  variety  of  the  images  with 
whieh  it  abounds,  as  well  as  for  the  elegance  of  the  composition 
and  the  exact  construction  of  the  sentences. 
DiscouiisK    12.   chiefly   predicts   the  general  conversion  of  the 
Jews  to  the  (ios|)el,  the  coming  in  of  the  fulness  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, the  restoration  of  the  Jews,  and  the  hap()y  state  of  the 
<Jliristian  church,   (lix.   10 — 21.  |x. — Ixvi.)      In  ch.  Ix.  and 
Ixi.  the  great  increase  and  flourishing  state  of  the  church  of 
(iod,  by  the  conversion  and  accession  of  the  heathen  nations 
to  it,  are  "  set  forth  in  such  ample  and  exalted  terms,  as  plainly 
show,  that  the  full  completion  of  the  prophecy  is  reserved  for 
future  times.     This  subject  is  displayed  in  the  most  splendid 
colours,  under  a  great  variety   of  highly  poetical  images,  de- 
signed  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  glories  of  that  perfect 
state  of  the  church,  which  we  are  taught  to  expect  in  the  lat- 
ter times;  when  the  fulness  of  the  (Jentiles  sliall  come  in,  and 
the  Jews  shall  be  converted  and  gatliered  from  their  disper- 
sions ;  and  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  shall  become  the  king- 
doms of  our  Lord  and  of  his  Christ."   (15p.  Lowth.)     'J'he 
remarkable  prophecy  in   Ixiii.  1 — 6.,  which  some  expositors 
refer  to  Judas  Maccabanis,  the  learned  prelate  applies  primarily 
to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Jewish  polity  ;  which 
in  the  Gospel  is  called  the  "  coming  of  Christ,"  and  the  "  days 
of  vengeance"   (Matt.  xvi.  28.  Luke  xxi.  22.)  ;  but  he  thinks 
it  may  ultimately  refer  to  the  yet  unfulfdled  predictions,  which 
intimate  a  great  slaughter  of  the  enemies  of  God  and  his  peo- 
ple.    The  two  last  chapters  of  thi.s  prophecy  manifestly  relate 
to  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles,  the  establishment  of  the  Chris- 
tian dispensation,  and  the  reprobation  of  the  apostate  Jews, 
and  their  destruction  executed  by  the  Romans. 
V.  Isaiah  has,  with  singular  propriety,  been  denominated 
the  "  evam^elicul  prophet,''''  on  account  of  the  number  and  va- 
riety of  his  prophecies  concerninor  the  advent  and  character, 
the  ministry  and  preachinjr,  tlie  sntferinors  and  death,  and  the 
extensive  permanent  kinnfdom  of  the  Messiah.     ISo  explicit 
and  determinate  are  his  predictions,  as  well  as  so  numerous, 
that  he  seems  to  speak  rather  of  things  past  than  of  events 
yet  future ;  and  he  may  rather  be  called  an  evangelist,  than 
a  prophet.     No  one,  indeed,  can  be  at  a  loss  in  applying  them 
to  tlie  mission  and  character  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  the  events 
which  are  cited  in  his  history  hy  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament.     This  prophet,  says  IJishop  Lowth,  abounds  in 
sucii  transcendent  excellencies,  that  he  may  he  properly  said 
to  allbrd  the  most  perfect  model  of  prophetic  poetry.     He  is 
at  once  elegant  and  sublime,  forcible  and  ornamented  ;  he 
unites  energy  with  copiousness,  and  dignity  with  variety. 
In  his  sentiments  there  is  uncommon  elevaticm  and  majesty ; 
in  his  imagery,  the  utmost  propriety,  elegance,  dignity,  and 
diversity;  in  his  language,  uncommon  beauty  and  energy; 
and,  notwithstanding  the  obscurity  of  his  subjects,  a  surpris- 
ing degree  of  clearness  and  simplicity.     To  these  we  may 
add,  that  there  is  such  sweetness  in  the  poetical  composition 
of  his  sentences,  whether  it  proceed  from  art  or  genius,  that, 
if  the  Hebrew  poetry  at  j)resent  is  possessed  of  any  remains 
of  its  native  grace  and  harmony,  we  shall  chiefly  find  them 
in  tlu!  writings  of  Isaiah  ;  so  that  the  saying  of  Lzekiel  may 
most  justly  be  applied  to  this  prophet, — 

"Tlioii  art  (lie  confirmed  exemplar  of  measures, 
Full  of  wisdom,  and  perfect  in  beauty." — E/.tk.  xxviii.  12. 

Isaiah  also  greatly  excels  in  all  the  graces  of  method,  order, 
connection,  and  arrangement :  though  in  asserting  this  we 
must  not  forget  the  nature  of  the  prophetic  impulse,  which 
bears  away  the  mind  with  irresistible  violence,  and  freciuently, 
in  rapid  transitions  from  near  to  remote  objects,  from  nnman 
to  divine ;  we  must  likewise  be  careful  in  remarking  the 
limits  of  particular  predictions,  since,  as  they  are  now  extant, 
they  are  often  improperly  connected,  without  any  marks  of 
discrimination;  which  injudicious  arrangement,  on  some 
occasions,  creates  almost  insuperable  difticulties. 

Bishop  Lowth  has  selected  the  thirty-fourth  and  thirty-fifth 
chapters  of  this  prophet,  as  a  specimen  of  the  poetic  style  in 
which  he  delivers  his  predictions,  and  has  illustrated  at  some 
length  the  various  beauties  which  eminently  distinguish  the 
simple,  regular,  and  perfect  poem  contained  in  those  chapters. 
But  the  grandest  specimen  of  his  poetry  is  presented  in  the 
fourteenth  chapter,  which  is  one  of  the  most  sublime  odes 
occurring  in  the  Bible,  and  contains  the  noblest  personifications 
to  be  found  in  the  records  of  poetry. 

The  prophet,  after  predicting  the  liberation  of  the  Jews 


from  their  severe  captivity  in  Babylon,  and  their  restoration 
to  their  own  country  (verses  1 — .3.),  introduce^  b  chorus  of 
them,  expressing  their  surprise  and  astonishment  at  the  sud- 
den downfall  of  Baitylon,  and  the  great  reverse  of  fortune 
that  had  b(;fallen  the  tyrant,  who,  like  his  predecessors,  had 
oppressed  his  own,  and  harassed  the  neighbouring  kingdoms. 
'I  hese  oppressed  kingdoms,  or  their  rulers,  are  represented 
under  the  image  of  the  fir  trees  and  the  cedars  of  Libanus, 
which  is  freiiiienlly  used  to  express  any  thing  in  the  political 
or  religious  world  that  is  supereminently  great  and  majestic: 
tli(!  whole  earth  shouts  for  joy  ;  the  cedars  of  Libanus  utter  a 
severe  taunt  over  the  fallen  tyrant,  and  boast  their  security 
now  he  is  no  more,  (verses  4 — 8.) 

This  is  followed  ^9.)  by  one  of  the  boldest  and  most 
animatr'd  personifications  of  Hades,  or  the  regions  of  the 
dead,  that  was  ever  executed  in  poetry.  Hades  excites  his 
inhabitants,  the  shades  of  princes,  and  the  departi^d  s])irit3 
of  monarcbs.  These  illustrious  shades  arise  at  once  frr)m 
their  couches  as  from  their  thrones ;'  and  advancing  to  the 
entrance  of  the  cavern  to  meet  the  king  of  Babylon,  they 
insult  and  deride  him  on  being  reduced  to  the  same  low  state 
of  impotence  and  dissolution  with  themselves.  (10,  11.) 
The  Jews  now  resume  the  speech  (12.):  they  address  the 
king  of  Babylon  as  the  morning-star  fallen  from  heaven,  as 
the  first  in  anlendour  and  dignity  in  the  political  world  fallen 
from  his  high  state :  they  introduce  him  as  uttering  the  most 
extravagant  vaunts  of  his  power  and  ambitious  designs  in  his 
former  glory ;  these  are  strongly  contrasted,  in  the  close,  with 
his  present  low  and  abject  condition.  (1.3 — 15.) 

Immediately  follows  a  diflferent  scene,  and  a  most  happy 
image,  to  diversify  the  same  subject,  and  give  it  a  new  turn 
and  additional  force.  Certain  persons  are  introduced,  who 
light  upon  the  corpse  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  cast  out  and 
lying  naked  upon  the  bare  ground,  among  the  common  slain, 
just  after  the  taking  of  the  city,  covered  with  wounds,  and 
so  disfigured,  that  it  is  some  time  before  tbey  Know  bim. 
They  accost  himwith  the  severest  taunts,  and  bitterly  reproach 
him  with  his  destructive  ambition,  and  his  cruel  usage  of  the 
coiKjuerod  :  which  have  deservedly  brought  upon  him  this 
ignominious  treatment,  so  different  from  that  whieh  those  of 
his  rank  usually  meet  with,  and  which  shall  cover  his 
posterity  with  disgrace.  (IC — 20.) 

To  complete  the  whole,  God  is  introduced,  declaring  the 
fate  of  Babylon,  the  utter  extirpation  of  the  royal  family, 
and  the  total  desolation  of  the  city;  the  deliverance  of  his 
people,  and  the  destruction  of  their  enemies;  confirming  the 
irreversible  decree  by  the  awful  sanction  of  his  oath.  (21 — 27.) 

"  How  forcible,"  says  Bishop  Lowth,  "  is  this  imagery, 
how  diversified,  how  sublime!  now  elevated  the  diction,  the 
figures,  the  sentiments!  —  The  Jewish  nation,  the  cedars  of 
Lebanon,  the  ghosts  of  departed  kings,  the  Babylonish 
monarch,  tlie  travellers  who  find  his  corpse,  and  last  of  all 
Jehovah  himself,  are  the  characters  which  support  this 
beautiful  lyric  drama.  One  continued  action  is  kept  up,  or 
rather  a  series  of  interesting  actions  are  connected  together 
in  an  incomparable  whole ;  this,  indeed,  is  the  principal  and 
distinguished  excellence  of  the  sublimer  ode,  and  is  displayed 
in  its  utmost  perfection  in  this  poem  of  Isaiah,  which  may  l^e 
considered  as  one  of  the  most  ancient,  and  certainly  one  of 
the  most  finished,  specimens  of  that  species  if  composition 
which  has  been  transmitted  to  us.  The  personifications  here 
are  frequent,  yet  not  confused;  bold,  yet  not  improbable:  a 
free,  elevated,  and  truly  divine  spirit  pervades  the  whole ; 
nor  is  there  any  thing  wanting  in  tiiis  ode  to  defeat  its  claim 
to  the  character  of  perfect  beautj"^  and  sublimity.  If,  indeed, 
I  may  be  indulged  in  the  free  declaration  of  my  own  senti- 
ments on  this  occasion,  I  do  not  know  a  single  instance,  in 
the  whole  compass  of  Greek  and  Roman  poetry,  which,  in 
every  excellence  of  composition,  can  be  said  to  equal,  or 
even  to  approach  it."2 

»  "The  image  of  the  dead,"  so  admirably  described  by  the  prophet, 
Bishop  Lowth  obsen-es,  "is  taken  from  llieir  custom  of  burying,  lliose  at 
least  of  the  higher  rank,  in  large  sepulchral  vaults  lu-wn  in  the  rock.  Of 
this  kind  of  si^pulchrea  there  are  remains  at  Jerusaltu  now  extant;  and 
some  that  are  said  to  Le  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings  of  Judah.  See  Maun- 
drcU,  p.  76.  You  arc  to  form  (o  yourself  an  idea  of  an  immense  subterrane- 
ous vault,  a  vast  gloomy  cavern,  all  round  the  sides  of  wfiicli  there  are  ceils, 
to  receive  the  dead  bodies :  here  the  deceased  monarcbs  lie  in  a  distin- 
guished sort  of  state  suitable  to  their  former  rank,  each  on  his  own  couch, 
with  his  arms  beside  him,  his  sword  at  his  head,  and  the  bodies  of  his 
chiefs  and  companions  round  about  him.  See  Ezek.  xxxii.  27.  On  wtiich 
place  Sir  John  Cliardin's  manuscript  note  is  as  follows: — 'En  Mingrelieils 
dorment  tous  leurs  epees  sous  leurs  tctes,  et  leurs  autres  amies  a  leur  cote  ; 
et  on  les  enterre  de  niesme,  leurs  amies  posees  de  cette  facon.'"  Bp. 
Lowlh's  Translation  of  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  121. 

»  Bishop  Ix)w1h's  Lectures  on  Hebrew  Poetry,  vol.  ii.  pp.  84—86.  vol.  i. 
pp.  2W— .301.  and  his  Translation  of  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  pp.  230—232.  Jabn,  Introd. 
adVet.  Focd.  p.367. 


270 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IV. 


§    5.    ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  JOEL. 

I.  Atithor  and  date. — II.    Occasion  and  scope. — IIL  Analysis 
of  the  book. — IV.   Observations  on  its  style. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  810 — 660,  or  later. 

I.  Concerning  the  family,  condition,  and  pursuits  of  this 
prophet,  there  is  great  diversity  of  opinion  amonff  learned 
men.  Althoujrh  several  persons  of  the  name  of  Joel  are  men- 
tioned in  the  (5ld  Testament,'  we  have  no  inforniation  con- 
cerning the  prophet  himself,  except  what  is  contained  in  the 
title  of  his  predictions  (i.  1.),  that  he  was  the  son  of  Pethuel. 
According  to  some  idle  reports  collected  and  preserved  by 
thepseudo-Epiphanius,2  he  was  of  the  tribe  of  Keuben,  and 
was  born  at  Bethhoron,  a  town  situated  in  the  confines  of  the 
territories  of  Judah  and  Benjamin.^  It  is  equally  uncertain 
under  what  sovereign  he  flourished,  or  where  he  aied.  The 
celebrated  Rabbi  Kimchi  and  others  place  him  in  the  reign 
of  Joram,  and  are  of  opinion  that  he  foretold  the  seven  years' 
famine  which  prevailed  in  that  king's  reign.  (2Kingsviii. 
1 — 3.)  The  authors  of  the  two  celebrated  Jewish  Chroni- 
cles entitled  Seder  01am  (both  great  and  little),  Jarchi,  and 
several  other  Jewish  writers,  who  are  also  followed  by  Dru- 
sius.  Archbishop  Newcome,  and  other  Christian  commenta- 
tors, maintain  that  he  prophesied  under  Manasseh.  Tarno- 
vius,  Eckermann,  Calmet,  and  others,  place  him  in  the  reign 
ofJosiah:  but  Vitringa,''  Moldenhawer,^  Rosenmiiller,^  and 
the  majority  of  modern  commentators,  are  of  opinion  (after 
Abarbanel),  that  he  delivered  his  predictions  durmg  the  reign 
of  Uzziah :  consequently  he  was  contemporary  with  Amos 
and  Hosea,  if  indeed  he  did  not  prophesy  before  Amos.  This 
opinion,  which  we  think  more  probable  than  any,  is  sup- 
ported by  the  following  arguments  : — 1.  Only  Egypt  and 
Edom  (iii.  19.)  are  enumerated  among  the  enernies  of  Judah, 
no  mention  whatever  being  made  of  the  Assyrians  or  Baby- 
lonians:— 2.  Joel  (iii.  4 — 7.)  denounces  the  same  judgments, 
as  Amos  (i.  9 — 11.),  against  the  Tyrians,  Sidonians,  and 
Idumeeans  (who  had  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  carried 
off  its  inhabitants,  and  sold  them  as  slaves  to  the  Gentiles)  : 
— 3.  It  appears  from  Joel  ii.  15 — 17.  that  at  the  time  he 
flourished  the  Jews  were  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  their  reli- 

fious  worship  : — 4.  More  prosperous  times  are  promised  to 
udaea,  together  with  uncommon  plenty  (ii.  18,  19.)  : — 
5.  Although  Joel  foretells  the  calamity  of  famine  and  barren- 
ness of  the  land,  it  is  evident  from  Amos  (iv.  6,  7.)  that  the 
Israelites  had  not  only  suffered  from  the  same  calamity,  but 
were  even  then  labouring  under  it. 

II.  From  the  palmer-worm,  locust,  canker-worm,  cater- 
pillar, &c.  being  sent  upon  the  land  of  Judah,  and  devouring 
Its  fruits  (the  certain  forerunners  of  a  grievous  famine),  the 
prophet  takes  occasion  to  exhort  the  Jews  to  repentance,  fast- 
ing, and  prayer,  promising  them  various  temporal  and  spi- 
ritual blessings. 

III.  This  book  consists  of  three  chapters,  which  may  be 
divided  into  three  discourses  or  parts  ;  viz. 

Part  I.  is  an  Exhortation,  both  to  the  Priests  and  to  the  Peo- 
ple, to  repent,  by  reason  of  the  Famine  brought  upon  them  by 
the  Palmer-worm,  isfc.  in  consequence  of  their  Sins  (i.  1 — 
20.)  ;  and  is  followed  by  a  Denunciation  of  still  greater  Ca- 
lamities, if  they  continued  impenitent,  (ii.  1 — 11.) 

This  discourse  contains  a  double  prophecy,  applicable,  in  its  pri- 
mary sense,  to  a  plague  of  locusts,  which  was  to  devour  the 
land,  and  was  to  be  accompanied  with  so  severe  a  drought  and 
famine  as  should  cause  the  public  service  of  the  temple  to  be 
interrupted ;'  and,  in  its  secondary  sense,  it  denotes  the  Baby- 
lonian invasion, — and  perhaps  also  the  invasions  of  the  Per- 
sians, Greeks,  and  Romans,  by  whom  the  Jews  were  succes- 
sively subjugated. 

Part  II.  -An  Exhortation  to  keep  a  public  and  solemn  Fast 
(ii.  12 — 17.),  with  a  promise  of  removing  the  Calamities  of 
the  Jews  on  their  Repentance.  (18 — 26.) 

From  the  fertility  and  prosperity  of  the  land  described  in  these 
verses,  the  prophet  makes  an  easy  transition  to  the  copious 
blessings  of  the  Gospel,  particularly  the  effusion  of  the  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Spirit:  with  these  he  connects  the  destruction  of 
the  Jewish  nation  and  polity  in  consequence  of  their  rejecting 

»  See  Simonis  Onomasticon  Vet.  Test.  p.  517. 
«  De  Vitis  Prophetaruin  in  Epiphanii  op.  torn.  ii.  p.  245. 
3  Relandi  Palestina,  p.  633. 
*  Typus  Doctrinee  Prophet,  cap.  iv.  p.  35.  et  seq. 
'  Introductio  in  Libros  Canonicos  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.  pp.  120,  121. 
'  Scliolia  in  Vet.  Test.  Partis  septirnae,  vol.  i.  pp.  433,  434. 
'  The  famine  predicted  by  Joel,  Jahn  refers  to  that  which  took  place  in 
the  time  of  the  >Iaccabeea.    See  1  Mace.  ix.  23—27. 


the  Gospel ;  interspersing  promises  of  sal'ety  to  the  faithful 
and  penitent,  which  were  afterwards  signally  fulfilled  to  the 
Christians  in  that  great  national  calamity.  (27 — 32.  Compare 
Actsii.  17—21.) 
Part  III.  predicts  the  general  Conversion  and  lieturn  of  the 
Jews,  and  the  destruction  of  their  Opponents,  together  with 
the  glorious  State  of  the  Church  that  is  to  follow,  (iii.) 

IV.  The  style  of  Joel,  though  different  from  that  of  Hosea, 
is  highly  poetical  :8  it  is  elegant,  perspicuous,  and  copious ; 
and  at  the  same  time  nervous,  animated,  and  sublime.  In 
the  two  first  chapters  he  displays  the  full  force  of  the  pro- 
phetic poetry  ;  and  his  description  of  the  plague  of  locusts, 
of  the  deep  national  repentance,  and  of  the  happy  state  of 
the  Christian  church,  in  the  last  times  of  the  Gospel,  are 
wrought  up  with  admirable  force  and  beauty. 

§  6.  ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  MICAH. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  Occasion  atid  scope. — III.  Synopsis 
of  its   contents. — IV.  Prophecies  coiicerning'  the  jyiessiah. — 

V.  Observations  on  its  style. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,   758 699. 

I.  MicAH,  the  third  of  the  minor  prophets,  according  to  the 
arrangement  in  the  Hebrew  and  all  modern  copies,  as  well 
as  in  the  Septuagint,  was  a  native  of  Morasthi,  a  small  town 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  territory  of  Judah;  and,  as  we 
learn  from  the  commencement  of  his  predictions,  he  prophe- 
sied in  the  reigns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of 
that  country  ;  consequently  he  was  contemporary  with  Isaiah, 
Joel,  Hosea,  and  Amos.  The  time,  place,  and  manner  of  his 
death  are  unknown.  The  genuineness  of  his  prophecies  re- 
lating to  the  complete  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  of  the 
temple,  is  supported  by  the  testimony  of  Jeremiah,  (xxvi. 
18,  190 

II.  The  people  of  Judah  and  Israel  being  very  profane  and 
impenitent  in  the  days  of  Isaiah^  (inconsequence  of  which 
the  Assyrian  captivity  was  then  hastening  upon  Israel,  and 
the  Babylonian  not  long  after  fell  upon  Judah),  the  prophet 
Micah  was  raised  up  to  second  Isaiah,  and  to  confirm  his 
predictions  against  the  Jews  and  Israelites,  whom  he  in- 
vited to  repentance  both  by  threatened  judgments  and  by 
promised  mercies.'" 

III.  This  book  contains  seven  chapters,  forming  three 
parts;  viz. 

Introduction  or  title,  i.  1. 

Part  I.  comprises  the  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  Reigns  of 
Jotham  King  of  Judah  (with  whom  Pekah  King  of  Israel 
was  contemporary),  in  which  the  Divine  Judgments  are  de- 
nounced against  both  Israel  and  Judah  for  their  Sins.  (i. 
2—16.) 

Part  II.  contains  the  Predictions  delivered  in  the  Reigns  oj 
Ahaz  King  of  Judah  {with  whom  his  Son  Hezekiah  was  asso- 
ciated in  the  Government  during  the  latter  Part  of  his  Life), 
and  of  Pekah  King  of  Israel,  who  was  also  contemporary 
with  him.  (ii. — iv.  8.) 

In  this  prophetic  discourse,  Micah  foretells  the  captivity  of  both 
nations  (ii.  1 — 5.),  and  particularly  threatens  Israel  for  their 
enmity  to  the  house  of  David  (6 — 13.),  and  Judah  for  their 
cruelty  to  the  pious,  (iii.  1 — 7.)  He  then  vindicates  his  pro- 
phetic mission,  and  denounces  to  the  princes  of  Israel,  that, 
though  they  should  "  build  up  Zion  with  blood,  and  Jerusalem 
with  iniquity,"  for  their  sake  Zion  should  be  ploughed  as  a 
field,  and  Jerusalem  should  become  heaps.  (8 — 12.)  This 
prophecy  had  its  utmost  completion  in  the  final  destruction  of 
the  city  and  temple  by  the  Romans.  We  learn  from  Jer. 
xxvi.  18,  19.  24.,  that  this  particular  prediction  was  uttered  in 
the  time  of  Hezekiah ;  and  that  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  it 
was  a  means  of  preserving  Jeremiah  from  being  delivered  into 
the  hands  of  the  people  who  were  desirous  of  putting  him  to 
death.'  In  ch.  iv.  1 — 8.  the  glorious  and  peaceful  kingdom  of 
Messiah  is  foretold,  together  with  the  establishment  of  the 
church. 

Part  III.  includes  the  Prophecies  delivered  by  Micah  during 
the  Reign  of  Hezekiah  King  of  Judah,  the  first  six  years  of 
whose  Government  were  contemporary  with  the  greater  Part 

»  Early  in  the  last  century,  Mr.  Hermann  Von  der  Hardt,  whom,  from 
his  love  of  philosophical  paradoxes,  Bp.  Lowth  has  termed  the  '' Har- 
douin  of  Germany,"  attempted  to  reduce  Joel's  elegies  to  iambic  verse. 
He  accordingly  putilished  the  three  first  elegies  at  Helmstadt,  in  1708 ;  and 
a*ain,  with  additions,  at  the  same  place,  in  1720,  in  8vo. 

s  Compare  2  Kings  XV.— xix.  2Chron.  xxvi.— xxjci.  Isa.  xxxvi.— xxxviii. 

10  Roberts's  Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  671 


Set  T.  II.  §  7.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  NAHUM. 


271 


of  the  Reign  of  Iloshea,  the  last  King  of  lurntl.  (iv.  9 — 13. 
V. — vii. 
In  this  portion  of  the  book  of  Micah,  the  Jews  are  threatened 
with  the  Babylonish  captivity  (iv.  9,  10.):  this  event  took 
place  almost  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  Micali's  time  ; 
and  the  Chaldaeans,  who  were  to  be  the  instruments  in  ell'ect- 
ing  it,  had  not  arisen  in  the  prophet's  aj^c  to  any  distinction 
among  the  nations.  The  total  overthrow  of  iSninacherib's 
forces  is  foretold  (11 — 13.)  ;  and  the  pious  king  Hezekiah  is 
assured  of  CJod's  preservation  by  a  new  promise  of  the  Mes- 
siah, who  should  descend  from  him  (and  the  place  of  whose 
nativity  is  particularly  indicated),  and  by  a  j)rediction  of 
Sennacherib's  murder,  (v.  1  — 15.)  'I'he  people  are  then  fore- 
warned of  the  judgments  that  would  befall  them  for  their  sins 
in  the  reign  of  Manasseh  (vi.  1  — 16.)  :  the  wickedness  of  whose 
reign  is  further  described,  together  with  his  captivity  and  re- 
turn from  Uabylon,  as  also  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Baby- 
lon, and  from  their  general  dispersion  after  they  shall  be  con- 
verted to  the  Gospel,   (vii.) 

IV.  The  book  of  Micah,  who  (we  have  seen)  was  the  con- 
temporary of  Isaiah,  contains  a  suininary  of  the  prophecies 
delivered  by  the  latter  concerninij  the  Messiah  ainl  the  final 
return  of  the  Jews,  which  are  thus  translated  and  arranged 
by  Ur.  Hales  : 

C'Hvip.  V.  2.  "And  art  (hoti,  Bethlehfm  Ephratah,  Utile  to  be  estcemccT] 

Ariioiij;  llie  Uiimsaijils  of  Juilith! 

Ki  0711  Ihces/tdll  i^stie  [the  I.eadeu], 
Who  shdil  ru'.-:  my  people,  the  Israel  [of  God] 
(But  his  issuings  arc!  from  old, 
From  diii/s  ofeternily). 
in.  3.  Therefore  he  will  give  them  tip  [for  a  season] 
Until  the  lime  that  she  which  shall  bear 
Have  borne:  then  shall  return 
The  residue  of  thy  brethren  [the  Jeiea] 
Along  with  the  outcasts  of  Israel. 
IV.  4.  And  he  shall  stand  and  guide  them 
In  the  strength  o/the  Lord, 
In  the  majesty  of  the  name  of  the  Lord  his  God. 
And  when  they  return,  He  shall  be  magnified 
Unto  the  ends  of  the  earth, 
Jlnd  he  shall  be  their  peace." 

"  This  prophecy,"  Dr.  Hales  remarks,  "consists  of  four 
parts,  I.  The  human  birth-place  of  Christ.  2.  His  eternal 
generation.  3.  His  temporary  desertion  of  the  Jews,  until 
his  miraculous  birth  of  tne  Virgin,  after  which  they  are  to 
return  with  the  true  Israelites.  4.  His  spiritual  and  univer- 
sal dominion. 

The  application  of  the  first  part  of  this  prophecy  was  de- 
cided at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's  birth,  by  the  most  respect- 
able Jewish  synod  that  ever  sat,  convened  by  Herod,  to 
determine  from  prophecy  the  birth-place  of  the  Messiah, 
which  they  agreed  to  be  Bethlehem,  upon  the  authority  of 
Micah,  which  they  cited.  Their  citation,  of  the  first  part 
only,  is  given  by  the  evangelist  Matthew,  in  an  improved 
translation  of  the  original,  greatly  superior  to  any  of  the  an- 
cient versions. 

Matt.  ii.  6.  "And  thou  Bethlehem,  territory  oi  Judah, 

Art  by  no  means  least  among  the  captains  of  Judali ; 
From  thee  shall  issue  the  Leader, 
Who  shall  guide  my  people,  the  Israel  [of  God]." 

1.  Here  the  evangelist  has  removed  the  ambiguity  of  the 
(juestion  proposed  by  the  prophet,  by  supplying  the  answer 
in  the  negative.  As  in  Nathan's  prophecy,  "  Shalt  thou 
build  men  house P^''  (2  Sam.  vii.  5.)  the  parallel  passage 
answers  in  the  negative,  "  Thou  shall  not  build  tne  a  house.''^ 
(1  Chron.  xvii.  4.) 

2.  He  has  supplied  a  chasm  in  the  Masorete  text,  of  tjj, 
Nagid,  a  usual  epithet  of  the  Messiah  (1  Chron.  v.  2.  Isa. 
Iv.  4.  Dan.  ix.  25.),  usually  rendered  'Hy^.ufAtrjc,  ^'■lender,''''  by 
the  Sepiuagint,  and  retained  here  by  the  evangelist,  as  a 
necessary  distinction  of  his  character,  as  supreme  commander, 
from  "  the  captains  of  thousands,''''  styled  'Hyt/u.n,  judiciously 
substituted  for  the  thousands  themselves  in  Micah,  to  mark 
the  analogy  more  correctly. 

3.  He  has  also  determined  the  pastoral  nature  of  the 
Messiah's  "rule"  by  the  verb  ttgi^xvu,  "shall  guide  as  a 
shepherd,''''  afterwards  intimated  by  Micah,  npni,  nxi  n-o//.t=tva, 
as  there  rendered  by  the  Septuagint.  For  He  is  "  the  shepherd 
of  Israel'"  (Gen.  xlix.  24.  Psal.  Ixxx.  1."),  "  the  chief  shepherd''^ 
(l  Pet.  V.  4.),  and  "  the  good  shepherd^''  (John  x.  14.),  who 
appoiiited  his  apostles  to  ^^  guide  and  pasture  his  sheep." 
(John  xxi.  16.) 

4.  The  human  birth  of  the  Messiah  is  carefully  distin- 
guished by  Micah  from  his  eternal  generation,  in  the  paren- 
tlietical  clause,  which  strongly  resembles  the  account  of  the 
primeval  birth  of  V^'isdom.  (Prov.  viii.  22 — 25.) 


5.  The  blessed  virgin  of  Isaiah's  former  prophecy  (vii.  14.) 
is  evidently  alluded  to  by  Micah,  and  also  the  return  tf  the 
remnant  ot  the  Jews  (Isa.  x.  20,  21.),  and  of  the  final  jseace 
of  his  kingdom.  (Isa.  ix.  (!,  7.) 

This  pronhecy  of  Micnh  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important 
singW;  prophecy  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  most  compre- 
hensive, respecting  the  ])ersonal  character  of  the  Messiah, 
and  his  successive  manifestation  to  the  world.  It  crowns  the 
whole  chain  of  prophecies  descriptive  of  the  several  limita- 
tions of  the  htrs.std  seed  <f  the  woman  to  the  line  of  Shem,  to 
the  family  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  to  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  to  the  royal  house  of  David  here  tenninating  in  his  birth 
at  H(!thlcheni,  "  the  city  of  David."  It  carefully  distinguishes 
his  human  nativity  from  his  eternal  generation ;  foretells  the 
rejection  of  the  Israelites  and  J<?ws  for  a  season ;  their  final 
restoration,  and  the  universal  peace  destined  to  prevail  through- 
out the  eartii  in  the  liigtntrution.  It  forms,  therefore,  the 
basis  of  tin;  i\(!w  Testament,  which  begins  with  his  human 
birth  at  Uethlehem,  the  miraculous  circumstances  of  which 
are  recorded  in  the  introductions  of  Matthew's  and  Luke's 
(lospels;  his  eternal  generation,  as  the  Oracle  or  Wisdom, 
in  the  sublime  introduction  of  John's  Gospel:  his  prophetic 
character,  and  second  corning,  illustnited  in  the  four  Gospels 
and  Epistles,  ending  with  a  prediction  of  the  speedy  approach 
of  the  latter  in  the  Apoculi^pse.  (Rev.  xxii.  20.)' 

V.  The  style  of  Micah  is,  for  the  most  part,  forcible, 
pointed,  and  concise,  sometimes  approaching  the  obscurity 
of  Hosea;  in  many  parts  animated  and  sublime,  and  in 
general  truly  poetical.^  His  tropes  are  very  beautiful,  and 
varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject. 

§  7.    ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  NAHUM. 

I.  Atithor  and  date. — II.  Scope  and  synopsis  of  its  contents.^ 

III.   Observations  on  its  style. 

before   CHRIST,  720 — 698. 

I.  Nahum,  the  seventh  of  the  minor  prophets,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Elkosh,  or  Elkosha,  a  village  in  Galilee, 
and  situate  in  the  territory  that  had  been  apportioned  to  the 
tribe  of  Simeon.  There  is  very  great  uncertainty  concerning  the 
precise  time  when  he  lived  ;  some  making  him  contemporary 
with  Jotham,  others,  w'ith  Manasseh,  and  others,  with  Josiah. 
The  most  probable  opinion  is  that  which  places  him  between 
the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  captivities,  about  the  year  715 
before  the  Christian  ajra ;  and,  as  the  design  of  this  prophet 
is  to  denounce  ruin  upon  Nineveh  and  tlie  Assyrians,  for 
their  cruel  tyranny  over  the  Israelites,  and  as  the  captivity 
of  the  ten  tribes  took  place  in  the  ninth  year  of  Hoshea  king 
of  Israel  (2  Kings  xvii.  6.  &c.  compared  with  2  Kings  xviii. 
9 — 11.),  it  is  most  likely  that  Nahum  prophesied  against  the 
Assyrians  for  the  comfort  of  the  people  of  God  towards  the 
close  of  Hezekiah's  rei^n,  and  not  long  after  the  subversion 
of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  by  Shalmaneser. 

II.  The  Scope  of  this  prophecy  is,  to  denounce  the  certain 
and  imminentdestructionof  the  Assyrian  empire,  and  particu- 
larly the  inhabitants  of  its  metropolis  Nineveh;  who,  after  a 
transient  repentance  in  consequence  of  Jonah's  preaching, 
had  relapsed  into  their  former  sins,  which  they  even  aggra- 
vated by  their  wickedness.  With  this  denunciation,  the 
prophet  introduces  consolation  for  his  countrymen,  whom  he 
encourages  to  trust  in  God. 

His  prophecy  is  one  entire  poem,  which,  opening  with  a 
sublime  description  of  the  justice  and  power  of  God  tempered 
by  long-suffering  and  goodness  (i.  1  —  8.),  foretells  the 
destruction  of  Sennacherib's  forces,  and  the  subversion  of 
the  Assyrian  empire  (9 — 12.),  together  with  the  deliverance 
of  Hezekiah  and  the  death  of  Sennacherib.  (13 — 15.)  The 
destruction  of  Nineveh  is  then  predicted,  and  described  with 
singular  minuteness,  (ii.  iii.)'  This  prophecy.  Archbishop 
Newcome  observes,  was  highly  interesting  to  the  Jews,  as 
the  Assyrians  had  often  ravaged  their  country,  and  had 
recently  destroyed  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 

III.  In  boldness,  ardour,  and  sublimity,  Nahum  is  superior 
to  all  the  minor  prophets.  His  language  is  pure ;  and  the 
exordium  of  his  prophecy,  which  forms  a  regular  and  perfect 
poem,  is  not  merely  magnificent,  it  is  truly  majestic.  The 
preparation  for  the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  its  downfall  and  desolation,  are  expressed  in  the  most 

«  Dr.  Ilalcs's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.  4G2,  463. 

»  Lowth's  Lectures,  vol  li.  p.  OS. 

»  The  best  conunentary,  perhaps,  on  this  prophet,  is  the  ninth  of  Bishop 
Newton's  Dissertations  (vol.  i.  pp.  141—158.);  in  which  he  has  ably  illus- 
trated the  predictions  of  Nahum  and  other  prophets  who  foretold  ttie  de* 
structioD  of  Nineveh. 


272 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT, 


[Part  V.  Chap.  HL 


vivid  colours    and  with  images  that  are  truly  pathetic  and 
sublime.' 

§    8.    ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ZEPHANIAH. 

L  Author  ami  date. — IL  Scope  and  aiialiisis  of  this  book. 

BEFOIIE  CHRIST,  640 609. 

I.  This  prophet,  who  was  "  the  son  of  Cushi,  the  son  of 
Gedaliah,  the  son  of  Amariah,  the  son  of  Hizkiah"  (i.  1.), 
is  supposed  to  have  been  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon;  but,  though 
he  has  mentioned  his  ancestors  for  no  less  than  four  genera- 
tions, nothing  certain  can  be  inferred  from  thence,  as  to  the 
family  to  which  he  belonged.     We  learn,  however,  from  his 

Jrophecy,  that  he  delivered  his  predictions  in  the  reign  of 
osiah  ;  consequently  he  prophesied  about  the  time  that  Jere- 
miah entered  on  his  prophetic  office,  and  in  method  and  sub- 
ject he  greatly  resembles  him. 

On  this  account  Zephaniah  has  been  considered  as  theab- 
breviator  of  Jeremiah  ;  but  it  is  evident  that  he  prophesied 
before  Jeremiah,  because  the  latter  (Jer.  ii.  5.  20.  22.)  seems 
to  speak  of  those  abuses  as  partially  removed,  which  the 
former  (Zeph.  i.  4,  5.  9.)  describes  as  existing  in  the  most 
flagitious  extent.  From  his  account  of  the  disorders  prevail- 
ing in  Judah,  it  is  probable  that  he  discharged  the  prophetic 
office  before  the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiah ;  that  is,  before 
this  prince  had  reformed  the  abuses  and  corruptions  of  his 
dominions.  Tlie  style  of  Zephaniah  is  poetical,  though  it  is 
not  characterized  by  any  striking  or  uncommon  beauties. 

IL  In  consequence  of  the  idolatry  and  other  iniquities  pre- 
vailing in  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  whose  inhabitants  had  dis- 
regarded the  denunciations  and  admonitions  of  former  pro- 
phets, Zephaniah  was  commissioned  to  proclaim  the  enormity 
of  their  wickedness,  and  to  denounce  the  imminent  desola- 
tion that  awaited  them ;  to  excite  them  to  repentance,  to  fore- 
tell the  destruction  of  their  enemies,  and  to  comfort  the  pious 
Jews  with  promises  of  future  blessings. 

His  prophecy,  which  consists  of  three  chapters,  may  be 
divided  into  four  sections ;  viz. 

Sect.  1.  A  denunciation  against  Judah  for  their  idolatry,  (i.) 
Sect.  2.  Repentance  the  only  means  to  avert  the  divine  ven- 
geance, (ii.  1 — 3.) 
Sect.  3.  Prophecies  against  the  Philistines  (ii.  4 — 7.),  Moab- 
ites,  and  Ammonites  (8 — 11.),  Ethiopia  (12.),  and  Nine- 
veh.  (13—15.) 
Sect.  4.  The  captivity  of  the  Jews  by  the  Babylonians  fore- 
told (iii.  1 — 7.),  together  with  their  future  restoration  and 
the  ultimate  prosperous  stale  of  the  church.  (8 — 20.) 


SECTION  in. 

'>N  THE  prophets  WHO  FLOURISHED  NEAR  TO  AND  DURING   THE 
EABVLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 

§    1.    OIT  THE   BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH. 

I.  Avthor  and  date. — II.  Occasion  of  his  prophecies. — Differ- 
ent collections  of  them. — III.  Synopsis  of  their  contents. — 
IV.  Prophecies  concerning  the  Messiah. — V.  Observations 
on  their  style. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,   628 586. 

1.  The  prophet  Jeremiah  was  of  the  sacerdotal  race,  being 
(as  he  himself  records)  one  of  the  priests  that  dwelt  at  Ana- 
thoth  (i.  1.)  in  the  land  of  Benjamin,  a  city  appropriated  out 
of  that  tribe  to  the  use  of  the  priests,  the  sons  of  Aaron  (Josh. 
xxi.  18.),  and  situate,  as  we  learn  from  Jerome,  about  three 
Roman  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.^  Some  critics  have  con- 
jectured that  his  father  was  the  same  Hilkiah,  the  high- 
priest,  who  found  the  book  of  the  law  in  the  temple,  in  the 
eighteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxii.  8.)  : 
but  for  this  opinion  there  is  no  better  ground  than  that  he 
bore  the  same  name,  which  was  of  frequent  occurrence  among 
the  Jews  ;  for,  if  Hilkiah  had  really  been  the  high-priest,  he 
would  doubtless  have  been  distinguished  by  that  title,  and 
would  not  have  been  placed  on  a  level  with  priests  of  an  or- 
dinary and  inferior  class.  Jeremiah  appears  to  have  been 
very  young  when  he  was  called  to  the  exercise  of  the  pro- 
phetical office,  from  which  he  modestly  endeavoured  to  ex- 
cuse himself,  by  pleading  his  youth  and  incapacity ;  but 
being  overruled  by  the  divine  authority,  he  set  himself  to 

«  Lowth's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  p.  99. 

»  Hierouymi  Comm.  in  Jer.  cc.  i.  xi.  and  xxxi.  Eusebii  Onomast.  voce. 


discharge  the  duties  of  his  function  with  unremitting  dili- 
gence and  fidelity  during  a  course  of  at  least  forty-two  years, 
reckoned  from  the  thirteenth  year  of  Josiah's  reign.  In  the 
course  of  his  ministry  he  met  with  great  difficulties  and  oppo- 
sition from  his  countrymen  of  all  degrees,  whose  persecution 
and  ill  usage  sometimes  wrought  so  far  upon  his  mind,  as  to 
draw  from  him  expressions,  in  the  bitterness  of  his  soul, 
which  many  have  thought  difficult  to  reconcile  with  his  reli- 
gious principles;  but  which,  when  duly  weighed,  may  be 
found  to  demand  our  pity  rather  than  censure.  He  was,  in 
truth,  a  man  of  unblemished  piety  and  conscientious  integrity  : 
a  warm  lover  of  his  country,  whose  miseries  he  pathetically 
deplores  ;  and  so  affijctionately  attached  to  his  countrymen, 
notwithstanding  their  injurious  treatment  of  him,  that  he 
chose  rather  to  abide  with  them,  and  undergo  all  hardships 
in  their  company,  than  separately  to  enjoy  a  state  of  ease  and 
plenty,  which  the  favour  of  the  king  of  Babylon  would  have 
secured  to  him.  At  length,  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, having  followed  the  remnant  of  the  Jews  into  Egypt, 
whither  they  had  resolved  to  retire,  though  contrary  to  his 
advice,  upon  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  whom  the  Chaldseans 
had  left  governor  in  Jiidaja,  he  there  continued  warmly  to 
remonstrate  against  their  idolatrous  practices,  foretelling  the 
consequences  that  would  inevitably  follow.  But  his  freedom 
and  zeal  are  said  to  have  cost  him  his  life  ;  for  there  is  a 
tradition,  that  the  Jewsat  Tahpanhes  were  so  offended  at  his 
faithful  remonstrances,  that  they  stoned  him  to  death,  which 
account  of  the  manner  of  his  decease,  though  not  absolutely 
certain,  is  at  least  very  likely  to  be  true,  considering  the  temper 
and  disposiiion  of  the  parties  concerned.  Their  wickedness, 
however,  did  not  long  pass  without  its  reward ;  for,  in  a  few 
years  after,  they  were  miserably  destroved  by  the  Babylo- 
nian armies  which  invaded  Egypt,  according  to  the  prophet's 
prediction,  (xliv.  27,  28.V  Some  Jewish  writers,  however, 
affirm  that  he  returned  to  Judaea,  while  others  say  that  he  went 
to  Babylon,  and  died  there ;  and  a  third  class  are  of  opinion 
that  he  died  in  Egypt,  far  advanced  in  years,  and  broken  by 
the  calamities  which  had  happened  both  to  himself  and  his 
country.  This  prophet's  writings  are  all  in  Hebrew,  except 
the  eleventh  verse  of  the  tenth  chapter,  which  is  Chaldee. 
His  predictions  concerning  the  sevent)^  years  of  the  captivity 
were  known  to  and  read  by  the  prophet  Daniel,  (ix.  1.) 

II.  The  idolatrous  apostasy  and  other  criminal  enormities 
of  the  people  of  Judah,  and  the  severe  judgments  which  God 
was  preparing  to  inflict  upon  them,  though  not  without  a  dis- 
tant prospect  of  future  restoration  and  deliverance,  form  the 
principal  subjects  of  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah ;  except  the 
Ibrty-hfth  chapter,  which  relates  personally  to  Baruch,  and 
the  six  following  chapters,  which  respect  the  fortunes  of 
some  particular  heathen  nations.' 

It  is  evident,  from  various  passages  of  this  book,  that  there 
were  four  distinct  collections  of  Jeremiah's  prophecies.  The 
first  was  that  mentioned  in  chap,  xxxvi.  2.  and  made  by 
divine  command  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim. 
In  this  collection  were  contained  all  the  predictions  which  he 
had  delivered  and  published,  to  tliat  time,  as  well  against 
other  nations  as  against  the  Jews :  the  prophecies  against 
the  Gentiles  are,  in  our  Bibles,  placed  by  themselves  at  the 
end  of  the  book,  as  being  in  some  measure  unconnected  with 
those  denounced  against  the  Jews  :  but  in  tire  present  copies 
of  the  Septuagint,  they  follow  immediately  after  the  thir- 
teenth verse  of  the  twenty-fifth  chapter.*  This  first  collec- 
tion comprised  chapters  i. — xx.  xxv.  xxvi.  xxxv.  xxxvi.  xlv. 
— Ii.  inclusive. 

The  second  collection  is  that  mentioned  in  chap.  xxx.  2., 
and  contained  chapters  xxvii. — xxxi.  inclusive  :  it  was  made 
in  the  rei™  of  Zedekiah,  and,  as  may  be  inferred  from  xxviii 
1.,  after  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Zedekiah. 

The  third  collection  was  made  soon  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  as  is  plainly  indicated  by  the  prophet  himself 
in  the  general  prelace  to  his  book,  where  he  says  that  the 
word  of  Jehovan  came  to  him  "  in  the  days  of  Josiah  the  son 
of  Amon  king  of  Judah,  in  the  tliirteenth  year  of  his  reign  ; 
and  came  in  the  days  of  Jehoiakim  the  son  of  Josiah  king  of 
Judah,  until  the  completion  of  the  eleventh  year  of  Zedekiah 
the  son  of  Josiah  king  of  Judah,  until  tlie  carrying  awaii  of 
Jerusalem  into  captivity  in  ttie  fifth  month.''''  (i.  1 — 3.)  Con- 
sequently, this  third  collection  included  chapters  xxi. — xxiv. 
xxxii. — xxxiv.  and  xxxvii. — xxxix. 

'  Dr.  Blayney's  Translation  of  Jeremiah,  pp.  221,  222.  2d  edit. 

«  Ibid.  p.  222. 
■    »  Carpzov  lias  written,an  elaborate  disquisition  on  the  variations  between 
the  Hebrew  and  the  Septuagint,  in  the  order  of  Jeremiah's  prophecies ;  ■ 
and  has  given  a  table  illustrating  those  variations.  See  his  Inlrod.  ad  Libroa 
Biblicos  Vet.  Test,  pars  iii.  c.  iii.  §  4.  pp.  144—152, 


SSCT.  II.  §  1.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH. 


273 


The  fourth  collection,  containing  chapters  xl. — xliv.  inclu- 
sive, presents  us  with  an  account  of  Jeremiah  hinisclf",  and 
of  tlu!  other  Jews  who  were  left  in  Judaea  hy  the  coniniand 
of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  fifty-second  clia|)ter  was  pruhaldy 
ailded  Ijy  Ezra'  as  a  |)reface  to  tlie  hook  of  Lamentations. 
It  is  chiefly  tak(;n  out  of  the  latter  part  of  the  second  book  of 
Kings,  wilii  additions,  whicli  Ezra  niiirlit  supply  out  of  the 
inspired  records,  and  tornis  a  very  nst.'ful  a[)pendaire  to  the 
prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  as  it  illustrates  tluur  fulfilment  in  tin; 
destruction  of  the  kingdom,  city,  and  temple,  which  are  the 
subject  of  the  Lamentations. 

III.  From  the  preceding  statements  it  is  obvious  that  the 
prophecies  of  Jeremiah  are  not  arranged  in  the  chronological 
order  in  which  they  were  originally  delivered;  the  cause  of 
their  transposition  it  is  now  impossible  to  ascertain. 

Professor  Dahh^r  of  Strasbourg,  in  his  French  version  of 
this  prophet,  divides  the  book  into  fifty-five  sections,  which 
he  disposes  in  the  following  manner ;  viz. 

1.  Discourses  published  during  the  Reign  nf  Josiah. 


Chapter 

Year  of  Reign. 

Chapter. 

Year  of  Roign. 

i.  1— 111.     • 

y.i. 

iii.  <;.- iv.  4. 

after  18. 

iv.  V.  vi.  XXX. 

after  18. 

xvii.  19—27. 

after  18. 

ii.  1.— iii.  5. 

-      after  18. 

xlvii.  1—7. 

uncertain 

2.  Discourses  published  dun 

ng  the  lleign  oj 

Jehoiakim. 

Cliapfer 

Year  of  Reign. 

Chapter. 

Year  of  Reign. 

vii.— ix.  25. 

lor  2. 

XX.  14.-18. 

xxvi.  1—24. 

1  or  2. 

xxiii.  9—40. 

uncertain. 

xlvi.  2—12. 

3  or  4. 

xx.vv.  1—19. 

4  or  5. 

X.  1—16. 

4. 

XXV.  1— 38. 

4  or  5. 

xiv.  1— V.  21. 

4. 

xx.vjvi.  1—32. 

5. 

xvi.  1. — xvii.  18. 

uncertain. 

xlv.  1—5. 

5. 

xviii.  1—2.3. 

uncertain. 

xii.  14—17. 

7  or  8. 

xix.  1.— XX.  13. 

uncertain. 

X.  17—25. 

11. 

3.  Discourses  published  during  the  Reign  of  Jeconiah. 

Chap.  xiii.  1—27. 

4.  Discourses  published  during  the  Reign  of  Zedekiah. 
Chapter        Year  of  Reign 


xxii.  1. — xxiii.  8. 

xi.  1—17. 

xl.  18.— xii.  13.  - 

xxiv.  1—10. 
xxix.  1 — 32. 

lor  2. 

x.wii.  1.— xxviii. 
xhx,  31—39.       . 
li.  59-64. 
xxi.  1-14. 

17. 

4. 
4. 
4. 
9. 

Chapter 
xxxiv.  1 — 7. 
xxxvii.  1 — 10. 
xxxiv.  8—22. 
xxxvii.  11 — 21. 
xxxviii.  1 — 28. 
xxxix.  15—18. 
xxxii.  1 — 44. 
xxxiii.  1 — 26. 
xxxix.  1 — 10. 


Year  of  Reign. 
10. 
10. 
10. 
10. 
10. 
10. 
10. 
11. 
11. 


.  History  of  Jeremiah,  and  Discourses  addressed  by  him  to 
the  Jews  who  were  left  in  Palestine  after  the  Capture  of 
Jerusalem. 


Chapter     Year  after  Jer.  taken, 
.xhi.  1.— xliii.  7.  -    I. 

XXX.  1.  xxxi.  40.         -     1. 


Chapter     Year  after  Jer.  taken 
xxxix.  II     14.        -        1. 
xl.  1.— xii.  18.        -        1. 

6.  Discourses  addressed  to  the  Jews  in  Egypt 

Chapter.  Year  after  Jer.  taken, 

xhii.  8—13.  ...  1. 


xhi.  1—30. 
xlvi.  13—28. 


17  or  18. 
uncertain. 


7.  Discourses  of  uncertain  Date  concerning  foreign  Nations. 

xlvi.  1. — xlix.  1 — 6.  concerning  the  Ammonites, 

xlviii.  1 — 47.  ....  Moab. 

xlix.  7—22.  ...  Edoin. 

xlix.  23—27.  ....  Damascus. 

1.  1.— It.  58—64.  ■  -  •  Babylon. 

8.  An  Historical  Appendix,  chap.  Hi.  1 — 34. 
A  somewhat  different  arrangement,  and  more  simple  than 
the  preceding,  was  proposed  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Blayney  in  his 
version  of  the  writings  of  Jeremiah;  who  has  endeavoured, 
with  great  judgment,  to  restore  their  proper  order  by  trans- 
posing the  chapters  wherever  it  appeared  to  be  necessary. 
According  to  his  arrangeinent,  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah 
are  to  be  placed  in  the  following  order;  viz. 

1 .  The  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  Reign  of  Josiah,  contain- 
ing chanters  i. — xii.  inclusive. 

2.  The  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  Reign  of  Jehoiakim,  com- 
prising chapters  xiii. — xx.  xxii.  xxiii.  xxxv.  xxxvi.  xlv. — 
xlviii.  and  xlix.  1 — 33. 

3.  The  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  Reign  of  Zedekiah,  includ- 
ing chapters  xxi.  xxiv.  xxvii. — ^xxxiv.  xxxvii. — xxxix.  xlix. 
34—39.  and  1.  li. 

4.  The  Prophecies  delivered  under  the  Government  of  Gedaliah, 
from  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  to  the  retreat  of  the  people  into 
Egypt,  and  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  delivered  to  the 
Jews  in  that  country;  comprehending  chapters  xl. — xliv. 
inclusive. 

As  this  arrangement  throws  much  light  upon  the  predic- 
tions of  Jeremiah,   it   has   been  adopted   in  the  following 

<  Carpzov  ascribes  it  to  Baruch,  or  some  other  inspired  man.  Introd. 
pars  iii.  p.  152. 

Vol.  IL  2  M 


synopsis,   which   accordingly  consists   of   four   parts,   and 
thirty-one  prophetic  discourses  : — 

TiiK  I«TUoDiicTioN  to  the  hook  contains  its  title  (i.  1 — 3.), 
the  call  of  Jeremiah  to  the  j)rophelical  oflice,  and  the  com- 
mission given  him  by  (Jod  (1 — 10.);  the  purport  of  which  is 
ex|)hiine(l  by  two  symbolical  images  or  visions,  that  of  an 
almond  trt;e  (11.)  iiulicating  the  nearness,  and  tiie  vision  of 
a  seelhing-pot  typifying  the  severity,  of  the  divine  judgments. 
The  face  of  the  pot  being  turned  from  the  north  denoted  that 
they  were  to  be  mfiictcd  hy  the  IJabylonians  and  Chaldaeans, 
whose  empire  lay  to  the  north  of  Judaea,  and  poured  forth  its 
multitudes  like  a  thick  vapour  to  overspread  the  land. 

Part  L  comprises  such  Prophecies  as  were  delivered  in  the 
Reign  of  Josiah.  (ch.  ii. — xii.) 

DiscouiisK  1.  God,  hy  his  prophet,  professes  to  retain  the  same 
kindness  and  favouraI)le  disposition  for  the  Jews  (ii.  I — 3.), 
with  whom  he  txpo.stulates  on  account  of  tiicir  unsrrateful 
returns  for  his  pa.st  goodness  (4 — 13.),  and  shows  tiiat  it  was 
their  own  e.vtrerne  and  unparalleled  vvickcdncs.s  and  disloyalty 
which  had  already  subjected,  and  would  still  expo.sc  them  to 
calamities  and  misery.  (14 — 30.)  'i'his  discourse  concludes 
with  a  pathetic  address,  exhorting  the  Jews  to  return  to  God, 
with  an  implied  promise  of  acceptance,  and  lamenting  the 
necessity  under  which  he  was,  through  their  continued  ob- 
stinacy, of  giving  them  further  marks  of  his  displeasure.  (31 
— 37.  iii.  1 — 5.)  Dr.  Blayney  (to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
this  analysis  of  Jeremiah's  writings)  thinks  that  this  prophecy 
was  delivered  soon  after  the  commencement  of  Jeremiah's 
prophetic  commission. 

DiscounsE  2.  consists  of  two  parts.  Thefvst  part  contains  a 
complaint  again.st  Judah  for  having  exceeded  the  guilt  of  her 
sister  Israel,  whom  God  had  already  cast  ofl'  for  her  idolatrous 
apostasy,  (iii.  6 — 12.)  The  charge  of  Judah  with  hypocrisy 
in  the  tenth  verse  points  out  the  date  of  this  prophetic  dis- 
course to  have  been  some  time  after  the  eighteenth  year  of 
Josiah's  reign,  when  the  people,  under  the  influence  of  their 
good  king,  were  professedly  engaged  in  measures  of  reforma- 
tion, which,  however,  are  here  declared  to  have  been  insin- 
cere. The  prophet  is  then  commissioned  to  announce  to 
Israel  the  promise  of  pardon  upon  her  repentance,  and  the 
hope  of  a  glorious  restoration  in  after-times,  which  are  plainly 
indicated  to  be  the  times  of  the  Go.spcl,  when  the  Gentiles 

themselves  were  to  become  a  part  of  the  church.   (12 21.) 

The  children  of  Israel,  confessing  and  bewailing  their  sins, 
have  the  same  comfortable  assurances,  as  before,  repeated  to 
them.  (22 — 25.  iv.  1,  2.)  In  the  second  part,  which  is  pre- 
faced with  an  address  to  the  people  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem, 
exhorting  them  to  prevent  the  divine  judgments  by  a  timely 
repentance  (iv.  3 — 5.),  the  Babylonian  invasion  is  clearly  and 
fully  predicted,  with  all  its  attendant  miseries ;  and  the  um 
vcrsal  and  incorrigible  depravity  of  the  people  is  represented 
at  large,  and  stated  to  be  the  justly  provoking  cause  of  the 
national  ruin.   (iv.  6 — 31.  v.  vi.) 

Discourse  3.  Although  the  date  of  this  prophecy  is  not  pre- 
cisely marked.  Dr.  Blayney  thinks  it  probable  that  it  was  de- 
livered shortly  after  the  preceding,  and,  it  should  seem,  on  the 
following  occa.sion.  Besides  the  prophets  who  were  com- 
missioned to  announce  the  approaciiing  calamities  of  Judah 
and  Jerusalem,  there  were  others  who  took  upon  themselves 
to  flatter  the  people  with  opposite  i)redictions.  They  taught 
them  to  regard  such  threats  as  groundless;  since  God  (they 
said)  would  have  too  much  regard  for  his  own  honour  to  suf- 
fer his  temple  to  be  profaned,  and  the  seat  of  his  holiness  to 
be  given  up  into  the  hands  of  strangers.  In  the  former  part  of 
this  discourse,  therefore,  Jeremiah  is  commanded  openly  to  re- 
prove the  falsehood  of  those  assertions,  and  to  show,  by  an  ex- 
ample in  point,  that  the  sanctity  of  the  place  would  afford  no 
security  to  the  guilty  ;  but  that  God  would  as.surcdiy  do  by  his 
house  at  Jerusalem,  what  he  had  done  unto  Shiloh,  and  would 
cast  the  people  of  Judah  out  of  his  sight,  as  he  had  already 
cast  off  the  people  of  Israel  for  their  wickedness,  (vii.  1 — 16.) 
God  justifies  the  severity  of  his  proceedings  by  a  representa- 
tion of  the  people's  impiety  and  idolatry.  (17 — 20.)  The  pro- 
phet declares  that  their  sacrifices  would  be  unacceptable,  while 
they  continued  deaf  to  the  calls  of  God's  messengers  (21 — 
28.)  ;  he  further  specifies  the  gross  idolatries  with  which  they 
were  defiled,  and  pronounces  a  heavy  sentence  of  divine  ven- 
geance both  on  the  dead  and  on  the  living.  (29 — 34.  viii. 
1 — 3.)  In  the  latter  part  of  this  discourse,  the  prophet,  at 
first,  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  reproves  the  Jews,  who  vainly 
thought  that  He  would  save  them  because  they  had  his  law 


274 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap,  IV. 


among  them,  though  they  kept  not  that  law.  (viii.  4 — 17.) 
Next,  in  his  own  person,  .Jeremiah  gives  vent  to  his  lamenta- 
tions at  the  foresight  of  the  calamities  vvliich  the  Chalda;ans 
would  inflict  upon  the  Jews  (18 — 22.  ix.)  ;  and  earnestly  dis- 
suades his  countrymen  from  idolatry  (x.  1 — 18.),  setting  forth 
the  vanity  of  idols  in  comparison  with  the  true  God.  Jeru- 
salem is  then  introduced,  as  lamenting  the  completion  of  her 
ruin,  and  humbly  supplicating  the  divine  mercy.  (19—25.) 
In  perusing  this  part  of  the  prophet's  discourse,  the  dillerence 
of  speakers  must  be  attended  to ;  the  transition  from  one  to 
another  being  very  quick  and  sudden,  but  full  of  animation 
and  energy. 
Discourse  4.  was  probably  delivered  towards  the  close  of  Jo- 
siah's  reign ;'  when  the  people,  having  forgotten  the  solemn 
covenant-engagements  which  they  had  made  in  the  IBlh  year 
of  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxii.  3.  xxiii.  3.)  are  supposed  to  have  re- 
lapsed into  their  former  disregard  and  neglect  of  the  divine 
law.  The  prophet  was,  therefore,  sent  to  recall  them  to  their 
duty,  by  proclaiming  anew  the  terms  of  the  covenant,  and 
rebuking  them  sharply  for  their  hereditary  disobedience,  (xi. 
1 — 8.)  He  denounces  severe  judgments  against  the  people  of 
Judah  and  Jerusalem  for  their  idolatrous  apostasy.  (9 — 17.) 
being  informed,  by  divine  revelation,  of  the  conspiracy  of  the 
men  of  Anathoth  against  his  life,  he  prays  against  them,  and 
is  authorized  to  foretell  their  utter  destruction  (18 — 23.)  ;  and, 
emboldened  by  the  success  of  his  prayers,  he  expostulates  with 
God  concerning  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked  (xii.  1 — 6.), 
who  answers  the  prophet's  expostulation  (7 — 13.),  and  pro- 
mises the  future  restoration  of  his  people,  with  a  retaliation  in 
kind  upon  their  heathen  neighbours  who  had  oppressed  them  : 
but  with  this  reservation,  that  such  of  them  as  would  embrace 
the  worship  of  the  true  God,  would  be  received  and  incorpo- 
rated into  his  church,  while  the  unbelieving  part  would  utterly 
perish.    (14—17.) 

Part  IL  contains  the  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  reign  of  Jeho- 
iakim, 

DiscouHSE  1.  comprises  a  single  and  distinct  prophecy  ;  which, 
under  two  symbols,  a  linen  girdle  left  to  rot,  and  the  breaking 
of  bottles  (that  is,  skins)  tilled  with  wine,  foretells  the  utter 
destruction  that  was  destined  to  fall  on  the  whole  Jewish  na- 
tion, (xiii.  1 — 14.)  An  exhortation  to  humiliation  and  repent- 
ance is  subjoined  (v.  15 — 21.)  ;  and  their  incorrigible  wick- 
edness and  profligacy  are  assigned  as  the  cause  of  all  the  evils 
that  imminently  awaited  them.  (23 — 27.)  The  particular 
mention  of  the  downfall  of  the  king  and  queen  in  the  18th 
verse.  Dr.  Blayney  thinks,  will  justify  the  opinion  which  as- 
cribes this  prophecy  to  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of 
Jehoiakim,  whose  fate,  with  that  of  his  queen,  is  in  like  man- 
ner noticed  together  in  ch.  xxii.  18, 

Discourse  2.  was,  in  all  probability,  delivered  shortly  after  the 
preceding.  It  predicts  a  severe  famine,  to  punish  the  Jews  for 
their  sins,  but  which  does  not  bring  them  to  repentance  (xiv. 
1 — 22.)  ;  and  announces  God's  peremptory  decree  to  destroy 
Judah,  unless  they  should  speedily  repent,  (xv.  1 — 9.)  The 
prophet,  complaining  that  he  is  become  an  object  of  hatred  by 
reason  of  his  oflice,  receives  an  assurance  of  divine  protection, 
on  condition  of  obedience  and  fidelity  on  his  part.    (10 — 21.) 

Discourse  3.  foretells  the  utter  ruin  of  th6  Jews,  in  the  type  of 
the  prophet  being  forbidden  to  marry  and  to  feast  (xvi.  1 — 13.)  ; 
and  immediately  afterwards  announces  their  future  restoration 
(14, 15.),  as  well  as  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  (16 — 21.)  ; 
accompanied  with  a  severe  reproof  of  the  Jews  for  their  attach- 
ment to  idolatry  (the  fatal  consequences  of  which  are  announc- 
ed), and  also  for  their  too  great  reliance  on  human  aid.  (xvii. 
1—18.) 

Discourse  4.  is  taken  up  with  a  distinct  prophecy  relative  to  the 

■  strict  observance  of  the  Sabbath-day  (xvii.  19 — 27.),  which 
Jeremiah  was  commanded  to  proclaim  aloud  in  all  the  gates 
of  Jerusalem,  as  a  matter  that  concerned  the  conduct  of  each 
individual,  and  the  general  happiness  of  the  whole  nation. 

Discourse  5.  shows,  under  the  type  of  a  potter,  God's  absolute 
authority  over  nations  and  kingdoms,  to  alter  and  regulate 
their  condition  at  his  own  discretion,  (xviii.  1 — 10.)  The 
prophet  is  then  directed  to  exhort  the  Jews  to  avert  their  im- 
pending dangers  by  repentance  and  amendment,  and,  on  their 
refusal,  to  foretell  theiv  destruction.  (11 — 17.)  The  Jews 
conspiring  against  him,  Jeremiah  implores  judgment  against 
them.  (18—23.) 

«  Mr.  Reeves  and  other  commentators  refer  it  tn  the  commencement  of 
Jehoialiim's  reign,  and  consequently  after  the  death  of  Josiah. 


Discourse  6.  Under  the  type  of  breaking  a  potter's  vessel,  is 
foretold  the  similar  ruin  and  desolation  of  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah and  the  city  of  Jerusalem  for  their  sins  (xix.)  ;  and  a 
severe  judgment  is  denounced  against  Pashur  for  apprehending 
and  punishing  Jeremiah  (xx.  1 — 6.),  who  complains  of  the 
persecutions  he  met  with.   (7 — 18.) 

Discourse  7.  is  supposed- to  have  been  delivered  immediately 
after  the  preceding,  and  in  the  precincts  of  the  temple,  whence 
the  prophet  is  commanded  to  "  go  down  to  the  house  of  the 
king  of  Judah."  It  commences  v^ith  an  address  to  the  king, 
his  servants,  and  people,  recommending  an  inviolable  adhe- 
rence to  right  and  justice  as  the  only  means  of  establishing  the 
throne,  and  preventing  the  ruin  of  both  prince  and  people, 
(xxii.  1 — 9.)  The  captivity  of  Shallum  is  declared  to  l)e  irre- 
versible. (10 — 12.)  Jehoiakim  is  severely  reproved  for  his 
tyrannical  expressions,  and  his  miserable  end  is  foretold.  (13 
— 19.)  His  family  is  threatened  with  a  continuance  of  simi- 
lar calamities ;  the  fall  and  captivity  of  his  son  Jcconiah  are 
explicitly  set  forth,  together  with  the  perpetual  exclusion  of 
his  posterity  from  the  throne.  (20 — 30.)  The  prophecy  con- 
cludes with  consolatory  promises  of  future  blessings,  of  the 
return  of  the  people  from  captivity,  and  of  happier  times  under 
better  governors ;  of  the  glorious  establishment  of  Messiah's 
kingdom ;  and  of  the  subsequent  final  restoration  of  all  the 
dispersed  Israelites  to  their  own  land,  (xxiii.  1 — 8.) 

Discourse  8.  denounces  the  divine  judgments  against  false  pro- 
phets, and  mockers  of  true  prophets,   (xxiii.  9 — 40.) 

Discourse  9.  predicts  their  subjugation,  together  with  that  of 
the  neighbouring  nations,  to  the  king  of  Babylon  for  seventy 
years  (xxv.  1 — 1 1.),  at  the  expiration  of  which  Babylon  was  to 
be  destroyed  (12 — 14.)  ;  and  the  destruction  of  Judah  and 
several  other  countries  (including  Babylon  herself,  here  called 
Sheshach),  is  prefigured  by  the  prophet's  drinking  a  cup  of 
wine.  (15—38.) 

Discourse  10.  Jeremiah  being  directed  to  foretell  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple  and  city  of  Jerusalem,  without  a  speedy 
repentance  and  reformation  (xxvi.  1 — 6.),  is  apprehended  and 
accused  before  the  council  of  a  capital  olTcnce,  but  is  acquitted, 
his  advocate  urging  the  precedent  of  Micah  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah.  (7 — 19.)  The  sacred  writer  then  observes,  in  his 
own  persgn,  that  notwithstanding  the  precedent  of  Micah, 
there  had  been  a  later  precedent  in  the  present  reign,  which 
might  have  operated  very  unfavourably  to  the  cause  of  Jere- 
miah, but  for  the  powerful  influence  and  authority  exercised 
in  his  behalf  by  Ahikam,  the  son  of  Shajihan.   (20 — 24.) 

Discourse  11.  The  Jews' disobedience  to  God  is  condemned  by 
comparison  with  the  obedience  of  the  Rechabites  to  the  com- 
mands of  Jonadab  their  father,  who  had  prescribed  to  them  a 
certain  rule  of  life.  A  blessing  is  promised  to  the  Rechabites 
for  their  dutiful  behaviour,  (xxxv.) 

Discourse  12.  By  divine  appointment  Jeremiah  causes  Baruch 
to  write  all  his  former  prophecies  in  a  roll,  and  to  read  them 
to  the  people  on  a  fast-day.  (xxxvi.  1 — 10.)  The  princes 
being  informed  of  it,  send  for  Baruch,  who  reads  the  roll  be- 
fore them.  (11 — 15.)  Filled  with  consternation  at  its  con- 
tents, they  advise  Jeremiah  and  Baruch  to  hide  themselves 
(16^ — 19.);  they  acquaint  the  king,  who  sends  for  the  roll, 
and  having  heard  part  of  its  contents,  he  cuts  it  to  pieces,  and 
burns  it.  (20 — 26.)  Jeremiah  is  commanded  to  write  it  anew, 
and  to  denounce  the  judgments  of  God  against  Jehoiakim. 
(27 — 31.)  Baruch  accordingly  writes  a  new  copy  with  addi 
tions  (32.);  but  being  greatly  alarmed  at  the  threatenings 
contained  in  those  predictions,  and  being  perhaps  afraid  of 
sharing  in  the  persecutions  of  the  prophet,  God  commissions 
Jeremiah  to  assure  Baruch  that  his  life  should  be  preserved  by 
a  special  providence  amidst  all  the  calamities  denounced  against 
Judah.  (xlv.) 

Discourse  13.  contains  a  series  of  prophecies  against  several 
heathen  nations  (xlvi.  1.),  which  are  supposed  to  have  been 
placed  towards  the  close  of  the  book  of  Jeremiah,  as  being  in 
some  measure  unconnected  with  the  others.  As,  however,  in 
point  of  time,  they  were  evidently  delivered  during  the  reign 
of  Jehoiakim,  they  may  with  great  propriety  be  referred  to  the 
present  section.     In  this  discourse  are  comprised, 

(I.)  A  prophecy  of  (he  defeat  of  the  Egypiimis  tliat  garrisoned  Carche- 
iiiish,  l)y  tlie  ChaldKans  (xlvi.  2 — 12.),  and  of  tlio  entire  conquest  of 
that  country  by  Nebmhadnezzar.  (13— '28.) 

(2.)  Prediciion.s  of  the  suijjugation  of  tlie  innd  of  the  Philistines,  includ- 
ing Tyre  (,\lvii.),  and  also  of  the  Moabites  (xlviii.),  by  the  forces  of 
Nphuc-liadiiezzar.      ,  , 

(3.)  Predictions  of  the  conquest  of  the  Ammonites  (xlix.  1 — 6.)  by  the 
same  monarch,  and  liltewise  of  the  land  of  Edom  (.7 — 22.),  of  Dama» 
cus  (23—27.),  and  of  Kedar.  (28—33.) 


Sect.  II.  §  1.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  I'KOPHET  JEREMIAH. 


27& 


Part  HI.  couiains  the  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  reign  of 
Zidtkiuh  King  if  Juduh. 

DiscdLitsK  1.  A  prediction  of  the  conquest  of  Elam  or  Persia  by 
tlic  Cliulila^aiis,  delivered  in  tlie  beginning  of  Zidekiali's  reign, 
(xlix.  34 — ;J'J.)  On  the  (inal  subverhinn  of  the  liabylonish 
monarchy,  Elam  was  restoreil  (as  pioiniwd  in  ver.  yj.)  to  its 
former  possessors,  who  liad  fought  under  the  LanncrB  of  tlic 
Medea  and  Persians. 

DiseouiisK  8.  Under  tlic  type  of  good  and  bad  figj,  God  repre- 
sents to  .F(!reniiah  the  dilfcrcnt  manner  in  which  lie  should 
deal  wilh  the  people  that  were  already  gone  into  eajitivity,  and 
with  Zciickiah  and  his  sul>jecls  who  were  left  behinil  ; — show- 
ing favour  anil  kindness  to  the  former  in  llieir  restoration  and 
re-establishment,  but  jiursuing  the  latter  wilh  unrelenting  judg- 
nuMits  to  utter  destruction,   (xxiv.) 

Discoi'itsK  :).  The  Jews  at  I5abylon  arc  warned  not  to  believe 
sueli  us  pretended  to  foretell  their  sjieedy  return  into  their  own 
country  (xxix,  1 — 23.)  ;  and  judgment  is  denounced  against 
bheniaiah  for  writing  against  Jeremiah  to  the  Jews  at  Baby- 
lon (21 — 32.)  Dr.  IJlayney  has  remarked  that,  in  the  !Sep- 
tuagiut  version,  the  fifteenth  verse  of  this  eliaptcr  is  read  im- 
mediately after  verse  20.,  wliich  seems  to  be  its  original  and 
proper  ])lacc. 

DiseoL'usK  4.  contains  prophecies  of  the  restoration  of  the  Jews 
from  Bal)ylon,  but  chiclly  from  their  dispersion  by  the  Romans, 
on  iheir  general  conversion  to  Christianity  (xxx.)  ;  and  pre- 
dicts their  hai)py  state  after  that  glorious  event  shall  be  accom- 
plished (xxxi.  1 — 2().),  concluding  with  a  fuller  prophecy 
describing  the  Gospel  state,  as  also  the  state  of  the  Jews  after 
their  conversion.  (27 — 38.)  "  Both  events,"  Dr.  Blayncy  re- 
marks, "  are  frequently  thus  connected  together  in  the  pro- 
phetic writings,  and  perhaps  with  this  design,  that  when  that 
■which  was  nearest  at  hand  should  be  accomplished,  it  might 
afford  the  strongest  and  most  satisfactory  kind  of  evidence,  that 
the  latter,  how  remote  soever  its  period,  would  in  like  manner 
be  brought  about  by  the  interposition  of  Providence  in  its  due 
season." 

DiseouiisE  5.  Zedekiah,  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  being 
solicited  by  ambassadors  from  the  kings  of  Edom,  Moab,  and 
other  neighbouring  nations,  to  join  them  in  a  confederacy 
against  the  king  of  Babylon,  the  pro[)het  Jeremiah  is  ordered, 
under  the  type  of  bonds  and  yokes,  to  admonish  them,  espe- 
cially Zedekiah,  quietly  to  submit  to  the  king  of  Babylon,  and 
warns  them  not  to  listen  to  the  suggestions  of  false  prophets 
(xxvii.)  ;  and  the  death  of  Hananiah,  who  was  one  of  them, 
is  foretold  within  the  year  (xxviii.  1 — 16.),  who  died  accord- 
ingly about  two  months  after.   (17.) 

Diseoi'iisE  6.  contains  a  prophecy  concerning  the  fall  of  Baby- 
lon, intermixed  and  contrasted  with  predictions  concerning  the 
redemption  of  Israel  and  Judah,  who  were  not,  like  their  prede- 
cessors, to  be  finally  extirpated,  but  to  survive,  and,  upon  their 
repentance  and  conversion,  they  were  to  be  pardoned  and  re- 
stored. (1.  li.  1 — 58.)  This  prophecy  against  Babylon  was 
delivered  in  the  fourth  year  of  Zedekiah's  reign,  and  sent  to 
the  Jews  there,  in  order  to  be  read  to  them  :  after  which  it  was 
to  be  sunk  in  the  Euphrates,  as  a  type  of  the  perpetual  destruc- 
tion of  Babylon.' 

DiseoinsE  7.  was  probably  delivered  in  the  ninth  year  of  Zede- 
kiah, previously  to  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  which  commenced 
in  the  tenth  month  of  that  year.  In  this  prophecy  Jeremiah 
(who  had  been  requested  to  "  inquire  of  the  Lord"  for  his 
countrymen)  foretells  a  Severe  siege  and  miserable  captivity, 
and  advises  the  people  to  yield  to  the  Chaldapans  (xxi.  1 — 10.)  ; 
and  the  members  of  the  royal  house  are  warned  to  prevent  the 
etVects  of  God's  indignation  by  doing  justice,  and  not  to  trust 
to  their  stronghold,  which  would  be  of  no  avail  whatever  to, 
them  when  God  was  bent  upon  their  destruction.  (11 — 14.) 

DiscoiHsE  8.  consists  of  two  distinct  prophecies.  Theirs/, 
probably  delivered  towards  the  close  of  the  ninth  year  of  Zede- 
kiah's reign,  announces  to  the  Jewish  monarch  the  capture  and 
burning  of  Jerusalem,  his  own  captivity,  peaceful  death,  and 
honourable  mterment.  (xxxiv.  1 — 7.)  The  secoHf/ prophecy, 
which  was  announced  some  time  after,  when  tlie  Chaldxans 

•  The  fifty-first  chapter  of  Jeremiah  closes  with  the  foUowinj  sf  ntonce  : 
— "  Thus  far  are  the  words  of  Jeremiah  :"  which,  Dr.  Blayney  lliinks,  was 
aildedby  the  person  (whoever  it  misht  be)  that  collected  liis  prophecies, 
aiid  digested  them  in  the  order  in  which  we  now  find  Ihem  in  the  Hebrew 
Bibles.  This  sentence  does  not  occur  In  the  Septuagint  version,  where 
indeed  it  could  not  be  introduced  at  the  end  of  this  chapter,  because  the 
chapters  are  arransed  difTcrenlly  in  that  version;  and  chapter  li.  forms 
only  the  twentyeighth  of  the  collection.  The  disposition  of  Jeremiah's 
prophecies  is,  apparently,  so  arbiurary,  that  it  is  not  likely  that  it  was  made 
under  the  prophet's  direction. 


had  broken  off  the  siege  in  order  to  encounter  the  Egyptian 
army,  severely  reproves  and  threatens  the  Jews  for  their  per- 
fidious violation  of  the  covenant  they  had  newly  made  of  obe- 
dience to  God.   (8 — 22.) 

DiscouusE  U.  Jeremiah  foretells  the  retreat  of  the  Egyptians, 
and  the  return  of  the  Chalda;ans  to  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
which  should  be  taken  and  burnt  by  the  forces  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, (xxxvii,  1 — 10.)  For  this  he  was  put  into  a  dungeon 
(11 — 15.),  from  which  he  was  released,  but  still  kept  a  pri- 
soner, though  the  rigour  of  his  confinement  was  abated. 
(IG— 21.) 

DiseouiisE  10.  confirms  the  promised  return  of  the  Jews  from 
caj)tivity,  by  Jeremiah  being  commanded  to  buy  a  field, 
(xxxii.) 

DiscoriisE  11.  predicts  the  restoration  of  Israel  and  Judah 
(xxxiii.  1 — 9.),  and  that  the  land,  whose  desolation  the  Jews 
deplored,  shoidd  again  flourish  with  multitudes  of  men  and  cat- 
tle (10 — 13.)  ;  whence  the  projihet  takes  oerasion  to  confirm 
his  former  promise  of  establishing  a  j)eq)etual  kingdom  of 
righteousness  under  the  Messiah.  (14 — 20.)  This  evangi-li- 
cal  j)redicli()n  is,  as  yet,  unfultillcd.  "  The  days,  it  is  evident, 
are  not  yet  arrived,  though  they  will  certainly  come,  for  the 
performance  of  God's  good  promise  conceniing  the  restoration 
of  the  house  of  Israel   and  the  house  of  Judah,  under  Christ 

THEIK   niGIITEOUSXESS." 

DiscocusE  12.  contains  the  last  transaction  in  which  Jeremiah 
was  prophetically  concerned  before  the  taking  of  Jerusalem. 
It  relates  the  imprisonment  of  Jeremiah  in  a  deep  and  miry 
dungeon,  at  the  instance  of  the  princes  of  Jud:di  (xxxviiL 
1 — 6.);  his  deliverance  thence  (7 — 13.);  and  the  prophet's 
advice  to  Zedekiah,  who  had  consulted  him  privately,  to  sub- 
mit himself  to  the  Chalda;ans.  (14 — 27.)  The  capture  of  the 
city,  the  flight  of  Zedekiah,  and  the  particulars  of  his  punish- 
ment after  he  had  been  taken  and  brought  before  the  king  of 
Babylon,  are  then  related  (xxxix.  1 — 10.)  together  with  the 
kind  treatment  of  the  prophet  in  consequence  of  a  special 
charge  from  Nebuchadnezzar.  (11 — 13.)  In  conclusion,  the 
piety  of  Ebedinelech  is  rewarded  with  a  promise  of  personal 
safely  amidst  the  ensuing  public  calamities.  (15 — 18.) 

Part  IV.  contains  a  particular  Account  of  what  pcwsed  in  the 
Land  of  Judah,  from  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  to  the  Retreat 
of  the  Jewish  People  into  Egypt,  and  the  Prophecies  ofJere- 
miah  concerning  them  while  in  that  Country. 

DiscouHSE  1.  Jeremiah  has  his  choice  either  to  go  to  Babylon, 
or  to  remain  in  Judxa  (xl.  1 — 6.),  whither  the  dispersed  Jews 
repaired  to  Gedaliah  the  governor  (7 — 12.)  ;  who  being  trea- 
cherously slain  ( 1 3 — 16.  xh.  1 — 10.),  the  Jews  left  in  Judffia 
intend  to  go  down  to  Egypt  (11 — 18.),  from  which  course  the 
prophet  dissuades  them,  (xlii.) 

DiscouusE  2.  The  Jews  going  into  Egypt  contrary  to  the  divine 
command  (xliii.  1 — 7.),  Jeremiah  foretells  to  them  the  conqiiest 
of  that  kingdom  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (8 — 13.)  ;  he  predicts 
destruction  to  all  the  Jews  that  willingly  went  into  Egypt 
(xliv.  1 — 13.),  whose  obstinate  idolatry  is  related  (14 — 19.), 
destruction  is  denounced  against  them,  and  the  dethronement 
of  Pharaoh  Hophrah  king  of  Egypt  (by  profane  authors  called 
Apries)  is  foretold.  (20—30.) 

The  Conclusion  of  Jeremiah's  prophecy,  containing  the 
fifty-second  chapter,  was  added  after  his  time,^  subsequently 
to  the  return  from  captivity,  of  which  it  gives  a  short  account, 
and  forms  a  proper  argument  or  introduction  to  the  Lamenta- 
tions of  Jeremian. 

IV.  Although  the  greater  part  of  Jeremiah's  predictions 
related  to  his  countrymen  the  Jews,  many  of  whom  lived  to 
behold  their  literal  fulfilment,  and  thus  attested  his  prophetic 
mission,  while  several  of  his  predictions  concerned  other 
nations  Tas  will  be  seen  from  the  nreceding  analysis) ;  yet 
two  or  three  of  his  prophecies  so  clearly  announce  the  Mes- 
siah, that  it  would  be  a  blamable  omission  were  we  to  pass 
them  unnoticed. 

Ill  ch.  xxiii.  5,  6.  is  foretold  the  mediatorial  kingdom  of 
the  Messiah,  who  is  called  the  Lord  our  Righteousness. 
On  this  passage  Dr.  Hales  has  cited  the  following  remark 
from  the  ancient  rabbinical  book  of  Ikkarim,  which  (he 
observes)  well  expresses  the  reason  of  the  appellation : — 
"  The  Scripture  calls  the  name  of  the  Messiah,  JAOH,  our 
Righteousness,  to  intimate  that  he  will  be  a  mediatorial 
God,  by  whose  hand  we  shall  obtain  justification  from  the 
Name  :  wherefore  it  calls  him  by  the  name  of  the  Name 

»  See  p.  2*3.  supra  of  this  volume. 


276 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  Chap.  IV. 


(that  is,  the  ineffable  name  JAOH,  here  put  for  God  him- 
self)."' 

Ajrain,  in  Jer.  xxxi.  22.  we  have  a  distinct  prediction  of 
the  miraculous  conception  of  Jesus  Christ  ;2  and  in  xxxi.  31 
— 3G.  and  xxxiii.  8.  the  efficacy  of  Christ's  atonement,  the 
spiritual  character  of  the  new  covenant,  and  the  inward 
efficacy  of  the  Gospel,  are  most  clearly  and  emphatically 
described.  Compare  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
eh.  viii.  8 — 13.  and  x.  16.  et  seq. 

V.  The  Style  of  Jeremiah,  thouijh  not  deficient  in  elegance 
or  sublimity,  is  considered  by  Bishop  Lowth  as  being  interior 
in  both  respects  to  Isaiah.  Jerome, ^  after  some  Jewish 
writers,  has  objected  to  the  prophet  a  certain  rusticity  of 
expression,  which  however  it  is  very  difficult  to  trace. 
Though  the  sentiments  of  Jeremiah  are  not  always  the  most 
elevated,  nor  his  periods  uniformly  neat  and  compact ;  yet 
his  style  is  in  a  high  degree  beautiful  and  tender,  especially 
when  he  has  occasion  to  excite  the  softer  passions  of  grief 
and  pity,  which  is  frequently  the  case  in  the  earlier  parts  of 
his  prophecies.''  These"  are  chiefly  poetical.  The  middle 
of  his  book  is  almost  entirely  historical,  and  is  written  in  a 
plain  prosaic  style,  suitable  to  historical  narrative.  On  many 
occasions  he  is  very  elegant  and  sublime,  especially  in  xlvi. 
— li.  1 — 59.  which  are  wholly  poetical,  and  in  which  the 
prophet  approaches  very  near  the  sublimity  of  Isaiah.^ 

§  2.    ON  THE  LAMENTATIONS  OF  JEREMIAH. 

I,  Author,  date,  and  argument  of  the  book. — II.  Synopsis  of 
its  contents. — III.  Observations  on  its  style  and  structure. 

I.  That  Jeremiah  was  the  author  of  the  Elegies  or 
Lamentations  which  bear  his  name  is  evident,  not  only  from 
a  very  ancient  and  almost  uninterrupted  tradition,  but  also 
from  the  argument  and  style  of  the  book,  which  correspond 
exactly  with  those  of  his  prophecies." 

Josephus,  Jerome,  Junius,  Archbishop  Usher,  Michaelis, 
Dathe,  and  other  eminent  writers,  are  of  opinion,  that  the 
Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  were  the  same  which  are  men- 
tioned in  2  Chron.  xxxv.  25.  as  being  composed  by  the 
prophet  on  the  death  of  the  pious  king  Josiah,  and  which 
are  there  said  to  have  been  perpetuated  by  "  an  ordinance  in 
Israel."  But,  whatever  may  have  become  of  those  Lament- 
ations, it  is  evident  that  these  cannot  possibly  be  the  same ; 
for  their  whole  tenor  plainly  shows,  that  they  were  not  com- 
posed till  after  the  subversion  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
The  calamities  which  Jeremiah  had  foretold  in  his  prophecies 
are  here  deplored  as  having  actually  taken  place,  viz.  the 
impositions  of  the  false  prophets  who  had  seduced  the  people 
by  their  lying  declarations,  the  destruction  of  the  holy  city 
and  temple,  the  overthrow  of  the  state,  and  the  extermination 
of  the  people.  But  though  it  be  allowed  that  the  Lamenta- 
tions were  primarily  intended  as  a  pathetic  description  of 
present  calamities,  yet  it  has  with  great  probability  been 
conjectured  that,  while  Jeremiah  mourns  the  desolation  of 
Judah  and  Jerusalem,  he  may  be  considered  as  prophetically 
painting  the  still  greater  miseries  they  were  to  suffer  at  some 
future  time ;  and  this  seems  plainly  indicated  by  his  referring 
to  the  time  when  the  punishment  of  their  iniquity  shall  be 
accomplished,  and  they  shall  no  more  be  carried  into  captivity. 
(iv.  22.V  .  ^        ^ 

II.  Ihis  book,  which  in  our  Bible  is  divided  into  five 
chapters,  consists  of  five  distinct  elegies ;  viz. 

»  Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  481.  who  cites 
Buxtorf's  Lexicon,  voce  nin'.  Dr.  H.  thinks  that  Paul  derived  the  decla- 
ration he  has  made  concerning  Jesus  Christ,  in  1  Cor.  i.  30.  and  Phil.  ii.  9 — 
11.,  iroui  the  ahove  cited  passage  of  Jeremiah. 

»  Professor  Dahler  con.'Jiders  Ihis  siinjily  as  a  proverbial  expression  ;  and 
the  modern  Jews,  and  a  few  Christian  interpreters,  particularly  the  late 
Dr.  Blayney  in  his  translation  of  Jeremiali,  liave  denied  the  application  of 
this  prophecy  to  the  Messiah  :  but  the  following  remarks  will  showtliat  this 
denial  is  not  authorized.  According  to  the  first  .evangelical  promise  con- 
cerning the  seed  of  the  woman,  followed  this  prediction  of  the  propliet : — 
The  Lord  halh  created  a  new  thing  in  the  earth,  a  woman  shall  compass 
a  man.  (Jer.  xxxi.  22.)  That  new  creation  of  a  man  is  therefore  neic,  and 
therefore  a  creation,  because  wrought  in  a  woman  only,  without  a  nmn, 
compassing  a  man.  This  interpretation  is  ancient,  literal,  and  clear.  The 
words  import  a  miraculous  conception  :  the  ancient  Jeivs  acknowledged 
this  sense,  and  applied  it  determinately  to  the  Messiah.  This  prophecy  is 
illustrated  by  that  of  Isaiah  vii.  14. — Bp.  Pearson  on  the  Creed,  art.  iii.  p. 
171.  edit.  1715,  folio. 

3  Pref  ad  Com.  in  Jerem. 
■    ••  See  the  whole  of  ch.  ix.  ch.  xiv.  17.  &c.  and  xx.  14—18. 

«  Lowth's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  pp.  88,  89. 

«  Prof  Pareau  has  amply  proved  this  point  from  a  general  collation  of 
the  Prophecies  of  Jeremiah  with  select  passages  of  this  book,  in  the  pi-c- 
liminary  Dissertation  to  his  Latin  version  of  the  Lamentations  (Lug.  Bat. 
1790. 8vo.),  illustrated  with  notes. 
,    '  Bishop  Tomline's  Elements  of  Christian  Theology,  vol.  i.  pp.  119,  113. 


Elegy  1.  The  prophet  begins  with  lamenting  the  sad  reverse 
of  fortune  which  his  country   had  experienced,  confessing  at 
the  same  time  that  all  her  miseries  were  the  just  consequences 
of  the  national  wickedness  and  rebellion  against  God.     In  the 
midst  of  his  discourse  he  withdraws  himself  from  view,  and 
introduces  Jerusalem,  to  continue  the  complaint,  and  humbly 
to  solicit  the  divine  con\passion.     Jahn  is  of  opinion,  that,  in 
this  elegy,  Jeremiah  deplores  the  deportation  of  ki)ig  Jehoia- 
cbin,  and  ten  thousand  of  the   principal  Jews,   to  Babylon. 
Compare  2  Kings  xxiv.  8 — 17.  and  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9,  10. 
Elegy  2.  Jeremiah  gives  a  melancholy  detail  of  the  dire  cflects 
of  the  divine  anger  in  the  subversion  of  the  civil  and  religious 
constitution  of  the  Jews,  and  in  that  extreme  misery  to  which 
every   class  of  individuals  was   reduced.     He  represents  the 
wretchedness  of  his  country  as  unparalleled  ;  and  charges  the 
false  prophets  with  having  betrayed  her  into    ruin   by  their 
false  and  flattering  suggestions.     In  this  forlorn  and  desolate 
condition, — the    astonishment   and  by-word    of  all  who    see 
her, — Jerusalem  is  directed  earnestly   to  implore  the  removal 
of  those  heavy  judgments  which  God,  in   the   height  of  his 
displeasure,  had  inflicted   upon  her. — Jahn    thinks   that  this 
elegy   was  composed   on  the  storming    of  Jerusalem  by   the 
Babylonian  army. 
Elegy  3.  The  prophet,  by  describing  his  own  most  severe  and 
trying   afflictions,  and  setting   forth  the  inexhaustible  mercies 
of  God,  as  the  never-failing  source  of  his  consolation,  exhorts 
his  countrymen  to   be  patient  and  resigned  under  the  divine 
chastisements.     He  asserts  the   divine   supremacy  in  the  dis- 
pensations of  good  and  evil,  and  argues  that  no   man  has   a 
right   to  complain,  when  he  is  punished  according  to  his  de- 
serts.    He  recommends  it   to  his  fellow-sufferers  to   examine 
themselves,  and  to  turn  to  God  with  contrite  hearts  ;  and  con- 
cludes by  expressing  his  hope,  that  the  same  Providence  that 
had  formerly  delivered  him,  would  frustrate  the  malice  of  his 
present  enemies,  and  would  turn  the  scornful  reproach,  which 
they  had  cast  upon  him,  to  their  own  confusion. 
Elegy  4.  exhibits  a  striking   contrast,   in    various  affecting  in- 
stances, between  the  present  deplorable   and  wretched  condi- 
tion of  the  Jewish  nation  and  their  former  flourishing  affairs  ; 
and  ascribes  the  unhappy  change  chiefly  to  the  profligacy  of 
its  priests  and  prophets.     The  people  proceed  with  lamenting 
their  hopeless  condition,  especially  the  captivity  of  their  sove- 
reign  Zedekiah.     This   elegy  concludes   with    predicting  the 
judgments  that  were  impending  over    the  Edomites,  together 
with  a  final  cessation  of  Sion's  calamities. 
Elkgy  5.  is  an  epilogue  or  conclusion  to  the  preceding  chapters 
or  elegies.     In  the  Syriac,   Arabic,  and  Vulgate  versions,  this 
chapter  is  entitled  The  Prayer  of  Jeremiah  ;  but  no  such 
title   appears   in  the  Hebrew   copies,  or  in  the  Septuagint  ver- 
sion.    It  is  rather,  as  Dr.  Blayney   has  remarked,  a  memorial 
representing,  in  the  name  of  the  whole  body  of  Jewish  exiles, 
the  numerous   calamities    under    which    they   groaned ;    and 
humbly  supplicating  God  to   commiserate  their  wretchedness, 
and  to  restore  them  once  more  to  his  favour,  and  to  their  an- 
cient prosperity. 

III.  The  Lamentations  are  evidently  written  in  metre,  and 
contain  a  number  of  plaintive  effusions  composed  after  the 
manner  of  funeral  dirges.  Bishop  Lowth  is  of  opinion  that 
they  were  originally  written  by  the  prophet,  as  they  arose  in 
his  mind,  in  a  long  course  of  separate  stanzas,  and  that  they 
were  subsequently  collected  into  one  poem.  Each  elegy 
consists  of  twenty-two  periods,  according  to  the  number  of 
letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet;  although  it  is  in  the  four 
first  chapters  only  that  the  several  periods  begin  (after  the 
manner  of  an  acrostic)  with  the  different  letters  following 
each  other  in  alphabetical  order.  By  this  contrivance,  the 
metre  is  more  precisely  marked  and  ascertained,  particularly 
in  the  third  chapter,  where  each  period  contains  three  verses, 
all  hav/ng  the  same  initial  letter.  The  two  first  chapters,  in 
like  manner,  consist  of  triplets,  excepting  only  the  seventh 
period  of  the  first  and  the  nineteenth  of  the  second,  each  of 
which  has  a  supernumerary  line.  The  fourth  chapter  resem- 
bles the  three  former  in  metre,  but  the  periods  are  Qnly 
couplets ;  and  in  the  fifth  chapter  the  periods  are  couplets, 
though  of  a  considerably  shorter  measure. 

Although  there  is  no  artificial  or  methodical  arrangement 
of  the  subject  in  these  incomparable  elegies,  yet  they  are 
totally  free  from  wild  incoherency  or  abrupt  transition. 
Never,  perhaps,  was  there  a  greater  variety  of  beautiful, 
tender,  and  pathetifc  images,  all  expressive  of  the  deepest . 
distress  and  sorrow,  more  happily  cjiosen  and  applied  than 
in  the  lamentations  of  this  prophet ;  nor  can  we  too  much 


Sect.  III.  §  4.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  DANIEL. 


277 


admirR  the  full  and  ^aceful  flow  of  that  pathetic  eloquence, 
in  wliicli  liio,  author  pours  fortli  tiie  cirusions  of  a  patriot 
heart,  and  piously  wetps  over  the  ruin  of  his  venerable 
country.' 

§  3.    ON  THE  noOK   OF  Till:   I'UOI'HKT  HAnAKKUK. 

I.  Author  and  dale. — II.  Jhialysis  of  hin  prophecy. — III.    04" 
servationn  on  his  style. 

BKFonE  ciiiiisT,  G12 — 598. 

I.  Wk  have  no  certain  information  concerninnr  the  tribe  or 
birth-place  of  llabakkuk.  Tiie  pseudo-Kpiphanius  affirms 
that  he  was  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  and  was  born  at  ]5<"th- 
cazar.  Some  conunentalors  liave  supposed  that  lie  nro])li«'sicd 
in  .luda-a   in   the  reiijii  of  Manassen,  but  Archbishop  I'slicr 

E laces  iiim,  witli  jrreTitcr  probal)ility,  in  the  ni^Mi  of  .Ichoia- 
im.  t'ompare  Hah.  i.  5,  (!.  (Jonsciiuentiy  tliis  proplict  was 
contemporary  with  Jeremiah.  Several  apocrv|)haI  predictions 
and  other  writings  are  ascribed  to  Hai)akUuU,  but  without 
any  foundation.  His  renuine  writincrs  are  comprised  in  the 
three  chapters  which  nave  been  transmitted  to  us ;  and  the 
subject  of  them  is  the  same  with  tiiat  of  .leremiah,  viz.  the 
destruction  of  Judah  and  .Jerusalem  by  the  (Jhaldaians,  for 
the  heinous  sins  of  th(>  .lewish  people,  and  llie  consolation 
of  the  faitiiful  amid  all  their  national  calamities. 

II.  'i'he  prophecy  of  Habakkuk  consists  of  two  parts;  the 
first  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  God  and  the  prophet, 
and  the  second  is  a  sublime  ode  or  hymn,  which  was  probably 
intended  to  be  used  in  the  public  service. 

Part  I.  The  Prophet  coniplainitig  of  the  Growth  of  Tniquitij 
amoiiij;  the  Jews  (i.  1 — 4.),  God  is  inlrodurcd,  tmnouncinu; 
the  Biihyhmish  ('aptivili)  as  a  Funishinenl  fur  their  Wicked- 
ness. (5 — II.) 

The  prophet  then  humbly  expostulates  with  God  for  punishing 
the  Jews  by  the  instrumcnlahty  of  the  Chaldacans.  (12 — 17. 
ii.  1.)  In  answer  to  this  complaint,  God  replies  that  he  will, 
in  due  time,  perform  his  promises  to  his  people,  of  deliverance 
by  the  Messiah  (implying  also  the  nearer  deliverance  by 
Cyrus),  (ii.  2 — 4.)  The  destruction  of  the  Babylonish  em- 
jiire  is  then  foretold,  together  with  the  judgment  that  would 
be  inflicted  upon  the  Chaldeans  for  their  covetousness,  cruelty, 
and  idolatry.   (5—20.) 

Part  II.  contains  the  Prayer  or  Psalm  of  Ilubakkuli. 

In  this  prayer  he  implores  God  to  hasten  the  deliverance  of  his 
people  (iii.  1,  2.),  and  takes  occasion  to  recount  the  wonderful 
works  of  the  Almighty  in  conducting  his  people  through  the 
wilderness,  and  giving  them  possession  of  the  promised  land 
(3 — IG.)  :  whence  he  encourages  himself  and  other  pious  per- 
sons to  rely  upon  God  for  making  good  his  promises  to  their 
posterity  in  after-ages. 

III.  Habakkuk  holds  a  distinguished  rank  amonor  the 
sacred  poets;  whoever  reads  his  prophecy  must  be  struck 
with  the  grandeur  of  his  imagery  and  the  sublimity  of  its 
style,  especially  of  the  hymn  in  the  third  chajiter,  which 
Bishop  JiOwth  considers  one  of  the  most  perfect  specimens 
of  the  Hebrew  ode.  Michaelis,  after  a  close  examination, 
pronounces  him  to  be  a  great  imitator  of  former  poets,  but 
with  some  new  additions  of  his  own,  which  are  characterzied 
by  brevity,  and  by  no  common  degree  of  sublimity.     Com- 

fare  Hab.  ii.  12.  with  Mic.  iii.  10.,  and  Hab.  ii.  14.  with 
sa.  xi.  9.2 


§  4.  ON  the  book  of  tiie  prophet  daniel. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  Analysis  of  its  contents. — III.  Obser- 
vations on  its  canonical  authority  and  style. —  Objections 
to  its  authenticity  refuted. — IV.  Account  of  the  spurious 
additions  made  to  it. 

BEFORE  cnnisT,  606 — 534. 

1.  Daniel,  the  fourth  of  the  greater  prophets,  if  not  of 
royal  birth  (as  the  Jews  affirm),  was  of  noble  descent,  and 
was  carried  captive  to  Babylon  at  an  early  age,  in  the  fourth 
year  of  Jehoiachin  king  of  Judah,  in  the  year  G06  before  the 
Christian  aera,  and  seven  years  before  the  deportation  of 
EzekPel.     Having  been  instructed  in  the  language  and  lite- 


Dr.  B^ayney's  Jeremiah,  p.  455.  et  seq. 
~  ■  in  fin 


,      Bishop  Lowth's  Lectures  on 

Hebrew  Poetry,  lect.  xxii.  in  fine.  Jahn,  Introd.  aci  Vet.  Feed.  pp.  415— 417. 
Carpzov,  Introd.  ad  Libros  BiliUcos,  pars  iii.  cap.  iv.  pp.  177- 
«  Lowth's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  p.  99. 


-Fl 


rature  of  the  Chaldacans,  which  at  tliat  time  was  greatly 
sui)erior  to  the  learning  of  the  ancient  Egyjitians,  he  after- 
wards held  a  very  distinguished  office  in  the  Babylonian 
empire.  (Dan.  i.  1 — 4.)  He  was  contemporary  with  Kzekiel, 
who  mentions  his  extraordinary  piety  and  wisdom  (Ezek. 
xiv.  14.  20.),  and  the  latter  even  at  that  time  seems  to  have 
become  j)roverbial.  (Kzek.  xxviii.  3.)  Daniel  lived  in  great 
credit  with  the  Babylonian  inonarchs;  and  his  uncommon 
merit  ])ri>ciired  him  the  same  regard  from  Darius  and  (Jyrus, 
tln!  two  first  sovereigns  of  Persia.  He  lived  throughout  the 
ca|)tivity,  but  it  does  not  a])pear  that  he  returned  to  his  own 
country  when  Cyrus  jjermitted  the  Jews  to  revisit  their  native 
land.  The  pseudo-Epiphanius,  who  wrote  the  lives  of  the 
projjIuUs,  says  tiiat  he  died  at  Babylon ;  and  this  assertion 
lias  been  adojjted  by  most  succeeding  writers  :  but  as  the  last 
of  his  visions,  of  which  we  have  any  account,  took  place  in 
the  third  year  of  ( 'yrus,  about  53 1  years  before  the  Cliristian 
a^ra,  when  he  was  about  ninety-four  years  of  age  and  resided 
at  Susa  on  the  Tigris,  it  is  not  improbable  that  lie  died  there. 

Altliough  the  name  of  Daniel  is  not  prefixed  to  his  book, 
the  many  passages  in  which  he  speaks  in  the  first  person 
sufficiently  prove  that  he  was  the  author.  He  is  not  reckoned 
among  the  ])rophets  by  the  Jews  since  the  time  of  Jesus 
Christ,  who  say  that  he  lived  the  life  of  a  courtier  in  the 
court  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  rather  than  that  of  a  prophet; 
and  they  further  assert,  that,  thoutrh  he  received  divine  reve- 
lations, vet  these  were  only  by  dreams  and  visions  of  the 
night,  wnich  they  consider  as  the  most  imperfect  mode  of 
revelation.  But  Josephus,  one  of  the  most  ancient  profane 
writers  of  that  nation,  accounts  Daniel  one  of  the  greatest 
of  the  prophets;  and  says  that  he  conversed  familiarly  with 
God,  and  not  only  predicted  future  events  (as  other  prophets 
did),  but  also  determined  the  time  of  their  accomplishment.* 

II.  The  book  of  Daniel  may  be  divided  into  two  parts. 
The  first  is  historical,  and  contains  a  relation  of  various 
circumstances  that  happened  to  himself  and  to  the  Jews, 
under  several  kings  at  Babylon;  the  second  is  strictly  pro- 
phetical, and  comprises  the  visions  and  prophecies  with 
which  he  was  favoured,  and  which  enabled  him  to  foretell 
numerous  important  events  relative  to  the  monarchies  of  the 
world,  the  time  of  the  advent  and  death  of  the  Messiah,  the 
restoration  of  the  Jews,  and  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles. 

Part  I.  contains  the  Historical  Part  of  t lie  Book  of  Daniel  (ch. 

i. — vi.),  forming  six  Sections,-  viz. 

Sect.  1.  A  compendious  history  of  the  carrying  away  of 
Daniel  and  his  three  friends  to  Babylon,  with  other  young 
sons  of  the  principal  Hebrews,  and  of  their  education  and 
employment,  (ch.  i.) 

"  Between  the  first  and  second  chapters  there  is  a  great 
chasm  in  the  history.  In  ii.  1.  the  second  year  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's reign  is  indeed  mentioned,  but  this  cannot  be 
the  second  year  of  his  government ;  for,  at  that  time,  Daniel 
was  a  youth  in  the  second  year  of  his  course  of  instruction  ; 
whereas  in  this  chapter  he  appears  as  a  man.  We  learn, 
moreover,  from  ii.  29.,  that  Nebuchadnezzar  had  been  think- 
ing of  what  should  transpire  after  his  death,  which  supposes 
him  to  be  of  considerable  age.  Chap.  ii.  28.  also  informs  us 
that  his  conquests  were  ended  ;  and  as  Ezckiel  in  xxix.  17. 
announces  the  conquest  of  Egj-pt  in  the  twenty-seventh 
year  of  his  exile  and  the  thirty-fourth  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
government,  the  campaign  opening  about  that  time,  the  ac- 
count in  Dan.  ii.  can  hardly  be  placed  before  his  fortieth 
year.  The  'second  year,'  therefore,  in  ii.  1.,  must  refer  to 
Nebuchadnezzar's  government  over  the  conquered  coun- 
tries ;  in  other  words,  it  was  the  second  year  of  his  universal 
monarchy,  which  perhaps  gave  rise  to  a  new  method  of 
reckoning  time."'' 

Sect.  2.  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  concerning  an  image  com- 
posed of  different  metals  (ii.  1 — 13.)  ;  the  interpretation 
thereof  communicated  to  Daniel  (14 — 23.),  who  reveals  it  to 
the  monarch  (24 — 35.),  and  interprets  it  of  the  four  great 
monarchies.  The  head  of  gold  represented  the  Babylonian 
empire  (32.)  ;  the  breast  and  arms,  which  were  of  silver, 
represented  the  Medo-Persian  empire  (32.  39.)  ;  the  brazen 
belly  and  thighs  represented  the  Macedo-Grecian  empire 
(32.  39.)  ;  the  legs  and  feet,  which  were  partly  of  iron  and 
partly  of  clay,  represented  the  Roman  empire  (33.  40 — 43.), 
which  would  bruise  and  break  to  pieces  every  other  king- 
dom, but  in  its  last  stage  should  be  divided  into  ten  smaller 
kingdoms,  denoted  by  the  ten    toes  of  the    image.     The 

»  .losephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  x.  c.  11.  §7. 

*  Jahn's  Introduction  by  Professor  Turner,  p.  406, 


278 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  V.  CuAr.  IV. 


stone,  "cut  out  of  the  mountain  without  hands,  which 
brake  in  pieces  tlie  iron,  the  brass,  the  clay,  the  silver,  and 
tiie  gold"  (34,35.),  represented  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah, 
which  was  "  to  fdl  the  whole  earth,"  become  universal,  and 
stand  for  ever,  unchangeable  and  eternal.  (44,  45.)  This 
section  concludes  with  an  account  of  the  promotion  of 
Daniel  and  his  friends  to  distinguished  honour. 

Sect.  3.  An  account  of  the  miraculous  preservation  of  Sha- 
drach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego,  who,  having  refused  to  wor- 
ship a  golden  image  tbat  had  been  set  up  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, were  cast  into  a  fiery  furnace,   (iii.) 

Sect.  4.  Nebuchadnezzar,  having  been  punished,  on  account 
of  his  pride,  with  the  loss  of  his  reason,  and  driven  from  the 
conversation  of  men,  is  restored  to  reason  and  to  his  throne  ; 
and  by  a  public  instrument  proclaims  to  the  world  Daniel's 
interpretation  of  his  dream,  and  extols  the  God  of  heaven, 
(iv.)  For  an  account  of  the  nature  of  his  insanity,  see 
Vol.  II.  Part  III.  Chap.  IX.  Sect.  I.  §  III.  7. 

Sect.  5.  Relates  the  history  of  Daniel  under  Belshazzar ; 
who,  while  rioting  in  his  palace,  and  prolaning  the  sacred 
vessels  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  carried  away  from  Jeru- 
salem, is  suddenly  terrified  with  the  figure  of  a  hand  in- 
scribing certain  words  on  the  wall,  which  Daniel  promptly 
reads  and  interprets.  In  the  course  of  that  same  night,  Bel- 
shazzar is  slain,  and  the  Babylonian  empire  is  transferred  to 
the  Medes  and  Persians,  (v.) 


Sect.  6.  Daniel  being  promoted  to  the  highest  office  in  the 
empire  under  Darius  the  Mede,  a  conspiracy  is  formed 
against  him.  The  prophet,  being  in  consequence  cast  into 
a  den  of  lions,  is  miraculously  preserved  ;  and  Darius  pub- 
lishes a  decree  that  all  men  should  glorify  the  God  of 
Daniel,  (vi.) 

Part  II.  comprises  various  Prophecies  and  Visions  of  T7iings 
future,  until  the  Mvent  and  Death  of  the  Messiah,  and  tlie 
ultimate  Conversion  of  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  to  the  Faith  (f 
the  Gospel,  in  four  Sections,  (ch.  vii. — xii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  vision  of  the  four  beasts  concerning  the  four 
great  monarchies  of  the  world  :  it  was  delivered  about  forty- 
eight  years  after  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  related  in  ch.  ii. 
but  with  some  diirerent  circumstances.  The  first  beast  (4.) 
represented  the  Babylonian  empire,  the  second  (5.)  the 
Medo-Persian  empire:  the  third  (6.)  the  Macedo-Grecian 
empire  ;  and  the  fourth  (7.),  the  Konian  empire.  The  ten 
horns  of  this  beast  denote  ten  kingdoms  or  principalities 
which  arose  out  of  it,  and  were  signified  by  the  ten  toes  of 
the  image,  (ii.  41,  42.)  These  ten  kingdoms  or  principali- 
ties are  variously  enumerated  by  different  writers,  who  have 
supported  their  respective  hypotheses  with  great  learning 
and  ingenuity,  for  which  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  their 
works.  The  following  table,  however,  will  exhibit  the  re- 
sult of  their  elaborate  researches  : — 


1.  The  first 
horn. 

Machiavol.i 

Mede.» 

Bishop  Lloyd3  and 
Ur.  Hales.* 

Sir  I.saac  Newton.* 

Bishop  Newton. e 

TheOi;trogothsin 
Mcesia. 

The  Bi-itons. 

The  Huns,  a.  d.  356. 

Vandals  and  Alans 
in  Spain  and  Africa. 

The  Senate  of  Rome,  who 
revolted  fronj  the  Greek 
emperors,  and  clainjed 
the  privilege  of  choosing 
a  new  emperor. 

2.  The  second 
horn. 

The  Visigoths  in 
Pannoiiia. 

The  Saxons  in  Britain. 

Ostrogoths,  377. 

The  Suevians  in 
Spain. 

The  Greeks  in  Ravenna. 

3.  The  third 
horn. 

The  Sueves  and 
Alans      in     Gas- 
coigneand  Spain. 

The  Franks. 

Visigoths,  378. 

The  Visigoths. 

The  Lombards  in 
Lombardy 

4.  The  fourth 
horn. 

The  Vandals  in 
Africa. 

The  Burgundians  in  FranQe. 

Franks,  407. 

The  Alans  in 
Gallia. 

The  Huns  in  Hungary. 

5.  The  fifth 
horn. 

The  Franks  in 
France. 

The  Visigoths  in  the  south  of 
France  and  part  of  Spain. 

Vandals,  407. 

The  Burgundians. 

The  Alemanni  in 
Germany. 

G.  The  sixth 
horn. 

The  Burgundians 
in  Burgundy. 

The  Sueves  and  Alans  in  Gal- 
licia  and  Portugal. 

Sueves  and  Alans,  407. 

The  Franks. 

The  Franks  in  France. 

7.  The  seventh 
horn. 

The  Heruli  and 
Thuringi  in  Italy. 

The  Vandals  in  Africa. 

Burgundians,  407. 

The  Britons. 

Burgundians  in 
Burgundy. 

8.  The  eighth 
liorn. 

The  Saxons  and 
Angles  in  Britain. 

The  Alemanni  in  Germany. 

The  Herules,  Rugians,  and 
Thuringians,  476. 

The  Huns. 

The  Goths  in  Spain. 

9.  The  ninth 
horn. 

The  Huns  in 

Hungary. 

The  Ostrogoths,  who  were  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Lombards  in  Pan- 
nonia,  and  afterwards  in  Italy. 

The  Saxons,  476. 

The  Lombards. 

The  Britons. 

10.  The  tcntli 
horn. 

TheLombards,firsl 
upon  the  Danu'be, 
and  afterwards  in 
Italy. 

The  Greeks  in  the  residue 
of  the  empire. 

The  Longobardi  in  Hungary, 
536;    who  were    seated   in 
the  northern  parts  of  Ger- 
many about  483. 

The  kingdom  of 
Ravenna. 

The  Sa.Kons  in  Britain. 

The  number  of  these  kingdoms  was  not  constantly  ten, 
there  being  sometimes  more  and  soriietimes  fewer  ;  but  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  observes,  whatever  was  their  number  after- 
wards, they  are  still  called  the  ten  kings  from  their  first 
number.  Besides  these  ten  horns  or  kingdoms,  there  was 
to  spring  up  another  little  horn  (vii.  8.  24.),  which  Grotius 
and  others  have  erroneously  applied  to  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes ;  but  which  is  generally  conceived  to  denote  the  pope 
of  Rome,  whose  power  as  a  horn  or  temporal  prince  was 
established  in  the  eighth  century.  All  the  kingdoms  above 
described  will  be  succeeded  by  the  kingdom  of  Messiah. 
(9—13.  27.) 
Sect.  2.  In  Daniel's  vision  of -the  ram  and  the  he-goat  is 
foretold  the  destruciton  of  the  Medo-Persian  empire  (typi- 
fied by  the  ram,  which  was  the  armorial  ensign  of  the  Per- 
sian empire),  by  the  Greeks  or  Macedonians  under  Alexan- 
der, represented  by  the  he-goat :  because  the  Macedonians, 
at  first,  about  two  hundred  years  before  Daniel,  were  deno- 
minated jEgeadse,  or  the  goat's  people,  as  their  first  seat 
was  called  ^gese  or  J3gae,  or  goat's  town,  a  goat  being 
their  ensign  or  standard,  (viii.  1 — 7.  20 — 22.)     The  four 

»  Hist.  Flor.  lib.  i.  =  Works,  p.  661. 

'  In  Lowth's  Commentary  on  the  Prophets,  pp.  381,  382. 
*  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.  536—538. 
'  On  Daniel,  ch.  vi.  p.  47. 
«  Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies,  vol.  i.  p.  267. 


"  notable"  horns,  that  sprang  up  on  the  fracture  of  the  great 
horn  (8.  23.),  denote  the  four  kingdoms  of  Greece,  Thrace, 
Syria,  and  Egypt,  erected  by  Cassander,  Lysimachus,  Se- 
leucus,  and  Ptolemy.  The  little  horn,  which  is  described 
as  arising  among  the  four  horns  of  the  Grecian  empire  (9 
— 12.  23,  24.),  is  by  many  Jewish  and  Christian  commen- 
tators understood  to  mean  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  to  which 
hypothesis  Mr.  Wintle  inclines  ;  but  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
Bishop  Newton,  and  Dr.  Hales,  have  clearly  shown  that 
the  Roman  temporal  power,  and  no  other,  is  intended  :  for, 
although  some  of  the  particulars  may  agree  very  well  with 
that  king,  yet  others  can  by  no  means  be  reconciled  to  him ; 
w'hile  all  of  them  correspond  exactly  with  the  Romans,  and 
with  no  other  power  whatever :  it  was  the  Roman  power 
that  destroyed  the  polity  and  temple  of  the  Jews,  and  left 
the  nation  and  holy  city  in  that  desolate  state  in  which  they 
are  to  remain  to  the  end  of  two  thousand  three  hundred 
prophetic  days,  that  is,  years.  (13,  14.  24,  25,  26.)  The 
di.stress  of  Daniel  (17.  27.),  on  learning  the  great  and  last- 
ing calamities  that  were  to  befall  his  nation,  represents  him 
in  a  very  amiable  light,  both  as  a  patriot  and  as  a  prophet, 
and  gives  an  additional  lustre  to  his  glory  and  exalted  cha- 
racter. 
Sect.  3.  While  Daniel,  understanding  from  the  prophecies 
of  Jeremiah  (compare  Jer.  xxv.  11,  12.  xxix.  10.),  that  the 
seventy  years'  captivity  was  now  drawing  to  a  close  (Dan. 


Sect.  III.  §  4.] 

ix,  1,  2.),  was  humbling  himself  in  fasting  and  jiraycr  for 
the  sins  of  his  people,  and  earnestly  imploring  the  restora- 
tion of  .lerusakni  (-3 — 19.),  the  angel  (Jabriel  is  sent  to 
him.  (20 — 23.)  He  announecs  to  the  prophet,  that  the 
holy  city  should  he  rebuilt  and  jK'opled,  even  in  troublous 
times  (comjiare  Neh.  iv.  7.,  &.c.  vi.  1.5.),  and  should  subsist 
for  seventy  weeks,  that  is,  weeks  of  years,  or  four  hundred 
and  ninety  years ;  at  the  expiration  of  which  it  should  be 
utterly  destroyed  for  putting  the  Messiah  to  drath.  (2.5 — 
27.)  It  was  in  consequence  of  this  ]>rophecy  that  the  ad- 
vent of  Messiah,  towards  the  end  of  the  period,  was  gene- 
rally expected  among  the  nations  of  the  East.  The  latter  part 
of  the  prediction  (27.)  relates  to  the  subversion  of  the  .Few- 
ish  temple  and  polity,  and  the  seconil  coming  of  the  Messiah.' 
Srit.  4.  contains  Daniel's  fourth  ami  last  pri)])hctic  vision,  in 
the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  in  which  he  is  in- 
formed of  various  particulars  concerning  the  Persian,  (Src- 
cian,  and  Roman  empires,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah, 
(x. — xii.) 

An   introductory  narrative   states   the   occasion   of  the 
vision,  viz.  Daniel's  fasting   ami  supplication   (probably  on 
account  of  the  obstruction  of  the  building  of  the  temple),- 
ond  describes  the  glorious  person  who  aiijicared  to  the  pro- 
phet. (Dan.  X.  1 — 21.  xi.  1.)     The  prediction  then  describes 
the  fate  of  the  Persian  empire  (xi.  2.),  which  was  invaded 
and  destroyed  by  Alexander  (3.)  ;  the  partition  of  his  vast 
dominions  into  four  kingdoms  (4.)  ;  and  the  wars  between 
the  kingdoms  of  Egypt  (which  lay  to   the   south-west  of 
Judsea)   and  of  Syria  (which  lay  to   the   north-east  of  the 
Holy  Land)  are  then  foretold,  together  with   the  conquest 
of  Macedon  by  the  Romans.  (5 — 3(i.)     The  prophecy  then 
declares  the  tyranny  of  the  papal  Antichrist,  which  was  to 
spring  up  under  the  Roman  empire  (36 — 39.),  and  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Saracens  and  of  the  Turks  in  the  time  of  the 
end,   or  latter  days  of  the  Roman  monarchy.   (40—45.) 
This  prophetic  vision  concludes  with  foretelling  the  general 
resurrection    (xii.  1 — 4.),  and  with   announcing  the  time 
when  all  these  great  events  were  to  have  their   final  con- 
summation, when  the  Jews  were  to  be  restored.  Antichrist 
destroyed,  the  fulness  of  the  Gentiles  brought  in,  and  the 
millennium,  or  reign  of  saints,  was  to  begin.  (5 — 13.)    But 
the  exact  period,  until  Pkovidexce  shall  open  more  of  the 
seals,'  cannot  be  fully  ascertained. 
Upon  the  whole,  we  may  observe  with  Bishop  Newton,^ 
from  whom  the  precedincr  analysis  is  chiefly  abridtred, "  what 
an  amazinor  prophecy  is  this,  comprehending  so  many  various 
events,ana  extending  through  so  many  successive  ages,  from 
the  first  establishment  of  the  Persian  empire,  upwards  of  5.30 
years  before  Christ,  to  the  general  resurrection  !  What  a  proof 
of  a  Divine  Providence,  and  of  a  Divine  Revelation  !  for  who 
could  thus  declare  the  things  that  shall  be,  with  their  times 
and  seasons,  hut  He  only  who  hath  them  in  his  power  : 
'  whose  dominion  is  over  all,  and  whose  kingdom  endureth 
from  generation  to  generation  !" 

III.  Of  all  the  old  prophets  Daniel  is  the  most  distinct  in 
the  order  of  time,  and  the  easiest  to  be  understood  ;  and  on 
this  account,  Sir  Isaac  Newton  observes,*  in  those  events 
which  concern  the  last  times,  he  must  he  the  interpreUsr  of 
the  rest.  All  his  predictions  relate  to  each  otiier,  as  if  they 
were  several  parts  of  one  general  prophecy.  The  first  is  the 
easiest  to  be  understood,  and  every  succeeding  projihecy  adds 
something  to  the  former.  Though  his  style  is  not  so  lofty 
and  figurative  as  that  of  the  other  prophets,  it  is  more  suita- 
ble to  his  subject,  being  clear  and  concise:  his  narratives 
and  descriptions  are  simple  and  natural;  and,  in  short,  he 
writes  more  like  an  historian  than  a  proj)het. 

Of  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  book  of  Daniel 
we  have  every  possible  evidence,  both  external  and  internal. 
1.  With  regard  to  the  extkrnal  evidence,  we  have  not 
only  the  general  testimony  of  the  whole  .lewish  cliurch  and 
nation,  which  haive  constantly  received  this  hook  as  canoni- 
cal ;  hut  we  have  the  particular  testimony  of  Josephus,  who 
(we  have  seen)  commends  Daniel  as  the  greatest  of  prophets ; 

»  or  tliis  iUiistrious  prophecy,  which  Sir  Isaac  Newton  lias  justly  pro- 
Douncecl  to  be  ilie  founiJation  of  the  Cliristian  religion,  Dr.  Hales  has  given 
some  clironolouical  computations,  sligtitly  dilTcriug  from  the  above.  See 
his  AnaWsis.  vol.  ii.  p.  559.  et  seq. 

»  See  Ezra  iv.  4,  5. 

'  The  rearlor  who  Is  d^sirons  of  stnclyind  what  has  been  written  on  this 
subject  is  referred  to  tlie  wrilinus  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Bishop  Newton, 
Mr.  Faber,  and  Dr.  Hales,  who  have  coll.cted  a  great  variety  of  important 
inf.iiriia'ion  on  Ihf  fulfihnenl  of  Daniel's  prophecies. 

«  !>is5>-rtaiions  on  Prophecy,  vol.  i.  pp.  413,  41-1. 

»  On  Daniel,  p.  15. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  DANIEL.  279 

of  the  .Jewish  Targums  and  Talmuds,  which  frequently  quote 
and  appeal  to  his  authority;  of  Jesls  Christ  himself,  who 


'P. 
has  cited  his  words,  and  hiis  styled  him,  "  Daniel  the  Pro- 
phet" (compare  Dan.  ix.  20,  27.  with  .Malt.  xxiv.  15.  and 
Mark  xiii.  14.)  ;  and  likewise  of  the  apostle  Paul,  who  lias 
fr(>(|uently  quoted  or  alluded  to  him  (coiniiare  Dan.  iii.  2'.i — 
•25.  and  vii.  22.  with  Heb.  xi.  3.1,  31.  and  Dan.  xi.  3(i.  with 
2  Thess.  ii.  4.),  as  also  of  St.  John,  whose  Revelation  de- 
rives great  light  from  being  compared  with  the  predictions 
of  Daniel.  To  these  lestinioiiies  we  may  add  that  of  Eze- 
kiel,  a  contemporary  writer,  who  greatly  extols  liis  exemplary 
character  (Ezek.  xiv.  14.  20.  xxviii.  3.),  and  also  the  testi- 
mony of  ancient  profane  historians,  who  relate  many  of  the 
sanit!  transactions.^ 

2.  The  i.NTEiiNAL  EVIDENCE  is  HOt  h\S9  conviiiciug  ;  for 

(1.)  The  language,  style,  and  maimer  of  writing,  are  all 
perfectly  agreeable  to  that  age,  and  prove  thai  it  was  written 
about  the  lime  of  the  Hahjlonish  captivity.  Part  of  the 
hook,  viz.  from  the  fijurth  verse  of  the  second  chaj)t<»r  to  the 
end  of  the  seventh  chapter,  is  written  in  the  ('haldee  lan- 
guage (which,  however,  abounds  with  Hehrai.'^ms  to  such  a 
degret!  as  to  prove  that  none  hut  a  Hebrew  could  have  writ- 
ten it),  because  that  portion  treats  of  the  Chaldaean  or  Baby- 
lonish affairs:  the  rest  of  the  book  is  pure  Hebrew,  with  the 
exception  of  four  words  which  have  been  supposed  to  be 
Creek,  the  occurrence  of  which,  however,  is  satisfactorily 
accounted  for.' 

(2.)  The  extraordinary  accuracy,  which  this  hook  exhibits 
in  Its  historical  statements  and  allusions,  is  another  important 
internal  evidence  of  its  authenticity.  To  adduce  one  or  two 
examples : — 

[l.j  The  first  chapters  represent  Daniel  as  having  attained, 
while  yet  a  young  man,  an  extensive  reputation  for  extraor- 
dinary wisdom  and  devotion  to  his  God.  How  satisfactorily 
does  this  explain  the  language  of  Ezekiel,  his  contemporary 
and  an  older  man !  "  Son  of  man,  when  the  land  sinneth 
against  me,  &c.  though  these  three  men,  Noah,  Daniel  and 
.lob,  were  in  it,  they  should  deliver  hut  their  own  souls  by 
th(>ir  r/o-/;/eo(i.we.M,  said  the  Lord  God."  (Ezek.  xiv.  13,  11.) 
"  Son  of  man,  say  unto  the  prince  of  Tyrus,  'i'hus  saith  the 
Lord  (Jod,  Because  thine  heart  is  lifted  up,  and  thou  hast 
said,  I  am  a  Cod,  &c.  thou  art  wiser  than  Daniel ;  there  is 
no  secret  that  they  can  hide  from  thee."  (xxviii.  2,  3.)  Can 
this  praise  he  accounted  for  in  any  other  way  than  by  sup- 
posing just  such  facts  as  are  recorded  in  the  book  of  Daniel  ] 

[2.]  The  truth  with  which  the  characters  of  certain  kings 
are  drawn  deserves  attention.  The  last  king  of  Bahylon  is 
represented  by  Xenophon  as  an  effeminate,  but  cruel  and  im- 
pious, voluptuary,  who  put  a  man  to  death,  because  he  missed 
his  aim  in  hunting,  and  was  guilty  of  innumerable  other  cru- 
elties; who  despised  the  Deity,  and  spent  his  time  in  riotous 
debauchery,  but  was  at  heart  a  coward.  Is  not  this  Belshaz- 
zar  ?  The  same  historian  represents  Cyaxares  as  weak  and 
pliable,  but  of  a  cruel  temper,  easily  managed  for  the  most 
part,  but  ferocious  in  liis  anger.  Is  not  this  Darius^ — the 
same  Darius  who  allowed  his  nobles  to  make  laws  for  him, 
and  then  repented — suffered  Daniel  to  be  cast  into  the  lion's 
den,  and  then  spent  a  night  in  lamentation,  and  at  last,  in 
strict  conformity  with  Xenophon's  description,  condenmed  to 
death,  not  only  his  false  counsellors,  but  all  their  wives  and 
children  1 

[3.]  It  is  also  observable,  that  in  this  book,  certain  events 
are  mentioned  as  a  contemporary  would  be  apt  to  mention 
them  ;  that  is,  concisely,  ana  without  minute  detail,  as  being 
perfectly  familiar  to  his  imme^liate  readers.  Thus  we  are 
told  that  Daniel  survived  tlie  first  year  of  Cyrus,  a  notable 

«  The  most  important  of  these  testimonies  are  collected  by  the  writers 
referred  to  in  the  preceding  column. 

■>  The  occurrence  of  Greek  words  (some  German  critics  have  objected) 
indicates  a  period  not  earlier  at  the  furthest  than  the  middle  of  the  reign 
of  Darius  Hystaspes,  when  (they  assert)  Daniel  could  not  have  been  living. 
Of  these  words  llertboldt  reckons  ten.  But  four  of  them  have  been 
traced  by  later  critics  to  the  old  Persian,  and  Gesenius  himself  maintains 
that  the' Chaldees  and  Assyrians  were  of  Medo-Persian  origin.  Another 
of  these  ten  words  is  adin'itled  by  the  same  distineuished  scholar  to  be 
Syriac.  The  reniaining  four  are  the  names  of  musical  instruments  oc- 
ciininf;  in  the  fifth  verse  of  the  third  chapter.  The  similarily  of  these 
to  certain  Greek  words  may  be  accounted  for  in  either  of  these  ways  : — 1. 
From  the  ancient  intercourse  between  the  Greeks  and  Babylonians,  men- 
tioned by  Strabo.  Quintus  Curtius,  and  Berosns;— 2.  On  the  supjiosition, 
that  the  Sheniilish  and  Greek  languages  bore  a  common  relation  to  an 
older  tongue ;— 3.  On  the  supposition,  that  the  names  of  musical  instru- 
ments w«-re  in  the  first  instance  onoinrtpoetic,  and  therefore  might  be 
analagoiis  in  languaaes  totally  distinct.  Nothing  more  need  be  added  than 
a  stalpment  of  the  fact,  that  the  latest  writer  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
questiim  (Kirnis)  has  yielded  this  whole  ground  of  opposition  as  untenable. 
(Pliilailelpliia  Biblicaf  Repertory,  vol.  iv.  p.  51.) 

»  The  difTercnce  of  oaiue  is  ejcplained  at  length  by  Dr.  Hengstenberg.    . 


280 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  V.  Chap.  IV. 


year  in  Jewish  history,  the  year  of  the  return  from  exile. 
Now  a  later  writer,  one,  for  instance,  in  the  days  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, would  have  been  very  likely  to  explain  why  this  was 
mentioned  as  a  sort  of  epoch. 

3.  A  distinct  but  analogous  body  of  internal  evidence  is 
furnished  by  the  accurate  acquaintance  which  the  writer  of 
this  book  evinces  with  the  manners,  usages,  and  institutions 
of  the  age  and  country  in  which  it  is  alleged  to  have  been 
written.  The  particular  instances  are  many  and  minute  ;  we 
shall  indicate  a  few. 

(1.)  Daniel  never  speaks  of  adoration  being  rendered  to 
the  kings  of  Babylon,  according  to  the  ancient,  oriental  usaw. 
Why]  Arrian  informs  us,  that  Cyrus  was  the  first  who 
received  such  homage,  which  arose  from  a  notion  that  the  Per- 
sian kings  were  incarnations  of  the  Deity.  For  the  same 
reason,  tlieir  decrees  were  esteemed  irrevocable,  while  no 
such  doctrine  seems  to  have  prevailed  under  the  Chaldee 
monarchs.  Daniel  accordingly  asserts  no  such  thing  of  any 
but  Darius. 

(2.)  The  land  of  Shinar  was  the  name  used  by  the  natives, 
as  we  learn  from  good  authority.  It  occurs  nowhere  in  the 
historical  parts  of  Scripture,  alter  the  book  of  Genesis,  until 
we  meet  with  it  in  Daniel,  (i.  2.)  A  resident  in  Palestine 
w'ould  not  have  thought  of  using  it. 

(3.)  Nebuchadnezzar  commands  (i.  5.)  that  the  young 
men  chosen  for  his  service  should  be  fed  from  his  table. 
That  this  was  the  oriental  custom,  we  are  informed  by  Ctesias 
and  others. 

(4.)  Daniel  and  his  companions,  when  selected  for  the 
royal  service,  received  new  names,  (i.  7.)  In  2  Kings  xxiv. 
17.  we  read,  that  "  the  king  of  Babylon  made  Mattaniah  king, 
and  changed  his  name  to  Zedekiah."  Two  of  these  names, 
moreover,  are  apparently  derived  from  those  of  Babylonish 
idols. 

(5.)  In  Dan.  ii.  5.  iii.  6.  there  are  tokens  of  an  accurate 
acquaintance  with  the  forms  of  capital  punishment  in  use 
among  the  Chaldees ;  while  in  the  sixth  chapter  a  new  sort 
is  described  as  usual  with  the  Medes  and  Persians. 

(6.)  The  description  of  the  image,  in  the  third  chapter, 
corresponds  remarKably  with  what  is  known  from  other 
sources  of  the  Uhaldee  taste  in  sculpture ;  and  the  use  of 
music  at  the  worship  of  it,  completely  tallies  with  their  well- 
known  fondness  for  that  art. 

(7.)  We  find  in  ch.  v.  2.  that  women  were  present  at  the 
royal  banquet.  So  far  was  this  from  being  usual  in  later 
times,  that  the  Septuagint  translators  have  expunged  it  from 
tlie  text.  And  yet  we  know  from  Xenophon,  that  before  the 
Persian  conquest  such  was  indeed  the  practice  of  the  Baby- 
lonian court. 

4.  There  are  some  things  peculiar  to  the  prophecies  of  thi§ 
book,  which  clearly  indicate  that  he  who  was  the  organ  of 
them,  was  a  bond  fide  resident  in  Babylon.     Thus, 

n.)  In  the  earlier  predictions  of  this  book,  as  in  Zechariah 
anu  Ezekiel,  we  find  less  poetry,  and  more  of  symbolical 
language,  than  in  the  pure  Hebrew  prophets.  Every  thing 
is  designated  by  material  'emblems.  Beasts  are  the  repre- 
sentatives of  kings  and  kingdoms.  The  imagery  likewise 
appears  cast  in  a  gigantic  mould.  All  this  is  in  accordance 
with  the  Babylonish  taste,  with  which  the  Prophet  was  fami- 
liar, and  to  which  the  Holy  Spirit  condescended  to  accommo- 
date his  teachings.  A  striking  confirmation  of  this  exegesis 
is,  that  this  mode  of  exhibition  ceases  suddenly  and  wholly 
with  the  Chaldee  dynasty.  The  last  four  chapters,  which 
were  written  under  the  Medo-Persian  domination,  are  with- 
out a  trace  of  it. 

(2.)  Again,  Daniel's  visions,  like  those  of  Ezekiel,  have 
the  banks  of  rivers  for  their  scene.  (Dan.  viii.  2. — x.  4. 
Ezek.  i.  1.  3.)  Does  not  this  imply,  that  the  author  had 
resided  in  a  land  of  lordly  streams  1  This  minute  local  pro- 
priety would  scarcely  have  been  looked  for  in  a  Canaanitish 
forger,  though  writing  in  full  view  of  the  very  "  swellings  of 
Jordan." 

(3.)  Lastly,  Daniel,  still  like  his  fellow  in  captivity  and 
the  prophetic  office,  displays  a  chronological  precision  quite 
unknown  to  earlier  seers,  but  perfectly  m  keeping  with  the 
character  of  one  who  had  been  naturalized  among  the  great 
astronomers  and  chronologers  of  the  old  world.' 

5.  But  the  most  satisfactory  internal  evidence  for  the  genu- 
ineness and  authenticity  of  this  book  is  to  be  found  in  the 

1  For  the  above  proofs  of  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  book 
of  Uaniel  we  are  indebted  to  Professor  Hengslenberg  of  Berlin,  whose 
Vindication  of  tliis  Prophet  is  analyzed  at  considerable  length  in  the 
fourth  volutne  of  the  Bibhcal  Repertory,  printed  at  Philadelphia  in  1832. 
(pp.  65—68.) 


exact  accomplishment  of  Daniel's  prophecies,  as  well  those 
which  have  been  already  fulfilled  as  those  which  are  now 
fulfilling  in  the  world.  So  clear  and  explicit,  indeed,  are 
his  predictions  concerning  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  and 
other  important  events,  of  times  far  remote  from  those  in 
which  he  lived,  that  Porphyry ,2  a  learned  adversary  of  the 
Christian  faith  in  the  third  century, — finding  that  Daniel's 
predictions  concerning  the  several  empires  were  so  universally 
acknowledged  to  be  fulfilled,  that  he  could  not  disprove  the 
fact  of  their  accomplishment, — alleged  against  them  that 
they  must  have  been  written  after  the  events  to  which  they 
refer  had  actually  occurred.  To  him  they  appeared  to  be  a 
narration  of  events  that  had  already  taken  place,  rather  than 
a  prediction  of  things  future ;  such  was  the  striking  coinci- 
dence between  the  facts  when  accomplished,  and  the  prophe- 
cies which  foretold  them.  And  he  further  affirmed  that  they 
were  not  composed  by  Daniel,  whose  name  they  bore,  but  by 
some  person  who  lived  in  Judeea  about  the  time  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  ;  because  all  the  prophecies  to  that  time  contained 
true  history,  but  all  beyond  that  period  were  manifestly  false. 
But  this  method  of  opposing  the  prophecies,  as  Jerome  has 
rightly  observed, ^  affords  the  strongest  testimony  to  their 
truth ;  for  they  were  fulfilled  with  such  exactness,  that,  to 
infidels,  the  prophet  seemed  not  to  have  foretold  things  fu- 
ture, but  to  have  related  things  past.  With  respect  to  the 
particular  prophecy  (Dan.  xi.)  relating  to  the  kings  of  Syria 
and  Egypt,  which  Porphyry  affirmed  was  written  after  the 
time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  we  may  remark  that  the  book 
of  Daniel  was  translated  into  the  Greek  language  one  hun- 
dred years  before  he  lived  ;  and  that  very  translation  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Egyptians,  who  did  not  cherish  any  great 
kindness  towards  the  Jews  and  their  religion  :  and  those 
prophecies  which  foretold  the  successes  of  Alexander  (Dan. 
viii.  5.  xi.  3.)  were  shown  to  him  by  the  Jews,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  conferred  upon  them  several  privileges.'' 
Conclusive  as  the  preceding  external  and  internal  evidences 
are,  for  the  genuineness  of  Daniel's  predictions,  the  destruction 
of  their  credit  has  in  all  ages  been  a  favourite  object  with 
the  enemies  of  divine  revelation,  whether  open  or  disguised, 
— pagans,  deists,  or  neologians.  All  the  various  objections 
of  these  writers  (many  of  which  are  sufficiently  absurd,  as 
well  as  weak)  have  been  collected  and  refuted  in  detail  by 
Professor  Hengslenberg,  in  his  Treatise  on  "  The  Authenticity 
of  Daniel  and  the  Integrity  of  Zechariah."*  From  this 
leared  writer's  masterly  treatise  the  following  observations, 
comprising  his  refutations  of  the  most  material  neologian 
objections,  have  been  selected  :'^ — 

Objection  1. — Daniel  is  not  mentioned  by  the  son  of  Sirach 
when  eulogizing  the  worthies  of  his  nation  in  Ecclus.  xlvii.  50. 

Answer. — If  this  proves  any  thing,  it  proves  too  much.  It 
proves  that  no  such  man  as  Daniel  ever  lived, — nor  Ezra, — nor 
Mordecai, — nor  any  of  the  minor  prophets, — not  one  of  whom 
is  mentioned. 

Objection  2. — The  book  of  Daniel,  in  the  Hebrew  Bibles, 
stands  near  the  end  of  the  Hagiographa,  and  not  among  the 
prophets. 

Answek. — This  circumstance  Bertholdt  explains  by  saying, 
that  this  third  division  of  the  Old  Testament  was  not  formed 
until  after  the  other  two  were  closed.  The  compilers,  or  authors 
of  the  canon,  he  supposes,  intended*  to  make  two  great  classes, 
the  law  and  the  prophets.  The  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Sa- 
muel, and  Kings,  were  included  in  the  second,  merely  because 
there  was  no  third.  A  third  was  eventually  formed  to  receive 
those  writings  which  afterwards  laid  claim  to  inspiration.  To 
this  explanation.  Dr.  Hengslenberg  objects,  that  it  rests  on  mere 
assumptions,  and  is  flatly  contradicted  by  all  Jewish  authorities. 
His  own  solution  may  be  briefly  stated  thus  : — The  distinction 
between  the  prophets  and  the  Hagiographa  is  not  of  a  chronolo- 
gical kind  at  all,  but  is  founded  on  the  peculiar  character  and 

•>  Porphyry  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  impugned  the  genuineness 
and  authority  of  Daniel's  writing.s,  in  the  twellth  of  bis  fifteen  books 
against  the  Christians.  Dr.  Lardner  has  collected  such  of  his  objections 
as  are  extant,  together  with  .Jerome's  answers  to  them.  Jewish  and 
Ileathen  Testimonies,  chap,  xxxvii.  (Works,  vol.  viii.  pp.  185 — 204.  8vo. ; 
or  vol.  iv.  pp.  214 — 225.  4to.)  Methodius,  Eusebius,  and  ApoUinarius,'  also 
wrote  answers  to  Porphyry,  which  have  long  since  perislied. 

3  Praef  ad  Danielem,  et  Procem.  ad  Comment,  in  Daniel. 

«  Michaelis  has  demonstrated  that  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  text  of 
Daniel  was  the  original,  and  more  ancient  tlian  the  genuine  Septuagint 
vi-rsion  of  this  book,  in  the  fourth  volume  of  his  (German)  Bibliotheca 
Orientalis.  See  an  English  version  of  this  demonstration  in  Dr.  Apthorp's 
Discourses  on  Prophecy,  vol.  i.  pp.  244 — 250. 

'  Die  Authrntie  des  Daniel  und  die  Integritat  des  Sacharjah,  erwiesjen 
von  Ernst  Wilhelm  Hengslenberg.     Berlin,  1831.  8vo. 

6  These  refutations  of  neologian  objections  are  abridged  from  the  Bibli- 
cal Repertory  printed  at  Philadelphia,  vol.  iv.  N.  S.  pp.  51—58. 


Sect.  III.  §  4.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  DANIEL. 


281 


office  of  the  writers.  The  prophetic  gift  must  be  discriminated 
from  tlie  proplietic  office.  The  one  wascorjiinoii  to  all  wlio  were 
inspired;  the  latter  to  the  regular,  oiKcial  i)rojih('ts,  who  commu- 
nicatfd  the  divine  will  to  the  Jewish  nation.  The  books  written 
by  these  prophets,  as  such,  formed  the  second  great  division. 
The  third,  Dr.  H.  thinks,  contains  the  inollicial  prophecies.  Why 
else  should  Jereniiaii's  liameiitations  be  disjoined  from  his  pro- 
phecies ?  As  to  the  relative  position  of  the  book  among  the  Ilagio- 
grapha,  it  evidently  proves  neither  one  thing  nor  another;  as  the 
book  of  Ezra  is  placed  uflcr  it,  and  a  slight  inspection  shows 
that  no  regard  was  had  to  date  in  the  arrangement  of  the  parts. 

Objkction  -3. — The  authors  of  the  Talmud  and  the  modern 
Jews  regard  the  bonk  of  Daniel  with  contenijjt. 

Aysw>.n. — 'J"he  'I'almudists  have  been  misapprehended,  and 
the  prejudice  of  the  modern  Jews  has  naturally  sprung  from  their 
hatred  to  the  Gospel,  and  whatever  tends  to  prove  its  authen- 
ticity. 

Ohjectiow  4. — A  fourth  objection  is  founded  on  the  words  of 
the  book  itself.  "  In  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  I,  Daniel,  under- 
stood by  HOOKS  the  nuiiilicr  of  the  years  whereof  the  word  of  the 
Lord  came  to  Jeremiah  the  pro]ihet,  that  he  would  acconijiiish 
seventy  years  in  the  desolations  of  Jerusalem."  (Dan.  ix.  2.) 
The  Hebrew  word  translated  /looA-.f  has  the  article  prefixed.  This 
Bleck  considers  as  synonymous  with  bihlia  or  the  Scriptures, 
and  a  decisive  proof  that  tlie  Old  Testament  canon  was  already 
closed,  and  in  the  hands  of  the  writer  of  this  book. 

AxswKii. — First,  We  have  no  proof  of  these  books  contain- 
ing any  other  matter  than  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah.  Secondly, 
The  technical  term  in  use  among  the  later  Jews  to  designate  the 
canon  was  not  "  the  books,"  but  "  the  writings."  Thirdly,  The 
supposititious  forger  of  the  book  of  Daniel  never  would  have 
hinted  at  the  canon's  being  closed,  when  his  very  object  was  to 
have  his  book  included  in  it.  Fourthly,  Before  the  adjustment 
of  the  canon,  there  were  private  collections  of  the  sacred  books, 
as  appears  not  only  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  but  from  the 
fact,  that  Jeremiah  quotes  and  imitates  Moses,  Isaiah,  Obadiah, 
and  Micah,  a  circumstance  admitted  both  by  Eichhorn  and  De 
Wette.  These  reasons  are,  we  think,  sullicient,  without  appeal- 
ing, as  Pareau  does,  to  the  Jewish  tradition,  that  the  sacred  books 
were  secured  by  Jeremiah  before  the  burning  of  the  temple,  and 
entrusted  to  the  care  of  Daniel. 

OiLiKCTiox  5. — The  lavish  expenditure  of  signs  and  wonders, 
without  any  apparent  object,  is  unworthy  of  the  Deity. 

Answkr. — It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  one  of  those  who  urge 
this  difliculty  has  supplied  an  answer.  This  is  Griesinger,  who 
innocently  observes,  that  no  better  reason  seems  assignable  for  all 
these  miracles  than  a  disposition  to  exalt  Jehovah  above  other 
Gods  !  Can  a  better  be  desired?  It  is  true,  the  adversaries  still 
object,  cui  bono  ?  We  need  only  condense  Dr.  Hengstenberg's 
three  replies  into  as  many  sentences.  1.  That  the  faith  and 
hope  of  the  exiles  might  be  maintained.  2.  That  a  way  might  be 
opened  for  their  restoration.  3.  That  the  heathen  might  be  awed 
into  forbearance  and  respect  towards  God's  peculiar  people. 

OBJECTioif  6. — The  book  of  Daniel  contains  historical  inac- 
curacies. 

(1.)  The  grossest  of  these  is  said  to  be  the  statement  in  the 
first  two  verses  in  the  eighth  chapter.  Bertholdt's  objections  are 
— that  Elam  is  mentioned  as  a  province  of  the  Babylonish  em- 
pire, in  which  Daniel  acted  as  a  royal  otHcer  (v.  27.),  whereas 
it  Wiis  a  province  of  the  Median  emi)ire,  as  appears  from  Isaiah 
xxi.  2.  and  Jeremiah  xxv.  5.  2.  That  a  palace  is  spoken  of  at 
Shushan,  whereas  the  palace  there  was  built  by  Darius  Hys- 
taspcs,  as  appears  from  Pliny.'  3.  That  the  name  Shushan  itself 
(which  signifies  a  lily)  was  not  given  until  lo<ig  after  Darius, 
and  was  intended  to  express  the  beauty  of  the  edifices  which  that 
prince  erected. 

Answer. — First,  The  subjection  of  Elam  by  the  Chaldces  is 
predicted  by  Jeremiah  (xlix,  34.),  and  the  fulfilment  of  the  pro- 
phecy recorded  by  Ezekiel.  (xxxii.  21.)  The  prediction  quoted 
by  Bertholdt  (Jer.  xxv.  5.)  represents  Elam,  not  as  a  province 
of  Media,  but  as  an  independent  monarchy,  and  intimates  its 
overthrow.  This  prophecy  was  uttered  in  the  first  year  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's reign,  that  of  Daniel  in  the  third  of  Belshazzai's. 
But  even  admitting  the  assertion  of  the  adversary,  there  is  no 
departure  from  the  truth  of  history.  Daniel  was  at  Shushan 
only  "  in  a  vision,"  as  appears  from  a  strict  translation  of  the 
passage.  The  scene  of  his  vision,  so  to  speak,  was  there,  because 
Shushan  was  to  be  the  capital  of  the  empire  whose  fortunes  he 
foresaw.  Secondly,  Pliny's  statement  as  to  the  building  of  the 
palace,  and  indeed  the  whole  city,  by  Darius  Hystaspes,  is  con- 
'  Hist.  Nat.  vi.  26. 
^  OL.  II.  2  N 


tradicted  by  all  Greek  and  Oriental  writers,  who  represent  it  as 
extremely  ancient.  '^'/iZ/v//;/,  Athenjeus  and  others  state  that  the 
city  was  called  Shushan,  from  the  multitude  of  lilies  growing  in 
that  region,  a  fact  reconciialile  with  any  date  whatever. 

(2.)  Another  passage  which  has  been  objected  to,  is  what  De 
Wette  calls  the  laughable  description  (in  ch.  vi.)  of  a  lion's  den 
like  a  cistern,  with  a  stone  to  close  the  orifice. 

A.vswKK. — We  know  nothing  about  the  lions'  dens  in  that 
part  of  the  world  ;  but  wc  know,  that  in  Fez  and  Morocco  they 
are  subterraneous,  and  that  criminals  are  often  thrown  into  them. 
Who  knows  how  large  the  stone  was  in  the  case  before  us  1 

(3.)  A  third  objection  of  the  same  kind  is,  that  Belshazzar  is 
represented  (Dan.  v.  11.  13.  18.  22.)  as  the  son  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, whereas,  according  to  profane  historians,  he  was  his 
fourth  successor. 

A.NswEH. — No  fact  is  more  familiar,  than  that  father  denotes 
an  ancestor,  son,  a  descendant. 

(4.)  The  other  historical  objections  which  Dr.  Hengstenberg 
notices,  are,  that  Cyaxares  II.  is  by  Daniel  called  Darius — and 
that  in  the  first  verse  of  the  first  cliai)ter,  Jerusalem  is  said  to 
have  been  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  the  third  year  of  Jehoia- 
kim,  while  it  appears  from  Jer.  xlvi.  1.  that  the  battle  of  Carche- 
mish,  which  must  have  preceded  that  event,  occurred  in  the 
fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim,  and  from  Jer.  xxv.  1.  that  this  same 
fourth  year  was  the  first  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Dr.  Hengsten- 
berg's solution  of  these  difficulties  carries  him  so  far  into  minu- 
tiffi  that  wc  can  neither  follow  copy  nor  abridge  his  argument. 
Suffice  it  to  say,  that  it  is  wholly  satisfactory,  and  exhibits  in  a 
strong  ligiit  his  critical  sagacity,  his  learning,  and  his  judgment. 

Objection'  7. — The  book  of  Daniel  contains  various  incon- 
sistencies and  contradictions. 

A.vswEii — These  alleged  inconsistencies  and  contradictions 
are  merely  apparent,  not  real.  The  last  verse  of  the  first  chap- 
ter, for  instance,  has  been  represented  as  at  variance  with  the  first 
verse  of  the  tenth,  as  though  the  former  intimated  that  he  lived 
no  longer !  A  similar  objection  has  been  founded  on  Belshaz- 
zar's  not  knowing  Daniel  (v.  14.),  who  had  been  exalted  to  such 
honour  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (ii.  48,  49.)  ;  a  circumstance  ex- 
plained by  the  very  characters  of  the  prophet  and  the  king,  which 
were  too  opposite  to  admit  of  intimacy.  Daniel  would  naturally 
stand  aloof  from  so  debauched  a  court. 

Again,  the  indefatigable  adversary  asks,  how  could  Nebuchad- 
nezzar be  ignorant  (iii.  14.)  whether  the  Hebrews  served  his 
God,  when  he  had  himself  (ii.  47.)  acknowledged  theirs  to  be  a 
God  of  gods  and  Lord  of  lords  ?  This  inconsistency,  as  Dr. 
Hengstenberg  observes,  is  chargeable  not  upon  the  sacred  writer, 
but  upon  the  heathen  king.  His  former  acknowledgment  re- 
sulted not  from  a  change  of  heart,  but  from  astonishment  and 
terror — a  distinction  which  the  psychology  of  rationalists  knows 
nothing  of.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  objection  started  to  the 
diverse  exhibitions  of  this  same  king's  character  in  the  first  three 
chapters  and  the  fourth. 

()bject!ox  8. — Opinions  and  usages  are  mentioned  in  this 
book,  which  are  clearly  modern,  that  is,  of  later  date  than  that 
claimed  for  the  book  itself. 

(1.)  Dan.  vi.  11.  "  Now  when  Daniel  knew  that  the  writing 
was  signed,  he  went  into  his  house  ;  and,  his  windows  being 
open  in  his  chamber  to~.vards  Jerusalem,  he  kneeled  upon  his 
knees  three  times  a  day.  and  prayed,  and  gave  thanks  to  his  God 
as  he  did  aforetime."  Here  it  is  objected  that  these  are  allusions 
to  three  modern  customs, — that  of  praying  thrice  towards  Jeru- 
salem— that  of  praying  thrice  a  day — and  that  of  having  a  chaim- 
ber  appropriated  to  prayer. 

AxswEn. — There  are  no  such  allusions  to  modern  customs. 

That  the  custom  of  /iniyiuff  toivnrds  Jerusalem  was  an  an« 
cient  practice,  is  susceptible  of  proof  from  Scripture.  The  law 
of  Moses  required  all  sacrifices  to' be  olfercd  at  the  place  which 
the  Lord  should  choose  "  to  put  his  name  there."  (Deut.  xii.  5, 
ti.)  Prayer  would  of  course  accompany  oblation.  "  Theirbumt- 
otlerings,"  says  the  Lord  by  the  mouth  of  Isaiah,  "  and  their 
sacrifices,  shall  he  accepted  upon  my  altar  ;  for  mine  house  shall 
be  called  a  house  of  prayer  for  all  people."  (Isa.  Ivi.  7.)  "  In 
thy  fear,"  says  David,  "  will  I  worship  toward  thy  hnly  temple." 
(Psal.  v.  7.  cxxxviii.  2.)  "  I  lift  up  my  hands  toward  thy  holy  ora- 
cle."  (xxviii.  2.)  Now,  if  in  the  temple  prayer  was  offered  toward 
the  oracle  or  sanctuary,  and  in  the  city  toward  the  temple,  surely 
those  who  were  out  of  the  city,  whether  far  or  near,  would  be 
likely  to  offer  theirs  toward  Jerusalem  itself.  "  If  thy  people," 
says  Solomon  in  his  dedicatory  prayer,  '-go  out  to  battle  against 
their  enemy,  whithersoever  thou  shuit  send  them,  and  shall  pray 
unto  tlie  Lord  toward  tlie  city  which  thou  hast  chosen,  and 


282 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Pabt  V.  Chap.  IV 


toward  the  house  that  I  have  built  for  thy  name,  then  hear  thou 
in  heaven,"  &c.  (1  Kings  viii.  44.)  Nor  would  the  practice 
cease,  because  the  temple  was  destroyed.  Its  very  site  was  re- 
garded by  the  Jews  as  holy.  "  Remember  this  mount  Sion, 
wherein  thou  ha.st  dwelt.  They  have  set  thy  sanctuary  on 
fire,"  «fec.  (Psal.  Ixxiv.  2.  7.) 

With  regard  to  the  custom  of  praying  thrice  a  flay,  it  is  so 
natural,  that  we  find  it  among  those  with  whom  the  Jews  could 
have  had  no  intercourse,  the  Brahmins  for  example.  And  what 
says  David  1  "  Evening  and  morning  and  at  noon  will  I  pray  and 
cry  aloud."   (Psal.  Iv.  17.)    - 

The  third  particular — that  of  having  a  chamber  appropriated 
to  prayer — rests  upon  mere  assumption.  There  is  nothing  said 
about  a  chamber  used  exclusively  for  devotional  purposes ;  and 
if  there  was,  there  can  be  no  ground  for  the  assertion,  that  this 
was  an  invention  of  the  later  Jewish  formalists.  Our  Lord  com- 
mands his  disciples  to  go  into  their  closets,  and  not  to  pray  in 
public,  like  the  Pharisees.  (Matt,  vi.)  On  the  other  hand,  David 
"  went  u))  to  the  chamber  over  the  gate,"  if  not  to  pray,  at  least 
to  vent  his  grief  (2  Sam.  xviii.  33.),  and  Elijah  went  "  into  a 
loft,"  and  "  cried  unto  the  Lord."  (1  Kings  xvii.  20.)  Was  this 
a  modern  pharisaical  invention,  as  alKrmed  by  Bertholdt  ] 

(2.)  'i'he  advice  of  Daniel  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  (iv.  27.)  is  re- 
j)rcseiited  by  Bertholdt  as  ascribing  an  efiicacy  to  alms-giving, 
which  was  never  dreamed  of  in  the  days  of  old.  He  translates 
the  verse — "  Buy  off"  (compensate  or  atone  for)  thy  sins  by  gifts, 
and  thy  guilt  by  doing  good  to  the  poor."  Dr.  Hengstenberg 
shows  clearly  that  the  true  sense  is  that  which  our  own  transla- 
tion gives — "Break  off  thy  sins  by  righteousness,  and  thine 
iniquities  by  showing  mercy  to  the  poor."  The  adversary  has 
the  credit,  therefore,  not  of  the  objection  only,  but  of  the  fault 
objected  to  ! 

(3.)  A  similar  objection  has  been  raised  by  Gramberg,  in 
relation  to  the  doctrine  of  meritorious  fasting,  as  implied  in  ch. 
i\.  That  religious  fasting  was  a  most  ancient  usage  of  the 
Jews,  any  compendium  of  biblical  antiquities  will  show.  That 
the  popish  notion  of  merit  should  be  found  in  a  passage  where 
.such  words  as  these  occur — "  We  do  not  present  our  supplica- 
tions before  thee  for  our  righteousness,  but  for  thy  great  mercies" 
(Dan.  ix.  18.) — argues  something  rather  worse  than  inadvert- 
ence in  the  caviller  who  finds  it  there.' 

IV.  In  the  Vulgate  Latin  edition  of  the  Bible,  as  well  as 
in  Theodotion's  Greek  version,  which  was  adopted  by  all  the 
Greek  churches  in  the  East  in  lieu  of  the  incorrect  Septuagint 
translation  above  alluded  to,  there  is  added,  in  the  third 
chapter  of  Daniel,  between  the  twenty-third  and  twenty- 
fourth  verses,  the  song  of  the  three  children,  Hananiah, 
Mishael,  and  Azariah,  who  were  cast  into  the  fiery  furnace. 
The  version  of  Theodolion  also  introduces,  at  the  beginning 
of  this  book,  the  history  of  Susanna,  and,  at  the  etid,  the 
stories  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon ;  and  this  arrangement  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  modern  version  in  use  in  the  Greek  church. 
But,  in  the  Latin  Vulgate,  both  these  apocryphal  pieces  were 
separated  by  Jerome  from  the  canonical  book,  and  were  dis- 
missed to  Its  close,  witii  "an  express  notice  that  they  were 
NOT  found  by  him  in  the  Hebrew,  but  were  translated  from 
Theodotion.  In  a  later  age,  however,  they  were  improperly 
made  a  continuation  of  Daniel,  being  numbered  chapters  xiii. 
and  xiv. ;  an  arrangement  which  has  been  followed  in  all  the 
modern  versions  from  the  Vulgate  in  use  among  the  members 
of  the  Romish  church,  and  sometimes  (particularly  in  the 
Dublin  edition  of  the  Anglo-Romish  version  of  the  Bible 
printed  in  1825)  with  the  unjustifiable  omission  of  the  cau- 
tionary notice  of  Jerome.  The  narratives  of  Susanna  and  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon  do  not  exist  in  the  genuine  Septuagint 
version  of  Daniel,  recovered  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century ;  nor  were  these  apocryphal  additions  ever  received 
into  the  canon  of  Holy  Writ  by  the  Jewish  church.  They 
are  not  extant  in  the  Hebrew  or  Chaldee  languages,  nor  is 
tliere  any  evidence  tiiat  they  ever  were  so  extant.  The 
occurrence  of  Hebraisms  in  them  proves  nothing  more  than 
that  thfiy  were  written  by  a  Hebrew  in  the  Greek  tongue, 
into  which  he  transferred  the  idioms  of  his  own  language; 
and  that  they  were  thus  originally  written  in  Greek  by  some 

'  The  abovfi  are  the /innc/pa/ objections  of  modern  neologians,  with  the 
very  satisfactory  refutations  of  Qr.  Hen2:stenberg  ;  who  has  further  inves- 
tisaleJ  Various  anachronisms,  improbabilities,  and  incongruities  alleged  to 
exi.it  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  at  greater  length  than  the  limits  of  this  work 
will  admit  of  being  stated  even  in  the  most  condensed  form.  The  reader 
ii  therefore  necessarily  referred  to  the  English  translation  (forming  part 
of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet),  of  his  "Critical  Inquiry  into  the  Au- 
thenticity and  Integrity  of  the  Books  of  Daniel  and  Zechariah,"  which 
\va<;  announced  for  publication  while  tllis  sheet  was  passing  through  the 
press. 


Hellenistic  Jew,  without  having  any  higher  source  whence 
they  could  be  derived,  is  evident  from  this  circumstance,  that, 
in  the  history  of  Susanna,  Daniel,  in  his  replies  to  the  elders, 
alludes  to  the  Greek  names  of  the  trees,  under  which,  they 
said,  the  adultery  charged  upon  Susanna  was  committed, 
which  allusions  cannot  hold  good  in  any  other  language.^ 
The  church  of  Rome,  however,  allows  these  spurious  addi- 
tions to  be  of  the  same  authority  with  the  rest  of  the  book 
of  Daniel ;  and,  by  a  decree  of  the  fourth  session  of  the 
council  of  Trent,  has  given  them  an  equal  place  in  the 
canonical  Scriptures.  But  they  were  never  recognised  as 
part  of  the  sacred  volume  by  the  ancient  fathers  of  the 
Christian  church.  Julius  Africanus,  Ensebius,  and  ApoUi- 
narius  rejected  these  pieces,  not  only  as  being  uncanonical, 
but  also  as  fabulous ;  and  Jerome,  who  has  been  followed  by 
Erasmus  and  other  modern  writers,  has  given  the  history  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon  no  better  title  than  that  of  "  The  Fable 
of  Btl  and  the  Dragon,''''  And  others,  who  have  admitted 
them  for  instruction  of  manners,  have  nevertheless  rejected 
them  from  the  canonical  Scriptures;  in  whicli  conduct  they 
have  been  followed  by  the  Protestant  churches,  who  exclude 
them  from  the  canonical,  and  class  them  among  tlie  apocry- 
phal writings.^ 


§  5.    ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  OBADIAH. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  588 583. 

I.  The  time  when  this  prophet  flourished  is  wholly  uncer- 
tain. Jerome,  with  the  Jews,  is  of  opinion  that  he  was  the 
same  person  who  was  governor  of  Ahab's  house,  and  who 
hid  and  fed  one  hundrea  prophets  whom  Jezebel  would  have 
destroyed.  Some  other  critics  think  that  he  was  the  Obadiah 
whom  Josiah  constituted  overseer  of  the  works  of  tiie  temple, 
mentioned  in  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12.  Dupin  refers  him  to  the 
time  of  Ahaz,  in  whose  reign  the  Edomites,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Israelites,  made  war  against  the  tribe  of  Judah ; 
because  his  prophecy  is  almost  wholly  directed  against  the 
Edomites  or  Idumseans.  Grotius,  Huet,  Dr.  Lightfoot,  and 
other  commentators,  however,  make  him  to  be  contemporary 
with  Hose^,  Joel,  and  Amos,  agreeably  to  the  rule  of  the 
Jewish  writers,  viz.  that,  where  the  time  of  the  prophet  is 
not  expressed,  his  predictions  are  to  be  placed  in  the  same 
chronological  order  as  the  prophecy  immediately  preceding. 
Archbishop  Newcome,  with  great  probability,  supposes  that 
Obadiah  prophesied  between  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  (which 
happened  in  the  year  587  before  Christ)  and  the  destruction 
of  Idumaea  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  which  took  place  a  very  few 
years  after;  consequently  he  was  partly  contemporary  with 
Jeremiah.  As  the  latter  has  many  expressions  similar  to 
others  in  Obadiah,  it  is  a  question  which  of  the  two  has  bor- 
rowed from  the  other.  Opinions  vary  on  this  subject,  and 
there  is  not  much  preponderance  of  evidence  on  either  side ; 
except  that,  as  Jeremiah  has  used  the  works  of  other  prophets 
in  his  predictions  against  foreign  nations,  this  fact  renders  it 
more  probable  that  he  had  read  Obadiah  than  the  reverse. 
The  following  table  of  the  parallel  passages  will  enable  the 
reader  to  form  his  own  judgment: — 

Obadiah,  verse  1.  compared  with  Jeremiah  xlix.  14. 
2.         -  -  -       '  -         15. 

3, 4.    -  -  -  -         16. 

5.  -  -  -  -  9. 

6.  -  -  -  -         10. 
8.         -            .           -  .  T.-s 

The  writings  of  Obadiah,  which  consist  of  only  one  chap- 
ter, are  composed  with  much  beauty,  and  unfold  a  very 
interesting  scene  of  prophecy. 

^  In  tl;e  examination  of  the  elders,  when  one  of  them  said  he  saw  the 
crime  committed,  uto  crxrvor,  under  a  mastich  tree,  Daniel  is  represented 
as  answering,  in  allusion  to  c-x""^,  "  The  angel  of  God  hath  received  sen- 
tence of  God,  iXiiiAl  (re  larrav,  to  cut  thee  in  two."  And  when  the  other 
elder  said  that  it  was  utto  tt fivov,  under  a  holm  tree,  Daniel  is  made  to  an- 
swer, in  allusion  to  the  word  vftvov,  "The  angel  of  the  Lord  waiteth  with 
the  sword,  llPliAi  en  ftta-ov,  to  cut  thee  in  two."    Jerome,  ut  supra.    ' 

'  Dr.  Prideaux's  Connection,  part  i.  book  iii.  sub  anno  534.  vol.  i.  pp.  164, 
165.  edit.  1720.  Cahnet's  Dictionary,  voce  Daniel,  and  his  Preface  sur 
Daniel,  Comm.  Litl.  torn.  vi.  pp.  609—612.  The  fullest  vindication  of  the 
genuineness  and  ranonical  authority  of  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  is  to  be 
found  in  Bishop  Chandler's  "Vindication  of  the  Defence  of  Christianity, 
from  the  Prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament,"  in  Dr.  .Samuel  Chandler's 
"Vindication  of  the  Antiquity  and  Authority  of  Daniel's  Prophecies,-'  both 
published  at  London  in  172S,  in  8vo. ;  and  in  Dr.  Hengstenberg's  treatise 
already  referred  to  in  the  course  of  this  section. 

«  Professor  Turner's  Translation  of  Jahn,  p.  369.  note. 


Sect.  III.  §  6.] 

II.  The  prophecy  of  Obadiah  consists  of  two  parts ;  viz. 

Part  I.  is  minatori/,  and  denounces  the  destrurthni  af  Ednm  firr 
their  Pride  and  carnal  Neciiriti/  (I — 9.),  and  fur  their  cruel 
Jn.sults  and  Enmity  to  the  Jews,  aflir  the  Capture  of  their 
Cili/.  (1() — 1(J.) 

This  prediction,  according  to  Archbishop  Usher,  was  fulfilled, 
about  five  jcars  after  the  dcstriiction  of  Jerusalem,  by  the 
Babylonians  subduing  and  expelling  them  from  Arabia  Petraa, 
of  which  they  never  allerwards  recovered  possession. 

Part  II.  is  consolniory,  and  firetells  the  liexloralion  of  tlic 
Jews  (17.),  their  Victor  i)  wer  their  F.nrniics,  and  their  Jim- 
ri.shiiig  Slate  ill  consei/uence.  (IH — 21.) 

Archbishop  Newcome  considerH  this  prophecy  as  fulfilled  by  the 
conquest  of  tlie  Maccabees  over  the  Eilouiites.  (^S(•e  1  Mace.  v. 
3 — .').  (5.5,  &c.)  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  was  in  part  accom- 
plished by  the  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity;  and  by 
the  victories  of  the  Maccab.-ean  princes  ;  but  the  prediction  in 
the  last  verse  will  not  receive  its  complete  fulfdment  until  that 
time  when  "the  kingdoms  of  the  world  are  become  the  king- 
doms of  our  Lord  and  of  his  Christ.  (Rev.  xi.  15.) 

§  6.    ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  Canonical  avthoritii  of  the  prophecies 
of  Ezehiel.  —  III.  Their  scope.  —  IV.  Analysis  of  them. — 
V.    Observations  on  the  style  of  Kzekiel. 

BEFORE   CHRIST,   595 536. 

I.  EzEKiEL,  whose  name  imports  the  slremrth  of  God.,  was 
the  son  of  Buzi,  of  the  sacerdotal  race,  and  one  of  the  captives 
carried  hy  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Babylon,  with  Jchoiachin  king 
of  Judah ;  it  does  not  appear  that  he  had  prophesied  before 
he  came  into  Mesopotamia.  The  principal  scene  of  his  pre- 
dictions was  some  place  on  the  river  Chebar,  whicii  Hows 
into  the  Euphrates  about  two  hundred  miles  to  the  north  of 
Babylon,  where  the  prophet  resided ;  though  he  was,  occa- 
sionally, conveyed  in  vision  to  .Jerusalem.  He  commenced 
his  prophetic  ministry  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  his  age,  accord- 
ing to  general  accounts ;  or  rather,  as  Calmet  thinks,  in  the 
thirtieth  year  after  the  covenant  was  renewed  with  God  in 
the  reign  of  .losiah,  which  answers  to  the  fifth  year  of  Eze- 
kiel's  and  Jehoiachin's  captivity  (Ezek.  i.  1,  xl.  I.),  the  aera 
whence  he  dates  his  predictions ;  and  it  appears  from  xxix. 
17.  that  he  continued  to  prophesy  about  twenty-one  years 
and  three  quarters.  The  events  of  his  life,  after  his  call  to 
the  prophetic  office,  are  interwoven  with  the  detail  which  he 
has  himself  given  of  his  predictions;  but  the  manner  of  its 
termination  is  nowhere  ascertained.  The  pseudo-Epiphanius, 
in  his  lives  of  the  prophets,  says  that  he  was  put  to  death  by 
the  prince  or  commander  of  the  Jews  in  the  place  of  his  exile, 
because  this  prince  was  addicted  to  idolatry,  and  could  not 
bear  the  reproaches  of  the  prophet.  No  reliance,  however, 
can  be  placed  on  this  account,  which  is  intermixed  with 
many  fames.  Jerome  is  of  opinion,  that,  as  Ezekiel  was  in 
part  contemporary  with  Jeremiah,  who  prophesied  in  Judaea 
while  Ezekiel  delivered  his  predictions  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
their  prophecies  were  interchanged  for  the  consolation  and 
encouragement  of  the  captive  Jews.  There  is,  indeed,  a 
striking  agreement  between  the  subject-matter  and  their  re- 
spective prophecies;  but  Ezekiel  is  more  vehement  than 
Jeremiah  in  reproving  the  sins  of  his  countrymen,  and 
abounds  more  in  visions,  which  render  some  passages  of  his 
book  exceedingly  difficult  to  be  understood.  On  this  account 
no  Jew  was,  anciently,  permitted  to  read  the  writings  of  this 
prophet,  until  he  had  completed  his  thirtieth  year.' 

II.  Until  of  late  years  the  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  have 
always  been  acknowledged  to  be  canonical,  nor  was  it  ever 
disputed  that  he  was  their  author.  The  Jews,  indeed,  say 
that  the  sanhedrin  deliberated  for  a  long  time  whether  his 
book  should  form  a  part  of  the  sacred  canon.  They  objected 
to  the  great  obscurity  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  his  pro- 
phecy; and  to  what  he  says  in  ch.  xviii.  20.  that  the  son 
should  not  bear  the  iniquity  of  his  father,  which  they  ur^ed 
was  contrary  to  Moses,  who  says  (Exod.  xx.  5.),  that  God 
visits  the  "  sins  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children  unto  the 
third  and  fourth  generation.''''  But  it  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  Moses  himself  (Deut.  xxiv.  16.)  says  the  very  same 
thing  as  Ezekiel. ^ 

The  genuineness  of  certain  chapters  of  this  prophet  has 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL. 


283 


•  Hieronymi  Prooem.  in  lib.  i. 

•  Calmet,  Preface  sur  EzekieL 


Coram,  in  Ezech. 
Comment.  Lilt  torn.  vi.  pp.  353,  351. 


been  impugned  by  some  writers  both  on  the  Continent  and 
in  our  own  country. 

i.  On  the  Continent  it  has  been  denied  that  the  last  nine 
chapters  are  to  be  attributed  to  Ezekiel;  but  the  arguments 
adduced  in  behalf  of  this  hypothesis  are  by  no  means  suffi- 
cient to  sustain  it:  for 

1.  The  alleged  obscurity  of  these  chapters  is  "certainly 
not  at  variance  with  the  opinion  that  they  were  written  by 
Ezekiel,  for  many  other  parts  of  his  work  wre  less  perspicu- 
ous, not  to  say,  that  descriptions  of  this  kind,  particularly 
of  buildings,  can  scarcely  be  made  very  intelligible  wiiliout 
the  aid  of  drawings. 

2.  "These  chapters  are  supposed  to  contain  commands 
which  were  disregarded  by  the  Hebrews  after  thiur  returir, 
and,  therefore,  it  is  inferred  that  they  <iid  not  then  exi.«t,  or 
at  least  were  not  ascribed  to  Ezekiel,  But  this  supposition 
is  unfounded ;  for  those  chapters  do  not  contain  commands, 
hut  an  cnd)lematic  or  figurative  representation  intended  to 
confirm  the  certainty  of  the  return,  and  the  re-establishment 
of  divine  worship. 

3.  "  It  is  further  objected,  that  the  prophet  could  not  pos- 
sibly retain  in  memory  the  numbers  of  so  many  measure- 
ments as  were  perceived  by  him  in  his  vision.  But  this  is 
of  little  weight;  for  as  the  impressions  of  the  visions  were 
the  more  vehement  on  account  of  the  outward  sr^nses  being 
at  rest,  there  would  be  the  less  difficulty  in  retaining  therri 
in  the  memory.  Besides,  there  are  persons  who  commit 
numbers  to  memory  with  great  facility,  and  if  the  obj* dors 
to  these  prophecies  allow  that  visions  constitute  merely  the 
dress  ancl  form  in  which  the  prophets  announce  their  predic- 
tions, there  would  have  been  no  need  of  memory  in  the  case. 

4.  "  Josephus''  attributes  to  Ezekiel  two  books  concern- 
ing the  Babylonish  captivity  :  but  as  by  the  second  book  of 
Ezekiel  he  means  the  last  nine  chapters,  how  is  it  possible 
thence  to  infer  that  Ezekiel  is  not  their  ..uthor  1  There  is  no 
necessity,  therefore,  to  apply  the  language  to  Jeremiah  (aa 
Eichhorn  did),  which  cannot  be  done  without  violence  to  the 
series  of  the  discourse." 

Altogether  worthless  is  the  conjecture  "that  some  He- 
brew, who  returned  later  than  the  great  body  of  his  brethren, 
made  up  these  chapters,  in  order  to  eft'ect  a  new  distribution 
of  the  country,  hy  which  he  might  acquire  a  portion  for  him- 
self: for  no  sucn  impostor  would  have  written  so  largely 
and  in  such  a  manner  of  the  temple  and  of  the  division  of  the 
country  among  the  tribes,  and  at  the  same  time  forget  en- 
tirely the  distribution  among  individuah. 

"  Nothing,  therefore,  can  be  established  in  opposition  to 
the  genuineness  of  these  prophecies ;  and  it  is  confirmed  by 
their  contents.  The  visions,  the  manner  of  conveying  reprnif, 
the  multitude  of  circumstantial  particulars,  the  character  (f  t he 
language  and  style,  in  all  which  respects  Ezekiel  is  remark- 
ably distinguished  from  other  writers,  prove  that  he  must 
have  been  tlie  author  of  these  chapters.  No  imitation  could 
possibly  have  been  so  successful."^ 

ii.  In  England,  an  anonymous  writer^  has  denied  that 
"the  prophecies  in  chapters  xxv. — xxxii.  xxxv.  xxxvi. 
xxxviii.  and  xxxix.  are  Ezekiel's.  His  reasons  are  so  ex- 
ceedingly trifling,  that  they  are  not  worthy  of  refutation. 
Nor  indeed  is  this  necessary,  for  these  verj'  parts  of  the 
book  contain  evidence  that  they  are  the  work  of  this  prophet; 
very  many  particulars  which  Ezekiel  is  accustomed  to  in- 
troduce elsewhere  are  found  in  these  prophecies ;  as,  for 
instance,  the  designation  of  the  year,  the  month  and  the  day,  on 
which  a  revelation  was  communicated  ;  the  remarkable 
phraseology  son  of  man  corresponding  with  the  usage  in  the 
Aramaean  dialect;  the  forms,  set  thy  face  toicards  or  agaimt — 
prophesy  against — hear  the  icord  of  Jehovah — thus  saitk  the 
Lord  Jehovah — the  word  of  Jehovah  came  to  me — they  shall 
know  that  I  am  Jehovah — take  up  a  lamentation  for.  In  these 
chapters,  as  in  ch.  i. — xxiv.,  the  terms  •\>n  and  N'CJ  are  fre- 
quently applied  to  kings,  the  same  devices  for  conducting 
sieges  pn,  a  circumvalTation,  and  nSSo,  a  mound,  are  men- 
tioned, compare  ch.  xxvi.  8.  with  iv.  2.  xvii.  17.  xxi.  27. 
(22.),  and,  in  fine,  the  same  particularity  and  niultitude  of 
circumstances  occur.  Indeed  xxviii.  14.  contains  a  refer- 
ence to  the  vision  mentioned  in  i.  13.  x.  2.  If  the  mention 
ing  the  regions  of  the  departed  more  frequently  than  is  usual 
(see  xxvi.  20.  xxxi.  14 — 17.  xxxii.  18—32.)  would  seem  to 
indicate  a  foreign  origin,  it  must  be  considered  that  the  sub- 
ject required  it,  and  it  can  never  be  alleged  with  any  weight 


»  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  x.  c.  5.  S  1. 

*  Prof  Turner's  Translation  of  Jahn,  P- 403. 

•  Monthly  Magazine,  March,  1798,  p.  189. 


284 

as  a  proof  that  these  portions  of  Ezekiel's  prophecies  differ 
in  character  from  the  remainder."' 

Josephus  ascribes  to  this  prophet  two  books  concerning 
the  Babylonian  captivity  ;2  and  says,  that,  having  foretold 
in  Babylon  the  calamities  which  were  coming  npon  the 
people,  he  sent  accounts  of  them  to  Jerusalem.'*  But  these 
circumstances  are  not  recorded  in  the  predictions  now  extant; 
nor  have  we  any  means  of  ascertaining  what  foundation 
Josephus  had  for  his  assertion.  Most  commentators  are  of 
opinion  that  the  Jewish  historian  divided  the  prophecy  we 
now  have  into  two  books,  and  tiiat  he  took  that  part  of  the 
prophecy,  whicli  contains  a  description  of  the  temple  (xli. — 
xlviii.)  for  a  distinct  book,  because  it  treats  on  a  subject 
wholly  different  from  the  topics  discussed  in  the  former  part 
of  his  writings. 

III.  The  chief  design  of  Ezekiel's  prophecies  is,  to  com- 
fort his  brethren  in  captivity,  who  deplored  their  having  too 
lightly  credited  the  promises  of  Jeremiah,  who  had  exhorted 
them  speedily  to  submit  to  the  Chaldecs,  on  account  of  the 
approaching  ruin  of  Jerusalem.  As  these  captives  saw  no 
appearance  of  llie  fuUilment  of  Jeremiah's  predictions,  God 
raised  up  Ezekiil  to  confirm  them  in  the  faith,  and  to  sup- 
port by  new  propiiecies  those  which  Jeremiah  had  long 
before  published,  and  even  then  continued  to  announce  in 
Judaea.  In  pursuance  of  this  design,  Ezekiel  predicts  the 
dreadful  calamities  which  soon  after  were  inflicted  upon 
Judaea  and  Jerusalem,  on  account  of  the  idolatry,  impiety, 
and  profligacy  of  their  inhabitants ;  the  divine  judgments 
that  would  be  executed  on  the  false  prophets  and  prophet- 
esses, who  deluded  and  hardened  the  Jews  in  their  rebellion 
against  God ;  the  punishments  that  awaited  the  Ammonites, 
Kdomites,  and  Philistines,  for  their  hatred  of  the  Jews,  and 
insulting  them  in  their  distress  ;  the  destruction  of  Tyre ; 
the  conquest  of  Egypt;  the  future  restoration  of  Israel  and 
Judah  from  their  several  dispersions;  and  their  ultimately 
happy  state  after  the  advent  and  under  the  government  of 
the  Messiah. 

IV.  The  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  form,  in  our  Bibles,  forty- 
eight  chapters ;  and,  as  he  is  extremely  punctual  in  dating 
them,  we  have  little  or  no  difficulty  in  arranging  them  in 
chronological  order.''  They  may  be  divided  into  ibur  parts ; 
viz. 

Part  I.  EzekiePs  Call  to  the  Prophetic  Office  (i.  1.  to  the  first 
part  of  verse  28.),  his  Commission,  Instructions,  and  En- 
couragements for  executing  it.  (i.  28.  latter  clause,  ii.  iii. 
1—21.) 
Part  II.  Denunciations  against  the  Jewish  Feople,  (iii.  22 — 
27.  iv. — xxiv.) 

Sect.  1.  Under  the  emblem  of  a  siege  delineated  upon  a  tile 
is  represented  the  manner  in  which  the  Chaldocan  army 
would  surround  Jerusalem  during  the  reign  of  Zedekiah. 
(iii.  22 — 27.  iv.  1 — 3.)'  The  inhabitants  there  encouraged 
the  captives  in  Chaldasa  to  hope  for  a  return ;  and  such  a 
hope  they  actually  cherished,  so  long  as  Jerusalem  was  safe  : 
but  this  vision  was  designed  to  overthrow  their  confidence. 
From  the  specimens  preserved  in  cabinets,  it  is  well  known 
that  the  tiles  or  bricks,  anciently  used  in  oriental  buildings, 
were  of  considerable  size,  with  one  of  the  surfaces  well  po- 
lished, so  as  to  be  capable  of  receiving  the  representation 
described  by  the  prophet.  By  Ezekiel's  lying  upon  his 
right  and  left  side  a  certain  number  of  (prophetic)  days,  is 
exhibited  the  number  of  years,  during  which  God  had  borne 
with  the  iniquities  of  the  house  of  Israel.  (4 — 8.)  The 
Bcanty  supply  and  intermixture  of  coarse  food  represented 
the  scarcity  and  hard  fare  which  the  Jews  should  have  dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  the  siege  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

«  Prof.  Tm-ncr's  Translation  of  Jalin,  p.  401. 

«  Antiq.  .lucl.  lib.  x.  c.  5.  §  1. 
•     3  Ibid  lib.  X.  c.  7.  §  2. 

*  The  anangement  proposed  by  Prof.  De  Wetfe  coincides  very  nearly 
with  that  given  in  this  work.  He  divides  the  predictions  of  Ezeltiel  into 
four  parts,  viz.  I.  From  chap.  i.  to  cliap.  *xiv.  containinf;  prophecies  relat. 
ing  to  the  Jews  and  anterior  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.,  in  chronolo- 
gical order ;  II,  From  chap.  xxv.  to  chap,  xxxii.  containing  prophecies 
relating  to  various  heathen  nations,  disposed  according  to  the  order  of 
subjects  ;  111.  From  chap,  xxxiii.  to  xlviii.  containing  prophecies  posterior 
to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  in  chronological  order. 

»  The  prophetical  types  and  figures  are  often  adapted  to  the  genius  and 
education  of  the  prophets.  Aiikis,  for  instance,  derives  his  figures  from 
objects  which  were  familiar  to  a  shepherd  or  a  husbandman.  As  Eze- 
kiel seems  to  have  had  a  peculiar  talent  for  architecture,  several  of  his 
representations  are  suitable  to  that  profession.  "And  they  that  suppose 
the  emblem  here  made  use  of  to  be  below  the  dignity  of  the  proptietic 
office,  may  as  well  accuse  Archimedes  of  folly  for  making  lines  in  the 
dust."  W.  Lowth  on  Ezuk,  i. ;  from  whose  sunmiaries  of  chapters  and 
the  marginal  abstracts  of  Mr.  Reeves  this  analysis  of  Ezekiel  is  chiefly 
•lerived,  in  the  present  as  well  as  ia  former  editions  of  this  work. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  I.  Chap.  IV, 


Sect.  2.  Under  the  type  of  shaving  his  head  and  beard,  and 
weighing  his  hair,  one-third  part  of  which  was  to  be  burnt, 
another  to  be  cut  small  witli  a  knife,  and  the  remainder  to 
be  burnt  (v.  1 — 4.),  are,  in  vision,  denounced  the  divine 
judgments  against  .Icru.salein,  by  famine,  sword,  and  disper- 
sion. (5 — 17.)  The  head  here  represents  Jerusalem  ;  the 
hair,  the  great  number  of  its  inhabitants;  and  the  balances, 
the  exactness  of  God's  judgments. 

Sect.  3.  denounces  the  divine  judgments  again.st  the  Jews  for 
their  idolatry  (vi.  1 — 7.),  but  promises  that  a  remnant  shall 
be  saved,  and  shall  be  brought  to  a  sense  of  their  sins  by 
their  afflictions.   (8 — 14.) 

Sf.ct.  4.  announces  the  irreversible  judgment  of  captivity,  and 
final  desolation  of  the  Jews  for  their  idolatry  and  other 
heinous  sins  (vii.  1 — 22.):  the  severity  of  their  captivity, 
which  is  prefigured  by  a  chain.   (23 — 27.) 

Sect.  5.  describes  the  carrying  of  the  prophet,  in  a  vision,  to 
Jerusalem  (viii.  1 — 4.),  where  he  is  shown  the  idolatries 
committed  by  the  Jews  within  the  precincts  of  the  temple  ; 
particularly  the  image  of  Baal,  by  a  bold  figure  called  the 
hnuge  of  Jealousy,  from  the  provocation  it  gave  to  God,  by 
setting  up  a  rival  against  him  in  the  place  dedicated  to  his 
worship  (5.)  :  the  Egyptian  (fi — 12.),  the  Phenician  (13, 
14.),  and  the  Persian  superstitions.  (15,  16.)'^  The  pro- 
phet then  denounces  vengeance  against  the  wicked,  and 
foretells  the  preservation  of  the  pious  Jews  (17,  18.  i.x.)  ; 
and  under  the  command  to  scatter  coals  of  fire  over  the 
city  (x.  1 — 7.),  and  the  vision  of  the  Shechinah  departin.g 
from  the  temple  (8 — 22.),  are  prefigured  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  and  Jehovah's  forsaking  the  temple.  This  sec- 
tion concludes  v/ith  a  severe  denunciation  against  those 
wicked  princes  and  people  who  remained  in  Jerusalem,  and 
derided  the  types  and  predictions  of  the  prophets  (xi.  1 — 
13.);  and  the  return  of  the  Jews  is  then  foretold  (14 — 
21.)  ;  Jehovah's  utterly  forsaking  the  temple  and  city  is 
represented  by  the  departure  of  the  Shechinah  (22,  2.3.) ; 
and  the  prophet  returns  to  communicate  his  instructions  to 
his  brethren  of  the  captivity.   (24,  25.) 

Sect.  6.  Under  the  types  of  Ezekiel's  removing  himself  and 
his  household  goods  (xii.  1 — 7.),  and  eating  and  drinking 
"with  quaking,  and  with  carefulness"  (17 — 20.),  is  pre- 
figured'the  captivity  of  Zedekiah  and  of  the  Jews  still  re- 
maining at  Jerusalem  (8 — 16.)  ;"  and  speedy  judgment  is 
denounced  against  the  Jews  for  their  abuse  of  the  divine 
forbearance.   (21 — 28.) 

Sect.  7.  The  false  prophets  (xiii.  1 — 16.),  and  false  prophet- 
esses (17 — 23.),  are  reproved  and  threatened  with  signal 
punishment. 

Sect.  8.  A  denunciation  of  the  divine  judgments  against  the 
idolatrous  elders  and  their  false  prophets  (xiv.  1 — 11.),  and 
against  the  Jews  for  their  obstinate  impenitency  (12 — 21.)  ; 
a  remnant  of  whom,  it  is  promised,  shall  be  saved.  (22, 
23.) 

Sect.  9.  Under  the  parable  of  an  unfruitful  and  unprofitable 
vine  is  set  forth  the  utter  rejection  of  Jerusalem,  (xv.) 

Sect.  10.  Under  the  emblem  of  an  exposed  and  wretched 
infant  is  represented  the  natural  state  of  the  Jewish  nation, 
and  the  great  love  of  God  to  it  in  Egypt,  as  well  as  after- 
wards, (xvi.  1 — 14.)  The  heinous  and  unparalleled  sins 
of  the  Jews  are  set  forth;  for  which  sore  judgments  are 
denounced  against  them.  But,  notwithstanding  all  these 
provocations,  God  promises  in  the  end  to  show  tbein  mercy 
under  his  new  and  everlasting  covenant.  (60 — 63.)  The 
figurative  mode  of  describing  adultery,  which  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  prophets,  is  pursued  with  great  force,  and 
at  considerable  length,  both  in  this  and  the  23d  chaj)ter. 

Sect.  11.  Under  the  allegory  of  two  eagles  and  a  vine  is 
represented  God's  judgment  upon  the  Jews,  for  revolting 
from  BabyloYi  to  Egypt,  (xvii.  1 — 21.)  The  "  great  eagle 
with  great  wings"  (3.)  means  Nebuchadnezzar,  as  the 
"  feathers  of  divers  colours"  mean  the  various  nations  thai 

e  Bishop  Warburton  has  an  excellent  illustration  of  this  prediction  in  his 
Divine  Legation  of  Moses,  book  iv.  sect.  6.  (Works,- vol.  iv.  pp.  295—300.);., 
tlie  most  material  parts  of  which  are  inserted  in  Bishop  Mant's  ancfDr. 
U'Oyly's  Commentary  on  the  Bible. 

■•  Josephus  informs  us  that  Zedekiah,  thinking  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel 
in  tlie  thirteenth  verse  of  this  chapter  (that  he  should  be  brought  to  Baljy. 
Ion,  which,  however,  he  should  not  see,  though  he  should  die  there),  in- 
consistent with  the  prediction  of  Jeremiah  (xxxii.  4.  anil  xxxiv.  3.)  that  the 
.Jewish  king  should  see  the  eyes  of  the  king  of  Babylon, — determined  to 
give  no  credit  to  either  of  them.  Both  prophecies,  as  we  have  already 
seen  (Vol.  I.  p.  124.)  were  literally  fulfilled,  and  the  event  convinced 
him  that  they  were  not  irreconcilable.  Compare  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib. 
X.  c.  8.  §  2.  with  2  Kings  xxv.  4—7.  and  Jer.  Iii.  8— U. 


Sect.  III.  §  6.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL. 


285 


were  subject  to  hia  sway.  The  other  "  great  eagle"  (7.) 
means  the  king  of  Egypt.  The  |)re;iching  of  the  Gospel, 
and  the  universal  kiiigiloin  of  the  McHsiali,  are  foretold. 
(22—24.) 

Sect.  12.  The  Jews,  in  Ezrkiel's  time,  having  complained 
(xviii.  1,  2.)  of  the  divine  justice,  as  if  the  calamities  which 
had  befallen  them  w(!re  inllictcd  merely  for  the  sins  of  their 
forefathers,  this  section  contains  a  vindication  of  (iod's 
eternal  rules  of  justice  in  punishing  no  one  eternally  for 
the  sins  of  another,  and  in  pardoning  the  wicked  on  their 
true  repentance.  (3 — '.i~.) 

Skct.  I;J.  Unili^r  the  paralile  of  a  lion's  whelps  arc  foretold 
the  cruelty  and  captivity  of  Jehoaha/.,  who  w;is  deposed  by 
the  king  of  Egyj)t,'  and  of  .lehoiakiin,  who  was  deposed 
by  the  king  of  Babylon.-  (xix.  1 — 9.)  And  under  the 
parable  of  a  vine  scorched  by  the  cast  wind,  torn  up  and 
transjilantcd  in  the  wilderness,  are  set  forth  the  desolation 
and  cai)tivity  of  the  whole  Jewish  peo|)le.   (10 — 14.) 

SfXT.  14.  A  dc|iutation  of  tht!  elders  having  come  to  the  pro- 
phet, in  the  seventh  year  of  .It  hoiakim's  and  his  own  cap- 
tivity, to  request  him  to  ask  counsel  of  God  in  the  midst 
of  their  calamity,  Ezekiel,  by  divine  command,  reminds 
them  of  God's  mercies  to  them,  and  of  their  idolatry,  and 
rebellions  against  him,  from  their  departure  out  of  Egypt  to 
that  very  day.  (xx.  1 — :J'J.)  Yet,  notwithstanding  all 
their  provocations,  their  return  from  ca[)tivity  is  foretold, 
and  also  that  the  twelve  tribes  shall  serve  God  at  Jeru- 
salem. 

Sect.  15.  Under  the  emblem  of  a  forest,  doomed  to  be  con- 
sumed by  fire,  is  foretold  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
termed  the  "  forest  of  the  south,"  because  that  city  lay  to 
the  south  of  Chaldica,  where  the  prophet  then  was.  (xx. 
4.5 — 49.)  And  under  the  emblem  of  a  sharp  sword  is  pre- 
dicted the  destruction  of  the  Jews  (xxi.  1  — 17.),  of  Jeru- 
salem (18 — 27.),  and  of  the  Ammonites  (28 — .32.),  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The  prophecy  against  the  Ammonites  was 
accomplished  about  live  years  after  Jerusalem  was  destroyed. 

Sect.  16.  contains  a  recital  of  the  sins  committed  in  Jerusa- 
lem, and  by  all  orders  and  classes  of  people  in  that  city ; 
for  which  the  severest  judgments  are  denounced,  (xxii.) 

Sect.  17.  represents  the  idolatries  of  Samaria  and  Jerusalem 
by  the  lewd  practices  of  two  common  harlots  (xxiii.  I — 21.)  ; 
for  which  crimes  God  denounces  very  severe  judgments 
against  them  both.   (22 — 49.) 

Sect.  18.  Under  the  figure  of  a  boiling  pot  is  shown  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  its  inhabitants  (xxiv.  1 — 14.)  ; 
and,  by  the  prophet's  being  forbidden  to  mourn  for  his 
wife,  it  is  signified  that  the  calamities  of  the  Jews  shall  be 
so  astonishing  as  to  surpass  all  expressions  of  sorrow. 
(1.5-27.) 
Part  III.  cir.nprises  Ezekiers  Prnpkecies  against  various  neigh- 
bouring Nation.'',  Enemies  to  the  Jews.  (xxv. — xxxii.) 

Sect.  1.  denotes  the  judgments  of  God  against  the  Ammon- 
ites (xxv.  1 — 7.),  Moabites  (8 — 11.  ,  Edomites  (12 — 14.), 
and  Philistines  (1.5 — 17.),  on  account  of  their  hatred  of 
his  people,  and  insulting  them  in  the  time  of  their  distress. 
According  to  Archbishop  Usher  and  Joscphus,  these  pre- 
dictions were  fulfilled  by  Nebuchadnezzar  about  five  years 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.^ 

Sect.  2.  announces,  in  langtiage  singularly  elegant  and  ani- 
mated, the  destruction  of  Tyre  (xxvi.  xxvii.  xxviii.  1 — 
19.),  whose  vast  trade,  riches,  splendour,  and  power  are 
largely  described.  This  predit;tion '  was  accomplished,  nine- 
teen years  after  its  delivery,  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  cap- 
tured Tyre  after  besieging  it  for  thirteen  years,  and  utterly 
destroyed  that  city.  The  destruction  of  Zidon,  the  mother 
city  of  Tyre  (in  whose  prosjierity  and  adv.  rsity  she  gene- 
rally participated),  is  then  declared  (20 — 2:5.);  and  this 
section  of  prophecy  concludes  .with  promises  of  the  happy 
state  of  the  Jews  on  their  deliverance  from  all  their  ene- 
mies, together  with  their  general  conversion  to  Christianity. 
(24—26.) 

Sect,  3.  The  deposition  and  death  of  Pharaoh-Hophrah  (or 

•  See  2  Kinas  xxiii.  3.3.  and  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  4. 
»  S  e  '2Kiiias  xxiv.  and  2Chrnn.  xxxvl.  6. 

»  Urserii  .\iiiiales,  ad  a.  m.  3419.     Josephus,  Ant.  .lud.  lib.  x.  c.  11.  §  1. 

*  TlioiVh  tliese  predictions  ctiiefly  relate  to  Old  Tyre,  yet  Dr.  Piideaux 
is  of  opinion  thai  ttioy  also  comprehend  New  Tyre,  which  was  erected  on 
an  island  ahnnt  half  a  mile  distant  from  the  shore,  and  was  conquered  by 


Apries)  king  of  Egypt  (xxix.  1 — 8.),  and  the  conquest  of 
that  country  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (9 — 21.  xxx. — xxxii.),  are 
foretold.     The  imagery  "f  the  latter   part  of  this  prophecy 
is  both  sublime  and  lerril)le.     Tlicsi'  jircilictions  were  in  the 
tenth,  twenty -seventh,  eleventh,  and  twellth  years  of  Jehoi- 
achin's  captivity. 
Paut  IV.  cfjnlains  a  Series  of  Exhwiations  and  cnnsolatory 
Promises  to  the  Jews,  of  future  Delivei-ance  under  Cyrus,  hut 
princimillu  of  their  final  liestoratiim.  and  Conversion  uiider 
the  Kingdom  of  Missiah.  (xxxiii. — xlviii.)      These  Predic- 
tions were  proljuljly  delivered  in  the  twelfth  year  of  Jehoia- 
chin''s  Captivity. 

Sect.  1.  sets  forth  the  duty  of  a  prophet  or  mini.ster  of  God, 
exemplified  by  that  of  a  watchman,  in  warning  a  people  of 
their  sins,  (xxxiii.  1 — 9.)  Then  follows  an  earnest  exhor- 
tation to  repentance,  vindicating  th<!  e(piity  of  the  divine 
government,  and  declaring  the  terms  of  acceptance  (as  in 
ch.  xviii.)  to  be  without  respect  of  |)cr.son«;  so  that  the  ruin 
of  obstinate  and  impenitent  sinners  must  be  attributed  to 
themselves,  (xxxiii.  10 — 20.)  While  Ezekiel  was  thus 
under  the  prophetic  imiJiiIsc,  tidings  beitig  brought  to  him 
of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Babylonians  (21, 
22.),  he  takes  occasion  to  predict  the  utter  desolation  of 
Judffia,  to  check  the  vain  confidence  of  those  who  still  re- 
main there,  and  he  also  reproves  the  hypocrisy  of  those 
Jews  who  were  of  the  captivity.  (23 — 33.) 
Sect.  2.  In  this  section  God  reproves  the  conduct  of  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  governors  of  the  Jewish  peoj)le  (xxxiv.  1 
— 10.),  and  promises  a  general  restoration  of  the  people. 
Their  ha|)py  condition  under  the  reign  of  Messiah  their 
king  is  described  in  the  most  beautiful  terms.  (11 — 31.) 
Sect.  3.  contains  a  renewal  of  the  prophet's  former  denuncia- 
tions against  the  Edomites  (see  xxv.  12.)  as  a  just  puni.-h- 
ment  for  their  insults  to  the  Jews  during  their  calamities, 
(xxxv.)* 
Sect.  4.  announces  the  general  restoration  of  the  Jews,  of 
which  the  return  of  the  two  tribes  from  Babylon  may  be 
considered  an  earnest, and  their  consequent  telicity.  (xxxvi.) 
The  same  subject  is  further  illu.strated  under  the  vision  of 
a  resurrection  of  dry  bones,  (xxxvii.  I — 14.)  The  address 
to  the  dry  bones  in  ver.  4.  is  by  some  commentators  con- 
sidered as  a  prophetical  representation  of  that  voice  of  the 
Son  of  God,  which  all  that  are  in  their  graves  shall  hear  at 
the  last  day,  and  come  forth.  Under  the  emblem  of  the 
union  of  two  sticks  is  foretold  the  incorporation  of  Israel 
and  Judah  into  one  state  and  church,  which  will  enjoy  the 
land  of  Canaan  and  the  blessings  of  the  Gospel  under  the 
Messiah.  (15 — 28.) 
Sect.  5.  contains  a  remarkable  prophecy  against  Gog  and  all 
his  allies,  and  the  victory  of  Israel  over  them  (xxxviii.  xxxix. 
1 — 22.),  together  with  a  promise  of  deliverance  from  cap- 
tivity, and  of  the  final  restoration  and  conversion  of  the 
Jews  to  the  Gospel,  under  the  Messiah.  (2.3 — 29.)  This 
prophecy  relates  to  the  latter  ages  of  the  world,  and  will  be 
best  understood  by  its  accomplishment. 
Sect.  6.  contains  a  representation,  partly  literal  and  partly 
mystical,  of  Solomon's  temple;  also  a -mystical  representa- 
tion of  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  mystical  directions  con- 
cerning the  division  of  the  Holy  Land  ; — all  which  were 
designed  to  give  the  Jews  a  greater  assurance  of  their  re- 
turning into  their  own  country  from  the  Babylonish  capti- 
vity ;  and,  more  remotely,  of  their  return  after  their  general 
conversion  to  Christianity,  and  of  the  lasting  and  firndy 
settled  and  prosperous  state  they  shall  then  enjoy  in  their 
own  country.  It  seems  that  no  model  of  Solomon's  temple 
had  remained.  To  direct  the  Jews,  therefore,  in  the  dimen- 
sions, parts,  order,  and  regulations  of  the  new  temple,  on 
their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  is  one  reason 
why  Ezekiel  is  so  particular  in  his  description  of  the  old 
temple;  to  which  the  new  was  conformable  in  figure  and 
parts,  though  inferior  in  magnificence  on  account  of  the 
poverty  of  the  nation  at  that  time.  Whatever  was  august 
or  illustrious  in  the  prophetic  figures,  and  not  literally  ful- 
filled in  or  near  their  own  time,  the  ancient  Jews  justly 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  times  of  the  Messiah.*     Ac- 

'  This  prophecy  was  accomplished  in  the  conquest  of  the  Edomites,  first 
by  the  Nabatheans,  and  secondly  by  John  Hyrcanus,  who  compelled  thein 
to  embrace  the  Jewish  reli<iion :  in  consequence  of  which  they  at  length 
bee  line  incorporated  with  that  nation.  Dr.  I'rideaux's  Connection,  part  ii. 
book  v.  sub  anno  129.  (vol.  ii.  pp.  307,  308.) 

6  See  particularly  I  Cor.  iii.  16.  2  Cor.  vi.  16.  Eph.  ii.  20—22.  1  Tim.  iii.  15. 
The  same  metaphor  is  also  pursued  in  2The88.  ii.  4.,  and  occurs  repeat- 


286 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IV 


cordingly,  when  they  found  that  the  second  temple  fell  short, 
at  least  in  their  opinion,  of  the   model  of  the  temple  de- 
scribed by  Ezekiel,  they  supposed  the  prophecy  to  refer,  at 
least  in  part,  to  the  period  now  mentioned:  and,  doubtless, 
the   temple   and  temple  worship  were  a  figure  of  Christ's 
church,  frequently  rei)resented  in  the  New  Testament  under 
the  metaphor  of  a  temple,  in  allusion  to  the  beauty,  sym- 
metry, and  firmness  of  that  erected  by  Solomon,  to  its  or- 
derly worship,  and  to  the  manifestations  of  the  divine  pre- 
sence there  vouchsafed.'     This  section  comprises   the  last 
nine  chapters  of  Ezekiel's  prophecy ;  which  are  thus  ana- 
lyzed by  Dr.  Smith  ;2 
Cli.  xl.  contains  a  description  of  the  two  outer  courts,  and  of  the  cham- 
bers belonging  to  theui  (1 — 47'.),  together  with  the  porch  of  the  tem- 
ple. (48.) 
Ch.  xli.  descfibes  the  measures,  parts,  and  ornaments  of  the  temple 

itself. 
Ch.  xlii.  describes  the  priests'  chambers  and  their  use,  and  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  holy  mount  on  which  the  lemple  stood. 
Ch.  xliii.  represents  the  glory  of  the  Lord  as  returning  to  the  temple, 
where  God  promises  to  lix  his  residence,  if  his  people  repent  and  for- 
sake those  sins  which  caused  him  to  depart  from  them.  (1 — 11.)  The 
measures  of  the  altar  and  the  ordinances  relating  to  it  are  set  down. 
(12-27.) 
Ch.  xliv.  describes  the  glory  of  God  as  actually  returned  to  the  temple, 
and  reproves  the  Jews  for  suffering  idolatrous  priests  to  profane  the 
temple  with  their  ministrations.  (1 — 14.)  Ordinances  are  then  given 
for  the  deportment  of  God's  true  priests,  and  the  maintenance  due  to 
them.  (15—31.) 
Ch.  xlv.  appoints  the  several  portions  of  land  for  the  sanctuary  and  its 
ministers  (1—5.),  for  the  city  (6.),  and  for  the  prince  (7,  8.) ;  and  insti- 
tutes various  ordinances  concerning  the  provisions  for  the  ordinary 
and  extraordinary  sacrifices.  (9 — 25.  xlvi.  1 — 15.) 
Ch.  xlvi.  (16—24.)  gives  directions  concerning  the  inheriting  of  any  part 
of  the  prince's  portion,  and  also  concerning  the  boiling  and  baking  any 
.part  of  the  holy  oblations. 
Ch.  xlvii.  contains  the  vision  of  the  holy  waters  issuing  out  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  their  virtue  (1—12.);  a  most  beautiful  emblem  of  the  gradual 
progress  of  the  Gospel,  and  of  the  power  of  divine  grace  under  it, 
which  is  capable  of  healing  all  but  the  incorrigibly  impenitent  and 
hypocrites  ;  who,  in  verse  11.,  are  compared  to  marshy  ground,  which, 
after  all  the  care  or  culture  that  can  be  bestowed  upon  it,  continues 
barren  and  unprofitable.  The  extent  and  division  of  the  Holy  Land 
are  then  described,  which  is  to  be  indiscriminately  shared  between 
the  Israelites  and  proselytes  sojourning  among  them  (13 — 23.)  ;  mysti- 
cally denoting  the  incorporation  of  the  Gentiles  into  the  same  church 
with  the  Jews.  (Compare  Eph.  iii.  6.) 
Ch.  xlviii.  comprises  a  description  of  I  he  several  portions  of  land  belong- 
ing to  each  tribe  (1—7.  2.3— 29.);  together  with  the  portions  alloUed 
to  the  sanctuary  (8— 14.),  the  city  (15— 19.),  and  the  prince  (20— 22.) ; 
and  also  the  measures  and  names  of  the  gates  of  the  new  city. 
(.30—35.) 

The  points  in  these  prophecies,  which  are  principally 
worthy  of  attention,  are  the  following : — 

1.  That  the  prophet,  more  than  one  hundred  miles  distant 
from  the  scene,  should  have  announced  the  beginning  of  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  on  the  very  day  it  took  place ;  and,  like 
Jeremiah,  should  have  constantly  predicted  tne  conquest  and 
destruction  of  the  city,  and  the  carrying  away  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. 

2.  That  he  should  have  foreseen  also  the  flight  of  Zede- 
kiah  through  the  broken  walls  at  night,  together  with  these 
circumstances ;  viz.  that  he  should  be  overtaken  by  the  Chal- 
daeans,  and  that  he  should  not  be  slain,  but  carried  into  their 
country,  wtiich,  however^  he  should  not  see.  This  vras 
verified  by  Nebuchadnezzar's  causing  his  eyes  to  be  put  out. 

3.  That  moreover,  like  Jeremiah,  he  should  plainly  predict 
the  return  of  the  Jews  to  their  country,  and  their  perseve- 
rance in  the  worship  of  God, — events  so  remote  and  in  them- 
selves improbable,— and  also  the  conqiiest  of  Idumasaby  the 
Hebrews. 

4.  That  he  should  have  announced  not  only  the  demolition 
of  Tyre,  to  be  rebuilt  no  more  (for  the  new  cily  was  founded 
upon  an  island),  but  also  that  its  ruins  should  be  thrown  into 
the  sea ;  a  prediction  which  Alexander  unconsciously  veri- 
fied. 

5.  Lastly,  that  like  Jeremiah,  he  should  have  foretold  the 
advent  of  Messiah  the  great  sou  of  David,  at  a  period  when 
David's  family  were  deprived  of  royal  dignity. 

V.  Most  biblical  critics  concur  in  opinion  as  to  the  excel- 
lency and  sublimity  of  Ezekiel'^  style.  Grotius^  observes, 
that  he  possessed  great  erudition  and  genius ;  so  that,  setting 
aside  his  gift  of  prophecy,  which  is  incomparable,  he  may 

edly  in  the  Revelation  of  St.  .John,  who  not  only  describes  the  heavenly 
sanctuary  by  representations  taken  from  the  Jewish  temple  (see  Rev.  xi. 
19.  xiv.  17.  XV.  5.  8  ),  but  also  transcribes  several  of  Ezekiel's  expressions 
(Rev.  iv.  2,  3.6.  xi.  1,2.  xxi.  12.  &c.,  xxii.  1.  2.);  and  borrows  his  allusions 
from  the  state  of  the  first  temple,  not  of  the  second  temple  which  existed 
in  our  Saviour's  time  ;  as  if  the  former  had  a  more  immediate  reference 
to  the  times  of  the  Gospel.  Compare  Rev.  iv.  1.  &.c.  with  JEzek  i.  6.  et  seg. 
— Lowth  on  Ezek.  xl. 

Reeves  and  Lowth  on  Ezek.  xl. 


a  View  of  the  Prophets,  pp.  153,  154. 

■  Pref.  ad  Ezechiel.  in  Cril.  Sacr.  torn.  iv.  p. 


p.  8. 


deserve  to  be  compared  with  Homer,  on  account  of  his  beau- 
tiful conceptions,  nis  illustrious  comparisons,  and  his  exten- 
sive knowledge  of  various  subjects,  particularly  of  architec- 
ture. Bishop  Lowth,  in  his  twenty-first  lecture  on  the  sacred 
poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  gives  us  the  following  description  of 
the  peculiar  and  discriminating  characters  of  this  prophet. 
"Ezekiel,"  says  he,  "is  much  inferior  to  Jeremiah  in  ele- 
gance; in  sublimity  he  is  not  even  excelled  by  Isaiah  :  but 
his  sublimity  is  of  a  totally  different  kind.  He  is  deep,  ve- 
hement, tragical ;  the  only  sensation  he  aflfects  to  excite  is 
the  terrible;  his  sentiments  are  elevated,  fervid,  full  of  fire, 
indignant;  his  imagery  is  crowded,  magnificent,  terrific, 
sometimes  almost  to  disgust;  his  language  is  pompous,  so- 
lemn, austere,  rough,  ana  at  times  unpolished :  he  employs 
frequent  repetitions,  not  for  the  sake  of  grace  or  elegance, 
but  from  the  vehemence  of  passion  and  indignation.  What- 
ever subject  he  treats  of,  that  he  sedulously  pursues,  from 
that  he  rarely  departs,  but  cleaves  as  it  were  to  it ;  whence 
the  connection  is  in  general  evident  and  well  preserved.  In 
many  respects  he  is  perhaps  excelled  by  the  other  prophets ; 
but  in  that  species  ot  composition  to  which  he  seems  by  na- 
ture adapted, — the  forcible,  the  impetuous,  the  great  and  so- 
lemn,— not  one  of  the  sacred  writers  is  superior  to  him. 
His  diction  is  sufficiently  perspicuous,  all  his  obscurity  con- 
sists in  the  nature  of  the  subject.  Visions  (as  for  instance, 
among  others,  those  of  Hosea,  Amos,  and  Jeremiah)  are 
necessarily  dark  and  confused.  The  greater  part  of  Ezekiel, 
towards  the  middle  of  the  book  especially,  is  poetical, 
whether  we  regard  the  matter  or  the  diction."  His  periods, 
however,  are  frequently  so  rude,  that  Bishop  Lowth  expresses 
himself  as  being  often  at  a  loss  how  to  pronounce  concerning 
his  performance  in  this  respect.  In  another  place  the  same 
learned  prelate  remarks,  that  Ezekiel  should  be  oftener 
classed  among  the  orators  than  the  poets ;  and  he  is  of  opinion 
that,  with  respect  to  style,  we  may  justly  assign  to  Ezekiel 
the  same  ranlc  among  the  Hebrews,  as  Homer,  Simonides, 
and  iEschylus  hold  among  the  Greeks. 

From  this  high  praise  of  Bishop  Lowth's,  his  learned  an- 
notator,  Michaelis,  dissents ;  and  is  so  far  from  esteeming 
Ezekiel  as  equal  to  Isaiah  in  sublimity,  that  he  is  disposed 
to  think  the  prophet  displays  more  art  and  luxuriance  in  am- 
plifying and  decorating  his  subject,  than  is  consistent  with 
poetical  fervour,  or,  indeed,  with  true  sublimity.  Michaelis 
further  pronounces  Ezekiel  to  be  in  general  an  imitator,  who 
possesses  the  art  of  giving  an  air  of  novelty  and  ingenuity, 
but  not  of  grandeur  and  sublimity,  to  all  his  compositions ; 
and  is  of  opinion  that,  as  the  prophet  lived  at  a  period  when 
the  Hebrew  language  was  visibly  on  the  decline;  and  also 
that,  if  we  compare  him  with  the  Latin  poets  who  succeeded 
the  Augustan  age,  we  may  find  some  resemblance  in  the 
style,  something  that  indicates  the  old  age  of  poetry.  In 
these  sentiments  the  English  translator  of  Bishop  Lowth's 
lectures  partially  acquiesces,  observing  that  Ezekiel's  fault 
is  a  want  of  neither  novelty  nor  sublimity,  but  of  grace  and 
uniformity;  while  Eichhorn  minutely  discusses  his  claims 
to  originality.''  Archbishop  Newcome,  however,  has  com- 
pletely vindicated  the  propnet's  style.  He  observes,  with 
equal  truth  and  judgment,  that  Ezekiel  is  not  to  be  considered 
as  the  framer  of  those  august  and  astonishing  visions,  and 
of  those  admirable  poetical  representations  which  he  com- 
mitted to  w"riting ;  but  as  an  instru'ment  in  the  hands  of  God, 
who  vouchsafed  to  reveal  himself,  through  a  long  succession 
of  ages,  not  only  in  divers  parts  constituting  a  magnificent 
and  uniform  whole,  but  also  in  different  manners,  as  by  voice, 
by  dreams,  by  inspiration,  and  by  plain  or  enigmatical  vision. 
If  he  is  circumstantial  in  describing  the  wonderful  scenes 
which  were  presented  to  him  in  the  visions  of  God,  he  should 
be  regarded  as  a  faithful  representerof  the  divine  revelations, 
for  the  purpose  of  information  and  instruction,  and  not  as  ex- 
hausting an  exuberant  fancy  in  minutely  filling  up  an  ideal 
picture.  The  learned  prelate  thinks  it  probable  that  Buzi, 
the  prophet's  father,  had  preserved  his  own  family  from  the 
taint  of  idolatry,  and  had  educated  his  son  for  the  priestly 
office  in  all  the  learning  of  the  Hebrews,  and  particularly  in 
he  study  of  their  sacred  books.  Being  a  youth  at  the  time  of 
his  captivity, — a  season  of  life  when  the  fervour  of  imagination 
is  natural  in  men  of  superior  endowments, — his  genius  led 
him  to  amplification,  like  that  of  some  of  the  Roman  poets ; 
though  he  occasionally  shows  himself  capable  of  the  austere 
and  concise  style,  of  which  the  seventh  chapter  is  a  remark- 
able instance.  But  the  Divine  Spirit  did  not  overrule  the 
natural  bent  of  his-  mind.     Variety  is  thus  produced  in  tlie 

«  Bivhop  Lowth's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  pp.  8»— 95. 


Sect.  IV.  §  2.] 
sacred  writinffs 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ZECHARIAH. 


287 


Nahum  sounds  the  trumpet  of  war ;  Hosoa 
is  sententious,  Isaiah  sublime,  Jeremiah  pathetic,  Ezckiel 
copious.  This  difTuseness  of  manner  in  mihi  and  affection- 
ate exhortation,  this  vehement  enlartjing  on  the  p^ilt  and 
cons<!quent  sufferings  of  his  countrymen,  seems  wisely 
adapted  to  their  capacities  and  circumstances,  and  must  have 
had  a  forcible  tendency  to  awaken  them  from  their  lethargy.' 


SECTION  IV. 

ON  THE  PROPHETS  WHO  FLOURISHEO  AFTER  THE  RETURN  OK 
THE  JEWS  KKOM  HABVI.ON. 

§  1.  ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  HAORAI. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  .Argument  and  acopn. — III.  Jlnalysis 
of  its  contents. — IV.   Observations  on  its  style. 

BEFORE    CIIUIST,  .')20 518. 

I.  Nothing  is  certainly  known  concerninjr  the  tribe  or 
birth-place  of  Haorffai,  the  tenth  in  order  of  the  minor  prophets, 
but  the  first  of  the  three  who  were  commissioned  to  make 
known  the  divine  will  to  tlie  Jews  after  their  return  from 
captivity.  The  general  opinion,  founded  on  tin;  assertion  of 
the  pseudo-Epipnanius,  is  that  he  was  born  at  Habvlon,  and 
was  one  of  the  Jews  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  edict  of  Cyrus.  The  same  author  affirms 
that  he  was  buried  at  Jerusalem  among  tiie  priests,  whence 
some  have  conjectured  that  he  was  of  the  family  of  Aaron. 
The  times  of  his  predictions,  however,  are  so  distinctly 
marked  by  himself,  that  we  have  as  much  certainty  on  this 
point  as  we  have  with  respect  to  any  of  the  prophets. 

II.  The  Jews,  who  were  released  from  captivity  in  the  first 
year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus  (Ezra  i.  I.  et  seq.),  having  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem  and  commenced  the  rebuilding  of  the 
temple  (Ezra  ii.  iii.),  were  interrupted  in  their  undertakings 
by  the  neighbouring  satraps,  who  contrived  to  prejudice  the 
Persian  monarch  (the  pseudo-Smerdis)  against  them  (Ezra 
iv.  I.  with  24.)  until  tne  second  year  ot  Darius.  Discou- 
raged by  these  impediments,  the  people  ceased,  for  fourteen 
years,  to  prosecute  the  erection  of  the  second  temple,  as  if 
the  time  were  not  yet  come,  and  applied  themselves  to  the 
building  of  their  own  houses:  but  God,  disposing  that  sove- 
reign to  renew  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  raised  up  the  prophet 
Haggai  about  the  year  520  before  Christ ;  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  exhortations,  they  resumed  the  work,  which 
was  completed  in  a  few  years. 

Further,  in  order  to  encourage  them  to  proceed  in  this 
undertaking,  the  prophet  assurca  them  from  God,  that  the 
glory  of  this  latter  house  should  far  exceed  the  glory  of  the 
Former. 

III.  The  book  of  the  prophet  Haggai  comprises  three  dis- 
tinct prophecies  or  discourses,  viz. 

Discourse  1.  The  prophet  reproves  the  delay  of  the  people  in 
rebuilding  the  temple;  which  neglect  he  denounces  as  the 
reason  why  they  were  punished  with  great  drought  and  un- 
productive seasons,  (i.  1 — 12.)  He  then  encourages  them  to 
undertake  the  work,  and  promises  them  Divine  assistance. 
(13—15.) 

Discourse  2.  The  prophet  further  encourages  the  builders  by  a 
promise,  that  the  glory  of  the  second  temple  should  surpass 
that  of  the  first ;  and  that  in  the  following  year  God  would 
bless  them  with  a  fruitful  harvest  (ii.  1 — 19.)  This  pro- 
phecy was  fulfilled  by  Jesus  Christ  honouring  the  second 
temple  with  his  presence,  and  there  publishing  his  saving  doc- 
trine to  the  world.  See  Luke  xix.  47.  xx.  1.  xxi.  38.  John 
xviii.  20.2 

DisrocHSE  3.  The  prophet  foretells  the  setting  up  of  the  Mes- 
siali's  kingdom  under  the  name  of  Zerubbabel.  (ii.  20 — 23.) 

IV.  The  style  of  this  prophet  is  for  the  most  part  plain 
and  prosaic,  and  vehement  when  he  reproves ;  it  is,  however, 
interspersed  with  passages  of  much  sublimity  and  pathos 

'  Archbishop  Newcome's  Preface  to  his  Translation  of  Ezekiel,  pp. 
xxvii.  xxviii.  To  justify  the  character  above  given,  tlie  learned  prelate 
descends  to  particulars  (which  we  have  not  rooin  to  specify),  anvl  gives  op- 
posite examples,  not  only  of  the  clear,  the  floiring,  and  the  mrvous,  but 
alsoofUie  sublime.  lie  concludes  his  observations  on  the  style  of  Ezekiel 
by  stating  it  to  be  his  deliberate  opinion,  that,  if  the  prophet's  "style  is 
the  old  age  of  the  Hebrew  language  and  composition,  it  is  a  firm  and  vigor- 
ous one,  and  should  induce  us  to  trace  its  youth  and  manhood  with  the 
most  assiduous  attention."    Ibid.  pp.  xxviii.— ixii. 

»  W.  Lowib's  Cummeutary  ou  Haggai. 


when   he  treats  of  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  whom  he 
emphatically  terms  "  the  desire  of  all  nations." 


§  2.    ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ZECHARIAH. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  Analysis  of  its  contents. — III.  Obser- 
vations on  its  style. — IV.  The  lust  six  chapters  proved  to  be 
genuine. 

BEFORE  CHRIST, 520 518. 

I.  Although  the  names  of  Zechariah's  father  and  grand- 
father are  specified  (Zech.  i.  1.),  it  is  not  known  from  what 
tribe  or  family  this  prophet  was  descended,  nor  where  he  was 
l)orn ;  but  that  he  was  one  of  the  captives  who  returned  to 
Jerusalem  in  consequence  of  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  is  unques- 
tionable. As  he  opened  his  prophetic  commission  in  the 
eighth  month  of  the  second  year  of  Darius  the  son  of  Hys- 
taspes,  that  is,  about  the  year  520  before  the  Christian  aera, 
it  is  evident  that  he  was  contemporary  with  Haggai,  and  his 
authority  was  equally  efff'ctual  in  j)romoting  the  building  of 
the  temple.  From  an  expression  in  ch.  ii.  4.  we  have  every 
reason  to  btdieve  that  Zechariah  was  called  to  the  prophetic 
ministry  when  he  was  a  young  man. 

'1  he  prophecy  of  Zechariah  consists  of  two  parts,  the 


II. 


first  of  which  concerns  the  events  which  were  then  taking 
place,  viz.  the  restoration  of  the  temple,  interspersing  predic- 
tions relative  to  the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  The  second  part 
comprises  prophecies  relative  to  more  remote  events,  particu- 
larly the  coming  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  war  of  the  Romans 
against  the  Jews. 

Part  I.  contains  the  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  second  Year  of 
Darius  King  of  Persia,  (i. — vi.) 

Discourse  1.  An  exhortation  to  the  Jews  who  had  returned 
from  captivity,  to  guard  against  those  sins  which  had  drawn 
so  much  distress  upon  their  ancestors,  and  to  go  on  with  the 
building  of  the  temple  (i.  1 — 6.),  which  it  is  predicted  that 
Darius  should  permit  (7 — 17.);  and  that  the  Samaritans 
should  be  compelled  to  suspend  their  opposition  to  the  build- 
ing. (18 — 21.)  Further  to  encourage  the  Jews  in  their  work, 
the  prophet  foretells  the  prosperity  of  Jerusalem  (ii.  1 — 5.), 
and  admonishes  the  Jews  to  depart  from  Babylon  before  her 
destruction  (6 — 9.),  promising  them  the  divine  presence. 
(10 — 13.)  These  promises,  though  primarily  to  be  under- 
stood of  the  Jews  after  their  return  from  Babylon,  are  secon- 
darily and  principally  to  be  understood  of  the  restoration  of  the 
Jews,  and  their  conversion  to  the  Gospel. 

Discourse  2.  Under  the  type  of  Joshua  the  high-priest,  clothed 
with  new  sacerdotal  attire,  is  set  forth  the  glory  of  Christ  as 
the  chief  corner-stone  of  his  church.   (8 — 10.) 

Discourse  3.  Under  the  vision  of  the  golden  candlestick  and 
two  olive  trees  is  typically  represented  the  success  of  Zerub- 
babel and  Joshua  in  rebuilding  the  temple  and  restoring  its 
service,   (iv.) 

Discourse  4.  Under  the  vision  of  a  flying  roll,  the  divine  judg- 
ments are  denounced  against  robbery  and  perjury  (v.  1—4.); 
and  the  Jews  are  threatened  with  a  second  captivity,  if  they 
continue  in  sin.  (5 — 1 1.) 

Discourse  5.  Under  the  vision  of  the  four  chariots,  drawn  by 
several  sorts  of  horses,  are  represented  the  succession  of  the 
Babylonians,  Persians,  Macedo-Greek  and  Roman  empires 
(vi.  1 — 8.),  and  by  the  two  crowns  placed  upon  the  head  of 
Joshua  are  set  forth  primarily,  the  re-establishment  of  the 
civil  and  religious  polity  of  the  Jews  under  Zerubbabel  and 
Joshua ;  and,  secondarily  but  principally,  the  high-priesthood 
and  kingdom  of  Christ,  here  emphatically  termed  the  Branch 
(9 — 15.),  who  is  to  be  both  king  and  high-priest  of  the  church 
of  God. 

Part  2.  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  fourth  Year  of  the  Reign 
(f  Darius,  (vii. — xiv.) 

Discourse  1.  Some  Jews  having  been  sent  to  Jerusalem  from 
the  exiles  then  at  Babylon,  to  inquire  of  the  priests  and  pro- 
phets whether  they  were  still  bound  to  ob.serve  the  fasts  that 
had  been  instituted  on  account  of  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  which  had  been  observed  during  the  captivity 
(vii.  1 — 3.), — the  prophet  is  commanded  to  take  this  occasion 
of  enforcing  upon  them  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law,  viz. 
judgment  and  mercy,  lest  the  same  calamities  should  befall 
them  which  had  been  inflicted  upon  their  fathers  for  their  neg- 
lect of  those  duties.  (4 — 14.)  In  the  event  of  their  obedience, 
God  promises  the   continuance   of  his  favour  (viii.  1 — 8.) ; 


288 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  Chap.  IV. 


they  are  encouraged  to  go  on  with  the  building  (9 — 17.),  and 
are  permitted  to  discontinue  the  observance  of  tiie  fasts  which 
they  had  kept  during  the  captivity.  (18 — 23.) 
DiscouusE  2.  contains  predictions  of  the  conquest  of  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  and  Palestine,  by  Alexander  the  Great  (ix.  1 — 7.), 
and  of  the  watchful  providence  of  God  over  his  temple  in  those 
troublesome  times.  (8.)  Whence  he  takes  occasion  to  de- 
scribe, as  in  a  parenthesis,  the  auvent  of  Christ  (9,  10.  with 
Malt.  xxi.  5.  and  John  xii.  15.);  and  then  returning  to  his 
former  subject,  he  announces  the  conquest  of  the  Jews,  particu- 
larly of  the  Maccabees,  over  the  princes  of  the  Grecian  mo- 
narchy. ( 1 1 1 7.)     Prosperity  is  further  promised  to  the  Jews 

(x.  1 3.),  and   their  victories  over   their  enemies   are   again 

foretold.  (4 — 12.)  It  is  probable  that  this  prophetic  discourse 
remains  to  be  fully  accomplished  in  the  general  and  final  re- 
storation of  the  Jews. 
Discourse  3.  predicts  the  rejection  of  the  Jews  for  their  rejec- 
tion of  Messiah,  and  valuing  him  and  his  labours  at  the 
base  price  of  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  (xi.)  This  prediction  was 
literally  fulfilled  in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ.  (Compare  Matt. 
x.\vi.  14,  15.  and  xxvii.  3—10.  with  Zech.  xi.  11 — 13.)  The 
Jews  themselves  have  expounded  this  prophecy  of  the  Mes- 
siah. 
Discourse  4.  comprises  a  series  of  prophecies,  relating  princi- 
pally to  the  latter  times  of  the  Gospel.  The  former  part  of  it 
(xii.  1 — 9.)  announces  the  preservation  of  Jerusalem  against 
an  invasion  in  the  last  ages  of  the  world,  which  most  com- 
mentators think  is  that  of  Gog  and  Magog,  more  largely  de- 
scribed in  the  thirty-eighth  and  thirty-ninth  chapters  of  Ezekiel. 
The  grief  of  the  Jews,  for  their  fathers  having  crucified  the 
Messiah,  on  their  conversion,  is  then  foretold  (10 — 14.),  as 
also  the  crucifixion  itself,  and  the  general  conversion  of  the 
Jews,  (xiii.)  The  destruction  of  their  enemies,  predicted  at 
the  beginning  of  this  prophetic  sermon,  is  again  foretold 
(xiv.  1 — 15.)  ;  and  the  prophecy  concludes  with  announcing 
the  final  conversion  of  all  nations  to  the  Gospel,  and  the  pros- 
perit}'  of  the  church.  (16 — 21.) 

III.  Zechariah  is  the  longest  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets. 
His  style,  like  that  of  Haggai,  is  for  the  most  part  prosaic, 
though  more  obscure  towards  the  beginning  on  account  of 
his  types  and  visions.  But  the  difficulties  arising  from  his 
alleged  obscurity  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact,  "  that 
some  of  his  predictions  relate  to  matters  which  are  still  in- 
volved in  the  womb  of  futurity  :  no  wonder,  then,  that  these 
fall  not  within  the  reach  of  our  perfect  comprehension.  Others 
there  are,  which  we  have  good  reason  to  believe  have  al- 
ready been  fulfilled,  but  do  not  appear  with  such  a  degree  of 
evidence,  as  they  probably  would  have  done,  if  we  had  been 
better  informed  concerning  the  time  and  facts  to  which  they 
relate.  With  respect  to  the  emblems  and  tynes  that  are  ex- 
hibited, they  are  most  of  them  of  easy  and  determinate  ap- 
plication. And  in  favour  of  the  importance  of  his  subject 
matter,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that,  next  to  Isaiah,  Zecha- 
riah is  the  most  evangelical  of  all  the  prophets,  having  more 
frequent  and  more  clear  and  direct  allusions  to  the  character 
and  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  his  kingdom,  than  any  of 
the  rest.  Nor  in  his  language  and  composition  do  we  find 
any  particular  bias  to  ohscurity,  except  that  the  quickness 
and  suddenness  of  the  transitions  are  sometimes  apt  to  con- 
found the  boundaries  of  discourse,  so  as  to  leave  the  less 
attentive  reader  at  a  loss  to  whom  the  several  parts  of  it  are 
to  be  ascribed.  But  upon  the  whole  we  shall  find  the  diction 
remarkably  pure,  the  construction  natural  and  perspicuous, 
and  the  style  judiciously  varied  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  subject;  simple  and  plain  in  the  narrative  and  historical 
parts ;  hut  in  those  that  are  wholly  prophetical,  the  latter 
chapters  in  particular,  rising  to  a  degree  of  elevation  and 
grandeur  scarcely  inferior  to  the  sublimest  of  the  inspired 
■  writings."! 

IV.  The  diversity  of  style  observable  in  the  writings  of 
this  prophet  has  induced  many-modern  critics  to  conclude 
that  the  last  six  chapters  could  not  have  been  written  by 
Zechariah :  but  their  objections,  however  formidable  in  ap- 
pearance, admit  of  an  easy  and  satisfactory  solution. 

1.  It  is  alleged  that  the  evangelist  Matthew  (xxvii.  9.) 
cites  a  passage  now  found  in  Zech.  xi.  13.  as  spoken,  not  by 
Zechariah,  but  by  Jeremiah.  But  it  is  more  probable  (as  we 
have  already  shown  in  the  first  volume  of  this  work),  that 
the  name  of  Jeremiah  has  slippetl  into  the  text  through  some 
mistake  of  the  transcribers. 

»  Dr  Blayney's  Translation  of  Zechariah,  Prel.  Disc.  pp.  xv.  xvi. 


2.  It  is  urged,  that  many  things  are  mentioned  in  these 
chapters,  which  by  no  means  correspond  with  Zechariah's 
time;  as,  when  events  are  foretold,  which  had  actually  taken 
place  before  that  time.  But  it  may  be  questioned,  whether 
those  subjects  of  prophecy  have  been  rightly  understood  ; 
and  whether  that,  which  has  been  construed  as  having  re- 
ference to  past  transactions,  may  not  in  reality  terminate  in 
others  of  a  later  period, 'and  some  perhaps  which  are  yet  to 
come. 

3.  Another  argument  is  drawn  from  ch.  xi.,  which  con- 
tains a  prophecy  of  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  j>eople 
of  the  Jews; — a  prophecy,  "which  (it  has  been  said)  is  not 
agreeable  to  the  scope  ot  Zechariah's  commission,  w  ho,  to- 
gether with  his  colleague  Haggai,  was  sent  to  encourage  the 
people,  lately  returnea  from  captivity,  to  build  their  temple, 
and  to  restore  their  commonwealth."  This,  it  is  granted, 
was  the  general  scope  of  Zechariah's  commission  in  the  first 
eight  chapters  ;  nor  would  it  have  been  a  fit  time  to  foretell 
the  destruction  of  both  the  temple  and  commonwealth,  while 
they  were  but  yet  building.  But,  between  the  date  of  these 
first  chapters  and  that  of  the  succeeding  ones,  many  circum- 
stances might  have  occurred,  and  certainly  did  occur,  to  give 
rise  to  a  commission  of  a  very  different  complexion  from  the 
foregoing.  The  former  are  expressly  dated  in  the  second 
and  fourth  years  of  the  reign  of  Darius ;  to  the  latter,  no 
date  at  all  is  annexed.  Darius  is  supposed  to  have  reigned 
thirty-six  years ;  and  the  Jews  have  a  tradition  that  the  three 
prophets,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  did  not  die  before 
the  last  year  of  that  king's  reign.  Admitting,  then,  Zecha- 
riah to  have  prophesied  again  towards  the  close  of  his  life, 
he  may  well  be  supposed  to  have  published  without  any  in- 
congruity, after  such  an  interval,  what  would  not  altogether 
have  accorded  with  the  period  and  purport  of  his  first  com- 
mission. And  as  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  this 
was  the  case  ;  so  upon  this  ground  we  may  also  not  improba- 
bly conclude  him  to  have  been  that  very  Zechariah  of  whom 
our  Saviour  spake  (Matt,  xxiii.  35.)  as  slain  between  the 
temple  and  the  altar.  For  he  was,  according  to  our  Saviour's 
description,  the  son  of  Barachias,  and  comes  in — where, 
from  what  is  said  of  him  he  might  naturally  be  expected — 
at  the  close  of  that  series  of  prophets  (for  there  were  none 
after  him  until  the  coming  of  Christ)  who  were  put  to  death 
in  the  faithful  discharge  of  their  duty.  That  he  was  become 
obnoxious  to  his  countrymen,  may  be  collected  from  ch.  xi.  8. 
And,  if  tlie  records  of  the  Old  Testament  are  silent  concern- 
ing his  death,  let  it  be  remembered  that  it  was  a  very  small 
part  of  them,  if  any,  that  was  written  after  that  event. 

4.  Lastly,  upon  the  same  supposition,  the  allowed  dif- 
ference of  style  and  manner  may  be  accounted  for,  not  only 
as  arising  from  the  diversity  of  the  subject,  but  from  the  dif- 
ferent age  of  the  author ;  who  may  well  be  credited  to  have 
written  with  more  dignity  in  his  advanced  years,  than  when 
he  was  but  a  youth,  as  he  is  said  to  be  in  ch.  ii.  4. 

Upon  the  whole  this  conclusion  may  be  drawn;  that, 
setting  aside  the  doubtful  authority  of  St.  Matthev/'s  text, 
there  is  nothing  else  to  be  found  sufficient  to  invalidate  the 
title  of  Zechariah  to  the  chapters  in  question  ;2  and,  conse- 
quently, that  it  was  not  written  by  Jeremiah,  as  Mede,  Dr. 
Hammond,  and  others  have  supposed,  nor  before  the  time  of 
that  prophet,  as  Archbishop  New.come  conjectured,  whose 
opinion  was  adopted  by  Archbishop  Seeker,  and  also  by 
Doederlein. 


§  3.  ON   .THE    BOOK    OF    THE    PROPHET    MALACHI. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.    Occasion  and  scope  of  his  prophecy. 
— III.  Jlnalysis  of  its  contents. — IV.  Style. 

BEFORE    CHRIST,  436 420. 

I.  Concerning  Malachi,  the  last  of  the  minor  prophets 
(which  name  signifies  my  antrel  or  my  7nesse7igcr),  so  little 
is  known,  that  it  has  been  doubted  whether  his  name  be  a 
proper  name,  or  only  a  generic  name,  signifying  the  angel 
of  the  Lord,  a  messenger,  a  prophet.  From  a  comparison 
of  Haggai  (i.  13.)  with  Malachi  (iii.  1.),  it  appears,  that  in 
those  times  the  appellation  of  Maluch-Jeliovah,  or  the  messen- 
ger of  the  Lord,  was  given  to  the  prophets.  The  Septuagint 
translators  have  rendered  Malachi  his  angel  insteaa  of  my 

2  Dr.  Blayney'.?  Translation  of  Zechariah,  pp.  35—37.  The  genuineness 
of  the  latter  part  of  Die  prophecy  ofZeehariah  is  satisfactorily  j)roved,  by 
a  minute  exaiuinaiinn  of  its  language,  style,  poetical  structure,  argument, 
and  scope,  by  I)r.  F.  R.  Koester,  in  his  Meleteziiala  Critica  in  Zechari® 
Prophets  Partem  posterioreni,  cap.  ix. — xiv.  pro  tuenda  ejus  authentiii.^ 
8vo.  Gottingae,  1819. 


Chap.  V.] 


ON  THE  APOCRYPHA. 


289 


nnirel,  as  the  original  imports 
hi  uii(l(!r 


and  several  of  the  f;ithers 
have  quoted  Malachi  uiidtir  the  name  of  the  an<rel  of  the 
Lord.  Origen  entertained  the  extravagant  notion,  tliat  Mala- 
chi was  an  angel  incarnate  sent  from  God.  ('almet,  after 
Jerome  and  some  other  ancient  writers,  thinks  that  Malachi 
was  the  same  person  as  lOzra,  who  wrote  the  canonical  hook 
that  passes  under  his  name,  and  was  governor  of  the  Jews 
after  their  return  from  the  captivity.  As  he  revised  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  collected  tlie  canon  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  performed  various  other  inijjortant  services  to  tlie  .lewish 
church,  Kzra  has  heen  considered  hoth  hy  ancient  .Jewish, 
and  also  hy  the  cmrly  ('hristian  writers,  as  a  very  extraordi- 
nary person  sent  from  (»od,  and  tlicnfore  they  thouglit  him 
very  appropriately  denominated  Malachi:  nut  fur  these 
opinions  there  is  no  foundation  whatever. 

It  is  certain  that  Malachi  was  a  distinct  person  from  Ezra, 
and  (as  Roscnnmller  observes)  the  whole  argument  of  his 
hook  proves  that  he  flourished  after  the  return  from  the  cap- 
tivity. That  he  was  contem])orary  with  Neiiemiah  was  the 
unvarying  opinion  of  the  ancients,  and  is  placed  beyond  all 
douht  by  the  suliject  of  the  book,  which  presents  the  same 
aspect  of  tiiinirs  as  in  Nehemiah's  time.  Thus,  it  speaks  of 
the  temple  as  naving  been  built  a  considerable  time; — it  in- 
troduces the  Jews  as  comj)laining  of  the  unfavourable  state 
of  their  aflliirs  ; — it  finds  fault  with  the  heathen  wives,  whom 
Nehemiah  after  some  time  separated  from  the  people  (Neh. 
xiii.  23 — 30.) ; — it  censures  the  withholding  of  tithes,  which 
was  also  noticed  by  Nehemiah.  (xiii.  5.)'  From  all  these 
circumstances  it  appears  that  Malachi  prophesied  while  Ne- 
hemiah was  governor  of  Judaa,  more  particularly  after  his 
second  coming  from  the  Persian  court ;  and  he  appears  to 
have  contributed  the  weight  of  his  exhortations  to  the  resto- 
ration of  the  Jewish  polity,  and  the  final  reform  established 
by  that  pious  and  excellent  governor.  Archbishop  Newcome 
supposes  this  prophet  to  have  flourished  about  the  year  436 
before  the  Christian  a;ra:  but  Dr.  Kennicott  places  him  about 
the  year  4'20  before  Christ,  which  date  is  adopted  by  Dr. 
Hales,  as  sufficiently  agreeing  with  the  description  of  Jose- 
phus  and  the  varying  dates  of  chronologers.^ 

11.  The  Jews,  having  rebuilt  the  temine  and  re-established 
the  worship  of  Jehovah,  after  the  death  of  Zerubbabel  and 
Joshua  relapsed  into  their  former  irreligion  in  consequence 
of  the  negligence  of  the  priests.  Although  they  were  sub- 
Bequently  reformed  during  the  governments  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  yet  they  fell  into  gross  abuses  after  the  death  of 
Ezra,  and  during  Nehemiah's  absence  at  the  court  of  Persia. 
The  prophet  Malachi  was  therefore  commissioned  to  reprove 
the  priests  and  people,  more  particularly  after  Nehemiah's 


second  return,  for  their  irreligious  practices,  and  to  invite 
them  to  repentance  and  reformation  of  life  by  promises  of 
the  great  blessings  that  should  be  bestowed  at  the  advent  of 
the  Messiah. 

III.  The  writings  of  Malachi,  which  consist  of  four  chap- 
ters, comprise  two  distinct  prophetic  discourses,  viz. 

DiRCouHSE  1.  The  Jews  having  complained  that  God  had  shown 
them  no  particular  kindness,  the  prophet  in  reply  reminds 
them  of  the  special  favour  which  CJod  had  bestowed  upon 
them  ;  their  country  being  a  cultivated  land,  while  that  of  the 
Edomites  was  laid  waste,  and  was  to  be  still  farther  devas- 
tated, by  the  Persian  armies  marching  through  those  territo- 
ries against  the  revolting  Egyptians,  (i  1 — 5.)  Malachi  then 
reproves  them  for  not  showing  due  reverence  to  God  (6 — 10.), 
for  which  their  rejection  is  threatened,  and  the  calling  of  the 
Gentiles  is  announced.  (11.)  The  divine  judgments  are 
threatened  both  against  the  priests  for  their  unfaithfulness  in 
their  oflice  (12 — 14.  ii.  1 — 10.),  and  also  for  the  unlawful 
intermarriages  of  the  people  with  idolatresses,  and  divorcing 
even  their  legitimate  wives.   (11 — 17.) 

DiscornsE  2.  foretells  the  coming  of  Christ,  and  his  forerunner 
John  the  Baptist,  under  the  name  of  Elias,  to  purify  the  sons 
of  Levi,  the  priests,  and  to  smite  the  land  with  a  curse, 
unless  they  all  repented.  Reproofs  are  interspersed  for  with- 
holding their  tithes  and  other  oblations,  and  also  for  their 
blasphemy  ;  and  the  reward  of  the  good  and  the  punishment 
of  the  wicked  are  predicted,  (iii.  iv.  1 — 3.)  The  prophecy 
concludes  with  enjoining  the  strict  observance  of  the  law,  since 
they  were  to  expect  no  pro[)het  until  the  forerunner  already 
promised  should  appear  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijah,  to 
introduce  the  Messiah,  and  commence  a  new  and  everlasting 
dispensation.  (4 — 6.)  "  The  great  and  tcnibic  day  of  the 
Lord,"  in  verse  5.  denotes  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Romans  a.  d.  70. ;  though  this  expression  may  also  be  applied 
to  the  general  dissolution  of  all  things,  agreeably  to  the  usual 
mode  of  speaking  among  the  prophets.  Compare  Isa.  xiii. 
9,  10,3 

IV.  Although  the  writings  of  this  prophet  are  almost 
wholly  in  prose,  yet  they  are  by  no  means  destitute  offeree 
and  elegance.  He  reproves  the  wickedness  of  his  country- 
men with  great  vehemence  ;  and  Bishop  Lowth  observes  that 
his  book  is  written  in  a  kind  of  middle  style,  which  seems 
to  indicate  that  the  Hebrew  poetry,  from  the  time  of  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  was  in  a  declining  state,  and,  being 
past  its  prime  and  vigour,  was  then  fast  verging  towards  the 
debility  of  age. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON  THE   APOCRYPHA.'' 


I.  Account  of  the  First  Book  of  Esdras. — II.  Of  the  Second  Book  of  Esdras. — III.  Of  the  Book  of  Tobit. — IV.  Of  the  Book 
of  Judith. — V.  Of  the  rest  of  the  Chapters  of  Esther. — VI.  Of  the' Book  of  Wisdom.— S\\.  Of  the  Book  of  Ecc/e'siasttcus. — 
VIII.  Of  Baruch. — IX.  Of  the  Song  of  the  Three  Children. — X.  Of  the'jlistory  of  Susanna. — XL  Of  Bel  and  the  Dragon. 
— XII.    Of  the  Prayer  of  JMa7ia8ses. — XIII.    Of  the  Book  of  Maccabees. 


I.  It  is  not  known  at  what  time  the  first  book  of  Esdras 
was  written  :  it  is  only  extant  in  Greek,  and  in  the  Alexan- 
drian manuscript  it  is  placed  before  the  canonical  book  of 
Ezra,  and  is  there  called  the  first  book  of  Ezra,  because  the 
events  related  in  it  occurred  prior  to  the  return  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  In  some  editions  of  the  Septuagint  it 
is  called  the^V.v/  book  of  the  priest  (meaning  Ezra),  the  au- 
thentic book  of  Ezra  bein^  called  the  second  book.  In  the 
editions  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  previous  to  the  council  of 
Trent,  this  and  the  following  book  are  styled  the  third  and 
fourth  books  of  Esdras,  those  of  Esdras  and  Nehemiah  being 
entitled  the  first  and  second  books.  The  author  of  this  book 
is  not  known;  it  is  compiled  from  the  books  of  Ezra  and 

'  Jahn's  Introduction,  p.  435. 

»  Arc4ibishop  Newcoine's  Minor  Prophets,  p.  xliii.  Kennicott,  Disser- 
talio  Generalis,  §  U.  p.  6.  Dr.  Hales's  Ajialysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii. 
p.  53.3. 

»  W.  Lowth  and  Reeves  on  Malachi. 

*  For  a  critical  account  of  the  reasons  why  the  Apocrvplial  Books,  which 
me  usually  printed  between  the  Old  and  New  Testauients,  are  justly 
rejected  from  the  canon  of  Scripture,  as  uninspired  writings,  see  Vol.  i. 
Appendix,  No.  I.  Section  I  pp.  43.^,  436. 

Vol.  II.  a  O 


Nehemiah,  which,  however,  it  contradicts  in  many  instances. 
The  first  hook  of  Esdras  is  chiefly  historical,  and  gives  an 
account  of  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity, the  building  of  the  temple,  and  the  re-establishment 
of  divine  Avorship.  The  style  of  this  book  is  much  purer 
than  that  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Septuagint  version,  and  is 
said  frequently  to  approach  that  of  Symmachus,  the  most  ele- 
gant of  all  the  Greek  translators  of  tlie  Bible.  Although  this 
book  is  often  cited  by  the  fathers,  it  is  rejected  by  Jerome  as 
being  spurious,  and  the  church  of  Rome  never  recognised  its 
canonical  authority  :  it  is  not  appointed  to  be  read  for  lessons 
in  the  Anglican  church.  There  is  a  Syriac  version  of  this 
book  extant. 

11.  In  what  language  the  second  book  of  Esdras  was  ori- 
ginally written,  it  seems  impossible  at  this  distant  period  to 
determine  with  certainty.  Alorinus  conjectures  that  it  was 
Hebrew,  or  perhaps  Chaldee,  from  which  it  was  translated 
into  Greek,  and  thence  into  Latin :'  and  this  conjecture  he 

»  Exercitationes  Biblicae,  lib.  ii.  p.  225. 


290 


ON  THE  APOCRYPHA. 


[Paut  V. 


grounds  upon  what  he  considers  to  be  its  evidently  Jewish 
style  and  phraseology.  Archbishop  Laurence  thinks  it  highly 
probable  that  the  Latin  version  was  immediately  and  literally 
taken  from  the  Greek  :  it  is  indisputably  of  very  high  anti- 
quity. It  is  also  extant  in  an  Arabic  translation,  the  date  of 
which  is  unknown,  and  in  an  Ethiopia  version  (where  it  is 
called  the  first  book  of  Esdras),'  which  cannot  be  traced 
higher  than  the  fourth  century :  both,  however,  seem  to  be 
taken  from  the  Greek,  and  difler  considerably  from  the  Latin 
version  :  which  last,  in  the  judgment  of  Dr.  Laurence,^  may 
be  advantageously  corrected  by  the  other  two.  In  the  Ethio- 
pic  version,  it  is  termed  the  first  book  of  Esdras.  Both  this 
and  the  Arabic  versions  have  only  from  Chapter  III,  to  Chap- 
ter XIV.  inclusive.  The  remaining  chapters,  as  found  m 
the  Latin  Vulgate,  have  clearly  no  connection  with  it,  but 
form  two  separate  apocryphal  pieces,  and  are  thus  dis- 
tinguished in  almost  all  the  manuscripts  of  the  Vulgate, 
thouo-h  they  are  now  printed  as  part  of  the  second  book  of 
Esdras. 

The  author  of  this  book  is  unknown;  although  he  person- 
ates Ezra,  it  is  manifest  from  the  style  and  contents  of  his 
book  that  he  lived  long  after  that  celebrated  Jewish  reformer. 
He  pretends  to  visions  and  revelations,  but  they  are  so  fanciful, 
indigested,  ridiculous,  and  absurd,  that  it  is  clear  that  the 
Holy  Spirit  could  have  no  concern  in  dictating  them.  He  be- 
lieved that  the  day  of  judgment  was  at  hand,  and  that  the  souls 
of  good  and  wicked  men  would  all  be  delivered  out  of  hell 
after  the  day  of  judgment.  Numerous  rabbinical  fables  occur 
in  this  book,  particularly  the  account  of  the  six  days'  crea- 
tion, and  the  story  of  Behemoth  and  Leviathan,  two  mon- 
strous creatures  that  are  designed  as  a  feast  for  the  elect  after 
the  day  of  resurrection,  &c.  He  says  that  the  ten  tribes  are 
gone  away  into  a  country  which  he  calls  Arsareth  (xiii.  40 
— 45.),  and  that  Ezra  restored  the  whole  body  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, which  had  been  entirely  lost.  (xiv.  21.)  And  he 
speaks  of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles  in  so  clear  a  manner, 
that  the  Gospel  itself  is  scarcely  more  explicit.  On  these 
accounts,  and  from  the  numerous  vestiges  ot  the  language  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  especially  of  the  Revelation  of 
Saint  John,  which  are  discoverable  in  this  book,  Molden- 
hawer  and  some  other  critics  conclude  that  it  was  written  by 
some  converted  Jew,  in  the  close  of  the  first  or  early  in  the 
second  century,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Esdras  or  Ezra. 
But  Archbishop  Laurence  considers  those  passages  to  be  in- 
terpolations, and  observes  that  the  character  which  the  un- 
known writer  gives  of  the  Messiah  is  a  very  ditferent  one 
from  what  a  Christian  would  have  given.  He  is  therefore 
of  opinion  that  this  book  was  written  by  a  Jew,  who  lived 
before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  osra ;  and  that,  as 
an  authentic  record  of  Jewish  opinions  on  several  interesting 
points  almost  immediately  before  the  rise  of  Christianity,  it 
seems  to  deserve  no  inconsiderable  attention.^  This  book 
was  rejected  as  apocryphal  by  Jerome. 

III.  Concerning  the  author  of  the  book  of  Tobit,  or  the 
time  when  he  flourished,  we  have  no  authentic  information. 
It  professes  to  relate  the  history  of  Tobit  and  his  family,  who 
were  carried  into  captivity  to  Nineveh  by  Shalmaneser ;  but 
it  contains  so  many  rabbinical  fables,  and  allusions  to  the 
Babylonian  demonology,  that  many  learned  men  consider  it 
as  an  ingenious  and  amusing  fiction,  calculated  to  form  a 
pious  temper,  and  to  teach  the  most  important  duties.  From 
some  apparent  coincidences  between  this  book  and  some 
parts  of  the  New  Testament,  Moldenhaweris  disposed  to  refer 
it  to  the  end  of  the  first  century  :  but  Jahn  and  most  other  com- 
mentators and  critics  think  it  was  written  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  or  two  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour. 
According  to  Jerome,  who  translated  the  book  of  Tobit  into 
Latin,  it  was  originally  written  in  Chaldee  by  some  Babylo- 
nian Jew.  It  was  probably  begun  by  Tobit,  continuea  by 
his  son  Tobias,  and  finished  by  some  other  individual  of  the 
family  ;  after  which  it  was  digested  into  the  order  in  which 
we  now  have  it.  There  is  a  GreeJc  version  of  this  hook  ex- 
tant, much  more  ancient  than  Jerome's  Latin  translittion :  for 
it  is  referred  to  by  Polycarp,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and 
other  fathers,  who  lived  long  before  the  time  of  Jerome. 
From  this  Greek  version  the  Syriac  translation  was  made, 
and  also  that  which  is  found  among  the  apocryphal  books  in 
our  Englisii  Bibles.  Although  the  book  of  Tobit  has  always 
been  rejected  from  the  sacred  canon,  it  was  cited  with  re- 
spect by  the  early  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  :  the  sim- 
plicity of  its  narrative,  and  the  pious  and  moral  lessons  it 

'  Primi  Ezrae  Libri  Versio  yElhiopica.  General  Remarks,  pp.  280— 
282.  291.  ^ 

a  Ibid.  pp.  309,  310.  320. 


inculcates,  have  imparted  to  it  an  interest,  which  has  rendered 
it  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  apocr)'phal  writings. 

IV.  The  BOOK  OF  Judith  professes  to  relate  the  defeat  of 
the  Assyrians  by  the  Jews,  through  the  instrumentality  of 
their  countrywoman  .fudith,  whose  genealogy  is  recorded  in 
the  eighth  chapter;  but  so  many  gcogi-aphical,  historical, 
and  chronological  difficulties  attend  this  book,  that  Luther, 
Grotius,  and  other  eminent  critics,  have  considered  it  rather 
as  a  drama  or  parable  than  a  real  history.  Dr.  Prideaux, 
however,  is  of  opinion  that  it  carries  with  it  the  air  of  a  true 
history  in  most  particulars,  except  that  of  the  long-continued 
peace  said  to  have  been  procured  by  Judith  ;  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  account  given  in  this  book,  must  have  continued 
t'ghty  years.  But,  as  the  Jews  never  enjoyed  a  peace  of  so 
long  continuance  since  they  were  a  nation,  he  is  disposed  to 
allow  that  circumstance  to  be  a  fiction,  though  he  is  inclined 
to  think  that  the  book  in  other  respects  is  a  true  history.  In 
opposition  to  tliis  opinion,  it  has  been  contended  by  Heideg- 
ger, Moldenhawer,  and  others,  that  if  it  were  a  true  history, 
some  notice  of  the  victory  it  records  would  have  been  taken 
by  Josephus,  who  is  on  no  occasion  deficient  when  an  oppor- 
tunity presents  itself  of  magnifying  the  achievements  ol  his 
countrymen.  Philo  is  equally  silent  concerning  this  book 
and  its  author.  The  time  when  and  the  place  where  he 
lived  are  totally  unknown.  Dr.  Prideaux  refers  the  book  to 
the  time  of  Rlanasseh ;  Jahn  assigns  it  to  the  age  of  the 
Maccabees,  and  thinks  it  was  written  to  animate  the  Jews 
against  the  Syrians.  Grotius  refers  it  to  the  same  period, 
and  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  wholly  a  parabolic  fiction  written 
in  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  when  he  came  into 
Judcea  to  persecute  the  Jewish  church,  and  that  its  design 
was  to  confirm  the  Jews,  under  that  persecution,  in  their 
hope  that  God  would  send  them  a  deliverer.  According  to 
him,  by  Judith  is  intended  Judaea  :  by  Bethulia  the  temple 
or  house  of  God  ;  and  by  the  sword  which  went  out  thence, 
the  prayers  of  the  saints  ;  Nebuchadonosor  denotes  the 
devil ;  Assyria  his  kingdom,  that  is,  pride  :  Holofernes  means 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  was  the  devil's  instrument  in 
that  persecution,  &c.  &c.  But  such  conjectures,  as  an  able 
commentator^  remarks,  however  ingenious,  are  better  calcu- 
lated to  exhibit  the  powers  of  fancy  and  the  abuse  of  learn- 
ing, than  to  investigate  truth,  or  throw  light  on  what  is  un- 
certain and' obscure. 

The  book  of  Judith  was  originally  written  in  Chaldee, 
and  translated  into  Latin.  Besides  this  translation,  there 
are  two  others, — one  in  Greek,  and  the  other  in  Syriac ;  the 
former  is  attributed  to  Theodotion,  but  is  certainly  much 
older,  for  it  is  cited  by  Clement  of  Rome  in  his  Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians,  who  flourished  sixty  years  before  Theiodo- 
tion.  The  Syriac  version  was  made  from  the  Greek,  whence 
also  our  present  English  translation  was  made.'* 

V.  "  The  rest  of  the  chapters  of  the  Book  of 
Esther,  which  are  found  neither  in  the  Hebrew  nor  in  the 
Chaldee,"  were  originally  written  in  Greek,  whence  they 
were  translated  into  Latin,  and  formed  part  of  the  Italic  or 
old  Latin  version  in  use  before  the  time  of  Jerome.  Being 
there  annexed  to  the  canonical  book,  they  passed  without 
censure,  but  were  rejected  by  Jerome  in  his  version,  because 
he  confined  himself  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  these 
chapters  never  were  extant  in  the  Pebrew  language.  They 
are  evidently  the  production  of  an  Hellenistic  Jew,  but  are 
considered  both  by  Jerome  and  Grotius  as  a  work  of  pure 
fiction,  which  was  annexed  to  the  canonical  book  of  Esther 
by  way  of  embellishment.* 

From  the  coincidence  between  some  of  these  apocryphal 
chapters  and  Josephus,  it  has  been  supposed  that  they  are  a 
compilation  from  the  Jewish  historian;  and  this  conjecture 
is  further  confirmed  by  the  mention  of  Ptolemy  and  Cleo- 
patra, who  lived  no  lon^  time  before  Josephus.  These  ad- 
ditions to  the  book  of  Esther  are  often  cited  by  the  fathers 
of  the  church  ;  and  the  council  of  Trent  has  assigned  them 
a  place  among  the  canonical  books. 

VI.  "  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon"  is.  commonly  ascribed 
to  that  Hebrew  monarch,  either  because  the  author  imitated 
his  sententious  manner  of  writing,  or  because  he  sometimes 
speaks  ui  his  name,  the  better  to  recommend  his  moral  pre- 
cepts. It  is,  however,  certain  that  Solomon  was  not  the 
author,  for  it  was  never  extant  in  Hebrew,  nor  received  into 

3  Mr.  Hewlett,  in  his  Preface  to  the  book  of  Judith. 

<  CJrolii  Pi  rofilio  ad  Annotationes  in  Libruni  Judith,  apud  Crit.  Sacr.  lorn. 
V.  p.  iiO.  Moldenhawer,  lutrod.  ad  Vet.  Test.  pp.  155—158.  Dr.  Prideaux's 
Connection,  vol.  i.  pp.  3(J — 40.    Jahn,  Introd.  ad  Vet.  Foed.  pp.  554—561.   ■ 

'  From  tlie  subscription  to  the  book  of  Esther  in  LXX.,  it  seems  to  have 
been  translated  b.  c.  1133. ;  at  which  time  it  is  probable  the  apocryphal  parts 
were  first  interpolated. 


Chap.  V.] 


ON  THE  APOCRYPHA. 


291 


the  Hftbrnw  canon,  nor  is  the  style  like  that  of  Solomon. 
Further,  it  is  cvi(h;nt  tii;it  it  could  not  have  hoen  written  hy 
him,  not  only  from  the  numerous  nassagrs  which  are  cited 
in  it  from  the  pro|)liecies  of  Isaiali  antf  .leremiah,  wlio  did 
not  live  till  lonjr  after  that  kiu<r's  rei<rn,  hut  also  from  its 
contradictions  of  liistorical  truth,  particularly  iu  ch.  xv.  14. 
where  the  author  represents  his  countrym(>n  as  beiujT  in  sub- 
jection to  enetuics,  whom  Ik;  descrihes  as  heing  "  most  foolish, 
and  more  miscrahle  than  the  very  hahes."  Whereas  we  are 
expressly  informed  by  tiu;  sacred  historian,  that  .ludah  and 
Israel  (uijoyed  tin;  {rrcatcst  ])f)ssil)le  prosperity  and  ])eace 
durinjT  the  reijrn  of  Solomon.  (1  Kiiij^s  iv.  '2(1,  '31.  'Jl,  '25.) 
To  which  W(!  may  add,  that  this  ho(jk  contains  several  words 
borrowed  from  the  (Jrecian  frames,  that  were  not  in  use  till 
lonjj  aft(!r  his  time;  for  instance,  cT«f:(v»<?o^s.i'  (iv.  '2.),  to  wear 
a  crown,  such  as  was  {riven  to  victors, — Tr'./x-nufn  (iv.  2.),  to 
make  a  triumphant  entry  as  the  victors  did,  after  they  had 
received  the  crown, — ±ym  (iv.  2.  x.  12.),  the  stadium  or 
place  appointed  for  the  race, — sS-as)/  (iv.  2.),  the  reward  ap- 
propriated to  the  successful  candidat(s — and  /?f,-jtCeuiiv  (x.  12.), 
to  conf(!r  the  prize  of  victory.  On  these  accounts,  .lerome' 
informs  us  that  several  ancient  writers  of  the  first  three  cen- 
turies ascribed  it  to  Philo  the  .lew,  a  native  of  Alexandria, 
who   flourished    in    the  first   century;  and   this  opinion    is 

Generally  adopted  by  the  moderns,  from  the  Platonic  notions 
iscoverable  in  it,  as  well  as  from  its  style,  which  evidently 
shows  that  it  was  the  production  of  an  Hellenistic  Jew  of 
Alexandria.  Drusius  indeed  attributes  it  to  another  Philo, 
more  ancient  than  the  person  just  mentioned,  and  who  is 
cited  by  Josephus  ;^  but  this  hypothesis  is  untenable,  be- 
cause the  author  of  the  book  of  Wisdom  was  confessedly  a 
Jew,  and  the  Philo  of  Drusius  was  a  heathen,  liishop 
Lowth  considers  this  book  evidently  to  be  the  production  of 
some  Hellenistic  Jew,  by  whom  it  was  originally  written  in 
Greek. 

The  book  of  Wisdom  consists  of  three  parts;  the  Jirxf, 
■which  is  written  in  the  name  of  Solomon,  contains  a  descrip- 
tion or  encomium  of  wisdom,  by  which  comprehensive  term 
the  ancient  Jews  understood  prudence  and  foresight,  know- 
ledge and  understanding,  and  principally  the  duties  of  religion 
and  morality.  This  division  includes  the  first  six  chapters. 
The  necond  part  points  out  the  source  of  true  wisdom  and  the 
means  of  oDtaiuing  it,  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  chapters. 
In  the  third  part,  comprising  the  remainder  of  the  book,  the 
author  personifies  Solomon,  in  whose  name  he  introduces  a 
long  and  tedious  prayer  or  address  to  the  Deity,  which  treats 
on  a  variety  of  topics,  differing  from  the  subject  of  the  two 
preceding  parts ;  viz.  reflections  on  the  history  and  conduct 
of  the  Israelites  during  their  journeyings  in  the  wilderness, 
and  their  subsequent  proneness  to  idolatry.  Hence  he  takes 
occasion  to  inveigh  against  idolatry,  the  origin  of  which  he 
investigates,  and  concludes  with  reflections  on  the  history  of 
the  people  of  God.  His  allegorical  interpretations  of  the 
Pentateuch,  and  the  precept  (xvi.  28.),  to  worship  God  before 
the  rising  of  the  sun,  have  induced  some  critics  to  think  that 
the  author  was  of  the  sect  of  the  Essenes. 

The  style  of  this  book.  Bishop  Lowth  pronounces  to  be 
very  unequal.  "  It  is  often  pompous  and  turgid,  as  well  as 
tedious  and  diffuse,  and  abounds  in  epithets,  directly  contrary 
to  the  practice  of  the  Hebrews ;  it  is,  however,  sometimes 
temperate,  poetical,  and  sublime."^  The  book  of  Wisdom 
has  always  been  admired  for  the  sublime  ideas  which  it  con- 
tains of  the  perfections  of  God,  and  for  the  excellent  moral 
tendency  of  its  precepts ;  on  which  account  some  of  the 
ancients  styled  it  Fanaretos,  or  the  treasury  of  virtue.  Al- 
though the  fathers  of  the  church,  and  particularly  Jerome, 
uniformly  considered  it  as  apocryphal,  yet  they  recommended 
its  perusal,  in  consideration  ot'  its  excellence.  The  third 
council  of  CarthaTO,  held  in  397,  pronounced  it  to  be  a 
canonical  book,  under  the  name  of  the  fourth  book  of  Solo- 
mon, and  the  council  of  Trent  confirmed  this  decision.  Tliree 
ancient  translations  of  it  are  extant,  in  Syriac,  Arabic,  and 
Latin  ;  the  last  was  executed  before  the  time  of  Jerome,  who 
says  that  he  did  not  correct  it.     It  is  full  of  barbarisms. 

V'll.  "The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach,  or  Ec- 
CLEsiASTicus,"  like  the  preceding,  has  sometimes  been  con- 
sidered as  the  production  of  Solomon,  whence  the  council  of 
Carthage  deemed  it  canonical,  under  the  title  of  the  fifth 
book  of  Solomon,  and  their  decision  was  adopted  by  the 
council  of  Trent.  It  is  however  manifest,  that  it  was  not, 
and  could  not,  be  written  by  Solomon,  because  allusion  is 


Praef.  in  Prov.  Sal. 


3  Bishop  Lowtlk'3  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  p.  179. 


»  Drusius  de  Henocho,  c.  11. 


made  (xlvii.  24,2.').)  to  the  captivity:  although  it  is  not 
improbable  that  the  author  collected  some  scattered  senti- 
ments ascribed  to  Solomon,  which  be  arranged  with  the  other 
materials  he  had  selected  for  his  work?  Sonntag  is  of 
opiuion  that  this  book  is  a  collection  of  fragments  or"miscel- 
laiieous  hints  for  a  large  work,  planned  out  and  begun,  but 
not  completed.'  Respecting  the  author  of  the  book  of 
Ecelesiasticus,  we  have  no  information  but  what  we  collect 
from  the  book  itself;  and  from  this  it  ap])ears  that  it  was 
written  by  a  person  of  the  name  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach, 
who  liati  travelled  in  pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  who,  aecord- 
iiig  to  lln  tschneider,'  lived  about  IHO  n.  c.  This  man  being 
deeply  conversant  with  the  Old  Testament,  and  having  col^ 
lectecl  many  things  from  the  prophets,  blended  them,  as"  well 
as  the  sentences  ascribed  to  Solomon,  with  the  result  of  his 
own  observation,  and  thus  endeavciured  to  ])roduce  an  ethicaj 
treatise  that  might  be  useful  to  his  countrymen.  This  book 
was  written  in  Hebrew,  or  rather  the  Svro-C;hal(laic  dialect 
then  in  use  in  Judsca,  and  was  translated  Ly  his  frrandson  into 
Greek,  about  the  year  130  b.  c.,«  for  the  iise  of  the  Alexan- 
drian Jews,  who  were  ignorant  of  the  language  of  Juda;a. 
The  translator  himself  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Sirach,  as  well  as  his  grandfather  the  author. 

The  book  of  Ecelesiasticus  "  is  a  collection,  without  any 
definite  order,  of  meditations  and  proverbs  relating  to  relitrion, 
to  morals,  and  to  the  conduct  of  human  life;  generally  dis- 
tinguished by  much  acuteness  of  thought,  and  propriety  of 
diction  ;  and  not  unfrequently  marked  by  considerable  beauty 
and  elegance  of  expression ;  and  occasionally  rising  to  the 
siiblimest  heights  of  human  eloquence."*'  From  tlie  great 
similarity  between  this  book  and  the  proverbs  of  Solomon,  in 
matter,  sentiments,  diction,  complexion  of  the  style,  and 
construction  of  the  per^-^ds.  Bishop  Lowth  is  of  opinion, 
that  the  author  adopted  lue  same  mode  of  versification  which 
is  found  in  the  Proverbs ;  and  that  he  has  performed  his 
translation  with  such  a  religious  regard  to  the  Hebrew  idiom, 
that,  were  it  literally  and  accurately  to  be  retranslated,  he 
has  very  little  doubt  that,  for  the  most  part,  the  original  dic- 
tion might  be  recovered.' 

This  book  has  met  with  general  and  deserved  esteem  in 
the  Western  church,  and  was  introduced  into  the  public 
service  by  the  venerable  reformers  and  compilers  of  our 
national  liturgy.  It  may  be  divided  into  three  parts;  the 
first  of  which  (from  ch.  i.  to  xliii.)  contains  a  commendation 
of  wisdom,  and  precepts  for  the  regulation  of  life,  that  are 
adapted  to  persons  of  all  classes  and  conditions,  and  of  every 
age  and  sex.  In  the  second  part,  the  author  celebrates  the 
patriarchs,  prophets,  and  other  distinguished  men  among  the 
Jews.  (xliv. — 1.)  And  the  third  part,  containing  the  fiftieth 
chapter,  concludes  with  a  prayer  or  hymn  of  the  author,  and 
an  exhortation  to  the  pursuit  of  wisdom. 

The  book  of  Ecelesiasticus  was  frequently  cited  by  the 
fathers  of  the  church  under  the  titles  of  «  ina-ju  lo^i^,  the  wis- 
dom of  Jesus,  n-xysifiiTcc  2.(i<piA,  wisdom,  the  treasure  of  all  the 
virtues,  or  Aoyoc,  the  discourse.  The  Latins  cite  it  under  the 
appellation  of  -Ecelesiasticus,  that  is,  a  book  which  was  read 
in  the  churches,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  book  of  Ecclesi- 
astes.  Anciently  it  was  put  into  the  hands  of  catechumens, 
on  account  of  the  edifying  nature  of  its  instruction ;  next  to 
the  inspired  writings,  a  collection  of  purer  moral  precepts 
does  not  exist.  Besides  the  Greek  copy  of  this  book,  and 
the  Latin  version,  there  are  two  versions  of  it,  one  in  Syriac, 
and  the  other  in  Arabic  ;  the  Latin  translation  is  supposed  to 
have  been  executed  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  sera : 
it  is  full  of  Greek  terms,  but  differs  widely  from  the  present 
Greek  of  Ecelesiasticus.  "The  authorized  English  version 
of  this  treatise  appears  to  have  been  made  from  the  Greek 
text,  as  exhibited  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  —  a  text 
which  has,  not  without  reason^  been  suspected  of  having 
been  made  conformable  in  many  places  to  the  Vulgate.  A 
new  translation,  made  immediately  from  the  Vatican  or 
Alexandrian  text,  would  exhibit  this  treatise  to  us  in  a  purer 
form."!* 

VIII.  The  book  of  Baruch  is  not  extant  in  Hebrew,  and 
only  in  Greek  and  Syriac;   but  in  what  language  it  was 

«  De  Jesu  Siracidaj  Ecclesiastico  Cominentarius.  4to.  Riga,  1792. 

»  Uretschneider,  Liber  Jesu  Slracidse.  Proleg.  pp.  10 — 32. 

«  Christian  Remembrancer,  May,  1327,  p.  202.  Addison  has  recorded  his 
opinion,  that  "the  litile  apocryphal  treatise,  entitled  the  Wisdom  of  the 
Son  of  Sirach,  would  be  resarded  by  our  modern  wits  as  one  of  the  most 
shinins  tracts  of  morality  that  is  extant,  if  it  appeared  under  the  name  of 
a  Confucius,  or  of  any  celebrated  Grecian  philosopher."  Spectator, 
No.  t». 

■>  Bishop  Lowth's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  p.  177. 

'  Christian  Remembrancer,  vol.  ix.  p.  263. 


292 


ON  THE  APOCRYPHA. 


[Part  V. 


orio-inally  written,  it  is  now  impossible  to  ascertain.  It  is 
equally  uncertain  by  whom  this  book  was  written,  and 
whether  it  contains  any  matters  historically  true,  or  whether 
the  whole  is  a  fiction.  Grotius  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  an 
entire  fiction,  and  that  it  was  composed  by  some  Hellenistic 
Jew  under  the  name  of  Baruch.  In  the  Vulgate  version  it  is 
placed  after  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  ;  but  it  was  never 
considered  as  a  canonical  book  by  the  Jews,  though,  in  the 
earliest  ages  of  Christianity,  it  was  cited  and  read  as  a  pro- 
duction entitled  to  credit.  The  principal  subject  of  the  book 
is  an  epistle,  pretended  to  be  sent  by  Jehoiakim  and  the  cap- 
tive Jews  in  Babylon,  to  their  brethren  in  Judah  and  Jeru- 
salem. The  last  chapter  contains  an  epistle  which  falsely 
bears  the  name  of  Jeremiah;  there  are  two  versions  of  this 
book  extant,  one  in  Syriac,  and  one  in  Arabic ;  the  Latin 
translation  in  the  Vulgate  is  prior  to  the  time  of  Jerome. 

IX.  "  The  Song  of  the  Three  Children"  is  placed  in 
the  Greek  versions  of  Daniel  (both  the  Septuagint  and  Theo- 
dotion's),  and  also  in  the  Vulgate  Latin  version,  between  the 
twenty-third  and  twenty-fourth  verses  of  the  third  chapter. 
It  does  not  appear  to  have  ever  been  extant  in  Hebrew,  and 
although  it  has  always  been  admired  for  the  piety  of  its 
sentiments,  it  was  never  admitted  to  be  canonical,  until  it 
was  recognised  by  the  council  of  Trent.  The  fifteenth  verse 
contains  a  direct  falsehood;  for  it  asserts  that  there  was  no 
prophet  at  that  time,  when  it  is  well  known  that  Daniel  and 
Ezekiel  both  exercised  the  prophetic  ministry  in  Babylon. 
This  apocryphal  fragment  is  therefore  most  probably  the 
production  of  some  Hellenistic  Jew.  The  hymn  (verses  29. 
et  seq.)  resembles  the  hundred  and  forty-eighth  Psalm.  It 
was  introduced  into  the  public  formularies  of  the  Christian 
church  very  early,  and  was  so  approved  of  by  the  compilers 
of  our  liturgy,  that,  in  the  first  Common  Prayer  Book  of 
King  Edward  VI.  it  was  retained  and  was  used  instead  of 
the  Fe  Deum  during  Lent,  though  it  is  now  seldom  read, 
except  perhaps  when  the  third  chapter  of  the  book  of  Daniel 
is  the  first  lesson.'  It  is  on  record,  that  this  hymn  was  used 
so  early  as  the  third  century  in  the  Liturgies  of  the  Chris- 
tian church. 

X.  The  History  of  Susanna  has  always  been  treated  with 
some  respect,  but  has  never  been  considered  as  canonical, 
though  the  council  of  Trent  admitted  it  into  the  number  of 
sacred  books.  It  is  evidently  the  work  of  some  Hellenistic 
Jew,2  and  in  the  Vulgate  version  it  forms  the  thirteenth 
chapter  of  the  book  of  Daniel,  being  avowedly  translated 
from  Theodotion's  Greek  version,  in  which  it  is  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  that  book.  The  Septuagint  version  of  Daniel 
(which  was  excluded  for  Theodotion's,  in  or  soon  after  the 
second  century)  does  not  contain  it,  as  appears  by  the  Chigi 
MS.,  published  at  Rome  in  1772.  Lamy  and  some  other 
modern  critics,  after  Julius  Africanus,  consider  it  to  be  both 
spurious  and  fabulous. 

XL  "  The  History  of  the  Destruction  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon"  was  always  rejected  by  the  Jewish  church :  it  is 
not  extant  either  in  the  Hebrew  or  the  Chaldee  language. 
Jerome  gives  it  no  better  title  than  that  of  the  fable  of  Bel 
and  ike  Dragon  ,■  nor  has  it  obtained  more  credit  with  pos- 
terity, except  with  the  divines  of  the  council  of  Trent,  who 
determined  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  canonical  Scriptures.  The 
design  of  this  fiction  is  to  render  idolatry  ridiculous,  and  to 
exalt  the  true  God;  but  the  author  has  destroyed  the  illusion 
of  his  fiction  by  transporting  to  Babylon  the  worship  of 
animals,  which  was  never  practised  in  that  country.  This 
book  forms  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  Daniel  in  the  Latin 
Vulgate;  in  the  Greek  it  was  called  the  prophecy  of  Hab- 
bakuk,  the  son  of  Jesus,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi ;  but  this  is 
evidently  false,  for  that  prophet  lived  before  the  time  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the  events  pretended  to  have  taken 
place  in  this  fable  are  assigned  to  the  time  of  Cyrus.  There 
are  two  Greek  texts  of  this  fragment,  that  of  the  Septuagint, 
and  that  found  in  Theodotioirs  Greek  version  of  Daniel. 
The  former  is  the  most  ancient,  and  has  been  translated  into 
Syriac.  The  Latin  and  Arabic  versions,  together  with  another 
Syriac  translation,  have  been  made  from  the  texts  of  Theo- 
dotion. 

XII.  "The  Prayer  of  Manasses,  king  of  Judah,  when 
he  was  holden  captive  in  Babylon,"  though  not  unworthy 
of  the  occasion  on  which  it  is  pretended  to  have  been  com- 
posed, was  never  recognised  as  canonical.  It  is  rejected  as 
spurious  even  by  the  church  of  Rome.     In  2  Chron.  xxxiii. 

»  Wheafley  on  Ihe  Common  Prayer,  chap.  iii.  sect.  12.  Shepherd  on  the 
Common  Prayer,  p.  2-31.    London,  1796,  8vo. 

"  Of  this  the  reader  may  see  a  proof  in  the  paranomasia,  or  play  upon 
Words,  which  has  already  been  noticed  in  p.  282.  of  this  volume. 


18,  19.  there  is  mention  of  a  prayer  by  the  king,  which  is 
said  to  be  written  "  in  the  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel,"  and 
also,  "  among  the  sayings  of  the  seers."  But  it  is  evident 
that  this  composition,  which  abounds  with  deeply  pious  and 
penitent  expressions,  cannot  be  the  prayer  there  alluded  to : 
tor  it  never  was  extant  in  Hebrew,  nor  can  it  be  traced  to  a 
higher  source  than  the  Vulgate  Latin  version.  As  it  is  men- 
tioned by  no  writer  more  ancient  than  the  pseudo-Clement, 
in  the  pretended  apostolical  constitutions,  which  were  com- 
piled in  the  fourth  century,  it  is  probable  that  this  prayer 
was  composed  by  some  unknown  person,  who  thought  lie 
could  supply  the  loss  of  the  original  prayer. 

XIII.  The  two  books  of  Maccabees  are  thus  denominated, 
because  they  relate  the  patriotic  and  gallant  exploits  of  Judas 
Maccaboetis  and  his  brethren :  they  are  both  admitted  into 
the  canon  of  Scripture  by  the  church  of  Rome. 

1.  The  FIRST  BOOK  contains  the  history  of  the  Jews,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  the 
death  of  Simon,  a  period  of  about  thirty-four  years.  Its 
original  language  has  been  greatly  controverted.  Jerome 
expressly  says  that  he  had  seen  the  original  in  Hebrew.' 
But  tliis  is  supposed  to  have  been  lost.^  The  title  which  it 
then  bore,  was  Sharbii  Sar  Bene  El,  which  has  been  vari- 
ously translated.  The  Scourge  of  the  Behels  against  the  Lord, 
and  The  Sceptre  of  the  Frince  of  the  Suns  of  God:  a  title 
which  is  not  unsuitable  to  the  character  of  Judas,  who  was 
a  valiant  commander  of  the  persecuted  Israelites.  The 
author  of  this  book  is  not  certainly  known;  some  conji^cture 
that  it  was  written  by  John  Hyrcanus,  the  son  of  Simcn, 
who  was  prince  and  high-priest  of  the  Jews  for  nearly  thirty 
years,  and  who  commenced  his  government  at  the  time  when 
this  history  ends;  by  others  it  is  ascribed  to  one  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, and  many  are  of  opinion  that  it  was  compiled  by  the 
Great  Synagogue.  It  is,  however,  not  improbable,  that  it 
was  composed  in  the  time  of  John  Hyrcanus,  when  the  wars 
of  the  Maccabees  were  terminated,  either  by  Hyrcanus  him- 
self, or  by  some  persons  employed  by  him.  From  the  Syro- 
Chaldaic  (or  Hebrew)  it  was  translated  into  Greek,  and 
thence  into  Latin.  Our  English  version  is  made  from  the 
Greek. ^  The  first  book  of  JMaccabees  is  a  most  valuable 
historical  monument,  written  with  great  accuracy  and  fidelity, 
on  which  more  reliance  may  be  placed  than  on  the  writings 
of  Josephus,  who  has  borrowed  his  materials  from  it,  and 
has  frequently  mistaken  its  meaning.'' 

2.  The  SECOND  book  of  Maccabees  consists  of  several 
pieces  compiled  by  an  unknown  author.  It  commences  with 
two  epistles  sent  from  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem  to  those  of 
Alexandria  and  Egypt,  exhorting  them  to  observe  the  feast 
of  the  dedication  of  the  new  altar,  erected  by  Judas  Macca- 
ba3us  on  his  purifying  the  temple.  These  epistles,  which 
are  confessedly  spurious,  are  followed  by  the  author's  preface 
to  his  history,  which  is  an  abridgment  of  a  larger  work, 
compiled  by  one  Jason,  an  Hellenistic  Jew  of  Cyrene ;  who 
wrote  in  Greek  the  history  of  Judas  Maccabajus  and  his 
brethren,  and  an  account  of  the  wars  against  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  and  his  son  Eupator,  in  five  books.  The  entire 
work  of  Jason  has  long  since  perished,  and  Dr.  Pridejux  is 
of  opinion'  that  the  author  of  this  second  book  of  Maccabees 
was  an  Hellenistic  Jew  of  Alexandria,  because  he  makes  a 
distinction  between  the  temple  in  tlgypt  and  that  at  Jerusa- 
lem, calling  the  latter  "  the  great  feniple.^^  Tliis  book  is  by 
no  means  equal  in  accuracy  to  the  first,  winch  it  contradicts 
in  some  instances;  it  is  not  arranged  in  chronological  order, 
and  sometimes  also  it  is  at  variance  with  the  inspired  writ- 
ings. Compare  2  Mace.  i.  18.  with  Ezra  iii.  2,  3.  and  ii. 
5 — 8.  with  Jer.  iii.  16.  The  second  book  of  Maccabees, 
therefore,  must  be  read  with  great  caution.  It  contains  the 
history  of  about  fifteen  years,  from  the  execution  of  the 
commission  of  Heliodorus,  who  was  sent  by  Seleucus  to 
bring  away  the  treasurea.of  the  temple,  to  the  victory  ob- 
tained by  Judas  Maccaba^us  over  Nicanor,  that  is,  from  the 
year  of  the  world  3828  to  3843.  Two  ancient  translations 
of  this  book  are  extant,  one  in  Syriac,  the  other  in  Latin ; 
both  are  prior  to  the  time  of  Jerome,  and  both  miserably  ex- 
ecuted. The  version  in  our  Bibles  was  executed  from  the 
Greek.  > 

3  Ilieron.  Prolog.  Galeat,  sive  Praef.  in  Lib.  Regum. 

«  Dr.  Kennicolt,  however,  in  his  "Dissertatio  Generalis,"  cites  two 
manuscripts,  one  of  which,  No.  47-1.,  is  preserved  at  Rome,  "Libr.  Maccab. 
Clialdaice,"  written  early  in  the  thirteenth  century  ;  a  second.  No.  613., 
existing  at  Hamburgh,  "Libr.  Maccab.  Hebraice,"  written  in  the  year 
1448.     Dr.  Cotton's  Five  Books  of  Maccabees,  p.  xxi. 

'  Prideaux's  Connection,  vol.  ii.  pp.  185,  186. 

6  Michaelis,  Introd.  to  New  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  71. 

'  Connection,  vol.  ii.  pp.  186,  187. 


Chap.  I.] 


ON  THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


293 


Besides  the  two  bonks  of  Maccabees  here  noticed,  there 
are  three  others  vvliich  bear  their  names,  but  very  impro- 
perly :  neither  of  tiiem  has  ever  been  reputed  canonical. 

3.  The  THIRD  BOOK  OF  Maccabees  contains  the  history  of 
the  persecution  of  the  .lews  in  Eqfypt  by  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pater,  and  their  suiferinirs  under  it.  From  its  style,  this 
nook  appears  to  have  been  written  by  some  Alexandrian 
Jew  :  it  abounds  with  the  most  absurd  fables.  With  regard 
to  its  subject,  it  oujrbt  in  strictness  to  be  called  the  first 
book  of  Maccabees,  as  the  events  it  professes  to  relate  oc- 
curred before  the  achievements  of  that  heroic  f  imily  ;  but  as 
it  is  of  less  authority  and  n^pute  than  the  other  two,  it  is 
reckoned  after  them.  It  is  extant  in  Syriac,  thouirh  the 
translator  seems  to  have  been  but  imperfectly  accjuaintc  d 
with  the  Greek  lan^ua<re;  and  it  is  also  found  in  some  an- 
cient uiamiscripts  of  the  CJreek  Se[)tuairint,  particularly  in 
the  Alexandrian  and  Vatican  manuscri|)ts  ;  but  it  was  nevt^r 
inserted  in  the  Latin  V'uljrate,  nor  in  our  Kiifjlish  Bibles.' 
Beinu;  reputed  to  be  a  canonical  book  by  tlie  (ireek  church, 
it  is  inserted  in  the  various  editions  of  the  Septuacrint:  a 
translation  of  the  third  book  of  Maccabees  is  inserted  in 
Beck(!'s  edition  of  the  Kiuflish  Bible,  printed  in  L'jSI  ;  a 
second  translation  Ity  Mr.  \\  histon  was  |)uhlished  in  liis 
"Authentic  Documents,"  in  two  volumes,  Kvo.  1711>-27; 
and  a  third  version,  made  by  the  Rev.  Clement  Crutwell, 
was  added  to  his  edition  of  the  authorized  Enfrlish  version, 
with  the  notes  of  Bishop  Wilson.  Dr.  Cotton  considers 
Mr.  W  histon's  version  to  be  the  more  faithful  of  the  three  ; 
but  he  has  not  held  himself  bound  to  retain  it  in  his  Enj^Hsh 
edition  of  the  five  books  of  Maccabees,  wherever  an  exami- 
nation of  the  original  suggested  an  alteration  as  advisable.^ 

4.  The  FOURTH  BOOK  OF  Maccabees  is  supposed  to  be  the 


same  as  the  book  "  concerning  the  government,  or  empire 
of  reason,"  ascribed  to  Josephus  by  Philostratus,  Kusebius, 
and  .lerome.  Its  author  is  not  known  :  it  is  extiut  in  the 
Vatican  and  Alexandrian  rnanu.srripts,  and  in  various  editions 
of  the  Sentuagint,  in  which  it  is  placed  after  the  three  books 
of  Maccabees,  but  it  is  not  extant  in  any  Latin  Bibles.  It 
is  designed  to  adorn  and  enlarge  the  history  of  old  Eleazar, 
and  of  the  seven  brothers,  who  with  their  mother  suflered 
martyrdom  under  Antiochus.  as  is  related  more  succinctly  in 
the  sixth  and  scnenlh  chapters  of  the  second  book  of  Mac- 
cabees.'  Dr.  Cotton  has  the  honour  of  giving  the  first  cor- 
rect English  version  of  this  book. 

5.  Tiie  FIFTH  BOOK  OF  Maccabees  is  the  work  of  an  un- 
known author,  who  lived  after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus ;  it  is  supnosed  to  have  been  compiled  from  the  acts  of 
each  successive  high-priest.  Althounrh  Calmet  is  of  opinion 
that  it  was  originally  written  in  llcbrew,  whence  it  was 
translated  into  Greek,  yet  it  is  not  now  extant  in  either  of 
those  languages.  It  is,  however,  extant  both  in  Syriac  and 
in  Arabic.  Dr.  Cotton  has  given  an  English  translation  of 
it  from  the  Latin  version  of  the  Arabic  texT,  ])rinted  in  Bishop 
Walton's  Polyirlott  edition  of  the  Bible.  This  book  "  is  a 
kind  of  chronicle  of  Jewish  alfairs,  commencing  with  the 
attempt  on  the  treasury  of  Jerusalem  by  Heliodonis  (with 
an  interpolation  of  the  history  of  the  Septuagint  version,  com- 
posed by  desire  of  Ptolemy),  and  reaching  down  to  the  birth 
of  (Jhrist ;  or,  speaking  accurately,  to  that  particular  point  of 
time,  at  which  Herod,  almost  glutted  with  the  noblest  blood 
of  the  Jews,  turned  his  murderous  hands  upon  the  members 
of  his  own  family  ;  and  completed  the  sad  tragedy  of  the 
Asmonajan  princes,  by  the  slaughter  of  his  own  wife  Mari- 
amne,  her  mother,  and  his  own  two  sons."^ 


PART  VI. 

ANALYSIS    OF    THE    NEW    TESTAMENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 


ON    THE    CLASSIFICATION    OP    THE    BOOKS    OP    THE    NEW    TESTAMENT 


Various  modes  of  arranging  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment have  obtained  at  different  times ;  nor  does  the  order  in 
which  they  are  to  be  found  in  manuscripts  correspond  with 
that  in  which  they  occur  in  the  printed  copies  and  modern 
translations.  In  the  time  of  Ignatius  (who  flourished  a.  d. 
107),  the  New  Testament  consisted  of  two  codes  or  collec- 
tions, called  "  Gospels,"  and  "  Epistles,"  or"  Gospels,"  and 
"  Apostles  ;"^  the  same  division  prevailed  in  the  time  of 
Tertullian,  a.  d.  '200.  (the  Acts  being  included  in  the  latter 
division),  who  called  the  Gospels  "  our  Digesta,"  in  allu- 
sion, as  it  seems,  to  some  collection  of  the  Roman  laws 
digested  into  order."  This  division  also  obtained  in  the  time 
of  Cyprian,  who  flourished  soon  after  Tertullian.^  About  a 
century  afterwards,  Athanasius,  or  the  author  of  the  Synopsis 
of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  attributed  to  him,  makes  the  New 
Testament  to  consist  of  eight  volumes  or  parts,  viz.  the  four 
Gospels ;  the  fifth  book  is  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ;  the  sixth 
contains  tlie  seven  Oatholic  Epistles;  the  .leventh,  the  four- 
teen Epistles  of  St.  Paul;  and  the  eighth,  the  Revelation  of 
Saint  John.  In  a  later  age,  Leontius  of  Byzantium^  (or  Con- 
stantinople) distributed  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
into  six  books  or  parts,  the  frst  of  which  c'omprised  the  Gos- 

Jels  of  Matthew  and  Mark ;   the  second  those  of  Luke  and 
ohn ;  the  third,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  the  fourth,  the 
seven  Catholic  Epistles ;  the  fifth,  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul ; 

•  Prideaux's  Connection,  vol.  ii.  p.  111.  8th  edit,  sul)  anno 21G. 
«  Cotton's  Five  Books  of  Macoaljces,  p.  xx. 

_  »  Calniet's  Preface  sur  le  IV.  livre  des  Maccabees.  Dissertationes,  torn. 
ii.  pp.  423 — J-28. ;  wliere  he  has  collected  all  the  traditionary  information 
extant  concerning  this  book. 

«  CotlCMi's  Five  Books  of  Maccabees,  p.  xxxii.  x.vxiv.  xxxi. 

»  See  the  passages  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  81, 82. :  4to. 
vol.  i.  pp.  3,2,  323.  rr       I        > 

•  Ibiil.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  273—282.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  431—433. 
■>  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  iii.  pp.  179.  180. ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  pp.  28,  29. 

»  De  Sectis,  art.  2.  cited  by  Heidegger,  Manuale  Biblicum,  p.  441  and 
Ruinpteus,  Com.  Crit.  ad  Libros  N.  T.  p.  97. 


and  the  sixth,  the  Apocalypse.  But  the  more  modern,  and 
certainly  more  convenient  arrangement,  is  that  of  the  Histori- 
cal, Budrinal,  and  Prophetical  Books. 

The  Historical  Books  are  such  as  contain  principally 
matters  of  fact,  though  points  of  faith  and  doctrine  are  also 
interwoven.  They  consist  of  two  parts  ;  the  firtit,  comprising 
the  four  Gospels,  relates  the  transactions  of  Jesus  Christ! 
These,  when  formed  into  a  volume,  have  sometimes  been 
collectively  termed  ^v^yy^Kioi,  the  Gospel,  and  t.vu.y^o.imVp-i'^M, 
the  Scripture  of  the  Gospels.  The  second  part  of  these  histo- 
rical books  relates  the  transactions  of  the  Apostles,  especially 
those  of  Peter  and  Paul,  and  comprises  the  books  called  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.  The  Doctrinal  Books  include  the 
fourteen  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  and  also  the  seven  Catholic 
Epistles,  so  called  because  they  were  chiefly  addressed  to 
the  converted  Jews,  who  were  dispersed  throughout  the  Ro- 
man empire.  The  appellation  of  Catholic  Epistles  is  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  being  mentioned  by  Eusebius,  Jerome, 
and  the  pseudo-Athanasius.s  The  Revelation  of  Saint  John 
forms  the  Prophetical  class  of  the  books  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

On  the  preceding  classification  we  may  remark,  that  the 
appellation  of  Historical  Books  is  given  to  the  Gospels  and 
Acts,  because  their  subject-matter  is  principally  historical ; 
and  that  the  Gospels  are  placed  frst,  on  account  of  the  im- 
portance of  their  contents,  which  relate  the  history  of  the  life, 
discourses,  doctrines,  miracles,  death,  resurrection,  and  as- 
cension of  Jesus  Christ,  which  form  the  primary  articles  of 
the  Christian  faith. 'o     The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  placed 

»  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  ii.  c.  23.  Hieronymi,  Cat.  Script.  Eccles. 
(Opp.  toin.  i.  pp.  169,  170.  Francof.  1684.)  Pseudo-Athanasii  Synops.  Sacr. 
Script,  in  Athanasii  Opp.  p.  59. 

'0  Considerable  discussion  has  taken  place  among  the  German  critics, 
and  some  few  critics  in  this  country,  respecting  the  sources  of  the  four 
Gospels.  Hypothesis  has  succeeded  to  hypothesis;  and  the  last  is  as  un- 
satisfactory as  the  first.  For  an  account  of  the  principal  theories  on  this 
subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Appendix  I.  to  this  volume. 


294 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  Chap.  IT. 


second  in  order,  because  they  continue  and  confirm  the  his- 
tory delivered  in  the  Gospels,  and  jrivo  an  account  of  the 
churches  which  were  planted  by  the  apostles.  The  Epis- 
tles hold  the  third  place,  because  tlicy  contain  instructions  to 
the  newly-planted  churches,  and  more  fully  explain,  confirm, 
and  apply  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  In  the  fuurlh  place 
comes  the  Apocalypse,  which.  Dr.  Mill  remarks,'  is  htiy 
placed  last,  because  it  predicts  things  that  are  hereafter  to  be 
fulfilled,  and  is  therefore  of  a  different  kind  from  the  rest : 
and  also  because  it  has,  towards  the  end,  that  remarkable 
clause  (Rev.  xxii.  18,  19.)  ajrainst  addin<r  to  or  taking  from 
it,  which  may  be  applied  to  all  the  books  ot  Scripture :  to 
which  observation  we  may  add,  that  there  are  strong  reasons 
for  believing  it  to  be  the  last  written  of  all  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament.2 

With  respect  to  the  order  in  which  particular  books  (espe- 
cially Saint  Paul's  Epistles)  are  to  be  placed  under  these 
respective  classes,  there  is  a  considerable  difference  of  opi- 
nion among  learned  men,  in  consequence  of  the  diversity  of 
the  dates  when  the  books  are  supposed  to  have  been  written. 


As  these  dates  are  particularly  considered  in  the  account  of 
each  book,  given  in  the  following  pages,  it  may  suffice  at 
present  to  remark  that  the  order  now  generally  received  is 
the  most  ancient,  being  that  adopted  by  Kusebins  in  the  early 
part  of  the  fourth  century,  as  it  had  probably  been  the  order 
adopted  by  Ignatius,  who  lived  at  the  close  of  the  first  and 
during  the  ft^rnier  half  of  the  second  centurj^.  Dr.  Lardner 
(in  whose  judgment  Bishop  Tomline'  has  acquiesced)  is  of 
opinion  that  the  received  order  is  the  best:  and  although  it 
is  both  entertaining  and  useful  to  know  the  order  in  which 
Saint  Paul's  epistles  were  written,  yet  he  is  of  opinion  that 
we  should  not  deviate  from  that  arrangement  which  has  been 
so  long  established  in  all  the  editions  of  the  original  Greek, 
as  well  as  in  all  modern  versions,  partly  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty which  would  attend  such  an  alteration,  and  also  because 
the  order  of  time  has  not  yet  been  settled  beyond  the  possi- 
bility of  dispute.'' 

The  following  table  will  perj^iaps  be  useful  to  the  student, 
as  exhibiting  at  one  view  the  various  classes  of  the  books  of 
the  New  Testament  above  enumerated. * 


The  Books  of  the  New  Testament  are, 


I.  Historical,  describing  the  history  of 


II.  Doctrinal,  com 
prising  all  the  Epis- 
ties  written  by  the 
\postle3,  either, 


1.  To  believing 
Gentiles,  as  Paul's 
Epistles, 


2.To  the  believing 
Jews,  as  it  is  pro- 
bable    all     these 
'■Epistles  were;  viz. 


I  I.  Jestis  Christ,  the  head  of  the  Church;  whose  genealogy,  birth,  life,  doctrine,  mira- 
cles, death,  resurrection,  and  ascension  are  recorded  by  the  four  evangelists  - 

2.  TliR  Christian  Church,  whose  primitive  plantation,  state,  and  increase,  both  among 
Jews  and  Gentiles,  are  declared  in  the       -  •  -  ... 


-1.  General,  which  Paul  wrote  unto  whole  churches  about  matters  of  general  and 
public  concernment,  as  the  Epistles  to  the  •  -  -  -  - 


2.     Particular,     to  C  1.  Public  or  Ecclesiastical  affairs,  as  his  Epistles  to 

particular     persons  j 

concerning,  '  g.  Priraie,  or  Economical  affairs,  as  his  Epistle  to 

/'I.  The  Epistle,  written  by  Paul  to  the       ...... 

[  fJames         ....... 

j  2.   The  seven  Epis-    Peter         ....... 

tj^esicommonly  called  J  f  General 

John  ..... 


General, 


the" 


Cathulic  Epistles,  of 


I  Particular 


in.  Prophetical,  foretelling  what  shall 
written  by  John  the  Apostle  ;  viz. 


[  Jude 


f  Matthew, 
j  Mark, 
1  Luke, 
I^John. 

i  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

f  Romans. 

I.  Corinthians. 

II.  Corinthians. 
Galatians. 
Ephesians. 
Philippians. 
Colossians. 

I.  Thessalonians. 
l^II,  Thessalonians. 
( I.  Timothy. 
]  II.  Timothy. 
(  Titus. 

Philemon. 

Hebrews. 

James. 
j  I.  Peter. 
)  II.  Peter. 

I  John, 
^  II.  John. 
t  III.  .lohn. 

Jude. 


be  the  future  .state  and  condition  of  the  Church  of  Christ  to  the  end  of  the  world,  ?  ^j^^  Revelations 


CHAPTER  II. 

ON    THE    HISTORICAL    BOOKS    OF    THE    NEW    TESTAMENT. 


SECTION  I. 

ON   THE    NAME  AND    NUMBER   OF   THE    CANONICAL    GOSPELS. 

I.   Observations  on  the  general  Appellation  of  Gospei.,  as  applied  to  the  Histories  of  Jesus  Christ.' 
Gospels. — III.   Their  JVtimber. — IV.  Importance  of  the  Gospels. 


-II.   General  Scope  of  the 


I.  The  word  ErAriEAiON,  which  we  translate  Gospel, 
among  Greek  profane  writers,^  signifies  any  good  tidings 
(from  Bj,  good,  and  uyyiKM,  a  message  or  tidings),  and  corres- 
ponds exactly  with  our  English  word  Gospel,  which  is  de- 
rived from  the  Saxon  words  sot),  God  or  good,  and  rp^i,  word 
or  tiding,  and  denotes  God's  word  or  good  tidings.  In  the 
New  Testament  this  term  is  confined  to  the  glad  tidings  of 
the  actual  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  is  even  opposed  to  the 
prophecies  concerning  Christ,  (ilom.  i.  1,  2.)  Thus,  in 
Matt.  xi.  5.  our  Lord  says,  "  the  poor  have  the  Gospel 
preached  to  them," — that  is,  the  advent  and  doctrines  of  the 
Messiah  or  Christ  are  preached  to  the  poor.  Hence  ecclesi- 
astical writers  gave  the  appellation  of  Gospels  to  the  lives 

»  Millii  Prolegom.  ad  Nov.  Test.  §239. 

»  RumpEei.  Comm.  Crit.  ad  Nov.  Test.  pp.  98—120.  Moldenhawer,  Introd. 
ad.  Lib.  Bibl.  pp.  204—206.     Heidegger,  IWanuale  Biblicum,  pp.  441—447. 

3  Elements  of  Christian  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  276. 

«  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  641—649. ;  4lo.  vol.  iii.  pp.  454 
—458. 

»  From  Roberts's  Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  692. 

«  On  the  various  meanings  of  the  word  EuMyy£>.iov,  Schleusner's  and 
Parkhurst's  Greek  LexicoHi  or  Leusden'a  Philologus  Griecus  (pp.  133— 
135.),  may  be  advantageously  consulted. 


of  Christ, — that  is,  to  those  sacred  histories  in  which  are 
recorded  the  "  good  tidings  of  great  joy  to  all  people,"  of  the 
advent  of  the  Messiah,  together  with  all  its  joyful  circum- 
stances ;  and  hence  the  authors  of  those  histories  have  ac- 
quired the  title  of  evangelists.''  Besides  this  general  title, 
the  sacred  writers  use  the  term  Gospel,  with  a  variety  of 
epithets,  which  it  may  be  necessary  to  mention. 

Thus,  it  is  called  the  Gospel  of  Peace  (Eph.  vi.  15.),  be- 
cause It  proclaims  peace  with  God  to  fallen  man,  through 
Jesus  Christ; — The  Gospel  of  God  concerning  his  Son  (Rom. 
i.  1 .  3.),  because  it  relates  every  thing  concerning  the  concep- 
tion, birth,  preaching,  miracles,  death,  resurrection,  and  as- 
cension of  Jesus  Christ; — The  Gospel  of  his  Son  (Rorh.  i. 

9,); The  Gospel  of  Salvation  {E^ph.  i.  13.),  because  it  offers 

salvation  to  the  lost  or  miserable ; — The  Gospel  of  the  King- 
dom of  God  (Matt.  iv.  23.  ix.  35.  xxiv.  14.  Mark  i.  14.), 
because  it  proclaims  the  power  and  dominion  of  the  Messiah, 
the  nature  and  privileges  of  his  kingdom,  its  laws,  and  the 
duties  of  its  suDJects; — The  Word  or  Doctrine  {hoyai)  of  the 

•  RosenmuUer,  Scholia  in  N.  T.  torn.  i.  pp.  2,  3.  Michaelis,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  1,  2. 


Sect.  TI.] 


ON  THi:  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MATTHEW. 


295 


Gospel  (^Acts  XV.  7.); — The  Word  of  Reconciliation  (2  Cor. 
V.  19.),  because  it  makes  known  tlie  manner  and  terms  by 
which  God  is  reconciled  to  sinners; — The  Gosjnl  of  Ghrry 
(or  the  {jlorious  Gospel)  of  the  bUn.sed  God  (I  Tim.  i.  11.), 
as  beinor  that  dispensation  wliicli  exhil)itsthe  irloryol'all  the 
divine  attributes  in  tlie  salvation  of  mankind  ; — and  The 
Gospel  of  the  Grace  of  God  (Acts  xx.  '21.),  because  it  is  a 
declaration  of  God's  free  favour  towards  all  men. — Tin;  bless- 
ingfs  and  privileges  promised  in  the  N(!W  Testament  (1  (^or. 
ix.  2.*^.) — The  public  profession  of  ('liristian  doctrine  (Mark 
viii.  .3.'>.  X.  29.  2  Tim.  i.  H.  Phiiim.  vcr.  13.);— and  in  Gal. 
i.  G.  8,  9.  any  new  doctrines,  whether  true  or  false,  are  re- 
spectively called  tlie  Govpel.^ 

II.  The  general  design  of  the  evangelists  in  writing  the 
Gospels  was,  doubtless,  to  confirm  the  C^hristians  of  that 
(and  every  succeeding)  age  in  their  b(dief  of  the  truth 
that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  God,  through  whom 
alone  they  can  obtain  eternal  life  (.lohn  xx.  31.),  and  also  to 
defend  this  momentous  truth  against  the  calunmies  of  the 
adversaries  of  the  Christian  faith.  For,  as  the  .lews,  and 
those  who  su|)ported  the  .Jewish  superstition,  would  calum- 
niate, and  endeavour  to  render  suspected,  the  oral  declara- 
tions of  the  apostles  concerning  the  life,  transactions,  and 
n^surrection  of  our  Saviour,  it  would  not  a  little  tend  to 
strengthen  the  faith  and  courage  of  the  first  Christians,  if  the 
most  important  events  in  the  liistory  of  Jesus  Christ  were 
committed  to  writing  in  a  narrative  which  should  set  forth 
his  dignity  and  divine  majesty.  This  task  was  executed  by 
two  apostles,  Matthew  anil  John,  and  two  companions  of  the 
apostles,  Mark  and  Luke,  if  indeed  Luke  was  not  one  of 
those  who  attended  the  ministry  of  Jesus  Christ.  Of  these 
evangelists,  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  have  chiefly  related 
the  actions  and  doctrines  of  Jesus  in  Galilee,  probably  on 
account  of  the  false  reports  circulated  by  the  Jews  of  Jeru- 
salem :  who,  being  unable  to  deny  the  memorable  and  noto- 
rious transactions  performed  there  by  Jesus  Christ,  seem  to 
have  directed  all  trieir  efforts  to  invalidate  the  credibility  of 
what  he  is  said  to  have  taught  and  done  in  Galilee.  This  is 
the  more  likely,  as  we  know  that  they  held  the  Galileans  in 
the  utmost  contempt,  as  well  as  every  thing  which  came  from 
that  country.  (John  vii.  52.)  Such  appears  to  have  been  the 
reason  why  these  three  evangelists  liave  related  the  transac- 
tions of  Jesus  Christ  in  Galilee  more  at  length ;  while,  with  the 
exception  of  his  passion  and  resurrection,  they  have  only 
touched  briefly  on  the  other  circumstances  of  his  life.  On 
the  contrary,  John  expatiates  more  largely  on  the  actions  and 
doctrines  of  our  Saviour  both  at  Jerusalem  and  in  Judaga, 
and  adds  a  variety  of  particulars  omitted  by  the  others, 

III.  The  Gospels  which  have  been  transmitted  to  us  are 
four  in  number;  and  we  learn  from  undoubted  authority  that 
four,  and  four  only,  were  ever  received  by  the  Christian 
church  as  the  genuine  and  inspired  writings  of  the  evange- 
lists.^ Many  of  the  ancient  fathers  have  attempted  to  assign 
the  reason  why  we  have  precisely  this  number  of  Gospels, 
and  have  fancied  that  they  discovered  a  mysterious  ana- 
logy between  the  four  Gospels  and  the  four  winds,  the 
four  regions  or  corners  of  the  earth,  the  four  rivers  of  Para- 
dise, and  the  four  corners  and  four  rings  of  the  ark  of  the 
covenant !  But  the  most  celebrated  analogy  is  that  of  the  four 
animals  described  by  Ezekiel  (i.  5 — 10.),  which  was  first 
observed  by  Irenaens,^  and  after  liim  by  Jerome,^  and  which 
^ve  rise  to  the  well-known  paintings  of  the  four  evangelists. 
The  following  table  exhibits,  the  most  probable  dates,  as  w^ell 
as  the  names  of  the  places,  where  the  historical  books  of  the 
New  Testament  were  written. 


GOSPELS. 

Matthew  (Hebrew)  f 

(Greek)     S 

Mark 

Luke  (Gospel)  , 

(Acts  of  the  Apostles)  < 

John 


PLACES. 

•  Jiida'a 

•  Rome .  • 
■  Greece 

Epiiesus 


A.  D. 

S       •      37  or  38. 

J       -  fil. 

between  CO  and  03. 

-  63  or  M. 

-  97  or  98. 


IV.  "  It  is  a  considerable  advantage  that  a  history  of  such 
importance  as  that  of  Jesus  Christ  has  been  recorded  by  the 

»  Dr.  Clarke's  Preface  to  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  p.  ii.  4. 

«  Irena>us  ailv.  Ha-res.  lib.  iii.  c.  U.  expressly  states  that  in  the  scromi 
century  the  fimr  Gospels  were  receiveil  by  the  cliurch.  See  additional 
teslinionies  to  the  number  of  the  Gospels  in  the  Index  to  Dr.  Lanlner's 
Works,  voce  Gospels. 

3  IrenaMis  adv.  Ha;res.  lib.  iii.  c.  U.  The  first  livlns  creature,  says  this 
father,  VN^iich  is  like  a  lion,  signifies  Christ's  elfieacy,  principality,  and 
regality  ;  viz.  John  ;— the  second,  like  a  calf,  denotes  his  sacerdotal  order, 
viz.  Luke ;— the  Uiird,  having  as  it  were  a  man's  face,  describes  hiscomin<' 
ui  the  rtesh  as  man,  viz.  Matthew;— and  the  fourth,  hke  a  flying  eagle! 
manifests  the  grace  of  the  Spirit  living  into  the  church,  viz.  Mark  ! ! 

'  Jerome,  Procem.  in  Mallh.  The  reader,  who  is  desirous  of  reading 
more  of  these  fanciful  analogies,  will  find  them  collected  by  Suicer,  in  liis 
Thesaurus  EcclesiasUcus,  torn.  i.  pp.  1222,  1223. 


pens  of  separate  and  independent  writers,  who,  from  the  con- 
tradictions, whether  real  or  apparent,  which  are  visible  in 
these  accounts,  have  incontestably  jjroved  that  they  did  not 
unite  with  a  view  of  imposing  a  fabulous  narrative  on  man- 
kind. That  Saint  Matthew  had  never  seen  the  Gospel  of 
Saint  Luke,  nor  Saint  Luke  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  is 
evident  from  a  comparison  of  their  writings.  The  Gospel 
of  Saint  Mark,  which  was  written  later,  miTst  likewise  have 
been  unknown  to  Sn'nt  Luke;  and  that  Saint  Mark  had 
ever  read  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Luke,  is  at  least  improbable, 
because  their  Gospels  so  frt  ouently  diirer."^  It  is  a  gene- 
rally received  opinion,  that  Saint  .Mark  made  use  of  Saint 
Matthew's  Gospel  in  the  composition  of  his  own :  but  this, 
it  will  be  shown  in  a  subseouent  page,<'  is  an  unfounded 
hypothesis.  The  (Jospel  of  Saint  John,  bein^  written  after 
tiic  other  three,  supplies  what  they  had  omitted.  Thus  have 
we  four  distinct  ancl  independent  writers  of  one  and  the  same 
history;  and  though  trifimg  variations  may  seem  to  exist  in 
their  narratives,  yei  these  admit  of  easy  solutions ;'  and  in 
all  matters  of  consequence,  whether  doctrinal  or  historical, 
there  is  such  a  manifest  agreement  between  them  as  is  to  be 
found  in  no  other  writings  whatever. 

"  Though  we  have  only  four  original  writers  of  the  life  of 
Jesus,  the  evidence  of  the  history  does  not  rest  on  the  testi- 
mony of  four  men.  Christianity  had  been  propagated  in  a 
great  part  of  the  world  before  any  of  them  had  written,  on 
the  testimony  of  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands,  who  had 
been  witnesses  of  the  great  facts  which  they  have  recorded ; 
so  that  the  writing  of  these  particular  books  is  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  the  cause,  but  rather  the  effict,  of  the  belief  of 
Christianity ;  nor  could  those  books  have  been  written  and 
received  as  they  were,  viz.  as  authentic  histories,  of  the  sub- 
ject of  which  all  persons  of  that  age  were  judges,  if  tlie 
facts  they  have  recorded  had  not  been  well  known  to  be 
true."'* 


SECTION  II. 


ON   THE    GOSPEL    BY    SAINT    MATTHEW. 

I.  Title. — XL  .Author.  —  TIL  Date.  —  IV.  In  -what  langvage 
ivritten. — V.  Genuineness  and  authenticity  of  Saint  JMat- 
theiv's  Gospel  in  general.  —  VI.  TIte  authenticity  of  the 
t-wo  frst  chapters  examined  and  substantiated.  —  VII, 
Scope  of  this  Gospel. — VIII.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. — IX. 
Observations  on  its  style. 

I.  In  some  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  and  the  earlier 
printed  editions,  as  well  as  in  the  Coptic  version  and  many 
Greek  and  Latin  fathers,  the  Title  of  this  book  is,  Eu^yjex/cy 
KXTx  Mxr^aucv,  "  Gospel  according  to  Matthew."  In  many 
other  MSS.,  however,  but  of  later  date,  it  is  To  xar*  MaT3-at/cv 
a>/cv  ^u:tyyfKio\i,  which  may  be  rendered  either,  "  The  Holy 
Gospel  according  to  Matthew,"  or  (which  is  adopted  in  our 
authorized  version),  "The  Gospel  according  to  Saint  Mat- 
thew." But  in  many  of  the  most  ancienf  Greek  manu- 
scripts, and  in  several  editions  it  is  To  lutTJ.  MaTS^oav  v^uxyyt- 
Xiiv,  which  in  the  ancient  Latin  versions  is  rendered  Evan- 
iriliutn  secundum  Mutthccum, — the  Gospel  according  to 
Matthew  :  kwt'j.  Mi-rS-oioy  being  equivalent  to  tcw  tAwr^a.u.v,  as 
the  preposition  jcara  is  used  by  Greek  writers  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  S  of  the  Hebrews  in  many  of  the  titles  of  the 
psalms, — to  indicate  the  author.  The  "  Gospel  according  to 
Alatthew-,"  therefore,  means  the  history  of  or  by  Matthew, 
concerning  the  life,  acts,  and  doctrines  of  Jesus  Christ:^  and 
as  the  evangelist's  design  is,  to  show  that  every  thing  done 
or  taught  by  Him  was  characteristic  of  the  Alcssiah,  Hug 
remarks,  that  his  book  deserved  to  be  called  ^u^yytKuv, — the 
consolatory  annunciation  of  the  IVIessiah ;  an  appellation, 
w;hich  (he  thinks)  was  subsequently  attached  to  all  the  other 
biographies  of  Jesus,  though  though  their  peculiar  aim  was 
entirely  different  from  that  of  Matthew. "^    In  the  Arabic  ver- 

«  Miehaelis,  vol.  iii.  p.  4. 

6  r-ee  Section  HI.  §  VIII.  infra. 

1  Sue  Vol.  1.  Part  II.  Book'H.  Chap.  VII.  on  the  Contradictions  which  are 
allcired  to  exist  in  the  Sciiplures. 

»  Dr.  Priestley's  Notes  on  the  Uible,  vol.  iii.  p.  7. 

»  .\  similar  mode  of  expressiiui  occurs  in  the  second  apocryphal  Book 
of  Maccabees  (ii.  13.),  where  we  readx»<  c  tcT,-  ua-o^notaTio-uois  xcii  kata 
TON  NEEMlAN,  in  our  version  rendered  "the   commentaries  of  Neb- 

MIAS." 

">  Prilii  Introd.  ad  Nov.  Test.  p.  169.  Kefmoel. Prolegomena  ad  Matthseum, 
§  2.  Hug's  Introd.  to  the  New  Teslamenl,  by  Dr  Wait,  vol.  ii.  p.  9.  Gries- 
bach's  edit,  of  the  New  Testament,  vol.  i.'on  Matt.  i.  1.  Moldenhawer, 
Introd.  ad  Libros  Biblicos,  p.  215. 


296 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap,  U. 


sion,  as  printed  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyorlott,  this  Gospel 
is  thus  entitled  :  "  The  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew  the  apostle, 
which  he  wrote  in  Hebrew  by  tlie  inspiration  of  the  Holy 
Spirit."  Li  the  Persian  version  it  is: — "The  Gospel  of 
Matthew,  which  was  spoken  in  tlie  Hebrew  tongue,  in  a  city 
of  Palestine,  but  written  in  Syriac  at  Antioch  ;"  and  in  the 
S3mac  version,  "The  Gospel,  the  preaching  of  Matthew." 
IL  Matthew,  surnamed  Levi,  was  the  son  of  Alpheus,  but 
not  of  that  Alpheus  or  Cleopas  who  was  the  father  of  James 
mentioned  in  Matt.  x.  3,  He  was  a  native  of  Galilee,  but  of 
what  city  in  that  country,  or  of  what  tribe  of  the  people  of 
Israel,  we  are  not  informed.  Before  his  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity, he  was  a  publican  or  tax-gatherer,  under  the  Romans, 
and  collected  the  customs  of  all  goods  exported  or  imported 
at  Capernaum,  a  maritime  town  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and 
also  received  the  tribute  paid  by  all  passengers  who  went  by 
water.  While  employea  "  at  the  receipt  of  custom,"  Jesus 
called  him  to  be  a  witness  of  his  words  and  works,  thus  con- 
ferrino  upon  him  the  honourable  office  of  an  apostle.  From 
that  tune  he  continued  with  Jesus  Christ,  a  familiar  attend- 
ant on  his  person,  a  spectator  of  his  public  and  private  con- 
duct, a  hearer  of  his  discourses,  a  witness  of  his  miracles, 
and  an  evidence  of  his  resurrection.  After  our  Saviour's 
ascension,  Matthew  continued  at  Jerusalem  with  the  other 
apostles,  and  with  them  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  was  en- 
dowed with  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  How  long  he  re- 
mained in  Judaea  after  that  event,  we  have  no  authentic 
account.  Socrates,  an  ecclesiastical  historian  of  the  fifth 
century,  relates,  that  when  the  apostles  went  abroad  to 
preach  to  the  Gentiles,  Thomas  took  Parthia  for  his  lot; 
Bartholomew,  India;  and  Matthew,  Ethiopia.  The  com- 
mon opinion  is  that  he  was  crowned  with  martyrdom  at 
Naddabar  or  Naddaver,  a  city  in  that  country :  but  this  is 
contradicted  by  the  account  of  Heracleon,  a  learned  Valen- 
tinian  of  the  second  century;  who,  as  cited  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria,!  reckons  Matthew  among  the  apostles  that  did 
not  die  by  martyrdom :  and  as  his  statement  is  not  contra- 
dicted by  Clement,  it  is  more  likely  to  be  true  than  the  rela- 
tion of  Socrates,  who  did  not  flourish  mitil  three  hundred 
years  after  Heracleon.^ 

III.  Matthew  is  generally  allowed  to  have  written  first  of 
all  the  evangelists.  His  Gospel  is  uniformly  placed  first  in 
all  the  codes  or  volumes  of  the  Gospels :  and  the  priority  is 
constantly  given  to  it  in  all  the  quotations  of  the  primitive 
fathers,  as  well  as  of  the  early  heretics.  Its  precedence, 
therefore,  is  unquestionable,  though  the  precise  time  when  it 
was  composed  is  a  question  that  has  been  greatly  agitated. 
Dr.  Mill,  Michaelis,  and  Bishop  Percy,  after  IreuEeus,^  assign 
to  it  the  year  61;  Moldenhawer,  to  61  or  62;  Dr.  Hales,  to 
63 ;  Dr.  Lardner  and  Mr.  Hewlett,  to  64 ;  Baronius,  Grotius, 
Wetstein,  Mr.  Jer.  Jones,  and  others,  after  Eusebius,^  to  41 ; 
Dr.  Benson,  to  43  ;  Dr.  Cave,  to  48  ;  Dr.  Owen  and  Bishop 
Tomline,  to  38  ;  and  Dr.  Townson,  to  the  year  37.  In  this 
conflict  of  opinions,  it  is  difficult  to  decide.  The  accounts 
left  us  by  the  ecclesiastical  writers  of  antiquity,  concernuig 
the  times  when  the  Gospels  were  written  or  published,  are 
so  vague,  confused,  and  discordant,  that  they  lead  us  to  no 
solid  or  certain  determination.  The  oldest  of  the  ancient 
fathers  collected  the  reports  of  their  own  times,  and  set  them 
down  for  certain  truths;  and  those  who  followed  adopted 
their  accounts  with  implicit  reverence.  Thus  traditions,  true 
or  false,  passed  on  from  one  writer  to  another,  without 
examination,  until  it  became  almost  too  late   to   examine 

I  Stromata,  lib.  4.  p.  502.  B.  See  the  passage  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Works, 
8vo.  vol.  vi.  p.  48. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  p.  159. 

*  Lardner's  Works,  vol.  vi.  pp.  45—47.  8vo. ;  or  vol.  iii.  pp.  157 — 159.  4to. 
Pritii  Introductio  Lectionem  Novi  Testamenti,  pp.  154 — 157.  Michaelis's 
Introduction,  vol.  iii.  pp.  96 — 99. 

3  Of  all  the  primitive  fathers,  Irenoeus  (who  flourished  in  the  second 
'  century)  is  the  only  one  who  has  said  any  thing  concerning  the  exact  lime 

when  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  was  written  ;  and  the  passage  (adv.  Haires.  lib. 
iii.  c.  1.)  in  which  he  has  mentioned  it,  is  so  obscure,  that  no  positive  con- 
clusion can  be  drawn  from  it.  Dr.  Lardner  (8vo.  vol.  vi.  p.  49.  ;  4to.  vol. 
iii.  p.  100.)  and  Dr.  Townson  (discourse  iv.  on  the  Gospels,  sect  iv.  §  (J.) 
understand  it  in  very  different  senses.  The  following  is  a  hteral  transla- 
tion of  the  original  passage,  which  the  reader  will  find  in  Dr.  Lardner's 
works.  Matthew  put  forth  (or  published)  a  gospel,  among  the  Hebrews 
while  Peter  and  Paul  were  preaching  the  Gospel  at  Rome  and  laying  the 
Jou7ulations  of  a  church  there.  Now,  though  it  does  not  appear  that  Peter 
was  at  Rome  until  after  Paul's  liberation  from  his  first  imprisonment,  a.  d. 
63,  yet  we  know  that  the  latter  arrived  there  in  the  spring  of  a.  d.  61,  con- 
sequently the  date  intended  by  Ireneeus  must  be  the  year  61. 

4  Eusebius,  who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century,  merely 
says  that  Matthew,  after  preaching  to  the  Hebrews,  wrote  his  Gospel  for 
their  information,  previously  to  his  going  to  evangelize  other  nations  (Eccl. 
Hist.  lib.  iii.  c.  24.);  but  he  does  not  specify  the  time,  nor  is  it  mentioned 
by  any  other  ancient  writer.  In  his  Chrnnicon,  however,  Eusebius  places 
the  writings  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  in  the  third  year  of  the  r?ign  of  the 
emperor  Caligula,  that  is,  eight  years  after  Christ's  ascension,  or  a.  d.  41. 


them  to  any  purpose.  Since,  then,  external  evidence  affords 
us  but  little  assistance,  it  becomes  necessary  to  have  recourse 
to  the  internal  testimony  which  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew 
aflbrds,  and  we  apprehend  that  it  will  be  found  to  prepon- 
derate in  favour  of  an  early  date. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  by  no  means  probable  that  the 
Christians  should  be  left  any  considerable  number  of  years 
without  a  genuine  and  authentic  written  history  of  our 
Saviour's  ministry.  "  It  is  certain,"  Bishop  Tomline  re- 
marks, "that  the  apostles  immediately  after  the  descent 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  took  place  only  ten  days  after  the 
ascension  of  our  Saviour  into  heaven,  preached  the  Gospel 
to  the  Jews  with  great  success:  and  surely  it  is  reasonaole 
to  suppose  that  an  authentic  account  of  our  Saviour's  doc- 
trines and  miracles  would  very  soon  be  committed  to  writing 
for  the  confirmation  of  those  who  believed  in  his  divine 
mission,  and  for  the  conversion  of  others,  and  more  particu- 
larly to  enable  the  Jews  to  compare  the  circumstances  of  the 
birth,  death,  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  with  their  ancient 
prophecies  relative  to  the  Messiah :  and  we  may  conceive 
that  the  apostles  would  be  desirous  of  losing  no  time  in 
writing  an  account  of  the  miracles  which  Jesus  performed, 
and  of  the  discourses  which  he  delivered,  because,  the  sooner 
such  an  account  was  published,  the  easier  it  would  be  to 
inquire  into  its  truth  and  accuracy;  and,  consequently,  when 
these  points  were  satisfactorily  ascertained,  the  greater  would 
be  its  weight  and  authority.""  On  these  accounts  the  learned 
prelate  assigns  the  date  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  to  the 
year  38. 

Secondly,  as  the  sacred  writers  had  a  regard  to  the  circum- 
stances of  the  persons  for  whose  use  they  wrote,  we  have  an 
additional  evidence  for  the  early  date  of  this  Gospel,  in  the 
state  of  persecution  in  which  the  church  was  at  the  time 
when  it  was  written  :  for  it  contains  many  obvious  references 
to  such  a  state,  and  many  very  apposite  addresses  botli  to 
the  injured  and  to  the  injurious  party. 

1.  Thus,  the  evangelist  informs  the  injured  and  persecuted 
Christians,  that  their  afflictions  were  no  more  than  they  had  been 
taught  to  expect,  and  had  promised  to  bear,  when  they  embraced 
the  Gospel  (x.  21,  '22.  34 — 36.  xvi.  24.);  that,  however  unrea- 
sonable their  sufferings  might  be,  considered  as  the  effects  of  the 
malice  of  their  enemies,  they  were  yet  useful  and  profitable  to 
themselves,  considered  as  trials  of  their  faith  and  fidelity  (v.  11. 
xxiv.  9 — 13.)  ;  that,  though  they  were  grievous  to  be  borne  at 
present,  yet  they  operated  powerfully  to  their  future  joy  (\.  4. 
10 — 12.)  ;  that  a  pusillanimous  desertion  of  the  faith  would  be  so 
far  from  bettering  their  state  and  condition,  that  it  would  infal- 
libly expose  them  to  greater  calamities,  and  cut  them  off  from  the 
hopes  of  heaven  (x.  28.  32,  33.  39.)  ;  that  they  were  not,  how- 
ever, forbidden  to  use  the  lawful  means  of  preservation ;  but  even 
enjoined  to  put  them  in  practice,  whenever  they  could  do  it  with 
innocence  (x.  16,  17.  23.)  ;  that  the  due  observance  of  the  Chris- 
tian precepts  was  an  excellent  method  to  appease  the  wrath  and 
fury  of  their  enemies,  and  what  therefore  they  were  obliged  in 
point  of  prudence  as  well  as  duty  carefully  to  mind  and  attend  to 
(v.  39.  vii.  12.  24 — 27.  v.  13—20.)  ;  that  if  it  should  be  their 
fate  to  suffer  martyrdom  at  last  for  their  religion,  it  was  infinitely 
better  to  continue  faithful  to  their  important  trust,  than  by  any 
base  compliance  to  incur  his  displeasure,  in  whose  hands  are  the 
issues  not  only  of  this  life,  but  also  of  that  ,which  is  to  come, 
(xvi.  25—27.  X.  28.) 

2.  On  the  other  hand,  again,  to  calm  the  passions  of  the  en- 
raged Jews,  and  win  them  over  to  the  profession  of  the  Gospel, 
he  labours  to  soften  and  abate  their  prejudices,  and  to  engage 
them  in  the  practice  of  meekness  and  charity,  (ix.  13.)     To  this 

'  Elem.  of  Christ.  Thcol.  vol.  i.  p.  301.  The  following  observations  of 
the  prolbund  critic  Le  Clerc  will  materially  confirm  the  preceding  re- 
marks. "Those,"  says  he,  "who  think  that  the  Gospels  were  written  so 
late  as  Irenajus  states,  and  who  supposes  that,  for  the  space  of  about  thirty 
years  a<lter  our  Lord's  ascension,  there  were  many  spurious  gospels  in  the 
hands  of  the  Christians,  aild  not  one  that  was  genuine  and  authentic,  do 
unwarily  cast  a  very  great  retlection  upon  the  wisdom  of  the  apostles. 
For,  what  could  have  been  more  imprudent  in  them,  than  tamely  to  have 
suffered  the  idle  stories  concerning  Christ  to  be  read  by  the  Christians, 
and  not  to  contradict  them  by  some  authentic  history,  written  by^some 
credible  persons,  which  might  reach  the  knowledge  of  all  men  1  For  my 
part,  I  can  never  be  persuaded  to  entertain  so  mean  an  opinion  of  men 
under  the  direction  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Besides,  Matthew  has  delivered 
to  us,  not  only  the  actions,  but  also  the  discourses  of  Christ;  and  this  he 
nmst  necessarily  be  able  to  do  with  the  greater  certainty,  while  they  were 
fresh  in  his  memory,  than  when,  throuf,h  length  of  time,  he  began  to  lose 
the  impressions  of  them.  It  is  true  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was  witli  the  apos- 
tles, to  bring  all  the  things  to  their  remembrance,  which  they  had  received 
of  Christ,  according  to^his  promise  (John  xiv.  26.) :  but  the  Holy  Spirit -not 
only  inspired  them,  but  also  dealt  with  them  according  to  their  natural' 
powers,  as  the  variety  of  expressions  in  the  Gospel  shows."  Clerici  Hist. . 
Eccl.  ssecLili  i.  a.  d.  lxii.  §  9. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MATTHEW. 


297 


end,  he  lays  before  them  the  dignity  and  aniiablcness  of  a  com- 
passionate, benevolent  disposition  (v.  43.  "18.  xviii.  *i3 — 3.5.)  ;' 
the  natural  good  consequences  that  are  annexed  to  it  here ;  and 
the  distinguished  regard  which  the  Almighty  himself  will  pay  to 
it  hereafter,  (v.  5.  7.  9.  x.  40— 42.  xviii.  23— 3.5.  v.  21— 26. 
XXV.  31 — 46.)  Then  he  reminds  them  of  the  repealed  punish- 
ments which  God  had  inflicted  on  their  forefathers  for  their  cruel 
and  barbarous  treatment  of  his  prophets,  and  assures  them  that  a 
still  more  accumulated  vengeance  was  reserved  for  themselves,  if 
they  obstinately  persisted  in  the  ways  of  cruelty  (xxiii.  27 — 3i). 
X.  14,  15.)  ;  for  God,  though  patient  and  long-suircriiig,  was  sure 
at  last  to  vindicate  his  elect,  and  to  punish  their  oppressors,  un- 
less they  repented,  believed,  and  reformed,  with  the  dreadful 
rigour  of  a  general  destruction,  (xxiv.  2.  &c.) 

These  and  similar  arjruments  which  Saint  Matthew  has 
inserted  in  the  body  of  his  Gospel  (l)y  way  of  eoinfort  to  the 
afflicted  Christians,  and  also  as  a  vvarninfr  to  their  injurious 
oppressors  and  persecutors")  evidently  refer  to  a  state  of  dis- 
tress and  persecution  under  which  the  cliureh  of  Christ 
laboured  at  the  time  when  the  evangelist  advanced  and  ur<red 
them.  Now  the  greatest  persecution  ever  raised  against  the 
church,  while  it  was  composed  only  of  Jewish  and  Samaritan 
converts,  was  that  which  was  commenced  by  the  Saniiedrin, 
and  was  afterwards  continued  and  conducted  by  Saul  witli 
iiftplacable  rage  and  fury.  During  this  calamity,  wliich 
lasted  in  the  whole  about  six  years,  viz.  till  the  third  year 
of  Caligula  a.  d.  39  or  40  (when  the  Jews  were  too  much 
alarmedconcernin^  their  own  affairs  to  give  any  further  dis- 
turbance to  the  Christians),  the  members  of  the  (yhristian 
church  stood  in  need  of  all  the  supnort,  consolation,  and 
assistance  that  could  be  administered  to  them.  But  what 
comfort  could  they  possibly  receive,  in  their  distressed  situa- 
tion, conriparable  to  that  which  resulted  from  the  example  of 
their  suffering  Master,  and  the  promise  he  had  made  to  his 
f^iithful  followers "?  This  example,  and  those  promises,  Saint 
Matthew  seasonably  laid  before  them,  towards  the  close  of 
this  period  of  trial,  for  their  imitation  and  encouragement, 
and  (lelivered  it  to  them,  as  the  anchor  of  their  hope,  to  keep 
them  steadfast  in  this  violent  tempest.  From  this  considera- 
tion Dr.  Owen  was  led  to  fix  the  date  of  Saint  Matthew's 
Gospel  to  the  year  38. ^ 

Tnirdly,  Samt  Matthew  ascribes  those  titles  of  sanctity  to 
Jerusalem,  by  which  it  had  been  distinguished  by  the  pro- 
phets and  ancient  historians,^  and  also  testifies  a  higher 
veneration  for  the  temple  than  the  other  evangelists :'  and 
this  fact  proves  that  his  Gospel  was  written  bcfure  tbe  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  not  after  it,  as  a  recent  scoffmg  anta- 
fonist  of  Christianity  has  asserted,  contrary  to  all  evidence, 
'he  evangelist's  comparative  gentleness  in  mentioning  John 
the  Baptist's  reproof  of  Herod,  and  his  silence  concerning 
the  insults  offered  by  Herod  to  our  Lord  on  the  morning  of 
his  crucifixion,  are  additional  evidences  for  the  early  date  of 
his  Gospel :  for,  as  Herod  was  still  reigning  in  Galilee,  the 
evangelist  diplayed  no  more  of  that  sovereign's  bad  character 
than  was  absolutely  necessary,  lest  he  should  excite  Herod's 
jealousy  of  his  believing  subjects  or  their  disaffection  to  him. 
If  he  was  influenced  by  these  motives,  he  must  have  written 
before  the  year  39,  for  in  that  year  Herod  was  deposed  and 
banished  to  Lyons  by  Caligula. 

Lastly,  to  omit  circumstances  of  minor  importance,  Mat- 
thew's frequent  mention  (not  fewer  than  nine  times)  of  Pilate, 
as  being  then  actually  governor  of  Judaja,  is  an  additional 
evidence  of  the  early  date  of  his  Gospel.  For  Josephus' 
informs  us,  that  Pilate  having  been  ordered  by  Vitellius, 
governor  of  Syria,  to  go  to  Rome,  to  answer  a  complaint  of 
Uie  Samaritans  before  the  einperor,  hastened  thither,  but  be- 
fore he  arrived  the  emperor  was  dead.  Now,  as  Tiberius 
died  in  the  spring  of  37,  it  is  highly  probable  that  Saint 
Matthew's  Gospel  was  written  by  that  time.'' 

Dr.  Lardner,"  however,  and  Bishop  Percy,*  think  that  they 
discover  marks  of  a  lower  date  in  Saint  Matthew's  writings. 
They  argue  from  the  knowledge  which  he  shows  of  tiie 
spirituality  of  the  Gospel,  and  of  the  excellence  of  the  moral 
above  the  ceremonial  law :  and  from  the  great  clearness  with 

»  The  same  temper  is  also  particularly  illustrated  in  all  our  Saviour's 
miracles. 

»  Owen's  Observations  on  the  Four  Gospels  (Svo.  Lonr).  1764.),  pp.  8 — 21. 

»  Compare  Neh.  xi.  1. 18.  Isa.  xlviii.2.  lil.  1.  Uan.  ix.  at.  with  Matt.  iv.  5. 
V.  35.  xxvii.  S3. 

*  Compare  Matt.  xxi.  12.  with  Mark  xi.  15.  Luke  xix.  45.  and  Matt.  xxvi.  61. 
with  Mark  xiv.  58. 

»  KnX.  Juil.  lil).  xviii.  c.  iv.  §2. 

«  Dr.  Townson's  Discourses  on  the  Gospels,  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  107 — 115. 

'  Works,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  57,  58. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  I(j3, 164. 

»  Key  to  the  New  Test.  p.  56.  3d  edit. 

Vol.  II.  2  P 


which  the  comprehensive  design  of  the  Christian  dispensa- 
tion, as  extending  to  the  whole  Gentile  world,  together  with 
the  rejection  of  the  Jews,  is  unfolded  in  this  Gospel.  Of 
these  topics,  they  suppose  the  evangelist  not  to  have  treated, 
until  a  course  of  years  had  developed  their  meaning,  removed 
his  Jewish  prejudices,  and  given  nirn  a  clearer  discernment 
of  their  nature. 

This  objection,  however,  carries  but  little  force  with  it. 
For,  in  the  first  i)lace,  as  Dr.  Townson  has  justly  observed, 
with  regard  to  the  doctrinal  part  of  his  Gos|)(l,  if  Saint 
Matthew  exhibits  a  noble  idea  of  pure  n.'ligion  and  morality, 
Im  U^aches  no  nmre  than  he  had  heard  fre()uently  taught,  and 
often  opposed  to  the  maxims  of  the  Jews,  by  his  divine 
InslructfT.  And  when  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  guide  into  all 
truth,  hiid  descended  upon  him,  it  seems  strange  to  imagine 
that  he  still  wauled  twenty  or  thirty  years  to  enlighten  his 
mind.  If  he  was  not  then  furnislud  with  knowledge  to 
relate  these  things  as  an  evangelist,  how  was  he  qualified  to 
preach  them  to  the  Jews  as  an  apostle? 

In  the  next  place,  it  is  true  that  the  prophetic  parts  of  his 
Gosptd  declare  the  extent  of  Christ's  kingdom,  and  the  call- 
ing and  acceptance  of  the  Gentiles.  But  these  events  had 
been  plainly  foretold  by  the  ancient  prophets,  and  were  ex- 
pected by  devout  Israelites  to  happen  in  the  days  of  the  Mes- 
siah ;'■'  and  in  those  passages  which  relate  to  the  universality 
of  the  (iospel  dispensation,  the  evangelist  merely  states  that 
the  Gospel  would  be  successfully  preached  among  the  Gen- 
tiles in  all  parts  of  the  earth.  He  only  recites  the  words  of 
our  Saviour  without  any  explanation  or  remark  ;  and  we  know 
it  was  promised  to  the  ajioslles,  that  after  Christ's  ascension, 
the  Holy  Spirit  should  bring  all  thintrs  to  their  remembrance, 
and  guide  them  into  all  truth.  "  Whether  Saint  Matthew 
was  aware  of  the  call  of  the  Gentiles,  before  the  Gospel  was 
actually  embraced  by  them,  cannot  be  ascertained :  nor  is  it 
material,  since  it  is  generally  agreed,  that  the  inspired  pen- 
men often  did  not  comprehend  the  full  meaning  of  their  own 
writings  when  they  referred  to  future  events  ;  and  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  it  might  answer  a  good  purpose  to  have  the  future 
call  of  the  Gentiles  intimated  in  an  authentic  history  of  our 
Saviour's  ministry,  to  which  the  believing  Jews  might 
refer,  when  that  extraordinary  and  unexpected  event  should 
take  place.  Their  minds  would  thus  be  more  easily  satisfied  ; 
and  tliey  would  more  readily  admit  the  comi)rehensive  design 
of  the  Gospel,  when  they  tound  it  declared^  in  a  book  which 
they  acknowledged  as  the  rule  of  their  faith  and  practice. "'o 

Once  more,  with  respect  to  the  argument  deduced  from 
this  evangelist's  mentioning  prophecies  and  prophetic  para- 
bles, that  speak  of  tbe  rejection  and  overthrow  of  the  .Tews, 
it  may  be  ooserved,  that  if  this  argument  means,  that,  being 
at  first  prejudiced  in  favour  of  a  kingdom  to  be  restored  to 
Israel,  he  could  not  understand  these  prophecies,  and  there- 
fore would  not  think  of  relating  them  if  he  wrote  early; — 
though  the  premises  should  be  admitted,  we  may  justly  deny 
the  conclusion.  Saint  Matthew  might  not  clearly  discern  in 
what  manner  the  predictions  were  to  be  accomplished,  yet  he 
must  see,  what  tney  all  denounced,  that  God  would  reject 
those  who  rejected  the  Gospel :  hence,  he  alwa)'s  had  an  in- 
ducement to  notify  them  to  his  countrymen ;  and  the  sooner 
he  ap|)rized  them  of  their  danger,  the  greater  charity  he 
showed  them." 

Since,  therefore,  the  objections  to  the  early  date  by  no 
means  balance  the  weight  of  evidence  in  its  favour,  we  are 
justified  in  as.signing  the  date  of  this  Gospel  to  the  year  of 
our  Lord  37,  or  at  the  latest  to  the  year  38.  And  as  the 
weight  of  evidence  is  also  in  favour  of  Saint  Matthew's  hav- 
ing composed  his  Gospel  in  Htbrew  and  Greek,^^  we  may  re- 
fer the  early  date  of  a.  d.  37  or  38  to  \\\e  former,  and  a.  n.  61 
to  the  lutlir.  This  will  reconcile  the  apparently  conflicting 
testimonies  of  Irenanis  and  Eusebius  above  mentioned,'* 
which  have  led  biblical  critics  to  form  such  widely  different 
opinions  concerning  the  real  date  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel. 

IV.  The  next  subject  of  inquiry  respects  the  Lanouaoe  in 
which  Saint  Matthew  wrote  his  (iospel,  and  which  has  been 
contested  among  critics  with  no  small  degree  of  acrimoiiy ; 
Erasmus,  Parous,  Calvin,  LeClerc,  Fabricius,  Pfeiffer,  Dr. 
Lightfoot,  Beausobre,  Basnage,  Wetstein,  Rumpaeus,  Dr. 
Whitby,  Edelmann,  Hug,  Fritsche,  Hoffman,  Moldenhawer, 

»  Thus  Zacharias,  the  father  of  the  Baptist,  speaks  of  Christ  as  coming 
to  give  Ugh'  fo  tlif.m  that  sit  in  darkness  and  in  the  shadow  of  death  (Luke 
i.  79.).  wlMrh  dRscriptioa  inrludes  the  Gentiles;  and  Simeon  expressly  calls 
him  a  light  In  ligh'en  the  Gentiles.  (Luke  ii.  32.) 

10  HishDp  Toniline's  Elements  of  Christ.  Theol.  vol.  i.  p.  302. 

■  1  Dr.  Townson's  Discourses,  disc  iv.  sect.  iv.  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  116,  117. 

i*  See  pp.  iSS,  299.  infra. 

i>  Sec  p.  296.  notes  3.  and  4.  supra. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


298 

Viser,  Harles,  Jones,  Drs.  Jortin,  Lardner,  Hey,  and  Hales, 
Mr.  Hewlett,  and  others,  have  strenuously  vindicated  the 
Greek  original  of  .Saint  Matthew's  Gospel.  On  the  otlier 
hand,  Beilarndn,  G.otius,  Casaubon,  Bishops  Walton  and 
Toniliiie,  Drs.  Cave,  Hammond,  Mill,  Harwood,  Owen, 
Campbell,  and  A.  Clarke,  Simon,  Tillemont,  Pritius,  Du 
Pin,  Calmet,  Michaelis,  Storr,  Alber,  Graw;itz,  and  others 
having  supported  the  opinion  of  Papias  as  cited  by  Irenasus, 
Origen,  Cyril,  Epiphanius,  Chrysostora,  Jerome,  and  other 
early  writers,  that  this  Gospel  was  written  in  Hebhew,  that 
is,  in  the  Western  Arama?an  or  Syro-Chaldaic  dialect  then 
spoken  by  the  Jews,  which  Professor  Adler>  terms  the  Sy- 
nac ;  and  which  consisted  chiefly  of  words  derived  from 
Hebrew  origin,  and  was  in  fact  the  Hebrew  corrupted  by  a 
large  mixture  of  foreign  words.  A  third  opinion  has  been 
offered  by  Dr.  Townson,  and  some  few  modern  divines,  that 
there  were  two  originals,  one  in  Hebrew,  and  the  other  in 
Greek.  He  thinks  that  there  seems  to  be  more  reason  for 
allowing  two  originals,  than  for  contesting  either;  the  con- 
sent of  antiquity  pleading  strongly  for  the  Hebrew,  and  evi- 
dent marks  of  originality  for  the  Greek. 

1.  The  presumption,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  is  in  favour 
of  the  opinion  Jirst  stated,  that  Saint  Matthew  wrote  in 
Greek  :  for  Greek,  as  we  have  already  seen,^  was  the  prevail- 
ing language  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles. 
Matthew,  too,  while  he  was  a  collector  of  customs,  and  be- 
fore he  was  called  to  be  an  apostle,  would  have  frequent  occa- 
sions both  to  write  and  to  speak  Greek,  and  could  not  dis- 
charge his  office  without  understanding  that  language.  We 
may  therefore  (say  the  advocates  for  this  hypothesis)  con- 
sider it  as  highly  probable,  or  even  certain,  that  he  understood 
Greek.  Besides,  as  all  the  other  evangelists  and  apostles 
wrote  their  Gospels  and  Epistles  in  that  language  for  the 
use  of  Christians  (whether  Jews  or  Gentiles)  throughout  the 
known  world,  and  as  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel,  though  in  the 
first  instance  written  for  the  use  of  Jewish  and  Samaritan 
converts,  was  ultimately  designed  for  universal  dissemination, 
it  is  not  likely  that  it  was  written  in  any  other  language  than 
that  which  was  employed  by  all  the  other  writers  of  the  New 
Testament.  This  presumption  is  corroborated  by  the  nume- 
rous and  remarkable  instances  of  verbal  agreement  between 
Matthew  and  the  other  evangelists  ;  which,  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  he  wrote  in  Hebrew,  or  the  vernacular  Syro-Chal- 
daic  dialect,  would  not  be  credible.  Even  those  who  main- 
tain that  opinion  are  obliged  "to  confess  that  an  early  Greek 
translation  of  this  Gospel  was  in  existence  befure  Mark  and 
Luke  composed  theirs,  which  they  saw  and  consulted.  Af- 
ter all,  the  main  point  in  dispute  is,  whether  the  present 
Greek  copy  is  entitled  to  the  authority  of  an  original  or  not ; 
and  as  this  is  a  question  of  real  and  serious  importance,  we 
shall  proceed  to  state  the  principal  arguments  on  both  sides. 
2.  The  modern  advocates  for  the  second  opinion  above  no- 
ticed, viz.  that  Saint  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew,  lay  most 
stress  upon  the  testimonies  of  Papias  (bishop  of  Hierapolis, 
A.  D.  lltj),of  Irenoeus  (a.  d.  178),  and  of  Origen  (a.  d.  230) ; 
■which  testimonies  have  been  followed  by  Chrysostom,  Je- 
rome, and  others  of  the  early  fothers  of  the  Christian  church. ^ 
But  these  good  men,  as  Wetstein  has  well  observed,  do  not 
so  properly  bear  testimony,  as  deliver  their  own  conjectures, 
which  we  are  not  bound  to  admit,  unless  they  are  supported 
by  good  reasons.  Supposing  and  taking  it  for  granted  that 
Matthew  wrote  for  the  Jews  in  Judaea,  they  concluded  that 
he  wrote  in  Hebrew  :'^  and  because  the  fathers  formed  this 
conclusion,  modern  writers,  relying  on  their  authority,  have 
also  inferred  that  Matthew  composed  his  Gospel  in  that  lan- 
guage.    Let  us  now  review  their  testimonies. 

(1.)  Papias,  as  cited  by  Eusebius,  says,*  "  Matthew  com- 
posed the  divine  oracles  in  the  Hebrew  dialect,  and  each  inter- 
preted them  as  he  was  able.'''' 

(2.)  Irenaeus,  as  quoted  by  the  same  historian,^  says, 
"  Matthew  published  also  a  Scripture  of  the  Gospel  among 
the  Hebrews,  in  their  own  dialect." 


1  Nonnulla  Mattlicei  ct  Marci  enunciata  ex  indole  Lingiise  Syriacse  expli- 
cantur.  ••  .  Prolusio  J.  G.  C.  Adler.     Hauiiia,  1781,  4to. 

»  See  Vol.  I  p.  193—195. 

s  The  various  icstimonies  of  tlie  ancient  fillicrs  concerning  the  Hebrew 
original  of  St.  Mattliew's  Gospel  are  produced  and  considered  at  lengtli  hy 
.1.  T.  Biislav,  in  hi.s  Disserlatio  iristorico-Crilico  Exegelica  de  Lingua  Origi- 
nali  Evangelii  secundum  MattlicCiiui.     Vralislaviae,  1826.  8vo. 

•»  Wotsleuii  Nov.  Test.  toni.  i.  p.  '224.  nole. 

6  M»T*».o;  /.iiv  ovv  EBPAIAI  AIAAEKTll  TA  AOFIA  STNEFPAY  TO' 
KPfiviviri  y  aura  a)?  y,-i\ivu.To  ix-xirrii.  Eusebii  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  39.  lorn. 
J.  p.  133.  edit.  Reading. 

•  O  f«v  Ss  M;<T.*x.o;  IV  Toi;  EBPAOIi;,  EN  TH  lAlA  TTilN  ArAAEKTH, 
KAI  I  PA4.HN  E  =  ENErKEN  ETAriEAlOI.     Ibid.  lib.  V.  C.  8.  torn.  i.  p.  219. 


[Part  VL  Chap.  IL 


(3.)  Origen  as  cited  by  Eusebius,"  says,  "As  I  have 
learned  bi/  tradition  concerning  the  four  (Gospels,  which  alone 
are  received  without  dispute  by  the  whole  church  of  God 
under  heaven. — The  first  was  written  by  Matthew,  once  a 
publican,  afterwards  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,  who  pub- 
lished it  for  the  believers  of  Judaism,  composed  in  JJtbrew 
Itlters." 

In  oj)position  to  these.testimonies,  it  is  contended  by  the 
advocates  for  the  Greek  original  of  the  Gospel, 

i.  That  the  testimony  of  Papias,  who  was  a  weak  and 
credulous  nian,8  is  vague  and  indecisive;  that  he  had  not 
seen  the  Hebrew  Gospel  itself;  that  it  could  not  have  been 
intended  for  universal  circulation  by  his  own  account,  because 
every  one  was  not  able  to  interpret  it;  and  that  the  Greek 
Gospel  was  published  before  his  time,  as  appears  from  the 
express  or  tacit  references  made  by  the  apostolical  lathers 
who  were  all  prior  to  Papias,  and  all  of  whom  wrote  in 
Greek. 

ii.  The  passage  of  Irenasus  above  given,  more  critically 
translated,  may  be  understood  to  signiiy  that,  in  addition  to 
his  Greek  Gospel,  Matthew  published  also  a  Hebrew  Gos- 
pel, for  the  benefit  of  the  Hebrews,  or  converts  from  Juda- 
ism, who  used  no  other  language  but  the  vernacular  dialect 
of  Palestine.  This,  Dr.  Hales  thinks,  was  most  [)robably 
the  fact.9  This  might  be  the  original  basis  of  the  Gospel  of 
the  Nazarenes,  the  Gospel  of  the  Ebionites,  the  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrews,  cited  by  Origen,  Epiphanius,  and 
Jerome,  which  in  process  of  time  became  so  adulterated  by 
these  Judaizing  converts,  as  to  lose  all  authority  in  the 
church,  and  be  deemed  spurious. 

iii.  The  testimony  of  Origen  perfectly  corresponds  with 
this  :  for  surely,  when  he  cited  tradition  for  the  existence  of 
a  Hebrew  Gospel,  written  by  Matthew  for  the  converts  from 
Judaism,  he  by  no  means  denied  but  rather  presupposed  his 
Greek  Gospel,  written  for  all  classes  of  Christians,  compos- 
ing the  whole  church  of  Gad  under  heaven,  for  whose  use  the 
Hebrew  Gospel  would  be  utterly  inadequate.  Li  fact,  in 
his  treatise  on  prayer,  he  intimates  that  the  evangelist  pub- 
lished it  in  Greek  also;  for,  discoursing  on  the  word  st;^u7;ov, 
he  considers  it  as  formed  by  Matthew  himself. i"  That  Ori- 
gen considered  the  Greek  as  the  only  authentic  original  in 
his  time,  is  evident  for  the  following  reasons  : — 1.  Origen, 
in  his  Hexapla,  was  accustomed  to  correct  the  Greek  version 
of  the  Old'Testament  by  the  Hebrew  original :  but  he  vir- 
tually confesses  that  he  had  none  by  which  he  could  correct 
the  text  of  Matthew's  Gospel ;"  and,  2.  He  expressly  cites'^ 
"  a  certain  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews,  if  any  one 
chooses  to  receive  it,  not  as  of  authority,  h\it  for  illustration" 
of  the  question  he  was  then  discussing.  Now,  if  this  He- 
brew Gospel  had  been  the  production  of  Saint  INIatthew,  he 
certainly  would  have  cited  it  in  a  different  manner. 

iv.  Li  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  as  we  now  have  it, 
there  is  no  appearance  of  its  being  a  translation ;  but  many 
considerations  prove  the  contrary.  For  how  can  we  account 
for  the  interpretation  of  Hebrew  names,  which,  by  an  author 
writing  in  Hebrew,  was  by  no  means  necessary  "?  (Compare 
Matt.  1.  23.  xxvii.  33.  46.)  Again,  why  should  the  testimo- 
nies and  parallel  passages  of  the  Old  Testament  be  cited, 
not  from  the  original  Hebrew,  but  generally  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version,  even  when  that  differs  from  the  Hebrew  1 
Lastly,  how  does  it  happen,  that  all  the  versions  which  are 
extant,  such  as  the  Latin,  the  Syriac,  the  Coptic,  the  Arme- 
nian, and  the  Ethiopic,are  adapted,  not  to  the  Hebrew  origi- 
nal, but  to  the  Greelc  translation?  These  questions  are  all 
readily  answered,  if  we  admit  that  Matthew  wrote  his  Gos- 
pel in  Greek. '^ 
1  Eusebii  Hist.  E  cl.  lib.  vi.  c.  25.  tora.  i.  p.  290.    r>;  iv  jrapx^iio-..  jux&av 

77-spi  tj.v  TiO-o-^p-^.v  s\jxyye\'MV  ....  on  srp.uTOi'  fiiv  ysjix^Titt  to  xara  .... 
MATWAION  ly.St^.'vinrx  to.;  awo  huSxia-fiOu  7zia-TC\jtra:ri,  TVAM.MAXIN 
EBPAIKOIi;    STNETATMENON. 

8  See  Jortin's  Reuiarlcs  on  Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  i.  pp.  300,  310.  2d  edit. 

»  This  conjecture,  Dr.  Hales  remarks,  derives  additional  weiglit  from 
the  incorrect  reports  of  Eutychins  and  Theophylact.  tliat  Matthew  wrote 
hi.s  Hebrew  Gospel  at  Jerusalem,  which  John  the  Evangelist  translated 
into  Greek.     Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  ii.  p.  065. 

10  Origen  de  oratione,  c.  161.  p.  150.  edit.  Reading. 

"  See  his  words.  Op.  torn.  iii.  p.  671.  e<Iit.  Ue  la  Rue,  or  in  Bishop 
Marsh's  MichaeUs,  vol.  iii.  part  ii.  pp.  114,  115.,  where  they  are  cited  and 
explained.  ' 

'»  Ur.  Lardner  has  given  the  passage  at  length,  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p. 
.'306. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  553. 

13  Mr.  Hewlett's  note  on  Matt.  i.  1.  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  pp.  664 
— 667.  Lardner's  Siipp.  to  Credibility,  chap.  5.  (Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp. 
45—65.  ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  pp.  157—167.)  Pritii,  Introd.  ad  Nov.  Test.  pp.  298 — 
311.  Moldenhawer,  Introd.  ad  Libros  Canonicos,  pp.  247 — 254.  Michaelis, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  112—201.  Runip»i,  Com.  Crit.  in  Nov.  Test.  pp.  81—34.  Viser, 
Hi-rm.  Sacr.' Nov.  Test., pars  ii.  pp.  314— 352.  Dr.  Campbell's  Preface. to 
Matthew,  vol.  ii.  pp.  1—20.  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  17—59.  Alber, 
Hermeneut.  Novi  Test.  vol.  i.  pp.  239—244. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MATTHEW. 


299 


It  only  remains  that  we  briefly  notice  the  Ihlu]  opinion 
al)0ve  mentioned  ;  vix.  tlint  there  were  two  oriuin;ils, — one 
in  llebrtiw,  the  other  in  (ireei<,  but  both  written  l)y  Saint 
Matthew.  This  o|)inion,  we  believe,  was  first  intimatefl  by 
8ixtns  Senensis,'  from  whom  it  was  adopter!  by  I)rs.  VVliil- 
by,2  Uenson,''  Hey.  and  Townsoii,  Bishops  (J  braver  and  Cileifj, 
and  soriK!  other  moilcrn  divines.  The  consent  of  aniif|nitv 
pleads  stroniilv  for  the  llel)rew,  and  evident  marks  of  oriiri- 
nalily  for  the  (Jreek.  ]5ishop  (iieijr  liiiidcs,  that  Saint  Mat- 
thew, on  liis  departure  to  preaeii  the  d'ospcl  to  liie  (ienliles, 
left  with  the  eliureli  of  .lernsah-m,  or  at  least  witli  some  of  its 
members,  the  Hebrew  or  Syriae  niemorandnms  of  our  Lord's 
doelrines  and  miracles,  wiii'ch  Iw  had  made  for  his  own  use 
at  the  time  when  tlie  doctrines  were  tanjrlii,  and  tbcMuiraeles 
performed;  and  tliat  the  (Jreek  (Jospel  w;is  written  lonjr 
after  the  a])ostles  had  iiuitted  .lerusalem,  and  (lisp<Tsed  them- 
selves in  the  disciiarge  of  the  duties  of  their  olFice.  Tiiis 
conioc'ture  receives  some  countenance  from  tiie  terms  in 
which  Kusel)ius,  when  givinff  his  own  opinion,  mentions 
Saint  Matthew's  (Jospel.  "  Matthew,"  says  that  historian, 
"havinjr  (irst  preached  to  the  Hebrews,  deliv(  red  to  tiiem, 
when  be  was  preparing  to  de|)art  to  other  countries,  ids  (ios- 
pel  composed  in  their  native  language:  that  to  those,  from 
whom  he  was  sent  away,  he  miglit  by  his  writings  sujjply 
the  loss  of  bis  presence."'  This  opinion  is  further  corrobo- 
rated by  the  fact,  that  there  are  instances  on  record  of  au- 
thors who  have  tliemselves  putilished  the  same  work  in  two 
languages.  'JMius  .losepbus  wrote  the  History  of  the.Tewish 
War  in  Hebrew  and  (ireek.^  In  like  manner  we  have  two 
originals,  one  in  Latin,  the  other  in  English,  of  the  thirty- 
nine  articles  of  the  Anglican  church.  As  Saint  Matthew 
wanted  neither  ability  nor  disposition,  we  cannot  think  he 
wanted  inducement  to  "  do  the  work  of  an  evangelist"  for 
his  brethren  of  the  common  faith,  Hellenists  as  well  as  He- 
brews ;  to  botli  of  wliom  charity  made  him  a  del)tor.  The 
popular  language  of  the  first  believers  was  Hebrew,  or  what 
IS  called  so  by  the  sacred  and  ancient  ecclesiastical  writers  : 
but  those  wiio  spoke  Greek  quickly  became  a  considerable 
part  of  the  church  of  Christ. 

From  a  review  of  all  the  arguments  adduced  on  this  much 
litigated  question,  we  cannot  but  prefer  the  last  stated  opi- 
nion as  that  which  best  Irarmonizes  with  the  consent  of  anti- 
quity, namely,  that  Saint  Matthew  wrote  first  a  Hebrew 
Gospel  for  the  use  of  the  first  Hebrew  converts.  Its  subse- 
quent disappearance  is  easily  accounted  for,  by  its  being  so 
corrupted  oy  the  Kbionites  that  it  lost  all  its  authority  in  the 
churcli,  and  was  deemed  spurious,  and  also  by  the  prevalence 
of  the  (irecik  language,  especially  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  when  the  Jewish  language  and  every  thing  be- 
longing to  the  Jews  fell  into  the  utmost  contempt.  It  also 
is  clear,  that  our  present  Greek  Gospel  is  an  authentic  origi- 
nal, and  consequently  an  inspired  production  of  the  evange- 
list Matthew,  written  (not  as  Bishop  Gleig  and  other  writers 
suppose,  long  after  our  Lord's  resurrection  and  ascension, 
but)  within  a  few  years  after  those  memorable  and  important 
events." 

V.  Of  the  Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  Saint  Mat- 
thew's Gospel,  we  have  the  most  satisfactory  evidence. 
There  are  seven  distinct  allusions  to  it  in  the  Epistle  of 
Barnabas  ;  two  in  Clement's  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  ;  ten 
in  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas  ;  nine  in  the  genuine  Epistles  of 
Ignatius  ;  and  five  in  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp.  In  the  time 
ot  Papias  it  was  well  known,  and  is  expressly  ascribed  to 
the  evangelist  by  him,  and  by  several  ancient  writers  of  the 
first  century  that  were  consulted  by  Eusebius.^  In  the  fol- 
lowing century  it  was  recognised  by  Tatian,  who  composed 
his  harmony  of  the  four  evangelists,  and  by  Hegesippus,  a 
Hebrew  Christian ;  and  it  is  repeatedly  quoted  by  Justin 
Martyr,  Irenaeus,  Athenagoras,  Theophilus  of  Antioch,  and 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  also  by  Celsus,  the  most  saga- 
cious and  inquisitive  adversary  of  Christianity.     In  the  third 


«  Sixtus  Senens.  Bibliotli.  Sanct.  lib.  vii.  n.  582. 
«  Preface  to  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel,  vol.  i.  p.  1. 

»  Benson's  Hist,  of  the  First  Planting  of  llie  Christian  Religion,  vol.  i. 
p.  237. 

*  Eusebius,  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  iii.  c.24. 

'  Dr.  Hey's  Norrisian  Lectures,  vol.  i.  pp.  23, 29.  Bishop  Gleig's  edit,  of 
Stackhoiise,  vol.  iii.  p.  1 12.     Ur.  Townson's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  30—32. 

•  Tlii-re  are  extant  in  print  two  editions  of  a  Hebrew  Gospel,  one  pub- 
lished by  Jean  de  Tilet.  Bishop  of  Brieu.x,  at  Paris,  in  1555,  the  other  pub- 
lished by  Munster  at  Basil,  in  l.")7;  but  it  is  certain  Uiat  neither  of  these 
is  St.  Maitliew's  orisinal,  and  that  neither  of  them  was  used  by  the  Naza- 
renes  or  by  the  Ebionites.  See  an  account  of  them  ia  Michaelis,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  195—201. 

'  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  36. 


century,  TertulUan,  Ammonius,  the  author  of  the  harinony, 
Julius  Africanus,  and  Origen,  unanimously  tjuote  this  (ios- 
pel  as  the  undoubted  production  of  Matthew,  who  are  follow- 
ed by  a  long  train  of  ecclesiastical  writers."  The  fact, 
therefore,  is  fully  established,  that  Miilthew,  the  apostle  of 
our  Saviour,  was  the  author  of  that  Gospel  which  is  placed 
first  in  our  editions  of  the  New  Testament. 

Faustus,  a  Manichean  bishop  (who  wrote  towards  the 
close  of  the  fourlb  century),  uUcmplid^  indeed,  to  prove  that 
this  Gospel  was  not  written  by  Saint  Matthew,  on  account 
of  the  oblujue  manner  of  expression  which  occurs  in  Matt.  ix. 
!), — And  as  Jesus  passed  for/ h  from  thence,  he  saw  a  man  naniea 
Mullheu;  silting  at  the  receipt  if  cuttom,  and  he  suith  xinto 
him.  Follow  me.  JInd  he  arose  and  f'lhnc'd  him.  Hence, 
says  Faustus,  "  Matthew  did  not  write  that  Gospel,  but 
some  ether  person  under  his  name,  as  is  clear  from  those 
words  of  the  pretended  Matthew  :  for  who,  writing  concern- 
ing himself,  would  sa)',  he  saw  a  man,  and  called  him,  and 
HK  followed  liiin  ;  and  would  not  rather  say.  He  saw  me, 
and  called  me,  and  I  followed  him  1"  Nf. thing,  however, 
can  be  more  weak  than  this  mode  of  arguing:  for  it  is  an 
undeniable  fact  that  this  obliiiue  way  of  writing  is  common 
among  profane  historians,  botli  ancient  and  modern  :  who  fre- 
quently speak  of  themselves  not  in  the  first  but  in  tlie  thirn 
person,  jVIoses  uniformly  speaks  thus  of  himself,-',  as  Jesus 
Christ,  and  his  disciples  also,  very  fre([uently  did.'"  So  that 
the  objection  of  Faustus  falls  to  the  ground  for  want  of 
proof. ' ' 

VI.  But,  though  we  have  such  a  chain  of  unbroken  evi- 
dence, the  most  clear  and  decisive  that  can  possibly  be  ad- 
dticed  or  desired,  to  the  genuineness  of  Saint  Matthew"'s 
Gospel,  several  attempts  have  of  late  years  been  made  by 
those  who  deny  the  miraculous  conception  of  our  Saviour,'^ 
to  expunge  the  two  first  chapters  from  the  sacred  code,  as 
being  a  spurious  interpolation  :  and,  hence,  a  recent  antago- 
nist of  divine  revelation  has  taken  occasion  (without  exa- 
mining the  mass  of  evidence  to  the  contrarj')  to  affirm  that  the 
whole  Gos])el  is  a  falsehood."  We  have,  however,  indispu- 
table evidence,  both  internal  and  external,  that  these  chapters 
form  an  integral  part  of  that  Gospel. 

[i.]  With  regard  to  the  external  evidence  fur  the  genuine- 
ness of  these  chapters  : — 

1.  In  tlie _;frs^  place,  the  beginning  of  the  third  chapter  {tv  AB 
Touc  YifjUfiLK  acmnK,  JVow  in  those  days)  manifestly  shows  that 
something  bad  preceded,  to  which  these  words  must  rnfcr."  If 
we  examine  the  end  of  the  second  chapter,  where  Jesus  is  said 
to  have  come  and  dwelt  with  his  parents  at  Nazare'h,  it  will  be 
manifest  to  what  time  those  words  are  to  be  rcfeiTed.  Some, 
indeed,  have  objected  that  the  words  "JVotv  in  tlioite  davs"  are 
not  the  words  of  Matthew,  but  of  bis  Greek  translator,  who  thus 
connected  the  first  and  second  chapters  with  the  third. — But  this 
conjecture  (for  the  objection  amounts  to  nothing  more)  is  op- 
posed by  the  fact  that  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  was,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  not  translated  into  Greek  by  any  person,  but  was 
originally  written  in  that  language  by  the  evangelist  himself. 
And,  to  mention  no  other  arguments  by  which  it  is  opposed,  it 
is  contradicted  by  the  following  undisputed  passage  in  Matt.  iv. 
13.,  where  we  read  ".ind.Tesus  leux'in^  J\'azar^th."  Now, 
how  could  Saint  Matthew  have  thus  recorded  his  departure  from 
Nazareth,  unless  chap.  ii.  13.  had  preceded,  where  we  are  told 
that  he  came  and  dwelt  in  that  townT'^     Further,  in  the  first 

»  For  an  account  of  these  later  writers,  see  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi. 
pp.  49— 52  :  410.  vol.  iii.  pp.  159— IlU.  As  the  references  to  Dr.  l,.'s  works 
for  the  earlier  fathers  have  already  been  eiven  in  the  notes  to  Vol.  I.  p.  41 
— 15.,  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  them.  The  reader  who  may  not  possess 
or  have  the  opportunity  of  consuitinc  Dr.  Lardner's  works,  will  find  the 
quotations  above  noticed,  in  the  learned  .leremiiili  .lones's  New  and  Full 
Method  of  settlins  the  Canonical  Authority  of  the  New  Testament,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  17-^2.  8vo.  Oxford,  1798. 

»  SeeVol.L  p.  61,  (i2.supra:  and  al.so  compare  other  instances  from  the 
Old  Testament,  in  Gen.  iv.  24.  xliv.  19.  Num.  xxiv.  .•?,  4.  1  Sam.  xii.  11.  Jer. 
xxviii.  5. 10.  15.  .lonah  i.  1.  and  throughout  that  took. 

>o  Compare  Matt.  viii.  20.  xi.  19.  xviii.  11.  Luke  x^iii.  8.  John  v.  23. 25—27. 
xxi.  24.  r.       .     ■    c 

"  AufTustin  contra  Faustum,  lib.  xvii.  c.4.  Glassii  Philologia  Sacra,  torn,  i. 
p.  619.  edit.  Dathii ;  or  colunm  1238  of  the  Leipsic  edition,  4lo.  1725. 

■•»  Particularly  bv  Dr.  Williams  in  his  "  Free  Inquiry,"  first  published  in 
1771,  and  asain  in  l"789,  4to. ;  and  the  editors  of  the  modern  Socinian  version 
of  ttip  New  Testament. 

•  »  Professor  Bauer,  of  Altorf,  in  Germany,  boldly  affirms  that  the  narra- 
tive of  the  miraculous  conception,  recorded  by  Matiliew  and  Luke,  is  a 
philosophiral  mylhos  or  fable  of  later  date  !  !  !  Brevarium  Theologife  Bib 
lic-e.  p.  24.'5.    Lipsise,  1803,  Svo. 

>•  This  was  aareeable  to  the  usage  of  the  Hebrew  writers  ;  who,  when 
commencing  their  narratives,  were  accustomed  to  add  the  name  of  the 
king,  prince,  or  other  person,  in  whose  time  any  event  is  said  to  have  come 
to  pass,  and  to  preface  it  with  the  formula,  In  the  days  nf To  men- 
tion no  other  instances,  see  Isaiah  i.  1. 

16  Kninoel,  Cotnm.  in  Historicos  N.  T.  Libroe,  vol.  i.  p.  15. 


300 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IT. 


and  second  chapters  of  Matthew  we  find  quotations  made  from 
the  Old  Testament  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  in  other  parts 
of  his  Gospel,  Moreover,  the  want  of  a  genealogy  in  this  Gos- 
pel, which  was  written  for  Jewish  Christians  of  Palestine,  would 
be  a  deficiency  in  the  work.' 

2.  In  the  second  place,  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  tivo 
Jirst  chapters  of  Saint  Matthexv's  Gospel  are  to  be  found  in 
ALL  the  ancient  manuscripts  noiv  extant,  which  are  entire,  as 
well  as  in  many  that  have  come  down  to  us,  mutilated  by  the 
hand  of  time,2  and  also  in  all  the  ancient  versions  without  ex- 
ception. Some  of  the  manuscripts  now  extant,  particularly  the 
Vatican  and  the  Cambridge  manuscripts,  and  the  Codex  Rescrip- 
tus  in  the  Library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,-'  are  undoubtedly 
of  very  high  antiquity,  bearing  date  from  the  fifth  or  sixth  cen- 
turies at  latest,  if  they  are  not  earlier.  The  versions  carry  us 
still  higher.  The  Peschito,  or  Old  Syriac,  and  what  is  called 
the  Old  Italic,  are  nearly  coeval  with  the  formation  of  the  canon 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  Coptic,  Arabic,  and  other  versions, 
also  bear  marks  of  high  antiquity :  and  though  some  of  them 
contain  discrepancies  of  more  or  less  moment  from  the  copies 
generally  received,  yet  all  of  them  have  this  part  of  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew,  as  integral  portions  of  the  whole. 

Much  stress,  indeed,  has  been  laid  upon  the  genealogy  being 
separated  from  the  other  parts  of  the  Gospel  in  some  Latin 
manuscripts ;  but  the  spuriousness  of  the  genealogy  is  not  a 
necessary  consequence  of  such  separation.  For,  in  the  first 
place,  as  Kuin>  el,^  and  the  learned  annotator  on  Michaelis,* 
have  both  remarked,  the  transcribers  of  the  Ijatin  manuscripts, 
who  wrote  the  genealogy  detached  from  the  rest  of  the  Gospel, 
were  actuated  not  by  critical  but  by  theological  motives  ;  they 
found  difficulty  in  reconciling  the  genealogy  in  Matt.  i.  with  that 
of  Luke  iii.,  and,  therefore,  they  tvished  to  get  rid  of  it.  And, 
secondly,  although  the  genealogy  is  thus  separated  in  some  Latin 
manuscripts,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  copyists  either 
deemed  it  to  be  without  authority,  or  were  desirous  of  getting 
rid  of  it ;  for,  in  the  illuminated  copies  of  this  Gospel,  so  far 
from  any  stigma  being  thrown  upon  the  genealogy  (though  se- 
parated in  the  way  described),  it  is  in  general  particularly  em- 
bellished, and  as  much  ornamented  by  the  artist  as  the  succeed- 
ing passages. 

3.  Besides  the  uncontradicted  testimony  of  manuscripts  and 
versions,  we  have  the  clear  and  undisputed  evidence  of  the 
ancient  fathers  in  favour  of  the  genuineness  of  these  chapters, 
whence  they  have  cited  both  words  and  verses  in  their  writings ; 
to  which  we  may  add,  that  the  earliest  opposers  of  Christianity 
never  appear  to  have  doubted  their  genuineness.  As  the  miracu- 
lous conception  of  our  Saviour  is  a  vital  and  fundamental  doc- 
trine of  the  Christian  revelation,  we  think  it  right  to  state  these 
evidences  more  particularly. 

(1.)  Clement  of  Alexandria,  who  lived  towards  the  close 
of  the  second  century  (a.  n.  194),  speaking  of  the  order  of  the 
Gospel  which  he  had  received  from  the  presbyters  of  more 
ancient  times,  says  expressly  that  the  Gospels  containing  the 
genealogies  were  first  written^  Here,  then,  we  have  two  things 
proved,  viz.  the  curiosity  and  inquisitiveness  of  the  ancient 
Christians,  concerning  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  which 
they  had  received,  and  likewise  an  assurance  of  the  genuineness 
of  the  gene(alogies  in  Matt.  i.  and  Luke  iii.  This  testimony  to 
the  first  chapter  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  is  so  strong,  as  to 
put  its  antiquity  and  genuineness  beyond  all  question. 

(2.)  In  a  fragment  of  the  ecclesiastical  history  composed  by 
Hegesippus,  a  converted  Jew,  who  flourished  a.  n.  173,  which  is 
preserved  by  Eusebius,^  there  is  an  account  of  the  emperor  Do- 
mitian's  inquiry  after  the  posterity  of  David,  two  of  whom  were 

«  Schmucker's  Biblical  Theology,  vol.  ii.  p.  149. 

a  The  Codex  Ebnerjanus,  a  manuscript,  written  at  the  close  of  tlie  four- 
teentli  century,  begins  with  Matt.  i.  18.  Tou  vn  I^o-ou  Xpirrou  v\  yivvyi(riq 
0UTCU5  >iv,  Now  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  was  un  this  inise.  Since  no  book 
ican  well  begin  with  llio  particle  Sb,  noiv,  we  may  conclude  that  in  the  more 
ancient  Greek  manuscripts,  whence  the  Codex  Ebnerianus  was  copied, 
gometliing  preceded,  viz.  the  genealogy,  as  in  other  Greek  manuscripts. 
Bishop  Marsh's  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  ti.  p.  136.  See  also  Griesbach's 
ETTi^uETpoi.  to  his  Commentarius  Criticus  in  Grrecum  Matthsei  Textum,  4to. 
Jena,  1801. 

'  An  account  of  these  manuscripts  is  given  in  the  first  volume  of  this 
work.  In  the  Codex  Rescriptus  above  noticed,  we  find  the  first  two  chap- 
ters of  Saint  Matlheto's  Oospel,  with  the  exception  of  some  verses,  which 
are  wanting  from  mutilation,  viz.  the  first  sixteen  verses  of  the  first  chap- 
ter; and  from  the  seventh  to  the'  twelfth  and  from  twelve  to  the  twenty- 
third  verses  of  the  second  chapter. 

4  Kuinoel,  Comm.  in  ITistoricos  Libros,  Nov.  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  13. 

»  Bp.  Marsh's  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  ii.  p.  139. 

«  See  the  passaire  at  length,  both  in  Greek  and  English,  in  Dr.  Lardner's 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  21 1,  212.  and  notes  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  395. 

•■  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  iii.  c.  19,  20.  See  the  original  passage  in  Dr.  Lardner's 
Works,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  142, 143. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  356,  357. 


brought  before  him:  "for,"  adds  the  historian,  "he  too  -was 
afraid  of  the  coming  of  Christ,  as  -well  as  Herod."  In  this  pas- 
sage there  is  an  explicit  reference  to  the  second  chapter  of  Matthew, 
which  plainly  shows  that  this  portion  of  his  Gospel  was  receiveu 
by  this  Hebrew  Christian,  who  used  our  Greek  Gospel.  Or,  if 
he  used  onlj'  the  Hebrew  edition  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel,  it 
is  equally  certain  that  the  historical  fact  alluded  to  must  have 
been  extant  in  it  in  the  time  of  Hegesippus. 

(3.)  Justin  Martyr,  who,  we  have  already  seen,  flourished 
about  the  year  140,  has,  in  his  writings,  so  many  and  such  de- 
cisive references  to  these  two  chapters,  as  nearly  to  supply  a 
recapitulation  of  all  the  facts  related  in  them,  and  in  such  lan- 
guage as  clearly  proves  that  his  information  was  principally 
derived  from  those  chapters.  The  very  words,  also,  of  Saint 
Matthew  are  sometimes  quoted  with  a  precision  so  unequivocal, 
as  to  determine  the  source  of  the  quotations.  Passages  and 
phrases  which  occur  in  Saint  Matthew  only,  and  appli.  ations 
of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  Micah  and  Jeremiah,  which  are 
made  by  no  other  evangelist,  are  adopted  by  him  with  a  literal 
adherence  to  Saint  Matthew's  text ;  and,  what  renders  the  de- 
monstration perfect,  with  a  literal  adherence  to  those  very  cita- 
tions from  the  Old  Testament,  in  which  Saint  Matthew  has 
departed  from  the  words  both  of  the  Hebrew  and  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint.8 

(4.)  Ignatius,  who  flourished  a.  d.  107,  in  his  epistle  to  the 
Ephesians,9  has  an  express  reference  to  the  history  of  the  Virgin 
Mary's  miraculous  conception  of  our  Lord,  and  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  star  that  so  wonderfully  announced  his  birth.  Now, 
as  this  father  was  contemporary  with  the  apostles,  and  survived 
the  evangelist  John  only  six  or  seven  years,  we  have  in  his  tes- 
timony what  amounts  to  that  of  the  apostles  for  the  truth  and 
authenticity  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel. 

As  the  testimonies  of  Irenaeus  and  all  the  later  fathers  are 
undisputed,  it  is  not  necessary  to  adduce  their  evidence.  Let 
us  appeal  in  the  next  place  to 

4.  The  Testimonies  of  the  Enemies  of  Christianity. — Three 
of  these  are  pecuUarly  distinguished  for  their  enmity  to  the 
Christian  name  and  faith;  viz.  the  emperor  Julian,  who  wrote 
in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century ;  Porphyry,  who  wrote  in  the 
third  century ;  and  Celsus,  who  wrote  in  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  Though  their  works  are  lost,  their  arguments  are  pre- 
served in  the  answers  of  their  opponents ;  and  from  these  it  ap- 
pears that  they  were  by  no  means  deficient  in  industry  to  dis- 
cover means  of  invalidating  any  portion  of  the  Gospel  history. 
They  stated  many  objections  to  particular  circumstances  in  the 
narrative  of  the  oiiraculous  conception,  but  never  entertained  the 
most  remote  idea  of  treating  the  whole  as  spurious.  They  did 
not  contend,  as  our  modern  objectors  do,  that  Saint  Matthew 
and  Saint  Luke  never  wrote  these  accounts ;  but  that,  in  writing 
them,  they  committed  errors  or  related  falsehoods.'"  That  Celsus, 
in  particular,  was  specifically  acquainted  with  the  genealogy 
contained  in  the  first  chapter  is  evident :  for  he  speaks  of  histo- 
rians who  trace  the  genealogy  of  Jesus  from  the  first  father  of 
the  human  family  and  from  Jewish  kings."  By  the  former,  liuke 
must  be  intended ;  and  by  the  latter,  Matthew.  That  Celsus 
should  pass  over  unnoticed  the  seeming  contradiction  of  the 
genealogy  of  Matthew  and  Luke,  is  no  more  rerharkable  than 
that  he  should  omit  to  mention  many  other  things.'^  Besides 
the  testimonies  of  these  enemies  of  tbe  Gospel,  we  can  produce 
another  of  still  higher  antiquity — that  of  Cerijithus,  an  heresi- 
arch  who  was  contemporary  with  the  evangelist  Saint  John. 
Cerinthus  received  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew  (though  not 
entire),  and  Epiphanius  expressly  states  that  his  followers  "pie- 
fei^red  it  on  account  of  its  genealogy."  The  same  father  also 
records,  in  terms  equally  explicit,  that,  "it  is  allowed  by  all 
that  Ceuinthus  made  use  of  the  beginning  of  Saint  Mat- 

8  Archbp.  Magee  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  ii.  p.  440.  In  pp.  448 — 454.  he 
has  adduced  the  passages  at  length  from  .Tusiin.  See  also  Ur.  Lardner's 
account  of  .lustin,  Works,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  119—122. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  34.3 — 345. 
The  testimony  of  Justin  is  also  examined  at  length  in  Hug's  Introduction 
to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  282—284.,  where  the  words  of  Matthew  and 
Justin  are  exhibited  in  parallel  columns. 

9  The  following  is  the  passage  of  Ignatius  above  alluded  to  : — "  Now  the 
virginity  of  Mary  and  her  delivery  were  kept  in  secret  from  the  prince  of 
this  world  ;  as  was  also  the  death  of  our  Lord  ; — Three  of  the  most  notable 
mysteries  [of  the  Gospel],  yet  done  in  secret  by  God.  How  then  was  [our 
Saviour]  manifested  to  the  world?  A  star  shone  in  heaven  beyond  all  the 
other  stars,  and  its  light  was  inexpressible ;  and  its  novelty  struck  terror 
[into  men's  minds]."  Ignatil  Epist.  ad  Ephes.  sect.  19.  Cotelerii  Patres 
Aposlolici,  torn.  ii.  p.  51. 

'0  See  the  passage  of  Julian  at  length,  in  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  viii.  p.  397. ; 
4to.  vol.  iv.  p.  334.  ;  of  Porphyry,  in  Dr.  Mill's  Prolegomena  to  his  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  §702,  703.  ;  and  of  Celsus,  in  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  viii 
pp.  10,  11.  19—22. 58,  59.  63. ;  4to.  vol.  iv.  pp.  116.  121, 122.  143.  145. 

11  Stor.  Opuscula  Acaclemica,  torn.  iii.  p.  106. 

««  Schmucker's  Biblical  Theology,  vol.  ii.  p.  148. 


Se€t.  II.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MATTHEW. 


301 


the-ivH  Gospi'l,  and  from  thence  endeavotired  to  fjrove  that 
Jesus  was  the  noil  of  Joneph  and  Mary."^  To  these  decisive 
testimonies  of  the  adversaries  of  Christianity  we  add  a  fact  by 
no  means  unimportant,  as  an  accessory  proof;  which  is,  that  no 
objections  were  ever  btousjht  against  these  chapters  in  the  early 
centuries,  during  the  heat  of  religious  contention,  when  all  par- 
ties sought  to  defend  themselves,  and  to  assail  their  o|)ponents, 
by  arguments  of  all  kinds,  industriously  drawn  from  every 
quarter.^ 

[11.]  Airainst  thn  wolirjit  of  this  positive  evldericp,  whieli 
so  clearly,  fully,  and  decisively  cstuijlishcs  tiin  irenuiiKMUss 
of  lilt!  narratives  of  the  miraculous  conception  by  Matthew 
and  Luke,  and  places  tluMn  on  the  same  footiuy^  with  the 
other  parts  of  the  Gospt^ls,  the  antagonists  of  tluur  authen- 
ticity have  attempted  to  jjroduce  arjruments  partly  external 
anil  partly  c"llateral  or  internal. 

1.  VV'itli  ri>rard  to  the  vxlcrnal  evidence,  they  afTirm,  on  thn 
authority  of  lOpiphanius  and  .leroine,  that  these;  narratives 
were  wantlnif  in  the  copies  used  by  tiie  Nazarenes  and  Ebion- 
itcs,  that  is,  by  the  ancient  Hebrew  Christians,  for  whose 
instruction  this  Gospel  was  originally  written,  and  conse- 
quently formed  no  part  of  the  genuine  narrative.  In  this 
statiMuent,  the  terms  Hebrew  Christians,  Nazarenes,  and 
Kbioiiltes,  are  classed  together  as  ni/noni/mous ;  whereas  they 
W(?re  decidedly  distinct,  as  the  late  Bishop  Horsley  has  long 
since  shown. 

The  Hebrew  Christians,  to  whom  Saint  Matthew  wrote,  were 
the  body  of  Jewish  converts  in  his  time,  who  laid  aside  the  use 
of  the  Mosaic  law. 

Of  the  Nazarenes  there  were  two  descriptions  :  1.  The  Naza- 
renes of  the  better  sort,  who  were  orthodox  in  their  creed,  though 
they  continued  to  observe  the  Mosaic  law:  but  being  great  ad- 
mirers of  Saint  Paul,  they  could  not  esteem  the  law  generally 
necessary  to  salvation.  2.  The  Nazarenes  of  a  worse  sort  were 
bigoted  to  the  Jewish  law,  but  still  orthodox  in  their  creed,  for 
any  thing  that  appears  to  the  contrary.  These  were  the  proper 
Nazarenes  mentioned  by  Epiphanius  and  Jerome.  Both  of 
these  classes  of  Nazarenes  believed  Jesus  Christ  to  be  born  of  a 
virgin  by  the  special  interposition  of  God,  and  consequently  re- 
ceived the  two  tirst  chapters  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel. 

The  EI)ionites  also  were  divided  into  two  classes:  1.  Those 
who  denied  our  Lord's  divinity,  but  admitted  the  fact  of  the  mi- 
raculous conception :  consequently  the  two  first  chapters  of  Mat- 
thew were  admitted  by  them ;  and,  2.  Ebionites  of  a  worse  sort, 
who,  though  they  denied  the  miraculous  conception,  still  main- 
tained a  union  of  Jesus  with  a  divine  being,  which  commenced 
upon  his  ba[)tism.  These  Ebionites,  Epiphanius  relates,  made 
use  of  a  Hebrew  Gospel  of  Matthew,  which  was  not  only  de- 
fective, but  also  contained  many  fabulous  stories.  The  Ebion- 
ites, he  adds,  branched  off  from  the  Nazarenes,  and  did  not 
appear  until  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.'* 

Now,  since  the  Ebionites  "  of  a  worse  sort,"  as  Bishop  Hors- 
ley terms  them,  did  not  make  their  appearance  until  the  com- 
mencement of  the  second  century,  and  as  they  used  a  imttilated 
and  corrupted  copy  of  Matthew's  Gospel,  the  absence  of  the 
two  first  chapters  of  Matthew  from  their  Gospel  is  so  far  from 
making  any  thing  against  the  authenticity  of  those  chapters, 
that,  on  the  contrary,  it  affords  a  strong  evidence  for  it ;  since 
we  are  enabled  satisfactorily  to  account  for  the  omission  of  those 
chapters  in  their  copies,  and  to  prove  from  the  united  antecedent, 
concurrent,  and  subsequent  testimonies  of  various  writers,  both 
Christians  and  adversaries  of  Christianity,  that  they  did  exist  in 
all  the  other  copies  of  Matthew's  Gospel,  and  were  explicitly 
referred  to  or  cited  by  them.' 

>  See  the  passage  of  Epiplianius,  in  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  ix.  pp.  322.  329. ; 
4lo.  vol.  iv.  pp.  5tj.">.  570. 

»  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  i.  p.  321. 

»  See  (he  various  passages  of  Iren.iins,  TertuUian,  Epiphanius,  .Jerome 
and  other  fathers,  in  Lariiuer,  Svo.  vol.  viii.  pp.  19—24.  ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  18:3 
— 185.  Bishop  Horsley's  Tracts  in  reply  to  Dr.  Priestley,  pp.  378 — 386. 
(edition  of  1739.)  Moshcini's  Commentaries  on  the  AtTairs  of  Christians, 
voL  ii.  pp.  194—204.  Dr.  .1.  1*.  Smith's  Scripture  Testimony  to  the  Messiah, 
vol.  ii.  part  ii.  pp.  731—741. 

*  The  reader  wlio  may  be  desirous  of  investisalins  at  length  the  evi- 
dence of  the  authenticity  of  Matt.  i.  and  ii.  will  find  it  very  copiously  dis- 
cussed in  Dr.  Nares's  masterly  Remarks  on  the  Unitarian  Version  of  the 
New  Testament,  pp.  4—27.  (2d  edit.) ;  Archbp.  Laurence's  Critical  Reflec- 
tions on  the  Unitarian  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  pp.  14—50.  8vo. 
O.xlord,  1811  ;  Archbp.  Majee's  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  ii.  part 
I.  pp.  419 — l.M.  ;  the  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  i.  pp.  320— ,326.  ;  the  Sixth  Ser- 
mon in  ^^l•.  Falconer's  Hampton  Lectures  for  1310.  pp.  176—207.  ;  Dr.  Bell's 
Arguments  in  proof  of  the  authenticity  of  the  two  first  chapters  of  (he 
Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Luke  prefixed  to  his  Enquiry  into  the  Divine  Mi<!- 
Bions  of  John  the  Baptist  and  Jesus  Christ,  Svo.  London,  1810  •  and 
especially  to  Mr.  Bevan's  very  complete,  and  indeed  tinanswerahle,  "  Vin- 
dication of  the  authenticity  pf  the  Narratives  contained  in  the  two  first 
cliapters  of  the  Cfospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke,  1822;"  Svo 


2.  Tlie  collateral  or  infernal  arguments  against  the  authen- 
ticity of  these  chapters,  deduced  from  their  contents,  are  as 
follow. 

(1.)  It  has  been  admitted  by  many  writers  that  Mark  in  most 
places  agrees  with  the  method  and  order  both  of  Matthew  and 
Luke,  as  also  does  John,  after  a  short  introduction  concerning 
the  Logos.  Mark  begins  his  Gospel  at  what  we  call  the  third 
chapter  of  Matthew,  that  is,  at  the  time  when  John  came  baptiz- 
Itig  in  the  wilderness.  It  is  farther  urged  that,  as  it  is  most  pro- 
bal)le  that  Luke  was  the  first  who  pulilished  a  Gospel  ;  and  as 
he  had  given  the  genealogy  and  a  full  account  of  the  birth,  &c. 
of  Christ,  there  was  no  necessity  for  those  who  came  after  him 
to  repeat  the  same  things,  as  they  were  not  particularly  import- 
ant to  the  salvation  and  happiness  of  man, — the  great  ends 
which  our  Saviour  and  his  di.sciiiles  had  in  view.  Besides,  it  is 
alleged  that  Luke's  account  of  the  birth  of  Jesus,  and  of  all  the 
subsf<|uent  events,  till  Joseph  and  Mary  carried  him  home  to 
Nazareth,  which  he  has  fully  detailed,  is  totally  didercnt  from 
that  which  is  found  in  the  first  and  second  chapters  of  Matthew's 
Gospel.  No  coincidence  occurs,  excepting  Christ's  Inking  born 
at  Bethlehem  of  a  virgin.  Hence  it  is  inferred  by  those  who 
ojjpose  the  authenticity  of  these  chapters,  that  the  absolute 
silence  of  Luke  respecting  many  remarkable  events  yields  a 
strong  negative  argument  against  it.  This  inference,  however, 
is  more  specious  than  solid  ;  but  before  we  admit  its  force,  let  us 
examine  the  premises  on  which  it  is  founded.  'I'he  agreement 
of  the  four  evangelists  is  readily  accounted  for,  by  their  narrating 
the  life  and  transactions  of  one  and  the  same  person.  Having 
either  been  chosen  witnes.ses  of  our  Saviour's  discourses  and 
actions  (as  Matthew  and  John  were),  or  having  derived  their 
information  from  others  who  had  been  eye-witnesses  of  thcra 
(as  Mark  and  Luke  had),  they  were  enabled  by  inspiration  to 
repeat  the  former  with  little  or  no  variation  of  words,  and  to  relate 
the  latter  without  any  material  variation.  They  did  so  in  their 
preaching;  and,  forming  the  same  judgment  of  the  importance  of 
what  they  had  seen  and  heard,  they  repeated  nearly  the  same 
things  and  the  same  words.  The  reason  why  Mark  begins  at 
what  we  call  the  third  chapter  of  Matthew  is  to  be  found  in  the 
object  he  had  in  view  in  writing  his  Gospel ;  which,  being  in  all 
probability  written  at  Rome,  was  adapted  to  the  state  of  the  church 
there.'  Further,  it  is  7iot  probable  that  Luke's  Go.spcl  was  first 
written ;  we  have  already  proved  (as  far  at  least  as  such  a  thing  can 
now  be  proved)  that  Matthew's  Gospel  was  the  first  composed,'  snd 
Luke  did  not  write  his  Gospel  until  about  the  year  63  or  64.' 
His  account  of  the  birth,  &c.  of  Jesus  Christ  is  totally  different 
from  that  of  Matthew ;  whose  Gospel,  being  designed  for  the 
Hebrew  Christians,  traces  the  pedigree  of  our  Saviour  in  the 
line  of  Joseph,  his  reputed  or  legal  father,  to  show  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  prophecies  contained  in  the  Old  Testament 
respecting  the  Messiah  ;  and  then  proceeds  to  notice  the  fact  that 
Christ  was  born  in  Bethlehem  agreeably  to  the  prediction  of 
Micah,  without  detailing  the  intermediate  circumstances,  which, 
in  fact,  were  not  necessary,  as  he  wrote  at  a  time  when  those 
events  were  fresh  in  the  recollections  of  his  countrjinen  and 
contemporaries.  Luke,  on  the  contrary,  writing  for  Gentiles 
who  were  ignorant  of  Jewish  affairs,  and  after  Matthew  com- 
posed his  Gospels,  begins  his  history  much  farther  back  than  the 
other  evangelists ;  is  particularly  carcfiil  in  sjiecifying  times  and 
places  ;  and  gives  the  genealogy  of  Christ  according  to  his  natu- 
ral descent  from  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  carries  it  up  to  Adam,  to 
show  that  he  was  that  very  seed  of  the  -womari,  who  was  pro- 
mised for  the  redemption  of  the  -whole  world.  The  silence  of 
Luke,  therefore,  respecting  many  remarkable  events  related  by 
Matthew,  admits  of  an  easy  and  satisfactory  solution ;  and  con- 
cludes nothing  against  the  authenticity  of  his  two  first  chapters. 

(2.)  The  appearance  of  a  .star  in  the  east,  directing  the  Magi  to 
the  new-bom  Messiah  in  Judaea  (Matt.  ii.  1 — 12),  it  has  been  said, 
has  more  the  air  of  an  Eastern  invention  than  of  a  real  history.  It 
is  true  this  has  been  said ;  but  so  far  is  it  from  being  an  oriental 
fiction,  that  it  is  referred  to  as  a  fact  by  Ignatius,''  who  had 
conversed  familiarly  with  several  of  the  apostles,  and  who  cer- 
tainly had  better  means  of  ascertaining  its  reality  than  any  writer 
of  the  eighteenth  or  nineteenth  century.  The  reality  of  this 
fact  was  also  admitted  by  that  acute  adversary  of  the  Christian 
faith,  Celsus,  who  flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  second 
century.9 

»  See  this  proved,  Sect.  IlL  §  IV.  p.  305.  infra. 

s  See  pp.  296—299.  mtpra.  '  See  feect.  IV.  §  IV.  p.  310.  infra. 

»  Ignatii  Epist.  ad  Ephesius,  §  19.  apud  Cotelerii  Patres  Apost.  torn.  ii. 
p.  51. 

»  See  the  passages  at  length,  in  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  viii.  pp.  11.  59.  63. ; 
Ito.  vol.  iv.  pp.  116.  143.  145.    The  circumstaace  of  tlte  coming  of  tbe  wise 


302 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  Chap.  II. 


(3.)  It  is  said  to  be  a  circumstance  scarcely  credible,  that 
"  when  Herod  had  heard  these  things"  (the  arrival  of  the  Magi, 
&c.),  "  he  was  troubled,  and  all  Jcfiisa/eni  with  him."  Now 
this  circumstance  is  so  far  from  being  incredible,  that  it  is  pre- 
cisely what  we  should  expect  from  the  well  known  sanguinary 
and  jealous  character  of  Herod,  who  had  caused  the  death  of  his 
wife,  his  children,  and  the  greater  part  of  his  family,  not  to  men- 
tion numbers  of  his  subjects  who  fell  victims  to  his  savage 
jealousy  :  so  that  the  Jews,  especially  the  Pharisees,  dreaded 
and  hated  him. 

(4.)  Much  stress  has  been  laid  on  the  supposed  difficulty  of 
reconciling  the  genealogies  of  Clirist,  as  recorded  by  Matthew 
and  Luke ;  but  the  different  designs  with  which  those  evange- 
lists composed  their  respective  Gospels  completely  solve  this 
apparent  difficulty  :  which  has  been  considered  and  explained  in 
the  first  volume  of  this  work. 

(5.)  The  slaughter  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem  is  further  ob- 
jected against  the  authenticity  of  the  second  chapter  of  Matthew, 
because  that  event  is  not  mentioned  by  any  writer  but  by  the 
"  supposed  Matthew,  and  by  those  who  quote  from  him."  The 
credibility  of  this  event,  and  consequently  the  authenticity  of 
the  evangelist,  has  likewise  been  established  in  the  same  vo- 
lume. 

(6.)  It  is  alleged  that  there  are  in  these  two  chapters  several 
prophecies  cited  as  being  fulfilled,  but  which  cannot  easily  be 
made  to  correspond  with  the  events  by  which  they  are  declared 
to  be  accomplished.  A  little  attention,  however,  to  the  Hebrew 
modes  of  quoting  the  prophecies  will  show  the  fallacy  of  this 
objection.  For  Isa.  vii.  14.  cited  in  Matt.  i.  2.3.,  and  Micah  v.  2. 
cited  in  Matt.  ii.  6.,  are  prophecies  quoted  as  being  literally  ac- 
complished; and  Jer.  xxxi.  15.  cited  in  Matt.  ii.  17.,  and  Hos. 
xi.  1.  cited  in  Matt.  ii.  15.,  are  passages  from  those  prophets 
applied  to  similar  facts,  introduced  with  the  usual  formulas  of 
Jewish  writers,  That  it  might  be  fulfilled,  and  Then  -was  ful- 
filled. 

Lastly,  It  is  said  that  the  flight  of  Joseph  with  Mary  and 
Jesus  into  Egypt  is  inexplicable  ;  that  it  could  not  be  from  Beth- 
lehem, for  Luke  expressly  says  that  they  continued  there  forty 
days  (ii.  22.),  at  the  expiration  of  which  he  was  carried  to  Jeru- 
salem to  be  presented  to  the  Lord,  and  afterwards  was  taken  to 
Nazareth  (39.)  :  and  that  the  flight  from  this  latter  place  was 
altogether  unnecessary,  because  the  slaughter  did  not  extend  so 
far.  A  little  attention,  however,  to  the  different  orders  pursued 
by  the  evangelists  in  their  Gospels,  will  remove  this  seeming 
objection ;  and  the  different  narratives  concerning  our  Lord's 
infancy,  given  us  by  Matthew  and  Luke,  will  appear  very  con- 
sistent, if  we  only  suppose  that,  immediately  after  the  transac- 
tions in  the  temple,  Joseph  and  Mary  went  to  Nazareth,  as  Luke 
says,  but  only  to  settle  their  affairs  there,  and  soon  after  returned 
to  Bethlehem,  where  the  report  of  the  shepherds,  and  the  favour- 
able impressions  it  had  made  on  the  inhabitants  (see  Luke  ii. 
17,  18.),  would  suggest  many  cogent  motives  to  fix  their  abode. 
There  they  might  have  dwelt  many  months  before  the  arrival  of 
the  wise  men  related  by  Matthew :  for  the  order  issued  by  Herod 
for  the  slaughter  of  the  children,  in  consequence  of  the  diligent 
inquiry  he  had  made  of  the  Magi  concerning  the  time  when  the 
star  appeared,  affords  us  ground  to  conclude,  that  a  considerable 
time  had  intervened  between  the  birth  of  the  child,  or  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  star  (supposing  them  to  coincide) ,  and  the  com- 
ing of  the  wise  men.  It  is  also  worthy  of  observation,  that  on 
Joseph's  return  from  Egypt,  his  first  intention  seems  to  have 
been  to  go  into  Judaea  (see  Matt.  ii.  22.)  ;  but,  through  fear  of 
Archelaus,  and  by  divine  direction,  he  fixed  at  Nazareth,  the 
place  of  his  first  abode.  There  he  and  his  family  were  at  the 
time  of  the  only  event  of  our  Lord's  childhood  which  Luke  has 
recorded,  and  therefore  it  was  not  to  his  purpose  to  take  notice 
of  any  removal  or  other  place  of  abode.' 

To  sum  up  the  evidence  upon  this  question,  the  importance 
of  which  must  apologize  for  the  length  of  the  preceaing  dis- 
cussion:— The  commencement  of  the  third  chapter  of  Saint 
Matthew's  Gospel  shows  that  something  had  preceded, 
analogous  to  wnat  we  read  in  chap,  ii.  All  the  ancient 
manuscripts  now  extant,  as  well  as  all  the  ancient  versions 
(two  of  which  are  of  apostolical  antiquity),  contain  the  two 
first  chapters.     They  are  found  in  a  genuine  epistle  of  Igna- 

men  and  their  worshipping  of  the  infant  Jesus  are  discussed  in  Mr.  Franks's 
Hulsean  Prize  Dissertation  on  the  Magi,  8vo.  1814.  ;  and  the  objections  of 
Professor  Schleiermacher  are  satisfactorily  refuted  in  the  British  Critic 
and  Theological  Review,  vol.  ii.  pp.  385,  386. 

'  Dr.  Priestley's  Notes  on  the  Bible,  vol.  iii.  p.  31.  See  also  Lightfoot's, 
Doddridge's,  and  Macknight's  Harmonies  on  Matt  ii.  and  Cellerier's  Intro- 
duction au  Nouv.  Test.  pp.  334—337. 


tins,  the  only  apostolical  father  who  had  occasion  to  refer  to 
them.  Justin  Martyr,  Hegrsippus,  and  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria, who  all  flourished  in  the  second  century,  have  referred 
to  them  :  as  also  have  Irena^us  and  all  tiie  fathers  who  im- 
mediately succeeded  him,  and  whose  testimony  is  undisputed, 
(-elsus.  Porphyry,  and  Julian,  the  most  acute  and  inveterate 
enemies  of  the  Gospel,  in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  cen- 
turies, likewise  admitted  them,  "  Tlius,  we  have  one  con- 
tinued and  unbroken  series  of  testimony,"  of  ('hrislians  as 
well  as  of  persons  inimical  to  the  Christian  faith,  '•  from  the 
days  of  the  apostles  to  the  present  time ;  and  in  opposition 
to  this  we  find  only  a  vague  report  of  the  state  of  a  Hebrew 
copy  of  Matthew's  Gospel,  said  to  be  received  amongst  an 
obscure  and  unrecognised  description  of  Hebrew  Christians, 
who  are  admitted  even  by  the  very  writers  who  claim  the 
support  of  their  authenticity,  to  have  mutilated  the  copy 
which  they  possessed,  by  removing  the  genealogy. "2 

VII,  The  voice  of  antiquity  accords  with  Irenseus,  Origen, 
and  Eusebius'  in  testifying  that  Matthew  wrote  his  G(  spel 
in  Judaja  for  the  Jewish  nation,  while  the  church  consisted 
wholly  of  the  circumcision,  that  is,  of  Jewish  and  Sainari- 
tan  believers,  but  principally  Jewish ;  and  that  he  wrote  it 
primarily  for  their  use,  witii  a  view  to  confirm  those  who 
believed,  and  to  convert  those  who  believed  not,  w-e  have, 
besides  historical  facts,  very  strong  presumptions  from  the 
book  itself.  Every  circumstance  is  carefully  pointed  out, 
which  might  conciliate  the  faith  of  that  nation  ;  and  every 
unnecessary  expression  is  avoided,  that  might  in  any  way 
tend  to  obstruct  it.  To  illustrate  this  remark  by  a  few  par- 
ticulars : — There  was  no  sentiinent  relating  to  the  Messiah, 
with  which  the  Jews  were  more  strongly  possessed,  than 
that  he  must  be  of  the  race  of  Abraham,  and  of  the  family  of 
David.  Matthew,  therefore,  with  great  propriety,  begins  his 
narrative  with  the  genealogy  of  Jesus;  which,  agreeably  to 
the  Jewish  custom,  he  gives  according  to  his  legal  descent 
by  Joseph  his  supposed  father,  deducing  it  from  Abraham 
through  David  to  show  his  title  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 

That  he  should  be  born  at  Bethlehem  in  Judaea  was 
another  circumstance  in  which  the  learned  among  the  Jews 
were  universally  agreed  ;  accordingly,  this  historian  has  also 
taken  the  first  opportunity  to  mention  his  birth  in  that  town, 
together  with  some  very  memorable  circumstances  that 
attended  it:  Those  passages  in  the  prophets,  or  other  sacred 
books,  which  either  foretell  any  thing  that  should  happen  to 
the  Messiah,  or  admit  of  an  allusive  ap])lication  to  him,  or 
were  in  that  age  generally  understood  to  be  applicable  to 
events  which  respect  the  Messiah,  are  never  passed  over  in 
silence  by  this  evangelist.  To  the  Jews  who  were  convinced 
of  the  inspiration  of  their  sacred  writings,  the  fulfilment  of 
prophecy  was  always  strong  evidence:  accordingly,  neither 
of  the  evangelists  has  been  more  careful  than  Matthew  that 
no  evidence  of  this  kind  should  be  overlooked.-' 

Further,  this  evangelist  very  frequently  refers  to  Jewish 
customs,  and  relates  most  of  our  Saviour's  discourses  against 
the  errors  and  superstitions  of  the  Jews,  whose  most  con- 
siderable objections  he  answers.  How  admirably  his  Gos- 
pel was  adapted  to  that  people,  will  appear  from  the  follow- 
ing considerations  :  "  The  Jews  were  much  disposed  to  con- 
sider the  letter  of  the  law  as  the  complete  rule  and  measure 
of  moral  duty ;  to  place  religion  in  the  observance  of  rites 
and  ceremonies,  or  in  a  strict  acTherence  to  some  favourite 
precepts,  written  or  traditionary  ;  to  ascribe  to  themselves 
sufficient  power  of  doing  the  divine  will  without  the  divine 
assistance;  and,  vain  of  a  civil  or  legal  righteousness,  to 
contemn  all  others,  and  esteem  themselves  so  just  that  they 
needed  no  repentance,  nor  any  expiation  but  what  the  law 
provided.  They  rested  in  the  covenant  of  circumcision  and 
their  descent  from  Abraham  as  a  sure  title  to  salvation,  what- 
ever lives  they  led;  and  though  they  looked  for  a  Messiah, 
yet  with  so  little  idea  of  an  atonement  for  sin  to  be  made  by 
his  death,  that  the  cross  proved  the  great  stumbling-block  to 
them,'  They  expected  him  to  appear  with  outward  splen- 
dour, as  the  dispenser  of  temporal  felicity:  the  chief  bless- 
ings of  which  were  to  redound  to  their  own  nation  in  an 
earthly  Canaan,  and  in  conquest  and  dominion  over  the  rest 
of  mankind,  A  tincture  of  these  delusive  notions,  which 
they  had  imbibed  by  education  and  the  doctrine  of  their 
elders,  would  be  apt  to  remain  with  too  many,  even  after 
their  admission  into  the  church  of  Christ.     How  necessary 

2  Archbp.  Magce  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  ii.  p.  447. 

3  Irena;us  adv.  Hffir.  lib.  iii  c.  1.  Eust  bius,  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  v.  c.  8.  Ori- 
genis  Ex]iosit.  in  Matt,  lapud  Euseb.  lib.  vi.  c.  25. 

4  Dr.  Campbell's  Translation  of  the  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  p.  18.  Dr.  Town- 
son's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  121—137. 


Sect.  II,] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MATTHEW. 


then  was  it,  that  just  principles  concernin<r  the  way  of  life 
and  happiiK^ss,  and  tiie  nature  and  extent  of  tlie  (Jos[)('l, 
should  f)(!  infused  into  tlie  breasts  of  these  sons  of  Sion,  tliat 
they  niiffht  l)e  able  to  work  out  their  own  salvation,  and  pro- 
mote that  of  others ;  since  they  were  to  he  the  milt  nf  the 
earl  It,  and  ///''  //i^A/  af  Ihc  wurhl  ,■  tin;  first  preachers  of  riglit- 
eousncss  to  the  nations,  and  tin;  instruments  of  calling  man- 
kind to  tin;  knowledire  of  tin;  truth. 

"  Matthew,  tlicnibn!,  lias  (dioscn,  out  of  the  materials  be- 
fon;  hiui,  such  parts  of  our  blessed  Saviour's  history  and 
discourses  as  were  best  suited  to  the  purpose  of  awakening 
them  to  a  sense  of  their  sins,  of  abating  their  sidf-conceit 
and  overvveeuiiijr  bop(!s,  of  rectifying  ibcir  errors,  correcting 
their  prejudices,  and  exalting  anil  juirilyiiig  llicir  minds. 
Afu^r  a  short  account,  more  particularly  rcijuisilc  in  the  first 
writer  of  a  (Josptd,  of  the  genealogy  and  miraculous  birth 
of  Christ,  and  a  f<;vv  circumstances  reflating  to  his  infancy, 
he  proceeds  to  (hvscribe  his  forerunner  .John  the  Baptist,  who 
preaclujd  the  necessity  of  repentance  to  the  race  of  Abraham 
and  children  of  tbe  circumcision ;  and  by  bis  li'slimony  pre- 
pares us  to  ex|)(!Ct  one  mightier  than  he :  mightier  as  a 
prophet  in  deed  and  in  word,  and  ahov(^  the  sphere  of  a 
j)ropliet,  mighty  to  sanctify  by  his  si)iiit,  to  i)ardon,  reward, 
and  punish  by  bis  sovereignty.  Then  tlie  s|)iritual  nature 
of  liis  kingdom,  tbe  pure  and  perfect  laws  by  which  it  is 
administered,  and  the  necessity  of  vital  aiul  umvc^sal  obedi- 
enci!  to  tbem,  are  set  before!  us  in  various  discourses,  be- 
ginning with  the  s(!rnion  on  the  mount,  to  which  Saint  Mat- 
thew hastens,  as  with  a  rapid  jjace,  to  lead  bis  readies.  And 
that  the  holy  light  shining  on  tlie  mind  by  the  word  and  life 
of  Christ,  and  (piickening  the  heart  by  his  spirit,  might  be 
seconded  in  bis  operations  by  the  powers  of  hope  and  fear: 
the  twinity-fiftii  chapter  of  this  (>ospel,  which  finishes  the 
legislaiion  of  Christ,  exhibits  him  enforcing  bis  precepts, 
and  adding  a  sanction  to  his  laws,  by  that  noble  and  awful 
description  of  his  future  appearance  in  glory,  and  the  gather- 
ing of  all  nations  before  him  to  judgment.  Saint  Matthew, 
then,  passing  to  tbe  history  of  the  Passion,  shows  them  that 
the  new  cuuenanf,  foretold  by  the  prophets,  was  a  covenant  of 
spiritual  not  temporal  blessings,  establisluHi  in  the  sufferings 
and  d(^ath  of  Christ,  w/io.se  bluod  was  shed  for  iitanij,  fok  the 
REMISSION  OF  SINS  (Matt,  xxvi,  28.)  ;  which  it  was  not  pos- 
sible that  the  blood  of  bulls  and  goats  should  take  away.  To 
purge  the  cousci(>nce  from  the  pollution  of  dead  and  sinful 
worivs  reciuired  the  blood  of  Him,  who  through  the  eternal 
Spirit  nffe.nd  himself  without  upot  to  Gad.  With  tbe  instruc- 
tions of  Christ  are  intermixed  many  hints,  that  the  kingdom  of 
God  would  not  be  confined  to  tbe  .lews,  but,  while  numbers 
of  them  were  excluded  through  unbelief,  would  be  increased 
by  subjects  of  other  nations.  And  thus  tlie  dcivout  Israelite 
was  taught,  in  submission  to  tbe  will  and  ordinance  of  Hea- 
ven, to  embrace  the  believing  Samaritan  as  a  brother,  and  to 
welcome  the  admission  of  tbe  Gentiles  into  the  church, 
which  was  soon  after  to  commence  with  the  calling  of  Cor- 
nelius. And  as  they  suffered  persecution  from  tbeir  own 
nation,  and  were  to  expect  it  elsewhere  in  following  Christ, 
all  that  can  fortify  the  mind  with  neglect  of  eartmy  good, 
and  contempt  of  worldly  danger,  when  they  come  in  compe- 
tition with  our  duty,  is  strongly  inculcated."' 

VII i.  Tbe  Gospel  of  Matthew,  which  comprises  twenty- 
eight  chapters  and  1071  verses,  consists  of  four  parts,  viz. 
Part  I.  treats  on  the  Infancy  of  Jesus  Chrifit. 

Sect.  1.  The  genealogy  of  Christ,  (i.  1  — 17.) 

Sect.  2.  The  birth  of  Christ,  (i.  18—25.) 

Sect.  3.  The   adoration   of  the    Magi,  and   slaughter  of  the 
infants  at  Bethlehem  and  in  its  vicinity,  (ii.) 
Part  II.  records  the  Discourses  and  Jiclions  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, preparatori/  to  our  Saviour''s  commencing  his  Public 

Ministry,  (iii.  iv.  1 — 11.) 

Sect.  1.  The  preaching  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  the  baptism 
of  Jesus  Christ  by  him.  (iii.) 

Sect.  2.  The    temptation  of  Christ  in    the  wilderness,   (iv. 
l-Il.) 
Part  HI.  relates  the  Discourses  and  Actions  of  Christ  in  Ga- 

ihe 


Messiah,  (iv. 


lilee,  by  which  he  demonstrated  that  he  was 

1-2.— XX.  IG.) 

Sect.  1.  Christ  goes  into  Galilee,  calls  Peter,  Andrew,  James, 

asd  John,    and    performs   various    miraculous    cures,    (iv. 

12—2.5.) 
Sect.  2.  The  sermon  on  the  mount,  (v.  vi.  vii.)  showing, 

»  Dr.  Townson's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  5—7. 


303 

-12),  and  the  duty  of  Christians  to  be 


§  i.  Who  only  are  truly  happy  (v.  1- 
excMiplrtiy.  (13 — 1(J.) 

§  ii.  'I'lio  ilrsign  of  <;iirist's  corning;,  viz.  to  ratify  the  divine  law  (17—20.), 
whirli  liiid  been  much  impaired  by  the  tiadiUons  of  the  Piiarisees.- 1. 
IN  RE.sPECT  OP  ITS  EXTENT :— this  is  excni|illfied  in  what  concerns,  1. 
A/«;(i^r(21— 2<i.);  2.  AUullertj C^—dO.);  3.  Divarce  0\,S2.);  4.  Oalha 
(3.3—37);  5.  Ilelalialiun  (3S— 4J.);  0.  The  love  of  our  nrighhotir  (•!3 — 
48.)— n.  IN  RESPECT  OF  MOTIVE  I  where  the  end  is  apiilause,  tlio  virtue 
is  destroyed.  This  is  exeniplitied,  1.  In  titnisgivitig  (vi.  1—4.);  2.  In 
prnijeT  (.H—Xb.)  ;  3.  hi/asting.  (IG — 18.) 

§  iii.  Heavenly-mindcdness  enlorced  by  various  considerations,  (vi.  19 
-31.) 

§  iv.  (Jaiirions  against  censoriousness  in  judirinB  of  others  (vii.  1 — 5.) ;  ad- 
monition lo  discretion  in  dispensing  religious  benffil8(C.);  to  assiduity 
in  puisuinij  spirihial  ({ood  (7 — II.);  to  humanily  and  f(|ui(y  in  our  Ijc- 
liaviour  lo  all  (12);  and  to  witlistand  all  sinlul  affcelions  (13,  H.); 
warnini;g  against  false  teachers,  who  arc  commonly  known  by  their 
acOoiis  (l.") — 20.);  the  wisdom  f)f  adiling  practice  to  knowledge,  and  the 
insignificancy  of  the  latter  without  the  former.  (21 — 21).) 

Sect.  3.  A  narrative  of  several  miracles,  performed  by  Christ, 
and  of  the  call  of  Matthew,   (viii.  ix.) 

Sect.  4.  Christ's  charge  to  his  twelve  apostles,  whom  he  sent 
forth  to  i)rcach  to  the  Jews.   (x.  xi.  1.) 

Sect.  .5.  relates  the  manner  in  which  the  discourses  and  ac- 
tions of  Jesus  Christ  were  received  by  various  descriptions 
of  men,  and  the  elfcct  produced  by  his  discourses  and  mira- 
cles,  (xi.  2. — xvi.  1 — 12.) 

Sect.  6.  contains  the  discourses  and  actions  of  Christ,  imme- 
diately concerning  his  disciples,   (xvi.  13. — xx.  1 — 16.) 
Part  IV.  contains  the  Transactions  relative  to  the  JHassion  and 

liesurrect ion  if  Christ,  (xx.  17. — xxviii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  discourses  and  miracle  of  Christ  in  his  way  to 
Jerusalem,   (xx.  17 — 34.) 

Sect.  2.  The  transactions  at  Jerusalem  until  bis  passion. 

§  i.   On  Palm  Sunday  (as  we  now  call  il),  or  Ihe  Jirsl  day  of  Passion 

week,  Clirist  makes  Ills  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  where   he 

e.vpels  the  money-changers,  and  other  tiadcirs  out  of  the  tcuiplc.  (xxi 

1  —  17.) 

§  il.   Oit  Monday,  or  the  second  day  of  Passion-week. — The  barren  fig 

tree  withered,  (xxi.  18—22.) 
§  ill.   On  Tufi.fday,  or  the  third  (\ay  of  Passion-week. 
(«)  In  thn  Tiinplr. — The  chief  priests  and  elders  confuted,   1.  Hy  a 
tpieslion  concerning  .lohn's  baptism,  (xxi.  23 — 27.)— 2.  Hy  the  para- 
bles of  Iho  two  sons  (28—32.),  and  of  the  labourers  of  the  vineyard 
(33—44.);  for  which  they  seek  lo  lay  hands  on  him.  (1.5,46.)    The 
parable  of  the  marriage- feast,  (xxii.  1—14.)    Christ  confutes  the 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees  by  showing,  I.  The  lawfulness  of  paying 
tribute,  (xxii    15— 22.)— 2.    Proving  the   resurrection.  (23— .33.)— 3. 
The  great  commandment  (34 — 40.),  and  silences  the  Pharisees  (41 — 
4f>.),  against  whom  he  denounces  eight  woes  for  their  hypocrisy 
(xxiii.  1—30.);  his  lamentation  over  .lerusalem.  (.37 — 39.) 
(I))  Out  of  tlic  Temple. — Christ's  prophetic  discourse  concerning  (he 
destruction  of  .lerusalem  and  tlie  end  of  the  world  (xxiv.);  the  pa- 
rables of  the  ten  virgins  and  of  the  talent.s,  and  the  last  judgment. 

(XXV.) 

§  iv.  On  Wednesday,  or  \\\e fourth  day  of  Passion-week,  Christ  fore- 
warns his  disciples  of  his  approaching  crucifixion:  Ihe  chief  priests 
consult  to  apprehend  hiin.  (3—5.)    A  vsoman  anoints  Christ  at  Bethany, 
(xxvi.  0—13.) 
§  v.  On  Thursday,  or  the  fifth  day  of  Passion-week. — Judas  covenants 

to  betray  him  (14 — 16.);  the  passover  prepared.  (17 — 19.) 
I  vi.   On  the  Passover  day,  that  is,  from  Thursday  evening  to  Fridatf 
evening  nf  Passion  week, 
(a)  In  the  evening  Christ  eats  the  passover  (xxvi.  20 — 25.),  and  insti- 

tiiti-s  I  lie  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  (26 — 29.) 
(./))  7'iiirards  night  Jesus,  1.  Foretells  the  cowardice  of  the  apostles, 
(xxvi.  33—35.) — 2.  Is  in  an  agony.  (30—46.) — 3.  Is  apprehended,  re- 
proves Peter  and  the  multitude,  and  is  forsaken  by  all.  (47-56.) 

(c)  During  the  night,  1.  Christ  is  led  lo  Caiaphas,  falsely  accused,  con- 
demned, and  derided.  (57 — 68.) — 2.  Peter's  denial  of  Christ  and  re- 
pentance. (69—75.) 

(d)  On  Friday  morning,  1.  Jesus  being  delivered  to  Pilate,  Judas 
commits  suicide,  (xxvii.  1 — 10.) — 2.  Transactions  before  Pilate.  (11 
—26.)— 3.  Christ  is  mocked  and  led  forth.  (-27- .32.) 

(p)  Transactions  of  the  MiV</ Aowr.— The  vinegar  and  gall ;  Ihe  cnici- 
fixion  ;  Christ's  garments  divided;  llie  inscription  on  Ihe  cross  ;  the 
two  robliers;  blasphemies  of  the  .lews,  (x.xvii.  33 — 44.) 

(J)  From  the  sixth  lo  the  ninth  liour.— The  darkness  over  Ihe  land; 
Christ's  last  aaony  and  death  ;  its  concomitant  events,  (xxvii.  45— .56.) 

(g)  lietween  the  ninth  hour  and  sunset,  Christ  is  interred  by  Joseph 
of  Arimathea.  (xxvii.  57—61.) 

Sect.  3.  The  transactions  on  the  Sabbath  of  the  Passover- 
■week  (that  is,  from  suiisft  on  Pritlnt/  to  sunset  on  Satur- 
day ill  Passion-iveek.) — The  sepulchre  of  Christ  secured, 
(xxvii.  G2— 66.) 

Sect.  4.  Transactions  after  Christ's  resurrection,  chiefly  on 
Easter-day. 

§  i.  Christ's  resurrection  testified,  first,  to  the  women  by  an  angel  (xxviiJ. 

I— 8),  and  afterwards  by  Christ  himself  (9,  10  ) 
§  ii.  The   resurrection  denied  by  his  adversaries  (xxvii.  11—15),  but 

proved  to  the  apostles.  (16 — 20.) 

IX.  Except  John,  the  evangelist  Matthew  enjoyed  the  best 
opporfunitv  for  writing  a  regular  and  connected  narrative  of 
tbe  life  of  Christ,  according  to  tbe  order  of  time  and  the  exact 
series  of  his  transactions."  His  style  is  every  where  plain 
and  perspicuous,  and  he  is  eminently  distinguished  for  the 
clearness  and  particularity  with  which  he  has  related  many 
of  our  Saviour  s  discourses  and  moral  instructions.     *'  Of 


304 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  Chap.  II. 


these,  his  sermon  on  the  mount,  his  charge  to  the  apostles, 
his  illustrations  of  the  nature  of  his  kingclom,  and  his  pro- 
phecy on  Mount  Olivet,  are  examples.  He  has  also  won- 
derfully united  simplicity  and  eneryfy  in  relating  the  replies 
of  his  master  to  the  cavils  of  his  adversaries."'  He  is  the 
only  evangelist  who  has  given  us  an  account  of  our  Lord's 
description  of  the  process  of  the  general  judgment;  and  his 
relation  of  that  momentous  event  is  awfully  impressive. 


SECTION  III. 

ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MARK. 

I.  Title. — II.  Author. — III.  Genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
this  Gospel. — IV.  Probable  date. — V.  Occasion  and  scope. 
— VI.  In  xuhat  langitage  ivritten. — VII.  Synopsis  of  its  con- 
tents.— VIII.  Examination  of  the  question,  -whether  JYIark 
transcribed  or  abridged  the  Gospel  of  JMattheiv. — IX.  Ob- 
servations on  his  style. 

I.  The  Title  of  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Mark  is,  in  the  Vati- 
can manuscript,  mra.  m^pkov,  according  lo  Murk.  In  the  Alex- 
andrian MS.,  the  Codex  Bezae,  the  Codex  Regius,  G2  (for- 
merly 28G2,  Stephani  m),  and  some  other  editions,  it  is  To 
K^Tx  Mufiuv  Euii-^yihiov,  the  Gospel  according  to  Mark ;  and  in 
some  manuscripts  and  editions.  To  x.'XTct  Mupx.ov  ayicv  Eua.yyi- 
Km,  the  Holy  Gospel  according  to  Mark,  or  (as  in  the  author- 
ized English  version),  the  Gospel  according  to  Saint  Mark. "2- 
In  the  Syriac  version,  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  it  is 
entitled  "The  Gospel  of  the  Evangelist  Mark ;"  in  the  Ara- 
bic version,  "  The  Gospel  of  St.  Mark  the  Apostle,  which  he 
wrote  in  the  Roman  [tongue]  by  the  inspiration  of  the  Spirit 
of  Holiness ;"  and  in  the  Persian  version,  "  The  beginning 
of  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  which  was  written  at  Rome,  in  the 
Latin  tongue." 

II.  This  evangelist  was  not  an  apostle,  or  companion  of 
Jesus  Christ  during  his  ministry,  though  Epiphanius  and 
several  other  fathers  affirm  that  he  was  one  of  the  seventy  dis- 
ciples. All  that  we  learn  from  the  New  Testament  concern- 
ing him  is,  that  he  was  "  sister's  son  to  Barnabas"  (Col.  iv. 
10.),  and  the  son  of  Mary,  a  pious  woman  of  Jerusalem,  at 
whose  house  the  apostles  and  first  Christians  often  as- 
sembled. (Acts  xii.  13.)  His  Hebrew  name  was  John,  and 
Michaelis  thinks,  that  he  adopted  the  surname  of  Mark  when 
he  left  Judaea  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  foreign  countries, — a 
practice  not  unusual  among  the  Jews  of  that  age,  who  fre- 
quently assumed  a  name  more  familiar  to  the  nations  which 
they  visited  than  by  that  which  they  had  been  distinguished 
in  their  own  country.  From  Peter's  styling  him  his  son 
(1  Pet.  V.  13.),  this  evangelist  is  supposed  to  have  been  con- 
verted by  Saint  Peter;  and  on  his  deliverance  (a.  d.  44,  re- 
corded in  Acts  xii.  12.),  Mark  went  from  Jerusalem  with 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  soon  after  accompanied  them  to 
other  countries  as  their  minister  (Acts  xiii.  5.)  ;  but  declining 
to  attend  them  through  their  whole  progress,  he  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  and  kept  up  an  intercourse  with  Peter  and  the 
other  apostles.  Afterwards,  however,  when  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas settled  at  Antioch  on  the  termination  of  their  journey, 
we  find  Mark  with  them,  and  disposed  to  accompany  them 
in  their  future  journeys.  At  this  time  he  went  with  Barna- 
bas to  Cyprus  (Acts  xv.  37 — 39.)  ;  and  subsequently  accom- 
panied Timothy  to  Rome,  at  the  express  desire  of  Saint  Paul 
(2  Tim.  iv.  11.),  during  his  confinement  in  that  city,  whence 
Mark  sent  his  salutations  to  Philemon  (24.),  and  to  the 
church  at  Colosse.  (Col.  iv.  10.)  From  Rome  he  probably 
went  into  Asia,  where  he  found  Saint  Peter,  with  whom  he 
returned  to  that  city,  in  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  written 
and  published  his  Gospel.  Such  are  the  outlines  of  this 
evangelist's  history,  as  furnished  to  us  by  the  New  Testa- 
ment. From  Eusebius,  Epiphanius,  and  Jerome,^  we  learn 
that  Mark,  after  he  had  written  iiis  Gospel,  went  to  Egypt ; 
and,  having  planted  a  church  at  Alexandria,  Jerome  states 
that  he  died  and  was  buried  there  in  the  eighth  year  of  the 
reign  of  Nero.  Baronius,  Cave,  Wetstein,  and  other  writers, 
affirm  that  Saint  Mark   suffered  martyrdom;   but  this  fact 

»  Dr.  Campbell  on  the  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  p.  20.  Dr.  Harwood's  Introd.  to 
the  New  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  176.  Bishop  Cleaver  has  an  excellent  Discourse 
on  the  Style  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  in  his  Sermons  on  Select  Subjects, 
pp.  189—205. 

»  Griesbach,  Nov.  Test.  torn.  i.  on  Mark  i.  1. 

3  See  the  passages  of  these  writers  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi. 
pp.  83— 8i.  ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  176,  177. 


is  not  mentioned  by  Eusebius  or  any  other  ancient  writer, 
and  is  contradicted  by  Jerome,  whose  expressions  seem  to 
imply  that  he  died  a  natural  death. 

111.  That  Mark  was  the  author  of  the  Gospel  which  bears 
his  name,  is  proved  by  the  unanimous  testimony  of  ancient 
Christians,  particularly  Papias,"*  by  several  ancient  writers 
of  the  first  century  consulted  by  Eusebius,-"  by  Justin  Mar- 
tyr,'' Tatian,'  lrena;us,8  Clement  of  Alexandria.^  Tertullian,io 
Ammonius,"  Origen,'^  and  by  all  the  fathers  of  the  third  and 
following  centuries. 13  Though  not  cited  by  name,  this  Gospel 
appears  to  have  been  alluded  to  by  Clement  of  Rome  in  the 
first  century  ;'^  but  the  testimony  of  antiquity  is  not  equally 
uniform  concerning  the  order  in  which  it  should  be  placed. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  affirms  that  the  Gospels  containing 
the  genealogies  were  first  written  :  according  to  this  account, 
Mark  wrote  after  Luke;  but  Papias,  on  the  information  of 
John  the  Presbyter,  a  disciple  of  Jesus,  and  a  companion  of 
the  apostles,  expressly  states  that  it  was  the  second  in  order; 
and  with  him  agree  Irenaeus  and  other  writers. 

Satisfactory  as  is  the  testimony,  to  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  generally,  some  critics 
have  thought  that  the  last  twelve  verses  of  the  sixteenth  chap- 
ter were  not  written  by  the  evangelist.'-'^  The  following  is  a 
concise  statement  of  the  question.  Gregory,  bishop  of  Nyssa, 
in  Cappadocia,  has  said  in  his  second  discourse  on  the  resur- 
rection, that  this  Gospel  terminates  in  the  more  correct  copies 
with  the  words  £<f(;/SouvT3  yap,  for  they  were  afraid:  and  Jerome 
has  observed,"'  that  few  of  the  Greek  MSS.  which  he  had 
seen,  contained  these  verses.  But  the  very  concise  affirma- 
tion of  Jerome  is  greatly  restricted  by  what  he  had  himself 
said  of  a  various  reading  in  the  fourteenth  verse,  viz.  that  it 
is  found  171  quibusdam  exemplaribus,  et  maxime  Grsecis  codi- 
cibtis.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that,  in  the  former  passage, 
he  has  exaggerated, — which  is  no  unusual  occurrence  with 
this  writer.  With  regard  to  the  assertion  of  Gregory,  atthis 
distance  of  time  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  deiermine 
what  he  meant  by  the  most  exact  inunuscripts.  Perhaps  he 
intended  MSS.  more  correctly  written,  but  this  merit  alone 
would  add  nothing  to  their  authoritv  ;  nor  can  we  now  ascer- 
tain the  recension  to  which  they  belonged.  We  must,  there- 
fore, examine  the  evidences  which  actually  exist.  The  verses 
in  question  are  certainly  wanting  in  the  Vatican  .manuscripts  ; 
and  in  Nos.  137.  and  138.  of  Griesbach's  notation  they  are 
marked  wflh  an  asterisk  ;  they  are  also  wanting  in  the  canons 
of  Eusebius  :  but,  on  the  other  hand,  their  authenticity  is 
attested  by  authorities  of  the  greatest  importance.  These 
verses  are  extant  in  the  Codex  Alexandrinus ;  the  most  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  disputed  passage  (that  is,  the  seven 
first  verses)  is  in  the  Codex  Bezas,  a  prima  manu,  but  the 
remainder  has  been  added  by  a  later  hand,  and  they  are  ex- 
tant in  the  Greek  commentaries  of  Theophylact.  The  w'hole 
twelve  verses  are  likewise  found  in  thePeschito  (or  Old 
Syriac)  and  Arabic  versions,  and  in  those  MSS.  of  the  Vul- 
gate Latin  Version,  which  are  not  mutilated  at  the  end 
of  the  second  Gospel ;  and  they  are  cited  by  Augustine, 
Ambrose,  and  Leo  bishop  of  Rome  (surnamed  the  Great), 
who  followed  this  version.  But  what  is  of  most  importance 
is,  that  the  manner  in  which  so  ancient  a  writer  as  Irena'us, 
in  the  second  century,  refers  to  this  Gospel,  renders  it  highly 

Erobable  that  the  whole  passage  was  read  in  all  the  copies 
nown  to  him.  His  words  are  these  : — In  fine  atttem  Evan- 
gelii,  ait  Marcus  .•  £!t  quidcni  Doniinus  Jesus,  posffjiiam  locutus 
est  eis,  receptu-  est  in  ccelo,  et  sedet  ad  dexleram  Dei. '7 

The  verse  here  quoted  is  the  nineteenth,  and  the  chapter 
contains  only  twenty  verses.  Hippolytus,  who  wrote  in  the 
early  part  of  the  third  century,  also  bears  testimony  in  favour 
of  the  disputed  fragment,  in  the  beginning  of  this  book  Ufpt 
Xapia-fxciTctv.  It  is  further  worthy  of  notice,  that  there  is  not  a 
single  manuscript  containing  this  verse,  which  has  not  also 

4  A.  D.  llfi.  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  109.  112. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  338,  339. 
6  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  iii.  c.  33. 

«  A.  B.  140.     Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  120. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  344. 
•"  a.  d.  172.    Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  138. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  354. 
a  a.  d.  178.     Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  158,  159. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  365,  366. 
9  a.  d.  194.    Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  211,  212.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  395. 
"  A.  D.  200.    Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  257,  258.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  420. 
"  A.  D.  220.    Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  414,  et  seq.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  503,  et  snq. 
«a  A.  D.  230.    Ibid.  8vo.  vol  ii.  pp.  466,  467.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  332.  ' 

la  See  the  later  testimonies  in  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  87 — 90.  :  4to.  vol. 
iii.  PI).  179,  180. 
"  i.ardner,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  31. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  294. 

"  Michaelis  (Introd.  cliap.  iii.  sect.  3.  vol.  i.  pp.  87 — 97.)  has  brought  for- 
ward some  strong  objections  to  the  canonical  aulhorily  of  the  Gospel  of 
Mark.  As  his  objections  apply  equally  lo  the  Gospel  of  Luke,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  pp.  308.  309.  infra;  where  those  objections  are  considered, 
and  (it  is  hoped)  satisfactorily  refuted. 
16  Queest.  ad  Hedib.  Ciueest.  3.  "  Adv.  Hser.  lib.  iii.  c.  10.  (al.  11.)   - 


Sect.  III.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MARK. 


305 


llie  wliole  p.issage  from  the  eijrhth  to  tlie  end :  nor  is  there 
a  single  manuscript,  in  whicii  this  verse  is  wantinjr,  that 
does  not  also  want  the  whole.  No  authority  of  eiiual  anti- 
quity has  yet  been  produced  on  the  other  side.  It  has  been 
conjectured  that  the  diflTiculty  of  reconciling  .Mark's  account 
of  OUT  Lord's  appearances,  after  his  resurrection,  with  those 
of  the  (jther  evangelists,  has  emboldentMi  some;  transcribers 
to  omit  them.  Tiie  plausibility  of  this  conjecture  renders  it 
highly  probable :  to  which  we  may  subjoin,  that  the  abrupt- 
ness of  the  conclusion  of  this  history,  without  the  words  in 
•juestion,  and  the  want  of  any  thing  like  a  reason  for  adding 
tlunn  if  th(;y  had  not  been  there  originally,  afford  a  strcjng 
collateral  proof  of  their  authenticity.  Transcribers,  Dr. 
Campbell  well  remarks,  presume  to  add  and  alter  in  order  to 
reiiiDvc  contradictions,  but  not  in  order  to  mulic  them.  The 
conclusion,  therefore,  is,  that  the  disi)Uted  fragment  is  an 
integral  part  of  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  and  consequently  is 
genuine.' 

IV.  Although  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  Mark's 
Gospel  are  thus  satisfactorily  ascertained,  considerable  un- 
certainty ])revails  as  to  the  time  when  it  was  composed.  It 
is  allowed  by  all  the  ancient  authors  that  Mark  wrote  it  at 
Home;  and  many  of  them  assert  that  he  was  no  more  than 
an  amanuensis  or  interpreter  to  Peter,  who  dictated  this  Gos- 
pel to  him,  though  others  affirm  that  he  wrote  it  after  Peter's 
death.  Hence  a  variety  of  dates  has  been  assigned  between 
the  years  5G  and  G5  ;  so  that  it  becomes  difficult  to  determine 
the  precise  year  when  it  was  written.  But  as  it  is  evident 
from  the  evangelist's  own  narrative  (Mark  xvi.  20.),  that  he 
did  not  write  until  after  the  apostles  had  dispersed  themselves 
among  the  Gentiles,  and  had  preached  the  Gospel  every 
where,  the  Lord  wirrking  luiih  tliein  and  conjininng  the  words 
with  signs  following ,-  and  as  it  does  not  ajipear  that  all  the 
apostles  ciuitted  Judaea  earlier  than  the  year  50^  (though 
several  ot  them  laboured  among  the  Gentiles  with  great 
success),  perhaps  we  shall  approximate  nearest  to  the  real 
date,  if  we  ])lace  it  between  the  years  GO  and  ()3. 

V.  Saint  Peter  having  publicly  preached  the  Christian 
religion  at  Rome,  many  wlio  were  present  entreated  Mark, 
as  he  had  for  a  long  time  been  that  apostle's  companion,  and 
had  a  clear  understanding  of  what  Peter  had  delivered,  that 
lie  would  commit  the  particulars  to  writing.  Accordingly, 
when  Mark  had  finished  his  Gospel,  he  delivered  it  to  the 
persons  who  made  this  request.  Such  is  the  unanimous 
testimony  of  ancient  writers,'*  which  is  further  confirmed  by 
internal  evidence,  derived  from  the  Gospel  itself.  Thus,  the 
great  humility  of  Peter  is  conspicuous  in  every  part  of  it, 
where  any  thing  is  related  or  might  be  related  of  him ;  his 
weaknesses  and  fall  being  fully  exposed  to  view,  while  the 
things  which  redound  to  his  honour  are  eitlier  slightly 
touched  or  wholly  concealed.  And  with  regard  to  Christ, 
scarcely  an  action  that  was  done,  or  word  spoKen  by  him,  is 
mentioned,  at  which  this  apostle  was  not  present,  and  with 
such  minuteness  of  circumstance  as  shows  that  the  person 
who  dictated  the  Gospel  had  been  an  eye-witness  of  the 
transactions  recorded  in  it.' 

From  the  Hebraisms  discoverable  in  the  style  of  this  Gos- 
pel, we  should  readily  conclude  that  its  author  was  by  birth 
and  education  a  Jew:  but  the  numerous  Latinisms'  it  con- 
tains, not  only  show  that  it  was  composed  by  a  person  who 
had  lived  among  the  Latins,  but  also  that  it  was  written  be- 
yond the  confines  of  Juda;a.  That  this  Gospel  was  designed 
|)rincipally  for  Gentile  believers  (though  we  know  that  there 
were  some  Jewish  converts  in  the  church  of  Rome)  is  further 
evident  from  the  explanations  introduced  by  the  evangelist, 
whicli  would  have  been  unnecessary,  if  he  had  written  for 
Hebrew  Christians  exclusively.  Thus,  the  first  time  the 
Jordan  is  mentioned,  the  appellation  "  nrer"  is  added  to  the 
name.  (Mark  i.  5.)  Again,  as  the  Romans  could  not  under- 
stand the  Jewish  phrase  of  '■'■  defilfd  or  conunun  hand'',"  the 
evangelist  adds  the  parenthetical  explanation  of  ^^thcit  is, 
unw(ushen."  (vii.  2.)  When  he  uses  the  word  corbnn,  he 
subjoins  the  interpretation,  ^'^  that  is,  a  gift"  (vii.  11.);  and 
instead  of  the  word  mammon,  he  uses  the  common  term 

«  Griesbach,  Comm.  Crit.  in  Text.  Nov.  Test.  Particula  n.  p.  199.  Dr. 
Caiuphell,  on  the  Gospels,  nole  on  Mark  x\\.  (vol.  ii.  p.  405.  3(1  eilil.)  Cel- 
Icrier,  Introd.  au  N.  T.  pp.  'Hi — 3o2.  Hug's  InlroUuction;  vol.  ii.  pp.  285 
— 295. 

»  See  Dr.  Larilner's  Supplement  to  his  Cretlihility,  chap.  7.,  where  this 
subject  is  amply  discussed.  Works,  8vo.  vol.  viii.  pp.  So — 77.  ;  4to.  vol.  iii. 
pp.  167—173. 

•  Clemens  Alexandr.  apud  Eusebli  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  vi.  c.  It.  Jerome  de 
Viris  lUuslribus,  cap.  viii.    TertuUiani  Opera,  p.  uOT).  edit.  Risaltii. 

«  See  several  instances  of  this  adduced  m  Dr.  Tosvnson's  Works  vol.  i. 
pp.  151—103. 

»  Several  of  these  Latinisus  are  specified  in  Vol.  I.  p.  29. 

Vol.  II.  2  Q 


Xi»iiu*T^,  "  riche&i"  Ag;un,  the  word  Gehenna,  which  in  our 
ver.,ion  is  translated  ht/l  (ix.  43.),  originally  signified  the 
valley  of  Ilinnom,  where  infants  had  been  sacrificed  to  Mo- 
loch, and  where  a  continual  fire  was  afterwards  maintained 
to  consume  the  filth  of  Jerusalem.  As  this  word  could  not 
iiave  been  understood  by  a  foreigner,  the  evangelist  adds  the 
words,  "unquenchable  fire"  by  vvay  of  explanation.  These 
particularities  corroborate  the  historical  evidence  above  cited, 
that  Mark  designed  his  Gospel  for  the  use  of  Gentile  Chris- 
tians." 

Lastly,  the  manner  in  which  Saint  Mark  relates  the  life 
of  our  Saviour,  is  an  additional  evidence  that  he  wrote  for 
(it.'iilile  Christians.  His  narrative  is  clear,  exact,  and  con- 
cise, atid  his  exordium  is  singular;  for  while  the  other 
evangelists  style  our  Saviour  the  "-Wt  of  man,"  Saint  Mark 
announces  him  at  once  as  the  Son  of  God  (i.  l.V  an  august 
title,  the  more  likely  to  engage  the  attention  of  tlie  Romans; 
omitting  the  genealogy  of  Christ,  his  miraculous  conception, 
the  massacre  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem,  and  other  particu- 
lars, which  could  not  be  essentially  important  in  the  eyes  of 
foreigners. 

Vf.  That  this  evangelist  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Greek  is 
attested  by  the  uninterrupted  voice  of  antiquity  ;  nor  was 
this  point  ever  disputed  until  the  cardinals  Baronius  and 
Bellarminc,  and,  after  them,  the  Jesuit  Inchofer,  an.xious  to 
exalt  the  language  in  which  the  Latin  Vulgate  version  was 
executed,  affirmed  that  Mark  wrote  in  Latin.'  This  asser- 
tion, however,  not  only  contradicts  historical  evidence,  but 
(as  Michaelis  has  well  observed)  is  in  itself  almost  incredible : 
for,  as  the  Latin  church,  from  the  very  earliest  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity, was  in  a  very  flourishing  state,  and  as  the  Latin 
language  was  difTused  over  the  whole  Roman  empire,  the 
Latin  original  of  Mark's  Gospel,  if  it  had  ever  existed,  could 
not  have  been  neglected  in  such  a  manner  as  that  no  copy 
of  it  should  descend  to  posterity.  The  only  semfj/ance  of 
testimony,  that  has  been  produced  in  support  of  this  opinion, 
is  the  subscription  annexed  to  the  old  Syriac  version,  that 
Mark  wrote  in  the  Romish,  that  is,  in  the  Latin  language, 
and  that  in  the  Philoxenian  version,  which  explains  Romish 
by  Franliish.  But  subscriptions  of  this  kind  are  of  no  au- 
thority whatever :  for  the  authors  of  them  are  unknown,  and 
some  of  them  contain  the  most  glaring  errors.  Besides,  as 
the  Syriac  version  was  made  in  the  East,  and  taken  imme- 
diately from  the  Greek,  no  appeal  can  be  made  to  a  Syriac 
subscription  in  regard  to  the  language  in  which  Mark  wrote 
at  Rome."  The  advocates  for  the  Latin  original  of  this 
Gospel  have  appealed  to  a  Latin  manuscript  pretended  to  be 
the  autograph  of  the  evangelist  himself,  and  said  to  be  pre- 
served in  the  library  of  Saint  Mark  at  Venice.  But  this  is 
now  proved  to  be  a  mere  fable :  for  the  Venetian  manuscript 
formerly  made  part  of  the  Latin  manuscript  preserved  at 
Friuli,  most  of  which  was  printed  by  Blanchini  in  his  Evan- 
gcliarum  Quadruplox.  The  Venice  manuscript  contained  the 
first  forty  pages,  or  five  quaternions  of  Mark's  Gospel ;  the 
two  last  quaternions  or  sixteen  pages  are  preserved  at  Prague, 
where  they  were  printed  by  M.  Dcbrowsky,  under  the  title 
of  Fragnttntum  Fragense  Lvangelii  S.  Marci  vulgo  autographi. 
1778.  4to.9 

VII.  The  Gospel  of  Mark  consists  of  sixteen  chapters, 
which  may  be  divided  into  three  parts;  viz. 
Part  I.   The  transactions  from  the  lioptism  of  Christ  to  his 

entering  on  the  more  public  part  of  his  Ministry,  (ch.  i.  1 — 

13.) 
Part  II.    TTi^  Discourses  and  Jclions  of  Jesus  Christ  to  his 

going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  the  fourth  ana  last  Passover,  (i.  14. 

-xO 

Sect.  1.  The  transactions  between  the  first  and  second  pass* 
overs,   (i.  14 — l.=i.  ii.  1 — 22.) 

«  Dr.  Campbell's  Pref.  to  Mark,  vol.  ii.  pp.  82,  S3. 

'  Pritii,  Introd.  ad  Lect.  Nov.  Test.  p.  311. 

'  Mieliarlis,  vol.  iil.  p.  225.  See  also  Jones  on  the  Canon  of  the  New 
Test.  vol.  iii.  p.  67—69. 

»  The  history  of  the  pretended  antosraph  manuscript  of  St.  Mark  is 
briellv  as  follows.  There  wa.s,  at  Aquileia,  a  very  ancient  Latin  MS.  of  the 
four  6ospcls ;  two  quaternions  or  sl.vieen  paces  of^  which  the  emperor 
Oiarles  IV.  obtained  in  1.534,  from  Nicholas,  pa'riarchof  Aquibia,  and  senl 
them  to  Prague.  The  reumining  five  qualornions  the  canons  of  the  cbureli 
at  Aqiiilcia,  diirinij  the  troubles  which  befiU  that  city,  carried  to  Friiili, 
tospiher  with  other  valuable  ai  tides  belonsinj  to  their  church,  a.  d.  1420.  ; 
and  I'roin  the  inhabitants  of  Friuli  the  Venetian  Doge,  Tomaso  Marenico 
obtained  these  five  quaternions,  which  wf  re  subsequently  passed  for  tho 
original  auto'^raph  of  St.  Mark.  (Alber,  Herineneut.  Nov.  Test.  lorn.  i.  p. 
23S.)  There  is  a  particular  account  of  the  Prague  Fraonient  of  St.  Mark's 
Gospel,  by  SchcEpfliii,  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Histnria  et  Commenta- 
tione.-f  Academi.-p  Electoralis  Theodoro-Palatina*.  Svo.  .Manheim,  1773. ;  in 
which  a  fac-siinlle  is  given.  The  account  is  abridged,  and  the  fac-simile 
copied  in  the  GeuUeuiau's  Magazine  tor  1778,  voL  Jtlvi.  pp.  321,  322. 


306 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Cuap.  II 


Sect.  2.  'I'he  transactions  between  the  second  and  third  pass- 
overs,  (ii.  23 — 28.  iii. — vi.) 

Sect.  3.  The  transactions  of  the  third  passovcr  to  Christ's 
going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  the  fourth  passover.  (vii. — x.) 

Part  III.   The  Passion,  Death,  and  Hesurreclion  of  Christ. 
(xi. — xvi.) 
Sect.  1.  The  first  day  of  Passion-week  or  Palm  Sunday — 

Christ's  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,   (xi.  1 — 11.) 
Sect.  2.  The    transactions    of   the  second    day,  or  Monday. 

(xi.  12—19.) 
Sect.  3.  The  transactions  of  the  third  day,  or  Tuesday — 
§  i.  In  the  morning,  (xi.  20—33.  xii.) 
§ii.  In  the  evening,  (xiii.) 
Sect.  4.  The  transactions  of  the  fourth  day,  or  Wednesday. 

(xiv.  1—9.) 
Sect.  5.  The   transactions    of  the  fifth   day,  or    Thursday. 

(xiv.  10—16.) 
Sect.  6.  The  transactions  of  the  Passover-day,  that  is,  from 

Thursday  evening  to  Friday  evening  of  the  Passion- week ; 

including  the    institution    of  the  Lord's  Supper,  Christ's 

agony  in  the  garden,  his  being  betrayed  by  Judas,  his  trial, 

crucifixion,  and  burial,   (xiv.  1 7 — 72.  xv.) 
Sect.  7.  The  transactions  after  the  resur.ection   of  Christ. 

(xvi.) 

VIII.  From  the  striking  coincidence  between  the  Gospel 
of  Mark  and  that  of  Matthew,  several  learned  men  have 
imagined  that  Mark  compiled  his  Gospel  from  him.  Augus- 
tine was  the  first  who  asserted  that  Mark  was  a  servile  copy- 
ist (pedissequus)  and  epitomizer  of  Matthew,  and  his  opinion 
has  been  adopted  by  Simon,  Calmet,  Adler,'  Owen,  Harwood, 
and  others. 

In  the  year  1782,  Koppe  published  a  dissertation,^  in  which 
he  has  proved  that  this  hypothesis  is  no  longer  tenable,  and 
Michaelis  has  acquiesced  in  the  result  of  his  inquiries.  The 
following  observations  are  chiefly  abridged  from  both  these 
writers. 

The  assertion,  that  Mark  abridged  the  Gospel  of  Matthew, 
contradicts  the  unanimous  voice  of  antiquity,  which  states 
that  Mark  wrote  his  Gospel  under  the  inspection  and  dicta- 
tion of  Peter ;  and,  although  there  is  a  coincidence  between 
these  two  evangelists,  yet  it  does  not  thence  necessarily  fol- 
low that  he  abridged  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  For,  in  the 
first  place,  he  frequently  deviates  from  Matthew  in  the  order 
of  time,  or  in  the  arrangement  of  his  facts,'  and  likewise 
adds  many  things  of  which  Matthew  has  taken  no  notice 
whatever.''  Now,  as  Matthew  was  an  apostle,  and  eye- 
witness of  the  facts  which  he  related,  Mark  could  not  have 
desired  better  authority;  if,  therefore,  he  had  Matthew's 
Gospel  before  him  when  he  wrote  his  own,  he  would 
scarcely  have  adopted  a  different  arrangement,  or  have  in- 
serted facts  which  he  could  not  have  found  in  his  original 
author. 

Again,  although  there  are  several  parts  of  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel, which  an  evangelist,  who  wrote  chiefly  for  the  use  of  the 
Romans,  might  not  improperly  omit — such  as  the  genealogy 
— the  healing  of  the  centurion's  servant  at  Capernaum — 
— Christ's  argument  to  John's  disciples,  to  prove  that  he  was 
the  Messiah — the  sermon  on  the  mount — some  prophecies 
from  the  Old  Testament — and  the  narrative  of  the  death  of 
Judas  Iscariot ; — yet,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  several 
relations  in  Matthew's  Gospel,  for  the  omission  of  which  it 
is  very  difficult  to  assign  a  reason,  and  which  therefore  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  liis  Gospel  was  not  used  by  Mark. — 
See  particularly  the  discourses  and  parables  related  in  Matt. 
viii.  18r— 22.;  x.  15—22.;  xi.  20— 30. ;  xii.  33— 45. ;  xiii. 
1 — 39. ;  xviii.  10 — 35. ;  xix.  10 — 12. ;  xx.  IG. ;  and  xxii. 
1—14.5 

Lastly,  Mark's  imperfect  description  of  Christ's  transac- 
tions with  the  apostles,  after  Viis  resurrection,  affords  the 

>  Prof.  Adler's  hypothesisis,  that  Marlj  first  epitomized  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew  into  Greek,  omitting  those  topics  wliicli  the  licathens  (fur  whom 
he  wrote)  would  not  understand;  such  as  the  Genealogy,  the  discourse 
dehvered  on  the  Mount,  the '23d  chapter,  wliich  was  addressed  to  the  Phari- 
sees, some  references  to  the  Old  Testament,  and  a  few  parables.  After 
which  he  imagines  (for  the  hypothesis  is  utterly  destitute  of  proof)  that  the 
whole  was  translated  into  Greek,  for  the  use  of  the  Greek  or  Hellenistic 
Jews. 

2  The  title  of  this  tract  is  Marcus  non  Epitomalor  Matthai.  It  was 
repriTited  by  Pott  and  Ruperti  in  the  first  volume  of  their  Sylloge  Com- 
inentatlonuni  ThH.ologicarum.     Ileluistadt,  IbliU,  Svo. 

3  Koppe  has  given  thirteen  instances.  See  Pott's  Sylloge,  vol.  i.  pp.  55 
—57. 

«  Koppe  has  given  twenty-three  instances  of  these  additions.  Ibid.  pp. 
B9— 64. 

*  Koppe  has  specified  several  other  omissions  in  the  Go.spel  of  St.  Mark, 
which  we  have  not  rouiu  to  enumerate.    Ibid  pp.  19—53. 


strongest  proof  that  he  was  totall}'^  unacquainted  with  the 
contents  of  Matthew's  Gospel.  The  latter  evangelist  has 
given  us  a  very  circumstantial  description  of  Christ's  con- 
versation with  his  apostles  on  a  mountain  in  Galilee,  yet  the 
former,  though  he  had  before  related  (Christ's  promise  that 
he  would  go  Defore  them  into  Galilee,  has,  in  the  last  chap- 
ter of  his  Gospel,  no  account  whatever  of  Christ's  appearance 
in  Galilee.  Now,  if  he  had  read  Matthew's  Gospel,  this 
important  event  could  not  have  been  unknown  to  him,  and 
consequently  he  would  not  have  neglected  to  record  it. 

Micnaelis  further  observes,  that  ifMark  had  had  Matthew's 
Gospel  before  him,  he  would  have  avoided  every  appearance 
of  contradiction  to  the  accounts  given  by  an  apostle  and  an 
eye-witness.  His  account  of  the  call  of  Levi,  under  the 
very  same  circumstance  as  Matthew  mentions  his  own  call, 
is  at  least  a  variation  from  Matthew's  description  ;  and  this 
very  variation  would  have  been  avoided,  if  Mark  had  had 
access  to  Matt!.-;w's  Gospel.  The  same  may  be  observed 
of  Mark  x.  46.,  where  only  one  blind  man  is  mentioned, 
whereas  Matthew,  in  the  parallel  passage,  mentions  two.  In 
Mark's  account  of  Peter's  denial  of  Christ,  the  very  same 
woman,  who  addressed  Peter  the  first  time,  addressed  him 
likewise  the  second  time,  whereas,  according  to  Matthew, 
he  was  addressed  by  a  different  person  ;  for  Mark  (xiv.  G9.) 
uses  the  expression  «  <aFaiSt(n<.yi,  the  maid,  w"hich,  without  a 
violation  of  grammar,  can  be  construed  only  of  the  same 
maid  who  had  been  mentioned  immediately  before,  w'hereas 
Matthew  (xxvi.  71.)  has  ax^x,  another  niaidj'  Now,  in 
whatever  manner  harmonists  may  reconcile  these  examples, 
there  will  always  remain  a  difference  between  the  two  ac- 
counts, which  would  have  been  avoided  if  Mark  had  copied 
from  Matthew.  But  what  shall  we  say  of  instances,  in 
which  there  is  no  mode  of  reconciliation  1  If  we  compare 
Mark  iv.  35.  and  i.  35.  with  Matt.  viii.  28—34.,  we  shall 
find  not  only  a  difference  in  the  arrangement  of  the  facts,  but 
such  a  determination  of  time  as  ren(fers  a  reconciliation  im- 
practicable. For,  according  to  Matthew,  on  the  day  after 
the  sermon  on  the  mount,  Christ  entered  into  a  ship,  and 
crossed  the  lake  of  Gennesareth,  where  he  encountered  a 
violent  tempest :  but,  according  to  Mark,  this  event  took 
place  on  the  day  after  the  sermon  in  parables ;  and,  on  the 
day  which  followed  that  on  which  the  sermon  on  the  mount 
was  delivered,  Christ  went,  not  to  the  sea-side,  but  to  a  de- 
sert place,  whence  he  passed  through  the  towns  and  villages 
of  Galilee.  Another  instance,  in  which  we  shall  find  it 
equally  impracticable  to  reconcile  the  two  evangelists,  is 
Mark  xi.  28.  compared  with  Matt.  xxi.  23.  In  both  places 
the  Jewish  priests  propose  this  question  to  Christ,  iv  'srcut 
i^outria.  Tciwra.  Trufii ;  alluding  to  his  expulsion  of  the  buyers 
and  sellers  from  the  temple.  But,  according  to  what  Saint 
Mark  had  previously  related  in  the  same  chapter,  this  ques- 
tion was  proposed  on  the  third  day  of  Christ's  entry  into 
Jerusalem ;  according  to  Matthew,  it  was  proposed  on  the 
second.  If  Mark  had  copied  from  Matthew,  this  difference 
in  their  accounts  would  hardly  have  taken  place.' 

Since,  then,  it  is  evident  that  Saint  Mark  did  not  copy 
from  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  the  question  recurs,  how 
are  we  to  reconcile  the  striking  coincidences  between  them, 
which  confessedly  exist  both  in  style,  words,  and  things  1 
Koppe,  and  after  him  Michaelis,  endeavoured  to  account  for 
the  examples  of  verbal  harmony  ih  the  three  first  Gospels, 
by  the  supposition  that  in  those  examples' the  evangelists 

«  The  whole  difficulty,  in  reconciling  this  apparent  discrepancy  between 
the  two  evangelists,  "  has  arisen  from  the  vain  expectation  that  they  must 
always  agree  with  each  other  in  the  most  minute  and  trivial  particulars  :  as 
if  the  credibility  of  our  religion  rested  on  such  agreement,  or  any  reason- 
able scheme  of  inspiration  required  this  exact  correspondency.  The 
solution,  which  Michaelis  afterwards  offered  in  his  Aiimerkungen,  aflfords 
all  the  satisfaction  which  a  Ccmdid  mari  can  desire.  After  stating  that  Mat- 
thew had  said  '  another  maid,'  Mark  '  the  maid,'  and  Luke  '  another  man,' 
(6T5poi),  he  observes,  the  whole  contradiction  vanishes  at  once,  if  we  only 
attend  to  John,  the  quiet  spectator  of  all  which  passed.  For  he  writes 
(xviii.  25.),  '  Th-y  said  unto  him,  Wast  thou  not  also  one  of  his  disciples  V 
Whence  it  appears  that  there  were  several  who  s-pake  on  thisoccasion, 
and  that  all  which  is  said  by  Matthew,  Mark,  and  I.uke  may  very  easily  be 
true.  There  might  probably  be  more  than  the  tliree  who  are  named  ;  but 
the  maid,  who  had  in  a  former  instance  recognii^ed  Peter,  appears  to  have 
made  the  deei)est  impression  on  his  mind;  and  hence,  in  dictating  this 
Gospel  to  Mark,  he  might  have  said  the  maid."  Bishop  Middleton's  doc- 
trine of  the  Greek  Article,  p.  285.  first  edition. 

■>  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  p.  220.  Koppe  (iit  supra,  pp.  57 — 59.)  has  given  seve- 
ral additional  examples  of  seeming  contradictions  between  the  two  evange- 
list.s,  proving  that  Mark  could  not  have  copied  from  Matthew.  On  the 
subject  above  discussed,  the  reader  will  find  much  important  information 
in  .Jones's  Vindication  of  the  former  part  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  from 
Mr.  Whiston's  Charge  of  Dislocations,  pp.  47 — Sti.,  printed  at  the  end  of  his 
third  volume  on  the  Canon  :  and  also  in  the  Latin  thesis  of  Bartus  van 
Willes,  entitled  Specimen  Hermeneuticum  de  iis,  qua?  ab  uno  Marco  sunt 
narrata,  aut  copiosiua  et  explicatius,  ah  eo,  quam  a  caeleris  Evangelistis 
exposita.  Svo.    Trajecti  ad  Rhenvuii,  1811. 


Bect.  IV.) 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  LUKE. 


307 


retained  the  wj-'ds  which  had  boon  iisod  in  more  ancient  fJfs- 
pels,  such  as  those  mentioned  by  liiike,  in  this  pnji'ace.'  J5iit 
Ihe'c  does  not  ap|)ear  to  bi;  any  necessity  for  resortinjr  to 
su«*.n  an  liypothesis :  for,  in  th<>  first  place,  it  contradicts  the 
a«counts  friven  from  tiie  early  (Jhristiaii  writers  al)ove  citiul ; 
and,  secondl}',  it  may  l)e,  acrcounted  for  from  other  causes. 
P(!ter  was,  (Mpially  with  Mattiiew,  an  ey<'-witness  of  our 
Lord's  mirach;s,  and  bad  also  b(!ard  his  rlisconrses,  and  on 
some;  occasions  was  admitted  to  ije  a  spectator  of  transactions 
to  which  all  the  other  disci|)les  were  not  aihnitted.  Holh 
were  Hebrews,  thou<rh  tlu^y  wrote  in  Hellenistic;  (JriM-k. 
Peter  would  thenifore  naturally  recite  in  his  preachiTiir  the; 
same  events  and  disc-ourses  which  INIatthew  recorded  in  bis 
Gospel;  and  the  same  eircunislancc'  nii<rhl  be  mentioned  in 
the  same  manner  l)y  men,  who  souirlit  not  after  "excellency 
of  speech,"  but  whose  minds  retained   the  remembrance  of 


facts  or  conversations  which  stronjrly  imnressed  them,  even 

tlic  iue; 
guidance.* 


without  taking  into  consideration  tiic  idea  of  supernatural 


IX.  Sim])licity  and  conciseness  are  the  characteristics  of 
Mark's  (iospel,  which,  considc^rintj  the  copiousness  and  ma- 
jesty of  its  subject — the  variety  of  jjreat  actions  it  relates, 
and  thf^  surjjrisinjr  circumstances  that  attended  them,  tofrether 
with  the  numerous  and  important  doctrines  and  precepts 
which  it  contains — is  the  shortest  and  clearest,  the  most 
marvellous,  and  at  the  same  time  tlie  most  satisfactory  his- 
tory in  the  whole  world. =• 


SECTION  IV. 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  LUKE. 

I.  Title. — II.  .Author. — III.  General  proofs  of  the  genuineness 
and  authenticity  of  this  Gospel. — 1.  Vindication  of  its  prenii- 
ineness  from  the  objections  of  JMichaelis  in  particular. — 
2.  Genuineness  of  the  first  tivo  chapters,  and  of  chapters 
viii.  27 — 39.,  and  xxii.  43,  44. — IV.  Date,  and  -where  written. 
— V.  For  whom  leritten. — VI.  Occasioii  and  scope  of  this 
Gospel. — VII.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. — VIII.  Observations 
on  this  Gospel. 

I.  The  Title  of  this  Gospel  in  manuscripts  and  early 
editions  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Gospel  by  St.  Mark. 
In  the  Syriac  version  it  is  called  "The  Holy  Gospel,  the 

{(reaching  of  Luke  the  evangelist,  which  he  spoke  and  pub- 
ished  (or  announced)  in  Greek,  in  Great  Alexandria :''  in 
the  Arabic  version,  it  is  "  The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  the  phy- 
sician, one  of  the  seventy,  which  he  wrote  in  Greek,  the 
Holy  Spirit  inspiring  [him]  :"  and,  in  the  Persian  version, 
"  The  Gospel  of  Luke,  which  he  wrote  in  the  Egyptian  Greek 
tongue,  at  Alexandria." 

II.  Concerning  this  evangelist,  we  have  but  little  certain 
information  :  from  what  is  recorded  in  the  Scriptures,  as  well 
as  from  the  circumstances  related  by  the  early  Christian 
writers,  the  following  particulars  have  been  obtained. 

According  to  Eusebius,  Luke  was  a  native  of  Antioch,  by 
profession  a  physician,  and  for  the  most  part  a  companion  of 
the  apostle  Paul.  The  report,  first  announced  by  Nicephoras 
Callisti,  a  writer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  that  he  was  a 
painter,  is  now  justly  exploded,  as  being  destitute  of  founda- 
tion, and  countenanced  by  no  ancient  writers.  From  his 
attending  Paul  in  his  travels,  and  also  from  the  testimony  of 
some  of  the  early  fathers,  Basnage,  Fabricius,  Dr.  Lardner, 
and  Bishop  Gleig  have  been  led  to  conclude  that  this  evan- 
gelist was  a  Jew,  and  Origen,  Epiphanius,  and  others  have 
supposed  that  he  was  one  of  the  seventy  disciples ;  but  this 
appears  to  be  contradicted  by  Luke's  own  declaration  that  he 
was  not  an  eye-witness  of  our  Saviour's  actions.^     Michaelis 

'  Pott's  Sylloge  Comment,  vol.  i.  pp.  65 — 69.  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  pp.  214, 
215. 

»  Prilii,  Introd.  ad  Lectionem  Nov.  Test.  p.  179.  Bishop  Tomline's  Ele- 
ments of  Christ.  Theol.  vol.  i.  p.  319. 

»  Blackwall's  Sacred  Classics,  vol.  i.  p.  293. 

•  Bi.^hop  Gleig,  however,  has  argiiecf  at  great  lenjtli,  that  the  construc- 
tion of  Lulte  i.  2.  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  he  was  himself  an  eye-witness 
and  personal  attendant  upon  Jesus  Christ ;  and  that,  as  he  is  the  only 
evangelist  who  gives  an  account  of  the  appointment  of  the  seventy,  it  is 
most  prohable  tliat  he  was  one  of  that  number.  He  adds,  that  the  account 
of  Chnist's  commencement  of  his  ministry  at  Nazareth  (iv.  lt>— 32.),  which 
is  only  slightly  referred  to  by  Matthew,  and  is  related  by  none  other  of  the 
evangelists,  is  given  with  such  particularity  of  circumstances,  and  in  such 
a  maimer,  as  evinces  that  they  actually  passed  in  the  presence  of  the 
writer  :  and,  further,  that,  as  he  mentions  Cleopas  by  name  in  his  very 
particular  and  interesdngaccount  of  allthat  passed  between  Christ  and  the 
two  disciples  on  the  road  to  Emmaus,  we  can  hardly  suppose  hun  to  be 


is  of  opinion  ihafhe  was  a  Gentile,  on  the  authority  of  Paul's 
expressions  in  Col.  iv.  10,  11.  It.  The  most  proahle  conjec- 
ture is  that  of  Bolton,  adopk-d  by  Kuin  ^el,  viz.  that  Luke 
was  descended  from  (ientih;  parents,  and  that  in  his  youth 
he  had  embraced  Judaism,  from  which  be  was  converted  to 
Christianity.  'I'he  Hebraic-CJreek  style  of  writing  observable 
in  his  writings,  and  especially  the  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
Jewish  relijrion,  rites,  ceremonies,  and  usages,  every  where 
discernible  both  in  bis  (iosjiel  and  in  the  Acts^  of  the  Apostles, 
suflicioiitly  evince  that  their  author  was  a  Jew;  while  bis 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  displayed  in  the 
prefice  to  his  Gospel,  which  is  composed  in  elegant  Greek, 
and  his  Greek  name  A:i/««f,  evidently  show  that  he  was  de- 
scended from  Gentile  parents.  This  conjecture  is  further 
supported  by  a  passajre  in  the  Acts,  and  by  another  in  the 
Ej)istle  to  the  Colossians.  In  the  foniuT  (Acts  xxi.  27.)  it 
is  related  that  the  Asiatic  Jews  stirred  up  the  people,  because 
Paul  had  introduced  Gentiles  into  the  temple,  and  in  the 
following  verse  it  is  added  that  they  had  before  seen  with 
him  in  tlie  city,  Trophinius  an  Kphesian,  whom  they  suj)- 
poscd  that  Paul  had  brought  into  the  temple.  No  mention 
IS  here  made  of  Luke,  though  he  was  with  the  apostb;. 
Compare  Acts  xxi.  15.  17.,  where  Luke  speaks  of  himself 
amoncT  the  companions  of  Paul.  Hence  we  infer  that  he 
was  reckoned  among  the  Jews,  one  of  whom  he  might  be 
accounted,  if  he  had  become  a  proselyte  frofti  Gcntilisin  to 
the  Jewish  religion.  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (iv. 
11.  11.)  after  Paul  had  written  the  salutations  of  Aristarchus, 
Marcus,  and  of  Jesus,  surnamed  Justus,  he  adds,  "  who  are 
of  the  c'rcumcision.  These  orily,''''  he  continues,  "  are  my  fl- 
loiv-workcrs  (meaning  those  of  the  circumcision)  unto  the 
kingdom  of  God.''''  Then  in  the  fourteenth  verse,  he  adds, 
"  Luke,  the  beloved  phydcian,  and  IJemus,  .lalute  you.''''  As  the 
apostle  in  this  passage  opposes  them  to  the  Christians  who 
had  been  converted  from  Judaism,  it  is  evident  that  Luke 
was  descended  from  Gentile  parents. 

The  first  time  that  this  evangelist  is  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  is  in  his  own  history  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
W^e  there  find  him  (Acts  xvi.  10,  11.)  with  Paul  at  Troas; 
thence  he  attended  him  to  Jerusalem:  continued  with  him  in 
his  troubles  in  Judaea;  and  sailed  in  the  same  ship  with  him, 
when  he  was  sent  a  prisoner  from  Cassarea  to  Rome,  where 
he  stayed  with  him  during  his  two  years'  confinement.  As 
none  of  the  ancient  fathers  have  mentioned  his  suffering  mar- 
tyrdom, it  is  probable  that  he  died  a  natural  death. * 

III.  The  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  Luke's  Gospel, 
and  of  his  history  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  are  confirmed 
by  the  unanimous  testimonies  of  the  ancient  writers.  —  The 
Gospel  is  alluded  to  by  the  apostolical  fathers,  Barnabas,^ 
Clement  of  Rome,'  Hermas,^  and  Polycarp.9  In  the  follow- 
ing century  it  is  repeatedly  cited  by  Justin  Martyr,'"  by  the 
martyrs  of  Lyons,"  and  by  Irenaeus.'^  TertuUian,"  at  the 
commencement  of  the  third  century,  asserted  against  Marcion 
the  genuineness  and  integrity  of  the  copies  of  Cuke's  Gospel, 
\yhich  were  admitted  to  be  canonical  by  himself  and  Chris- 
tians in  general,  and  for  this  he  appealed  to  various  apostolical 
churches.  Origen,"  a  few  years  after,  mentions  the  Gospels 
in  the  order  in  which  they  are  now  generally  received ;  the 
third  of  which  he  says,  "  is  that  according  to  Luke,  the  Gos- 
pel commended  by  Paul,  published  for  the  sake  of  the  Gentile 
converts."  These  testimonies  are  confirmed  by  Eusebius, 
the  pseudo-Athanasius,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Gregory  Nyssen, 

Ignorant  of  the  name  of  the  other  disciple,  which  Dr.  Gleig  understands  to 
be  Luke  himself,  and  thinks  that  he  concealed  his  name  for  the  same  rea- 
son that  John  conceals  Ills  own  name  in  the  Gospel.  (Disserlalion  on  the 
Origin  of  the  first  tliree  Gospels,  in  Bp.  G.'s  edition  of  Stackhouse's  His- 
tory of  the  Bible,  vol.  iii  pp.  89—93.,  and  also  in  his  Directions  for  the 
Study  of  Theology,  pp.  366—377.)  But  this  hypothesis,  which  is  proposed 
and  supported  with  great  ability,  is  opposed  by  the  facts  that  the  name  of 
llie  evangelist  is  NOT  Jewisli ;  and  that  since  Jesus  Christ  employed  only 
native  Jews  as  his  apostles  and  missionaries  (for  in  this  light  we  may  con- 
sider the  seventy  disciples),  it  is  not  likely  that  he  would  have  selected  one 
who  was  not  a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,  in  other  words,  a  Jew  by  descent 
from  both  his  parents,  and  duly  initiated  into  the  Jewish  church.  Besides, 
tlie  words  i'  >i/«'» — amon^  us  (\-  1.)  authorize  the  conjecture  that  he  had 
resided  for  a  considerable  time  in  Judaea :  and,  as  he  professes  that  he 
derived  his  information  from  eye-witnesses  and  ministers  of  Jesus  Christ, 
this  circumstance  will  account  for  the  graphic  minuteness  with  which  he 
has  recorded  particular  events. 

e  Lardner's  Supplement  to  his  Credibility,  chap.  viii.    Works,  8vo.  voL 
viii.  pp.  105—107. ;  4to.  vol.  ill.  pp.  187,  188. 
s  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  15. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  285. 
1  Ibid.  8ro.  vol.  ii.  p.  31.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  294. 
»  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  55.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  307,  308. 
9  Ibiil.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  93. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  323. 

10  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  120.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  344. 

"  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  1.50.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  361. 

>■>  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  159,  160.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  366. 

"  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  SB. ;  4to.  vol.  1.  p.  420. 

»*  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  466.     4to.  vol.  i.  p.  532. 


308 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VL  Chap.  TI. 


Jerome,  Aiignstine,  Chrysostom,  and  a  host  of  later  writers; 
whose  evidence,  bein^  collected  by  the  accurate  and  laborious 
Dr.  Lardner,'  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  in  this  place. 

Notwithstanding-  this  unbroken  chain  of  testimony  to  the 
genuineness  and  authenticity  of  Luke's  Gospel,  its  canonical 
authority  (together  with  that  of  the  Gospel  by  Mark)  has 
been  called  in  question  by  Michaelis  ;  while  various  attempts 
have  been  made  to  imi)nffn  the  authenticity  of  particular 
psssatres  of  St.  Luke.  The  celebrity  of  Michaelis,  and  the 
plausfbility  and  boldness  of  the  objections  of  other  assailants, 
will,  it  is  hoped,  justify  the  author  for  giving  to  their  objec- 
tions a  full  and  distinct  consideration. 

1.  The  objections  of  Michaelis  to  the  canonical  authority 
of  the  Gospels  of  Mark  and  Liike  are  as  follow  : — 

Objection  1.  The  two  books  in  question  were  written  by 
assistants  of  the  apostles.  This  circumstance,  he  affirms, 
affords  no  proof  of  their  inspiration,  even  if  it  could  be 
shown  that  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  were  endowed  with  the 
extraordinary  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (as  appears  to  have 
been  the  case  with  Timothy  and  the  deacons  mentioned  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles),^  of  which,  however,  there  is  no 
historical  proof :  because  a  disciple  might  possess  these  gifts, 
and  yet  his  writings  not  be  inspired.  And  if  we  ground  the 
argument  lor  their  inspiration  on  the  character  of  an  apostle's 
assistant,  then  we  must  receive  as  canonical  the  genuine 
Epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome,  and  the  writings  of  other 
apostolical  fathers.^ 

Answer.  "  It  will  be  admitted,  that  Mark  and  Luke  were 
humble,  pious  men  ;  also,  that  they  were  intelligent,  well-inform- 
ed men,  and  must  have  known  that  the  committing  "to  writing 
the  facts  and  doctrines  comprehended  in  the  Gospel  was  not  left 
to  the  discretion  or  caprice  of  every  disciple,  but  became  the 
duty  of  those  only,  who  were  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  un- 
dertake the  work.  Now,  if  these  two  disciples  had  been  unin- 
spired, or  not  under  the  immediate  direction  of  apostles  who 
possessed  plenary  inspiration,  it  would  have  argued  great  pre- 
sumption in  them,  without  any  direction,  to  write  Gospels  for  the 
instruction  of  the  church.  The  very  fact  of  their  writing  is, 
therefore,  a  strong  evidence,  that  they  believed  themselves  to  be 
inspired.  There  is  then  little  force  in  the  remark  of  the  learned 
professor,  that  neither  St.  Mark  nor  St.  Luke  have  declared,  in 
any  part  of  their  writings,  that  they  were  inspired :  for  such  a 
declaration  was  unnecessary  ;  their  conduct  in  midertaking  to 
write  such  books,  is  the  best  evidence  that  they  believed  them- 
selves called  to  this  work."'' 

Objection  2.  It  has  been  said  that  the  apostles  themselves 
have  in  their  epistles  recommended  these  Gospels  as  canoni- 
cal. That  the  passages  depended  upon  for  proof  do  refer  to 
these  or  any  other  written  Gospels,  Michaelis  denies :  but 
even  if  they  did  so  recommend  these  Gospels,  the  evidence 
(he  affirms)  is  unsatisfactory ;  because  they  mi^ht  have  com- 
mended a  book  as  containing  genuine  historical  accounts, 
without  vouching  for  its  inspiration.  And  the  testimony  of 
the  fathers,  who  state  that  these  Gospels  were  respectively 
approved  by  Peter  and  Paul,  Michaelis  dismisses  with  very 
little  ceremony :  and,  finally,  he  demurs  in  regard  to  the  evi- 
dence of  the  canonical  authority  of  these  books,  derived  from 
the  testimony  of  the  whole  primitive  church,  by  which  they 
were  undoubtedly  received  into  the  canon ;  and  suggests  that 
the  apostles  might  have  recommended  them,  and  the  primitive 
church  might  have  accepted  them,  as  works  indispensable  to 
a  Christian,  on  account  of  the  importance  of  their  contents, 
and  that  by  insensible  degrees  they  acquired  the  character 
of  being  inspired.'' 

Answer  1.  The  objection  drawn  from  the  writings  of  other 
apostolical  men  is  not  valid  :  "  for  none  of  them  ever  under- 
took to  write  Gospels,  for  the  use  of  the  church.  All  attempts 
at  writing  other  Gospels,  than  the  four,  were  considered  by  the 
primitive  church  as  impious  ;  because,  the  writers  were  unin- 
spired   men.     But 

"  2.  The  universal  reception  of  these  books  by  the  whole  pri- 
mitive church,  as  canonical,  is,  we  think,  conclusive  evidence 
that  they  were  not  mere  human  productions,  but  composed  by 
divine  inspiration.  That  they  were  thus  universally  received, 
is  manifest,  from  the  testimonies  which  have  already  been  ad- 

»  Works,  8vo.  vol.  viii.  pp.  107—1 12. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  181—191. 

«  2  Tim.  i.  6.     Acts  vi.  3—8. 

3  Michaelis's  Introduction,  vol.  i.  pp.  87,  88. 

•«  "  The  Canon  of  the  Olii  and  New  Testaments  ascertained  by  Archibald 
Alexandtr,  Professor  of  Theology  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,"  pp.  202,203. 
(Princeton  and  New  York,  1826.  12mo.) 

»  Michaelis  Introduction,  vol.  i.  pp.  88—94.  Alexander  on  the  Canon, 
p.  201. 


duced.     There  is  not  in  all  the  writings  of  antiquity,  a  hint,  that 
any  Christian  belonging  to  the  church  ever  suspected  that  these 
Gospels  were  inferior  in  authority  to  the  others.     No  books  in 
the   canon   appear  to  have   been   received  with  more  universal 
consent,  and  to  have  been  less  disputed.     They  are  contained  in 
every  catalogue  which  has  come  down  to  us.     They  are  cited  as 
Scripture  by  all  that  mention  them  ;  and  are  expressly  declared 
by  the  fathers  to  be  canonical  and  inspired  books.     Now,  let  it 
be  remembered,  that  this  is  the  best  evidence  which  we  can  have 
that  any  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  were  written  by 
inspiration.     Michaelis,  indeed,  places  the  whole  proof  of  inspi- 
ration on  the  promise  made  by  Christ  to  his  apostles  ;  but  while 
it   is  admitted  that  this  is  a  weighty  consideration,  it  does  not 
appear   to  us  to  be  equal  in  force  to  the  testimony  of  the  uni- 
versal church,  including  the  apostles  themselves,  that  these  writ- 
ings were  penned   under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  for  it 
is  not  perfectly  clear,  that  the  promise  referred  to  was  confined 
to  the  twelve.     Certainly,  Paul,  who   was  not  of  that   number, 
was   inspired    in  a  plenary  manner,  and  much  the  larger  part 
of  the  twelve  never  wrote  any  thing  for  the   canon.     There   is 
nothing  in  the  New   Testament  which  forbids    our   supposing, 
that  other  disciples  might  have  been  selected  to  write  for  the  use 
of  the  church.     We  do  not  wish  that  this  should  be  believed,  in 
regard  to  any  persons,  without  evidence,  but  we  think  that  the 
proof  exists,  and  arises  from  the   undeniable   fact,   that  the  wri- 
tings of  these  two  men  were,  from  the  beginning  received  as  in- 
spired.    And  this  belief  must  have  prevailed  before  the  death  of 
the  apostles ;  for  all  the  testimonies  concur  in  stating,  that   the 
Gospel  of  Mark  was  seen  by  Peter,  and   that  of  Luke  by  Paul, 
and  approved  by   them  respectively.     Now,   is  it  credible  that 
these  apostles,  and  John  who  survived  them  many  years,  would 
have  recommended  to  the  Christian   church  the  productions  of 
uninspired    men  1     No  doubt,  all  the    churches,   at  that  time, 
looked  up  to  the  apostles  for  guidance,  in  all  matters  that  related 
to  the  rule  of  their  faith,  and  a  general  opinion  that  these  Gos- 
pels were  canonical  could  not  have  obtained  without  their  con- 
currence.    The  hypothesis  of  Michaelis,  that  they  were  recom- 
mended as  useful  human  productions,  and  by  degrees  came  to 
be   considered  as  inspired  writings,  is  in  itself  improbable,  and 
repugnant  to  all  the  testimony  which  has  come  down  to  us  on 
the  subject.     If  this  had  been  the  fact,  they  would  never  have 
been   placed'  among  the  books,    universally   acknowledged,  but 
would  have  been  doubted  of,  or  disputed  by   some.     The  differ- 
ence made  between  inspired  books,  and  others,  in  those  primitive 
times,  was  as  great  as  at  any  subsequent  period ;  and  the  line  of 
distinction  was  not  only  broad,  but  great  pains  were  taken  to 
have  it  drawn  accurately ;  and  when  the  common  opinion  of  the 
church,  respecting  the  Gospels,  was  formed,  there  was  no  diffi- 
culty in  coming  to   the    certain  knowledge  of  the    truth.     For 
thirty  years  and  more,  before  the  death  of  the  apostle  John,  these 
two  Gospels  were  in  circulation.     If  any  doubt  had  existed  re- 
specting their  canonical  authority,  would  not  the  churches  and 
their  elders  have  had  recourse  to  this  infallible  authority  ?     The 
general  agreement  of  all  Christians,  over  the  whole  world,  re- 
specting most  of  the   books  of  the  New  Testament,  doubtless, 
should  be  attributed  to  the  authority  of  the  apostles.     If,   then, 
these  Gospels  had  been  mere  human  productions,   they   might 
have  been  read  privately,  but  never  could  have  found  a  place  in 
the  sacred  canon.     The  objection  to*these  books  comes  entirely 
too  late  to  be  entitled  to  any  weight.     The  opinion  of  a  modern 
critic,  however  learned,  is  of  small  consideration,  when  opposed 
to  the  testimony  of  the  whole  primitive  church  ;  and  to  the   suf- 
frage of  the  universal  church,  in  every  age,  since  the  days  of  the 
apostles.     The  rule  of  the  learned  Huet  is  sound,  viz.  '  that  all 
those  books  should  be  deemed  canonical   and   inspired,  which 
were  received  as  such  by  those .  who  lived  nearest  to  the  time 
when  they  were  published.' 

"  3.  But  if  we  should,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  concede,  that 
no  books  should  be  considered  as  inspired,  but  such  as  were  the 
productions  of  apostles,  still  these  Gospels  would  not  be  excluded 
from  the  canon.  It  is  a  fact,  in  which  there  is  a  wonderful 
agreement  among  the  fathers,  that  Mark  wrote  his  Go.spel  from 
the  mouth  of  Peter ;  that  is,  he  wrote  down  what  he  had  heard 
this  apostle  every  day  declaring  in  his  public  ministry.  And 
Luke  did  the  same  in  regard  to  Paul's  preaching.  These  Gos- 
pels, therefore,  may,  according  to  this  testimony,  be  considered 
as  more  probably  belonging  to  these  two  apostles,  than  to 
the  evangelists  who  penned  them.  They  were  little  more,  it 
would  seem,  if  we  give  full  credit  to  the  testimony  which  has  been 
exhibited,  than  amanuenses  to  the  apostles,  on  whom  they  at- 
tended.    Paul,  we  know,  dictated  several  of  his  epistles  to  some 


Sect.  IV.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  LUKE. 


309 


of  his  companions  ;  and  if  Mark  and  Ltikc  heard  the  Gospel  from 
Peter  and  Paul,  so  often  repeated,  liiat  lliey  were  perfect  nia^tcrs 
of  tlieir  respective  narratives,  and  then  committed  the  same  to 
wrilinij,  are  they  not,  virtually,  tlie  prorliiclions  of  these  aposth\s 
wliieh  have  been  handed  down  to  us  !  And  tiiis  was  so  much 
the  o[)inion  of  some  of  the  fathers,  that  they  speak  of  Mark's 
Gos|)el  as  Peter's,  and  of  Luke's  as  Pau'ls.  Dut  this  is  not  all. 
Tiiesc  Ciospels  were  shown  to  these  apostles,  and  received  their 
aj)prol)ation.  Thus  speak  the  ancients,  as  with  one  voice,  and 
if  they  had  been  silent,  we  might  he  certain,  from  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case,  that  these  evan;?elisls  would  never  have  ven- 
tured to  take,  such  an  inii)ortarit  step,  as  to  write  and  publish  the 
preachin'4  of  these  insjiired  men,  without  their  exjiress  approba- 
tion. Now,  let  it  be  considered,  that  a  narrative  prepared  by  a 
man  well  ac(piainted  with  the  facts  related,  may  be  entirely  correct 
williont  ins|)iralion  ;  but  of  this  we  cannot  be  sure,  and,  there- 
fore, it  is  of  threat  importance  to  have  a  history  of  facts  from  men, 
who  were  rendered  infallible  by  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spi- 
rit. It  should  be  remeinl)ered,  however,  that  the  oidy  advantage 
of  ins|)iratiori  in  giving  such  a  narrative,  consists  in  the  proper 
selection  of  facts  and  circumstances,  and  in  the  infallible  cer- 
tainty of  the  writing.  Suppose,  then,  that  an  uninspired  man 
should  prepare  an  account  of  such  transactions  as  he  had  seen, 
or  heard  from  eye-witnesses,  of  undoubted  veracity,  and  that  his 
narrative  should  be  submitted  to  the  inspection  of  an  apostle,  and 
receive  his  full  approbation  ;  might  not  such  a  book  be  consider- 
ed as  inspired  ?  If  in  the  original  composition,  there  should 
have  crept  in  some  errors,  (for  to  err  is  human,)  the  inspired  re- 
viewer would,  of  course,  point  them  out  and  have  them  corrected  ; 
now  such  a  book  would  be,  for  all  important  jmrposes,  an  in- 
spired volume  ;  and  would  deserve  a  place  in  the  canon  of  Holy 
Scripture.  If  any  credit,  then,  is  due  to  the  testimony  of  the 
Christian  fathers,  the  Gospels  of  Mark  and  Luke  are  canonical 
books;  for,  as  was  before  stated,  there  is  a  general  concurrence 
among  them,  that  these  evangelists  submitted  their  works  to  the 
inspection,  and  received  the  approbation  of  the  apostles  Peter  and 
Paul. 

"  4.  Finally,  the  internal  evidence  is  as  strong  in  favour 
of  the  Gospels  under  consideration,  as  of  any  other  books  of  the 
New  Testament.  There  is  no  reason  to  think  that  Mark  or 
Luke  were  capable  of  writing  with  such  perfect  simplicity  and 
propriety,  without  the  aid  of  inspiration,  or  the  assistance  of 
inspired  men.  If  we  reject  these  books  from  the  canon,  we  must 
give  up  the  argument  derived  from  internal  evidence  for  the  in- 
spiration of  the  sacred  Scriptures  altogether.  It  is  true,  the  learn- 
ed professor,  whose  opinions  we  arc  opposing,  has  said,  '  the 
oftener  I  compare  their  writings  (Mark's  and  Luke's)  with  those 
of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Johri,  the  greater  arc  my  doubts.'  And 
speaking  in  another  place  of  Mark,  he  says,  '  in  some  immaterial 
instances  he  seems  to  have  erred,'  and  he  gives  it  as  his  opinion, 
'  that  they  who  undertake  to  reconcile  St.  Mark  with  St.  Mat- 
thew, or  to  show  that  he  is  nowhere  corrected  by  St.  John,  ex- 
perience great  difViculty,  and  have  not  seldom  to  resort  to  unna- 
tural explanations.'  But  the  learned  professor  has  not  mentioned 
any  particular  cases  of  irreconcilable  discrepancies  between  this 
evangelist  and  St.  Matthew  ;  nor  does  he  indicate  in  what  state- 
ments he  is  corrected  by  St.  John.  Until  something  of  this 
kind  is  exhibited,  general  remarks  of  this  sort  are  deserving  of 
no  consideration.  To  harmonize  the  evangelists  has  always  been 
foiuid  a  dillicult  task,  but  this  does  not  prove  that  they  contradict 
each  other,  or  that  ihcir  accounts  are  irreconcilable.  Many 
things,  which,  at  lirst  sight,  appear  contradictory,  are  found,  upon 
closer  examination,  to  be  perfectly  harmonious  ;  and  if  there  be 
some  things  which  commentators  have  been  unable  satisfactorily 
to  reconcile,  it  is  no  more  than  what  might  be  expected,  in  nar- 
ratives so  concise,  and  in  which  a  strict  regard  to  chronological 
order  did  not  enter  into  the  plan  of  the  writers.  And  if  this 
objection  be  permitted  to  influence  our  judgment  in  this  case,  it 
will  operate  against  the  inspiration  of  the  other  evangelists  as 
well  as  Mark ;  but  in  our  apprehension,  when  the  discrepancies 
are  impartially  considered,  and  all  the  circumstances  of  the  facts 
candidly  and  accurately  weighed,  there  will  be  found  no  solid 
ground  of  objection  to  the  inspiration  of  any  of  the  Gospels ; — 
certainly  nothing,  which  can  counterbalance  the  strong  evidence 
arising  from  the  style  and  spirit  of  the  writers.  In  what  respects 
these  two  evangelists  fall  short  of  the  others,  has  never  been 
shown'*;  upon  the  most  thorough  examination  and  fair  compari- 
son of  these  inimitidile  productions,  they  appear  to  be  all  indited 
by  the  same  spirit,  and  to  possess  the  same  superiority  to  all 
human  compositions. 

"  Compare  these    Gospels  with   those   which   are   acknow- 


ledged to  have  been  written  by  uninspired  men,  and  you  will 
need  no  nice  power  of  discrimination  to  sec  the  diflercnce ; 
the  first  appear  in  every  respect  worthy  of  God ;  the  last  betray, 
in  every  j)agc,  the  weakness  of  man."' 

2.  IJcsidcs  tlio  precedinor  objections  of  ^liehaelis  to  thn 
caiionieal  authority  (jf  this  (iospcl  in  general,  tlu-  (roiiuinpness 
of  sonic  particular  ])assa<res  has  been  queslioned,  the  evidence 
for  which  is  now  to  he  stated. 

(1.)  The  authenticity  of  the  first  two  chapters  has  of  late 
years  hee'U  inipuirned  by  those  who  deny  the  miraculous 
fonc(.'i)tion  of  tht;  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  hut  with  iiow  little 
real  fouiuiation,  will  readily  aj)pear  from  tlie  following 
facts : — 

[i.]  These  two  chapters  are  found  in  all  the  ancient  manu- 
scripts and  versions  at  present  known. 

[ii.]  The  /r'r«<  chaj)ter  of  Luke's  Gospel  is  connected  with  the 
second,  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  we  have  seen  (p.  29!i. 
sii/tra)  that  the  two  first  chapters  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  are 
connected  ;  Ejf.'eTs  AE  ruic  ii/jitfjui; — Now  il  came  to  {lasH  in  those 
days,  &c.  (Luke  ii.  1.)  And  the  second  chapter  of  St.  Luke's 
Gospel  is  in  a  similar  manner  connected  with  the  tliirtl  ,• — K» 
rtit  aK  ■reir'MUtSiK.rt'TCfc — Now,  in  the Jlftventh  year,  See.  (Luke  iii. 
1.)  This  Gospel,  therefore,  could  not  possibly  have  begun  with 
the  third  chapter,  but  must  have  been  preceded  by  some  intro- 
duction. 

[iii.]  But  because  the  first  chapters  of  it  were  not  found  in 
the  copies  used  by  Marcion,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Marcion- 
itcs  in  the  second  century,  it  is  afiirmed  that  they  are  spurious 
interpolations. 

A  little  consideration  will  show  the  falsehood  of  this  assertion. 
The  notions  entertained  by  Marcion  were  among  the  wildest  that 
can  be  conceived  ; — that  our  Saviour  was  man  only  in  outward 
form,  and  that  he  was  not  born  Uke  other  men,  but  appeared  on 
earth  full  grown.  He  rejected  the  Old  Testament  altogether,  as 
proceeding  from  the  Creator,  who,  in  his  opinion,  was  void  of 
goodness  ;  and  of  the  New  Testament  he  received  only  one  Gos- 
pel (which  is  supposed,  but  without  foundation,  to  be  the  Gospel 
of  Saint  Luke-)  and  ten  of  Paul's  Epistles,  all  of  which  he  mu- 

<  Alcxaiiilcr  on  the  Cnnnn,  pp.  203— 210.  Thn  iinporraiice  of  tlie  ?iilijrct 
antl  the  com-hisive  vindicatiou  of  the  Oospels  of  Luke  and  Mark,  rontained 
in  the  precodini;  ohscrvalions,  will,  we  trust,  compensate  for  the  leniith  of 
the  quotation  above  given  ;  especially  as  the  learned  translator  of  Michae- 
lis,  whose  annotations  have  so  frc(|nently  corrected  the  statements  and 
assertions  of  the  German  Professor,  lia.s  offered  no  refntallnn  of  his  ill- 
founded  objections  to  the  canonical  authority  of  these  Gospels.  "There 
is,"  indeed,— Professor  Alexander  remarks  with  equal  trulli  an<l  piety, — 
"  something  reprehensible,  not  to  say  impious,  in  that  bold  spirit  of  modern 
criticism,  which  has  led  many  eminent  Biblical  scholar.^,  especially  in  Ger- 
many, first  to  attack  the  authority  of  particular  books  of  Scripture,  and 
ne.xt  to  call  in  question  the  insjiiration  of  the  whole  volume.  To  what 
extent  this  licentiousness  of  criticism  has  been  carried,  we  need  not  .say; 
for  it  is  a  matter  of  notoriety,  that  of  late,  the  most  dangerous  enemies  of 
the  Bible,  have  been  found  occupying  the  places  of  its  advocates;  and  the 
critical  art,  which  was  intended  for  the  correction  of  the  text,  and  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  sacred  books,  has,  in  a  most  unnatural  way,  l)een  turned 
against  the  Bible;  and  finally,  the  inspiration  of  all  the  sacred  books,  has 
not  only  been  questioned,  but  scornfully  rejected,  by  Professors  of  Theo- 
logy !  And  these  men,  while  livmg  on  endowments  which  pious  benevo- 
lence had  consecrated  for  the  sujiport  of  religion,  and  openly  connected 
with  churches  whose  creeds  contain  orthodox  opinions,  have  so  far  Ibr- 
golten  their  high  responsibilities,  and  neglected  the  claims  which  the 
churcli  had  on  them,  as  to  exert  all  their  ingenuity  and  learning,  to  sap  the 
founilation  of  that  system  which  they  were  sworn  to  defend.  "They  have 
had  the  shameless  hardihood  to  send  forth  into  the  world,  books  imder 
their  own  names,  which  contain  fully  as  much  of  the  poi.^on  of  infidelity, 
as  [was]  ever  di.stilled  from  the  pens  of  the  most  malignant  deists,  whose 
writings  have  fallen  as  a  curse  upon  the  world.  The  only  effeclual  security 
which  we  have  again.st  this  new  and  most  dangerous  form  of  infidi  lity,  is 
found  in  the  spirit  of  the  age,  which  is  so  superficial  and  cursory  in  its 
reading,  that  however  many  elaborate  critical  works  may  be  published  in 
foreign  languages,  very  few  of  them  will  be  read,  even  bv  theological  stu- 
dents,  in  this  country.  May  God  overrule  the  efforts  of  these  enemies  of 
(,'lirist  and  the  Bible,  so  tliat  good  may  come  out  of  evil!"  (Alexander  on 
the  Canon,  pp.  212,  21.3.)  In  this  prayer,  we  are  persuaded,  every  candid 
and  devout  critical  student  of  the  Scriptures  will  most  cordially  concur. 

5  The  Gospel  useil  by  Marcion  certainly  did  not  contain  the  two  first 
chapters  of  Luke  ;  but  neither  did  it  contain  the  third  chapter,  nor  more 
than  one  half  of  the  fourth;  and  in  the  subsequent  parls(as  we  are  inform- 
ed by  Dr.  Lardnet,  who  had  examined  this  subject  with  his  usual  minute- 
ness and  accuracy),  it  was  "mutilatedandaltered  in  a  great  variety  of  places. 
He  would  not  allow  it  to  be  called  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Luke,  erasing  the 
name  of  that  evangelist  from  the  beginning  of  his  copy."  (I>ardner'8 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  ix.  pp.393— 401. ;  4to.  vol.  iv.  pp.  611— €15.)  His  alterations 
were  not  made  on  any  critical  principles,  but  in  the  most  arbitrary  manner, 
in  order  to  suit  his  extravagant  theology.  Indeed,  the  opinion  that  he  used 
Luke's  Gospel  at  all,  rests  upon  no  sufficient  foundation.  So  different  were 
the  two  works,  that  the  most  distinguished  biblical  scholars  of  modern 
times,  particularly  Semler,  Eichhorn,  Grieshach,  Loeffler,  and  Marsh,  have 
rejected  that  opinion  altogether.  Griesbach  maintained  that  Marcion  com- 
piled a  work  of  his  oven,  for  the  service  of  his  system  and  the  use  of  his 
followers,  from  the  writings  of  the  evangelists,  and  particularly  of  Luke. 
(Hist.  Tc.\t.  Gr.  Epist.  Paui:  p.  92.)  "  That  Marcion  used  St.  Luke's  Gospel 
at  all,"  says  Bp.  Marsh,  "is  a  position  which  has  been  taken  for  granted 
without  the  least  proof  Marcion  himself  never  pretended  that  it  was  the 
Gospel  of  Luke  ;  as  TertuUian  acknowledges,  saying,  Marcion  evangelio 
suo  nullum  adscribit  autorem.  (Adv.  Marcion.  lib.  iv.  c.  2.)    It  is  probable 


310 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  VI.  Chap.  H. 


tilated  and  disguised  by  his  alterations,  interpolations,  and  omis- 
sions.' This  conduct  of  Marcion's  completely  invalidates  any 
argument  that  may  be  drawn  from  the  omission  of  the  lirst  two 
chapters  of  Luke's  Gospel  in  his  copy  ;  and  when  it  is  added 
that  his  arbitrary  interpolations,  &c.  of  it  were  exposed  by  seve- 
ral contemporary  writers,  and  particularly  by  Tertullian,^  we 
conceive  that  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  two  chap- 
ters in  question  are  established  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt.-* 

(2.)  From  the  occurrence  of  the  word  Aiytcev  {Legio,  that 
is,  a  Legion),  in  Greek  characters,  in  Luke  viii.  .30.,  a  suspi- 
cion has  been  raised  that  the  whole  paraffraph,  containing 
the  narrative  of  Christ's  healing  the  Gadarene  demoniac 
(viii.  27 — 39.)  is  an  interpolation.  This  doubt  is  grovmded 
on  the  assertion  that  this  mode  of  expression  was  not  cus- 
tomary, either  with  Luke,  or  with  any  classic  writer  in  the 
apostolic  age.  But  this  charge  of  interpolation  is  utterly 
groundless ;  for  the  passage  in  question  is  found  in  all  the 
manuscripts  and  versions  that  are  extant,  and  the  mode  of 
expression  alluded  to  is  familiar  both  with  the  evangelist, 
and  also  with  classic  writers  who  were  contemporary  with 
him.     Thus, 

[i.]  In  Luke  x.  35.  we  meet  with  A«vapw,  which  is  manifestly 
the  Latin  word  Denaria  in  Greek  characters.  In  xix.  20.  we 
also  have  lt.vS3.fiKv ;  which  word,  though  acknowledged  in  the 
Greek  language,  is  nothing  more  than  the  Latin  word  Sudarium, 
a  napkin  or  handkerchief;  and  in  Acts  xvi.  12.  we  also  have 
KOAHNIA  {Colonia)  a  Colony. 

[ii.]  That  the  mode  of  expression,  above  objected  to,  toas  cus- 
tomary with  classic  authors  in  the  apostolic  age,  is  evident  from 
the  following  passage  of  Plutarch,  who  was  born  not  more  than 
ten  years  after  Jesus  Christ.  He  tells  us  that,  when  the  city  of 
Rome  was  built,  Romulus  divided  the  younger  part  of  the  inhabit- 
ants into  battalions.  Each  corps  consisted  of  three  thousand 
foot,  and  three  hundred  horse  ;  and  (the  historian  adds)  B.x.x>i^i 
Si  AErEflN,  TS)  XoynSa.^  uvcii  rcut  /mci^t/uouc  7ra.vTa>v,  that  is,  It  was 
called  a  legion,  because  the  most  ivnrlike  persons  -were  "  select- 
ed." A  few  sentences  afterwards,  we  meet  with  the  following 
Latin  words  in  Greek  characters,  viz.  riATPjKlOrS  (Patricias), 
Patricians  ;  2ENAT02  (Senatus),  the  Senate  ;  nATPHNAS 
(Patroiios),  Patrons;  KAIENTAS  (Clientes),  Clients;'  and 
in  a  subsequent  page  of  the  same  historian,  we  meet  with  the 
word  KEAEPE2  (Celeres),  Celeres.^  Again,  in  Dion  Cassius,fi 
we  meet  with  the  following  sentence :  Tm  yjtp  KEAEPlflN 
a^^m  i:jui, — -for  Jain  chief,  or  commander  of  the  Celeres.  Whether 
these  are  Latin  words  in  Greek  characters  or  not,  the  common 
sense  of  the  reader  must  determine.  The  word  AErEQN  is  not 
so  barbarous,  but  that  it  has  been  acknowledged  by  the  two 
Lexicographers,  Hesychius  and  Suidas.' 

We  have,  therefore,  every  reasonable  evidence  that  can  be 
desired  for  the  genuineness  of  this  passage  of  Luke's  Gospel. 

therefore  that  he  used  some  apochryphal  Gospel,  which  had  much  matter 
in  common  with  that  of  St.  Luke,  but  yet  was  not  the  same."  (Marsh's 
Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  p.  159.)  Dr.  LoefBer  has  very  fully  examined  the  ques- 
tion in  his  Dissertation,  entitled  Marcionem  Paulli  Epislolas  et  Luca. 
Evangelium  adiUterasse  dubitutur.  Franlifort  on  the  Oder,  1788.  The 
conclusions  of  his  minute  investigation  are,  (1.)  That  the  Gospel  used  by 
Marcion  was  anonymous  :  (2.)  Marcion  rejected  all  our  four  GospcLs,  and 
maintained  the  authenticity  of  his  own  in  opposition  to  them  :  (3.)  His  fol- 
lowers afterwards  maintained,  that  Christ  liimself  and  Paul  were  the  au- 
thors of  it :  (4.)  Irenseus,  Tertullian,  and  Epiphanius,  had  no  reason  for 
regarding  Marcion's  Gospel  as  an  altered  edition  of  Lul^e's,  and  their  as- 
sertion is  a  mere  conjecture  resting  upon  none  but  frivolous  and  absurd 
allegations :  (5  )  Tlie  difference  of  IVIarcion's  Gospel  from  Luke's  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  supposition  :  (6.)  There  are  no  just  grounds  for  believing 
that  Marcion  had  any  pressing  motives  to  induce  him  to  adopt  a  garbled 
copy  of  Luke ;  and  the  motives  assigned  by  the  fathers  are  inconsistent 
and  self-destructive.— Dr.  J.  P.  Smith's  Scripture  Testimony  to  the  Mes- 
siah, vol.  ii.  pp.  13,  14. 

«  Epiphanius  has  given  a  long  account  of  Marcion's  alterations,  <fec.  of 
the  New  Testament.  See  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ix.  pp.  3G9 — 393. ; 
4to.  vol.  iv.  pp.  610—624. 

^  See  the  passage  at  length  in  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  256 — 288.; 
4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  419,  420. 

3  Much  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  apparent  discrepancy  between  the 
genealogiesof  Jesus  Christ  in  Luke  iii.  and  Matt,  i.,  and  also  on  the  supposed 
chronological  difficulty  in  our  Saviour's  a|e  ;  but  as  these  seeming  contra- 
dictions have  already  been  satisfactorily  explained  in  the  first  volume 
of  this  work,  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  those  solutions  in  this  place.  See 
also  Dr.  Nares's  Remarks  on  the  Unitarian  Version  of  the  New  Testament, 
p.  27.  etser/. ;  Archbp.  Laurence's  Critical  Reflections  on  the  misrepresen- 
tations contained  in  the  modern  Socinian  Version,  pp.  51 — 73. ;  and  Dr. 
Hales  on  Faith  in  the  Trinity,  vol.  i.  pp.  83— 110. 

<  Plutarchi  Vitae,  in  Romulo,  tom.i.  pp.  51,  52.  edit.  Bryani. 

'  Plutarchi  Vii;e,  vol.  i.  p.  71.  In  the  same  page  also  occurs  the  word 
KAniTiiAiON  {Capitolium),  the  Capitol. 

«  Dion  Cassius,  lib.  iv.  cited  by  Mr.  Rennell  (to  whom  we  are  principally 
indebted  for  the  observations  above  stated),  in  his  Animadversions  on  the 
Unitarian  Version  of  tlie  New  Testament,  p.  52. 

■■  See  their  Lexicons,  in  voce;  their  elucidations  of  this  word  are  cited 
by  ScMeusner,  in  hia  Lexicon  in  Nov.  Test,  voce  At-ynuv. 


(3.)  The  forty-third  and  forty-fourth  verses  of  Luke  xxii. 
are  wanting  in  the  Alexandrian  and  Vatican  manuscripts,  in 
the  Codex  Leicestrensis,  in  the  Codex  Vindobonensis  Lam- 
becii  31.,  and  in  the  Saliidic  version:  and  in  the  Codices 
Basiliensis  B.  VI.  and  Vaticanus  354.  (of  the  ninth  or  tenth 
century),  and  some  other  more  recent  manuscripts,  these 
verses  are  nrnrked  with  an  asterisk,  and  in  some  of  tlie  MSS. 
collated  by  Matthan  with  an  obelisk.  Their  genuineness, 
therefore,  has  been  disputed. 

Epiphanius,  Hilary,  and  Jerome  bear  testimony  that,  in  their 
time,  the.se  verses  were  wanting  in  some  Greek  and  Latin  MSS. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  found  in  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  MSS.  (as  RosenmuUer  remarks),  tvithout  an.  obelisk, 
and  in  all  the  ancient  versions  except  the  Sahidic.  They  are 
also  recognised  by  Justin  Martyr,  Hippolytus,  Iren.TUs,  Epipha-, 
nius,  Chrysostom,  Jerome,  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  Titus  of 
Bostra,  Ca^sarius.  The  reasons  for  the  omission  of  these  verses 
in  some  MSS.  and  for  their  being  marked  as  suspected  in  others, 
are  obvious  :  they  were  rejected  by  some  of  the  more  timid,  lest 
they  should  appear  to  favour  the  Arians. 

The  verses  in  question  are  certainly  genuine,  and  they 
are  accordingly  retained  by  Griesbach  in  the  text,  without 
any  mark  to  indicate  that  they  are  either  spurious  or  sus- 
pected.s 

IV.  With  regard  to  the  time  when  this  Gospel  was  writ- 
ten, there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  ;  Dr.  Owen  and 
others  referring  it  to  the  year  53,  while  Jones,  Michaelis, 
Lardner,  and  the  majority  of  biblical  critics,  assign  it  to  the 
year  63  or  64,  which  date  appears  to  be  the  true  one,  and 
corresponds  with  the  internal  characters  of  time  exhibited 
in  the  Gospel  itself.  But  it  is  not  so  easy  to  ascertain  the 
place  where  it  was  written.  Jerome  says,  that  Luke,  the 
third  evangelist,  published  his  Gospel  in  the  countries  of 
Achaia  and  Bceotia  ;  Gregory  Nazianzen  also  says,  that 
Luke  wrote  for  the  Greeks,  or  in  Achaia.  Grotius  states, 
that  about  the  time  when  Paul  left  Rome,  Luke  departed  to 
Achaia,  where  he  wrote  the  books  we  now  have.  Dr.  Cave 
was  of  opinion  that  they  were  written  at  Rome  before  the 
termination  of  Paul's  captivity,  but  Drs.  Mill  and  Grabe, 
and  Wetstein,  affirm  that  this  Gospel  was  published  at  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt,  in  opposition  to  the  pseudo-Gospel  circu- 
lated among  the  Egyptians.  Dr.  Lardner  has  examined 
these  various  opinions  at  considerable  length,  and  concludes 
that,  upon  the  whole,  there  is  no  good  reason  for  supposing 
that  Luke  wrote  his  Gospel  at  Alexandria,  or  that  he  preached 
at  all  in  Egypt:  on  the  contrary,  it  is  more  probable  that 
when  he  left  Paul,  he  went  into  Greece,  and  there  composed 
or  finished  and  published  his  Gospel,  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles. 9 

V.  That  Luke  wrote  his  Gospel  for  the  benefit  of  Gentile 
converts,  is  affirmed  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  Christian 
antiquity,  and  it  may  also  be  inferred  from  his  dedicating  it 
to  one  of  his  Gentile  converts.  This,  indeed,  appears  to 
have  been  its  peculiar  design;  for  writing  to  those  who  were 
far  remote  from  the  scene  of  action,  and  ignorant  of  Jewish 
affairs,  it  was  requisite  that  he  should  descend  to  many  par- 
ticulars, and  touch  on  various  points,  which  would  have  been 
unnecessary,  had  he  written  exclusively  for  Jews.  On  this 
account  he  begins  his  history  with  the  birth  of  John  the 
Baptist  (i.  5 — 80.),  as  introductofy  to  that  of  Christ;  and 
in  the  course  of  it  he  notices  several  particulars,  mentioned 
by  Matthew,  (ii.  1 — 9,  &c.)  Hence,  also,  he  is  particularly 
careful  in  specifying  various  circumstances  of  facts  that 
were  highly  conducive  to  the  information  of  strangers ;  but 
which  it  could  not  have  been  necessary  to  recite  to  the  Jews, 
who  could  easily  supply  them  from  their  own  knowledge. 
On  this  account,  likewise,  he  gives  the  genealogy  of  Christ 
not  as  Matthew  had  done,  by  showing  that  Jesus  was  the 
son  of  David,  from  whom  the  Scriptures  taught  the  Jews 
that  the  Messiah  was  to  spring;  out  he  traces  Christ's 
lineagd  up  to  Adam,  agreeably  to  the  mode  of  tracing  gene- 
alogies in  use  among  the  Gentiles,  by  ascending  from  the 
person  whose  lineage  was  given  to  the  founder  of  his  race 
(iii.  23 — 38.)  ;  and  thus  shows  that  Jesus  is  the  seed  of  the 
woman,  who  was  promised  for  the  redemption  of  the  whole 
world.  Further,  as  the  Gentiles  had  but  little  knowledge 
of  Jewish  transactions,  Luke  has  marked  the  aeras  when 
Christ  was  born,  and  when  John  began  to  announce   the 

«  Griesbachii  et  Schulzii  Nov.  Test.  tom.  i.  p.  470.  Rosenmiiller,  Kuinoel, 
and  Bloomfield  on  Luke  xxii.  43,  44.  Pritii,  Introd.  ad  Nov.  Test.  pp.  19,  20. 
Lipsiae,  1764. 

»  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  voL  vi.  pp.  130—136. ;  4to.  voL  iii.  pp.  199—202. 


Sect.  IV.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  LUKE. 


311 


Gospel,  by  the  roijrns  of  the  Roman  emperors  (iii.  1,  2.) — 
to  wliicli  point  Maltiunv  and  the  other  evaiijrelists  have  not 
attended.  Luke  has  likewise  introduced  many  thinirs  not 
noti(!cd  by  the  other  (ivangeiists,  which  encouraj^ed  tiie  Gen- 
tiles to  hearken  to  the  Gospel,  and,  wiien  tlicir  consciences 
were  awakened  by  it,  to  turn  to  (iod  in  newness  of  lifi'  witii 
a  pleasinir  prosixict  of  pardon  and  acceptance.  Of  this  de- 
scription "are  the  naraliles  of  the  pulilican  prayin<r  in  the 
tcmph;  (xviii.  10.),  and  of  tlie  h.st  piece  of  silvcir  (xv. 
8 — 10.),  and  particularly  tlie  prophetic  parable  of  the  pro- 
digal S(jn;  which,  ix'sidcs  its  spiritual  and  universal  a|)plica- 
tion,  beautifully  iiilimatt-s  that  tin;  (ieiilil<!,  represented  by 
the  younger  or  prodigal  son,  riaurning  at  Icngtli  to  his  hea- 
venly Father,  would  ni(!et  with  the  most  nuTciful,  gracious, 
and  alU'ctionate  reception,  (xv.  11.  d  xei/.)  (Miri.st'a  visit  to 
Zaccheus  the  publican  (xix.  5.)  and  the  pardon  of  the  jieni- 
tent  thief  on  the  cross  (xxiii.  10 — 13.),  are  also  lively  illus- 
trations of  the  mercy  and  goodness  of  God  to  penitent  sin- 
ners. 

Lest,  however,  doubts  should  arise  whether  any  but  the 
lost  sheep  of  the  house  of  Israel  were  interested  in  these 
good  tidings,  other  parables  and  facts  are  introducinl  which 
cannot  be  taken  in  tliis  limited  sense.  Thus  Luki;  recites  a 
parahle  in  praise  of  a  merciful  .Samaritan  (x.  3.'i.) ;  he  relates 
that  another  Samaritan  was  healed  and  commended  for  his 
faith  and  gratitude  (xvii.  li). ;)  and,  when  a  village  of  this 
people  proved  rude  and  inhospitable,  that  the  zeal  of  the 
two  apostles  who  wished  to  consume  them  by  fire  from 
heaven  was  reproved  (ix.  52 — 5(;.) ;  and  they  were  told  that 
"  the  iSon  vf  man  came,  not  to  destroy  men's  lives,  but  to  save 
them:'' 

Lastly,  this  evangelist  inserts  examples  of  kindness  and 
mercy  shown  to  the  Gentiles,  Thus,  our  Saviour,  in  the 
very  first  public  discourse  recorded  in  Luke's  Gospel,  takes 
notice  that  such  favours  were  vouchsafed  to  the  widow  of 
Sarepta  and  Naainan  the  Syrian,  both  Gentiles,  as  were  not 
conferred,  in  like  circumstances,  on  any  of  the  Israelites. 
(iv.  25 — 27.)  And  the  prayer  upon  the  cross  (xxiii.  31.), 
"  Father,  ftrrgive  them,  Jor  they  know  not  what  they  cfo,"  is 
placed  between  the  act  of  crucifying  our  Lord  and  that  of 

fiarting  his  raiment,  both  of  which  were  performed  by  the 
ioman  soldiers ;  to  whom,  therefore,  this  j)rayer  must  have 
respect,  as  much  as  to  any  of  his  persecutors.' 

VI.  Great  and  remarkable  characters  always  have  many 
biographers.  Such  appears  to  have  been  the  case  with  our 
Saviour,  whose  life  was  so  beautiful,  his  character  so  sublime 
and  divine,  his  doctrine  so  excellent,  and  the  miracles  by 
which  he  confirmed  it  were  so  illustrious  and  so  numerous, 
that  it  was  impossible  but  many  should  undertake  to  write 
evangelical  narrations,  or  short  historical  memoirs  concerning 
his  life,  doctrines,  and  transactions,  which  are  now  lost. 
This  we  infer  from  St.  Luke's  introduction  to  his  Gospel : — 
Forasmuch,  says  he,  us  many  liuve  taken  in  hand  to  set  forth 
in  order  a  declaration  of  those  things  which  are  most  surely  be- 
lieved among  us,  even  as  they,  who  from  the  beginning  were 
eye-witnesses  and  ministers  of  the  Word,  delivered  them  unto 
us  ;  it  seemed  gcmd  to  me  also,  having  had  perf  ct  understanding 
of  all  things  from  the  very  first,  to  write  unto  thee  in  order, 
most  excellent  Theonhilus,  that  thou  mightcst  learn  the  certainty 
of  those  things,  wherein  thou  hast  been  instructed,  (i.  1 — 4.) 
From  these  introductory  sentences  we  learn,  in  the  first  place, 
that  the  writers  alludedf  to  were  not  our  evangelists  Matthew 
and  Mark,  who  were  the  only  evangelists  that  can  be  sup- 
posed to  have  written  before  Luke;  for  Matthew  was  an  eye- 
witness, and  wrote  from  personal  knowledge,  not  from  the 
testimony  of  others  ;  and  two  cannot  with  propriety  be  called 
many.  In  the  next  place,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  these  nar- 
rations consisted  of  those  things  which  are  most  surely  believed 
among  us — that  is,  of  the  things  performed  by  Jesus  Christ, 
and  confirmed  by  the  fullest  evidence,  among  the  first  pro- 
fessors of  the  Christian  faith,  of  which  number  Luke  reckons 
himself.  Lastly,  it  appears  that  these  narrations  were  re- 
ceived either  from  the  apostles  themselves,  or  from  their 
assistants  in  the  work  of  the  Gospel,  who  were  eye-witnesses 
of  the  life  and  miracles  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  whom  Luke  (as 
well  as  the  aj)ostle  John)  gives  the  emphatic  appellation  of 
THE  Word  -.^  and  that  they  were  composed  with  an  upright 

'  Dr.  Townson's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  181—196. 

»  That  this  is  the  true  meaning;  of  Luke  i.  2.  is  evident  from  the  foUovping 
consiilfratious,  which  are  transcnbefl  from  Mr.  Archdeacon  Nares's  Vera- 
city of  the  Kvaniiolisls  donioiisiraled  by  a  cnuiparative  view  of  their  Histo- 
ries. "  It  has  louK  appeared  to  nie,"  he  observes,  "  that  St.  John  is  not,  as 
is  commonly  thought,  U»e  only  evangelist  who  thus  speaks  of  Ihe  ^Yord,  or 


intention,  though  ibey  were  inaccurate  and  defective.  What 
these  im])erfect  and  incorrect  histories  of  our  Saviour  were  it 
is  impossible  now  to  determine,  as  they  are  not  mentioned  by 
any  contemporary  writer,  and  probably  did  not  survive  the 
age  in  which  they  were  composed. ^ 

The  fcojic  of  Luke's  Gospel  therefore  was,  to  supersede 
the  defective  and  unauthentic  narratives  which  were  then  in 
circulation,  and  to  deliver  to  Theophilus'  a  true  and  genuine 
account  of  the  life,  doctrines,  miracles,  death  and  resurrec- 
tion ol"  our  Saviour.  Irenanis  and  some  of  tin;  fathers  ima- 
gined that  Luke  derived  his  information  chiefiy  from  the 
apostle  Paul,  and  that  he  WTOte  his  Gospel  at  his  command;* 
but  this  conjecture  is  contradicted  by  the  evangelist's  own 
words ;  whence  we  are  authorized  to  conclude  that  he  (btained 
his  intelligence  principally  from  those  who  had  both  heard 
and  witnessed  the  discourses  and  miracles  of  Jesus  Christ. 
i\ow  it  is  manifest  that  St.  Paul  was  not  of  this  number,  for 
he  was  not  converted  to  the  Christian  faith  until  the  end  of 
the  year  30,  or  perhaps  the  beginning  of  the  year  37.  It  was 
from  conversing  with  some  oi  the  apostles  or  immediate  dis- 
ciples of  our  Lord,  that  Luke  was  enabled  to  trace  every 
tiling  from  the  beginning,  in  order  that  Theophilus  might 
know  the  certainty  of  those  truths  of  which  he  had  hitherto 
red  ived  only  the  first  elements. 

VII.  From  some  striking  coincidences  between  certain 
passages  in  Luke's  Gospel  and  the  parallel  passages  in  that 
of  Matthew,"  Kosenmiiller  and  some  other  critics  have  ima- 
gined that  the  former  had  seen  the  Gospel  of  tlu;  latter,  and 
that  he  transcribed  considerably  from  it.  But  this  conjecture 
does  not  appear  to  have  any  solid  foundation  ;  for,  in  the  first 
place,  it  is  contradicted  by  the  evangelist  Luke  himself,  who 
expressly  states  that  he  derived  his  information  from  persons 
who  had  been  eye-witnesses;  which  sufliciently  account  for 

Lngos,  a-s  a  person.'  .St.  Luke  surely  personifies  him  quite  as  much,  when 
he  says,  that  the  facts  which  he  collected  were  related  to  him  by  those  tcho 
from  tlie  htginiihis:  were  tyeiritnesses  and  mininUra  or  atltndants  of  Ihe 
wouD  (Luke  i.  2);  that  is  Ihe  Logos  (Ttu  Asyou.)  For  how  could  they  be- 
hold or  attend  upon  that,  which  was  not  visible,  or  had  no  personal  exist- 
ence? Observe  particularly,  that  the  word  in  the  original  (v^n-ftrn;)  de- 
notes a  personal  attendant,  even  more  properly  than  the  word  ministera, 
employed  by  llie  translators.  The  expression  ministers  of  the  word  con- 
veys, to  the  English  reader  at  least,  the  idea  of  the  ministers  of  Ihe  Gospel ; 
but  )-'yririlni:S!H'ii  if  attendants  upon,  or  servants  of  the  Word,  cannot  fail 
to  iuijjly  tliat  the  word  was  a  person  capable  of  being  seen,  and  of  receiv- 
ing alti-ndance.  In  any  language,  eyeicitnesses  of  a  thing  not  visible  must 
be  a  very  harsh  and  unintelligible  expression.  When  St.  John  also  says, 
the  Word  was  made  flesh  and  dwell  among  us,  and  we  beheld  his  glory ;  he 
conies  very  near  indeed  to  St.  Luke's  eyewitness  cf  the  Word.  I  am  well 
aware  that  this  idea  is  not  iicw.t  How  indeed  should  it  be  new?  being  so 
very  obvious,  upon  the  inspection  of  the  Greek  text,  that  it  is  more  extraor- 
ilinary  for  it  to  be  overlooked  than  remarked.  But  in  this  country  it  has 
been  little  noticed.  It  has  been  thought  by  some,  that  the  same  writer,  St. 
Luke,  has  again  given  the  personal  sense  to  the  term  Logos,  or  Word  in 
the  XAtli  chapter  of  the  Acts,  ver.  32. ;  and  if  so,  it  is  also  the  expression 
of  St.  Paul,  whose  speech  is  there  recited.  And  now,  brethren,  J  com- 
mend you  to  God  and  to  the  Word  of  his  grace,  which  is  able  to  build  you 
up,  and  to  give  you  an  inheritaru:e  among  all  them  which  are  sanctified. 
Uy  the  Word  oj  his  grace  is  thus  supposed  to  be  meant  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ ;  in  which  case,  it  would  be  better  to  render  it  'who  is  able,  &c.' 
This,  however,  is  by  no  means  so  clear  as  the  former  passage.  But  the 
Word  whom  tlie  apostles  satr,  and  upon  whom  they  attended,  according 
to  Si.  Luke,  cannot,  I  think,  be  any  other  than  on?  Lord  Jescs  Christ." 
Nares  on  Ihe  Veracity  of  the  Evangelists,  pp.  40 — 43.  2d  edit.  London,  1819. 

»  Mill's  Prolog.  §25 — 37.  Doddridge's  Fam.  Exjios.  vol.  i.  p.  1.  Lardner's 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  142 — 145. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  205,  206. 

*  As  the  literal  import  of  this  name  \s  friend  of  God,  some  have  una- 
ginrd  that,  unJer  this  appellation,  St.  Luke  comprised  all  the  followers  of 
Christ,  to  whom  &s  friends  of  God,  he  dedicated  this  faithful  history  of  our 
Saviour.  But  this  interpretation  appears  to  have  little  solidity  in  if ;  for, 
if  all  Ihe  followers  of  Christ  are  addressed,  why  is  the  singidar  number 
used?  And  what  good  end  could  there  be  accomplished  by  using  a  feigned 
name?  Augustine,  Chrysostom,  and  many  others,  have  understood  Theo- 
philus to  be  a  real  person  ;  and  Theophylact  has  well  remarked  that  he 
was  a  man  of  senatorial  rank,  and  possibly  a  prefect  or  governor,  because 
he  gives  him  the  same  title  of  xpansf,  most  excellent,  which  St.  Paul  used 
in  his  address  to  Felix  and  Festus.  Dr.  Cave  supposed  him  to  have  been 
a  nobleman  of  Antioch,  on  the  authority  of  the  pretended  Clementine  Re- 
cognitions, but  these  are  of  no  weight,  being  composed  at  the  end  of  the 
second  century,  and  not  from  Ihe  writer's  personal  knowledge.  The  most 
probable  opinion  is  that  of  Dr.  Lardn^r,  now  generally  adopted,  viz.  that 
as  Si.  Luke  composed  his  Gospel  in  Greece,  Theopliilus  was  a  man  of 
rank  of  the  same  country.  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  \i.  pp.  1-38,  139  ;  4to. 
vol  iii.  pp.  20.3,  204.  Doddridge,  Campbell,  Whitby,  &c.  on  Luke  i.  1—4. 
Dii  Veil's  Literal  Explication  of  the  Acts,  pp.  4—7.  English  edition,  Lon- 
don, lOSLI. 

»  See  Jones  on  the  Canon,  vol.  iii.  p.  91. 

«  Compare  Luke  iii.  7—9.  16,  17.  with  Matt.  iii.  7—12. ;  Luke  v.  20— 3a 
with  Malt.  ix.  2—17. ;  Luke  vi,  1—5.  with  Malt.  xii.  1—5. ;  Luke  vii.  22—28. 
witli  Matt.  xi.  4—11. ;  and  Luke  xii.  22—31.  with  Malt.  vi.  25—33.  Rosen- 
iiiiiller  says  that  nengers  mode  of  comparing  and  harmonizing  the  Gospels 
of  Matthew  and  Luke  is  the  best. 


•  In  the  opening  of  the  Revelations,  it  is  particularly  said  of  Saint  John, 
that  he  bore  witness  to  the  Logos.  'O;  t/ixpluff.irs  tov  Ao^sk  tou  tn'.-j,  xsci 
mv /^»ii''upi:ti'  i)i<rcu  Xp'o-rou.  ch.  i.  V.  2.  Again,  in  the  nineteenth  chapter  of 
Ihe  s;uiie  book,  the  person  who  sits  on  the  horse  is  called  <Ae  Word  of  God, 

XX\SiTX<   TO    0V3;U»    XUTOU    "O  A  OF  Oi;   TOU   ©tou,   V.    13. 

t  See  Wolfii  Curee  Philol.  in  Luc.  i.  2. 


312 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Pabt  VI.  Chap.  II. 


those  coincidences.  Further,  Luke  has  related  many  inte- 
resting particulars,' which  are  not  at  all  noticed  by  JNIattliew. 
And  lastly,  tlie  order  of  time,  observed  by  these  two  evange- 
lists, is  different.  Matthew  relates  tiie  facts  recorded  in  his 
Gosi)el,  clirunulo<:;iculli/ ,-  Luke,  on  tiie  contrary,  ap])ears  to 
have  paid  but  little  attention  to  tliis  order,  because  he  pro- 
posed to  make  a  classijkatinn  of  events,  referring  each  to  its 
proper  class,  without  regard  to  chronological  arrangement. 

The  (iospel  of  Luke,  which  consists  of  twenty-four  chap- 
ters, is  divided  by  RosenniiUler  and  others  into  five  distinct 
classes,  viz. 

Class  L  contains  the  Narrative  of  the  Birth  of  Christ,  together 
with  all  the  Circumstances  that  preceded,  attended,  and  fol- 
lowed it.  (i.  ii.  1 — 10.) 
Class  IL  comprises  the  Particulars  relative  to  our  Saviour^s 

I/ifanci/  and  Youth,  (ii.  41 — 52.) 
Class  III.  includes  the  Preaching  of  John,  and  the  Baptism 

of  Jesus  Christ,  whose  Genealogy  is  annexed,   (iii.) 
Class  IV.  comprehends  the  Discourses,  Miracles,  and  Actions 
of  Jesus  Christ,  during  the  whole  of  his  Ministry/,  (iv. — ix. 
50.) 
This  appears  evident :  for,  after  St.  Luke  had  related  his  tempta- 
tion iu  the  wilderness   (iv.   1 — 13.),  he  inmiediately  adds,  that 
Christ  returned  to  GaUlee  (14.),  and  mentions  Nazareth  (16.), 
Capernaum  (31.),  and  the  lake  of  Genesareth  (v.  1.)  ;  and  then 
he  proceeds  as  far  as  ix.  50.  to  relate  our  Saviour's  transactions 
in  Galilee. 
Sect.  1.  The  temptation  of  Christ  in  the  wilderness  (iv.  1 — 13.) 
Sect.  2.  Transactions  between  the   first  and  second  passovers, 
A.  1).  30,  31. 
§  i.  Christ  teacheth  at  Nazareth,  where  his  townsmen  attempt  to  kill  him. 

(iv.  14—30.) 
§  ii.  Christ  performs  many  mii-acles  at  Capernaum,  wliere  he  teaches,  as 

ali^o  in  other  parts  of  Galilee,  (iv.  31 — 14.) 
§iii.  Tlie  rail  of  Peter,  Andrew,  James,  and  John;  and  the  miraculous 

draughl  of  fishes,  (v.  1 — 11.) 
§  iv.  Clirlst  lieal.s  a  leper  and  a  paralytic,  (v.  12—26.) 
§  V.  The  call  of  Matthew,  (v.  27—32.) 
§vi.  Christ  shows  why  his  disciples  do  not  fast.  (v.  33 — 39.) 

Sect.  3.  Transactions  from  the  second  passover,  to  a  little  before 
the  third  passover,  a.  d.  31,  32. 

§i.  Christ  justifies  his  disciples  for  plucking  com  on  the  Sabbath  day; 

and  heals  a  man  who  had  a  withered  hand.  (vi.  1 — 11.) 
§ii.  Clirist  ordains  the  twelve  apostles,  (vi.  12 — 16.) 
S  iii.  Clirist  descends  from  a  mountain  into  the  plain  (vi.  17 — 19.),  where 

he  repeats  a  considerable  part  of  his  sermon  on  the  mount  (20 — 49.); 

which  is  related  at  length  in  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  chapters  of 

St.  Matthew's  Gospel. 
§  iv.  Clirist  heals  the  centurion's  servant,  and  restores  to  life  the  widow's 

sou  at  Nain.  (vii.  1 — 17.) 
§  V.  Christ's  reply  to  the  incpiiry  of  John  the  Baptist's  disciples,  and  his 

discourse  to  the  people  concerning  John.  (vii.  18 — 35.) 
§  vi.  A  woman  wlio  had  been  a  sinner,  anoints  the  feet  of  Jesus,  at  the 

house  of  Simon  the  Pharisee,  (vii.  36 — 50) 
§  vii.  Christ  preaches  again  through  Galilee  (viii.  1 — 3.),  where  he  delivers 

the  parable  of  the  sower.  (4—15.) 
§viii.  Christ  declares  the  duty  of  the  apostles,  and  also  of  all  Christians, 

as  the  lights  of  the  world  (viii.  16 — 18.),  and  shows  who,  in  his  esteem, 

arc  his  mollier  and  brethren.  (19—21.) 
§  ix.  Clirist  stills  a  tempest  by  his  command  (viii.  22—25.),  and  expels  a 

legion  of  demons  at  Gadaia. -(26 — 39.) 
§x.  Christ  cures  the  issue  of  blood,  and  raises  the  daughter  of  Jairusto 

life.  (viii.  40—56.) 
§  xi.  The  apostles  sent  forth  to  preach.— Herod  the  Tctrarch  desires  to 

see  Christ,  (ix.  1 — 9.) 


1  Thus  Luke  has  recorded  the  circumstances  relating  to  the  birth  of  John 
the  Baptist;  the  annunciation;  and  other  important  circumstances  con- 
cerning the  nativity  of  the  Messiah  ;  the  occasion  of  Joseph's  being  then 
in  Betlilehcin;  the  vision  granted  to  the  shepherds;  the  early  testimony 
of  Simeon  and  Aima;  the  wonderful  manifestation  of  our  Lord's  profi- 
ciency in  knowledge,  when  only  twelve  years  old;  and  his  age  at  the  com- 
mencement of  his  ministry,  connected  with  the  year  of  the  reigning 
emperor.  He  has  given  us  also  an  account  of  several  memorable  inci- 
dents and  cures  wliich  had  been  overlooked  by  the  rest;  the  conversion 
of  Zacclicns  the  publican;  the  cure  of  the  woman  who  had  been  bowed 
down  for  eighteen  years  ;  and  of  the  dropsical  man  ;  the  cleansing  of  the 
ten  lepers  ;  the  repulse  he  met  with  when  about  to  enter  a  Samaritan  city  ; 
and  tlie  instructive  rebuke  he  gave,  on  that  occasion,  to  two  of  his  disci- 
ples for  their  intemperate  zeal :  also  the  aflfecting  interview  he  had,  after 
his  resurrection,  with  two  of  his  disciplos,  in  the  way  to  Emmaiis,  and  at 
that  village.  Luke  has  likewise  added  many  edifying  parables  to  those 
which  had  been  recorded  by  the  other  evanselists.  Of  this  number  are 
the  parables  of  the  creditor  who  had  two  debtors ;  of  the  rich  fool  who 
hoarded  up  his  increase,  and,  when  he  had  not  one  day  to  live,  vainly  exulted 
in  the  prospect  of  many  happy  years ;  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus ;  of 
the  reclaimed  profligate;  of  the  Pharisee  and  the  Publican  praying  in  the 
temple;  of  the  judge  who. was  prevailed  on  by  a  widow's  importunity, 
ttiough  he  feared  not  God,  nor  regarded  men ;  of  the  barren  fig  tree ;  of 
the  compassionate  Samaritan  ;  and  several  others.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  most  of  these  particulars  were  specified  by  Irena!us,  in  the  second 
century,  as  peculiarly  belonging  to  the  Gospel  of  Luke ;  who  has  thus, 
undesignedly,  shown  to  all  succeeding  ages,  that  it  is,  in  every  thing  mate- 
rial, the  very  samn  book, which  had  ever  been  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  this  evangelist  till  his  day,  and  remains  so  distinguished  to  our  times. 
Dr.  Campbell  on  the  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  p.  126.  See  the  passage  of  Trenwiis 
ill  Dr  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  160,  101. ;  4to.  vol.  i  pp.  366,  367. 


§  xii.  Christ  miraculously  feeds  five   thousand    men.— Their  different 

opinions  concerning  liim,  and  the  duty  of  taking  up  the  cross  enforced. 

(ix.  10—27.) 
§  xiii.  The  transfiguration  of  Christ  on  a  mountain,  (ix.  28 — 36.) 
§  xiv.  On  his  descent  into  the  plain,  Christ  casts  out  a  demon,  which  his 

disciples  could  not  expel,  (ix.  37 — 42.) 
§xv.  Clirist  forewarns  his  disciples  of  his  sntTerings  and  death  ;  exhorla 

them  to  humility;  and  shows  that  such  as  propagate  the  Gospel  are 

not  to  be  hindered,  (ix.  43 — 50.) 

Class  V.  contains  an  Account  of  our  Saviour^s  last  Journey  to 
Jerusalem,  including  every  Circumstance  relative  to  his  Pas 
sion.  Death,  Mesurrection,  and  Ascension,  (ix.  51 — 02.  x.- 
xxiv.) 

Sect.  1.  Transactions  from  Christ's  departure  out  of  Galilee  to 
Jerusalem,  to  keep  the  feast  of  Tabernacles,  to  his  departure 
from  Jerusalem  after  the  feast. 

§  i.  In  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  the  Samaritans  refuse  to  receive  Christ. — ' 

His  answer  to  several  persons  about  following  him.  (ix.  51 — 62.) 
§ii.  The  seventy  disciples  sent  forth  to  preach,  (x.  1 — i6.) 

Sect.  2.  Transactions  between  Christ's  departure  from  Jerusa- 
lem, after  the  feast  of  Tabernacles,  a.  d.  32.,  and  his  return 
thither  to  the  feast  of  Dedication,  in  tlie  same  year, 

§i.  The  return  of  the  seventy  disciples  to  Christ,  (x.  17—24.) 

§  ii.  Jesus  shows  who  is  to  be  esteemed  our  neighbour,  (x.  25 — 37  ) 

§  iii.  Christ  is  entertained  by  Martha  and  Mary.  (x.  38—42.) 

§  iv.  Christ  teaches  his  disciples  to  pray,  and  inculcates  the  necessity  of 
importunity  in  prayer,  as  also  iinpUcit  reliance  on  the  paternal  good- 
ness of  God.  (xi.  1 — 13.) 

§  V.  Christ's  reply  to  the  Jews,  who  ascribed  his  expulsion  of  demons  to 
Beelzebub,  (xi.  14-28.) 

§  vi.  His  answer  to  the  Jews,  who  demanded  a  sign  from  heaven,  (xi.  29 
—36.) 

§  vii.  The  Piiarisees  reproved  for  their  hypocrisy,  (xi.  37 — 54.) 

§  viii.  Christ  warns  his  disciple.s,  ./?/-sZ,  to  avoid  hypocrisy  (xii.  1 — 3.); 
and,  secondly,  not  to  neglect  their  duty  to  God,  for  fear  of  man.  (4 — 12.) 

§  ix.  Cautions  against  covetousness  or  worldly-niindedness,  and  exhorta- 
tions to  be  chielly  solicitous  for  spiritual  welfare,  (xii.  13 — 34.) 

§  X.  Admonition  to  be  always  prepared  for  death. — The  reward  of  such 
as  are  careful  to  do  their  duty,  according  to  their  stations  and  the 
opportunities  offered  to  them.  (xii.  35 — 48.) 

§  xi.  Christ  reproaches  the  people  for  not  knowing  the  time  of  Messiah's 
coming  (xii.  49—56.);  and  shows  that  common  reason  is  sufficient  to 
teach  men  repentance.  (-57 — 59.) 

§  xii.  God's  judgments  on  some  are  designed  to  bring  others  to  repent- 
ance.— Tlie  parable  of  the  fig-tree.  (xiii.  1 — 9.) 

§  xiii.  Christ  cures  an  infirm  woman  on  the  Sabbath  day  (xiii.  10 — 17.) ; 
and  delivers  the  parable  of  the  mustard  seed.  (18 — 21.) 

§xiv.  Christ's  journey  towards  Jerusalem  to  keep  the  feast  of  Dedication; 
in  the  course  of  wliich  he  shows  that  repentance  is  not  to  be  deferred 
(xiii.  22 — 30.);  reproves  Herod,  and  laments  the  judicial  blindness  of 
Jerusalem.  (31—45  ) 

Sect.  3.  Transactions  subsequently  to  the  feast  of  Dedication, 
after  Christ's  departure  from  Jerusalem,  and  before  his  return 
thither  to  keep  his  last  passover,  a.  d.  32,  33. 

§  i.  Christ  heals  a  dropsical  man  on  the  Sabbath  day,  and  inculcates  the 
duties  of  humilily  and  charity,  (xiv.  1 — 14.) 

§ii.  The  ])ar;!ble  of  the  great  supper,  (xiv.  15 — 24.) 

§  iii.  Courage  and  perseverance  shown  to  be  requisite  in  a  true  Christian. 
The  unprofitableness  of  an  unsound  Christian,  (xiv.  2.5 — 35.) 

§iv.  (3hrist  illustrates  the  joy  of  the  angels  in  heaven  over  repenting  sin- 
ners, b);  the  parables,  1.  Of  the  lost  sheep  (xv.  1 — 7.);  2.  Of  the  lost 
piece  of  money  (8 — 10.);  and,  3.  Of  the  prodigal  son.  (11—32.) 

§  V.  The  parable  of  the  unjust  steward,  (xvi.  1—13.) 

§  vi.  The  Pharisees  reproved  for  their  covetousness  and  hypocrisy,  (xvi. 
14-18.) 

§  vii.  The  parable  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  (xvi.  19 — 31.) 

iviii.  The  duty  of  not  giving  offence,  (xvii.  1 — 10.) 

§  ix.  In  his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  Christ  cures  ten  lepers  (xvii.  11 — 
19.);  and  di.'^courses  concerning  his  seconil  coming.  (20 — 38.) 

§  X.  Encouragement  to  perseverance  in  prayer,  illustrated  by  the  parable 
of  the  importunate  widow,  (xviii.  1 — 8.) 

§  xi.  Self  rigl  teoiisness  reproved,  and  li*iTniIity  encouraged,  by  the  para- 
ble of  the  Pharisee  and  publican  or  tax-gatherer.,(xviii.  9 — 14.) 

§  xii.  Christ  encourages  young  children  to  be  brought  to  him  (xviii.  15 — 
17.);  and  discourses  with  a  rich  young  man.  (18—30.) 

§  xiii.  Christ  again  foretells  his  death  to  his  disciples  (xviii.  31—34.)  ;  and 
cures  a  blind  man  near  Jericho.  (-35^42.) 

§xiv.  The  conversion  of  Z.'stcheus.  (xix.  1 — 10.) 

I XV.  The  parable  of  a  nobleman  going  into  a  distant  country  to  receive  a 
kingdom,  (xix.  11—28.) 

Sect.  4.  The  transactions  at  Jerusalem,  until  the  passion  of 
Christ,  A.  D.  33. 

§  i.  On  Palm- Sunday  {a.s  we  now  call  it)  or  t\\&  first  day  of  Passion- 
week,   Christ  mikes  his  lowly  yet  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem, 
we(;ps  over  the  city,  and  exjiels  the  traders  out  of  the  temple,  (xix. 
29—46.) 
§ii.  On   Monday,  or  the  second  day  of  Passion-week,  Christ  teaches 

during  the  day  in  the  temple,  (xix.  47,  48.) 
§  iii.  On  Tuesday,  or  the  tldrd  day  of  Passion-week, 
(a)  In  the  day  time  and  in  tlie  Temple,  Christ  confutes  the  phief 
priests,  scribes,  and  elders,  1.  By  a  question  concerning  the  baptism 
of  .lohn.  (XX.  1 — 8.)— 2.  By  the  parable  of  the  labourers  in  the  vine- 
yard. (9— 19.)— 3.    By  showing  the  lawfulness  of  paying  tribute  to 
Cffisar.   (20— 26.)— The   .Sadducees  confuted,  and  the   resurrection 
proved.    (27 — 40.)— The   scribes  confounded,   and   the  disciples  of 
Christ  warned  not  to  follow  their  example.  (41—47.) — The  charity 
of  a  poor  widow  commended,  (xxi.  1—4.) 
(A)  In  the  evening^,  and  principally  07i  the  Mount  of  Olives,  Christ 
discourses  concerning  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  and  of  the  last 
judmnent  (xxi.  5—28.) ;  delivers  another  parable  of  the  fig  tree  (29~ 
—313.);  and  enforces  the  duly  of  watchfulness.  (31 — 38.) 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  JOHN. 


313 


§  iv.  Oil  Wednesday,  or  t\\ii_fuu.rlh  day  of  Pasdioii-wcek,  llie  chief  priests 

coMSull  to  kill  C'lirist.  (xxii.   1—3.) 
S  V.  Oil  Thursday,  or  l\\ii  fifth  day  of  Passion-week,  .Iiiiias  covenants  to 
Ijetiay  Ulirist  (xxii.  '1— ').')  ;  and  Cluisl  acnds  two  disciples  to  prepare 
tlio  Passover.  (7—13.) 
§  vi.  On  the  Pa/tsurerday, — that  \a,from  Thuradui/  evening  to  Friday 
evenins;  of  Pansioyt-ipee/e, 
{a)  In  the  ecc.tiiini,  C'lirist  eats  the  Pa.ssovor;  insliliitfs  the  Sacrament 

of  the;  Lord's  Supper;  discourses  on   luiiuilKy;  and   foretells   his 

hein^  helrayeil  by  .ludas,   his  ahaiidonincnt  by  liis  disciples,  and 

Peter's  denial  of  him.  (xxii.  14—38.) 
C'^)  Tuwurdu  niahl,  after  ealinn  the  Passover  with  his  apo.sllcs,  Jesus 

j;oes  to  the  Mount  of  Olives;  where,  afler  bein;;  some  lime  in  an 

anony,  he  is  apjirchended.  (xxii.  30—53.) 
(e)  Oaring  the.  nii;hl,  (Jhrisl  having  been  conducted  to  the  hisih-priest's 

house  (whither  Peter  followed  mid  denied  him),  is  derided,  (xxii.  01 

-or..) 

(d)  At  day-break  on  Friday  morning,  Christ  is  tried  before  theSanhe- 
<lrin  (xxii.  66 — 71.);  from  whose  tribunal, 

(e)  On  Friday  vturning,  1.  he  is  didivered  first  to  Pilate  (xxiii.  1 — 7.), 
who  sends  him  to  llerod  (8 — 1*2.);  by  whom  he  is  again  sent  to 
Pilate,  and  is  by  him  comlemned  to  be  crucified.  (13 — •£>.) — 2.  CJhrist's 
di.scourse  to  the  women  of  Jerusalem  as  he  was  led  forth  to  be  cru- 
cilied.  (•.«;— 31.) 

(/)  The  transactions  of  the  third  hour. — The   crucifixion;   Christ's 

garments  divided;  the  inscription  on  the  cross  ;  his  address  to  the 

])enilent  rcibber.  (xxiii.  3'2 — 43.) 
ig)  From  the  sixth  lo  the  ninth  hour. — The  preternatural  darkness, 

rending  of  the  veil;  death  of  Christ,  and  its  concomitant  circuiu- 

stances,  (xxiii.  44 — 49.) 
(A)  JJriween  the  ninth  hour  and  sunset,  Jesus  Christ  is  interred  by 

Joseph  of  Arimathca.   (xxiii.  50 — 50.) 

Skct.  6.    Transactions  after  Christ's   resurrection   on   Easier' 
Day. 

§i.  Christ's  resurrection  testified  to  the  woman  by  the  angel,  (xxiv.  1 

-II.) 
S  ii.  Christ  appears  to  two  disciples  in  their  way  to  Emmaus,  and  also  to 

Peter,  (xxiv.  12—35.) 
§  iii.  His  appearance  to  the  apostles,  and  his  instructions  to  them.  (xxiv. 

30-^9.) 

Sect.  6.  The  ascension  of  Christ,  and  the  apostles'  return  to 

Jerusalem,   (xxiv.  50 — 52.) 

The  plan  of  classifying  events,  adopted  by  Luke,  has  been 
followed  by  Livy,  Plutarch,  and  other  profane  historical  wri- 
ters. Thus  Suetonius,  after  exhibilinjr  a  brief  summary  of 
the  life  of  Auirustus,  previous  to  his  acquirinpr  the  sovereitrn 
power,  announces  his  intention  of  recordiug  tlie  subsetpieiit 
events  of  his  life,  not  in  order  of  time,  but  arrangincr  them 
into  distinct  classes;  and  then  proceeds  to  give  an  account  of 
his  wars,  honours,  legislation,  discipline,  and  private  life.' 
In  like  manner,  Florus  intimates  that  he  would  not  observe 
the  strict  order  of  time ;  but  in  order  that  the  things,  which 
lie  should  relate,  might  the  better  appear,  he  would  relate 
them  distinctly  and  separately.^ 

VIIL  If  Paul  had  not  informed  us  (Col.  iv.  14.)  that  Luke 
was  by  profession  a  piiysician,  and  consequently  a  man  of 
letters,  his  writings  would  have  sufficiently  evinced  that  he  had 
Irad  a  liberal  education;  for  although  his  Gospel  presents  as 
many  Hebraisms,  perhaps,  as  any  of  the  sacred  writings,  yet 
his  language  contains  more  numerous  Graecisms,  than  that 
of  any  other  writer  of  the  New  Testament.  The  style  of 
this  evangelist  is  pure,  copious,  and  flowing,  and  bears  acon- 
,  siderable  resemblance  to  that  of  his  great  master  Paul. 
Many  of  his  Words  and  ex))ressions  are  exactly  parallel  to 
those  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  best  classic  authors ;  and 
several  eminent  critics  have  long  since  pointed  out  the  sin- 
gular skill  and  propriety  with  which  Luke  has  named  and 
drscribed  the  various  diseases  which  he  had  occasion  to  no- 
tice. As  an  instance  of  his  copiousness.  Dr.  Camjjbell  has 
remarked,  that  each  of  the  evangelists  has  a  number  of 
words  which  are  used  by  none  ot  the  rest :  but  in  Luke's 
(Jospel,  the  number  of  such  words  as  are  used  in  none  of  the 
other  Gospels,  is  greater  than  that  of  the  peculiar  words 
found  in  all  the  other  three  Gospels,  put  together;  and  that 
the  terms  peculiar  to  Luke  are  for  the  most  part  long  and 
compound  words.  There  is  also  more  of  cnni|)osition  in  his 
sentences  than  is  found  in  the  other  three  Gospels,  and  con- 
sequently less  simplicity.  Ofthiswehave  an  example  in 
the  first  sentence,  which  occupies  not  less  than  four  verses. 
Further,  Luke  seems  to  approach  nearer  to  the  manner  of 
other  historians,  in  giving  what  may  be  called  his  own  ver- 
dict in  the  narrative  part  of  his  work.  Thus  he  calls  the 
Pharisees  ip/^a^^w:/,  luvcm  nf  Dwiiei/  (xvi.  14.) ;  and  in  distin- 
guisbiner  Judas  Iscariot  from  the  other  Judas,  he  u.ses  the 
phrase  cc  ««  tjevsro  TrpJcrm;.  who  also  p7-(ived  a  traitor,  (vi.  Ki.) 
Matthew  (x.  4.")  and  Mark  (iii.  19.)  express  the  same  senti- 
ment in  milder  language, — wfio  delivered  hi ru  tip.  Again,  the 
.  attempt^  made  by  the  Pliarisees,  to  extort  from  our  Lord  what 
might  prove  matter  of  accusation  against  him,  is  expressed 

>  Suetonius  in  Aiisusto,  c.  ix.  (al.  xii.)  p.  iW.  edit.  Biiiont.    This  liislorian 
iias  pursued  tlie  same  method  in  his  life  of  Ca/sar. 
^       »  Flori.  Hist.  Rom.  lib.  ii.  c  19. 

I       Vol.  II.  2  R 


by  Saint  Luke  iii  more  animated  language  than  is  used  by 
either  of  tlie  rest  (xi.  53.)  :  "  T/iki/  lje<ran  vehenienllij  to  press 
htm  with  //ucstioiis  on  inuiii/  poitits."  Ami,  on  another  occa- 
sion, speaking  of  the  same  people,  he  says,  that  they  were 
filkd  with  mildness,  (vi.  11.)  Lastly,  in  the  moral  instruc- 
tions given  by  our  Lord,  and  recorded  by  this  evangelist, 
especially  in  the  parables,  no  one  has  surpassed  him  in  unit- 
ing aircctiiig  sweetness  of  manner  with  genuine  simplicity, 
particularly  in  the  jyarables  of  the  benevolent  Samaritan  and 
the  jjcnitunt  prodigal.-' 


SECTION  V. 

ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  JOHN. 

I.  Title. — II.  ./liithor. — III,  Date. — IV.  Gejiuinenesa  and  an- 
tlienticity  of  tins  (Johju-l,  particular! ij  of  ch.  xxi.,  and  ch.  vii. 
5.3.,  and  viii.  11 — 1. — V.  Its  occasion  and  design. — Account 
of  the  tenets  of  Cerinthvs. — Jlnalynis  of  its  contents. — VI. 
The  Gospel  of  John,  a  supplement  to  the  other  three. — VII. 
Observations  on  its  style. 

I.  The  Title  of  this  Gospel  varies  greatly  in  the  manu- 
scripts, editions,  and  versions.  In  the  Codex  Vaticanus  it 
is  simply  kutu.  'a^nnv,  accoiding  to  John ,-  in  many  other  MSS. 
and  editions,  Eua^j-EAC/v  to  k-ato.  laixnuv,  the  Gospel  t/cct/rdiiig  to 
John,  or  to  kut*  Jcu^tniiv  (ctyr^v^  h.u-jy^iKic.]/ ,  the  Gospel  according 
to  (^Saint)  John;  in  the  Codex  Beza?,  ^e,X*^^  fujyyiXKv  x.«T2t 
]a)xvv)iv,  the  Gospel  accfn-ding  to  John  Ixginnelh,  To  omit  minor 
variations  in  manusc.rij)tsof  less  ancient  date, — in  the  Syriac 
version,  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  this  Gospel  is  en- 
titled, "  The  Holy  (Jospel,  the  preaching  of  St.  John,  which 
he  delivered  in  Greek,  antl  published  at  Ephesus :"  in  the 
Arabic  version  it  is  "The  Gospel  of  St.  John  the  son  of 
Zebedee,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  which  he  wrote  in  Greek 
by  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit;"  and  in  the  Persian 
version,  "The  Gospel  of  John,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
which  was  spoken  in  the  Greek-Roman  tongue  at  Ephesus." 

II.  John,  the  evangelist  and  apostle,  was  the  son  of  Zebe- 
dee, a  fisherman  of  the  town  of  Bethsaida,  on  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  and  the  younjrer  brother  of  James  the  elder.  His 
mother's  name  was  Salome.  Zebedee,  though  a  fisherman, 
appears  to  have  been  in  good  circumstances;  for  the  evan- 
gelical history  informs  us  that  he  was  the  owner  of  a  vessel, 
and  had  hired  servants.  (Mark  i.  20.)  And  therefore  we 
have  no  reason  to  imagine  tliat  his  children  were  altogether 
illfterale,  as  some  critics  have  imagined  them  to  have  been, 
from  a  misinterpretation  of  Acts  iv.  13.,  where  the  terms 
o-ypuyf/icLTci  and  ii.a>T:ti,  in  our  version  rendered  unlearned  and 
ignoriint  men,  sim])ly  denote  persons  in  private  stations  of 
life,  who  were  neither  rabbis  nor  magistrates,  and  such  as 
had  not  studied  in  the  schools  of  the  Pharisees,  and  conse- 
quently were  ignorant  of  the  rabbinical  learning  and  traditions 
of  the  Jews.  John  and  his  brother  James  were,  doubtless, 
well  acquainted  with  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament, 
having  not  only  read  them,  but  heard  them  publicly  explained 
in  the" synagogues;  and,  in  common  with  the  other  Jews, 
they  entertained  the  expectation  of  the  Messiah,  and  that  his 
kingdom  would  he  a  temporal  one.  It  is  not  impossible, 
though  it  cannot  be  affirmed  with  certainty,  that  John  had 
been  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist,  before  he  became  a  dis- 
ciple of  Christ.  At  hast,  the  circumstantial  account,  w hich 
he  has  given  in  ch.  i.  37 — 11.  of  the  two  disciples  who  fol- 
lowed C/'hrist,  might  induce  us  to  suppose  that  he  was  one 
of  the  two.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  he  had  both  seen  and 
heard  our  Saviour,  and  had  witnessed  some  of  his  miracles, 
particularly  that  performed  at  Cana  in  Galilee,  (ii.  1 — 11.) 
John  has  not  recorded  his  own  call  to  the  apostUsbip ;  but 
we  learn  from  the  other  three  evangelists  that  it  took  place 
when  he  and  James  were  fishing  upon  the  sea  of  Galilee.'* 

»  Dr.  Campbell  on  the  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  120-129.  Rosenmiillcr,  Scho- 
lia in  Nov.T.'St.  vol.  ii.  pp.3— 6.  Kuinoel,  Comment,  in  Libro.s  Hist.  Nov. 
Test.  vol.  ii  pp.  213— ita).  Bj).  Mai>h".s  Mich;u-lis,  vol.  iii.  pari  i.  pp.  228— 
•271.  Prilii,  Inlrod.  ad  Nov.  Test.  pj).  HI — 195.  Viscr;  Herm.  Sacr.  Nov. 
Test,  pars  i.  jip.  3:}3— 3:i9.  pars  ii.  jip.  -.^a^i— iOl).  221.  tl  fpq  20-1.  Kumpsei, 
Comni.  Crit.  in  Lihros  Nov.  Test.  jip.  81.  8S.  Bishop  Cleaver's  Discourse 
on  the  Style  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  in  his  Sermons,  pp.  209—224.  8vo.  Ox- 
ford,  I'^SOS. 

»  Matt.  iv.  21,  22.  Mark  i.  19,  21).  Luke  v.  1—10  Lampehas  marked  what 
he  thinks  are  three  dejirees  in  the  call  of  Saint  John  to  be  a  follower  of 
t.'hrisi,  viz.  I.  His  call  lo  tlie  discipleship  (John  i.  37 — 42.),  alter  which  he 
continued  lo  follow  his  business  for  a  short  time  ;  2.  His  call  to  be  one  of 
the  iromtdiate  companions  of  Christ  (Matt.  iv.  2),  22.);  and,  3.  His  call  to 
the  aposlleship,  when  llie  surnaijie  of  Boiou-ij:es  was  jivcii  to  him  and  his 
brother.  Lampe,  Comment,  in  Evanj-eljum  Johamiis  Prolcgoiu.  cap.  ii.  pp. 
17-iil. 


k 


314 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI,  Chap.  H. 


And  Mirk,  in  enumerating  the  twelve  apnstVs  (iii.  17.), 
when  he  mentions  James  and  John,  says  that  our  Lord  "sur- 
named  them  Boanerges,  which  is,  sons  of  thunder,"  froni 
which  appellation  we  are  not  to  suppose  that  they  were  of 
particularly  fierce  and  ungovernable  tempers  (as  Dr.  Cave 
nas  conjectured)  ;•  but,  as  Dr.  Lardner  and  others  have  ob- 
served, it  is  rather  to  be  considered  as  prophetically  represent- 
ing the  resolution  and  courage  with  which  thpy  would  openly 
and  boldly  declare  the  great  truths  of  the  Gospel  when  fully 
acquainted  with  them.  How  appropriate  this  title  was,  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  writings  of  John  abundantly 
Khow.2  From  the  time  when  John  and  his  brother  received 
their  immediate  call  from  Christ,  they  becnme  his  constant 
attendants  ;  they  heard  his  discourses,  and  beheld  his  mira- 
cles ;  and,  after  previous  instruction,  both  public  and  private, 
they  were  honoured  with  a  selection  and  appointment  to  be 
of  the  number  of  the  apostles. 

What  the  age  of  John  was  at  this  time,  his  history  does 
not  precisely  ascertain.  Some  have  conjectured  that  he  was 
then  twenty-two  years  old ;  others  that  he  was  about  twenty- 
five  or  twenty-six  years  of  age ;  and  others  again  think  that 
he  was  about  the  age  of  our  Saviour.  Dr.  Lardner  is  of 
opinion  that  none  of  the  apostles  were  much  under  the  age 
of  thirty,  when  they  were  appointed  to  that  important  office. 
Whatever  his  age  might  have  been,  John  seems  to  have  been 
the  youngest  of  the  twelve,  and  (if  we  may  judge  from 
his  writings)  to  have  possessed  a  temper  singularly  mild, 
amiable,  pnd  affectionate.  He  was  eminently  the  object  of 
our  Lord's  regard  and  confidence ;  and  was,  on  various  occa- 
sions, admitted  to  free  and  intimate  intercourse  with  him,  so 
that  he  was  characterized  as  "  the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved."  (John  xiii.  23.)  Hence  we  find  him  present  at 
several  scenes,  to  which  most  of  the  other  disciples  were 
not  admitted.  He  was  an  eye-witness,  in  company  with 
only  Peter  and  James,  to  the  resurrection  of  Jairus's  daughter 
to  life,  to  our  Saviour's  transfiguration  on  the  mount,  and  to 
his  agony  in  the  garden.  John  repaid  this  attention  by  the 
most  sincere  attachment  to  his  master ;  for,  though,  in  com- 
mon with  the  other  apostles,  he  had  betrayed  a  culpable 
timidity  in  forsaking  him  during  his  last  conflict,  yet  he 
afterwards  recovered  his  firmness,  and  was  the  only  apostle 
who  followed  Christ  to  the  place  of  his  crucifixion.  He 
was  also  present  at  the  several  appearances  of  our  Saviour 
after  his  resurrection,  and  has  given  his  testimony  to  the 
truth  of  that  miraculous  fact;  and  these  circumstances, 
together  with  his  intercourse  with  the  mother  of  Christ 
(whom  our  Saviour  had  commended  to  his  care)  (xix.  26, 
27.),  qualified  him,  better  than  any  other  writer,  to  give  a 
circumstantial  and  authentic  history  of  Jesus  Christ. 

In  one  of  our  Saviour's  interviews  with  his  apostles,  after 
his  resurrection,  he  prophetically  told  this  evangelist  that  he 
would  survive  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  intimated, 
not  obscurely,  that  Peter  would  suflFer  crucifixion,  but  that 
he  would  die  a  natural  death,  (xxi.  18 — 21.)  After  the 
ascension  of  Christ,  and  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  .Tohn  became  one  of  the  chief  apostles 
of  the  circumcision,  and  exercised  his  ministry  at  Jerusalem 
and  its  vicinity,  in  the  manner  and  with  the  success  related 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.'  He  was  present  at  the  council 
held  in  that  city  (Acts  xv.)  about  the  year  49  or  50.  Until 
this  time  he  probably  remained  in  Judaea,  and  had  not  tra- 
velled into  any  foreign  countries.  From  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory we  learn,  that  after  the  death  of  Mary,  the  mother  of 
Christ,  John  proceeded  to  Asia  Minor,  where  he  founded  and 
presided  over  seven  churches  in  as  many  cities,  but  resided 
chiefly  at  Ephesus.  Thence  he  was  banished  to  the  Isle  of 
Patmos  towards  the  close  of  Domitian's  reign,  where  he 
wrote  his  Revelation.  (Rev.  i.  9.)  On  his  liberation  from 
exile,  by  the  accession  of  Nerva  to  the  imperial  throne,  John 
returnea  to  Ephesus,  where  he  wrote  his  Gospel  and  Epis- 
tles, and  died  in  the  hundredth  year  of  his  age,  about  the 
year  of  Christ  100,  and  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Trajan. ■• 

IlL  The  precise  time  when  this  Gospel  was  written  has 
not  been  ascertained,  thou^  it  is  generally  agreed  that  John 
composed  it  at  Ephesus.  Casnage  and  Larape  suppose  it  to 
have  been  written  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ;  and, 
in  conformity  with  their  opinion,  Dr.  Lardner  fixes  its  date 

«  Cave's  Life  of  St.  James  the  Great,  §  5.  p,  U2. 

»  Lainpe,  Comment,  in  Evangeliuin  Johannis  Prolegom.  cap.  I.  pp.  21 — 30. 

'  See  particularly  Acts  iii.  iv.  1 — 22.  and  viii.  5 — 26. 

*  Larclner's  Worlds,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  156—170.  ;  4lo.  vol.  iii.  pp.  212—220. 
Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  i.  pp.  272 — 274.  I.arnne,  Proleg.  in  Joan.  Evangel  pp. 
31—102.    Jones  on  the  Canon,  vol.  iii.  pp.  101—110. 


in  the  year  G8 ;  Dr.  Owen  in  69 ;  Michaelis  in  70.  But 
Chrysostom  and  Epiphanius,  among  the  ancient  fathers,  and 
Dr.  Mill,  Fabricius,  Le  Clerc,  and  Bishop  Tomline,  among 
the  moderns,  refer  its  date,  with  greater  probability,  to  the 
year  97,  Mr.  Jones  to  the  year  98,  and  Bertholdt  to  the  last 
decid  of  the  first  century.  The  principal  argument  for  its 
earlj  date  is  derived  from  John  v.  2.,  where  the  apostle  says, 
"  Aoiv  there  is  at  Jeritsakm,  by  the  sheep-market,  a  pool,  which 
is  called  in  the  Hetrreui  tongue  Bethenda,  having  Jive  porche."." 
From  these  words  it  is  urged,  that  Jenisalem  was  standing 
when  they  were  written  ;  and  that  if  they  had  been  written 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  evangelist  would  have 
used  the  past  tense  instead  of  the  present,  and  would  have 
said,  There  was  at  J'rusalem  a  pool,  &:c.  But  this  argument 
is  more  specious  than  forcible;  for,  though  Jerusalem  was 
demolished,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  pool  of 
Bethesda  was  dried  up.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  much 
stronger  reasons  for  supposing  that  it  escaped  the  general  de- 
vastation; for,  when  Vespasian  ordered  the  city  to  be  demolish- 
ed, he  permitted  some  things  to  remain  for  the  use  of  the  gar- 
rison which  was  to  be  stationed  there;"^  and  he  would  naturally 
leave  this  bathing-place,  fitted  up  with  recesses  or  porticoes 
for  shade  and  shelter,  that  he  might  not  deprive  the  soldiers 
of  a  grateful  refreshment.'^  Now,  since  the  evangelist's 
proposition  may  simply  regard  Bethesda,  we  cannot  be  cer- 
tain that  it  looks  further,  or  has  any  view  to  the  state  of  Je- 
rusalem. The  argument,  therefore,  which  is  deduced  from 
the  above  passage  in  favour  of  an  early  date,  is  inconclusive. 

But,  besides  this  argument,  we  have  strong  evidence  from 
the  contents  and  design  of  the  Gospel  itself,  that  it  was  not 
written  until  the  year  97.  It  is  evident,  as  Bishop  Tomline 
has  forcibly  remarked,  that  the  evangelist  considers  those  to 
whom  he  addresses  his  Gospel  as  but  little  acquainted  with 
Jewish  customs  and  names;  for  he  gives  various  explana- 
tions which  would  be  unnecessary,  if  the  persons  for  whom 
he  wrote  were  conversant  with  the  usages  of  the  Jews.'' 
Similar  explanations  occur  in  the  Gospels  of  Mark  and  Luke ; 
but  in  this  of  John  they  are  more  marked,  and  occur  more 
frequently.  The  reason  of  which  may  be,  that  when  John 
wrote,  many  more  Gentiles,  and  of  more  distant  countries, 
had  been  converted  to  Christianity ;  and  it  was  now  become 
necessary  to  explain  to  the  Christian  church,  thus  extended, 
many  circumstances  which  needed  no  explanation  while  its 
members  belonged  only  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Judaea,  and 
while  the  Jewish  polity  was  still  in  existence.  It  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  the  feasts  and  other  peculiarities  of  the 
Jews  would  be  but  little  understood  by  the  Gentiles  of  Asia 
Minor,  thirty  years  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.s 

IV.  The  Gospel  by  John  has  been  universally  received  as 
genuine.  The  circumstantiality  of  its  details  proves  that  the 
book  was  written  by  a  hearer  and  eye-witness  of  the  discourses 
and  transactions  it  records ;  and,  consequently,  could  not  be 
written  long  afterwards  by  a  Platonic  Christian,  as  it  has 
been  recently  asserted,  contrary  to  all  evidence.  But,  besides 
this  incontestable  internal  evidence,  we  have  the  external  and 
uninterrupted  testimony  of  the  ancient  fathers  of  the  Chris- 
tian church.  His  Gospel  is  alluded  to,  once  by  Clement  of 
Rome,  and  once  by  Barnabas  ;9  and  four  times  by  Ignatius 
bishop  of  Antioch,  who  had  been  a  disciple  of  the  evange- 
list, and  had  conversed  familiarly  with  several  of  the  apostles. 'o 
It  was  also  received  by  Justin  Martyr,"  Tatian,  the  churches 
ofVienne  and  Lyons, '^  Irenaeus,''  Athenagofas,''  Theophilus 
of  Antioch, '■'5  Clement  of  Alexandria,'^  Tertullian,''  Ammo- 
nius,'»  Orio'en,'^  Eusebius,^^  Epiphanius,  Augustine,  Chry- 
sostom, and,  in  short,  by  all  subsequent  writers  of  the  ancient 
Christian  church.^'  The  Alogi  or  Alogians,  a  sect  which  is 
said  to  have  existed  in  the  second  century,  are  reported  to 

s  See  .loseplius  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  i.  §  i. 

f'  Dr.  TowiKson's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  224.  This  conjecture  is  confirmed  by 
the  fact,  that  Vespasian  soon  after  erected  magnificent  public  baths  at  Home. 
Suetonius  in  Vespasiano,  c.  vii. 

■>  See  particularly  John  i;  38.  41.,  ii.  6.  13.,  iv.  9.,  and  xi.  55. 

8  Elements  of  Christ.  'I'heol.  vol.  i.  pp.  335.  Jones  on  the  Canon,  vol.  iii 
pp.  113—116. 

9  See  Jones  on  the  Canon,  vol.  iii.  pp.  117,  118. 

10  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  120,  121. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  344. 

11  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  139. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  355. 

>i  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  150.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  361.  ' 

13  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  161. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  367. 

n  11)1(1.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  18:3.  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  .379. 

i>  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  193. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  384. 

■6  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  212.  220. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  395,  399. 

■  I  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  '256. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  419. 

■  8  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  414— 417.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  ."503—505. 
•  9  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  469,  470. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  533,  .5.34. 

■  M  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  iv.  pp;  22.5— 227. ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  pp.  368,  369. 

"  See  their  several  testimonies  in  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  187 
—190.  ;  Ito.  vol.  iii.  pp.  227,  228. 


Sbct.  v.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  JOHN. 


315 


have  rcj'rte'l  this  Gospel,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  John's  wri- 
liiifrs;  hilt  we  have  no  inforrniition  CDiicerniiifr  tlicse  Alo<rt, 
on  whifh  mi}'  dependance  can  hi;  placed  :  tor,  in  strictness, 
we  have  no  account  of  them  exce])t  the  hiter  and  uncertain 
accounts  of  Philasl(!r  and  lC[)iphanius ;  Irena^us,  Eusehius, 
and  other  antuent  writers  Ijefore  them,  heinir  totally  silent 
concernintr  the  AIniri.  The  prohahility,  therefore,  is,  that 
there  never  was  any  such  heresy.' 

With  such  decisive  testinionit^s  to  the  (renuineness  of  John's 
Gospcd,  it  is  not  a  little  surprisin<r,  that  an  eminent  critic  on 
the  continent^  should  have  ass(!rled  that  his  G(iS|)el  and  Epis- 
tles exhibit  clear  eviilence,  that  it  was  not  written  hy  an  eye- 
witness, hut  was  compiled  hy  some  Gentile  Ohristian  in  the 
beirinnini^  of  tlu;  second  century,  after  the  death  of  the  evan- 
pcdist  John,  for  whom  he  |>assc(f  himsidf.  It  is  also  astonish- 
in<r  that,  with  such  tt'stimonies  to  the  jrenuineness  of  this 
Gospel,  so  disliijj^uished  a  critic  as  (irutius  should  iiave 
imairined  that  the  evantrclist  terminated  his  history  of  our 
SavKHir  with  the  twentieth  chapter,  and  that  the  tw(!nty-first 
cha|)ler  was  adih'd  after  his  disath  by  the  church  at  Ej)liesus. 
Hut  this  o|)inion  is  contraditMed  hy  tlie  universal  consent  of 
manuscripts  and  versions;  for,  as  this  (iospcd  was  published 
before  the  evanirelist's  death,  if  there  had  been  an  edition  of 
it  without  the  iwenty-iirst  cha])ter,  it  would  in  all  i)robability 
have  been  wantiuy^  in  some  copies.  'I'o  which  we  may  add 
that  the  jrenuineness  of  the  cha|)ter  in  (|uestion  was  never 
doubted  by  any  one  of'the ancient  Christian  writers.  Finally, 
the  style  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  the  rest  of  his 
Gospel.-^ 

!Some  doubts  have  been  entertained  concerning  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  portion  of  this  Gospel  comprised  between  ch. 
vii.  53.andviii.  1 — 11.  Its  authenticity  has  been  questioned 
by  Erasnms,  Calvin,  Beza,  (irotius,  Le  Clerc,  Wetstein, 
Semler,  Schulze,  Morns,  Haenlein,  Paulus,  Schmidt,  and 
various  other  writers  who  are  mentioned  by  VVolfius,^  and 
by  Koechcr  :^  Griesbach  and  Schuiz  have  remarked  it  as  a 
passage  which  ought  probably  to  be  omitted  ;  and  its  genu- 
ineness has  been  advocated  by  Drs.  Mill  and  Whitby,  Bp. 
Middleton,  Heumann,  Michaelis,  Storr,  Langius,  Dettmers, 
Staeudlin,^  Kuin  )el,  and  Dr.  Bloomfield.  The  limits  neces- 
sarily prescribed  to  this  section  forbid  us  to  enter  into  a 
review  of  all  that  has  been  said  on  this  subject;  but  it  may 
be  permitted  to  remark  that  the  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the 
genuineness  of  the  passage  in  question.  For,  though  it  is 
not  found  in  several  ancient  versions,  and  is  not  quoted  or 
illustrated  by  Chrysostom,  Theophylact,  Nonnus  (who  wrote 
commentaries  or  explanations  of  this  Gospel),  nor  by  Ter- 
tullian,  or  Cyprian,  both  of  whom  treat  copiously  on  chastity 
and  adultery,  and  therefore  had  abundant  opportunity  of  ci- 
ting it,  if  it  had  been  extant  in  their  copies ;  yet  it  is  found 
in  the  greater  part  of  the  manuscripts  (Griesbach  has  enume- 
rated nture  than  eighty)  that  are  extant,  though  with  great 
diversity  of  readings.  If  it  had  not  been  genuine,  how  could 
it  have  found  its  way  into  these  manuscripts  ]  Moreover, 
there  is  nothing  in  the  paragraph  in  question  that  militates 
either  against  the  character,  sentiments,  or  conduct  of  Jesus 
Christ;  on  the  contrary,  the  whole  is  perfectly  consistent 
with  his  meekness,  gentleness,  and  benevolence.  To  which 
we  may  add,  that  this  passage  is  cited  as  genuine  by  Augus- 
tine, who  assigns  the  reason  why  it  was  omitted  by  some 
copyists,  viz.  lest  any  offence  should  be  taken  by  supposing 
that  our  Lord  suffered  a  guilty  woman  to  go  unpunished. 
But,  in  reply  to  this  supposition  or  objection,  we  may  remark, 
1.  That,  according  to  his  own  declaration,  he  came  nut  into 
the  world  to  condemn  tlie  world  (John  iii.  17.  viii.  15.  xii.  47. 
Luke  xii.  11.)  and  to  execute  the  office  of  a  judge  (and  it  is 
but  reasonable  to  try  him  by  his  own  principles,  in  which  no 
inconsistency  can  be  found) ;  and,  2.  Any  exorcise  of  judicial 
authority  would  have  given  a  direct  contradiction  to  that  de- 
ference and  subordination  which  he  constantly  showed  and 
inculcated  to  the  power  of  the  civil  magistrate.  An  addi- 
tional evidence  in  favour  of  the  disputed  clause  is  found  in 

'  Dr.  Gardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ix.  pp.  515  516. ;  4to.  vol.  iv.  pp.  690,  691. 

»  Ur.  Bretsclineiiler,  '\ah.\i  Prohahiliade  Erangelii  el  Kpistolarum  Jo- 
hanttis  Apusluli  Indole,  et  Origine.  8vo.  Liijsise,  1S20.  In  justice  to  Ur. 
Bretschueiiier  It  must  now  be  staled  that,  in  the  preface  to  the  second  edi- 
tion of  his  llandbuch  der  Doginatik  (Manual  of  UofjiTialic  Theology),  he 
declared  himself  satisfied  concerning  the  genuineness  of  this  passage. 
(Jena  Literary  (Jazette  lor  January,  1827,  Supplt.  No.  1.) 

'  The  genuineness  of  the  twenty-first  chapter  of  St,  John's  Gospel  is 
patisfaf  torily  vindicated  asrainst  the  objections  of  Grotius,  and  some  modem 
critics,  by  Professor  Weber  in  his  "Authentia  capitis  ultimi  Evaiigelii 
Johannis,  Ate."     Halls,  1823,  8vo. 

«  Wolfii  Cura;  Philologicae,  in  loc. 

•  Koecheri  Analecta,  in  loc. 

•  Staeudlin,  Prolusio  qu^  Pericopie  de  Adulter:^,  Joh.  vii.  53.  viii.  1—11., 
Veritas  et  Authentia  defenditur.     Gottingx,  liSKJ,  4to. 


the  seventh  verse  of  John  viii.,  where  x^9•cv  has  the  article  tov 
prefixed. — //''  that  is  without  sin  among  yon,  lit  him  first  cast 
THE  [not  a  stone,  as  in  our  authorized  version]  stonk  "/  her  ,- 
TON  A)0ON  t.T  OLUTtt  Sit-t.nia.  The  allusion,  Bislmp  Middle- 
ton  remarks,  is  to  the  particular  manner  of  storing,  which 
required  that  one  of  the  witnes.-es  (for  two  at  the  least  were 
necessary,  see  Deut.  xvii.  G.)  should  throw  the  stone,  which 
was  to  serve  as  a  signal  to  the  by-standers  to  complete  the 
punishmtMit.  There  is  therefore  strict  jiropricty  in  calling 
this  stone  TON  a/S-'.v,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  other 
stones.  It  is  not  probable  that  an  interpolator  would  have 
be(;n  thus  exact  in  his  phraseology,  or  would  have  adverted 
to  this  apparently  trifling  circumstance;  especially  since  the 
expression  of  f^-xKKw  t.i  A/3-iv  is  not  elsewhtae  OjuiuI  in  the 
New  T(!stamint.  A  few  manuscripts  (Griesbach  and  Schuiz 
specify  eleven)  ornit  the  article:  but  this,  Dr.  M,  is  of  o|)i- 
nion,  only  provt  s  that  the  copyists  knew  not  what  to  make 
of  it;  and  that,  had  they  undertaken  to  interpolatt!  tint  pas- 
sage, they  would  iiave  done  it  less  skilfully  than  did  the 
present  interpolator,  supposing  we  must  consider  the  passage 
to  be  spurious.' 

Upon  a  review  therefore  of  the  whole  evidence  respecting 
this  disputi  (1  clause,  we  may  safely  conclude  that  it  prepon- 
derates in  favour  of  its  genuineness. 

V.  The  design  of  St.  John  in  writing  his  Gospel  was  "  to 
convey  to  the  Christian  world  just  and  adequate  notions  of 
the  real  nature,  character,  and  office  of  that  great  Teaclier, 
who  came  to  instruct  and  redeem  mankind.  For  this  purpose, 
he  studiously  selected,  for  his  narrative,  those  passages  of 
our  Saviour's  life,  which  most  clearly  displayed  his  divine 
power  and  authority :  and  those  of  his  discourses,  in  which 
ne  spoke  most  plainly  of  his  own  nature,  and  of  the  efficacy 
of  his  death,  as  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  The 
object,  which  this  evangelist  had  in  view,  is  very  clearly 
stated  in  chap.  xx.  verse  31.  It  was  not  to  accumulate  as 
many  instances  as  possible  of  the  miraculous  power  exerted 
by  Jesus;  but  only  those,  which  most  distinctly  illustrated 
his  peculiar  office  and  nature :  Many  other  signs  truly  did 
Jesus,  in  the  presence  of  his  disciples,  which  are  not  ivritlen  in 
this  book.  But  these  are  written,  that  ye  might  believe  thai 
Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,-  and  that  believing,  ye 
might  have  life  through  his  name.  This  expression  seems  to 
prove,  that  those  persons  are  wrong,  who  suppose  that  St. 
.John  wrote  his  Gospel,  merely  to  supply  the  defects  and  omis- 
sions of  the  other  Evangelists.  The  real  difference  between 
them  is,  that  they  wrote  a  history  of  our  Saviour's  life ;  but 
St.  John,  of  his  person  and  office."* 

But,  besides  this  more  general  design  of  the  evangelist, 
we  are  informed  by  Irenaeus,  and  other  ancient  writers,  that 
there  were  two  especial  motives  that  induced  John  to  com- 
pose his  Gospel.  One  was,  that  he  might  refute  the  heresies 
of  Cerinthus  and  the  Nicolaitans,  who  had  attempted  to  cor- 
rupt the  Christian  doctrine :  the  other  motive  was,  that  he 
might  supply  those  important  events  in  our  Saviours  life, 
which  the  other  evangelists  had  omitted.  Respecting  the 
former  of  these  motives,  Irenaeus  gives  us  the  following 
account.^ 

"John  being  desirous  to  extirpate  the  errors  sown  in  the 
minds  of  men  by  Cerinthus,  and  sometime  before  by  those 
called  Nicolaitans,  published  his  Gospel :  in  which  he  ac- 
quaints us  that  there  is  one  God,  who  made  all  things  by  liis 
word,  and  not,  as  they  say,  one  who  is  the  Creator  of  the 
world,  and  another  who  is  the  Father  of  the  Lord  :  one  the 
Son  of  the  Creator,  and  another  the  Christ  from  the  super- 
celestial  abodes,  who  descended  upon  Jesus  the  Son  of  the 
Creator,  but  remained  impassible,  and  afterwards  fled  back 
to  his  own  pleruina  or  fulness." 

This  testimony  of  Irenaus  has  been  opposed  by  Lampe, 
Lardner,  Tittmann,  Kuinriel,  and  adoptP(i  by  Buddeus,  Mi- 
chaelis, Moldenhawer,  Mosheim,  Bishop  Tomline,  Dr.  Owen, 
and  other  later  divines.  The  principal  objections  against 
the  declaration  of  Irenaeus  may  be  reduced  to  the  two  follow- 
ing: viz. 

1.  That  Irenaeus  is  at  variance  with  himself:  for  in  an- 
other passage  he  says,  "  as  John  the  disciple  of  our  Lord 
assures  us,  saying.  But  these  are  written,  that  ye  might  believe 
that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  arul  that  believing  ye 

'  Kninoel,  Comment,  in  Libros  Nov.  Test,  Historicos,  pp.  379—390.  Tift- 
manni  Commentarius  In  Evang.  Johannis,  pp.  318 — *J2.  Bishop  Middleton'3 
Ucictrineof  the  Greek  Article,  on  John  viii.  7.  Griesbachii  et  r*chulzii  Nov. 
Test.  lorn.  i.  pp.  555,  556.  Bloomfielcl's  .\nnotations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  275 — 2^.,  in 
whicti  Ur.  B.  has  given  a  copious  statement  of  the  evidence  lor  and  against 
this  section  of  St.  John's  Gospel. 

8  Bp.  Blooinfield'3  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  Si.  John,  pp.  4,  5. 

9  Irensus  adv.  H2eres.  lib.  iii.  c.  11. 


316 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE    NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  II 


might  have  life  through  his  name ,-  foreseeing  these  blasphe- 
mous notions  that  divide  the  Lord,  so  far  as  it  is  in  their 
power."'  Now,  if  Irenaeus  here  meant  to  saj^  that  John 
only  foresaw  the  errors,  which  were  propagfated  by  Cerinthus 
end  the  Gnostics,  it  must  appear  very  extraordinary  that  he 
should  say,  in  the  passage  above  quoted,  that  John  wrote 
against  the  errors  wliich  had  been  propagated  by  (Jerinthus. 
Cut  the  contradiction  is  only  apparent ;  for  providcns,  the 
expression  of  Irenaeus,  does  not  signify  "foreseeing,"  but 
guarding  ngainsf.  The  latter  passage,  therefore,  when  pro- 
perly explained,  does  not  confute  but  confirm  the  former. 
Besides,  as  Paul,  in  his  first  Epistle  to  Timothy,  speaks  of 
Gnostic  errors,  it  is  evident  that  they  must  have  been  propa- 
gated long  before  John  wrote  his  Gospel. 

2.  The  second  argument,  relied  upon  by  those  learned 
men  who  dissent  from  the  common  opinion,  is,  that  the  early 
fathers,  in  their  catalogues  of  heretics,  for  the  most  part  place 
Cerinthus  after  Carpocrates,  who  uncjuestionably  Uvea  and 
taught  in  the  second  century.  This  circumstance  would  cer- 
taiiily  possess  considerable  weight,  if  it  appeared  that  the 
early  fathers  had  paid  due  attention  to  the  regular  order  of 
time  in  their  enumeration  of  heretics :  but,  instead  of  this, 
we  know  the  fact  to  be,  that  the  names  of  heretics  are  set 
down  by  Irenffius,  Tertullian,  Clement,  and  others,  at  ran- 
dom, and  without  paying  any  regard  to  the  times  in  which 
they  lived.  "  But  even  if  Irenaeus  had  not  asserted  that  St, 
John  wrote  his  Gospel  against  the  Gnostics,  and  particularly 
against  Cerinthus,  the  contents  of  the  Gospel  itself  would 
lead  to  this  conclusion.  The  speeches  of  Christ,  which  John 
has  recorded,  are  selected  with  a  totally  different  view  from 
that  of  the  three  first  evangelists,  who  have  given  such  as  are 
of  a  moral  nature ;  whereas  those  which  are  given  by  John 
are  chiefly  dogmatical,  and  relate  to  Christ's  divinity,  the 
doctrine  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  supernatural  assistance  to 
be  communicated  to  the  apostles,  ancf  other  subjects  of  a  like 
import.  In  the  very  choice  of  his  expressions,  such  as 
'  light,''  '  life,^  &c.  he  had  in  view  the  philosophy  of  the 
Gnostics,  who  used  or  rather  abused  these  terms.  That  the 
first  fourteen  verses  of  John's  Gospel  are  merely  historical, 
and  contain  only  a  short  account  of  Christ's  history  before 
his  appearance  on  earth,  is  a  supposition  devoid  of  all  proba- 
bility. On  the  contrary,  it  is  evident  that  they  are  purely 
doctrinal,  and  that  they  were  introduced  with  a  polemical 
view,  in  order  to  confute  errors,  which  prevailed  at  that  time 
respecting  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ.  Unless  John  had  an 
adversary  to  combat  who  made  particular  use  of  the  words 
♦  light,''  and  '  life,''  he  would  not  have  thought  it  necessary 
after  having  described  the  Creator  of  all  things,  to  add,  that 
in  him  was  life,  and  the  life  was  the  light  of  men,  or  to  assert 
that  John  the  Baptist  was  not  that  light.  The  very  meaning 
of  the  word  '  light,''  would  be  extremely  dubious,  unless  it 
were  determined  by  its  particular  application  in  the  oriental 
Gnosis.  For  without  the  supposition,  that  John  had  to  com- 
bat with  an  adversary  who  used  this  word  in  a  particular 
sense,  it  might  be  applied  to  any  divine  instructor,  who  by 
his  doctrines  enlightened  mankind.  Further,  the  positions 
contained  in  the  first  fourteen  verses  are  antitheses  to  posi- 
tions maintained  by  the  Gnostics,  who  used  the  words  ko^o^, 
^m,  pa?,  /ucvcyei/n;,  n-KufCDfJi-x,  &c.  as  technical  terms  of  their 
philosophy.  Lastly,  the  speeches  of  Christ,  which  St.  John 
lias  selected,  are  such  as  confirm  the  positions  laid  down  in 
the  first  chapter  of  his  Gospel ;  and  therefore  we  must  con- 
clude that  his  principal  object  throughout  the  whole  of  his 
Gospel  was  to  confute  the  errors  of  the  Gnostics."^ 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  arguments  and  proofs,  there  is 
one  circumstance  highly  worthy  of  remark,  which  greatly 
strengthens  the  testimony  of  Irenaeus  as  to  the  object  of  John 
in  writing  his  Gospel ;  viz.  that  he  delivered  it  within  a  cen- 
tury after  that  Gospel  was  written.  Now,  as  Irenaeus  was  a 
disciple  of  Polycarp,  who  was  personally  acquainted  with 
the  evangelist,  he  consequently  had  the  best  means  of  pro- 
curing information  on  this  subject.  ^The  evidence  of  a  credible 
writer  of  the  second  century,  uncontradicted  by  contemporary 
writers,  or  by  those  who  lived  in  the  following  century,  is 
surely  preferable  to  the  conjectures  offered  by  critics  ot  the 
eighteenth  or  nineteenth  century.^     In  order  to  understand 

1  Quemadmotlum  Joannes  Domini  discipulus  confirmat,  dicens,  "Haec 
auteiii  sciipta  sunt,  ut  credatis  quoiiiam  .lesus  est  filius  Dei,  et  ut  creden- 
tes,  viUuji  ceternain  habeatis  in  nomine  ejus;"  piuvidens  has  blaspliemas 
regiilas,  qua;  dividunt  Dominiim  quantum  ex  ipsis  attinel.  Advers.  Hasres. 
lib.  ill.  c.  16. 

'i  Michuelis,  vol.  iii.  part  i.  p.  280. 

s  Lnuipe,  Prolegom.  in  Johannis  Evangelium,  vol.  i.  p.  179.  et  aeq.  Bud- 
deus  de  Ecclesia  Apostolica,  p.  412.  et  seq.  Mosheim's  Comraeniaries  on 
the  AfTdirs  of  Christians,  vol.  i.  pp.  337  338.  note.    Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  i. 


the  design  and  arrangement  of  John's  Gospel,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  take  a  brief  review  of  tiie  tenets  of  Cerinthus, 
in  opposition  to  which  the  evangelist  purposely  wrote  it. 
This  will  not  only  reflect  considerable  liglit  on  particular 
passages,  but  make  the  whole  appear  a  complete  work, — 
regular,  clear,  and  conclusive. 

Cerinthus  was  by  birth  a  Jew,  who  lived  at  the  close  of 
the  first  century :  having  studied  literature  and  philosophy 
at  Alexandria,  he  attempted  at  length  to  form  a  new  and 
singular  system  of  doctrine  and  discipline,  by  a  monstrous 
combination  of  the  doctrines  of  Jesus  Christ  with  the  opinions 
and  errors  of  the  Jews  and  Gnostics.  From  the  latter  he 
!)orrowed  their'P lerbma  or  fulness,  their  .^Cons  or  spirits,  their 
IJemiurgus  or  creator  of  the  visible  world,  &c.  and  so  modi- 
fied and  tempered  these  fictions  as  to  give  them  an  air  of 
Judaism,  which  must  have  considerably  i'avoured  the  progress 
of  his  heresy.  He  taught  that  the  most  high  God  was  utterly 
unknown  before  the  appearance  of  Christ,  and  dwelt  in  a 
remote  heaven  called  flAHPP.MA  {Fltroma)  with  the  chief 
spirits  or  yEous — That  this  supreme  God  nrst  generated  an 
only  begotten  son,  MONOrENE2,  who  again  begat  the  word, 
A0r02,  which  was  inferior  to  the  first-born.  That  Christ 
was  a  still  lower  aeon,  though  far  superior  to  some  others — 
That  there  were  two  higher  aeons,  distinct  from  Christ;  one 
called  ZQH,  or  life,  and  the  other  *n2,  or  the  light — That 
from  the  aeons  again  proceeded  inferior  orders  of  spirits,  and 
particularly  one  JJeniiia-gus,  who  create!^  this  visible  world  out 
of  eternal  matter — That  this  Demiurgus  was  ignorant  of  the 
supreme  God,  and  much  lower  than  the  ^Eons,  which  were 
wholly  invisible — That  he  was,  however,  the  peculiar  God. 
and  protector  of  the  Israelites,  and  sent  Moses  to  them ; 
whose  laws  were  to  be  of  perpetual  obligation — That  Jesus 
was  a  mere  man  of  the  most  illustrious  sanctity  and  justice, 
the  real  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary — That  the  jEou  Christ  de- 
scended upon  him  in  the  form  of  a  dove  when  he  was  bap- 
tized, revealed  to  him  the  unknown  father,  and  empowered 
him  to  work  miracles — That  the  tEou,  light,  entered  John 
the  Baptist  in  the  same  manner,  and  therefore  that  John  was 
in  some  respects  preferable  to  Christ — That  Jesus,  after  his 
union  with  Christ,  opposed  himself  with  vigour  to  the  God 
of  the  Jews,  at  whose  instigation  he  was  seized  and  crucified 
by  the  Hebrew  chiefs,  and  that  when  Jesus  was  taken  cap- 
tive, and  came  to  suffer,  Christ  ascended  up  on  high,  so  that 
the  man  Jesus  alone  was  subject  to  the  pains  of  an  ignomini- 
ous death — That  Christ  will  one  day  return  upon  earth,  and, 
renewing  his  former  union  with  the  man  Jesus,  will  reign  in 
Palestine  a  thousand  years,  during  which  his  disciples  will 
enjoy  the  most  exquisite  sensual  delights.** 

Bearing  these  dogmas  in  mind,  we  shall  find  that  Saint 
John's  Gospel  is  divided  into  three  parts ;  viz. 

Part  I.  contains  Doctrines  laid  down  in  Opposition  to  those  of 
Cerinthus.  (John  i.  1 — 18.) 

The  doctrines  laid  down  in  the  first  part,  as  centra-positions 
to  the  tenets  of  Cerinthus,  may  be  reduced  to  the  folio  wing 
heads,  in  which  the  evangelist  asserts, 

1.  That  Clirist  is  the  Logos  or  Word  of  God. 

2.  That  tbe  Logos  and  INloiiogenes  are  not  distinct  beings,  but  one  and 
the  same  person,  (i.  14.) 

3.  Tnat  Christ  or  the  Logos  is  not  an  inferior  ..Eon,  but  God.  (i   1.) 

4.  That  he  perfectly  knew  the  supreme  God,  being  always  with  him 
in  the  Pleroina.  (i.  18.)  » 

5.  That  he  is  nut  to  be  distinguished  from  theDemij-irgus;  for  he  is  the 
creator  of  the  whole  world,  (i.  3,  10.) 

6.  That  life  and  light  are  not  particular  and  separate  spirits,  but  the 
same  with  the  Logos  and  Christ,  (i.  4.  7 — 9  17.)  And,  therefore,  that 
Christ,  the  Logos,  Life,  Light,  Ibe  Only-Begotten,  are  not  distinct 
jEous,  but  one  and  the  same  divine  person.' 

7.  That  no  particular  Man  entered  inio  .lohn  the  Baptist  by  the  name 
of  Light,  to  communicate  to  him  a  superior  knowledge  of  the  divine 
will  (1.  8.);  but  that  he  was  a  mere  man,  and,  though  inspired,  nmch 
inferior  to  .lesus,  being  only  the  forerunner  of  him.  (i.  b.  8.  15.) 

8.  That  the  supreme  God  was  not  entirely  unknown  before  the  time 
of  Christ ;  for  men  had  received  such  lights  on  this  head,  under  the 
various  dispensations  through  which  they  passed,  that  it  was  their 
own  fault  if  they  remained  ignorant,  (i.  9,  10.) 

9.  TRat  the  Jews  were  not  the  peculiar  people  of  an  inferior  Qod,  such 


pp.  278,  279.  Tittmanni  Meletemata  Sacra  in  Evangelium  Johanni.s,  pp. 
14 — 24.  Kuinoel,  Conunent.  in  Ilist.  Libros  Nov.  Test.  vol.  iii.  pp.  42. 
et  seq. 

*  Mosheim's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  pp.  337 — 347.  Dr.  Lardner's  Wotks, 
8vo.  vol.  ix.  pp.  325 — 327. ;  4to.  vol.  iv.  pp.  5G7 — 569.  Dr.  Owen's  Observa- 
tions on  the  Four  Gospels,  pp.  88 — 92.  To  this  learned  writerwe  are  chiefly 
indebted  for  the  preceding  observalions.  The  sentiments  of  Basilides,  of 
Alexandria  (who  was  nearly  contemporary  with  Cerinthus),  concerning  the 
Logos,  were  not  very  unlike  the  tenets  of  that  hteresiarch.  Mr.  Townsend 
has  given  an  abstract  of  them  in  his  New  Testament,  arranged  in  chrono- 
logical order,  <&c.  vol.  i.  pp.  19 — 21. 

■  »  (Jnus  et  idem  ostendrtur  Logos  et  Monogenes,  et  Zoe  et  Phos,  et  Soler 
et  Christus  filius  Dei,  et  hie  idem  incarnatus  pro  nobis.  Iren.  lib.  i.  c. 
i.  §  20. 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  JOHN. 


317 


as  the  Dpiniurgus:  but  of  Christ  himself,  the  only  begotten  .Son  of 
Ooil.  (j.  11.) 

10.  That  ill  llie  fulness  of  time  the  Son  of  God  took  upon  him  human 
nature,  and  became  man.  (i.  14.) 

11.  That  he  aholi.shed  the  law  of  Moses,  which  was  only  the  shadow 
of  liiiod  thiiif;s  to  come,  and  in  its  Sleail  introduced  the  substance,  or 
the  Very  tliiiifss  signified  by  it.  (i.  17.) 

And  lastly, 

12.  That  the  .lew  has  no  more  righl  in  this  divine  person,  and  the  pri- 
vileges conferred  throu;;h  him,  than  the  Oenlile  ;'  for  whoever  be- 
lievi's  ill  him,  becomes  tlii'rehy  a  child  of  (<od,  and  is  entitled  by  that 
adoption  to  a  gloricms  inheritiince.  (i.  12,  13.) 

These  propositions  bcinj^  settled,  the  Evang^plist  proceeds  in 
Part  II.  7t»  ddirrr  the  1 'roofs  of  Ihesr.  Doctrines  in  un  llislori- 
cal  Manner  (i.  1!). — xx.  '21'.),  «•''  hein^r  all  expressed  or  plainli/ 
impled  in  llie  Discoursen  and  Trunsactinns  of  Jesus  Christ, 
which  may  conveiiii-iuly  be  divided  into  eighteen  JSections : 
viz. 

Skct.  I.  .lohn  tlie  Baptist  him.'^elf  confesses  to  the  .Tcwish priests, 
that  he  is  iiiiicii  itifcrior  to  Jesus,  refers  his  own  (lisci[)les  to  iiiin, 
who  aeitiiowh'dge  iiiiii  to  he  the  Messiah,  and  arc  confirmed 
in  this  faith  by  the  miracle  of  water  converted  into  wine,  at 
Cana  in  (ialilcc.  (i.  19.— ii.  11.) 
Skct.  2.  Jesus  conducts  iiimself  at  Jerusalem  as  the  lord  of  the 
temple  (ii.  12 — 25.),  reveals  himself  to  Nicodemus  as  the  only 
hefjotten  Son  of  God  ;  shows  the  desij^n  of  his  coming  into  the 
world,  and  the  necessity  of  lielieving  in  him,  (iii.  1 — 21.) 

Skct.  3.  An  additional  testimony  of  John  the  Ba|)tist  to  the 
superiority  of  Christ,  and  the  excellency  of  his  ordinances, 
(iii.  22—36.) 

Skct.  4.  Jesus  visits  the  Samaritans,  declares  himself  to  be  the 
Christ,  and  foretells  the  abolition  of  the  Lcvitical  worship, 
(iv.  1—42.) 

Sect.  5.  By  a  second  miracle,  (the  curing  of  a  nobleman's  dying 
child,)  Christ  demonstrates  his  divine  mission  in  his  own 
country,  where  it  was  most  disputed,  (iv.  43 — .54.) 

Sect.  6.  As  a  further  proof  of  the  future  abrogation  of  the  cere- 
monial law,  Jesus  works  a  miracle  on  the  Sabbath,  by  healing 
an  impotent  man  at  the  pool  of  Bcthesda,  and  vindicates  his 
conduct :  declares  himself  to  be  the  Son  of  God,  and  exhibits 
various  evidences  of  his  mission,  (v.  1 — 47.) 

Sect.  7.  To  show  that  he  was  the  end  of  the  law,  Jesus  substi- 
tutes himself  in  the  room  of  the  legal  sacrifices  ;  and  commands 
the  peoj)le,  who  were  used  to  feast  on  some  of  those  sacrifices, 
to  eat  his  flesh  and  drink  his  blood.  And  to  convince  them 
that  he  was  truly  the  bread  of  life,  he  miraculously  feeds  above 
live  thousand  of  them  with  five  barley  loaves.  The  people 
being  disposed  by  this  miracle  to  make  him  a  king,  Jesus  dis- 
claims all  temporal  views,  (vi.  1 — 71.) 

Sect.  8.  Jesus  reproves  the  ambition  of  his  kinsmen  :  and  going 
up  to  Jerusalem  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  promi.ses  the 
assistance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  all  true  believers,  (vii.  1 — 53.) 

Sect.  9.  He  declares  himself  to  be  the  light  of  the  world  ;  re- 
proves the  Jews  for  rejecting  him ;  promises  immortality  to 
his  followers;  and  speaks  of  his  own  existence  as  prior  to  that 
of  Abraham.  (viiL  12 — 59.) 

Skct.  10.  A  woman  taken  in  adultery  is  brought  to  Jesus,  who 
avoids  giving  judgment  in  her  case,  and  turns  the  consciences 
of  his  enemies  on  themselves,   (viii.  1 — 11.) 

Sect.  11.  In  proof  of  his  being  the  light  of  the  world,  he  restores 
a  blind  man  to  sight,^  and  warns  the  Jews  of  that  judicial 
darkness  under  which  they  were  soon  to  be  sealed  up,  for  per- 
vening  so  basely  those  means  of  knowledge,  which  were  gra- 
ciously olVered  to  them.   (ix.  .1 — 41.) 

Sect.  12.  After  this  he  represents  himself  as  the  door  of  the 
sheepfold,  and  tells  the  Pharisees,  who  called  themselves  the 
shepherds  of  the  people,  that  they  "  who  entered  not  by  the 
door  into  the  sheepfold,  but  climbed  up  some  other  way," 
whatever  character  they  might  assume,  were  in  reality  no  bet- 
ter than  thieves  and  robbers.  A  reflection  which  the  Chris- 
tians of  those  days  could  hardly  avoid  applying  to  Cerinthus 
and  other  hsEresiarchs.  Then  follows  a  description  of  a  good 
shepherd  and  a  hireling,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
test,  by  which  to  judge  of  the  diflerent  conduct  of  the  apostles 
and  heretics,  &c.  (x.  1 — 42.) 

Sect.  13.  Jesus  performs  a  signal  miracle,  by  restoring  Lazarus 
to  life,  after  he  had  been  dead  four  days,'  in  the  presence  of 
a  large  number  of  people  ;  which  was  attended  with  this  pecu- 
liar circumstance,  that  it  was  wrought  after  an  express  invo- 
cation of  God,  that  he  would  apply  it  to  the  confirmation  of 

«  Origen.  Philocal.  c.  i.  p.  17.  ed.  Spencer. 

'  See  a  critical  examination  of  this  miracle,  supra.  Vol.  I.  pp.  104,  105 

»  Ibid.  pp.  105,  106.  .     .f     .  M         ,    ^o. 


what  our  Saviour  had  taught,  (xi.  1 — 44.)  Observe  particu- 
larly ver.  41,  42. 

Sect.  14.  A  brief  account  of  the  difTi-rent  eflects  which  this 
miracle  produced  on  the  mimls  of  the  Jews;  so  dillerent,  that 
though  it  won  upon  many  of  the  people,  it  exasperated  most 
of  the  priests,  (xi.  45 — 57.  xii.  1 — 11.) 

Sect.  15.  Christ  rides  in  triumph  to  Jerusalem,  and  is  pro- 
claimed king  of  Israel.  The  Greeks,  who  may  be  considered 
as  the  first  fruits  of  the  Gentiles,  apply  to  him  and  are  admitted. 
He  addresses  them  in  terms  suitable  to  the  occasion,  and  his 
doctrine  is  confirmed  by  a  voice  from  heaven,   (xii.  12 — 30.) 

StcT.  16.  Some  intimation  being  now  given,  that  the  Gentiles 
were  to  be  admitted  into  the  Christian  church,  Jesus  institutes 
the  law  of  hospitality,'  and  delivers  to  his  disciples  a  new 
commandment,  that  they  should  love  one  another  as  brethren, 
without  distinction,  and  as  members  of  the  same  church,  (xiii. 
1—35.) 

Sect.  17.  Christ  informs  his  disciples,  in  a  long  discourse,  that 
a  perpetual  and  intimate  union  with  him,  their  head,  is  indis- 
jicnsably  necessary  to  salvation  ;  and  that,  after  his  departure, 
he  would  send  down  the  Holy  'Spirit,  who  should  guide  them 
into  all  truth,  and  enable  them  to  fulfil  his  commandments, 
(xiv. — xvi.) 

Sect.  18.  After  this,  Jesus  recommends  his  disci|)les,  and  all 
who  should  in  future  ages  believe  in  him,  to  the  Father,  in  a 
pathetic  and  memorable  prayer ;  and  at  the  same  time  testifies, 
that  not  one  of  his  apostles  was  lost,  but  Judas  Iscariot.  (xvii, 
1 — 20.)  As  this  prayer  was  favourably  heard,  and  the  apos- 
tles were  afterwards  endowed  with  extraordinary  powers,  it 
alfordcd  an  argument  against  Cerinthus  of  the  divine  authority 
of  the  doctrines  they  taught. 

Sect.  19.  Contains  a  particular  account  of  our  Saviour's  passion, 
adapted  to  prove  that  he  did  not  die  as  a  mere  man  (xviii.  1. 
xix.  42.);  and  also  of  his  resurrection,  in  opposition  to  those 
who  denied  that  he  was  risen,  (xx.  1 — 29.) 

§  i.    The  apprehension  of  Christ  in  the  Garden  of  Gethscmane.  (xviii. 

1-11.) 
§  ii.  His  mock  trial  before  the  high-priest,  in  the  house  of  C'aiaphas, 

and  Peter's  denial  of  him  there,  (xviii.  12—27.) 
§  iii.  The  accu-^ation  of  Christ  before  PiUte  the  Roman  governor,  who 

havin;;  in  vain  attempted  to  rescue  him  from  tlie  envy  of  the  jews, 

scourged  him,  and  delivered  him  to  be  crucified,  (xviii.  28—40.  xix. 

1 — IG.  former  part  of  the  verse.) 
§  iv.  Narrative  of  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ,  (xix.  16.  latter  part 

of  tlie  verse,  to  v.  37.) 
§  V.  The  burial  of  Christ  by  .Joseph  of  Arimathea.  (.xi.x.  38—42.) 
§  vi.  The  resurrection  (XX.  1—10),  and  Chri.st's  appearances,  first  to 

Mary  (11—18.),  and,  secondly,  to  the   disciples  on  the  same  day. 

(19—23.)  ' 

§  vii.  Christ's  appearance  eight  days  after  to  his  disciples,  Thomas 

being  present.  (21—29.) 

Part  III.  contains  an  Account  of  the  Person  of  the  Writer  of 
this  Gospel,  and  of  kis  design  in  writing  it.  (xx.  30,31. 
xxi.) 

Sect.  1.  Comprises  a  declaration  of  the  end  which  Saint  John 
had  in  view  in  composing  his  Gospel ;  viz.  that  his  readers 
might  be  convinced  that  Jesus  is  the  Chhist  (he  Son  of  God 
(xx.  31.);  and  consequently  that  the  tenets  and  notions  of 
Cerinthus  were  altogether  false  and  heretical.  In  this  section 
is  related  Christ's  appear.ince  to  his  disciples  at  the  sea  of 
Tiberias,  and  his  discourse  to  the  apostle  Peter,  (xxi.  81  — 19.) 

Sect.  2.  Relates  to  the  evangelist  John  himself;  Christ  checks 
Peter's  curiosity  concerning  his  death,  (xxi.  20 — 23.)  The 
conclusion.  (24,  25.) 

This  section  seems  to  have  been  added,  as  a  confutation  of  the  opinion 
entertained  by  some,  that  .Saint  John  was  not  to  die :— an  opinion 
which  might  have  weakened  his  authority,  if  he  had  suffered  it  to 
pass  unrefuted. 

Besides  refuting  the  errors  of  Cerinthus  and  his  followers, 
Michaelis  is  of  opinion  that  John  also  had  in  view  to  confute 
the  erroneous  tenets  of  the  Sabeans,  a  sect  which  claimed 
John  the  Baptist  for  its  founder.  He  has  adduced  a  variety 
of  terms  and  phrases,  which  he  has  applied  to  the  explana- 
tion of  the  first  fourteen  verses  of  John's  Gospel  in  such  a 
manner  as  renders  his  conjecture  not  improbable.*  Perhaps 
we  shall  not  greatly  err  if  we  conclude  with  Rosenm  lUer, 

<  Washing  the  feet  (as  we  have  seen  in  the  early  part  of  this  volume)  was 
commonly,  in  the  eastern  countries,  the  first  kindness  shown  to  a  travel- 
ler, who  was  (o  be  hospitably  received  (Gen.  xviii.  4.  xix.  2.  xliii.  21.)  : 
whence  it  came  to  be  used  for  hospitality  in  general.  (I  Tim.  v.  10.)  When 
our  Saviour  therefore  washed  the  feet  of  his  disciples,  and  taught  them  to 
condescend  in  like  manner  to  their  inferiors,  it  amounted  to  the  same  thing 
as  if  he  ha<l  instituted  and  established  the  law  of  hospitality  among  all  his 
future  followers.  Now,  as  strangers  are  the  objects  of  this  law,  and  not 
persons  who  live  in  the  same  community,  it  was  indeed,  in  the  strictest 
sense,  a  new  commandment  to  them,  who  thought  it  their  duty  "  to  avoid 
those  of  another  nation."  (Acts  x.  28.) 

•  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  pp.  285—302. 


318 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  II. 


that  John  had  both  these  classes  of  heretics  in  view,  and 
that  he  wrote  to  confute  their  respective  tenets.  Yet,  thongh 
he  composed  his  Gospel  principally  with  this  desi]^n,  he  did 
not  wholly  confine  liunself  to  it;  but  took  occasion  to  im- 
part correct  views  of  the  nature  and  offices  of  Jesus  Christ 
both  to  the  Jews  and  Gentiles.  vShould  this  opinion  be  ac- 
ceded to,  it  will  reconcile  the  various  opinions  of  learned 
men  concerning  the  real  scope  of  John's  Gospel. 

VI.  It  is  obvious  to  every  attentive  reader  of  this  Gospel, 
that  John  studiously  omits  to  notice  those  passages  in  our 
Lord's  history  and  teaching,  which  had  been  related  at 
length  by  the  other  evangelists,  or  if  he  mentions  them  at 
all,  it  is  in  a  very  cursory  manner.  By  pursuing  this  method 
lie  gives  his  testimony  that  their  narratives  are  faithful  and 
true,  and  at  the  same  time  leaves  himself  room  to  enlarge 
the  Gospel  history.  This  confirms  the  unanimous  declara- 
tions of  ancient  writers,  that  the  first  three  Gospels  vvere 
■written  and  published  before  John  composed  his  evangelical 
history.  In  the  account  of  our  Saviour's  passion,  death,  and 
resurrection,  all  the  four  Gospels  coincide  in  many  particu- 
lars ;  though  here  John  has  several  things  peculiar  to  him- 
self, in  his  Gospel,  many  things  recorded  by  the  other 
evangelists  are  omitted.  He  has  given  no  account  of  our 
Saviour's  nativity,  nor  of  his  baptism  by  John.  He  takes 
no  notice  of  our  Saviour's  temptation  in  the  wilderness ;  nor 
of  the  call  or  names  of  the  twelve  apostles ;  nor  of  their 
mission  during  tbe  ministry  of  Christ;  nor  of  his  para- 
bles, or  other  discourses  recorded  by  the  first  three  evan- 
gelists ;  nor  of  his  journeys ;  nor  of  any  of  his  predictions 
concerning  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  which  are  related 
by  them ;  nor  has  John  repeated  any  of  Christ's  miracles 
recorded  by  them,  except  that  of  feeding  five  thousand  peo- 
ple, which  was  probably  repeated  for  the  sake  of  the  dis- 
course to  which  it  gave  birth.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  John 
mentions  several  incidents,  which  the  other  evangelists  have 
not  noticed.  Thus,  he  gives  an  account  of  our  Lord's  cleans- 
ino-  the  temple  at  the  Jirst  passover,  when  he  went  to  Jeru- 
safem ;  but  all  the  other  evangelists  give  a  similar  account 
of  his  cleansing  the  temple  at  his  last  passover.  These  two 
acts,  however,  are  widely  different.  He  relates  the  acts  of 
Christ  before  the  imprisonment  of  John  the  Baptist;  the 
wedding  at  Cana;  the  cure  of  the  man  who  had  been  blind 
from  his  birth ;  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus ;  the  indignation 
of  Judas  against  the  woman  who  anointed  our  Lord  with 
ointment;  The  visit  of  the  Greeks  to  Jesus;  his  washing  the 
feet  of  his  disciples;  and  his  consolatory  discourse  to  them 
previously  to  his  passion.  John's  Gospel  also  contains  more 
plain  and  frequent  assurances  than  those  occurring  in  the 
other  Gospels,  that  Jesus  is  not  only  a  prophet  and  messen- 
ger of  God,  but  also  that  he  is  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  God  : 
and  asserts  his  pre-existence  and  Deity  in  the  clearest  and 
most  distinct  terms.' 

VII.  Salmasius,  Grotins,  Bolten,  and  other  critics  have 
imagined  that  John  did  not  write  his  Gospel  originally  in 
Greek,  but  in  the  Syriac  language.  This  hypothesis,  how- 
ever, is  contradicted  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  Christian 
antiquity,  which  affirms  that  he  wrote  it  in  Greek.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  observations  already  offered,  respecting  the  original 
language  of  the  New  Testament,^  we  may  remark,  that  the 
Hebraisms  occurring  in  this  Gospel  cl«arly  prove  that  it  was 
originally  written  by  a  Jew.  His  style  is  pronounced  by 
Michaelis^  to  be  better  and  more  fluent  than  that  of  the  other 
evangelists ;  and  he  ascribes  this  excellence  to  the  facility 
and  taste  in  the  Greek  language,  which  the  apostle  seems  to 
have  acquired  from  his  long  residence  at  Ephesus.  His 
narrative  is  characterized  by  singular  perspicuity,  and  by  the 
most  unaffected  simplicity  and  benevolence.  There  are  few 
passages  in  Holy  Writ  more  deeply  affecting  than  this  evan- 
gelist s  narrative  of  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus.'' 


SECTION  VI. 

ON  THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

I,  Title. — II.  Author  and  date. — III.  Genuineness  and  authen- 
ticity.— IV.  Scope. — V.    Chronology. — VI.  Analysis  of  the 

1  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  pp.  303—315.  On  the  decisive  testimony  of  Saint 
John's  Gospel  to  the  Divinity  of  our  Saviour,  see  Bishop  Bloomfield's  "  Five 
Lectures,  delivered  on  the  Fridays  during  Lent,  1823." — London,  1823, 
12rao. 

»  See  Vol.  I.  pp.  193,  194.  supra. 

>  Introd.  vol.  iii.  part  i.  p.  316. 

«  Campbell  on  the  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  192 — 195.  Kuinoel,  Comm.  in  Hist. 
Lib.  Nov.  Test.  vol.  iii.  p.  33.  etseq.  Pritii,  Introd.  ad  Nov.  Test.  pp.  203— 
226.    Viser,  Herm-  Sacr.  Nov.  Test,  para  I.  p.  340.  pars  ii.  pp.  265—268. 


contents  of  this  book  — Vfl.  Observations  on  Us  style. — 
VIII.  On  the  importance  of  this  book,  as  an  evidence  for 
the  truth  of  Christianity. 

I.  The  book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  forms  the  fifth 
and  last  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Now  Testament,  and 
connects  the  Gospel  with  the  Epistles;  being  a  useful  post- 
script to  the  former,  and  a  proper  introduction  to  the  latter. 
On  this  account  it  has  been  generally  placed  after  the  four 
Gospels,  though  (as  Michaelis  has  remarked)  in  several  an- 
cient manuscripts  and  versions  it  is  very  frequently  placed 
after  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  because  it  is  necessary  to 
the  right  understanding  of  tliem. 

Various  Title.s  have  been  given  to  this  book  which  are 
noticed  in  the  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testament.  Thus, 
in  the  Codex  Bezas,  or  Cambridge  manuscript,  it  is  called 
riPAHE12  THN  AnOSTOAfiN,  Ihe  Acts  or  Transactions  of  the 
Apostles.  In  the  Codex  Alexandrinus.  and  many  other  manu- 
scripts, it  is  entitled  nPAHE  2  TfiN  AfiflN  An02  lOA.QN,  Me 
Acts  of  the  ILily  Apostles,  which  title  is  also  adopted  by  most 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  fathers.  The  first  of  these  various 
titles  is  that  which  is  adopted  in  the  printed  editions,  and  in 
all  modern  versions;  but  by  whom  it  was  prefixed,  it  is  now 
impossible  to  ascertain.  In  the  Syriac  version,  according  to 
the  edition  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  the  title  is :  "  {'he 
Book  of  the  Acts,  that  is,  of  the  History  of  the  Bless(!d 
Apostles,  composed  by  my  holy  lord  Luke  the  Evangelist:" 
— in  the  Arabic  version  it  is,  "The  beginning  of  the  Book 
of  the  Acts  of  the  [holy]  Apostles;" — and  in  the  Ethiopic 
version,  "  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  transactions  of  the 
ministers,  that  is,  the  History  of  the  holy  Apostles."  This 
book  contains  great  part  of  the  lives  and  transactions  of  Saint 
Peter  and  Saint  Paul,  and  of  the  history  of  the  Christian 
church ;  commencing  at  the  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  and 
being  continued  down  to  Saint  Paul's  arrival  at  Rome,  after 
his  appeal  to  Caesar,  comprising  a  period  of  about  thirty 
years. 

II.  That  Saint  Luke  was  the  author  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  as  well  as  of  the  Gospel  which  bears  his  name,  is 
evident  both  from  the  introduction,  and  from  the  unanimous 
testimonies  of  the  early  Christians.  Both  are  inscribed  to 
Theophilus ;  and  in  the  very  first  verse  of  the  Acts  there  is 
a  reference  made  to  his  Gospel,  which  he  calls  the  former 
Treatise.  On  this  account.  Dr.  Benson  and  some  other 
critics  have  conjectured  that  Saint  Luke  wrote  the  Gospels 
and  Acts  in  one  book,  and  divided  it  into  two  parts.  From 
the  frequent  use  of  the  first  person  plural,  it  is  clear  that  he 
was  present  at  most  of  the  transactions  he  relates.     He  ap- 

Eears  to  have  accompanied  Saint  Paul  fromTroas  toPhilippi; 
e  also  attended  him  to  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards  to  Rome, 
where  he  remained  two  years,  during  that  apostle's  first 
confinement.  Accordingly  we  find  Saint  Luke  particularly 
mentioned  in  two  of  the  epistles  written  by  Saint  Paul,  from 
Rome,  during  that  confinement.*  As  the  book  of  Acts  is 
continued  to  the  end  of  the  second  year  of  Saint  Paul's  im- 
prisonment, it  could  not  have  been  written  before  the  year  63  ; 
and,  as  the  death  of  that  apostle  is  not  mentioned,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  book  was  composed  before  that  event,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  happened  a.  d.  65.  For  these  reasons, 
Michaelis,  Dr.  Lardner,  Dr.  Benson,  Rosenm  ller^  Bishop 
Tomline,  and  the  generality  of  critics,  assign  the  date  of  this 
book  to  the  year  63. 

III.  To  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  this  book,  the 
early  Christian  fathers  bear  unanimous  testimony.  Not  to 
mention  the  attestations  of  the  apostolic  fathers,  in  the  first 
century,  which  have  been  collected  by  Mr.  Jones,  Drs.  Ben- 
son and  Lardner,^  we  may  remark  that  Irenaeus'  and  Tertul- 
lian,8  in  the  second  century,  both  ascribed  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  to  Saint  Luke.  And  their  evidence  is  corroborated 
by  that  of  Origen,  Jerome,  Augustine,  Eusebius,  and  all 
subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers. ^  Further,  Chrysostom  and 
other  fathers  inform  us,  that  this  book  was  annually  read  in 
the  churches,  every  day  between  the  festivals  of  Easter  and 
Pentecost  or  Whitsuntide.'"  The  Valentinians,  indeed,  as 
well  as  the  Marcionites,  Severians,  and  some  Manicheans, 

s  Col.  iv.  14.     Philem.  24. 

6  Jones  on  the  Canon,  vol.  iii.  pp.  129 — 136.  Dr.  Benson's  Hist,  of  Ihe 
First  Planting  of  Chrislianily,  vol.  ii.  pp.  325 — 330.  2d  edit.  Dr.  Lardner's 
Works,  Index,  voce  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

■■  Lardner,  8x0.  vol.  ii.  pp.  162,  163. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  3G8.  Benson,  vol.  ii. 
p.  330. 

8  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  261, 262. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  452.  Benson,  vol.  ii.  p.  331. 

9  Benson,  vol.  ii.  pp.  321 — 324.  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  110 — 147. ;  4to 
vol.  iii.  pp.  206,  207. 

»o  Benson,  vol.  ii.  p.  332.  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  v.  pp.  133,  134. ;  4to.  vol.  a. 
p.  605. 


Sect.  VI.] 


ON  THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 


319 


rejected  tlie  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  not  from  historical  reasons, 
hut  hecause  they  militated  apaiiist  tlicir  opinions;  for  the 
(tuostics  (of  which  sect  the  Valcntiiiians  and  Marcionites 
were  a  hrancli)  affirmed  that  the  (Jod  of  the  Old  Testament 
was  dilTerent  from  the  Clod  of  tiie  New  'I'estament :  and  that 
another  ('hrist,  ditferent  from  our  Saviour,  wns  promised. 
The  Severians  and  Kiicratites  strenuously  insisted  ui)on  ah- 
stinence  from  certain  articles  of  food;  whereas,  in  the  hook 
of  Acts,  the  promiscuous  use  of  food  is  allowed.  Lastly, 
Manes  wished  himself  to  he  taken  f)r  "  the  ( Comforter,"  who 
had  h(!eri  promised  hy  Christ  to  his  aposth^s;  l)\it  in  the  Acts 
it  is  related  that  the  ('omforter  that  had  heeii  so  promised 
was  the  Holy  vSpirlt,  who  had  heen  sent.  The  reasons, 
therefore,  why  the  hook  was  rejected  hy  the  ahove-mentioned 
sects,  were  not  historical,  hut  doctrinal ;  hecause  the  narrative 
of  the  sacred  historian  contradicted  tlieir  dojrnr.is;  and  as 
their  errors  were  detected  and  refuted  hy  contemporary  wri- 
ters,' the  utniualilied  and  unsupported  assertions  of  these 
heretics  are  so  far  from  imj)u<rninir  the  veracity  and  fjenu- 
ineness  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  that  on  the  contrary, 
they  alTord  a  decisive  and  collateral  testimony  in  favour  of 
tlu^  hook. 

IV.  Saint  Luke  does  not  appear  to  have  intended  to  write 
a  complete  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  C^irisiian  church, 
during  the  first  thirty  years  afier  our  Saviour's  ascension,  nor 
even  of  Saint  Paul's  life  durintr  that  period;  for  he  has 
almost  wholly  omitted  what  passed  amontr  the  Jews  after  the 
conversion  ot  that  apostle,  and  is  totally  silent  concerninir  the 
spread  of  Christianity  in  the  East  and  in  Ef^ypt,  as  well  as 
the  foundation  of  the  church  of  Christ  at  Rome,  Saint  Paul's 
journey  into  Arahia,  and  many  other  topics,  thoug^h  the  la- 
bours and  snlferintrs  of  the  other  apostles  could  not  hut  have 
afforded  the  most  interesting  materials,  had  it  fallen  within 
his  design  to  have  composed  an  entire  history  of  the  church. 

If  we  carefully  examme  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  we  shall 
perceive  that  Saint  Luke  had  two  objects  in  view  : — 1.  To 
relate  in  what  manner  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  were  com- 
municated on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  the  subsequent  mira- 
cles performed  by  the  apostles,  by  which  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity was  confirmed.  An  authentic  account  of  this  matter 
was  absolutely  necessary,  because  Christ  had  often  assured  his 
disciples  that  they  should  receive  the  Holy  Spirit.  Unbe- 
lievers, therefore,  whether  Jews  or  Heathens,  might  iiave 
made  objections  to  our  religion  if  it  had  not  been  shown  that 
Christ's  declarations  were  really  fulfilled. — 2.  To  deliver 
such  accounts  as  proved  the  claim  of  the  Gentiles  to  admis- 
sion into  the  Church  of  Christ, — a  claim  disputed  by  the 
Jews,  especially  at  the  time  when  Saint  Luke  wrote  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles.  And  it  was  this  very  circumstance  which 
excited  the  hatred  of  the  Jews  against  Saint  Paul,  and  occa- 
sioned his  imprisonment  in  Rome,  with  which  Saint  Luke 
closes  his  history.  Hence  we  see  the  reason  why  he  relates 
(ch.  viii.)  the  conversion  of  the  Samaritans,  and  (ch.  x.  xi.) 
the  story  of  Cornelius,  whom  Saint  Peter  (to  whose  authority 
the  adversaries  of  Saint  Paul  had  appealed  in  favour  of  cir- 
cumcision'^) baptized,  ttiough  he  was  not  of  the  circumcision. 
Hence  also  Saint  Luke  relates  the  determination  of  the  first 
council  in  Jerusalem  relative  to  the  Levitical  law:  and  for  the 
same  reason  he  is  more  difl'use  in  his  account  of  Saint  Paul's 
conversion,  and  Saint  Paul's  preaching  the  (losjiel  to  the 
Gentiles,  than  on  any  other  subject.  It  is  true  that  the  whole 
relation,  which  Saint  Luke  has  given  (ch.  xii.),  has  no  con- 
nection with  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  :  but  during  the 
period  to  which  that  chapter  relates.  Saint  Paul  himself  was 
present  at  Jerusalem  (see  Acts  xi.  30.  xii.  25.),  and  it  is  pro- 
Dahle,  for  tliat  reason,  that  Saint  Luke  has  introduced  it. 
But  there  is,  3.  A  third  opinion  which  ISlichaelis  thinks  not 
devoid  of  probability,  viz.  that  Saint  Luke  might  design  to 
record  only  those  facts,  which  he  had  either  seen  himself  or 
had  heard  from  eye-witnesses.^ 

>  IrenaMis  advorsus  Hiereses,  lib.  iii.  c.  12.  Throdorct,  Ilisl.  Eccl.  lib. 
i.  c  21.     Augu.stine  epist.  iSl.  et  contra  Faiistuiii,  lib.  xix.  c.  31. 

«  .SoeGalar.  ii.  6—31. 

'  Micliaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  i.  pp  327—331.  Dr.  Benson,  however,  is  oT opi- 
nion that  Saint  Luke  designed  his  book  to  be  only  a  concise  specimen  o( 
Itie  doctrines  preached  by  the  apostles,  and  that  he  was  chietly  desirous 
of  il.'scribinjj;  tlie  manner  in  which  the  .lews,  proselytes  of  the  cale,  or 
devout  (Jennies,  and  the  idolatrous  Gentiles,  were  respectively  converted. 
Hence  this  learned  author  divides  the  book  into  three  parts  or  books,  viz. 
1.  TUc.  first  purt  contains  an  account  of  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel 
among  the  Jews  only,  from  a.  d.  33.  to  a.  d.  41.  including  chapter  ii.  to  x.  2. 
The  secottd  comprises  an  account  of  the  spreading  of  Christianity  among 
the  devout  Gentiles,  together  with  its  farther  progress  among  the  Jews,  a. 
D;41.tOA.  D  44.  (Acts  X.— xiii.)  3.  And  tlie  </iir(7  part  comprehends  the 
diffusion  of  Chrisiianity  among  the  idolatrous  Gentiles,  together  with  its 
further  progress  among  the  two  preceiling  classes  of  persons,  a.  d.  44.  to 
A.  D.  63.  (Acts  xiii.— xx\iii.)  Benson's  Hist,  of  the  First  Planting  of  Cliris- 
tiamiy,  vol.  i.  jip.  22—24. 


V.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Michaelis  observes,  were 
evidently  written  with  a  tolerably  strict  attention  to  chrono- 
logical order ;  though  Saint  Luke  has  not  affixed  a  date  to  any 
one  of  the  facts  recorded  hy  him.  There  are,  however,  seve- 
ral parts  of  this  book,  in  which  ecclesiastical  hi.-jtory  is  com- 
bined with  j)olitical  facts,  the  dates  of  which  are  known  : 
and  tiiise  .^lif•ha(•lis  has  endeavoured  to  determine,  because 
the  chronology  will  not  otily  contribute  to  illustrate  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  hut  also  will  assist  us  in  fixing  the  year  when 
many  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  were  written.  'I  aking  for 
granted,  therefore,  that  this  book  commences  with  the  year 
33,  of  the  Christian  a-ra  (in  which  calculation  he  follows 
Archbishop  Usher),  he  has  given  us  the  following  series 
of  dates  : — 

1.  "  The  Flvkt  p/)oc/t,  after  the  commencement  of  the  Iwok,  is 
at  ch.  xi.  29,  ."30.;  for  what  h;i|»[)oncd  lu'twccn  the  lirst  Pentecost 
after  Chri.st's  ascension  and  this  period  is  without  any  marks  of 
chronology.  l}ut  at  ch.  xi.  29,  30.  wc  have  a  date  ;  for  the 
faniine  which  took  idacc  in  the  time  of  Claudius  Ca:sar,  and 
which  induced  the  diHciplcs  at  Antioch  to  send  rdit-f  to  their 
brethren  in  Juda,-a,  happened  in  the  fourth  ^ear  uf  Claudiu.~>'s 
reign,  that  is,  in  the  year  44  of  the  Christian  aera. 

2.  "  Sfcoud  el>ocft.  Herod  Agrippa  dies  soon  after  he  had  put 
to  death  the  apo.stle  St.  James  ;  and  about  that  time  Saint  I'aul 
and  Saint  Barnabas  return  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch.  (ch.  xii. 
21 — 2.5.)     This  is  still  in  the  year  44. 

3.  "  'J'/iird  epnc/t.  (ch.  xviii.  2.)  Shortly  after  the  hani.'^hinoni 
of  the  Jews  froin  Italy  by  Claudius  Cajsar,  Saint  Paul  arrives  at 
Corinth.  Commentators  affix  the  date  of  .54  to  this  event ;  but 
it  is  uncertain,  for  Suetonius,  the  only  historian  who  has  noticed 
this  banishment  of  the  Jews,  mentions  it  without  date. 

4.  "  Fourlh  epoch.  Saint  Paul  comes  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  is 
imprisoned  by  the  Jews,  not  long  after  the  disturbances  which 
were  excited  by  the  Egyptian,  (ch.  xxi.  37 — 39.)  This  im- 
prisonment of  Saint  Paul  happened  in  the  year  60,  for  it  was 
two  years  before  Felix  quitted  his  government  of  Judsa.  (ch. 
xxiii.  26.  xxiv.  27.) 

5.  "  Fifth  epoch.  Two  years  after  the  commencement  of  Saint 
Paul's  imprisonment,  Festus  is  appointed  governer  of  Judasa, 
A.  n.  62.  (ch.  xxiv.  27.  xxv.  1.) 

"  From  this  period  the  chronology  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is 
clear.  Saint  Paul  is  sent  prisoner  to  Rome  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year  in  which  Festus  arrived  in  Judsea :  he  sulfers  ship- 
wreck, passes  the  winter  in  Malta,  and  arrives  in  Rome  in  the 
following  year,  that  is,  in  63.  (ch.  xxvi.  xxvii.  xxviii.) 

"  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  close  with  the  end  of  the  second 
year  of  Saint  Paul's  imprisonment  in  Rome  :  consequently  in  the 
year  65.  (ch.  xxviii.  30.)" 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  date  of  the  events  that  hap- 
pened between  the  epochs  33  and  31,  and  between  41  and  GO, 
especially  the  time  of  Saint  Paul's  conversion  and  of  the 
council  at  Jenisalem :  Archbishop  Usher  places  the  first  of 
these  transactions  A.  d.  35,  others  in  38.  But,  though  we 
cannot  attain  to  absolute  certainty,  a  probable  conjecture  may 
be  formed.  Thus,  Michaelis  remarks,  Saint  Stephen  hardly 
sutTered  martyrdom  before  Pilate  was  recalled  f^rom  the  go- 
vernment of  .1  udtea ;  because,  under  that  procurator,  the  Jews 
had  not  the  power  of  inflicting  capital  ptmishments.  Now, 
according  to  Usher,  the  year  in  which  Pilate  was  recalled, 
was  the  thirty-sixth  of  the  Christian  jera :  Saint  Stephen's  mar- 
tyrdom, therefore,  probably  happened  after  3(5. — If  this  he 
true,  Saint  Paul's  conversion  must  have  happened  likewise 
after  30,  and  therefore  35  is  too  early  a  date.  But  how  long 
after  36,  whether  in  38,  cannot  be  determined. 

In  what  manner  the  chapters  iii.  iv.  v.  vi.  are  to  be  ar- 
ranged bet\V(^en  33  and  3G,  Michaelis  cannot  determine :  for 
what  chronologers  have  said  is  mere  conjecture,  and  not  cal- 
culation. The  same  uncertainty  prevails  in  respect  to  ch. 
viii.  and  x. :  for  we  can  affirm  nothing  more,  than  that  the 
one  must  be  placed  before  the  other  after  36.  ^^  e  are  like- 
wise in  the  dark  with  respect  to  ch.  xiii.  xiv.  and  several 
other  chapters.  Of  ch.  xvi.  we  may  assert,  that  it  belonprs 
to  a  period  at  least  six  years  prior  to  the  fourth  epoch,  or  the 
year  60  :  for  a  year  and  a  half  at  Corinth,  three  years  at 
Ephesus,  and  the  time  spent  on  several  journeys,  can  hardly  be 
pressed  into  a  smaller  compass  than  that  of  six  years.  To  ch. 
xvi.,  therefore,  the  latest  date  which  can  be  assigned  is  54  :  and 
it  is  not  improbable  that  it  should  be  dated  still  earlier.'' 

«  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part.  i.  pp.  336— 33S.  The  chronology  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  is  iliscnssed  at  con.^iderable  length  in  Hug's  Introduction  to 
New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  312—334  ,  and  (so  far  as  concerns  the  travels  and 
writings  of  Saint  Paul)  by  the  reviewer  of  that  work  in  the  British  Critic 
for  April  1828,  pp.  261—317. 


320 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  Chap.  H 


VI.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  as  they  appear  in  our  co- 
pies, may  be  divided  into  three  principal  parts  ;  viz. 

Part  I.  cunta'ms  the  Rise  and  Frogress  of  the  Mother  Church 
at  Jerusalem  from  the  Time  (four  Saviour''s  Jlscension  to  the 
first  Jewish  FerseciUion,  (ch.  i. — viii.) 
Sect.  1.  The   transactions    before   and   after  Jesus    Christ's 

ascension  into  heaven,  (i.) 
Sect.  2.  The  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  apostles  at  the 

feast  of  Pentecost,  and  Peter's  discourse  to  the   people  in 

consequence  of  it.  (ii.) 
Sect.  3.    A  lame   man   healed  by  Peter   and   John — Peter's 

discourse  to  the  people — Events   that  befel  the  apostles   in 

consequence  of  that  miracle,  (iii.  iv.) 
Sect.  4.  The  death  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira — Miracles  of 

the  apostles, — who  are  scourged  and  dismissed,  (v.) 
Sect.  5.  The  institution  of  deacons — the  discourse  and  mar- 
tyrdom of  Stephen, — and  the  first  Jewish  persecution,    (vi. 

vii.  viii.  1 — 4.) 

Part  II.  comprises  the  Dispersion  of  the  Disciples — the  Pro- 
pagidion  of  Christianity  mnong  the  Samaritans — the  Con- 
version of  Saint  Paul,  and  the  Foundation  of  a  Christian 
Church  at  Jlntioch.  (viii.  5. — xii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  planting  of  the  church  at  Samaria,  (viii.  5 — 25.) 
Sect.  2.  The    conversion    of  the    Ethiopian    eunuch,    (viii. 

26 — 40.) 
Sect.  3.  The    conversion,    baptism,    and    first  preaching    of 

Saint  Paul,  (ix.) 
Sect.  4.  Account  of  two  miracles  performed    by  Peter,  and 

the  conversion  of  Cornelius  and  his  family.  ,(x.  xi.  1 — 18.) 
Sect.  5.  The    first   Gentile  church   founded  at  Antioch.  (xi. 

19—30.) 
Sect.  6.  The  apostle  James  put  to  death  by  Herod  Agrippa, — 

relation  of  his  miserable  death,  (xii.) 

PtRT  III.  describes  the  Conversion  of  the  more  remote  Gentiles, 

by  Barjiabas  and  Paul,  and,  after  their  Separation,  by  Paul 

and  his  Associates,  among  whom  was  Luke  himself  during 

the  latter  Part  of  FauPs  Labours,  (xii. — xxviii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  planting  of  several  churches  in  the  isle  of 
Cyprus,  at  Perga  in  Pamphylia,  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Ico- 
nium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe — The  return  of  Saint  Paul  to 
Antioch.  (xiii.  xiv.) 

Sect.  2.  Discussion  of  the  question  by  the  apostles  at  Jeru- 
salem concerning  the  necessity  of  circumcision,  and  of 
observing  the  law — Their  letter  to  the  churches  on  this 
subject.  XV.  1 — 35.)  . 

Sect.  3.  Paul's  second  departure  from  Antioch — He  preaches 
the  Gospel  in  various  countries,  particularly  at  Philippi  in 
Macedonia — the  conversion  of  the  Philippian  gaoler,  (xv. 
36—41.  xvi.) 

Sect.  4.  The  journeys  and  apostolical  labours  of  Paul  and 
his  associates  at  Thessalonica,  Berea,  and  Athens — His 
masterly  apology  before  the  court  of  the  Areopagites.  (xvii.) 

Sect.  5.  Paul's  journey  .to  Corinth,  and  thence  to  Antioch. 
(xviii.  1 — 22.) 

Sect.  6.  Paul's  third  departure  from  Antioch — Consequences 
of  his  preaching  at  Ephesus.  (xviii.  23 — 28.  xix.) 

Sect.  7.  The  labours  of  Paul  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
his  journey  towards  Jerusalem,  (xx.) 

Sect.  8.  The  persecution  of  Paul  at  Jerusalem — He  is  sent 
a  prisoner  to  Csesarea.  (xxi. — xxiii.  1 — 30.) 

Sect.  9.  Paul's  arrival  at  Caesarea — the  charges  of  the  Jews 
against  him — His  defence  before  Fehx — Appeal  to  Caesar — 
His  defence  before  Agrippa,  at  whose  request  his  cause  was 
reheard,  (xxiii.  31 — 35.  xxiv. — xxvi.) 

Sect.  10.  Narrative  of  Paul's  voyage  from  Csesarea — His 
shipwreck  on  the  isle  of  Malta — His  voyage  thence  to  Rome, 
where  he  preaches  the  Gospel  to  the  Jews,  and  resides  for 
two  years,  (xxvii.  xxviii.) 

In  perusing  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  it  will  be  desirable 
constantly  to  refer  to  the  accompanying  map  of  their  respect- 
ive journeys,  particularly  those  of  Saint  Paul.  In  con- 
structing this  map,  the  accurate  geographer  D'Anville  has 
principally  been  followed ;  the  courses  of  the  several  winds 
that  usually  blow  in  the'  Levant  or  Mediterranean  sea,  to- 
gether with  their  ancient  names,  are  inserted  from  Dr.  Shaw.' 

VII.  The  narrative  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is  per- 
spicuous and  noble.  Though  it  is  not  entirely  free  from 
Hebraisms,  it  is  in  general  much  purer  than  that  of  most 

»  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  ii.  p,  131.  3d  edit. 


Other  books  of  the  New  Testament,  particularly  in  the 
speeches  delivered  by  Saint  Paul  at  Atliens,  and  before  the 
Roman  governors.  It  is  further  worthy  of  remark,  that  Saint 
Luke  has  well  supported  the  character  of  each  person  whom 
he  has  introduced  as  speaking.  Thus  the  speeches  and  dis- 
courses of  St.  Peter  are  recorded  with  simplicity,  and  are 
destitute  of  all  those  ornaments  which  usually  occur  in  the 
orations  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Nearly  similar  are  the 
speeches  of  Saint  Paul,  which  were  addressed  to  the  Jews, 
while  those  delivered  by  the  same  apostle  before  a  heathen 
audience  are  widely  different.  Thus,  in  his  discourse  deli- 
vered at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,2  he  commences  witli  a  long  peri- 
phrasis, which  would  not  have  been  either  instructive'^or  en- 
tertaining in  any  other  place  than  a  Jewish  synagogue.  Ou 
the  contrary,  the  speech  of  the  martyr  Stephen  ("Acts  vii.)  is 
altogether  of  a  different  description.  It  is  a  learned  but 
unpremeditated  discourse, pronounced  by  a  person  totally  un- 
acquainted with  the  art  of  oratory ;  and  though  he  certainly 
had  a  particular  object  in  view,  tu  which  the  several  parts  of 
his  discourse  were  directed,  yet  it  is  difficult  to  discover  this 
object,  because  his  materials  are  not  regularly  disposed. 
Lastly,  Saint  Paul's  discourses  before  assemblies  tliat  were 
accustomed  to  Grecian  oratory,  are  totally  different  from  any 
of  the  preceding.  Though  not  adorned  with  the  flowers  of 
rhetoric,  the  language  is  pointed  and  energetic,  and  the  ma- 
terials are  judiciously  selected  and  arranged,  as  is  manifest 
in  his  speech  delivered  at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  22 — 31.),  and 
in  his  two  defences  of  himself  before  the  Roman  governors 
of  Judasa.  (xxiv.  xxvi.)  Dr.  Benson  and  Michaelis,  how- 
ever, are  both  of  opinion,  that  Saint  Luke  has  given  abstracts 
only,  and  not  the  whole,  of  Saint  Paul's  speeches ;  for  in  his 
speech  before  Felix,  he  must  certainly  have  said  more  than  is 
recorded  by  Saint  Luke  (xxiv.  12,  13.);  unless  we  suppose 
that  Saint  Paul  merely  denied  the  charge  which  had  been 
laid  against  him,  without  confuting  it.  Michaelis  adds,  that 
in  his  opinion  Saint  Luke  has  shown  great  judgment  in  these 
abstracts  :  and  that,  if  he  has  not  retained  the  very  words  of 
Saint  Paul,  he  has  adopted  such  as  were  well  suited  to  the 
polished  audiences  before  which  the  apostle  spoke.^ 

VIII.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  afford  abundant  evidence 
of  the  truth  and  divine  original  of  the  Christian  religion ; 
for  we  learn  from  this  book,  that  the  Gospel  was  not  indebted 
for  its  success  to  deceit  or  fraud,  but  that  it  was  wholly  the 
result  of  the  mighty  power  of  God,  and  of  the  excellence 
and  efficacy  of  the  saving  truths  which  it  contains.  The 
general  and  particular  doctrines,  comprised  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  are  perfectly  in  unison  with  the  glorious  truths  re- 
vealed in  the  Gospels,  and  illustrated  in  the  Apostolic  Epis- 
tles ;  and  are  admirably  suited  to  the  state  ot  the  persons, 
whether  Jews  or  Gentiles,  to  whom  they  were  addressed. 
And  the  evidence  which  the  apostles  gave  of  their  doctrines, 
in  their  appeals  to  prophecies  and  miracles,  and  the  various, 
gifts  of  the  Spirit,  were  so  numerous  and  so  strong,  and  at 
the  same  time  so  admirably  adapted  to  every  class  ofpersons, 
that  the  truth  of  the  religion  which  they  attest  cannot  be 
reasonably  disputed. 

Further,  the  history  itself  is  credible.  It  was  written  by  a 
person  who  was  acquainted  with  the  various  circumstances 
which  he  relates,  and  who  was  both  able  and  disposed  to 
give  a  faithful  narrative  of  every  thing  that  occurred.  Saint 
Luke  was  a  companion  of  the  apostles ;  he  was  himself  an 
eye  and  ear  witness  of  the  facts,  and  was  personally  con- 
cerned in  many  of  the  incidents  he  has  recorded.  In  the 
history  itself  there  are  no  inconsistencies  or  contradictions ; 
the  miraculous  facts  related  in  it  are  neither  impossible, 
when  we  consider  the  almighty  power  of  God  to  which  they 
are  ascribed ;  nor  improbable,  when  w'e  consider  the  grand 
design  and  occasion  on  account  of  which  they  were  perform- 
ed. The  plainness  and  simplicity  of  the  narrative  are  also 
strong  circumstances  in  its  favour.  The  writer  appears  to 
have  Deen  very  honest  and  impartial,  and  to  have  set  down 
fairly. the  objections  which  were  made  to  Christianity  both 
by  Jews  and  Heathens,  and  the  reflections  which  were  cast 
upon  it,  as  well  as  upon  its  fust  preachers.  He  has,  like- 
wise, with  a  just  and  ingenuous  freedom,  mentioned  the 
weaknesses,  faults,  and  prejudices,  both  of  the  apostles  and 
of  their  converts.  The  occasional  hints,  which  are  dispersed 
through  the  epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  harmonize  with  the  facts 
related  in  the  history  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ;  so  that 
this  history  is  the  best  guide  we  can  have  in  studying  the 
epistles.     The   other  parts  of  the  New  Testament  are  in 

»  Acts  xiii.  16-^1.     ,  , 

3  Micliaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  i.  pp.  331—335.  Benson's  History  of  the  First 
Planting  of  Cliristianity,  vol.  ii.  p.  258. 


ub- 
To 
:ter 


practised,  or  m  me  greatest  periecuuii.     i  ju.o  .•>>,  .v.^^  >..  ...^  - 

eliiqiii'iice,  and  of  the  florid  Asiatic  ;  and  Tarsus  also  save  name  to  its  pe-  I  surli  as  miylit  rather  have  been  expeciea  irom  a  soiurc,  ......  ... 

ciuiar  moue,  Which,   however,  is  least  known,  because,  from  the  very     who  lived  in  quiet  times,  and  was  a  preacher  of  the  gospel  of  peace, 
nature  of  it   its  productions  were  not  likely  to  remain     The  Taisic  eld-    ells  Discourses,  p.  2M. 
\  OL.  11.  2  S  ' 


iUS, 

ible 

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ap- 

of 

on ; 

rof 

me- 

liis 

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\^ 
Jght 

3   of 

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250.) 

trities 

ise  of 

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hat  he 
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Pow- 


!•] 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL. 


321 


perfect  unison  with  the  history,  and  tend  to  confirm  it ;  for  the 
doctrines  and  principles  are  every  where  the  same.  The 
Gospels  close  with  references  to  the  facts  nicorded  in  the 
Acts,  particularly  the  promise  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  we 
know  from  the  Acts  was  poured  out  by  (."lirisl  upon  his  dis- 
ciples after  his  ascension;  and  liie  Kjiistles,  irenerally, 
plainly  suppose  that  those  facts  had  actually  occurred,  which 
the  liistory  relates.  So  that  the  history  of  the  Acts  is  one 
of  the  most  important  parts  of  sacred  history ;  for,  without 
it,  neither  the  Gospels  nor  the  Kpistles  could  have  been  so 
clearly  understood  ;  hut  by  the  aul  of  this  book  the  whole 
scheme  of  the  Christian  revelation  is  set  before  us  in  a  clear 
and  easy  view.'  Lastly,  the  incidental  circumstances,  men- 
tioned by  Saint  Luke,  correspond  so  exactly,  and  wiliiout 
any  previous  view  to  such  a  correspondence  (in  cases,  too, 
wh^e  it  could  not  possibly  have  been  premeditated  and  pre- 
contrived)  with  the  accounts  that  occur  in  the  Kpistles,  and 
with  those  of  the  best  ancient  historians,  both  .lews  and 
Heathens,  that  no  person  who  had  J'onrrd  such  a  history,  in 
later  ages,  could  have  had  the  same  external  confirmation  ; 
but  he  must  have  betrayed  himself,  by  alluding  to  some  cus- 
toms or  opinions  which  have  since  sprung  up,  or  by  misre- 


presenting some  circumstances,  or  using-  some  phrase  or  ex- 
pression not  then  in  use.  'J'lie  plea  of  forgery,  therefore,  in 
later  ages,  cannot  be  allowed;  and  if  Saint  Luke  had  pub- 
lished such  a  history  at  so  early  a  period,  when  some  of  the 
apostles,  or  many  other  persons  concerned  in  the  transactions 
which  he  has  recorded,  were  alive,  and  his  account  had  not 
been  true,  he  would  only  have  exposed  himself  to  an  easy 
confutation,  and  to  certain  infamy. 

Since,  therefore,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  in  them- 
selves consistent  and  uniform;  the  incidental  relations  agree- 
able to  the  best  ancient  historians  that  have  come  down  to  us  ; 
and  the  main  facts  supported  and  confirmed  by  the  other 
books  of  the  i\ew  Testament,  as  well  as  by  the  unanimous 
testimony  of  so  many  of  the  ancient  fathers,  we  are  justly- 
authorized  to  conclude,  that,  if  any  history  of  former  times 
deserves  credit,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ought  to  be  received 
and  credited  ;  and  if  the  history  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
is  true,  Christianity  cannot  be  false;  for  a  doctrine  so  good 
in  itself,  so  admirably  adapted  to  the  fallen  state  of  man, 
and  attended  with  so  many  miraculous  and  divine  testimo- 
nies, has  all  the  possible  marks  of  a  true  revelation.^ 


CHAPTER  III. 

ON    THE    EPISTOLARY    OR     DOCTRINAL    WRITINGS    OF    THE     NEW    TESTAMENT,    PARTICULARLY 

THOSE    OF    SAINT    PAUL. 

SECTION  L 


ACCOUNT   OF   THE    APOSTLE    PAUL. 


L  The  Birth  and  Education  of  Paul. — Jfis  Persecution  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  and  his  Conversion. —  Observations  upon 
it. — II.  His  subsequent  Travels  and  Labours,  to  his  second  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — III.  ffis  third  Visit  to  Jerusalem,  and  sub- 
sequent jMbours,  to  his  fourth  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — IV.  His  Journeys  and  Labours,  to  his  fifth  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — V.  To 
his  first  Imprisonment  at  Home. — VI.  His  subsequent  Journeys,  second  Imprisonment,  and  JMartyrdom. — VII.  Character 
of  Paul. — V^III.   Observations  on  the  Style  of  his  Writings. 


I.  Saul,  also  called  Paul  (by  which  name  this  illustri- 
ous apostle  was  generally  known  after  his  preaching  among 
the  Gentiles,  especially  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans),  was 
a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,  a  descendant  of  the  patriarch 
Abraham,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,^  and  a  native  oi  Tarsus, 
then  the  chief  city  of  Cilicia.  13y  birth  he  was  a  citizen 
of  Konie,'  a  distinguished  honour  and  privilege,  which  had 
been  conferred  on  some  of  his  ancestors  for  services  rendered 
to  the  commonwealth  during  the  wars.^  His  father  was  a 
Pharisee,  and  he  himself  was  educated  in  the  most  rigid 
^principles  of  that  sect."  His  sister's  son  and  some  others 
of  his  relations  were  Christians,  and  had  embraced  the  Gos- 
pel before  his  conversion.'  That  he  was  early  educated  in 
Greek  literature  at  Tarsus,  may  be  inferred  from  that  place 
being  celebrated  for  polite  learnings  and  eloquence,^  and  also 

•  The  subject  of  these  coincidences  has  already  been  noticed  in  Vol.  I. 
P)).  19 — 51.  supra.  Dr.  Paley's  Horae  Paulina<  amplifies  the  araument 
aliovc  suggested,  and  13  indispensably  necessary  to  a  critical  study  of  the 
Epistles. 

»  Ur.  Benson's  Hist  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii.  pp.  333—311. 

»  Phil.  iii.  5.  2  Cor.  xi.  22.  Acts  xvj.  37,  3S. 

«  Acts  xxii.  25.  29.  x.xiii.  27. 

s  Ur.  Lardner  has  shown  that  this  is  the  most  probable  opinion.  Works, 
8vo.  vol.  i.  pp.  227—229.;  4lo.  vol.  i.  pp.  12-1,  1-25.  Such  also  is  the  opinion 
of  John  Arntzenius,  who  ha-s  written  an  elegant  dissertation  on  Saint  Paul's 
citizenship.  (See  his  Dissertaliones  Hinse,  p.  195.  I'treclit,  1725.)  It  is  not 
a»  improbable  conjecture  that  the  cloak  and  parchments,  which  St.  Paul 
chargi'd  Timothy  to  bring  to  him  (2  Tim.  iv.  13.),  were  the  Roman  toga  and 
the  cerliticates  of  his  citizenship,  which  might  be  of  service  lo  him  in  his 
approaching  trial  before  the  emperor.  ShutUewortli's  Paraphrastic  Trans- 
lation of  the  Apostolical  Epistles,  p.  309. 

•  Acts  xxiii.  6.  x.\vi.  5.  Phil.  iii.  5. 

'  Acts  xxiii.  16—22.  Rom.  xvi.  7.  U.  21. 

•  Strabo  the  geographer,  who  lived  in  the  same  age  as  St.  Paul,  charac- 
terizes the  inhabitants  of  Tarsus,  as  cherishing  such  a  passion  for  pliiloso- 
phy  and  all  the  branches  of  polite  literature,  that  they  greatly  excelled 
even  Athens  and  Alexandria,  and  every  other  place  where  there  were 
schools  and  academies  for  philosophy  and  literature.  lie  adds,  that  the 
natives  of  Tarsus  were  in  the  practice  of  going  abroad  to  other  cities  to 
perfect  themselves.  (Lib.  xiv.  vol.  ii.  pp.  9tJ0,  901.  edit.  O.xon.)  This  cir- 
cumstance accounts  for  Saint  Paul's  going  to  Jerusalem,  to  finish  his  stu- 
dies undes  Gamaliel. 

»  In  every  ancient  seat  of  learning  eloquence  held  a  principal  rank ;  and 
each  species  of  it  was  denominated  from  the  place  where  it  was  most 
practised,  or  in  the  greatest  perfection.  Thus  we  read  of  the  chaste  Attic 
eloquence,  and  of  the  florid  Asiatic  ;  and  Tarsus  also  gave  name  to  its  pe- 
culiar mode,  which,  however,  is  least  known,  because,  from  the  very 
nature  of  it,  its  productions  were  not  likely  to  remain.    The  Taisic  elo- 

\  OL.  n.  2  s 


from  his  quotations  of  several  Greek  poets. 'o  From  Tarsus, 
Saul  removed  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  made  considerable 
proficiency  in  the  study  of  the  law,  and  the  .Jewish  traditions, 
under  Gamaliel,  a  celebrated  teacher  of  that  day."  He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  person  of  great  natural  abilities,  of 
quick  apprehension,  strong  passions,  and  firm  resolution; 
and  was  thus  qualified  for  signal  service,  as  a  teacher  of 
whatever  principles  he  might  embrace.  He  was  also  blame- 
less in  his  life,  and  strictly  faithful  to  the  dictates  of  his 
conscience,  according  to  the  knowledge  which  he  possessed  : 
this  is  evident  from  his  appeals  to  tlie  .lews,  ana  from  the 
undissembled  satisfaction  he  expresses  on  a  serious  compari- 
son and  recollection  of  his  former  and  later  conduct.  (Acts 
xxiii.  1.  xxvi.  4,5.  Phil.  iii.  6.  1  Tim.  i.  13.  2Tim.  i.  3.) 
His  parents  completed  his  education  by  having  him  taught 
the  art  of  tent-making,'^  in  conformity  with  the  practice  of 
the  Jews,  with  whom  it  was  customary  to  teach  youth  of 
the  highest  birth  some  mechanical  employment,  by  which,  in 
cases  of  necessity,  they  might  maintain  themselves  without 
being  burthensome  to  others:  and  his  occupation  appears 
subsequently  to  have  had  some  influence  upon  his  style.'-' 
For  some  time  after  the  appearance  of  Christianity  in  the 
world,  he  was  a  bitter  enemy  and  a  furious  opposer  of  all 
who  professed  that  faith ;  and  when  the  protoraartyr  Stephen 

quence  was  employed  in  sudden  and  unpremeditated  harangues  ;  and  Saint 
Paul,  long  accustomed  to  compositions  of  this  sort,  transferred  the  style 
and  manner  from  speaking  to  writing.  (Dr.  Powell's  Discourses,  p.  250.) 
This  circumstance  will  account  for  the  abruptness  and  other  peculiarities 
in  the  apostle's  letters  which  are  more  fully  considered  in  the  close  of 
this  section. 

«o  Thus,  in  Acts  xvii.  28.  he  cites  a  verse  from  Aratus  ;  in  1  Cnr.  xv.  33. 
he  quotes  another  from  Mcnander;  and  in  Tit.  i.  1-2.  a  verse  from  Epi- 
menides.     See  an  illustration  of  this  last  passage,  supra,  Vol.  I.  p.  81. 

"  Acts  xxii.  3.  xxvi.  5.  Oal.  i.  14.  , 

•'  Michaelis  makes  St.  Paul  to  have  been  a  maker  of  mechanical  instru- 
ments (vol.  iv.  pp.  183— 19C.) ;  but  all  connni'malors  are  of  opinion  that  he 
was  a  manufacturer  of  tents,  for  which,  in  the  East,  there  was  always  a 
considerable  demand. 

»'  To  a  man  employed  in  making  tents,  the  idea*  of  camps,  arms,  armour, 
warfare,  military  pay,  would  be  familiar;  and  St.  Paul  introduces  these 
and  their  concomitants  so  frequently,  that  his  language  seems  10  have  been 
such  as  might  rather  have  been  expected  from  a  soldier,  than  from  one 
who  lived  in  quiet  times,  and  was  a  preacher  of  the  gospel  of  peace.  Pow- 
ell's  Discourses,  p.  254. 


323 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Pabt  VI.CHAP.Iir. 


was  stoned,  Saul  was  not  only  consenting  to  his  death,  but 
actually  took  care  of  the  clothes  of  the  witnesses  who  had 
stoned  him. 

A.  D.  34.  After  this  event,  Saul  took  an  active  part  in  the 
persecution  of  the  Christians,  not  only  at  Jerusalem,  but  also 
throughout  Judaea  (Acts  viii.  3,  xxii.  4.  xxvi.  10,  11.)  ;  and 
procured  letters  of  commission  from  the  high-priest  and 
elders,  or  sanhedrin,  to  the  synagogue  of  the  Jews  at  Da- 
mascus, empowering  him  to  brinw  to  Jerusalem  any  Chris- 
tians, whether  men  or  women,  whom  he  might  find  there. 
He  also  obtained  letters  to  the  governor  of  Damascus,  we 
may  presume,  to  permit  them  to  be  removed  from  his  juris- 
diction. (Acts  ix.  2.  xxii.  5.  xxvi.  12.^  While  Saul  was 
on  his  journey  thither  for  this  purpose,  his  miraculous  con- 
version took  place,  a.  d.  35,  in  the  manner  recorded  in  the 
ninth  chapter  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  to  which 
Saint  Paul  himself  has  numerous  references  in  his  Epistles.' 
The  conversion  of  such  a  man,  at  such  n  time  and  by  such 
means,  furnishes  one  of  the  most  complete  proofs  that  have 
ever  been  given  of  the  divine  origin  of  Christianity.  That  Saul, 
who  possessed  such  distinguished  talents  and  acquirements, 
from  bein<T  a  zealous  persecutor  of  the  disciples  of  Christ, 
became  all  at  once  a  disciple  himself,  is  a  fact,  which  cannot 
be  controverted  without  overturning  the  credit  of  all  history. 
He  must,  therefore,  have  been  converted  in  the  miraculous 
manner  in  which  he  himself  declares  that  he  was  converted, 
and  of  course  the  Christian  revelation  must  be  from  God;  or 
he  must  have  been  either  an  impostor,  an  enthusiast,  or  a 
dupe  to  the  fraud  of  others.  There  is  no  other  alternative 
possible. 

1.  If  he  was  an  impostor,  he  must  have  declared  what  he 
knew  to  be  false,  and  he  must  have  been  influenced  to  such  a 
conduct  by  some  motive  or  other.  But  the  only  conceivable 
motives  for  religious  imposture  are  the  hopes  of  advancinCT 
one's  temporal  mterest,  credit,  or  power ;  or  the  prospect  of 
gratifying  some  passion  or  appetite  under  the  authority  of  the 
new  religion.  Now,  that  none  of  these  motives  could  influence 
Saint  Paul  to  profess  the  faith  of  Christ  crucified,  is  manifest 
from  the  state  of  Judaism  and  Christianity,  at  the  period 
when  he  renounced  the  former,  and  embraced  the  latter  faith. 
Those  whom  he  left  were  the  disposers  of  wealth,  of  dignity, 
and  of  power,  in  Judsea ;  those  to  whom  he  went  were  indi- 
gent men,  oppressed,  and  kept  from  all  means  of  improving 
their  fortunes.  The  certain  consequence,  therefore,  of  his 
taking  the  part  of  Christianity  was  the  loss  not  only  of  all 
that  he  possessed,  but  of  all  hopes  of  acquiring  more  : 
whereas,  by  continuing  to  persecute  the  Christians,  he  had 
hopes,  rising  almost  to  a  certainty,  of  making  his  fortune  by 
the  favour  of  those  who  were  at  the  head  of  the  Jewish  state, 
to  whom  nothing  could  so  much  recommend  him  as  the  zeal 
which  he  had  shown  in  that  persecution.  As  to  credit,  or 
reputation,  could  the  scholar  of  Gamaliel  hope  to  gain 
either  by  becoming  a  teacher  in  a  college  of  fishermen ! 
Could  he  flatter  himself  that  the  doctrines  which  he  taught 
would,  cither  in  or  out  of  Judaea,  do  him  honour,  when  he 
knew  that  "  they  were  to  the  Jews  a  stumbling-block,  and  to 
the  Greeks  foolishness!"  Was  it  then  the  love  of  power 
that  induced  him  to  make  this  great  change  ■?  Power !  over 
whom  1  Over  a  flock  of  sheep  whom  he  himself  had  assisted 
to  destroy,  and  whose  very  Shepherd  had  lately  been  mur- 
dered !  Perhaps  it  was  with  tne  viewof  gratifying  some 
licentious  passion,  under  the  authority  of  the  new  religion, 
that  he  commenced  a  teacher  of  that  religion  !  This  cannot 
be  alleged  ;  for  his  writings  breathe  nothing  but  the  strictest 
morality,  obedience  to  magistrates,  order,  and  government, 
with  the  utmost  abhorrence  of  all  licentiousness,  idleness,  or 
loose  behaviour,  under  the  cloak  of  religion.  We  nowhere 
find  in  his  works,  that  saints  are  above  moral  ordinances  ; 
that  dominion  is  founded  in  grace ;  that  monarchy  is  despot- 
ism which  ought  to  be  abolished  ;  that  the  fortunes  of  the  rich 
ought  to  be  divided  among  the  poor ;  that  there  is  no  differ- 
ence in  moral  actions  ;  that  any  impulses  of  the  mind  are  to 
direct  us  against  the  light  of  our  reason,  and  the  laws  of  na- 
ture ;  or  any  of  those  wicked  tenets  by  which  the  peace  of 
society  has  been  often  disturbed,  and  the  rules  of  morality 
often  broken,  by  men  pretending  to  act  under  the  sanction  of 
divine  revelation.  He  makes  no  distinctions,  like  the  impos- 
tor of  Arabia,  in  favour  of  himself :  nor  does  any  part  of  his 
life,  either  before  or  after  his  conversion  to  Christianity,  bear 

>  See  particularly  1  Cor.  xv.  9.  Gal.  i.  13.  1  Tim.  i.  12,  13.  Various  opi- 
nions have  been  entertained  by  learned  men  respecting  the  date  of  St. 
Paul's  conversion.  The  date  assigned  in  the  text  is  that  adopted  by  Bp. 
Pearson.  Ur.  Lardner  fi.vcs  that  event  to  the  end  of  36,  or  early  in  37. 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  23G— 239. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  252,  253. 


any  mark  of  a  libertine  disposition.  As  among  the  Jews,  so 
among  the  Christians,  his  conversation  and  manners  were 
blameless. — It  has  been  sometimes  objected  to  the  other  apos- 
tles, by  those  who  were  resolved  not  to  credit  their  testimony, 
that  having  been  deeply  engaged  with  Jesus  during  his  life, 
they  were  obliged,  for  the  s\ipport  of  their  own  credit,  and 
from  having  gone  too  far  to  return,  to  continue  the  same  pro- 
fi^ssions  after  his  death  ;  but  this  can  by  no  means  be  said  of 
Saint  Paul.  On  the  contrary,  whatever  force  there  may  be 
in  such  a  mode  of  reasoning,  it  all  tends  to  convince  us,  that 
Saint  Paul  must  7iahira/lt/  have  continued  a  Jew,  and  an 
eneiny  to  Christ  Jesus.  If  they  were  engaged  on  one  sid*'", 
he  was  as  strongly  engaged  on  the  other.  It  shame  withheld 
/hem  from  changing  sides,  much  more  ought  it  to  have 
stopped  him,-  who,  from  his  superior  education,  must  have 
been  vastly  more  sensible  to  that  kind  of  shame,  than^he 
mean  and  illiterate  fishermen  of  Galilee.  The  only  other 
difference  was,  that  they,  by  quitting  their  master  after  his 
death,  might  have  preserved  themselves ;  whereas  he,  by 
quitting  the  Jews,  and  taking  up  the  cross  of  Christ,  cer- 
tainly brought  on  his  own  destruction. 

2.  As  St.  Paul  was  not  an  impostor,  so  it  is  manifest  that 
he  was  not  an  enthusiast.  Heat  of  temper,  melancholy, 
ignorance,  and  vanity,  are  the  ingredients  of  which  enthu- 
siasm is  composed  ;  but  from  all  these,  except  the  first,  the 
apostle  appears  to  have  been  wholly  free.  That  he  had 
great  fervour  of  zeal,  both  when  a  Jew  and  when  a  Christian, 
in  maintaining  what  he  thought  to  be  right,  cannot  be  denied  ; 
but  he  was  at  all  times  so  much  master  of  his  temper, 
as,  in  matters  of  indifterence,  to  "  become  all  things  to  all. 
men,"  with  the  most  pliant  condescension,  bending  his  no- 
tions and  manners  to  theirs,  as  far  as  his  duty  to  God  would 
permit ;  a  conduct  compatible  neither  with  the  stiffness  of  a 
bigot,  nor  with  the  violent  impulses  of  fanatical  delusion. 
That  he  was  not  melancholy,  is  evident  from  his  conduct  in 
embracing  every  method  which  prudence  could  suggest  to 
escape  danger  and  shun  persecution  ;  when  he  could  do  it 
without  betraying  the  duty  of  his  office  or  the  honour  of  his 
God.  A  melancholy  enthusiast  courts  persecution ;  and 
when  he  cannot  obtain  it,  afflicts  himself  with  absurd  pen- 
ances ;  but  the  holiness  of  Saint  Paul  consisted  only  in  the 
simplicity  of  a  godly  life,  and  in  the  unwearied  performance 
of  his  apostolical  duties.  That  he  was  ignorant,  no  man 
will  allege  who  is  not  grossly  ignorant  himself;  for  he  ap- 
pears to  have  been  master  not  only  of  the  Jewish  learning,  but 
also  of  the  Greek  philosophy,  and  to  have  been  very  conversant 
even  with  the  Greek  poets.  That  he  was  not  credulous,  is 
clear  from  his  having  resisted  the  evidence  of  all  the  mira- 
cles performed  on  earth  by  Christ,  as  well  as  those  that  were 
afterwards  wrought  by  the  apostles ;  to  the  fame  of  which, 
as  he  lived  at  Jerusalem,  he  could  not  possibly  have  been  a 
stranger.  And  that  he  was  as  free  from  vanity  as  any  man 
that  ever  lived,  may  be  gathered  from  all  that  we  see  in  his 
writings,  or  know  of  his  life.  He  represents  himself  as  the 
least  of  the  apostles,  and  not  meet  to  be  called  an  apostle. 
He  says  that  he  is  the  chief  of  sinners ;  and  he  prefers,  in  the 
strongest  terms,  universal  benevolence  to  faith,  prophecy, 
miracles,  and  all  the  gifts  and  graces  with  which  he  could 
be  endowed.  Is  this  tlie  language  of  vanity  or  enthusiasm  1 
Did  ever  fanatic  prefer  virtue  to  his  own  religious  opinions, 
to  illuminations  of  the  spirit,  and  even  to  the  merit  of  mar- 
tyrdom ]  It  is  therefore  in  vain  for  the  enemies  of  Christi- 
anity to  attempt  to  resolve  this  miraculous  conversion  of 
Saint  Paul  into  the  effects  of  enthusiasm.  The  power  of 
imagination  in  enthusiastical  minds  is,  unquestionably,  very 
strong ;  but  it  always  acts  in  conformity  to  the  opinions  im- 
printed upon  it  at  the  time  of  its  working,  and  can  no  more 
act  against  them  than  a  rapid  river  can  carry  a  vessel  against 
the  current  of  its  own  stream.  Now,  nothing  can  be  more  cer- 
tain than  that,  when  Saul  departed  from  Jerusalem  for  Damas- 
cus, armed  with  authority  from  the  chief  priests  to  bring  the 
Christiaas,  who  were  there,  bound  to  Jerusalem,  whether  they 
were  men  or  women  (Acts  ix.  2.),  an  authority  solicited  by 
himself  and  granted  to  him  at  his  own  express  desire, — his 
mind  was  most  strongly  possessed  with  an  opinion  against 
Christ  and  his  followers.  To  give  those  opinions  a  more 
active  force,  his  passions  at  that  time  concurred,  being  in- 
flamed in  the  highest  degree  by  the  irritating  consciousness 
of  his  past  conduct  towards  them,  the  pride  of  supporting  a 
part  in  which  he  had  voluntary  engaged,  and  the  credit 
which  he  found  it  procured  him  amon^  the  chief  priests  and 
rulers,  whose  commission  he  bore.  If,  in  such  a  state  and. 
temper  of  mind,  an  euthusiastical  man  had  imagined  that  he 


I-] 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL. 


323 


saw  a  vision  from  heaven,  dcnouncinnr  the  anprer  of  God 
■a<r;nnst  the  ('hristians,  and  corniiiandiiijr  him  to  persecute 
ihcm  withontariy  mercy,  itmitfhtbe  accounted  tor  by  llie  natu- 
ral power  of  enthusiasm.  Buttiiat,  in  tiie  very  instant  of  his 
l)ciii<r  en^aired  in  tlie  fiercest  and  hottest  persecution  atraiiist 
lh(!in, — no  circ\imstance  haviiifj  occurred  to  change  liis  opi- 
nions or  alter  the  bent  of  his  disposition, — h<^  should  at  once 
imaffiiie  himself  called  by  a  heavenly  vision  to  b(>  the  a])ostle 
of  Christ,  whom,  but  a  nionicnt  before,  hi>  di'emcd  an  imjios- 
tor  and  a  blas|)bemer,  that  had  been  justly  nut  to  de-.'.th  upon 
the  cross ; — this  is  in  itself  wholly  incredible,  and  so  far 
from  beintr  a  ])robable  eHect  of  enthusiasm,  that  just  a  con- 
trary ertect  must  have  been  naturally  produced  by  that  cause. 
J}ut,  still  further  to  show  that  this  vision  could  not  be  a  phan- 
tom of  Saint  Paul's  own  crealinjx,  let  it  be  observed,  that  he 
was  not  alone  when  he  saw  it ;  there  were  many  others  in 
company,  whose  minds  were  no  betti^r  disposed  than  his  to 
the  (Mir^istian  faith.  Could  it  be  possible,  that  the  nunds  of 
all  these  men  should  be  so  strantjely  affected,  as  to  make  them 
believe  vhat  they  saw  a  ^rcat  lii;/il  shiniiiir  dljout  them,  above 
the  briirhtness  of  the  sun  at  nn<m-</o)/,  and  heard  the  sound  of 
a  voice  from  heaven,  thouirh  not  the  words  which.it  spake 
(Acts  xxi.  (!.  'J.\  when  in  reality  they  neither  saw  norlieard 
any  such  thinir  f  Could  they  be  so  infatuated  with  the  con- 
ceit of  their  own  fancies,  as  to  fall  down  from  their  horses, 
tofjether  with  Saul  (Acts  xxvi.  11.),  and  be  speechless 
throuirh  fear,  when  nolhin^  extraordinary  had  happened 
either  to  him  or  to  them  ;  especially  considerino;  that  this  appa- 
rition did  not  appear  in  the  niijht,  when  the  senses  are  more 
easily  imposed  upon,  but  at  mid-day  ?  If  a  sudden  frenzy 
had  seized  upon  Paul,  from  any  distemper  of  body  or  mind, 
can  we  suppose  his  whole  company, — men  of  different  con- 
stitutions and  understandings, — to  have  been  at  once  affected 
in  the  same  manner  with  him,  so  that  not  the  distemper  alone, 
but  also  the  effects  of  it,  would  exactly  agree  1  If  all  had 
gone  mad  together,  would  not  the  frenzy  of  some  have  taken 
a  different  turn,  and  presented  to  them  different  objects'? 
This  supposition  is  so  contrary  to  nature  and  all  possibility, 
that  unbelief  must  find  some  other  sohxtion,  or  give  up  the 
point. 

.*}.  Having  shown  that  Saint  Paul  was  neither  an  impostor 
nor  an  enthusiast,  it  remains  only  that  we  inquire  whether  he 
was  deceived  by  the  fraud  of  others  ]  This  inquiry,  indeed, 
may  be  despatched  in  a  very  few  words.  For  who  was  or 
were  to  deceive  him  ?  A  few  illiterate  fishermen  of  Galilee. 
It  was  mnraUij  impossible  for  such  men  to  conceive  the 
thou<rht  of  turning  the  most  enlightened  of  their  opponents, 
and  the  most  cruel  of  their  persecutors,  into  an  apostle,  and 
to  do  this  by  fraud  in  the  very  instant  of  his  greatest  fury 
against  them  and  their  Lord.  But  could  they  have  been  so 
extravagant  as  to  conceive  such  a  thought,  it  y/d^s  physically 
impossicde  for  them  to  execute  it  in  the  manner  in  which  we 
find  his  conversion  to  have  been  effected.  Could  they  pro- 
duce a  light  in  the  air,  which  at  mid-day  was  brighter  than 
the  sun  ]  Could  they  make  Saul  hear  words  from  out  of 
that  light,  which  were  not  heard  by  the  rest  of  the  company  1 
('ould  they  make  him  blind  for  three  days  after  that  vision, 
and  then  make  scales  fall  off  from  his  eyes,  and  restore  him 
to  sight  by  a  word  ]  Or  could  they  make  him  and  those  who 
travelled  with  him  believe,  that  all  these  things  had  happen- 
ed, if  they  had  not  happened  ]  Most  unquestionably  no  fraud 
was  equal  to  all  this. 

Since,  then,  Saint  Paul  was  neither  an  impostor  nor  an 
enthusiast,  nor  deceived  by  the  fraud  of  others,  it  follows 
that  his  conversion  was  miraculous,  and  that  the  Christian 
religion  is  a  divine  revelation.' 

II.  Shortly  after  his  baptism,  and  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  upon  him,  Saul  went  into  Arabia  (Gal.  i.  17.)  ;  and 
during  his  residence  in  that  country  he  was  fully  instructed, 
as  we  may  reasonably  think,  by  special  revelation,  and  by 
diligent  study  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  the  doctrines  and 
duties  of  the  Gospel.    Three  years  after  his  conversion  he 

'  See  Lord  Lyttleton's  Observations  on  the  Conversion  of  Saint  Paul 
(from  whicli  the  above  remarks  are  abridged) ; — a  treatise  to  which  it  has 
been  truly  said,  "infidelity  has  never  been  able  to  fabricate  a  specious 
answer."  "  Lord  L.  had,"  says  his  biographer,  "  in  the  pride  of  juvenile 
confidence,  with  the  help  of  corrupt  conversation,  entertained  doubts  of 
the  truth  of  Cliristianity  :  but  he  now"  (in  his  niaturer  years)  "thought 
the  time  come,  when  it  was  no  longer  fit  to  doubt  or  believe  by  chance, 
and  apniied  himself  seriously  to  the  great  question.  His  studies,  sErNO 
HONEsr,  eyided  in  conviction.  He  found  that  religion  was  true."  (Dr. 
Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets,  vol.  iii.  p.  3S3.)  Dr.  Graves  has  some  excel- 
lent observations  on  the  conduct  and  writings  of  Saint  Paul,  in  his  Essay 
on  the  Character  of  the  Apostles  and  Evangelists,  pp.  ll.>— lai.  1S4— 218., 
which  show  that  he  was  in  no  respect  influenced  or  directed  by  a  spirit  of 
enthusiasm. 


returned  to  Damascus,  a.  d.  38.  (Gal.  i.  18.),  and  boldly 
preached  the  Gospel  to  the  .lews,  who,  rejecting  his  testi- 
mony, as  an  apostate,  conspired  to  kill  him ;  but,  the  plot 
being  commnmcated  to  Saul,  he  escaped  from  Damascus 
privately  by  night,  and  went  up  to  Jerusahm  for  the  first 
time  since  his  conversion. '^  After  some  hesitation  on  the 
part  of  the  (Christians  in  that  city,  he  was  acknowledged  to 
l)(!  a  disciple:  he  remained  at  .lerusalem  only  fiflcendays, 
(liirintr  which  his  boldness  in  preaching  the  G(  s])el  so  irritat<i(i 
till-  Hellenistic  Jews,  that  they  conspired  against  him;  which 
ii'hiii  the  brethren  Imew,  they  brtnighl  liiiii  drnv?!  to  i'lnareu- 
Philippi,  and  sent  hiinfirrth  to  Tarsus.  (Acts  ix.  28 — 30.) 

A.  D.  39.  While  Saul  was  in  ('ilicia,  he  had  those  divine 
visions  and  revelations  of  which  he  speaks  in  2  (Jor.  xii. ; 
on  which  occasion  there  was  ^iven  hirii  a  tlinm  in  the  Jlesk 
(sup|)osed  to  have  been  some  paralytic  affection  of  the  coun- 
ttmance  and  voice),  lest  he  sliould  have  liven  cxulitd  above 
measure,  throui^li  ttte  abundance  of  the  rerelition.s. 

In  the  year  12,  Saul,  accompanied  by  IJarnabas,  proceeded 
to  Antiocn,  where  they  tvintrht  with  tjreat  success  for  one 
year.  (Acts  xi.  2(>.)  During  their  abcjde  in  this  city  there 
came  prophets  font  Jcrusaltm,  one  of  whom,  nanicd  Agabus, 
siu;n>fied  by  the  Spirit  that  there  should  be  a  deiirth  lhri,u>^hout 
the  land  of  Judoea,  which  came  to  pans  in  the  days  if  (Jlaudius 
Virsar,  commencing  in  the  fourth,  but  raging  chieffy  in  the 
fil'th  and  sixth  years  of  that  emperor.  In  order  to  relieve 
their  suffering  brethren  in  Judaea,  a  collection  wvis  made  by 
the  Christians  at  Antioch,  each  according  to  his  ability;  and 
was  sent  to  the  church  at  Jerusalem  by  the  hands  of  Jiarna- 
bas  and  Saul  (Acts  xi.  27 — 30.),  a.  d.  44.  The  trance  or 
vision  mentioned  in  Acts  xxii.  17.  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
place  during  this  second  visit  to  Jerusalem. 

III.  A.  D.  44.  Having  discharged  this  trust,  Barnabas  and 
Saul  returned  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch,  taking  with  them 
jMark  the  nephew  of  Barnabas  (afterwards  the  evanjrelist)  as 
an  assistant  in  their  approaching  mission  to  the  Gentiles,  to 
which  Barnabas  and  Saul  were  soon  after  separated  by  the 
solemn  and  express  appointment  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

A.  D.  45.  Being  thus  sent  forth,  they  departed,  with  Mark 
as  their  minister,  to  Seleucia,  a  sea-port  town  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Orontos,  twelve  miles  below  Antioch,  and  about  five 
from  the  sea;  whence  they  sailed  to  Cyprus,  the  native 
country  of  Barnabas,  and  preached  the  word  of  God  at  Sala- 
mis,  the  nearest  port  to  Syria,  at  first  in  the  Jewish  syna- 

fogues  according  to  their  custom.  Thence  they  crossed  to 
'aphos,  the  capital  of  the  island,  where  Sergius  Paulus,  the 
Roman  proconsul,  resided.  This  magistrate,  being  desirous 
to  hear  the  word  of  God,  sent  for  the  apostles ;  but  Barjesus, 
a  Jewish  false  prophet  and  sorcerer,  opposed  them,  and 
sought  to  pervert  the  proconsul  from  the  faith.  But  Saul, 
full  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  struck  the  sorcerer  with  blindness, 
for  a  season,  as  a  punishment  for  his  wicked  interference. 
This  astonishing  judgment,  confirming  the  doctrine  of  the 
Lord,  converted  the  proconsul  to  the  faith.  (Actsxiii.  1 — 12.) 
As  Saint  Luke,  who  has  recorded  the  labours  of  the  <.Teat 
apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  calls  him  no  longer  Saul,  but  Paul, 
learned  men  have  conjectured  that  the  change  was  made  by 
Saul  himself  in  honour  of  the  proconsul,  who  was  probably 
his  first  convert  from  among  the  idolatrous  Gentiles,  or,  per- 
haps, the  first  Gentile  of  high  rank  who  was  converted.^ 

A.  D.  46.  "  Paul  and  his  company"  sailed  from  Cyprus  to 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  preached  at  Perga,  a  city  of 
Pamphylia,  situate  about  twelve  miles  from  the  sea.  Here 
Mark  separated  from  them,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Thence 
they  proceeded  to  Antioch,  the  capital  of  Pisidia,  where, 
notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  Jews,  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas converted  great  numbers,  both  of  the  proselyted  and 
of  the  idolatrous  Gentiles ;  but,  being  driven  thence  by  the 
machinations  of  the  unbelieving  Jews,  they  proceeded  to 
Iconium  in  Lycaonia.  (xiii.  13 — 52.)  Here  they  converted 
many  to  the  faith ;  but,  being  in  danger  of  being  stoned,  they 
proceeded  to  Lystra,  where  Paul,  working  a  miracle  on  a 
cripple,  was  at  first  considered  as  a  god,  but  was  afterwards 
dragged  out  of  the  city,  stoned,  and  left  for  dead.  (xiv.  1 — 
20.)  He  rose  up,  however,  perfectly  whole ;  and,  ouittino- 
Lystra,  on  the  following  day,  he  proceeded  to  Deroe,  and 
preached  the  Gospel  in  Galatia  and  Phrygia,  regions  adjoin- 

«  Acts  ix.  23—25.  Gal.  i.  17,  IS.  2  Cor.  xi.  32,  33. 

•  It  was  customary  among  the  Romans  to  assume  the  name  of  a  bene- 
factor whom  they  highly  esteemed.  Thus  the  Jewish  historian  Joscphus 
took  the  name  ol  Flavins,  in  complimeni  to  V'espasian,  with  whom  he  was 
in  high  favour.  This  circumstance  suthcienily  refutes  the  uiilounded  as- 
sertions of  a  late  reviler  of  the  Scriptures,  who,  wilfully  disregarding  all 
positive  evidence  to  the  contrary,  has  asserted  that  Luke  has  compiled  his 
narrative  from  tico  tales  !  !  ! 


324 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paiit  VI.  Chap.  IH. 


ing  to  Lycaonia,  whence  Paul  and  his  assistants  returned 
through  Lystra  and  Iconium  to  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  confirm- 
ing th'e  new  converts  in  the  faith,  and  ordaining  elders  in  every 
church.  Having  thus  traversed  all  Pisidia,  they  retraced 
their  way  to  Perga  in  Patnphylia,  and,  embarking  at  Attalia, 
returned  to  Antioch  in  Syria,  after  a  circuit  of  about  two 
years,  (xiv.  21 — 27.)' 

A.  D.  47,  48.  During  their  residence  at  Antioch,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  been^fuU  two  years,  certain  persons  came 
from  Judffia,  and  taught  that  there  was  no  salvation  without 
circumcision  and  other  legal  ceremonies.  These  false 
teachers  Paul  and  Barnabas  withstood ;  and  it  was  at  length 
agreed  to  send  a  deputatian  to  Jerusalem,  to  obtain  the  deci- 
sion of  the  apostles  and  elders  on  this  question.  For  this 
purpose  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  deputed  :  and,  travelling 
through  Phoenice  and  Samaria,  they  arrived  at  Jerusalem 
A.  D.  49,  where  it  was  decreed  that  the  proselyted  Gentiles 
were  not  obliged  to  observe  the  law  of  Moses  as  a  term  or 
condition  of  salvation.  (Acts  xv.  1 — 29.)  After  the  council 
of  Jerusalem,  Paul  and  Barnabas  returned  to  Antioch,  and 
made  some  stay  there,  probably  during  the  remainder  of  the 
year  49,  teaching  and  preaching  the  word  of  the  Lord,  with 
many  assistants.  (30 — 35.) 

About  the  beginning  of  the  year  50,  Paul  proposed  to  Bar- 
nabas to  take  another  circuit  throughout  the  churches  they 
had  planted  in  Asia  Minor.  But  Barnabas  being  desirous  of 
having  his  nephew  Mark  for  their  minister,  Paul  objected  to 
him  who  had  deserted  them  in  their  former  journey  to  Pam- 
phylia.  (xiii.  13.)  A  sharp  contention  arose,  which  termi- 
nated in  their  separation ;  and  Barnabas  sailed  with  Mark  to 
Cyprus,  to  visit  the  churches  which  had  been  planted  there 
by  Paul  himself;  while  Paul,  choosing  Silas  for  his  compa- 
nion, departed  from  Antioch  with  the  approbation  of  the 
church.  Passing  through  Syria  and  Cilicia,  they  confirmed 
the  churches  in  those  countries;  and  thence  proceeded  to 
Derbe  and  Lystra  in  Lycaonia,  to  preach  the  Gospel  a  se- 
cond time  to  the  Gentiles,  and  to  publish  the  decrees  of  the 
apostolic  council  of  Jerusalem.  At  Lystra  Paul  took  Timo- 
thy as  his  assistant;  and,  departing  thence  with  Silas,  they 
went  through  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  publishing  every  where 
the  decrees'?  (Acts  xv.  35 — 41.  xvi.  1 — 6.)  Being  forbidden 
by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Asia,  strictly  so 
called,  they  arrived  at  Mysia ;  and  being  in  like  manner  for- 
bidden to  proceed  to  Bithynia,  they  passed  by  the  Lesser 
Mysia  (which  separated  Bithynia  from  the  region  of  Troas), 
and  came  to  the  city  and  port  of  Troas.  Here  they  were 
joined  by  the  evangelist  LuKe.   (xvi.  7,  8.) 

A.  D.  50.  While  they  were  at  Proas,  Paul  and  his  assist- 
ants were  called  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Macedonia  by  a 
vision  that  appeared  to  Paul  during  the  night.  In  obedience 
to  the  heavenly  monition,  they  sailed  directly  from  Troas  to 
Samothracia,  and  next  day  to  Neapolis,  and  thence  to  Phi- 
lippi,  a  cUy  of  Macedonia  Prima^  and  a  Roman  colony."^ 
Here  Paul  converted  Lydia,  and  dispossessed  a  damsel  who 
had  a  spirit  of  divination,  for  which  last  transaction  Paul 
and  Silas  were  beaten  with,  rods  and  imprisoned  ;  but,  being 
liberated  (Acts  xvi.  9 — 40.),  they  passed  through  Amphipo- 
lis  and  ApoUonia  to  Thessalonica.  Here  he  preached  in  the 
synagogue,  and  some  believed,  while  others  persecuted  him. 
Being  obliged  to  quit  that  city,  Paul  and  his  assistants  went 
to  Beraea,  where  they  preached  with  great  success  ;  but  the 
unbelieving  Jews,  coming  from  Thessalonica,  stirred  up  the 
people  against  them.  Paul,  therefore,  leaving  Silas  and 
Timothy  at  Bersea,  departed  to  Athens  ;  where  he  disputed 
daily  in  the  synagogue  with  the  Jews,  and  in  the  market- 
place with  the  Epicurean  and  Stoic  philosophers.  These 
men  conducted  him  before  the  supreme  court  of  Areopagus 
for  trial,  on  the  capital  charge  of  being  "  a  setter  forth  of 
strange  demons."  Before  this  tribunal,  composed  of  senators, 
philosophers,  rhetoricians,  and  statesmen.  Saint  Paul  deliver- 
ed his  most  eloquent  and  masterly  apology  ;  in  which,  while 
he  retorted  the  charge  of  his  accusers,  he  instructed  the  peo- 
ple, to  whom  he  preached  the  living  God,  to  them  unknown. ^ 
Although  many  of  his  hearers  ridiculed  the  sublime  doctrines 
which  he  taught,  particularly  that  of  the  resurrection,  yet 
some  of  his  audience  were  better  disposed,  and  desirous  of 
further  information;  and  one  among  his  judges  was  converl- 

>  Bishop  Pearson  allots  three  years  for  these  journeys  of  the  apostle, 
viz.  4S,  4G,  and  47,  and  somethinj  more.  But  Calmet,  Tillemont,  Dr.  Lard- 
ner,  Bishop  Tomline,  and  Dr.  Hales,  allow  two  years  for  this  purpose, 
viz.  4.5,  and  46,  as  above  stated  ;  which  period  corresponds  with  our  Bible 
chronology. 

^  Tliat  this  is  the  proper  rendering  of  Acts  xvi.  11.,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  90. 

^  Sep  some  observations  on  this  Discourse  of  Saint  Paul,  in  is  VIII.  pp. 
««;,  3,7.  m/,a. 


ed,  together  with  Damaris,  a  woman  of  some  rank,  besides 
others  of  inferior  note.  (Acts  xvii.) 

A.  D.  51 — 53.  From  Athens,  Saint  Paul  proceeded  to  Co- 
rinth, the  capital  of  Achaia,  and  distinguished  for  the  num- 
ber, quality,  opulence,  and  learning  of  its  inhabitants,  and 
for  the  celebrated  games  solemnized  on  its  isthmus,  Avhich 
(as  well  as  the  gymnastic  exercises  for  which  Tarsus  was 
eminent)  have  furnished  the  apostle  with  very  numerous  and 
elegant  allusions  and  phrases.  At  Corinth  he  tarried  a  year 
and  six  months,  i.  e.  the  latter  part  of  the  year  51,  the  whole 
of  52,  and  the  early  part  of  53.  His  principal  associates  in 
the  ministry,  besides  Timothy  and  Silas,  who  came  to  him 
from  Thessalonica,  were  Aquila,  a  Jew  of  Pontus,  and  his 
wife  Priscilla,  who  had  lately  come  thither  from  Rome, 
whence  the  emperor  Claudius  had  banished  all  the  Jews  on 
account  of  their  turbulence,  and  with  whom  he  worked  at 
their  common  trade  of  tent-makers  for  his  livelihood.  From 
this  city  he  wrote  his  two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians, 
and  perhaps  also  that  to  the  Galatians.  The  success  of  Saint 
Paul  in  preaching  the  Gospel  at  Corinth  and  in  Peloponnesus, 
so  irritated  the  unbelieving  Jews,  that  they  dragged  him  be- 
fore Gallio,  the  proconsul  of  Achaia  ;  who,  prudently  re- 
fusing to  interfere  in  religious  opinions  that  were  not  detri- 
mental to  the  state,  drove  them  from  his  tribunal,  (xviii.  1 — 
17.)  After  continuing  some  further  time  at  Corinth,  Saint 
Paul  embarked  at  Cenchrea,  the  eastern  port  of  C'orinth,  for 
Ephesus,  where  he  left  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  and  proceeded 
thence  to  Cajsarea  and  Jerusalem:  from  which  latter  city  he 
returned  to  Antioch.  (18 — 22.) 

IV.  A.  D.  54 — 5G.  After  some  stay  at  Antioch,  Saint  Paul 
visited  the  churches  of  Galatia  and  Phrygia,  and  came  to 
Ephesus,  where  he  found  Aquila  and  Priscilla  (Acts  xviii. 
24 — 28.),  and  conferred  the  Holy  Spirit  on  twelve  of  John 
the  Baptist's  disciples.  Saint  Paul,  as  usual,  preached  first 
in  the  synagogues,  but,  being  opposed  by  the  Jews,  he  after- 
wards taught  in  the  school  of  one  Tyrannus  with  great  suc- 
cess, and  wrought  numerous  miracles,  (xix.  1 — 20.)  During 
this  residence,  probably  about  the  beginning  of  the  year  5(j, 
Saint  Paul  received  a  letter  from  the  Corinthians,  to  whom 
he  wrote  his  first  Epistle.  But  being  assaulted  by  Deme- 
trius, a  silversmith,  and  others  of  his  profession,  who  were 
employed  in  making  silver  shrines  in  which  the  images  of 
Diana  were.to  be  enclosed,  and  were  apprehensive  that  their 
trade  would  suffer  from  his  preaching,  Saint  Paul  quitted 
that  city,  where  he  had  gathered  a  numerous  church.  (Acts 
xix.  21—41.  XX.  1.) 

A.  D.  56.  On  his  aeparture  from  Ephesus,  Saint  Paul  went 
first  to  Troas,  expecting  to  meet  Titus  on  his  return  from 
Corinth.  (2  Cor.  li.  12,  13.)  Here  he  preached  a  short  time 
with  great  success,  and  then  proceeded  to  Macedonia,  where 
he  received  the  collections  of  the  Macedonian  Christians, 
for  their  poor  brethren  in  Judaea. 

A.  D.  57.  In  his  progress  from  Macedonia  into  Greece,  he 
is  supposed  to  have  preached  the  Gospel  on  the  confines  of 
lUyricum,  as  mentioned  in  Rom.  xv.  19.  Saint  Paul  con- 
tinued three  months  in  Greece,  principally,  it  is  supposed, 
at  Corinth  (whence  he  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans); 
and  having  received  the  money  which  the  churches  had  col- 
lected for  the  poor  Christians  in  Judaea,  he  sailed  from  Phi- 
lippic to  Troas,  and  thence  to  Miletus,  whither  the  elders  of 
the  Ephesian  church  had  come  to  Tneet  him  by  his  appoint- 
ment, to  whom  Saint  Paul  gave  a  most  aflecting  farewell 
charge.  (Acts  xx.) 

A.  D.  58.  From  Miletus,  Paul  and  his  company  sailed 
directly  to  Cos,  next  to  Rhodes,  and  thence  to  Patara :  here, 
finding  a  vessel  bound  to  Phcenicia,  they  embarked,  and, 
leaving  Cyprus  on  their  left,  they  landed  at  Tyre.  After 
wailing  seven  days,  they  sailed  to  Ptolemais,  trom  which 
port  they  went  on  foot  to  Caesarea,  where  they  lodged  with 
Philip  the  evangelist.  During  their  stay  here  for  several 
days,  the  prophet  Agabus  foretold  the  imprisonment  of  Paul, 
who,  persisting  in  his  determination  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  was 
at  length  permitted  to  depart:  he  accordingly  arrived  there, 
for  the  fifth  time,  just  before  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  a.  d.  58, 
and  was  gladly  received  by  the  brethren,  (xxi.  1 — 18.) 

V.  A.  D.  58.  The  day  after  their  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  Paul 
and  his  assistants  related  to  James  and  the  elders  of  the 
church  "  what  things  God  had  wrought  among  the  Gentiles 
by  his  ministry;  and  when  they  heard  it  they  glorified  the 
Lord."  Shortly  after  this,  some  Asiatic  Jews,  probably  from 
Ephesus,  seeing  Paul  in  the  temple,  whither  he  had  gone  to 

*  While  Saint  Paul  was  in  Macedonia,  he  wrote  his  second  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians. 


Sect.  I.] 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL. 


325 


assist  soino  of  the  brothrfin  to  discharw  a  vow  of  Nazarito- 
ship,  excit(ul  tlie  multitiKie  to  kill  tlio  apostle,  who  was  with 
difficulty  rescued  from  their  fiiryhy  Lysias,  the  chief  captain 
or  tril)une  of  the  teuiph-  (rir.inl.  On  the  followiii<r  inornintj, 
Paul  was  conducteil  Ixilore  the  council,  when  lie  declared 
himself  to  ho  a  Pharisee.  A  contest  havinjr  arisen  hetween 
the  i'harisees  and  Sadduceos,  meml)ers  of  the  saidiedrin, 
tysias,  heiiiij  a))prehensive  for  Paul's  safety,  commanded  th(! 
8oldi(!rs  to  rescue  him,  and  directed  the  council  to  accuse  him 
before  Felix,  the  procurator  of  ("a-sarea.  (Acts  xxii.  xxiii.) 
Five  days  after,  Ananias,  the  hiuh-|iriest,  acc(imi)anie(l  hy 
the  ciders  and  hy  a  certain  orator  nauu'd  '['ertullus,  proceeded 
to  that  city,  and  accused  hiin  to  Felix  of  sedition,  heresy,  and 
profanation  of  th(!  temple.  These  charges  were  denu'd  hy 
Saint  Paul,  who  jrave  an  account  of  his  faith  ;  hut  the  irover- 
nor,  thonijh  convin(M'(l  of  his  innocence,  heinir  unwiiliuir  to 
dis])leas(^  the  Jews,  and  also  Jio])iniir  that  I'aul  wf)ul(i  have 
given  mnni'y  to  he  liherated,  ordered  tlu^  apostle  to  hi;  kept 
in  easy  conlinemeiit,  and  allowed  his  friends  to  visit  iiim. 
A  few  days  after  this  transaction,  Felix,  at  the  reiiuest  of  iiis 
wife  Drusiila,  sent  for  Paul,  who  o-ave  them  an  account  of 
his  faith  in  Clirist,  and  reasnned  so  forcibly  conctirninir  rijOfht- 
eousness,  chastity,  and  a  judjrnieiit  to  come,  that  the  profh- 
gate  irovernor's  conscience  was  alarmed.'  "  Felix  trembled, 
and  answered,  Go  thy  way  for  this  time;  when  1  have  a 
convenient  season,  1  will  call  for  thee."  That  season,  how- 
ever, never  came;  and  Felix,  two  years  afterwards,  when 
recalled  from  his  (roverinnent,  left  Paul  ia  prison  in  order  to 
gratify  the  Jews,  (Acts  xxiv.) 

A.  n.  00.  Felix  was  succeeded  in  the  government  of  Judaea 
by  Festus,  w-ho  sat  in  jnd<rinent  on  Saint  Paul,  and  havin<r 
heard  the  accusations  of  the  Jews  against  him,  and  liis  de- 
fence, proposed  a  new  trial  at  Jerusalem  in  order  to  ingratiate 
himself  with  the  Jews.  But  this  was  d(>clined  hy  Paul,  who 
appealed  to  the  emperor.  Shortly  after  this,  Agripna  king 
of  Chalcis,  and  his  sister  Bernice,  having  come  to  l'a?sarea 
to  congratulate  Festus,  the  latter  communicated  Paul's  case 
to  him,  and  brought  tlu;  apostle  forth  to  plead  his  cause  be- 
fore Agrippa.  Accordingly  the  apostle  vindicated  himself 
in  so  masterly  a  manner,  as  to  extort  an  acknowledgment  of 
his  innocence  from  Agrippa  himself  (Acts  xxv.  xxvi.);  but, 
having  appealed  to  the  emperor,  it  became  necessary  to  send 
him  to  Rome,  where  he  at  icngth  arrived  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  til,  after  a  very  tempestuous  passage,  the  particulars  of 
which  are  related  in  Acts  xxvii.  and  xxviii.  1 — 16.  Here 
he  was  permitted  to  reside  in  his  own  hired  house,  with  a 
soldier  to  whose  custody  he  was  committed.  On  the  third 
day  after  his  arrival,  he  sent  for  the  chief  of  the  unbelieving 
Jews,  to  whom  he  explained  the  cause  of  his  imprisonment, 
though  with  little  success  ;  and  afterwards,  during  the  two 
years  of  his  confinement  (from  the  spring  of  a.  d.  (il,  to  the 
early  part  of  6.'3),  he  received  all  that  came  to  his  house, 
preaching  the  Gospel  without  any  impediment  whatever. 
(Acts  xxviii.  17 — 31.)  During  this  first  visit  to  Home,  Saint 
'Paul  wrote  his  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  Philippians,  Co- 
lossians,  and  to  Philemon. 

VL  As  Luke  has  not  continued  Saint  Paul's  history  be- 
yond his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  we  have  no  authentic 
record  of  his  subsequent  travels  and  labours  from  the  spring 
of  A.  D.  t')3,  when  he  was  released,-  to  the  time  of  his  martyr- 
dom. But,  from  th<^  intimations  contained  in  the  Epistles 
which  he  wrote  from  Rome  during  his  first  confinement,  some 
learned  men  have  conjectured  that  he  sailed  from  Italy  to 
Judiea,  accompanied  by  Timothy  and  Titus ;  and,  leaving 
Titus  in  Crete  (Tit.  i.  5.),  he  proceeded  thence  with  Timothy 
to  Judffia,  and  visited  the  churches  in  that  country,  to  which 
he  had  lately  sent  from  Italy  (perhaps  from  Rome)  the 
Epistle  which  is  now  inscribed  to  Hit  Ihbrews.  Having 
visited  the  churches  in  Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Asia  Minor,  Paul 
and  Timothy  continued  some  time  at  (/olosse;  and,  leaving 
Timothy  at  F^phesus,  Paul  proceeded  to  .Macedonia,  visiting 
the  churches.  From  this  country  he  wrote  his  F^pistle  to 
Titus,  and  also  his  first  Epistle  to  Timothy.  Having  also 
visited  the  churches  of  (Jreece,  and  probably  that  of  Corinth 
for  the  second  time.  Saint  Paul  passed  the  winter  of  (54  at 
Nicopolis,  a  city  of  Epirus;  thence  he  proceeded  to  Crete, 
and  perhaps  to  Corinth  for  the  tidrd  time;^  and  early  in  65 

»  With  what  ailinirablc  propriety  Saint  Paul  suited  his  address  to  the 
,  characlor>  of  Felix  and  Drusiila,  see  Vol.  II.  Part  II.  Chap.  II.  Sect.  II.  §  4. 
and  p.  3-27   infra. 

»  It  Is  not  known  by  what  means  Si.  Paul  was  delivered  from  prison. 
Cahnet  conjectures,  with  great  probability,  that  the  Jews  durst  not  prose- 
cute hiin  before  the  emperor. 

*  Such  is  the  supposition  of  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  p.  37. 


arrived  at  Rome,  where  his  active  exertions  in  preachino-  the 
(Jospel  caused  him  to  be  imprisoned  a  second  time.  How 
long  Paul  continued  in  prison  at  this  time,  we  know  not; 
but  from  the  circumstance  of  his  being  lirought  twice  before 
tlu;  em|)eror  Nero  or  his  prefect,  Dr.  Macknight  thinks  it 
j)robable  that  he  was  confined  a  year  or  more  before  he  was 
|)ut  to  death.  As  the.Neronian  persecution  of  the  Christians 
raged  greatly  during  this  second  visit  to  Rome,  Paul,  know- 
ing th(!  tim(!  of  his  departure  to  be  at  hand,  wrote  his  second 
epistle  to  Timothy ;  irom  which  we  learn,  that,  though  the 
apostle's  assistants,  t(;rrified  with  the  danger,  forsook  him 
and  fled,  yet  he  was  not  altogether  destitute  of  consolation  ; 
for  the  brethren  of  Rome  came  to  him  privately,  and  minis- 
tered to  him.  (2  Tim.  iv.  12.  21.^  Concerning  the  preci.se 
manner  of  Saint  Paul's  death,  we  nave  no  certain  information, 
but,  according  to  primitive  tradition,  he  was  beheaded  on  llie 
2!Hh  of  June,  a.  d.  6(),  at  Ji/u:i;  Salr'up,  three  miles  from  liome, 
and  interred  in  the  /7a  (Istenxix,  at  a  s|)ot  two  miles  from  the 
city,  where  Constantine  tlu;  Great  afterwards  erected  a  (dturch 
to  his  memorj.  "  But  his  noblest  monument  subsists  in  his 
immortal  writings;  which,  the  more  they  are  studied,  and 
the  betti^r  they  are  understood,  the  morf^  they  will  be  admired 
to  the  latest  posterity  for  tht;  most  sublime  and  beautiful,  tiie 
most  pathetic  and  imiiressive,  the  most  learned  and  profound 
specimens  of  Christian  piety,  oratory,  and  philosophy."' 

VH.  Such  were  the  life  and  labours  of"  Paul  tlie  Apostle 
of  Jesus  Christ,"  which  have  justly  been  considered  as  an 
irrefragable  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  Christian  revelation. 
How  indefatigably  he  exerted  himself  to  make  known  the 
glad  tidings  of  salvation,  the  preceding  brief  sketch  will  suf- 
ficiently evince.  "  One  of  the  most  striking  traits  in  the 
character  of  this  extraordinary  man  was,  his  readiness  to  un- 
derstand, and  his  promptness  to  enter  into,  the  great  design 
of  Jesus  Chri.st  to  give  the  world  a  universal  religion.  His 
mind,  with  wonderful  facility,  threw  off  the  prejudices  of  his 
Jewish  education,  and  expanded  to  the  vastness  of  this  en- 
terprise. It  is  remarkable,  too,  that,  after  he  had  cast  off  the 
yoKe  of  Jewish  ceremonies,  and  abandoned  his  first  reliprious 
connections,  he  manifested  no  bitterness  of  s|)irit  towards  his 
former  friends.  On  the  contrary,  his  kindness  was  unwearied, 
and  his  disposition  to  accommodate  his  practice  to  their  pre- 
judices, as  far  as  he  could  do  so  without  sacrifice  of  princi- 
ple, was  remarkable.  Perhaps  a  higher  example  of  firmness 
united  with  liberality,  was  never  exhibited  by  any  mere  man. 
His  history  shows  also  a  noble  instance  of  intellectual  and 
moral  courage.  His  design  was,  to  spread  the  gospel 
throughout  the  whole  world.  (Rom.  i.  5.)  He  went  to  his 
work  in  full  expectation  of  success,  without  any  human 
means  but  the  use  of  reason  and  persuasion.  His  confidence 
in  the  power  of  truth  seems  to  have  been  unlimited  and  un- 
wavering."^  Hence  "  we  see  him  in  the  prosecution  of  his 
purpose,  travelling  from  country  to  country,  enduring  every 
species  of  hardship,  encountering  every  extremity  of  danger, 
assaulted  by  the  populace,  punished  by  the  magistrates, 
scourged,  beaten,  stoned,  left  for  dead  :  expecting,  wherever 
he  came,  a  renewal  of  the  same  treatment  and  the  same  dan- 
gers; yet,  when  driven  from  one  city,  preaching  in  the  next, 
spending  his  whole  time  in  the  employment,  sacrificing  to  it 
his  pleasures,  his  ease,  his  safety  ;  persisting  in  this  course 
to  old  age  (through  more  than  thirty  years) ;  unaltered  by 
the  experience  of  perverseness,  ingratitude,  prejudice,  deser- 
tion;  unsubdued  by  anxiety,  want,  labour,  persecutions;  un- 
wearied by  long  confinement,  undismayed  by  the  prospect  of 
death."" 

But  this  (Treat  luminary  of  the  Christian  church  did  not 
confine  his  labours  to  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel.  He 
wrote  fourteen  Epistles,  in  which  the  various  doctrines  and 
duties  of  Christianity  are  explained,  and  inculcated  with  pe- 
culiar sublimity  and  force  of  language;  at  the  same  time 
that  they  exhibit  the  character  of  their  great  author  in  a  most 
amiable  and  endearing  point  of  view.  His  faith  was  a  prac- 
tical principle,  influencing  all  the  powers  and  faculties  of  the 
soul ;  his  morality  was  of  the  purest  and  most  exalted  kind. 
He  "  derives  all  duties  from  the  love  of  God  in  Christ  as 

*  Dr.  Iliiles's  .\nalysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  ii.  pp.  1155—1234.  Dr. 
Lardner,  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  234— 5lll. ;  4lo.  vol.  iii.  pp.  251— 2St.,  whose 
dates  have  chielly  been  followed.  Dr.  Benson's  History  of  the  First  Plant- 
ing of  Christianity,  vol.  i.  pp.  144—290.  vol.  ii.  F"^^'"'-  Priti'i  Introd.  in 
Nov.  Test.  pp.  256—268.  Dr.  Macknight's  Life  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  annexed 
to  the  fourth  volume  (4to.),  or  the  sixth  volume  (8vo.),  of  his  translation 
of  tlie  Epistles. 
»  Murr.iy  Street  Discourses,  p.  3.35.  (>ew  York,  1830.) 
«  Paley's  Horn;  Paulina;,  p.  379.  See  also  some  valuable  remarks  on  the 
character  of  Saint  Paul  in  Dr.  Ranken's  Institutes  of  Theology,  pp.  391 
—395. 


326 

their  foundation.  All  the  motives  to  rifjht  action,  all  the  ar- 
gumnnls  for  holiness  of  life,  are  drawn  from  this  source;  all 
the  lilies  of  duty  converjre  to  this  centre.  If  Paul  censures, 
he  points  to  this  only  spring  of  hope;  if  he  laments,  he 
turns  to  this  only  true  source  of  consolation;  if  he  insists 
that  the  grace  of  God  hath  appeared,  he  points  to  its  practical 
object,  teaching  us  to  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  godly. 
"When  he  determines  to  know  nothing  but  his  Saviour,  and 
even  him  under  the  degrading  circumstances  of  crucifixion, 
he  includes  in  that  knowledge  all  the  religious  and  moral 
benefits  of  which  it  is  susceptible."'  Integrity,  tenderness 
of  heart,  disinterestedness,  heavenly-mindedness,  profound 
knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  delicacy  in  giving  advice 
or  reproof,  are  the  leading  characteristics  of  Saint  Paul's 
writings ;  in  which,  while  he  every  where  maintains  the  ut- 
most respect  for  constituted  authorities,  he  urges  and  unfolds 
the  various  social  and  relative  duties  in  the  most  engaging 
and  impressive  manner. 

VIII.  "All  the  writings  of  Saint  Paul  bespeak  him  to 
have  been  a  man  of  a  most  exalted  genius,  and  the  strongest 
abilities.  His  composition  is  peculiarly  nervous  and  ani- 
mated. He  possessed  a  fervid  conception,  a  glowing  but 
chastised  fancy,  a  quick  appehension,  and  an  immensely 
ample  and  liberal  heart.  Inheriting  from  nature  distinguished 
powers,  he  carried  the  culture  and  improvement  of  them  to 
the  most  exalted  height  to  which  human  learning  could  push 
them.  He  was  an  excellent  scholar,  an  acute  reasoner,  a 
great  orator,  a  most  instructive  and  spirited  writer.  Longi- 
nus,  a  person  of  the  finest  taste,  and  justest  discernment  in 
criticism  and  polite  literature,  classes  the  Apostle  Paul  among 
the  most  celebrated^  orators  of  Greece.  His  speeches  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  worthy  the  Roman  senate.  They 
breathe  a  most  generous  fire  and  fervour,  are  animated  with 
a  divine  spirit  of  liberty  and  truth,  abound  with  instances  of 
as  fine  address  as  any  of  the  most  celebrated  orations  of 
Demosthenes  or  Cicero  can  boast;  and  his  answers,  when  at 
the  bar,  to  the  questions  proposed  to  him  by  the  court,  have 
a  politeness  and  a  greatness,  which  nothing  in  antiquity 
hardly  ever  equalled.'^  At  the  same  time,  this  great  preacher 
adapted  his  discourses  to  the  capacities  of  his  respective 
audiences,  with  an  astonishing  degree  of  propriety  and  abi- 
lity, as  is  evident  from  the  difference  of  his  reasoning  with 
the  Jews  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  with  the  Gentiles  at  Lystra, 
with  the  polished  Athenians,  and  with  Felix  the  Roman  go- 
vernor, as  also  from  the  handsome  apology  which  he  makes 
for  himself  before  king  Agrippa. 

1.  As  the  Jews  had  the  Old  Testament  in  their  hands,  and 
(it  is  well  known)  at  this  time  expected  a  deliverer,  from 
their  study  of  the  prophetic  writings,  Paul  takes  occasion, 
in  his  discourse  to  them  (Acts  xiii.  13 — 42.),  to  illustrate 
the  divine  economy  in  opening  the  Gospel  gradually,  and 
preparing  the  Jews,  by  temporal  mercies,  for  others  of  a  yet 
more  important  nature.  This  afforded  him  a  very  handsome 
■and  unaffected  opportunity  of  showing  his  acquaintance  with 

their  Scriptures,  which  they  esteemed  the  highest  part  of 
literature,  and  object  of  science.  His  quotations  are  singu- 
larly apposite,  and  the  whole  of  his  discourse  (one  would 
think)  must  have  carried  conviction  to  their  minds.  The 
result  is  well  known ;  though  a  few  embraced  the  despised 
Gospel  of  Christ,  the  majority  rejected  the  benevolent  coun- 
sel of  God  towards  them. 

2.  With  the  idolatrous  Lycaonians  at  Lystra  (who  were 
little  better  than  barbarians,  like  most  of  the  inland  nations 
of  Asia  Minor),  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  pursued  a 
different  course.  (Compare  Acts  xiv.  6 — 23.)  Such  persons 
are  apt  to  be  struck  and  affected  more  with  signs  and  won- 
ders than  with  arguments ;  he,  therefore,  at  his  first  preach- 
ing among  them,  very  seasonably  and  fitly  confirmed  his 
doctrine,  by  a  sio;nal  miracle  in  healing  a  man  who  had  been 
a  cripple  from  his  birth.  And  when  Paul  and  his  fellow- 
labourer  Barnabas  had  with  difl[iculty  restrained  the  people 
of  Lystra  from  offering  sacrifice  to  them  as  deities,  wlio 
(agreeably  to  the  fables  believed' among  the  ancient  heathen), 
they  supposed,  had  appeared  in  the  likeness  of  men,  their  dis- 
course is  admirably  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  their  auditors. 
They  derive  their  arguments  from  no  higher  source  than 
natural  religion,  and  insist  only  upon  the  plain  and  obvious 

'  Mrs.  More's  Essay  on  St.  Paul,  vol.  i.  p.  109.,  to  which  the  reader  is 
referred  for  an  ample  and  beautiful  account  of  the  character  and  writings 
of  that  illustrious  apostle.  On  the  subject  of  his  "  preaching  Christ  cru- 
cified," the  reader  will  find  some  instructive  remarks  in  pp.  44 — 51.  of  Mr. 
Wilks's  able  vindication  of  Missionary  exertions,  entitled  "Christian  Mis- 
sions an  Enlightened  Species  of  Christian  Charity."  8vo.  London,  1819; 

»  Longinus,  p.  268.    Pearce,  8vo. 

*  Ilarwood'a  Introduction,  vol.  i.  p.  199. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Cbap.  HI. 


topics  of  creation  and  providence.  The  works  of  creation 
are  a  demonstration  of  the  being  of  a  God,  the  living  God 
who  made  hempen  and  earth  and  the  sea,  and  all  things  that  are 
therein.  In  times  past  he  suffered  all  nations,  all  the  heathens, 
to  walk  in  their  own  ivays,  without  any  particular  revelation 
of  himself  like  that  which  he  made  to  tiie  people  of  Israel. 
But  yet  his  general  providence  afforded  ample  proofs  of  his 
power  and  goodness :  nevertheless  he  lift  not  himself  without 
witness,  in  that  he  did  good,  and  gave  us  rain  from  heaven  and 
fruitful  seasons,  filling  our  hearts  with  food  and  gladness. 
These  arguments  are  as  forcible  as  they  are  plain  and  obvi- 
ous to  the  meanest  capacity ;  He  is  the  creator  and  preserver 
of  us  and  of  all  things,  he  is  the  author  and  giver  of  all  the 
good  that  we  enjoy,  and  he  therefore  is  the  only  proper  and 
adequate  object  of  our  worship.  The  people  were  so  trans- 
ported, that  with  these  sayings  scarce  restrained  they  them,  that 
they  had  not  done  sacrifice  unto  them.  But  such  is  the  fickle- 
ness and  uncertainty  of  the  multitude,  that  him  whom  they 
were  now  for  worshipping  as  a  god,  soon  after,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  certain  Jews,  they  suffered  to  be  stoned,  and  drawn 
out  of  the  city,  supposing  he  had  been  dead.  The  apostles, 
however,  had  sown  some  good  seed  among  them ;  for  we 
read,  that  within  a  little  time  they  returned  again  to  Lystra, 
confirming  the  souls  of  the  disciples,  and  exhorting  them  to  con- 
tinue in  the  faith. 

3.  Our  apostle's  conduct  and  behaviour  among  the  learned 
and  polite  Athenians  (Acts  xvii.  16 — 34.)  we  shall  find  to 
be  somewhat  different  from  what  it  was  to  the  rude  and  illite- 
rate Lycaonians,  but  both  of  equal  fitness  and  propriety.  He 
did  not  open  his  commission  at  Athens  in  the  same  manner 
as  at  Lystra,  by  working  a  miracle.  There  were,  doubtless, 
several  cripples  at  Athens  (for  it  is  well  known  that  such 
cases  abound  in  that  climate) ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that 
any  of  them  had  the  good  disposition  of  the  crip])le  at  Lys- 
tra, or  faith  to  be  healed.  Besides,  the  Greeks  did  not  so 
much  require  a  sign  (iCor.  i.  23.)  as  seek  after  wisdom. 
Accordingly,  we  find  the  apostle  disputing  not  only  in  the 
synagogue  with  the  Jews  and  the  devout  persons  (Jewish  prose- 
lytes), but  also  in  the  forum  or  market-place,  daily  with  them 
that  met  with  him.  Here  he  encountered  certain  phihisophers 
of  the  Epicurean  and  Stoic  sects ;  some  of  whom  treated  him 
as  a  babbler,  while  others  regarded  him  as  a  setter  forth  of 
strange  gods,  and,  consequently,  a  violator  of  the  laws  of 
Athens,  because  he  preached  unto  them  Jesus  and  the  Resurrec- 
tion. At  length  they  conducted  him  to  the  Areopagus  (or 
Mars'-hill),  the  seat  of  the  highest  court  of  judicature  in 
that  city  for  matters  concerning  religion,  and  also  the  place 
of  greatest  resort :  and  with  that  curiosity  and  thirst  of  news, 
for  which  (it  is  well  known)  the  Athenians  were  at  that  time 
notorious,''  they  requested  him  to  give  them  an  account  of 
his  new  doctrine.  What  a  glorious  scene  was  here  for  the 
manifestation  of  the  truth  before  such  a  promiscuous  and 
numerous  assembly  of  citizens  and  strangers,  of  philosophers 
of  all  sects,  and  people  of  all  conditions ;  and  with  what 
exquisite  skill  and  contrivance  is  every  part  and  member  of 
his  discourse  so  framed  and  accommodated,  as  to  obviate 
some  principal  error  and  prejudice  in  some  party  or  other  of 
his  hearers  !  Most  of  the  false  notions,  both  of  their  vulgar 
and.  philosophical  religion,  are  here  exposed  and  refuted.  If 
there  was  nothing  else  remaining,  yet  this  sufficiently  testi- 
fies how  great  a  master  he  was  i»the  learning  of  the  Greeks. 
Most  of  the  fundamental  truths,  both  of  natural  and  revealed 
religion,  are  here  opened  and  explained ;  and  all  within  the 
compass  of  a  very  few  verses.  From  an  altar  with  an  in- 
scription to  the  unknown  God  (and  that  there  were  altars  at 
Athens  with  such  an  inscription,  we  have  the  attestation  of 
several  ancient  heathen  authors),  he  takes  occasion  to  re- 
prove them  for  their  great  plurality  of  gods,  and  him  whom 
they  ignorantly  worshipped  to  declare  unto  them.  It  might  be 
contrary  to  the  laws  of  Athens  for  any  one  to  recommend 
and  introduce  a  new  or  strange  god ;  but  he  could  not  well 
be  subject  to  the  penalty  of  the  law  only  for  declaring  him 
whom  they  already  worshipped  without  knowing  him.  The 
opportunity  was  fair,  and  he  improves  it  to  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage. He  branches  out  his  discourse  into  several  particu- 
lars.— That  God  made  the  world  and  all  things  therein .-  which 
proposition,  though  agreeable  enough  to  the  general  belief 
and  opinion,  was  yet  directly  contrary  both  to  the  Epicureans, 
and  to  the  Peripatetics ;  the  former  of  whom  attributed  the 
formation  of  the  world  to  the  fortuitous  concourse  of  atoms 
without  any  intervention  of  the  Deity,  and  the  latter  main- 
tained that  the  w,orld  was  not  created  at  all,  and  that  all 

♦  See  this  character  of  the  Athenians  illustrated,  in  Vol.  I.  p.  SO, 


Sect.  I.] 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL. 


327 


things  had  continued  as  they  now  are  from  all  eternity. — 
Thai  steinir  lie  is  Ijurd  of  heaven  und  eailh,  he  dwelhth  not  in 
temples  made  with  huiid.y,  neillier  in  warnhipped  ruilh  nirii's 
kaiids,  us  lhinijs.h  he  needed ainf  Ihiitir,  seeiiif^  he  givelh  In  ii/l  ifr 
and  breath  ami  all  Ihini^s;  wliidi  w.is  levelled  not  so  iiiiicli 
against  tlie  philosophers  as  at^aiiist  the  popular  relijrjon  of 
Athens;  for  the  philosophers  seldom  or  never  saerificed, 
unless  in  eompliance  with  the  custom  of  their  country,  and 
even  th(!  K])icureaiis  themselves  admitted  the  sciif-sulhciency 
of  the  Deity;  t)Ul  the  peoph;  helieved  very  al)surdly  that 
there  were  local  ^in\s,,  that  the  Dt^ity,  notvvilhstvuidinjr  his 
inmieiisity,  miirht  t)e  coulined  within  tem|)les,  and  notwith- 
standing his  all-sutficiency  was  fed  with  the  fat  and  fumes 
of  sactrilices,  as  if  he  could  nvaliy  stand  in  n«!e(l  of  any  sus- 
tenaniM',  who  u;iveth  to  all  life  and  breath  and  all  thinfj:;s. — 
That  he  h<dli  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  (f  men  for  to  dwdl 
on  all  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  hath  determined  the  limes  be- 
fore aj>poin  led,  and  the  Ixniinh  of  their  habitation/  which  was 
not  only  opposed  to  the  Epicureans,  who  deprived  the  heirin- 
niug  ol  the  human  race  from  the  mere  elfcH-ts  of  matter  and 
motion,  and  to  the  Peripatetics  or  Aristotelians,  who  deided 
inaidiind  to  have  any  beginning  at  all,  having  subsisted  in 
eternal  successions ;  hut  was,  moreover,  o|)pose(l  to  the  gene- 
ral pride  and  conceit  of  the  people  of  AiIhmis,  who  hoastt^d 
themselves  to  be  Aborigines,  to  be  descended  I'rom  none  other 
stock  or  race  of  men,  but  to  be  themselves  originals  and  na- 
tives of  th(ur  own  country. — That  theij  should  seek  the  Lord, 
if  haplij  thetj  mij^ht  feel  after  him,  and  find  him,  though  he  be 
not  far  from  everi/  one  of  us  ;  fiir  in  him  we  lire,  and  move, 
und  have  our  beinsr .-  which  fundamental  truth,  with  the 
greatest  propriety  and  elegance,  he  confirms  by  a  quotation 
from  one  of  their  own  poets,  Aratus,  the  Cilician,'  his  own 
countryman,  who  lived  aoove  three  hundred  years  before,  and 
in  whose  astronomical  poem  this  hemistich  is  still  extant. 
^s  certain  also  of  your  own  poets  have  said.  For  we  are  also 
his  (>ff'<prinir.  An  evident  proof  that  he  knew  how  to  illus- 
trate divinity  with  the  graces  of  classical  learning,  and  was 
no  stranger  to  a  taste  and  politeness  worthy  of  an  Attic 
audience. — That  forasmuch  then  as  we  are  the  offspring  of 
God,  we  ought  7iot  to  think  that  the  Godhead  is  like  unto  gold 
or  silver  or  stone,  graven  by  art  and  man''s  device .-  which  was 
plainly  pointed  at  the  gross  idolatry  of  the  low'er  people, 
who  thought  the  very  idols  themselves  to  be  gods,  and  ter- 
minated their  worship  in  them. — That  the  times  of  this  igno- 
rance God  winked  at  or  overlooked  ;  as  he  said  before  to  the 
people  of  Lystra,  fa  former  times  God  suffered  all  nations  to 
tvalk  in  their  own  ways  ;  but  now  commandeth  all  men  every 
where  to  repent :  which  doctrine  of  the  necessity  of  repent- 
ance must  have  been  very  mortifying  to  the  pride  and  vanity 
of  the  pliilosoj)hers,  and  especially  of  the  Stoics,  whose  wise 
man  was  equal  if  not  superior  to  God  himself. — Because  he 
hulk  appointed  a  day  in  the  which  he  will  judge  the  world  in 
righteousness  by  that  man  whom  he  hath  ordained,  wheraf  he 
hath  given  assurance  unto  all  men,  in  that  he  hath  raised  him 
'from  the  dead  :  till  now  they  had  heard  him  with  silence  and 
attention,  because  though  every  period  of  his  discourse 
glanced  at  some  of  his  hearers,  yet  it  coincided  with  the 
notions  of  others,  and  he  had  not  before  touched  and  offend- 
ed them  altogether;  but  xvhen  they  heard  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead,  some  mocked  f  the  Epicureans,  and  the  men  of 
wit  and  pleasure),  and  others  said  (the  Platonists,  and  the 
graver  sort  of  his  audience),  fVe  will  hear  thee  again  of  this 
■matter,  putting  it  olf  to  a  more  convenient  season.  >So  Paul 
departed  from  among  them,  leaving  them  as  they  deserved  to 
themselves.  Jlowbeit  certain  men  clave  unto  him,  and  believed 
(a  diminutive  expression  to  signify  that  he  made  but  very  few 
converts)  ;  among  whom  the  principal  were  Dionysius  the  Areo- 
pagite  (who  is  said  to  have  oeen  afterwards  constituted  the 
first  bishop  of  Athens),  and  a  womcui  of  rank  named  Da- 
maris, 

4.  In  St.  Paul's  discourse  to  Felix  (Acts  xxiv.),  he  had 
for  his  hearer  a  Roman  governor,  who  was  remarkable  for 
his  lust,  and  injustice  ; — a  man  who  was  very  unlikely  to  bear, 
much  less  to  reform  by,  a  pointed  reproof  from  his  own  pri- 
soner. This,  then,  was  a  case,  whicn  required  great  art  as 
well  as  great  courage;  and  accordingly  we  find  our  apostle 
mingled  the  tvisdom  of  the  serpent  with  the  innocence  of  the 
dove.  He  had  honesty  enough,  to  rebuke  the  sins;  and 
yet  prudence  enough,  not  to  offend  the  sinner.  He  had 
the  courage  to  put  even  his  judge  in  mind  of  his  crimes  ;  yet 

«  Bp.  Barringlon  conjectures  tliat  this  quotation  was  taken  from  tlie  cele- 
brated Hyuin  ofCleaiillies,  in  wliicli  the  wonls  spoken  by  Saint  Paul  are 
also  to  be  found.  See  Mr.  Townsend's  New  Test,  arranged  in  Chronologi- 
cal Order,  ic.  vol.  ii.  p.  249. 


with  SO  much  address,  as  not  to  offend  his  person, — an  ex- 
am|)l(',  the  most  worthy  of  our  imitation  ;  as  it  would  greatly 
contribute  to  make  the  bitter  portion  of  reproof,  if  not  pala- 
table, at  least  salutary  and  successful. 

How  artfully,  then,  does  St.  Paul  insinuate  himself  into 
the  soul  of  this  great  sinner,  and  shake  his  conscience  at  the 
remembrance  of  his  vices  ! — not  by  denouncing  vengeance 
against  him,  for  his  lust  and  injustice,  but  by  jdacing  in  the 
strongest  point  of  light  the  opposite  virtues, — showing  their 
reasonableness  in  themselves,  and  their  rewards  at  the  day 
of  judgment.  For  he  rrasinied, — not  of  unrighteousness, — 
not  of  incontinence, — but  <A' righteousness  and  chastity; — and 
l)y  holding  forth  a  beautiful  ]iicture  of  these  necessary  vir- 
tues, he  left  it  to  Felix  to  form  the  contrast,  and  to  infer  the 
blackness  of  his  own  vices.  A  masterly  stroke  !  and  it  effec- 
tually succeeded :  for,  as  the  prisoner  spake, — the  judge 
trembled. 

5.  The  last  instance,  which  we  shall  notice  of  this  apos- 
thi's  fine  address  and  jjoliteiiess,  is  to  be  found  in  his  cele- 
brated reply  to  king  Agriupa,  who  publicly  declared  to  him 
that  he  had  almost  persuaded  him  to  be  a  (Christian.  Would 
to  God  that  not  only  thou  but  also  all  that  hear  me  this  day, 
were  both  almost,  and  altogethkr,  such  as  I  am — exckpt 
THKSE  noNDs.  (Acts  xxvi.  29.)  What  a  prodij^ious  effect 
must  this  striking  conclusion,  and  the  sight  of  the  irons  held 
up  to  enforce  it,  make  upon  the  minds  of  the  audience!  To 
Ins  singular  attainments  in  learuingthe  Roman  governor  pub- 
licly bore  an  honourable  testimony,  imagining  that  the  intense- 
ness  of  his  application  to  his  studies,  and  his  profound  erudi- 
tion, had  disordt^red  his  understanding,  and  occasioned  his 
supposed  insanity. 

Ihe  writings  of  Paul  show  him  to  have  been  eminently 
acquainted  with  Greek  learning  and  Hebrew  literature.  "  He 
greatly  excelled  in  the  profound  and  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  Old  Testament,  which  he  perpetually  cites  and  explains 
with  great  skill  and  judgment,  and  pertinently  accommodates 
to  the  subject  which  he  is  discussing.  Born  at  Tarsus,  one 
of  the  most  illustrious  seats  of  the  muses  in  those  days,  ini- 
tiated in  that  city  into  the  learning  and  philosophy  of  the 
Greeks,  conversing,  in  early  life,  with  their  most  elegant  and 
celebrated  writers,  whom  we  find  him  quoting,^  and  after- 
wards finishing  his  course  of  education  at  the  teet  of  Gama- 
liel, the  learned  Jewish  rabbi,  he  came  forth  into  public  and 

'>  It  is  universally  acknowledged  that  Paul  had  read  the  Greek  poets,  and 
has  quoted  Aratus,  Ei)iiuenides,  and  Menander;  though  it  is  scarcely  sus- 
pected by  any  one,  lliat  he  quotes  or  refers  to  jEschylus,  Sophocles,  and 
Eiuipides.  There  is,  however  (Dr.  A.  Clarke  ob.serves),  such  a  similarity 
between  the  following  quotations  and  the  apostle's  words,  that  we  are  almost 
persuaded  that  tliey  were  present  to  his  comprehensive  mind  ;  and  if  they 
were,  he  extends  the  thouglil  infinitely  higher,  by  language  incomparably 
more  exalted. 

1  Tin),  vi.  25.  'O  ^xxxpio;  x«i  juopo;  ^uv!««r7>),-,  c  Bxo-iXeu;  tujv  3=<iri>.f  uovtwv, 

xxi  Kvpio;  TU.V  xui>iiu3vTioi/.  The  blessed  and  only  Potentate,  the  King  of 
kings,  and  Lord  of  lords. 

The  Sii|)reme  Being  is  also  styled  the  King  of  kings,  and  Ihc  Blessed,  by 
.32schylus  in  his  tragedy  of  Ihe  Supplicants : 


Ti>.£ioTsiTov  xpxTo;.  Ver.  520.   Ed.  Person. 

"O  King  of  kings,  most  Blessed  of  the  blessed,  most  Perfect  of  the 
perfect." 

ITim.vi.  16.  'O /uoioj  f^wv  KJavao-ixi:,  <?!»{  oixioi'  «^po<riTOv. — Wlio  only 
hath  immortality,  dwelling  in  the  light  which  no  man  can  come  imto. 

In  till,' Antigone  of  Sophocles,  there  is  a  sublime  address  to  Juve,  of  which 
the  following  is  an  extract : 

MxpfiXfOirrav  aiyj.ai'.  Ver.  608.    Edit.  Brunck. 

"  But  thou,  an  ever-during  potentate,  dost  inhabit  the  refulgent  splendour 
of  Olympus!" 

"This  passage,"  says  Dr.  Clarke,  "is  grand  and  noble  ;  but  how  insigni- 
ficant does  it  appear,  when  contrasted  with  the  superior  sublimity  of  the 
inspired  writer !  The  deity  of  Sophocles  dwells  in  the  da/./.tltig  splendour 
of  heaven  ;  but  the  God  ol  Paul  inhabits  light,  so  dazzling  and  so  resplen- 
dent, that  it  is  perfectlly  unapproachable  !" 

Once  more,  in  2  Tim.  iv.  7.  we  read,  Taw  xyavu  tov  xxXov  ttyovKr/ixt,  T«r 
Jps.uov  TiTiXixa.     I  have  fought  a  good  fight,  I  have  finished  mi/  course. 

There  is  a  passage  in  the  Alcestis  o(  Euripides,  in  which  the  very  ex- 
pressions used  here  by  the  apostle  are  found,  and  s-poken  on  the  occasion 
of  a  wife  laying  down  her  life  for  her  husband,  when  both  his  parents  had 
refused  to  do  it. 

Dux  K^tK^rxg  ouJ*  tTOKfii^rx^  ^xvtiv 
Tou  o-ou  Jrpo  yrxiiof  xKKx  ittv  i'  tixTxTi 
uvxix'  iiviixv,  i(v  ly^  XXI  /«>|T(p» 

J}xTtpX   Tl    y*  tvStXMi    XV    SyOt/JLHV    ^9V»fV' 

Kx»  Toi  xxKov  y*  XV  Tov5*  xyxv  my^vivM, 
Tsu  (Tov  -po  TTxtSoi  x»t5xhov.  Alcest.v.  644. 

"Thou  wouldest  not,  neither  darest  thou  to  die  for  thy  son  ;  but  hast 
suffered  this  strange  woman  to  do  it,  whom  I  justly  esteem  to  be  alone  my 
father  and  mother:  thou  wouldest  Aare /ow^A/  a  goodjiglit  had'st  thou 
died  for  thy  son." 

The  xxKi,v  xyj>v,  good  fight,  was  used  anions  the  Greeks  to  express  a 
contest  of  the  viost  hunuuralilc  hind:  and  in  this  sense  the  apostle  uses  it. 
(Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  1  Tim.  vi.  16.,  and  on  2Tiju.  iv.8.) 


328 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT, 


[Pabt  VI.  Chap.  HT. 


active  life,  with  a  mind  stored  with  the  most  ample  and  vari- 
ous treasures  of  science  and  knowledge.  lie  himself  tells 
us,  that  tlie  distinguished  progress  wliich  he  had  made  was 
known  to  all  the  Jews,  and  that  in  this  literary  career  he  left 
all  his  co-equals  and  contemporaries  far  behind  him.  I  pro- 
fited in  t/ie  Jewish  religion  ubove  nuj  ftlloivs.  A  person  pos- 
sessed of  natural  abilities  so  signal,  of  literary  acquisitions 
so  extensive,  of  an  activity  and  spirit  so  enterprising,  and  of 
an  integrity  and  probity  so  inviolate,  the  wisdom  of  God 
judged  "a  fit  instrument  to  employ  in  displaying  the  banners 
and  spreading  the  triumphs  of  Christianity  among  mankind. 
A  negligent  greatness,  if  we  may  so  express  it,  appears  in 
his  writinsrs.  Full  of  the  dignity  of  his  subject,  a  torrent  of 
sacred  eloquence  bursts  forth,  and  bears  down  every  thing 
before  it  with  irresistible  rapidity.  He  stays  not  to  arrange 
and  harmonize  his  words  and  periods,  but  rushes  on,  as  his 
vast  ideas  transport  him,  borne  away  by  the  sublimity  of  his 
theme.  Hence  his  frequent  and  prolix  digressions,  though 
at  the  same  time  his  all-comprehensive  mind  never  loses 
sight  of  his  subject ;  but  he  returns  from  these  excursions, 
resumes  and  pursues  it  with  an  ardour  and  strength  of  reason- 
ing that  astonishes  and  convinces."'  What  a  treasure  of 
divinity  and  morality  is  contained  in  his  epistles  !  which, 
"  as  examples  of  a  nervous,  invigorating,  commanding  style, 
have  seldom  been  equalled,  never  excelled.  The  instruc- 
tions they  contain  are  delivered  with  a  simple  gravity  and 
concinnity  that  commands  the  attention,  and  is  as  much  supe- 
rior to  high-wrought  ornaments  of  professed  rhetoricians  as 
the  native  uncut  diamond,  to  the  furbished,  glittering  paste. 
Yet  are  they  not  deficient  in  those  beauties  which  captivate 
the  refined  taste.  Although  professedly  didactic,  there  are 
few  pieces  of  composition  that  aflford  a  richer  variety  of  ap- 

!)ropriate  figure.  There  is  scarcely  a  species  of  trope  that 
las  been  noticed  by  rhetoricians  that  may  not  be  found  in  one 
part  or  other  of  these  books,  and  always  in  an  apposite  situa- 
tion. 

"  Nor  are  there  wanting  instances  of  a  strength  of  figure 
only  to  be  equalled  by  the  importance  of  the  sentiment  ex- 
pressed. As  such,  the  description  of  the  powerful  efficacy 
of  the  promises  and  threats  of  God  may  be  produced.  '  The 
word  of  God  is  living  and  energetic,  and  more  cutting  than 
any  two-edged  sword,  dividing  even  to  the  separation  of  soul 
and  spirit,  of  joints  and  marrow,  and  a  discerner  of  the 
thoughts  and  intents  of  the  heart.'  Again,  when  the  apostle 
expresses  his  desire  to  be  useful  even  to  the  death,  to  his 
converts  ;  how  noble  and  appropriate  to  men  accustomed  to 
the  sacrificial  rites  is  his  expression  !  '  Yea,  and  if  I  be 
poured  out  as  a  libation  (a-n-ivSojuui)  upon  the  sacrifice  and  ser- 
vice of  your  faith,  I  joy  and  rejoice  with  you  all.'  And  how 
full  of  aftection  and  exultation  is  his  figurative  appellation  of 
the  Philippiaiis  ;  '  My  brethren,  beloved  and  longed  for,  my 
joy  and  iny  crown  !'  Is  there  any  thing  in  any  of  the  hea- 
then moralists  comparable  to  that  fine  description  of  charity 
in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  the  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  ? 
Speaking  with  the  tongues  of  men  and  of  angels  is  nothing  in 
comparison  of  charity  ;  aiid  the  tongues  of  men  and  of  angeh 
can  never  exceed  this  description.  All  the  powers  of  logic 
and  rhetoric  are  to  be  seen  and  felt  in  the  fifteenth  chapter 
of  the  same  epistle  ;  and  what  affecting  solemnity  does  it  add 
to  that  most  solemn  service  of  our  liturgy,  the  burial  of  the 
dead.'  But  it  is  not  in  the  use  of  figures  only  that  the  excel- 
lence of  the  apostle's  style  consists.  For  appropriate  diction 
he  is  unrivalled,  and  occasionally  he  rises  into  a  sublimity 
of  expression  that  carries  his  readiers  above  themselves,  and, 
while  it  astonishes,  convinces  or  persuades  with  a  delight- 
ful violence.  When  he  undertakes  to  describe  the  goodness 
of  our  Maker  in  providing  for  us  the  means  of  salvation,  the 
reader  is  transported  with  gratitude,  and  overwhelmed  with 
self-abasement.  When  he  exultingly  depicts  the  excellences 
of  the  Gospel  dispensation,  he  commands  the  enraptured 
mind,  and  we  are  '  lost  in  wonder,  love,  and  praise  !'  When 
he  concisely  describes  his  sufferings,  the  constancy,  the  joy- 
ous triumphing  in  the  midst  of  tortures,  of  the  primitive  pro- 
pagators of  Christianity,  we  require  a  new  idea  of  the  human 
mind  ;  we  are  tempted  to  imagine  the  persons  he  speaks  of 
to  be  superior  beings,  and  to  render  them  our  humble  adora- 
tion, till  recalled  by  the  assurance  that  it  is  by  the  might  of 
the  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  by  the  aid  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  that  these  holy  men  so  nobly  won  their  heavenly 
crown.     When  we  read  his  exulting  and  fervent  expressions 

»  Ilarwood's  Introduction,  vol.  i.  pp.  200.  202. 


of  delight  in  the  Gospel,  and  thankfulness  for  the  glorious 
office  of  an  apostle,  how  do  we  feci  our  hearts  burn  within 
us  at  being  nermitted  by  the  good  providence  of  God  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  privileges  so  admirably  extolled  by  the  great 
apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 

"  Occasionally,  too,  the  student  of  the  epistles  is  at  once 
astonished  and  delighted  by  a  fervency  of  language  unexam- 

Eled  in  any  other  writer.  "Words  of  the  most  intense  signi- 
cation  are  accumulated,  and,  by  their  very  strength,  are 
made  to  express  their  weakness  when  compared  with  the  in- 
expressible greatness  of  their  object.  Our  language  cannot 
express  the  force  of  k-j.^'  lyVt^fsxw  eJc  uTngCoxnv  ctlmtov  ^-j^o;  S'.^x? 
(2  Cor.  iv.  17.),  which  is  but  faintly  shadowed  forth  in  the 
translation  of  an  eminent  critic,  'an  excessively  exceeding 
and  eternal  weight  of  glory.'  Numerous,  and  some,  if  pos- 
sible, still  more  striking  examples  occur,  but  cannot  be  ade- 
quately displayed  in  any,  even  the  best  translation.  Even 
the  ordinary  grammatical  compounds  are  not  sufliicient  for  tiie 
glowing  ideas  of  the  apostle.  Thus,  wishing  to  express  his 
own  utter  worthlessness  considered  in  himself,  he  makes  use 
of  a  comparative,  found  only  in  the  most  exalted  sentences 
of  the  classic  authors :  l/xci  tcd  k«^/5-£.T£^ai,  not  unaptly  ren- 
dered by  our  translators  '  less  than  the  least.'  "2 

Another  excellence  in  Saint  Paul's  writings  is  presented  to 
our  notice  in  the  admirable  art  with  which  he  interests  the 
passions,  and  engages  the  affections  of  his  hearers.  Under 
the  present  depravity  of  human  nature,  our  reason  being  en- 
feebled, and  our  passions  consequently  grown  powerful,  it 
must  be  of  great  service  to  engage  these  in  the  cause  we 
would  serve ;  and  therefore,  his  constant  endeavour  was, — - 
not  only  to  convince  the  reason  of  his  hearers,  but  to  alarm 
and  interest  their  passions.  And,  as  hope  and  fear  are  (with 
the  bulk  of  mankind)  the  main-springs  of  human  action,  to 
these  he  addressed  himself  most  effectually, — not  by  cold 
speculation  upon  abstract  fitnesses,  but  by  the  awful  assu- 
rances of  a  resurrection  of  the  dead  to  an  eternity  of  happi- 
ness or  misery.  With  respect  to  the  latter,  who  can  hear 
without  trembling,  that, — the  Lord  Jesus  shall  be  revealed  from 
heaven,  with  his  mighty  angels,  in  fiaming  fire,  taking  ven- 
geance on  the  ungodly  ;  who  shall  he  punished  with  everlasting 
destruction,  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  from  the  glory  of 
his  power !  And  the  happiness  of  heaven  he  describes  by 
words  so  strong,  as  to  baffie  the  expression  of  all  language 
but  his  own, — -by  a  weight  of  glory  infinite  and  eternal  beyond 
all  hyperbole  or  conception. 

Thus  the  apostle  secured  the  passions  of  those  to  whom 
he  directed  his  epistles  :  and  he  equally  engaged  their  atfec- 
tions  by  his  endearing  manner  of  address.  Has  he  occasion 
to  introduce  any  subject,  which  he  is  afraid  will  prejudice 
and  disgust  his  bigoted  countrymen  the  Jews  ]  He  announces 
it  with  a  humility  and  modesty  that  secures  the  attention, 
and  with  an  insinuating  form  of  address  to  which  nothing 
can  be  denied.  "  This  appears  particularly  in  his  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  where  we  see  with  what  reluctance  and  heart- 
felt grief  he  mentions  the  ungrateful  truth  of  the  Jews'  re- 
jection of  the  Messiah,  and  their  dereliction  by  God  for 
their  insuperable  obstinacy.  How  studious  is  he  to  provoke 
them  to  jealousy  and  emulation  by  the  example  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, and  how  many  persuasive  and  cogent  arts  and  argu- 
ments does  he  employ  to  win  them  over  to  the  religion  of 
Jesus  !  In  these  delicate  touches,  in  these  fine  arts  of  moral 
suasion,  Saint  Paul  greatly  excels. ^  Upon  occasion,  also, 
we  find  him  employing  the  most  keen  and  cutting  raillery  in 
satirizing  the  faults  and  foibles  of  those  to  whom  he  wrote. 
W"ith  what  sarcastic  pleasantry  does  he  animadvert  upon  the 
Corinthians  for  their  injudicious  folly,  in  suffering  themselves 
to  be  duped  by  a  false  judaizing  teacher!  A  more  delicate 
and  poignant  instance  of  irony,  than  the  following  passage, 
is  perhaps  nowhere  to  be  met  with :  What  is  it,  says  he  to 
the  Corinthians,  wherein  you,  were  inferior  to  other  churches, 
except  that  J  myself  was  not  burthensome  to  you  (by  taking 
any  acknowledgment  for  iny  labours)  1  do  forgive  me  this 
wrong.  (2  Cor.  xii.  13.) — To  his  eloquence,  as  a  public 
speaker,  we  have  the  testimony  of  the  Lycaonians,  who  (as 
we  have  already  remarked)'  foolishly  imagining  the  gods  to 
have  descended  from  heaven  among  them  in  the  persons  of 
Barnabas  and  Paul,  called  the  former  Jupiter,  and  the  latter 
Mercury,  because  he  was  the  chief  speaker.     And  though  it 

'  Gospel  Advocate,  vol.  iv.  p.  364.  (Boston,  Massachusetts,  1824.) 
»  See  an  instance  in  his  episile  to  Philemon,  which  is  particularly  illus- 
trated in  Sect.  XV.  §§  III.  V.  infra. 
*  See  p.  32t).  supra.  , 


Sect.  II.] 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  APOSTOLICAL  EPISTLES. 


329 


is  said  his  bndily  presence  was  mean,  and  his  speech  arntemp- 
tihle,  yet  it  ought  to  be  reineiTibercd,  that  tliis  was  the  asper- 
sion of  his  enemies,  the  effusion  of  malignity,  to  defame  and 
sink  him,  and  ruin  his  usefuhiess."' 


SECTION  II. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON   THE    APOSTOLICAL    EPISTLES    IN    GENERAL, 
AND    THOSE    OK    SAINT    PAUL    IN    PAItTICULAR. 

I.  fmportanct;  of  the  Epistles. — ,\'aturc  of  these  -ivritiriffs. — 
II.  J\'iim/)cr  anil  order  of  the  Epistles,  particutarly  those  of 
J'aul. — III.  Of  the  Ciiiholic  Epistles  and  their  order. — IV. 
General  plan  of  the  apostolic  Epistles. — V.  Causes  of  their 
obscurity  considered  and  explained. — Observations  on  the 
phruseotoffy  of  I'attl  in  particular. 

I.  The  Epistles,  or  letters  addressed  to  various  Christian 
communities,  and  also  to  individuals,  by  the  apostles  Paul, 
James,  Peter,  John,  and  Jude,  form  the  second  principal  di- 
vision of  the  New  Testament.  These  writinj^s  abundantly 
confirm  all  the  material  facts  related  in  the  Cos])el  and  Acts 
of  the  Apostles.  The  particulars  of  our  Saviour's  life  and 
death  are  often  referred  to  in  them,  as  grounded  upon  the  un- 
doubted testimony  of  eye-witnesses,  and  as  being  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Christian  religion.  The  speedy  propagation 
of  the  Christian  faith,  recorded  in  the  Acts,  is  confirmcHl  be- 
yond all  contradiction  by  iimumerable  passai^es  in  the  Epis- 
tles, written  to  the  churches  already  jjlantea  ;  and  the  mira- 
culous gifts,  with  which  the  apostles  were  endued,  are  often 
appealed  to  in  the  same  writings,  as  an  undeniable  evidence 
of  the  divine  mission  of  the  apostles.'* 

Though  all  the  essential  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the 
Christian  religion  were  unquestionably  taught  by  our  Saviour 
himself,  and  are  contained  in  the  (iospels,  yet  it  is  evident 
to  any  person  who  attentively  studies  tiie  Epistles,  that  they 
are  to  be  considered  as  commentaries  on  the  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel  addressed  to  particular  Christian  societies  or  persons, 
in  order  to  explain  and  apply  those  doctrines  more  fully,  to 
coiifute  some  growing  errors,  to  compose  dilTerences  and 
schisms,  to  reform  abuses  and  corruptions,  to  excite  Chris- 
tians to  holiness,  and  to  encourage  them  against  persecutions. 
And  since  these  Epistles  were  written  (as  we  have  already 
shown)  under  divine  inspiration,  and  have  uniformly  been 
received  by  the  Christian  church  as  the  productions  of  in- 
spired writers,  it  consequently  follows  (notwithstanding  some 
writers  have  insinuated  that  they  are  not  of  equal  authority 
with  the  Gospels,  while  others  would  reject  them  altogether) 
that  what  the  apostles  have  delivered  in  these  Epistles,  as 
necessary  to  be  believed  or  done  by  Christians,  must  be  qs 
necessary  to  be  believed  and  practised  in  order  to  salvation, 
as  the  doctrines  and  precepts  delivered  by  Jesus  Christ  him- 
self, and  recorded  in  the  Gospels :  because  in  writing  these 
Epistles,  the  sacred  penmen  were  the  servants,  apostles,  am- 
bassadors and  ministers  of  Christ,  and  stewards  of  the  mys- 
teries of  God,  and  their  doctrines  and  precepts  are  the  will, 
the  mind,  the  truth,  and  the  commandments  of  God  himself.' 
On  account  of  the  fuller  displays  of  evangelical  truth  con- 
tained in  this  portion  of  the  sacred  volume,  the  P^pistleshave 
by  some  divines  been  termed  the  doctrinal  books  of  the 
New  Testament. 

That  the  preceding  view  of  the  Epistles  is  correct,  will 
appear  from  the  following  considerations. 

In  ike  FIRST  place  they  announce  and  explain  doctrines,  of 
which  our  Saviour  had  not  fully  treated  in  his  discourses,  and 
which  consequently  are  not  clearly  delivered  in  the  Gospels, 

Thus  there  were  some  things  which  our  Saviour  did  not  fully 
and  clearly  explain  to  his  disciples  (John  xvi.  12.),  but  accom- 
modated his  expressions  to  those  prejudices  in  which  they  had 
been  educated.  Of  this  description  were  his  discourses  concern- 
ing the  nature  of  his  kingdom  ;  which,  agreeably  to  the  erroneous 
notions  then  entertained  by  ihcir  countrymen,  the  apostles  ex- 
pected would  be  a  temporal  kingdom,  and  accompanied  with  the 
same  pomp  and  splendour  which  are  the  attendants  of  an  earthly 

«  Dr.  Ilarwooii's  Introd.  to  the  Now  Tost.  vol.  i  p.  202.  See  aI.so  Micliacl- 
is's  Iiitrodiicticm,  vol.  i.  pp.  liO— I.''i9.  Up.  Newton's  Uisscrlalion  on  St.  Paul's 
Eloi|nen*e.  (Works,  vol.  v.  pp,243— 271.)  Dr.  Kennicott's  Uotnarks  on  Ihr 
Old  Testament  and  Sermons,  pp.  369—379.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  ou  1  Tiui.  vi.  15. 
and  2  Tim.  iv.  S. 

»  See  particnlarly  1  Cor.  xii.  and  xiv. 

3  Dr.  VVhiiby's  Genei-al  Preface  to  the  Epistles,  §  I.  On  the  subject  of 
ilie  preceding  paragraph,  see  aLso  Archb.  Mmcu's  Discourses,  vol  i  iin 
4/ 1 — 174.  and  vol.  ii.  p.  317.  et  seq. 

Vol.il  2T 


monarchy.  This  opinion  was  so  deeply  rooted  in  the  minds  of 
the  apostles,  that  Jesus  Christ  did  not  think  proper  to  eradicate 
it  all  at  once,  but  rather  chose  to  remove  it  by  gentle  and  easy 
degrees.  Accordingly,  in  compliance  with  their  prejudices,  we 
find  him  describing  his  kingdom,  and  the  pre-eminence  they 
were  to  enjoy  in  it,  by  eating  and  drinking  at  his  table,  and  sit- 
ting on  thrones,  and  jnilging  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  (Luke 
xxii.  30.    Matt.  xix.  28.) 

But  after  the  Holy  S[)irit  had  given  the  apostles  clear  and 
distinct  apprehensions  of  the  spiritual  nature  of  Christ's  kingdom, 
and  the  real  nature  of  its  happiness,  we  find  what  noble  repre- 
sentations they  give  of  the  glories  which  are  laid  up  in  Heaven 
for  true  Christians,  and  what  powerful  arguments  they  derive 
thence,  in  order  to  persuade  them  not  to  set  their  minds  upon 
the  things  of  this  world.  They  describe  the  happiness  of  the 
world  to  come  by  an  inheritance  incorruptible,  undefiled,  and 
that  fadeth  not  away  (1  Pet.  i.  4.)  ;  by  a  new  heaven,  and  a 
new  earth,  wherein  dwelleth  riffliteotisness  (2  Pet.  iii.  13.), 
where  God  shall  be  all  in  all  ( 1  Cor.  xv.  28.)  :  he  shall  reign 
with  an  absolute  dominion,  and  it  shall  be  our  honour  and  hap- 
piness that  God  is  exalted ;  and  they  exhort  us  not  to  set  our 
minds  upon  the  things  that  are  seen,  and  are  temporal,  but  on 
those  things  which  are  not  seen,  aiid  are  eterjial.   (2  Cor.  iv.  18.) 

Again,  it  was  the  same  prejudice  concerning  the  temporal 
glories  of  Christ's  kingdom  which  caused  his  disciples  to  mis- 
understand the  meaning  of  his  various  clear  and  explicit  dis- 
courses concerning  his  sufferings,  death,  and  resurrection.  (See 
Mark  ix.  10.  Luke  ix.  45.  xviii.  34.)  They  vainly  expected 
that  their  master  would  gain  earthly  conquests  and  triumphs, 
and  they  could  not  apprehend  how  he  should  become  glo- 
rious through  sufferings.  In  consequence  of  these  mistaken 
ideas,  the  doctrine  of  the  cross  and  its  saving  elTects  were  not 
understood  by  the  apostles  (Matt.  xvi.  22.),  until  our  Saviour 
had  opened  their  understandings  by  his  discourses  on  this  subject 
after  his  resurrection  ;  and  therefore  we  cannot  expect  so  perfect 
an  exposition  of  that  great  and  fundamental  article  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  Gospels  as  in  the  Epistles,  in  which  Christ's  dying 
for  our  sins,  and  rising  again  for  our  justification,  is  every 
where  insisted  upon  as  the  foundation  of  all  our  hopes ;  and  the 
doctrine  of  the  cross  is  there  spoken  of  as  a  truth  of  such  im- 
portance, that  Saint  Paul  (1  Cor.  ii.  2.),  in  comparison  of  it, 
despises  every  other  kind  of  knowledge,  whether  divine  or  human. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  apostles  deduce  those  powerful  motives  to 
obedience,  which  are  taken  from  the  love,  humility,  and  conde- 
scension of  our  Lord,  and  the  right  which  he  has  to  our  service, 
having  purchased  us  with  the  price  of  his  blood.  (See  1  Cor.  vi. 
20.  2  Cor.  V.  15.  Gal.  ii,  20.  Tit.ii.  14.  1  Pet.  i.  18,  19.)  Hence 
they  derive  those  great  obligations,  which  lie  upon  Christians  to 
exercise  the  duties  of  mortification  and  self-denial ;  of  crucifying 
the  flesh  with  the  affections  and  lusts  (Gal.  v.  24.  vi.  14.  Kom. 
vi.  6.  1  Pet.  iv.  1,  2.)  ;  of  patience  under  afflictions,  and  rejoicing 
in  tribulations  (Phil.  iii.  10.  2  Tim.  ii.  11,  12.  1  Pet.  ii.  19.  «&c., 
iv.  13.);  of  being  dead  to  this  world,  and  seeking  those  things 
which  are  above,  where  Christ  sitteth  at  the  right  hand  of  God. 
(Col.  iii.  1.  «&c.)  Thus,  as  our  Saviour  spoiled  principalities 
and  powers,  and  triumphed  over  his  enemies  by  the  cross 
(Col.  ii.  15.),  so  the  believer  overcomes  the  world  by  being  cru- 
cified to  it;  and  becomes  more  than  conqueror  through  Christ 
that  loved  him. 

Once  more,  it  is  in  the  Epistles  principally,  that  we  are  clearly 
taught  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  to  make  one  church  with  the 
Jews.  Our  Lord,  indeed,  had  intimated  this  glorious  event  in  some 
general  expressions,  and  also  in  some  of  his  parables  (see  Matt, 
viii.  I.  XX.  1.  Luke  xv,  11.  &c.)  ;  and  the  numerous  prophecies  of 
the  Old  Testament,  which  foretell  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles,  were 
suflicicnt  to  convince  the  Jews,  that  in  the  times  of  the  Messiah, 
God  would  reveal  the  luiowledge  of  himself  and  his  will  to  the 
world  more  fully  than  ever  he  had  done  before.  But  the  extraor- 
dinary value  which  they  had  for  themselves,  and  the  privileges 
which  they  fancied  were  {jcculiar  to  their  own  nation,  made 
them  unwilling  to  believe  that  the  Gentiles  should  ever  he  fellow- 
heirs  with  the  Jews,  of  the  same  body  or  church  with  them,  and 
partakers  of  the  same  prornises  in  Christ  by  the  Gospel.  (Eph. 
iii.  G.)  This  Saint  Peter  himself  could  hardly  be  persuaded  to 
believe,  till  he  was  convinced  by  a  particular  vision  vouchsafed  to 
him  for  that  purpose.  (Acts  x.  28.)  And  Saint  Paul  tells  us 
that  this  was  a  mystery  which  was  but  newly  revealed  to  the 
apostles  by  the  Spirit  (Eph.  iii.  5.)  :  and  therefore  not  fully  dis- 
covered by  Christ  before. 

Lastly,  it  is  in  the  Epi.«tles  chiefly  that  the  inefficacy  of  the 
law  to  procure  our  justification  in  the  sight  of  God,  the  cessation 


330 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chaf,  III 


of  the  law,  and  the  eternal  and  uncnangeable  nature  of  Christ's 
priesthood  are  set  forth.  Compare  Rom.  iii.  20.  25.  Gal.  ii.  21. 
iii.  16.  V.  2.  5.  Heb.  ix.  10.  vii.  18.  v.  5,  6.   vii.  24,  25 

Secondly,  in  the  Epistles  only  we  have  instructions  concern- 
ing many  great  and  necessary  duties. 

Such  are  the  following,  viz.  that  all  our  thanksgivings  are  to 
be  oilered  up  to  God  in  the  name  of  Christ.'  The  duties  which 
we  owe  to  our  civil  governors  are  only  hinted  in  these  words  of 
Chri.st — '^^  Render  unto  Cxsar  the  things  that  are  Cxsar^s," 
but  are  enlarged  upon  in  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Romans 
(xiii.),  and  to  Titus  (iii.  1.),  and  also  in  the  first  Epistle  of 
Saint  Peter,  (ii.  10.  17.)  In  like  manner  the  duties,  which  we 
owe  to  the  ministers  of  the  Gospel  (our  spiritual  governors), 
are  more  expressly  taught  in  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Gala- 
tians  (vi.  6.),  the  Thessalonians  (IThess.  v.  12,  13.),  and  to 
the  Hebrews,  (xiii.  17,  18.)  Lastly,  all  the  duties  belonging  to 
the  relations  of  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  children,  masters 
and  servants,  are  particidarht  treated  in  the  Epistles  to  the 
Ephesians  (v.  28 — 33.  vi.  1 — 9.),  and  the  Colossians  (iii.  1 1 — 
25.)  ;  but  are  scarcely  ever  mentioned  in  the  Gospels.  This  is 
a  convincing  argument  that  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  influenced  the 
pens  of  the  apostles,  not  only  regarded  the  particular  exigencies 
of  the  Christians  who  lived  in  those  times,  but  also  directed  the 
sacred  writers  to  enlarge  on  such  points  of  doctrine  and  practice 
as  were  of  universal  concern,  and  would  be  for  the  benefit  of  the 
faithful  in  all  succeeding  generations.^  It  is  true  that  the  imme- 
diate occasio7i  of  several  of  the  epistles  was  the  correction  of 
errors  and  irregularities  in  particular  churches  :■''  but  the  expe- 
rience of  all  succeeding  ages,  to  our  own  time,  has  shown  the 
necessity  of  such  cautions,  and  the  no  less  necessity  of  attending 
to  the  duties  which  are  directly  opposite  to  those  sins  and  irregu- 
larities, and  which  the  apostles  talie  occasion  from  thence  to  lay 
down  and  enforce.  And  even  their  decisions  of  cases  concerning 
meats  and  drinks,  and  the  observation  of  the  ceremonial  law,  and 
similar  doubts  which  were  peculiar  to  the  Jewish  converts,  in  the 
^rst  occasion  of  them : — even  these  rules  also  are,  and  will 
always  be,  our  surest  guides  in  all  points  relating  to  church 
liberty,  and  the  use  of  things  indillerent ;  when  the  grounds  of 
those  decisions,  and  the  directions  consequent  upon  them,  are 
duly  attended  to,  and  applied  to  cases  of  the  like  nature  by  the 
rules  of  piety  and  prudence,  especially  in  one  point,  which  is  of 
universal  concern  in  life,  viz.  the  duty  of  abstaining  from  many 
things  which  are  in  themselves  innocent,  if  we  foresee  that  they 
will  give  offence  to  weak  Christians,  or  be  the  occasion  of 
leading  others  into  sin. 

II.  The  Epistles  contained  in  the  New  Testament  are 
twenty-one  in  number,  and  are  gfenerally  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  and  the  Catholic  Epis- 
tles. Of  these  apostolical  letters,  fourteen  were  written  by 
the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  ;  they  are  not  placed  in  our 
Bibles  according  to  the  order  of  time  when  they  were  com- 
posed, but  according  to  the  supposed  precedence  of  the  socie- 
ties or  persons  to  whom  they  were  addressed.  Thus,  the 
epistles  to  churches  are  disposed  according  to  the  rank  of 
the  cities  or  places  whither  they  were  sent.  The  Epistle  to 
the  Romans  stands  first,  because  Rome  was  the  chief  city  of 
the  Roman  empire :  this  is  followed  by  the  two  Epistles  to 
the  Corinthians,  because  Corinth  was  a  large,  polite,  and  re- 
nowned city.  To  them  succeeds  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians, 
who  were  the  inhabitants  of  Galatia,  a  region  of  Asia  Minor, 
in  which  were  several  churches.  Next  follows  the  Epistle 
to  the  Ephesians,  because  Ephesus  v.'as  the  chief  city  of 
Asia  Minor,  strictly  so  called.  Afterwards  come  the  Epis- 
tles to  the  Philippians,  Colossians,  and  Thessalonians ;  for 
which  order  Dr.  Lardner  can  assign  no  other  probable  reason 
than  this,  viz.  that  Philippi  was  a  Roman  colony,  and,  there- 
fore, the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  was  placed  before  those 
to  the  Colossians  and  Thessalonians,  whose  cities  were  not 
distinguished  by  any  particular  circumstance.  He  also 
thinks  it  not  unlikely  that  the  shortness  of  the  two  Epistles 
to  the  Thessalonians,  especially  of  the  second,  caused  them 
to  be  placed  last  among  the  letters  addressed  to  churches, 
though  in  point  of  time  they  are  the  earliest  of  Saint  Paul's 
Epistles. 

Amon^  the  Epistles  addressed  to  particular  persons,  those 
to  Timotny  have  the  precedence,  as  he  was  a  favourite  disci- 

»  Compare  Eph.  v.  8.  20.     1  Thess.  v.  18.    Heb.  xiii.  14,  1.5. 

'^  Whitby,  vol.  ii.  p.  1.  Lowth's  Directions  for  ttie  Profitable  Reading  of 
tlie  Scriptures,  pp.  199—211. 

3  Such  were  the  corrupting  of  Christianity  vrith  mixtures  of  Judaism 
and  philosophy,  apostacy  from  the  faith  which  they  had  received,  conten- 
tions and  divisions  among  themselves,  neglect  of  the  assemblies  for  public 
worship,  and  misbehaviour  in  them,  the  dishonouring  of  marriage,  &c.  &c. 


pie  of  Saint  Paul,  and  also  because  those  Epistles  are  the 
longest  and  fullest.  To  them  succeeds  the  Epistle  to  Titus, 
who  was  an  evangelist;  and  that  to  Philemon  is  placed  last, 
as  he  was  supposed  to  have  been  only  a  private  Christian. 
Last  of  all  comes  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  because  its 
authenticity  was  doubted  for  a  short  time  (though  without 
any  foundation,  as  will  be  shown  in  a  subsequent  page) ; 
Dr.  Lardner  also  thinks  that  it  was  the  last  written  of  all 
St.  Paul's  Epistles. 

Some  learned  men,  who  have  examined  the  chronolo^  of 
Saint  Paul's  Epistles,  have  proposed  to  arrange  them  in  our 
Bibles,  according  to  the  order  of  time  :  but  to  this  classifica- 
tion there  are  two  serious  objections,  viz.  1.  The  order  of 
their  dates  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  or  unanimously  set- 
tled; and,  2.  Very  considerable  difficulty  will  attend  the  altera-, 
tion  of  that  order  which  has  been  adopted  in  all  the  editions 
and  vei-siuns  of  the  New  Testament.  This  was  the  received 
arrangement  in  the  time  of  Eusebius,  who  flourished  in  the 
beginnino-of  the  third  century,  and  probably  also  of  Irenaeus, 
who  liveS  in  the  second  century.  Consequently  it  is  the  most 
ancient  order  :  in  Dr.  Lardner's  judgment  it  is  the  best  that 
can  be  adopted  ;">  and  therefore  we  have  retained  the  received 
order  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this  work.  As,  however,  a 
knowledge  of  the  order  in  which  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  were 
written,  cannot  fail  to  be  both  instructive  and  useful  to  the 
biblical  student,  we  have  deemed  it  proper  to  subjoin  a 
Table  of  their  Chronological  Order  (as  estviblished  in  the 
subsequent  pages),  which  exhibits  the  places  where,  and  the 
times  when,  they  were  in  all  probability  respectively  written. 
The  dates,  &c.  assigned  by  Dr.  Lardner  and  other  learned 
men,  are  duly  noticed  in  the  following  pages. 


EPISTLES. 

1  Thessalonians 

2  Thessalonians 

Galatians 

1  Corinthians 
Romans 

2  Corinthians 
Ephesians 
Philippians 
Colossians 
Philemon  -  * 

Hebrews 


PLACES. 

Corinth 
-  Corinth  - 

Corinth  - 

•  Ephesus 

Corinth 


I  Macedonia, 

'  (perhaps  from  Philippi) 
Rome 


52 

-  52 
S  At  the  close  of  52 
}  or  early  in  53 

-  57 
S  About  the  end  of  57 
i  or  the  beginning  of  58 

-  58 


61 


•  Rome 
Rome 
■  Rome 


5  Before  the  end  of  62 

i  or  the  beginning  of  03 

62 

5  About  the  end  of  62 

}  or  early  in  63 

i  Italy  )  ^  About  the  end  of  62 

'  (perhaps  from  Rome) )   (  or  early  in  63 

-  Macedonia  -  -  -     64 

Macedonia    -  -  -  64 

-Rome      -  -  -  -     65 


or  early  in 

1  Timothy  '         '        "'        '     '  '   ' 
Titus  - 

2  Timothy 

III.  The  Catholic  Epistles  are  seven  in  number,  and  contain 
the  letters  of  the  apostles  James,  Peter,  John,  and  Jude. 
They  are  termed  Catholic,^  that  is,  general  or  universal,  be- 
cause they  are  not  addressed  to  the  believers  of  some  parti- 
cular city  or  country,  or  to  individuals,  as  Saint  Paul's  Epis- 
tles were,  but  to  Christians  in  general,  or  to  Christians  of 
several  countries.  The  subjoined  table  exhibits  the  dates  of 
the  Catholic  Epistles,  and  also  the  places  where  they  were 
written,  agreeably  to  the  order  established  in  the  following 
pages. 


EPISTLES. 

James    - 

1  Peter 

2  Peter  . 

1  John 


PLACES.  A.  D. 

-  Judaia      •  -  -  -      61 
Rome ...           .           -  64 

-  Rome  Xbout  the  beginning  of  65 
i  Unknown  l  "^  ^^ 
'  (perhaps  Ephesus)  S          (  or  early  in  69 

S  63 

(  or  early  in  69 

Unknown-  -  -       64  or  65 


Ephesus 


2  and  3  John     • 

Jude 

IV.  The  general  plan  on  which  the  Epistles  are  written 
is,  Jirst,  to  discuss  and  decide  the  controversy,  or  to  refute  the 
erroneous  notions,  which  had  arisen  in  the  church,  or  among 
the  persons  to  whom  they  are  addressed,  and  which  was  the 
occasion  of  their  being  written  ;  and,  secondly,  to  recommend 
the  observance  of  those  duties,  which  would  be  necessary, 
and  of  absolute  importance  to  the  Christian  church  in  every 
age,  consideration  being  chiefly  given  to  those  particulai 
graces  or  virtues  of  the  Christian  character,  which  the  dis- 
putes that  occasioned  the  Epistles  might  tempt  them  to  neg- 
lect. In  pursuing  this  method,  regard  is  had,  first,  to  the 
nature  and  faculties  of  the  soul  of  man,  in  which  the  under- 
standing is  to  lead  the  way,  and  the  will,  affections,  and 
active  powers  are  to  follow  ;  and,  secondly,  to  the  nature  of 
religion  in  general,  which  is  a  reasonable  service,  teaching 
us  that  we  are  not  to  be  determined  by  superstitious  fancies, 

■■•  Dr.  Lardner's  Worke,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  646—649.:  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp. 
407,  408. 

s  On  the  origin  and  reasons  of  this  appellation,  see  Chapter  IV.  Sect.  I. 
§  1.  infra. 


sbct.  in.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  ROMANS. 


331 


nor  by  blind  passions,  but  by  a  sound  judgment  and  a  good 
under fitunding  of  the  mind  and  will  of  God  ;  and  also  show- 
ino-  us  the  necessary  union  of  faith  and  j)ractirp,  of  trutli  and 
holiness.  The  pious,  alfectionate,  and  faithful  manner  in 
which  the  apostles  admonisli,  reprove,  exhort,  or  oiler  conso- 
lation, can  only  be  adequately  apprecialcJ  by  him,  who,  by 
patient  and  diiitrent  study,  is  enabled  to  enter  fully  into  the 
spirit  of  the  inspired  autliors. 

V.  Explicit  as  the  Epistles  unquestionably  are  in  all  fun- 
damental points,  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  some  parts  of 
them  are  more  difficult  to  be  understood  than  tlie  Gospels.' 
The  reason  of  these  seemingr  difficulties  is  evident.  In  an 
Epistle  many  thintrs  arc  omilied,  or  only  slicrlitly  mentioned, 
because  they  are  supposed  to  be  known  by  tlie  person  to 
whom  it  is  addressed  ;  but,  to  a  person  unacquainted  with 
such  particulars,  they  cannot  but  pr(!senl  considerable  diffi- 
culty. The  affairs  discussed  by  Saint  Paul  were  certainly 
well  known  to  the  persons  to  whom  he  wrote ;  who  conse- 
nnently  would  easily  apprehend  his  meaninir,  and  see  the 
force  and  tendency  of  his  discourse.  As,  however,  we  wiio 
live  at  this  distance  of  time,  can  obtain  no  information  con- 
cerning the  occasion  of  his  writinir,  or  the  character  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  persons  for  whom  his  Epistles  were  in- 
tended, except  what  can  be  collected  from  the  Epistles 
themselves,  it  is  not  strange  that  several  things  in  them 
should  appear  obscure  to  us.  Further,  it  is  evident  from 
many  passages,  that  he  answers  letters  sent,  and  questions 

Croposed  to  him,  by  his  correspondents ;  which,  if  they  had 
ecn  preserved,  would  have  illustrated  different   passages 
much  better  than  all  the  notes  of  commentators  and  critics. 

To  these  causes  of  obscurity,  which  are  common  to  all  the 
writers  of  the  Epistles,  we  may  add  some  that  are  peculiar 
to  Saint  Paul,  owinw  to  his  style  and  temper.  Possessing 
an  ardent,  acute,  and  fertile  mind  (as  we  have  seen  in  the 
preceding  section),  he  seems  to  have  written  with  great  ra- 
pidity, and  without  closely  attending  to  method.  Hence 
arise  those  frequent  parentheses  which  occur  in  his  Epistles. 
In  the  course  of  his  argument  he  sometimes  breaks  off  ab- 
ruptly, in  order  to  pursue  a  new  thought  that  is  necessary 
for  the  support  of  some  point  arisin^r  from  the  subject,  though 
not  immediately  leading  to  it ;  and  when  he  has  eAhausted 
such  new  idea,  he  retnnis  from  his  digression  without  any 
intimation  of  the  change  of  topic,  so  that  considerable  atten- 
tion is  requisite  in  order  to  retain  the  connection.  His  fre- 
quent changes  of  persons  and  propositions  of  objections, 
which  he  answers  without  giving  any  formal  intimation,  are 
also  causes  of  ambiguity.  To  these  we  may  add,  1.  The 
modern  divisions  of  chapters  and  verses,  which  dissolve  the 
connection  of  parts,  and  break  them  into  fragments  ;  and, 
2.  Our  uncertainty  concerning  the  persons  addressed,  as  well 
as  the  opinions  and  practices  to  which  the  great  apostle  of 
the  Gentiles  alludes,  sometimes  only  in  exhortations  and 
reproofs.2  Other  causes  of  obs<5urity  might  be  assicrned,  but 
the  preceding  are  the  most  material ;  and  the  knowledge  of 
them,  if  we  study  with  a  rigid  spirit,  will  enable  us  to  ascer- 
tain the  rest  without  difficulty.  The  most  useful  mode  of 
studyinor  the  epistolary  writings  of  the  New  Testament  is, 
unquestionably,  that  proposed  and  recommended  by  Mr. 
Locke;  which,  having  oeen  already  noticed  when  treating  on 
the  doctrinal  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary again  to  repeat.  ^ 


SECTION  III. 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  ROMANS. 

I.  Date,  and  -where  -written. — II.  Genuineness  and  authenticity 
of  this  Epistle  ;  particularly  of  chapters  XV.  and  XVI. — 
III.   The  church  at  Rome,  -when  and  by  -whom  founded. — 

1  Tlie  following  remark  of  a  late  excellent  writer,  on  the  Scriptures  in 
general,  is  particularly  applicable  to  Saint  Paul's  Epistles.— "  Ditficulties 
indeed  there  are,  but  the  life-directing  precepts  they  contain  are  sutli- 
cientlv  easy  ;  and  he  who  reads  the  Scriptures  with  an  unprejudiced  mind, 
must  be  convinced,  that  the  whole  end  they  have  in  view  is  to  lead  man- 
kind to  their  truest  and  best  happiness,  both  here  and  hereafter.  They 
inform  our  reason,  they  guide  our  consciences;  in  short,  they  have  the 
words^both  of  temporal  and  eternal  life."  Gilpin's  Sermons,  vol.  iv.  p  33o 
See  also  Mrs.  More's  Essay  on  Saint  Paul,  vol.  i.  pp.  59—72. 

»  Locke's  Essay  for  the  understanding  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  (Works, 
vol.  iii.),  p.  275.  el  seq.  See  also  Dr.  Graves's  Essay  on  the  Character  of  the 
Apostles  and  Evangelists,  pp.  146— lt)3.,  for  some  useful  remarks  on  the 
obscunty  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistles. 
.  »  See  Vol.  I.  Part  n.  Chap.  V. 


IV.  Occasion.^-Y .  Internal  state  of  the  cliurch  at  Rome. — 
VI.  Scope. — VII.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. — VIII.  Observa- 
tions on  this  Epistle. 

I.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  though  fifth  in  order  of 
time,  is  placed  first  of  all  the  apostolical  letters,  either  from 
the  pre-eminence  of  Rome,  as  being  the  mistress  of  the  world, 
or  i)ecause  it  is  the  longest  and  most  compreiicnsive  of  all 
Sdint  Paul's  E|)istles.  Various  years  have  been  assigned 
for  its  date.  Van  Til  refers  it  to  tlie  year  55 ;  Langius, 
Hishop  Pearson,  Drs.  Mill  and  Whitliy,  Fabricius,  Reinec- 
cins.  Professor  Stuart,  and  others,  to  tiie  year  57  :  IJaronius, 
.Miehaelis,  Lord  Uarrington,  Drs.  Ben.son  and  Lardner,  and 
Hishoj)  Tomline  to  the  year  58 ;  Archbishop  Usher  and  our 
I5i!)le  chronology,  to  the  year  00;  Dr.  Hales  to  the  end  of 
5H,  or  the  beginning  of  59;  atid  Roseimi  'Her  to  the  end  of 
the  year  58.  The  most  probable  date  is  that  which  assigns 
this  Epistle  to  the  end  of  57,  or  the  begiiming  of  58;  at 
which  time  Saint  Paul  was  at  Corinth,  wiience  lie  was  pre- 
paring to  go  to.Ieriisalem  with  the  collections  which  had  been 
made  by  the  Christians  of  .Macedonia  and  Achaia  for  their 
poor  brethren  in  Judaea.  (Rom.  xv.  25 — 27.)'  The  Epistle 
was  dictated  by  the  apostle  in  the  Greek  languaoe^  toTcrtius 
his  amanuensis  (.\vi.  22.),  and  was  sent  to  the  church  at 
Rome,  by  Phoebe,  a  deaconess  of  the  church  at  Cenchrea 
(xvi.  1.),  whose  journey  to  Rome  afforded  Saint  Paul  an 
opportunity  of  writing  to  the  Christians  in  that  city.  That 
he  wrote  from  Corinth  is  further  evident  from  Romans  xvi. 
23.  where  he  sends  salutations  from  Erastus  the  chamberlain 
of  Corinth  (which  city,  we  learn  from  2  Tim.  iv.  20.  was  the 
place  of  his  residence),  and  from  Gains,  who  lived  at  Corinth 
(1  Cor.  i.  II.),  whom  Saint  Paul  terms  his  /lost,  and  the  host 
of  all  the  Christian  church  there. 

II.  That  this  Epistle  has  always  been  acknowledged  to 
be  a  genuine  and  authentic  production  of  Saint  Paul,  is  at- 
tested not  only  by  the  ancient  Syriac  and  Latin  versions, 
but  by  the  express  declarations  and  quotations  of  Irensus,' 
Theophilus  of  Antioch,"  Clement  of  Alexandria,^  Tertullian,' 
Origen,"^  and  by  all  subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers.  It  was 
also  cited  or  alluded  to  by  the  apostolic  fathers,"  Uamabas,'^ 
Clement  of  Rome,'^  Ignatius,'*  Polycarp,'*  and  by  the 
churches  of  Vienna  and  Lyons.i» 

The  genuineness  of  chapters  xv.  and  xvi.  has  been  of  late 
years  impugned  by  Heumann,  Semler,  Schott,  and  Eichhorn. 
Their  arguitients  have  been  examined  in  detail,  and  most 
satisfactorily  refuted  by  Professor  Stuart,  in  his  Introduction 
to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,''  the  result  of  whose  researches 
proves,  first,  that  there  is  no  internal  evidence  to  prove  that 
these  chapters  are  spurious ;  and  secondly,  that  no  external 
evidence  of  any  considerable  weight  can  be  adduced  in  fa- 
vour of  this  supposition.  All  the  manusciipts  which  are  of 
any  authority  (with  some  variety  as  to  the  position  of  xvi. 
25 — 27.,  and  with  the  omission  of  these  verses  in  a  few 
cases)  are  on  the  side  of  the  genuineness  of  these  chapters. 
Jerome  mentions,'^  that  he  knew  of  some  manuscripts  which 
omitted  xvi.  25 — 27.  ;  and  Wetstein  cites  a  Codex  Latinus 
which  also  omits  those  verses.  But  in  regard  to  all  the 
rest  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  chapters,  no  authority 
from  manuscripts,  fathers,  or  versions,  warrants  us  in  sus- 
pecting them. 

III.  The  Scriptures  do  not  inform  us  at  what  time  or  by 
whom  the  Gospel  was  first  preached  at  Rome.  Those  who 
assert  that  the  church  in  that  city  was  founded  by  Saint  Pe- 
ter, can  produce  no  solid  foundation  for  their  opinion :  for,  if 
he  had  preached  the  Gospel  there,  it  is  not  likely  that  such 

*  This  opinion  is  satisfactorily  vindicated  at  consider'-ble  length,  by  Dr. 
.1.  F.  Flatt,  in  a  dissertation,  De  tempore,  quo  Pauli  epislola  ad  liomanoa 
scripla  sit  (Tubinga!,  17S0) ;  reprinted  in  Pott's  and  RuperU's  .Sylloge  Com- 
mentalionumXheologicarum,  vol.  ii.  pp.5} — 74 

»  Bellarmine  and  Salmeron  imagined  that  this  epistle  was  written  in 
Latin,  but  tliis  notion  is  contradicted  bv  llie  whole  current  of  Christian 
antiquity;  and  John  Adrian  Bolton,  a  German  critic,  fancied  that  it  was 
written  m  Aramaic,  but  he  was  amply  refuted  by  Griesbach.  Viser,  Ilerm. 
Sacr.  Nov.  Test,  pars  ii.  p.  334.  Rosenmuller,  Scholia,  vol.  in.  p.  359.  That 
Greek  was  the  original  language  we  have  already  proved,  supra.  Vol.  L 
pp.  193,  194.  ,   .  .^„  »,„ 

0  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  163—165. ;  4to,  vol.  i.  pp.  368,  369. 

•>  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  195—199. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  3S5— 35S. 

8  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  222—224. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  400-402. 

s  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  266—272. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  424—1.5. 

10  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  375—377. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  482—434. 

1"  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  471,  472. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  535. 

•  »  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  17,  IS. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  236,  2S7. 
13  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  35. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  296. 

>*  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  74. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  318. 
»s  ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  94. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  329. 
>«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  151.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  361. 
"  Stuart's  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  pp.  43—50. 
I     '•  Hieronymi  Comrn.  inEph.  iii.  5. 


333 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  HI. 


an  event  would  have  been  left  unnoticed  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  where  the  labours  of  Peter  are  particularly  related 
with  those  of  Paul,  which  form  the  chief  subject  of  that 
book.  Nor  is  it  probable  that  the  author  of  this  Epistle 
should  have  made  no  reference  whatever  to  this  circum- 
stance, if  it  had  been  true.  There  is  still  less  plausibility 
in  the  opinion,  that  the  church  was  planted  at  Rome  by  the 
joint  labours  of  Peter  and  Paul,  for  it  is  evident  from  Ro- 
mans i.  8.  that  Paul  had  never  been  in  that  city  previously 
to  his  writing  this  Epistle.  As,  however,  the  fame  of  this 
church  had  reached  him  long  before  he  wrote  the  present 
letter  (xv.  23.),  the  most  probable  opinion  is  that  of  Dr. 
Benson,  Michaelis,  Rambach,  Rosenmiiller,  and  other  critics, 
viz.  that  the  Gospel  was  first  preached  there  by  some  of 
those  persons  who  heard  Peter  preach,  and  were  converted  at 
Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost :  for  we  learn  from  Acts 
ii.  10.  that  there  were  then  at  Jerusalem,  strangers  of  Rome, 
Jews,  and  proselytes.  These  Roman  Jews,  on  their  return 
home,  doubtless  preached  Christ  to  their  countrymen  there,' 
and  probably  converted  some  of  them :  so  that  the  church 
at  Rome,  like  most  of  the  churches  in  Gentile  countries, 
was  at  first  composed  of  Jews.  But  it  was  soon  enlarged  by 
converts  from  among  the  religious  proselytes  to  Judaism, 
and  in  process  of  time  was  increased  by  the  flowing  in  of 
the  idolatrous  Gentiles,  who  gave  themselves  to  Christ  in 
such  numbers,  that,  at  the  time  Saint  Paul  wrote  his  Epistle 
to  the  Romans,  their  conversion  was  much  spoken  of  through- 
out the  world,  (i.  8.)  Among  the  earliest  messengers  of  the 
faith  or  promoters  of  its  doctrines,  Andronicus  and  Junia 
may  be  enumerated  (Rom.  xvi.  7.),  and  also  Rufus,  the 
same,  perhaps,  whose  father  assisted  Jesus  Christ  in  bear- 
ing the  cross,  (xvi.  13.  Mark  xv.  21.) 

IV.  The  occasion  of  writing  this  Epistle  may  easily  be 
collected  from  the  Epistle  itself.  It  appears  that  Saint  Paul, 
who  had  been  made  acquainted  with  all  the  circumstances 
of  the  Christians  at  Rome  by  Aquila  and  Priscilla  (Rom. 
xvi.  3.),  and  by  other  Jews  who  had  been  expelled  from 
Rome  by  the  decree  of  Claudius  (Acts  xviii.  2.),  was  very 
desirous  of  seeing  them,  that  he  might  impart  to  them  some 
spiritual  gift  (Rom.  i.  8 — 13.  xv.  14.  xvi.  1.)  ;  but,  being 
prevented  from  visiting  them,  as  he  had  proposed,  in  his 


however,  that  the  church  was  composed  partly  of  Heathens 
who  had  embraced  the  Gospel,  and  partly  of  Jews,  who, 
with  many  remaining  prejudices,  believed  in  Jesus  as  the 
Messiah  ;  and  finding  also  that  many  contentions  arose  from 
the  Gentile  converts  claiming  equal  privileges  with  the  He- 
brew Christians  (which  claims  the  latter  absolutely  refused 
to  admit  unless  the  Gentile  converts  were  circumcised),  he 
wrote  this  Epistle  to  compose  these  differences,  and  to 
strengthen  the  faith  of  the  Roman  Christians  against  the 
insinuations  of  false  teachers ;  being  apprehensive  lest  his 
involuntary  absence  from  Rome  should  be  turned  by  the 
latter  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Gospel. 

V.  Ill  order  ifuUy  to  understand  this  Epistle,  it  is  neces- 
sary tliat  we  should  be  acquainted  with  the  tenets  believed 
by  those  whose  errors  the  apostle  here  exposes  and  confutes. 
It  is  clear  that  he  wrote  to  persons,  who  had  been  either 
Gentiles  or  Jews,  and  that  his  grand  design  was  to  remove 
the  prejudices  entertained  by  both  these  descriptions  of 
persons. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Gentiles,  who  lived  in  gross  ig- 
norance, did  not  trouble  themselves  much  concerning  the 
pardon  of  their  sins,  or  the  salvation  of  their  souls ;  and  the 
rest  believed  that  their  virtues  deserved  the  favour  of  their 
gods,  either  in  tfiis  world  or  in  the  next,  if  there  were  any 
thing  to  expect  after  death.  They  also  thought  that  their 
vices  or  sins  were  expiated  by  their  virtues,  especially  if 
they  were  truly  sorry  for  the  crimes  they  had  committed ; 
for  they  declared  a  man  to  be  innocent  who  repented  of  his 
fault.  In  order  to  expiate  the  most  atrocious  crimes,  they  had 
recourse  to  purifications  and  sacrifices,  and  sometimes  offered 
human  victims ;  but  the  wisest  amontr  them  maintained  that 
nothing  was  more  fit  to  appease  the  Divinity  than  a  change 
of  life. 

The  Jews,  on  the  other  hand,  divided  all  mankind  into 
three  classes.  The  first  was  composed  of  righteous  men 
whose  righteousness  exceeded  their  sins ;  the  second  com- 

•  At  this  time  there  were  great  numbers  of  Jews  at  Rome,  .losephiis 
relates  that  tlieir  number  amounted  to  eight  thousand  (Anli<i.  Jnd.  lib.  xvii. 
c  12);  and  Dion  Cassias  (lib.  xxxvii.  c.  17.)  informs  us  that  tliey  had 
obtained  the  privilege  of  living  according  to  lUeir  own  laws. 


prised  those  whose  righteousness  was  equal  to  their  sins; 
and  the  third  contained  wicked  men,  whose  sins  were  more 
in  number  than  their  good  deeds.  They  thought,  however, 
that  there  was  no  person  so  righteous  as  not  to  stand  in  need 
of  pardon:  but  they  believed  that  they  should  obtain  it  by 
repentance,  by  confession  of  their  sins,  by  almsgiving,  by 
prayer,  by  the  afflictions  which  God  sent  them,  by  their 
purifications,  sacrifices,  and  change  of  life,  and  above  all  by 
the  solemn  sacrifice  which  was  annually  offered  on  the  great 
day  of  atonement ; — and  if  there  yet  remained  any  thing  to 
be  pardoned,  every  thing  (they  said)  would  be  expiated  by 
death.  Further,  the  most  zealous  among  the  Jews  entertain- 
ed various  erroneous  opinions  relative  to  their  justification, 
to  the  election  of  their  nation,  and  to  the  Roman  government, 
which  it  is  important  to  consider,  as  Saint  Paul  has  refuted 
them  at  considerable  length  in  this  Epistle. 

1.  The  Jews  assigned  three  grounds  of  justification,  by 
which  they  were  delivered  from  the  guilt  ana  punishment  of 
sin ;  viz. 

(1.)  The  extraordinary  piety  and  merit  of  their  ancestors, 
Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  the  twelve  patriarchs,  and  the  cove- 
nant God  made  with  them  ;  for  the  sake  of  which  piety,  as  He 
had  promised  to  bless  their  posterity,  they  thought  that  this 
covenant  obliged  Him  to  forgive  their  sins.  This  error  is  con- 
futed by  Saint  Paul  in  the  ninth  chapter,  where  he  shows  that 
God's  promises  were  made  only  to  the  faithful  descendants  of 
Abraham;  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  chapter,  which  con- 
firms his  assertion  in  chapter  iii.  29,  30.  that  God  was  alike  the 
God  of  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  ;  and  that  the  covenant,  broken  by 
their  common  father  Adam,  should  be  restored  to  both  by  the 
common  Head  of  the  new  covenant,  Jesus  Christ. 

(2.)  Their  knowledge  of  God  through  the  law  of  God,  ana 
their  diligence  in  the  study  of  that  law  :  which  they  estimated 
so  highly  as  to  make  it  a  plea  for  the  remission  of  their  sins.  In 
opposition  to  this  notion,  Saint  Paul  proves,  in  the  second 
chapter,  that  man  is  justified,  not  by  the  knowledge,  but  by  the 
observance  of  the  law. 

(3.)  The  works  of  the  Levitical  law,  which  were  to  expiate 
sin,  especially  circumcision  and  sacrifices ;  whence  the  Jevi's 
inferred  that  the  Gentiles  must  receive  the  whole  law  of  Moses, 
in  order  to  be  justified  and  saved, — in  other  words,  that  there 
was  no  salvation  out  of  the  Jewish  church.  In  opposition  to 
this  erroneous  tenet.  Saint  Paul  teaches  that  the  Levitical  law 
does  not  expiate,  but  only  reveals  sin ;  and  that  it  exemplifies 
on  the  sacrificed  beasts  the  punishment  due  to  the  sinner,  (iii. 
20.  v.  20.) 

2.  The  doctrine  of  the  Jews  concerning  election  was,  that 
as  God  had  promised  Abraham  that  he  would  bless  his  seed, 
that  He  would  give  it  not  only  the  true  spiritual  blessing, 
but  also  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  that  he  would  suffer  it  to 
dwell  there  in  prosperity,  and  consider  it  as  his  church  upon 
earth  ;  therefore  this  blessing  extended  it  to  their  whole  na- 
tion. They  asserted  that  God  was  bound  to  fulfil  these  pro- 
mises to  every  Jew,  because  he  was  a  descendant  of  Anra- 
ham,  whether  he  were  righteous  or  wicked,  faithful  or  unbe- 
lieving. Tliey  even  believed  that  a  prophet  ought  not  to 
pronounce  against  their  nation  the  prophecies  with  which  ha 
was  inspired,  but  was  bound  to  resist  the  will  of  God,  by 
praying,  like  Moses,  that  his  namo^niight  be  expunged  from 
the  book  of  life.  These  Jewish  errors  illustrate  that  very 
difficult  chapter  (the  ninth),  and  show  that  the  question  dis- 
cussed by  Saint  Paul,  relative  to  predestination  and  election, 
is  totally  different  from  that  debated  by  Christians  since 
the  fourth  century,  and  which  now  unhappily  divides  tlie 
Christian  world. 

3.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Pharisees,  at  least  those  who 
were  of  the  party  of  Judas  the  Gaulonite  or  Galilean,  che- 
rished the  most  rooted  aversion  to  foreign  magistrates ;  and 
from  a  false  interpretation  of  Deut.  xvii.  15.,  thought  it 
unlawful  to  pay  tribute  to,  or  to  acknowledge,  the  Roman 
emperor.2  Expecting  a  Messiah  who  would  establish  a  tem- 
poral kingdom,  and  liberate  them  from  the  dominion  of  the 
Romans,^  they  were  ripe  for  rebellion,  and  at  all  times  ready 
to  throw  off  the  yoke.  Even  the  Jews  at  Rome  had  already 
begun  to  create  disturbances  which  occasioned  the  edict  of 
Claudius,  that  all  Jews  should  depart  from  Rome ;''  and  as, 

9  Compare  Matt.  xxii.  l.'j— 22.  with  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvii.  c.  2.  It 
was  a  maxim  with  the  Jews  that  the  world  icas  given  to  the  Israelites  ;  that 
they  should  have  the  supreme  rule  every  where,  and  that  the  Gentiles 
should  be  their  vassals.  , 

3  Josephus  de  Bell,  Jnd.  lib.  vii.  c.  31.  Suetonius  in  Vespasiano,  c.  4. 
Tacitus,  Ilist.  lib.  ii.  c.  5. 

«  Acts  xviii.  2.    Suetonius  in  Claudiano,  c.  25. 


Sect.  IH.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  ROMANS. 


333 


in  thosf!  early  timeis,  the  Christians  were  generally  con- 
founflcii  with  tli(^  Jews,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  both  were 
incliuied  in  tliis  (hioree.  At  this  time  also,  the  city  of  Rome 
contained  within  herself  the  seeds  of  insurrection  and  civil 
war.  Tiie  senate  was  secretly  jealous  of  the  emperor,  who 
in  his  turn  suspected  the  senate.  The  life  even  of  the  em- 
peror was  seldom  free  from  danjjer :  and  the  succf;ssion  to 
the  throne,  after  the  death  of  Claudius,  was  purchased  by 
lariresses  to  the  imperial  guard.  With  tiie  political  notions 
cherished  by  the  .lews,  it  is  no  wonder  tliat  they,  in  sctveral 
ijistances,  irave  cause  of  suspicion  to  the  Kouiau  irovernnient, 
who  wonl(rbe  glad  of  an  opjjortuuily  to  expel  from  liie  city, 
persons  who  were  considered  dangerous  to  its  peace  and  se- 
curity: nor  is  it  improbable,  on  this  account,  that  the  Chris- 
tians, under  an  idea  of  being  the  peculiar  pmpk  nf  Gad,  and 
the  subjects  of  his  kingdom  alone,  might  be  in  danger  of 
being  inlbcted  with  those  unruly  and  rebellions  sentiments. 
Under  these  circumstances,  tiu^refore.  Saint  Paul  judged  it 
necessary  to  exhort  the  Roman  (christians  to  submit  peacea- 
bly to  the  government  under  which  they  lived,  tie  tells 
tlu-m,  that  the  powers  that  be  (Rom.  xiii.  1.),  or  the  consti- 
tuted authorities,  arc  ordained  of  God,  and  forbids  them  to 
meddle  with  those  who  endeavoured  to  effect  a  change  in 
the  government.'  The  reigning  emperor  at  this  time  was 
tiiat  monster  of  ini(juity,  Nero. 

The  preceding  view  of  the  tenets  held  by  the  Heathens 
and  Jews  of  Rome  will  enable  us  to  ascertain  the  Scope  or 
design  of  Saint  Paul  in  writing  this  epistle,  which  was  to 
confute  the  unbelieving;  to  instruct  the  believing  Jew;  to 
confirm  the  CJhristian,  and  to  convert  the  idolatrous  Gentile : 
and  to  place  the  Gentile  convert  upon  an  equality  with  the 
Jewish  in  respect  of  his  religious  condition,  and  his  rank  in 
the  divine  favour.  These  several  designs  he  reduces  to  one 
scheme,  by  opposing  or  arguing  with  the  infidel  or  unbe- 
lieving Jew,  in  favour  of  the  Christian  or  believing  Gentile. 
"  Upon  this  plan,  if  the  unbelieving  Jew  escapea  and  re- 
mained unconvinced,  j'et  the  Christian  Jew  would  be  more 
iuotl'iiisively  and  more  clTectually  instructed  in  the  nature  of 
the  Gospel,  and  the  kind  brotherly  regards  he  ought  to  have 
for  the  believing  Gentiles,  than  if  he  had  directed  his  dis- 
course immeiliately  and  plainly  to  him.  But,  if  his  argument 
should  fail  in  reference  to  the  believing  Jew,  yet  the  oeliev- 
ing  Gentile  would  see  his  interest  in  the  covenant  and  king- 
dom of  God  as  solidly  established  by  a  full  confutation  of 
Jewish  objections  (which  were  the  only  ol)jections  that 
could  with  any  show  of  reason  be  advanced  against  it),  as 
if  the  Epistle  had  been  written  for  no  other  purpose.  And 
thus  it  is  of  Ike  greatest  use  to  us  at  this  day.  It  is  also  at 
present  exceedingly  useful,  as  it  entirely  demolishes  the  en- 
grossing pretensions  and  imposing  principles  of  the  church 
of  Rome ;  for  a  professed  faith  in  Christ,  and  a  subjection 
to  Him,  are  in  this  Epistle  fully  shown  to  be  the  only  Gospel 
condition  of  a  place  in  his  church,  an  interest  in  the  covenant 
of  God,  and  ot  Christian  fellowship.  By  this  extensive  prin- 
ciple God  broke  down  the  pales  of  nis  own  ancient  enclosure, 
the  Jewish  church ;  and  therefore,  by  the  same  principle, 
more  strongly  forbids  the  building  of  any  other  partition  wall 
of  schemes  and  terras  of  Christian  fellowship.  ^^ 

VII.  This  Epistle  consists  of  four  parts;  viz. 
Part  I.    1'he  Introduction,  (ch.  i.  I — 15.) 
Part  II.  contains  the  Doctrinal  Fart  of  the  Epistle  concerning 

Justification,  (i.  16 — 32.  ii. — xi.)  ;  in  which  we  have, 

Sect.  1.  The  proposition  concerning  the  extent  of  the  Gos- 
pel (i.  16. )3  and  the  demonstration  of  that  proposition  (i. 
17.),  in  which  it  is  shown  that  justification  is  to  be  attained, 

'  Miohaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  89—102.    Dr.  J.  Taylor  on  Uom.  xiii.  1. 

»  Dr.  J.  Taylor's  Preface  to  the  Epistle  to  ttie  Romans,  p.  clxii. 

»  Michaclis  has  given  the  following  more  logical  view  ot  the  argumenta- 
tive part  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  which  may  be  not  unacceptalile  to 
the  reader.  Tlie  principal  point,  he  observes,  wliicli  Saint  Paul  inteniled 
to  prove,  was,  that  the  Gospel  reveals  a  riglUeousnoss  unl<nown  before, 
and  to  wliich  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  have  an  equal  claim.  (Rom.  i.  15,  16.) 
In  order  to  prove  this  point  he  shows  (i.  18. — iii.  20.)  that  both  .lews  and 
Gentiles  are  "  under  sin,"  that  is,  that  God  will  impute  their  sins  to  Jews 
as  well  as  to  Gentiles. 

His  proof  of  lliis  position  may  be  reduced  to  the  following  syllogisms, 
(i.  17— 'it.)  "Tlie  wrath  of  God  is  revealed  against  those  who  hold  the  truth 
in  unrighteousness ;  that  is,  who  acknowledge  the  truth,  and  yet  sin 
against  it."     (i.  18.) 

"  Tlie  Gentiles  acknowledged  truths ;  but  partly  by  their  idolatry,  and 
partly  by  their  other  detestable  vices,  they  sinned  against  the  truths  which 
they  ackiiowledged. 

"Therefore  the  wrath  of  God  is  revealed  against  the  Gentiles,  and  pun- 
ishes them.  (i.  19—32.) 

"The  Jews  have  acknowledged  more  truths  than  the  Gentiles,  and  yet 
they  sin.  (ii.  I.  17—31.) 

"  Consequently  the  Jewish  sinners  are  yet  more  exposed  to  the  wrath  of 
God."  (ii.  1—12.) 


§  i.  Nol  by  Works.  (1.  18.) 
For  the  Gentiles  (i.  19—33.), 

The  Jews  (ii.  iii.  1—18.), 

and  IkjiIi  together  (iii.  19,  20.),  are  under  sin. 
S  ii.  linl  liij  Jailh,  in  which  it  is  hliown 

That  we  are  jusiiticd  by  faith  ulu7ii:  (iii.  21—31.), 

As  ajipears  by  the  example  of  Abraham  and  the  testimony  of  David 
(iv.); 

And  the  privileges  and  blessings  of  Abraham's  seed  by  faith  are 
hIiowii  lo  be  far  greater  than  those  which  belonged  to  his  seed  by 
natural  descent  (as  described  in  Roin.  ii.  17 — 2U.)  These  privileged 
of  true  believers  in  Christ  are,  1.  Peace  with  Ood(.v.  I.);  2.  Joy 
i»  /lojie  of  tin:  glory  of  God  (2.),  which  tribulation  cannot  prevent, 
but  rather  i)rouiotes  (3—10,);  3.  Jtijoicinf;  in  Ooil  himself  as 
reconciled  to  us  through  Christ,  which  however  affords  no  coiin- 
teiiance  to  sin,  but  requires  evangelical  obedience  to  God  (11—21.), 
whence  Hows,  4.  Morlificatioji  of  sin  and  jteicness  of  life,  as 
another  evidence  and  ellect  of  juctificalion  (vi.);  5.  Thu  freedom 
of  justified  persons  from  the  malediction  of  the  law,  and  its  irrita- 
tion lo  sin  (vii.);  6.  Preedotn  from  condemnation,  and  ultimate 
glorification,  (viii.) 

Sect.  2.  Concerning  the  equal  privileges  of  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian believers  (ix. — xi.),  in  which  the  apostle, after  express- 
ing his  alleclionate  esteem  for  the  Jewish  nation  (ix.  1 — 
5.),'  proceeds  to  show  : 

§  i.  That  God's  rejection  of  great  part  of  the  seed  of  Abraham,  and  also 

of  Isaac,  was  an  undeniable  fact.  (ix.  6 — 13.) 
§  ii.  That  God  had  not  chosen  them  (the  Jews)  to  such  peculiar  privileges, 

for  any  kind  of  goodness  either  in  themselves  or  their  lathers.  (11—24.) 


Having  thus  proved  his  point,  he  answers  the  following  objections  which 
might  be  made  to  it. 

Objection  1.  "Tlie  Jews  were  well  grounded  in  their  knowleilge,  and 
studied  the  liiw."  Saint  Paul  answers,  if  a  knowledge  of  the  law,  without 
the  performance  of  it,  could  justify  them,  God  would  not  have  condemned 
the  t;entiles,  who  knew  the  law  by  nature,  (li.  13 — 10.) 

ObjectioH  2.  "The  Jews  were  circumcised."  Answer.  That  is,  they 
were  admitted  by  an  outward  sign  to  a  covenant  with  God ;  but  this  sign 
will  not  avail  those  who  violate  the  covenant,   (ii.  2.5 — 29  ) 

OI)jection  3.  "  According  lo  this  doctrine  of  Saint  Paul,  the  Jews  have  no 
advantage  above  the  Gentiles,  which  is  manifestly  false."  Answer.  They 
still  have  advantages  ;  for  to  them  are  committed  the  oracles  of  God.  But 
tlieir  privileges  do  not  extend  so  far,  that  God  should  overlook  their  sins, 
which  Scripture  earnestly  condemns  even  in  Jews.  (iii.  I — 19.) 

Objection  4.  "  They  hail  the  Levitical  law  and  sacrifices."  Answer. 
Hence  is  no  remission,  but  only  the  knowledge  of  sin.  (iii.  20.) 

From  the  preceding  arguments  Saint  Paul  infers,  that  Jews  and  Gentiles 
1111131  be  justified  by  the  same  means,  namely,  without  the  Levillcal  law, 
tliroiigh  faith  in  Christ ;  and  in  opposition  to  tlie  imaginary  advantage.*)  of 
the  Jews,  he  stales  the  declaration  of  Zcchariah,  that  God  is  not  the  God 
ol^  the  Jews  only,  but  al.so  of  the  Gentiles,  (iii.  21—31.) 

As  the  whole  blessing  was  promised  lo  those  who  were  the  faithful 
descendants  of  Abraluim,  whom  both  scripture  and  the  Jews  call  his  child- 
ren, he  proves  his  former  assertion  from  the  example  of  Abraham  :  who 
was  an  idolater  before  his  call,  but  was  declared  just  by  God,  on  account 
of  his  faith,  long  before  his  circumcision.  Hence  Saint  Paul  takes  occa- 
sion to  explain  the  nature  and  fruits  of  faith,  (iv.  1.— v.  1—11.  He  then 
proceeds  to  prove  from  the  equity  of  God  that  the  Jews  had  no  advantages 
above  the  Gentiles,  with  respect  to  justification.  Both  Jews  and  Gentiles 
had  forfeited"  life  and  immorlahty,  through  the  couunon  father  of  their 
race,  whom  they  themselves  had  not  chosen  as  their  representative.  If 
therefore  it  was  the  will  of  God  to  restore  immortality  by  a  new  spiritual 
head  of  a  covenant,  which  was  Christ,  it  was  just  tliat  both  Jews  and  Gen- 
tiles slwuld  have  an  equal  share  in  this  new  representative  of  the  liiunaa 
race.  (v.  12 — 21.) 

He  shows  that  the  doctrine  of  justification,  as  he  had  stated  it,  lays  us 
under  the  strongest  obligations  to  holiness  (vi.  1 — 23.) ;  and  that  since  the 
death  of  Christ  we  are  no  longer  concerned  with  the  law  of  Moses  ;  for  our 
justification  arises  from  our  appearing  in  the  sight  of  God,  as  if  actually 
dead  with  Christ,  on  account  of  our  sins ;  but  the  law  of  Moses  was  not 
given  to  the  dead.  On  this  occasion  he  evinces  at  large,  that  the  preceding 
consideration  does  not  alfect  the  eternal  power  of  God  over  us,  and  that 
while  we  are  under  the  law  of  Moses,  we  perpetually  become  subject  to 
death,  even  by  sins  of  inadvertency,  (vii.  1 — end.)  Hence  he  concludes, 
that  all  those,  and  those  only,  who  arc  united  with  Christ,  and  for  the  sake 
of  this  union  live  not  according  to  the  (lesh,  are  free  from  all  condemnation 
of  the  law,  and  have  an  undoubted  share  in  eternal  life.  (viii.  1—17.) 

Having  described  the  happiness  of  all  such  persons,  he  is  aware  that 
the  Jews,  who  expected  temporal  blessings,  would  object  to  him,  that 
Christians,  notwithstanding  what  he  had  said,  endured  many  sutTcrings  in 
this  world.  This  objection  he  obviates  (viii.  18 — 39.),  and  shows  that  God 
is  not  the  less  true  and  faithful  because  he  does  not  justify,  but  rather 
rejects  and  punishes  the  Jews  who  would  not  believe  in  the  Messiah,  (ix. 
X.  xi.)  In  discussing  this  delicate  topic  he  displays  ttie  utmost  caution  on 
account  of  the  prejudices  of  his  countrymen  the  Jews.  lie  shows  that 
the  promises  of  God  were  never  made  to  all  the  posterity  of  Abraham; 
and  that  God  always  reserved  to  himself  the  power  of  choosing  those  .'Jons 
of  Abraham,  whom  for  Abraham's  sakehe  intended  to  bless,  and  of  pun- 
ishing tlie  wicked  sons  of  Abraham ;  and  that,  with  respect  to  temporal 
happiness  or  misery,  even  their  good  or  ill  conduct  did  not  determine  his 
choice.  Thus  Ishinael,  Esau,  the  Israelites  in  the  Desert  in  the  time  of 
Moses,  and  the  greater  part  of  that  nation  in  the  time  of  Isaiah,  were 
rejected  and  made  a  sacrifice  of  his  justice,  (ix.  1—29.)  He  then  shows 
that  God  had  reason  to  reject  most  of  the  Jews  then  living,  because  they 
would  not  believe  in  the  Messiah,  though  tlie  Gospel  had  been  preached  to 
them  plainly  enough  (ix.  30.— x.):  yet,  tliat  God  had  not  rejected  all  his 
people,  but  was  still  fulfilling  his  promises  on  many  thousand  natural 
descendants  of  Abraham,  who  believed  in  the  Messiah  ;  and  would  in  a 
future  period  fulfil  them  upon  more  ;  for  that  all  Israel  would  be  converted, 
(xi.  1—32.)  And  he  concludes  with  expressing  his  admiration  of  the  wise 
counsels  of  God.  (33—36.)    Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  102—106. 

«  The  genuineness  and  proper  interpretation  of  Rom.  ix.  5.  (which  con- 
tains one  of  the  most  decisive  testimonies  to  the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ, 
in  the  New  Testament),  are  satisfactorily  estabhshed  by  Mr.  Holden  in  his 
Scripture  Testimony  to  the  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  pp.  51 — 56. 

•  Michaelis's  expression,  as  translated  by  Bishop  Marsh,  is  "foretold." 
but  the  sense  evidently  requires  "  forfeited." 


334 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IH. 


§  iii.  That  his  acceptance  of  the  Oentiles,  and  rpjcction  of  many  of  the 

Jews,  hail  been  prcdicteil  both  hy  Hosea  and  Isaiah.  (25—33.) 
§iv.  That  God  liad  offered  salvation  to  Ijolh  .lews  and  Gentiles  on  the 

same  terms,  lliougli  the  .lews  rejected  it.  (x.  1 — 21.) 
§  V.  That,  though  the  Israelites  were  rejected  for  their  obstinacy,  yet  that 
rejection  was  not  total ;  there  still  being  a  remnant  among  them  who 
did  embrace  and  believe  the  Gospel,  (xi.  1 — 10.) 
§  vi.  That  the  rejection  of  the  rest  was  not  final,  bnt  in  the  end  "all  Israel 

should  bo  saved."  (11 — 31.) 
§vii.  And  that,  in  the  mean  time,  even  their  obstinacy  and  rejection 
served  to  di.splay  the  unscarcliable  wisdom  and  love  of  God.  (32—30.) 
Part  III.   comprises  the  Hortatory  or  Practical  Part  of  the 
Epistle  (xii. — xv.   1— 14.),  in  which    the   apostle   urges 
Christian  believers  to  act  in  a  manner  suitable  to  their  high 
and  holy  calliiicr :  with  this  view  he  exhorts  them, 
Sect.  1.  To    dedicate   themselves    to    God,    and    to    demean 
themselves  as  fcllovv-members  of  Christ's  body.  (xii.  1 — 8.) 
Sect.  2.  To  Christian  love  and  charity,  (xii.  9 — 21.) 
Sect.  3.  To    obedience   to    the  constituted  authorities   (xiii. 

I — 7.),  and  the  exercise  of  mutual  love.  (8 — 14.) 
Sect.  4.  How   those  who  are  strong  in  faith  should  conduct 
themselves  towards  their  weak  brethren,  (xiv.  xv.  1 — 13.) 
Part  IV.   The  Conclusion,  in  which  Saint  Paul  excuses  him- 

self. 
Partly  for  his  boldness  in  thus  writing  to  the  Romans  (xv.  14 — 
21.),  and  partly  for  not  having  hitherto  come  to  them  (22.), 
but  promises  to  visit  them,  recommending  himself  to  their 
prayers  (23 — 33.)  ;  and  sends  various  salutations  to  the  bre- 
thren at  Rome,  (xvi.)' 

VIII.  In  perusing  this  epistle  it  will  be  desirable  to  read, 
at  least,  the  first  eleven  chapters,  at  once,  uninterruptedly : 
as  every  sentence,  especially  in  the  argumentative  part,  bears 
an  intimate  relation  to,  and  is  dependent  upon  the  whole  dis- 
course, and  cannot  be  understood  unless  we  comprehend  the 
scope  of  the  whole.  Further,  in  order  to  enter  fully  into  its 
spirit,  we  must  enter  into  the  spirit  of  a  Jew  in  those  times, 
and  endeavour  to  realize  in  our  own  minds  his  utter  aversion 
from  the  Gentiles,  his  valuing  and  exalting  himself  upon  his 
relation  to  God  and  to  Abraham,  and  also  upon  his  law,  pom- 
pous worship,  circumcision,  &c.  as  if  the  Jews  were  the  only 
people  in  the  world  who  had  any  right  to  the  favour  of  God. 
Attention  to  this  circumstance  will  show  the  beauties  of  the 
apostle's  style  and  argument,  and  that  this  Epistle  is  indeed, 
"  a  writing  which,  for  sublimity  and  truth  of  sentiment,  for 
brevity  and  strength  of  expression,  for  regularity  in  its  struc- 
ture, but,  above  all,  for  the  unspeakable  importance  of  the 
discoveries  which  it  contains,  stands  unrivalled  by  any  mere 
human  composition ;  and  as  far  exceeds  the  most  celebrated 
writings  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  the  shining  of  the 
sun  exceeds  the  twinkling  of  the  stars. "^ 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horse  PaulinoB, 
Chap.  II. 


SECTION  IV. 


ON  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  THE   CORINTHIANS. 

I.  State  of  tlie  Corinthian  church. — II.  Occasion  of  this  Epis- 
tle.— III.  Its  scope  and  analysis. — IV.  Date  and  gejiuineness. 
—V.  Exainination  of  the  question,  hoiv  many  epistles  Paul 
■wrote  to  tlie  Corinthians  ? 

I.  Christianity  was  first  planted  at  Corinth'  by  Saint 
Paul  himself,  who  resided  here  a  year  and  six  months  be- 
tween the  years  51  and  53.  The  church  consisted  partly  of 
Jews  and  partly  of  Gentiles,  but  chiefly  of  the  latter ;  whence 
the  apostle  had  to  combat,  sometimes  with  Jewish  supersti- 
tion, and  sometimes  with  Heathen  licentiousness.  On  Saint 
Paul's  departure  from  Corinth,  he  was  succeeded  by  ApoUos, 
"  an  eloquent  man,  and  mighty  in  the  Scriptures,"  who 
preached  the  Gospel  with  great  siiccess.  (Acts  xviii.  24 — 28.) 
Aquila  and  Sosthenes  were  also  eminent  teachers  in  this 
church,  (xviii.  2.  I  Cor.  i.  1.)  But,  shortly  after  Saint  Paul 
quitted  this  church,  its  peace  was  disturbed  by  the  intrusion 
of  false  teachers,  who  made  great  pretensions  to  eloquence, 

1  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.'  vi.  pp.  325—327. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  p.  297. ;  Mi- 
chaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  89 — 92. ;  Rosenmiiller,  Scholia,  torn.  iii.  pp.  352 — 360. ; 
Whitby's  and  Macknight's  Prefaces  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  ;  Bloch, 
Chronotaxis  Scriptorum  Divi  Pauli,  pp.  204—215.  ;  Rambach,  Introd.  in 
Epistolam  Pauli  ad  Romanes,  pp.  1 — 118;  Hug's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  408 — 425.   Calmet,  Preface  sur  I'Epitre  de  St.  Paul  aux  Romains. 

a  Macknight  on  the  Epistles,  vol.  i.  p.  407.  4to.  edit. 

»  For  an  account  of  the  city  of  Corinth,  before  the  planting  of  Christian- 
ity,^ see  the  Historical  and  Geographical  Index  in  Volume  II. 


wisdom,  and  knowledge  of  their  Christian  liberty,  and  thus 
undermined  his  influence,  and  the  credit  of  his  ministry. 
Hence  two  parties  were  formed ;  one  of  which  contended 
strenuously  for  the  observance  of  Jewish  ceremonies,  while 
the  other,  misinterpreting  the  true  nature  of  Christian  liberty, 
indulged-in  excesses  which  were  contrary  to  the  design  and 
spirit  of  the  Go.spel.  One  party  boasted  that  they  wore  the 
followers  of  Paul;  and  another,  that  they  were  the  followers 
of  Apollos.  The  Gentile  converts  partook  of  things  offered 
to  idols,  which  the  Jewish  Christians  affirmed  to  be  unlawful. 
The  native  Corinthian  converts  had  not  so  entirely  eradicated 
that  lasciviousness  to  which  they  had  been  addicted  in  their 
heathen  state,  but  that  they  sometimes  committed  the  vilest 
crimes :  and  one  of  them  had  even  proceeded  so  far  as  to 
marry  his  stepinother.  Some  of  them,  also,  supporting 
themselves  by  philosophical  arguments  and  speculations, 
denied  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  The  richer  members  of 
the  church  misconducted  themselves  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper ;  while  others,  who  possessed  spiritual  gifts, 
behaved  themselves  insolently,  on  account  of  their  acquire- 
ments. Women  also,  with  unveiled  heads,  spoke  in  their 
assemblies  for  divine  worship.  It  further  appears  that  many 
of  the  Corinthian  Christians  prosecuted  their  brethren  before 
the  Heathen  tribunals,  instead  of  bringing  their  complaints 
before  Christian  tribunals;  and  that  violent  controversies 
were  agitated  among  them  concerning  celibacy  and  mar- 
riage. 

Although  these  evils  originated  (as  above  noticed)  chiefly 
with  the  false  teachers,  yet  they  are  in  part  at  least  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  very  corrupt  state  of  morals  at  Corinth.  It  is 
well  known  that  at  the  temple  of  Venus,  erected  in  the  cen- 
tre of  that  city,  one  thousand  prostitutes  were  maintained  in 
honour  of  her.  Hence  it  happened  that  some,  who  professed 
themselves  Christians,  regarded  the  illicit  intercourse  of  the 
sexes  as  a  trifling  aflfair :  and  as  the  eating  of  things  offered 
to  idols  was,  in  itself,  an  indifferent  thing,  they  frequently 
went  to  the  temples  of  the  heathen  deities  to  partake  of  the 
meat  that  had  been  there  sacrificed,  by  which  means  they 
rendered  themselves  accessary  to  idolatry. ■• 

II.  The  Occasion  on  which  this  Epistle  was  written, 
appears  from  its  whole  tenor  to  have  been  twofold,  viz. 

First,  the  information  which  the  apostle  had  received  from 
some  members  of  the  family  of  Chloe,  while  he  was  at 
Ephesus,  concerning  the  disorders  that  prevailed  in  the  church 
at  Corinth;  such  as,  1.  Schisms  and  divisions  (1  Cor.  i.  11. 
et  seq.) ;  2.  Many  notorious  scandals,  as  the  prevalence  of 
impurity,  incests,  covetousness,lawsuitS"  of  Christians  before 
Pagan  magistrates  (v.  vi.)  ;  3.  Idolatrous  communion  with  the 
Heathens  at  their  idol-feasts  (viii.  x.)  ;  4.  Want  of  decorum 
and  order  in  their  public  worship  (xi.  2 — 16.  xiv.)  ;  Gross 
profanation  of  the  Lord's  Supper  (xi.  17 — 34.) ;  and,  6. 
Tlic  denial  of  the  resurrection  and  eternal  life.  (xv.  12.  et  seq.) 

The  second  cause  of  Saint  Paul's  writing  this  Epistle  was 
his  receiving  a  letter  from  the  church  at  Corinth,  by  the  hands 
of  Stephanas,  Fortunatus,  and  Achaicus  (xvi.  17.  vii.  1.),  in 
which  the  Corinthian  Christians  requested  his  advice  con- 
cerning some  particular  cases;  as,  1.  Concerning  wamoi^e 
(vii.  1.  et  seq.)  ;  2.  Things  sacrificed  to  idols  (viii.) ;  3.  «S^/- 
ritual  gifts  (xii.)  ;  4.  Prophesying,  or  teaching  and  instructing 
others  (xiv.) ;  and,  5.  Concerning  the  making  of  charitabTe 
collections  for  the  poor  brethren  inMudaea.  (xvi.  1.  et  seq.y 

Hence  we  learn  that  Saint  Paul  maintaified  a  constant  in- 
tercourse with  the  churches  which  he  had  planted,  and  was 
acquainted  with  all  their  circumstances.  They  seem  to  have 
applied  to  him  for  advice  in  those  difficult  cases,  which  their 
own  understanding  could  not  solve ;  and  he  was  ready,  on 
all  occasions,  to  correct  their  mistakes. 

III.  The  Scope  of  this  Epistle,  therefore,  is  conformable 
to  the  circumstances  that  caused  the  apostle  to  write  it,  and 
in  like  manner  is  twofold;  viz.  1.  To  apply  suitable  reme- 
dies to  the  disorders  and  abuses  which  had  crept  into  the 
church  at  Corinth;  and,  2.  To  give  the  Corinthians  satisfac- 
tory answers  on  all  those  points  concerning  which  they  had 
requested  his  advice  and  information.^  The  Epistle  accord- 
ingly divides  itself  into  three  parts. 

Part  1.  The  Introduction,  (i.  1 — 9.),  in  which  Paul  expresses 
his  Satisfaction  at  all  the  Good  he  knew  of  them,  particularly 
at  their  having  received  the  Gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  for  the 
Confirmation  of  the  Gospel. 

*  The  reader  will  find  an  instructive  account  of  the  state  of  the  church 
at  Corinth  in  Prof.  Storr's  Nolo,  Historical,  epistnlarum  Paulli  ad  Corin- 
thios  interpretationi  inservientes,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Opuscula^ 
Academica,  pp.  242 — 266. 

6  Roberts's  Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  748. 


Sect.  IV.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  THE  CORINTHIANS. 


835 


Part  II.  discusses  various  Particulars  adapted  to  the  Slate  of 
the  Corinthian  Church  ;  which  inutj  be '  cuuunodioualy  ar- 
ranged into  two  Sections. 

Sect  1.  contains  a  reproof  of  the  corruptions  and   abuses 
which  disgraced  the  church,  (i.  10.  vi.  1 — 20.) 

§  i.  Tlie  aposllc  ntbiikes  llio  sectaries  aiiioiij^  iIkmii,  anil  ilofonds  liiiiiBclf 
against  one  or  niore  (Jurintliian  teachers,  wliu  had  ahenateil  most  oi 
llie  Corinthians  from  him  ;  anil  ailils  many  wei|;hly  argiimenls  In 
reunite  them  in  affection  to  himself,  as  having  first  planted  the  Gospel 
among  them.  (i.  10—31.  ii. — iv.) 

S  ii.  A  reproof  for  not  exconnnunicating  an  incestuous  person,  who  had 
married  his  own  slep-motlier.  (v.) 

§  iii.  A  reproof  of  their  covetous  and  litigious  temper,  which  caused 
them  to  prosecute  their  Christian  brethren  before  heathen  courts  of 
judicature,  (vi.  I — 9.) 

S  iv.  A  dissuasive  from  fornication, — a  sin  to  which  they  had  been 
extremely  addicti'd  before  thiy  were  converted,  and  which  some  of 
the  Corintliians  apjieared  to  have  considered  an  indilTereiit  matter. 
The  enormity  of  this  sin  is  very  strongly  represented,  (vi.  10 — 20.) 

Sect.  2.  contains  an  answer  to  the  (lucstions  which  the  Co- 
rinthian church  had  proposed  to  the  apostle,   (vii. — xv.) 

§  i.  Directions  concerning  nmtriiiiony  (vii.  I — 16),  the  celibacy  of  virgins 
(25—38.)  and  widows  (39 — 40.);  in  which  Saint  I'aul  takes  occasion  to 
show  that  Christianity  makes  no  alteration  in  the  civil  conditions  of 
men,  but  leaves  them  under  the  same  obligations  tliat  they  were  before 
their  conversion.  (17 — 2\.) 

§  ii.  Concerning  the  lawfulness  of  eating  things  sacrificed  to  idols,  show- 
ing when  they  may,  and  when  they  may  not,  be  lawfully  eaten,  (viii. 
— xi.  1.) 

S  iii.  Saint  Paul  answers  a  third  (piery  concerning  the  manner  in  which 
women  should  ileliver  any  tiling  in  public,  when  called  to  it  by  a  divine 
impulse.  He  particularly  censures  the  imusual  dress  of  both  sexes  in 
prophesying,  which  exposed  thein  to  the  contempt  of  the  Greeks, 
among  whom  the  men  usually  went  uncovered,  while  the  women 
were  veiled,  (xi.  '2 — 17.) 

§iv.  A  reproof  of  their  irregularities,  when  celebrating  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, w.ih  directions  for  receiving  it  worthily,  (xi.  17—34.) 

§  V.  Instructions  concerning  the  desiring  and  exercising  of  spiritual  gifts, 
(xii. — xiv.)' 

§  vi.  The  certiiinty  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  defended  against  the 
false  teacher  or  teachers,  (xv.) 

It  appears  from  the  twelfth  verse  of  this  chapter  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection  from  the  dead  was  denied  by  certain  false  teachers  ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which  Saint  Paul  discusses  the  three  following  questions : 

I.  Whether  there  will  be  a  resurrection  from  the  dead  J 

II.  What  will  be  the  nature  of  the  resurrection-bodies  1 

III.  What  will  become  of  those  who  will  be  found  alive  at  the  day  of 
judgment  ? 

I.  He  proves  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection, 

1.  From  Script urr..  (1 — 4.) 

2.  F'ruin  rifi-ititnrssrs  of  Christ's  resurrection.  (15 — 12.) 

3.  Jii/  s/totcijii^  the  uhstirtlity  of  the  contrary  doctrine : — Thus, 
i.  If  the  dead  rise  not,  (y'hrist  is  not  risen.  (13.) 

ii.  It  would  be  absurd  to  have  faith  in  him,  according  to  the  preaching 

of  the  Gospel,  if  He  be  not  risen.  (14.) 
iii.  The  apostles,  who  attest  liis  resurrection,  must  be  false  witnesses. 

(15.) 
iv.  The  faith  of  the  Corinthians,  who  believe  it,  must  be  vain.  (16,  17.) 
V.  All  the  believers,  who  have  died  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  have  perished, 

if  Christ  be  not  risen.  (18.) 
vi.  Believers  in  Christ  are  in  a  more  miserable  state  than  any  others, 

if  there  be  no  resurrection.  (19.) 
vii.  Those,  who  were  baptized  in  the  faith  that  Christ  died  for  them, 

and  rose  again,  are  deceived.  (29.) 
viii.  The  apostles  and  Christians  in  general,  who  suffer  persecution, 

on  the  ground  that,  after  they  had  suffered  awhile  here,  they  shall 

have  a  glorious  resurrection,  arc  acting  a  foolish  and  unpiolilable 

part.  (30— .35.) 

II.  He  shows  what  will  be  the  nature  of  the  resurrection-bodies,  and  in 
what  manner  this  great  work  will  be  performeil.  (35 — 49.) 

III.  He  shows  what  will  become  of  those  who  will  be  found  alive  at  the 
day  of  judgment.  (50 — 57.)  This  important  and  animating  discussion  is  fol- 
lowed by 

The  use  which  we  should  make  of  this  doctrine.  (58.)'* 

Part  III.  contains  the  Conclusion,  comprising  Directions  rela- 
tive to  the  Contributions  for  the  Saints  at  Jerusalem,^  pro- 
niises  that  the  Apostle  would  shortly  visit  them,  and  Salututionn 
to  various  Members  of  the  Church  at  Corinth,  (xvi.) 
IV.  Althouirh  the  subscription  to  this  Epistle  purports  that 
it  was  written  at  Philippi,  yet,  as  this  directly  contradicts 
Saint  Paul's  own  declaration  in  xvi.  8.,  we  must  look  to  the 
Epistle  itself  for  notes  of  time,  that  may  enable  us  to  ascer- 
tain its  date.     "We  have  seen^  that  Saint  Paul,  on  his  depart- 

'  On  the  subject  of  the  spiritual  gifts  discussed  in  chap.  xii.  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Dr.  Bloomfield's  Recensio  Synoptica,  vol.  vi.  pp.  552 — 570. 

»  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  1  Cor.  xv. 

'  The  Jews,  who  lived  out  of  Palestine,  were  chiefly  engaged  in  trade, 
and  were  generally  in  more  affluent  circumstances  than  those  who  resided 
in  Judsa,  to  whom  they  usually  sent  an  annual  relief.  (Viiringa  de  Syn. 
Vet.  lib.  iii.  p.  i.  c.  13.)  Now,  as  the  Genlilc  Christians  became  brethren 
to  the  .Tews,  and  partook  of  their  spiritual  riches,  Saint  Paul  thought  it 
equitable  that  the  Greek  Christians  should  contribute  to  the  support  of 
their  poorer  brethren  in  Judaja.  (Rom.  xv.  26,  27.)  When  he  was  at  Jeru- 
salem, he  had  promised  Peter  and  James  that  he  would  collect  alms  for 
this  purp<^se  (Gal.  ii.  10.)  ;  and  accordingly  we  find  (1  Cor.  x\-i.  1 — 1.)  that 
•  he  made  a  collection  among  the  Christians  at  Corinth.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv. 
p.  61. 

•*  See  p.  324.  supra.  Michaelis  is  of  opinion  that  the  mistake  in  the  sub- 
scription arose  from  misunderstanding  Jispxo^^'  (xvi.  .5.)  to  mean  I  am  note 
travelling  through,  instead  of  "my  route  is  through  Macedonia,"  which  it 
evidently  means.    Vol.  iv.  p.  43. 


ure  from  Corinth,  went  into  Asia,  and  visited  Ephesus,  Je- 
rusalem, and  Antioch,  after  which,  passing  through  Galatia 
and  Phrygia,  he  returned  to  Ephesus,  where  he  remained 
three  years.  (Acts  xviii.  18 — 23.  xix.  1.  xx.  31.)  At  the 
close  of  his  residence  at  Ephesus,  Saint  Paul  wrote  this 
Ejjistle,  as  appears  from  1  ("or.  xvi.  8.  where  hi;  snyn, /will 
tarry  at  Bphcsus  until  Pentecost ,-  and  that  it  was  written  at 
the  preceding  passover,  is  further  evident  from  1  Cor.  v.  7, 
where  the  apostle  uses  this  expression,  ye  are  xiidcaventd,— 
that  is,  ye  are  now  celcbratiiifr  the  feast  of  tinleavened  bread. 
Now,  as  Saint  Paul's  departure  from  Ephesus,  after  residing 
there  three  years,  took  place  about  the  year  of  Christ  5(>,  it 
follows  that  the  first  Ejiistle  to  the  Corinthians  was  written 
about  that  time.^ 

The  genuineness  of  Saint  Paul's  first  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians was  never  doiilitod.  It  was  cited  or  alluded  to  repeat- 
edly by  Cl(;ment  of  Rome,'"'  Ignatius,'  and  Polycarp,"  in  the 
first  century.  In  the  following  century  it  was  cited  by  Ta- 
tian,''  lrena;us,'o  Athenagoras,"  and  Clement  of  Alexandria.'^ 
In  the  third  century,  this  Epistle  was  acknowledged  to  be 
Saint  Paul's  by  Tertullian,'-  Caius,'^  and  Origen.'^  The  tes- 
timonies of  later  writers  are  too  numerous  and  exjilicit  to 
render  any  detail  of  them  necessary. 

V.  An  important  question  has  been  much  agitated. 
Whether  Saint  Paul  wrote  any  other  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians besides  those  we  now  have.  In  1  Cor.  v.  9.  the  fol- 
lowing words  occur — ^yfi.-\u.  C/jliv  w  t«  eriToyji,  which  in  our 
version  is  rendered — /  have  written  to  you  in  an  epistle. 
From  this  text  it  has  been  inferred,  that  Saint  Paul  had 
already  written  to  the  Corinthians  an  Epistle  which  is  no 
longer  extant,  and  to  which  he  alludes ;  while  others  con- 
tend, that  by  to  imr'^hx,  he  means  only  the  Epistle  which  he 
is  writing.  The  former  opinion  is  advocated  by  Calvin, 
Beza,  Grotius,  Cappel,  Witsius,  Le  Clere,  Heinsius,  Mill, 
Wetstein,  Beausobre,  Bishop  Pearce,  Dr.  Doddridge,  Mr. 
Scott,  Michaelis,  Storr,  RosenmuUer,  Hug,  and  Schleusner: 
and  the  latter  opinion,  after  Chrysostom,  Theodoret,  and 
other  fathers,  is  defended  by  Fabricius,  Glassius,  Calmet, 
Dr.  Whitby,  Stosch,  Jer.  Jones,  Drs.  Edwards,  Lardner,  and 
Macknight,  Purver,  Archbishop  Newcome,  Bishop  Tomline 
(whose  words  are  adopted  by  Bishop  Mant  and  Dr.  D'Oyly), 
and  Bishop  Middleton.  A  third  opinion  is  that  of  Dr.  Ben- 
son, which  is  acceded  to  by  Dr.  Clarke,  viz.  that  Saint  Paul 
refers  to  an  Epistle  which  he  had  written,  or  begun  to  write, 
but  had  not  sent ;  for,  on  receiving  further  information  from 
Stephanas,  Fortunatus,  and  Achaicus,  he  suppressed  that, 
and  wrote  this,  in  which  he  considers  the  subject  more  at 
large.  The  weight  of  evidence,  however,  is  most  decidedly 
in  favour  of  the  opinion,  that  the  apostle  wrote  only  the  two 
epistles  now  extant,  which  bear  his  name.'" 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Hera;  Paulinae, 
Chap.  III.i' 


SECTION  V. 

ON   THE    SECOND   EPISTLE   TO   THE    CORINTHIANS. 

I.  Date  and  ivhere  written. — II.  Occasion  of  this  Epistle. — 
III.  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis. — V.  (Jhseri-ations  on  this  Epis- 
tle.— VI.  .i  supposed  chronological  difficulty  elucidated. 

I.  The  preceding  Epistle,  we  have  seen,  was  written 
from  Ephesus  about  the  year  57,  before  Saint  Paul's  de- 
parture from  that  city.  On  quitting  Ephesus  he  went  to 
Troas,  which  place  was  situated  On  the  shore  of  the  Mgezn. 

»  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  p.  42.  Paley's  Ilora;  Paulinw,  p.  96.  Mill,  Whitby, 
Michaelis,  Benson,  and  almost  all  modern  commentators  and  critics,  agree 
in  the  above  dale. 

6  I.ardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  36. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  297. 

1  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  74,  75. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  318,  319. 

8  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  91.  94. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  jip.  327.  329. 

9  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  140.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  355. 
10  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  163.  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  868. 
"  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  1%"..  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  3S0. 
>•>  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  •>«. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  401. 
"  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  263.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  423. 

'«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  374,  375. :  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  482,  483. 

>5  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  471. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  535. 

IS  See  this  subject  discussed,  supra,  Vol.  I.  pp.  57,  58. 

'■>  I.ardner's  VVorks,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  311,  315.  ;   4to.  vol.   iii.  p.   291.  : 

Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  42—62.  68,  69.  ;  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  368 

3S5. ;  Rosenmiiller,  Scholia,  tom.  iv.  pp.  1—7.  Whitby's  and  Macknight's 
Prefaces;  Bloch,  Chronotaxis,  Scriptoruni  Pauli,  pp.  160—172.  Calmet, 
Preface  sur  la  premiere  Epitre  Ue  Saint  Paul  aux  Corinihiens. 


i 


336 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  III. 


sea,  in  expectation  of  meeting  Titus,  and  receiving  an  ac- 
count of  the  success  with  which  (he  hoped)  his  former 
Epistle  had  been  attended,  and  of  the  ])resent  state  of  the 
Corinthian  church.  (2  Cor.  ii.  12.)  But  not  meeting  him 
there  (13.),  Paul  proceeded  to  Macedonia,  where  he  obtained 
the  desired  interview,  and  received  satisfactory  information 
concerning  the  promising  state  of  affairs  at  Corinth,  (vii.  5, 6.) 
From  this  country,  and  probably  from  Philipoi  (as  the  sub- 
scription imports),  the  aj)ostle  wrote  the  second  letter  (2  Cor. 
viii.  1 — 14.  ix.  1 — 5.);  which  he  sent  by  Titus  and  his  as- 
sociates, who  were  commissioned  to  hasten  and  finish  the 
contribution  among  the  Christians  at  Corinth,  for  the  use  of 
tlieir  poor  brethren  in  Juda;a.  (ix.  2 — 4.)  From  these  histo- 
rical circumstances,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  this  Epistle 
was  written  within  a  year  after  the  former,  that  is,  early  in 
A.  D.  58.,  and  according  to  Dr.  Bloch,  at  Beroea.  The  ge- 
nuineness of  this  Epistle  was  never  doubted ;  and  as  it  is 
cited  or  referred  to  by  nearly  the  same  ancient  writers,  whose 
testimonies  to  the  first  P^pistle  we  have  given  in  the  pre- 
ceding section,  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  them  in  this 
place. 

II.  The  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  produced  very  dif- 
ferent effects  among  them.  Many  amended  their  conduct, 
most  of  them  showed  strong  marks  of  repentance,  and 
evinced  such  respect  for  the  apostle,  that  they  excommuni- 
cated the  incestuous  person  (2  Cor.  ii.  5 — 11.  vii.  11.);  re- 
quested the  apostle's  return  with  tears  (vii.  7.)  ;  and  became 
zealous  for  him, — that  is,  they  vindicated  the  apostle  and 
his  office  against  the  false  teacher  and  his  adherents,  (vii. 
7 — 11.)  Others,  however,  of  the  Corinthians,  adhered  to 
the  false  teacher,  expressly  denied  his  apostolical  ministry, 
and  even  furnished  themselves  with  arguments  which  they 
pretended  to  draw  from  his  first  Epistle.  He  had  formerly 
intimated  his  intention  of  taking  a  journey  from  Ephesus  to 
Corinth,  thence  to  visit  the  Macedonian  churches,  and  from 
them  to  return  to  Corinth  (2  Cor.  i.  15,  16.)  ;  but  the  unhappy 
state  of  the  Corinthian  church  led  him  to  alter  his  intention, 
since  he  found  he  must  have  treated  them  with  severity,  had 
he  visited  them.  (23.)  Hence  his  adversaries  charged  him, 
1.  With  levity  and  irresolution  of  conduct  (2  Cor.  i.  18.),  and, 
therefore,  he  could  not  be  a  prophet ;  2.  With  pride  and  ty- 
rannical severity  on  account  of  his  treatment  of  the  incestuous 
person ;  3.  With  arrogance  and  vain-glory  in  his  ministry, 
therein  lessening  the  authority  of  the  law ;  and,  4.  With 
being  personally  contemptible,  intimating,  that  however 
weighty  he  might  be  in  his  letters,  yet  in  person  he  was 
base  and  despicable.  (2  Cor.  x.  10.)  Such  were  the  prin- 
cipal circumstances  that  gave  occasion  to  this  second  Epis- 
tle to  the  Corinthians,  to  which  we  may  add  their  forward- 
ness in  the  contribution  for  the  poor  saints  in  Judaea,  and 
their  kind  and  benevolent  reception  of  Titus. 

III.  Agreeably  to  these  circumstances  the  Scope  of  this 
Epistle  is  chiefly,  1.  2'o  account  for  his  not  having  come  to 
them  so  soon  as  he  had  promised,  viz.  not  out  of  levity,  but 
partly  in  consequence  of  his  sufferings  in  Asia,  which  pre- 
vented him  (2  Cor.  i.  8. 11.),  and  partly  that  he  might  give 
them  more  time  to  set  tlieir  churcii  in  better  order,  so  that 
he  might  come  to  them  with  greater  comfort,  (ii.  3,  4.)  2. 
To  declare  that  his  sentence  against  the  incestuous  person 
was  neither  rigid  nor  tyrannical  (ii.  5 — 11.),  but  necessary 
and  pious  ;  ana  now,  as  excommunication  had  produced  so 
goocf  an  effect  upon  that  offender,  the  apostle,  commending 
the  obedience  of  the  Corinthians,  exhorts  them  to  absolve 
him  from  that  sentence  and  to  restore  him  to  communion 
with  the  church.  3.  To  intimate  his  great  success  in  preach- 
ing the  Gospel,  which  he  does,  not  for  his  own  glory,  but  for 
the  glory  of  the  Gospel,  which  had  peculiar  efficacy  upon 
the  Corinthians  above  others  (2  Cor.  iii.),  and  far  surpassed 
the  ministry  of  Moses  (iv.),  and  was  under  a  veil  only  to 
those  who  were  perishing.  In  preaching  which  Gospel  he 
used  all  diligence  and  faithfulness,  notwithstanding  all  his 
afflictions  for  the  Gospel ;  wluch  afllictions,  far  from  re- 
flecting disgrace  upon  the  Gospel,  or  its  ministers,  prepared 
for  him  a  far  greater  glory  in  heaven  (v.),  to  which  he 
aspired,  inviting  others  to  do  the  same,  by  accepting  the 
grace  of  reconciliation  tendered  in  the  Gospel.  4.  7'o  stir 
them  up  to  lead  a  holy  life,  and  particularly  to  avoid  com- 
munion with  idolaters.  5.  To  excite  them  to  finish  their  con- 
tributions for  their  poor  brethren  in  Judxa.  (viii.  ix.)  6. 
Lastly,  to  apologize  for  himself  against  the  personal  con- 
temptibleness  imputed  to  him  by  the  false  teacher  and  his 
adherents,  (x. — xiii.)  In  the  course  of  this  apology,  he 
reproves  their  vain-glory,  and  enters  upon  a  high  commenda- 


tion of  his  apostolic  office  and  power,  and  his  extraordinary 
revelations,  which  far  outshone  the  counterfeit  glory  of  the 
false  teacher;  but  at  the  same  time  declares  that  lie  had  rathei 
use  meekness  than  exert  his  power,  unless  he  should  be 
forced  to  do  it  by  their  contumacy  and  imj)enitence.' 

IV.  This  Epistle  consists  of  three  parts;  viz. 

Part  I.    Tfie  Introduction,   (i.  1,2.) 

Part  II.  The  Apologetic  Discourse  of  St.  Paul,  in  which, 
Sect.  1.  He  justifies  himself  from  the  imputations  of  the  false 
teacher  and  his  adherents,  by  showing  his  sincerity  and  in- 
tegrity in  the  discharge  of  his  ministry  ;  and  that  he  acted 
not  from  worldly  interest,  but  from  true  love  for  them,  and 
a  tender  concern  for  their  spiritual  welfare,  (i.  3 — 24. 
ii. — vii.) 
Sect.  2.  He  exhorts  them  to  a  liberal  contribution  for  their 

poor  brethren  in  Judsea.  (viii.  ix.) 
Sect.  3.  He  resumes  his  apology  ;  justifying  himself  from  the 
charges   and  insinuations  of  the   false  teacher   and  his  fol- 
lowers ;  in  order  to  detach  the  Corinthians  from  them,  and 
to  re-establish  himself  and  his  authority,  (x. — xiii.  10.) 

Part  III.   The  Conclusion,  (xiii.  11 — 14.) 

V.  "  The  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  this  Epistle 
is,  the  confidence  of  the  apostle  in  the  goodness  of  his  cause, 
and  in  the  power  of  God  to  bear  him  out  in  it.  Opposed  as 
he  then  was  by  a  powerful  and  sagacious  party,  whose  au- 
thority, reputation,  and  interest  were  deeply  concerned,  and 
who  were  ready  to  seize  on  every  thing  that  could  discredit 
him,  it  is  wonderful  to  hear  him  so  firmly  insist  upon  his 
apostolical  authority,  and  so  unreservedly  appeal  to  the 
miraculous  powers  which  he  had  exercisecl  and  conferred  at 
Corinth.  So  far  from  shrinking  from  the  contest,  as  afraid 
of  some  discovery  being  made,  unfavourable  to  himself  or  to 
the  common  cause,  he,  with  great  modesty  and  meekness 
indeed,  but  with  equal  boldness  and  decision,  expressly 
declares  that  his  opposers  and  despisers  were  the  ministers 
of  Satan,  and  menaces  them  with  miraculous  judgments, 
when  as  many  of  their  deluded  hearers  had  been  brought  to 
repentance,  and  re-established  in  the  faith,  as  proper  means 
could  in  a  reasonable  time  effect.  It  is  inconceivaole  that  a 
stronger  internal  testimony,  not  only  of  integrity,  but  of 
divine  inspiration,  can  exist.  Had  there  been  any  thing  of 
imposture  among  the  Christians,  it  was  next  to  impossmle, 
but  such  a  conduct  must  have  occasioned  a  disclosure  of  it."2 

Of  the  effects  produced  by  this  second  Epistle,  we  have 
no  circumstantial  account ;  for  Saint  Luke  has  only  briefly 
noticed  (in  Acts  xx.  2,  3.)  Saint  Paul's  second  journey  to 
Corinth,  after  he  had  written  this  Epistle.  We  know,  how- 
ever, that  he  was  there,  and  that  the  contributions  were 
brought  to  him  in  that  city  for  the  poor  brethren  at  .Teru- 
salem  (Rom.  xv.  2G.) ;  and  that,  staying  there  several  months, 
he  sent  salutations  from  some  of  the  principal  members  of 
that  church  to  the  Romans,  (xvi.  22,  23.)  "  From  this  time 
we  hear  no  more  of  the  false  teacher  and  his  party;  and 
when  Clement  of  Rome  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
Saint  Paul  was  considered  by  them  as  a  divine  apostle,  to 
whose  authority  he  might  appeal  without  fear  of  contradic- 
tion. The  false  teacher,  therefore,  must  either  have  been 
silenced  by  Saint  Paul,  in  virtue  of  his  apostolical  powers, 
and  by  an  act  of  severity  which«he  had  threatened  (2  Cor. 
xiii.  2,  3.);  or  this  adversary  of  the  apostle  must  have 
quitted  the  place.  Whichever  was  the  cause,  the  effect  pro- 
duced must  operate  as  a  confirmation  of  our  faith,  and  as  a 
proof  of  Saint  Paul's  divine  mission. "^ 

VI.  A  considerable  chronological  difficulty  occurs  in  2  Cor. 
xii.  14.  and  xiii.  1,  2.,  in  which  passao^es  the  apostle  mentions 
his  design  of  visiting  Corinth  a  //u>a  time;  whereas  only  wie 
visit  before  the  date  of  this  Epistle  is  noticed  in  the  Acts 
(xviii.  1.),  about  a.  d.  51,  and  the  next  time  that  he  visited 
Greece  (xx.  2.),  about  a.  d.  57,  no  mention  is  made  of  his 
going'  to  Corinth.  And,  indeed,  for  the  reasons  already 
stated,  he  purposely  avoided  that  city.  It  has  been  con- 
jectured by  Grotius,  and  Drs.  Hammond  and  Paley,  that  his 
first  Epistle  virtually  supplied  the  place  of  his  presence,  and 
that  it  is  so  represented  by  the  apostle  in  a  corresponding 
passage.  (1  Cor.  v.  3.)  Admitting  this  solution  to  be  proba- 
ble, it  is,  however,  far-fetched,  and  is  not  satisfactory  as  a 

'  Roberts's  Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  754.  Tlie  various  emotions,  which  evi- 
dently auitateil  the  mind  of  St.  Paul  when  writing  tliis  epistle,  and  also  his 
elegance  of  diction,  powers  of  persuasion,  and  Ibrce  of  arfjument,  are  all 
admirably  discussed  and  illustrated  by  M.  Royaards,  in  his  Disputatio  Inau- 
guralis  de  altera  Fault  ad  Corinthios  Epistola,  et  observandtX  in  illia  apoa- 
toll  indole  et  oratione.  8vo.    Trajecti  ad  Rbenum,  1818. 

a  Scott's  Prcf.  to  I  Cor.  »  JMichaclis,  vol.  iv.  p.  71. 


Skpt,  VI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  GALATIANS. 


337 


matter  of  fact.  Michaolis  has  produced  another,  more  sim- 
ple and  natural,  viz.  that  Paul,  on  his  return  from  Crete, 
visited  (/orinth  a  second  time  before  he  went  to  winter  at 
Nicopolis.  This  second  visit  is  unnoticed  in  tlie  Acts, 
because  the  voyaire  itself  is  unnoticed.'  The  Ihird  visit 
promised  in  2  Cor.  xii.  11.  and  xiii.  1,  2.  was  actually  paid 
on  the  apostle's  second  return  to  Uome,  when  he  took 
(Jorintb  iu  bis  way.  (2  Tim.  iv.  20.)  "Thus  critically  does 
the  book  of  the  Acts  harmonize,  even  in  its  omissions,  witli 
the  Epistles:  and  these  with  each  other,  in  the  minute  in- 
cidental circumstance  of  tiie  tbird  visit."^ 

On  the  undesli^nrd  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horae  Paulina;, 
Chap.  IV.3 


rart  supposes  it  to  have  been  written  so  early  as  the  year  48  ; 
Vlichaelis,  in  49  ;   Cappel,  in  51;  Bishop  Pearson,  in  57; 


SECTION  VI. 

ON  TIIE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  GALATIANS. 

I.  J\!'otice  of  the  Christian  rhiirch  in  Galatici. — II.  Bate. — III. 
Genuineness  and  authenticity  of  this  Kltistle. — IV.  Its  occa- 
sion and  scope. — V.  Synopsis  of  its  contents, — VI.  Obser- 
vations on  this  Kpistle. 

I.  Christianity  was  very  early  planted  in  Galatia  by 
Pa\il  himself,'  and  it  appears  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
that  he  visited  the  churches  in  this  country  more  than  once. 
Two  distinct  visits  are  clearly  marked,  viz.  the  first  about  the 
year  50  (Acts  xvi.  6.),  and  the  second  about  the  year  54  or 
55.  (xviii.  23.) 

II.  There  is  great  diversity  of  opinion  amontj  learned  men 
concerning  the  date  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.     VVein 

Mill,  Fabricius,  Moldeidiawer,  and  others',  in  58  ;  Van  Til 
and  Dr.  Doddridge,  iu  53  ;  Hettinger,  in  54  ;  Lord  Barrington, 
Drs.  Benson  and ,  Lardner,  in  53  ;  Bcausobre,  liosenm.iller, 
and  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  in  52  or  53 ;  Bishop  Tomline,  in  52. 
Theodoret,  who  is  followed  by  Dr.  Lightfoot  and  some 
others,  imagine  that  it  was  one  of  those  Epistles  which  Saint 
Paul  wrote  from  Itome  during  his  first  confinement ;  but  this 
opinion  is  contradicted  by  the  apostle's  silence  concerning  his 
bonds,  which  he  has  often  mentioned  in  the  letters  that  are 
known  to  have  been  written  at  that  time. 

It  is  evident  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  written 
earl}/,  because  he  complains  in  it  of  their  speedy  apostasy 
from  his  doctrine,  (Gal.  i.  fi.),  and  warns  them  in  the  strong- 
est and  most  forcible  terms  against  the  jndaizing  teachers, 
who  disturl)cd  the  peace  of  the  cburcbes  in  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor,  (i.  7 — 0.  iii.  1.)  The  warmth  of  the  apostle's  ex- 
pressions led  Tertullianto  conclude  that  .Saint  Paul  was  him- 
self a  neup/ii/fe  or  novice  in  the  Christian  faitli  at  the  time  of 
writing  this  Epistle.''  And  as  no  intimation  is  given  through 
the  whole  of  it  that  he  had  been  with  them  more  than  once, 
Ave  are  authorized  to  conclude,  that  he  wrote  this  letter  from 
Corinth  about  the  end  of  52,  or  early  iu  the  year  53.  The 
subscription,  indeed,  states  it  to  have  been  written  from 
Rome  :  but  this  is  evidently  spurious,  for  Saint  Paul's  first 
journey  to  Itome  did  not  take  place  until  at  least  ten  years 
after  the  conversion  of  the  Galatians. 

III.  The  genuineness  of  this  Epistle  was  never  doubted. 
It  is  cited  by  the  apostolic  fathers,  Clement  of  Rome,«  Her- 
mas,"  Ignatius,*  and  Polycarp  ;'-•  and  is  declared  to  be  authen- 
tic by  Irenaeus,'"  Clement  of  Alexandria,"  Tertullian,'^  Caius,'- 
Origen,'^  and  by  all  subseiiuent  writers.     It  is  worthy  of 

'  Micliaelis,  vol.  iv.  p.  37. 

«  Dr.  Hales's  Clironology,  vol.  ii.  book  ii.  p.  1123. 

3  Calinet,  Preface  sur  la  seconde  Epitre  aux  Corinthiens.  Lardner's 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  3'24,  325. ;  4lo.  vol.  iii.  p.  296.  RoseninuUer,  Scho- 
lia in  N.  T.  toin.  iv.  pp.  251,2i52.  ;  Bloch,  Chronota.xjs  Scriptorum  Panii,  pp. 
192— 2CtJ. ;  Una's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  335 — 392.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp. 
73—75.     Wliiiliy's  and  Mackniglit's  Prefaces  to  2Corinthians. 

■•  Coinparo  Oal.  i.  8.  11.  iii.  i.  et  seq. 

•  Conl.  Man-ion,  lib.  i.  c.  20. 

•  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  37.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  298. 
•>  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  57.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  309. 

»  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  76. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  319. 

»  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  95. ;  4l<).  vol.  i.  p.  330. 
>o  Ibid.  §vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  163,  164.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  363. 
"  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  2i3. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  401. 
»»  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  264. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  423. 
"  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  374. ;  4to.  vol  i.  p.  482. 
'♦  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  471.;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  535. 

Vol.  II.  2  U 


remark,  that  this  Epistle  was  acknowledged  to  he  genuine  by 
the  heretic  Marcion,  who  reckoned  it  the  earliest  written  of 
all  Saint  Paul's  Letters,  and  accorilingly  placed  it  first  in  his 
Apostolicon,  or  Collection  of  Apostolical  vVritings.'* 

IV.  The  Churches  in  Galatia,  as  in  most  other  countries, 
were  compos(!d  partly  of  converted  Jews  and  partly  of  Gen- 
tile converts,  but  the  latter  seem  to  have  been  most  nume- 
rous. It  appears  from  the  contents  of  this  Epistle,  that,  not 
long  after  tlie  (Jalatians  had  embraced  Christianity,  a  certain 
judaizing  teacher  or  fal.se  apostle  had  either  cre|)t  in  or  risen 
up  among  them,  who,  to  advance  his  own  doctrine,  ques- 
tioned Saint  Paul's  apostolical  authority,  insinuating  Uiat 
Peter  and  the  apostles  of  the  circumcision  were  superior  to 
him,  and  consequently  much  more  to  be  regarded.  It  was 
further  insinuated  that  they  never  preached  against  the  cir- 
cumcisir)ri  ofCienlih;  converts  :  but  that  it  was  a  doctrine  pecu- 
liar to  Paul,  wlio  was  oidy  an  apostle  of  men,  and  had  not 
such  extraordinary  powers  and  illumination  as  had  been  con- 
f(!rred  on  the  other  apostles.  The  false  teacher  seems  even 
to  have  intimated,  that  Saint  Paul  did  himself  secretly,  and 
at  some  times,  preach  the  necessity  of  circumcision  to  the 
Gentile  converts ;  though  generally,  and  at  other  times,  he 
insisted  on  the  contrary.  In  short,  the  false  a[)Ostle  was  de- 
sirous that  all  Gentile  Christians  should  submit  themselves 
to  circumcision,  and  consequently  oblige  themselves  to  ob- 
serve the  whole  law  of  Moses,  as  if  the  Gospel  of  Jesus 
Christ  alone  were  insufficient  to  justify  and  save  them.  And 
so  successful  was  this  teaclu^r  in  propagating  this  error,  that 
some  of  the  Galatians  actually  suhmitttd  to  be  circumcised. 
(Gal.  V.  2 — 12.)  From  the  expression  of  Saint  Paul  in  Gal. 
V.  9 — 10,,  it  is  probable  that  this  disturbance  in  the  Galeitian 
churches  was  made  by  one  judaizing  teacher  only,  and  not 
by  several  zealots,  as  some  commentators  have  supposed ; 
and,  from  what  is  said  in  vi.  12,  13.,  it  appears  that  he  was 
a  man  of  immoral  character,  who  acted  not  from  any  reli- 
gious views  or  motives,  but  from  vain-glory  and  fear;  that 
he  might  conciliate  the  favour  of  the  Jews  by  increasing  the 
number  of  proselytes,  and  so  escape  the  persecutions  raised 
by  the  unbelieving  Jews  against  Saint  Paul,  and  those  who 
adhered  to  his  doctrines. 

Such  were  the  circumstances  that  occasioned  Saint  Paul 
to  write  this  Epistle  with  his  own  hand  (Gal.  vi.  11.),  con- 
trary to  his  usual  practice  of  dictating  his  letters.  Accord- 
ingly, its  Scope  is,  to  assert  his  apostolical  character  and 
authority,  and  the  doctrine  which  he  taught,  and  to  confirm 
the  Galatian  churches  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  especially  with 
respect  to  the  important  point  of  justification  bj  faith  alone ; 
to  expose  the  errors  which  had  been  disseminated  among 
them,  by  demonstrating  to  them  the  true  nature  and  use  of 
the  moral  and  ceremonial  law  ;  and  to  revive  those  prin- 
ciples of  (Christianity  which  he  had  taught  when  he  first 
preached  the  (jospel  to  them. 

V.  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  therefore,  consists  of 
three  parts,  viz. 

Part  I.    The  Introduction,  (i.  1—5.) 

Part  II.   The  IJiscussiun  of  the  Suhjects  which  had  occasioned 
this  Epiitle  .■  in  which 

Sect.  1.  is  a  vindication  of  Saint  Paul's  apostolical  doctrine 
and  authority,  and  shows  that  he  was  neither  a  missionary 
from  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  nor  a  disciple  of  the  apostles, 
but  an  immediate  apo.stle  of  Christ  himself,  by  divine  reve- 
lation ;  consequently  that  he  was  in  no  respect  inferior  to 
Saint  Peter  himself,  (i.  6 — 24.  ii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  apo.stle  disputes  again.st  the  advocates  for  cir- 
cumcision and  the  observance  of  the  law  of  Moses,  and 
shows, 

'  §  i.  That  justification  is  by  faith  in  Christ,  and  not  by  the  works  of  the 
Mosaic  law.  (iii.  1 — 18.) 
§  ii.  That  the  design  of  Rod  in  giving  the  law  was,  not  m  justify  but  to 
convince  of  sin,  as  well  as  to  restrain  from  the  commission  of  it;  and 
that  being  intended  only  for  a  temporary  institution,  instead  of  vacat- 
ing the  promise,  it  was  designed  to  be  subservient  to  it,  by  showing 
the  necessity  of  a  better  righteousness  than  that  of  the  law,  and  so  to 
lead  convinced  souls  to  Chri.<l ;  that,  being  jusiified  by  faith  in  him, 
they  uiight  obtain  the  benefit  of  the  promi.se.  (iii.  19—24.)  Such  being 
the  end  and  design  of  the  law,  the  aposlle  infers  from  it,  that  now, 
under  the  Gospel,  we  are  freed  from  ilie  law  (25—29.);  and  illustrates 
his  inference  by  God's  treatment  of  the  Jewish  church,  which  he 
put  under  the  law,  as  a  father  puts  a  minor  under  a  guardian,  (iv. 
1—7.)  .  .  r 

Sect.  3.  shows  the  great  weakness  and  folly  of  the  ^feitians 
in  going  about  to  subject  themselves  to  the  law,  aiul  that 

«»  Epiphanjus,  IIa:res.  42. 


k 


JJSS 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap,  m 


by  submitting  to  circumcision  they  became  subject  to   the 
whole  law,  and  would  forfeit  the  benefits  of  the  covenant  of 
grace,  (iv.  8—21.  v.  1—9.) 
Sect.   4.  contains  various   instnictions  and  exhortations  for 
Christian  behaviour,  and  particularly    concerning    a    right 
use  of  their  Christain  freedom,  (v.  10 — 16.  vi.  I — 10.) 
Part  III.    The  C(mclusion,  which  is  a  Summary  of  the  Topics 
discussed  in  this  Epistle,  terminates  ivith  an  Apostolical  Bene- 
diction,    (vi.  11 — 18.) 

VI.  Althontrh  the  subject  discussed  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Gaiatians  is  the  same  that  is  treated  intlie  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans, viz.  the  doctrine  oi  justifiadion  by  faith  alone,  yet  the 
two  Epistles  differ  materially  in  this  respect.  The  Epistle  to 
the  Gaiatians  (which  was  first  written)  was  designed  to  prove 
against  the  Jews,  that  men  are  justified  by  faith  without  the 
works  of  the  law  of  Moses, ^  which  required  perfect  obedience 
to  all  its  precepts,  moral  and  ceremonial,  under  the  penalty  of 
the  curse,  from  which  the  atonements  and  purifications  pre- 
scribed by  Moses  had  no  power  to  deliver  the  sinner.  On  the 
contrary,  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  Saint  Paul  treats  of 
justification  on  a  more  enlarged  plan ;  his  design  being  to 
prove  against  both  Jews  and  Gentiles,  that  neither  the  one  nor 
the  other  can  be  justified  meritoriously  by  performing  works 
of  law, — that  is,  the  works  enjoined  by  tlie  law  of  God, 
which  is  written  on  men's  hearts ;  but  that  all  must  be  justi- 
fied gratuitously  by  faith  through  the  obedience  of  Christ. 
The  two  Epistles,  therefore,  taken  together,  form  a  complete 
proof,  that  justification  is  not  to  be  obtained  meritoriously, 
either  by  works  of  morality,  or  by  rites  and  ceremonies,  though 
of  divine  appointment;  hut  that  it  is  a  free  gift,  proceeding 
entirely  from  the  mercy  of  God,  to  those  who  are  qualified  by 
faith  to  receive  it.2 

This  Epistle  is  written  with  great  energy  and  force  of  lan- 

fuage,  and  at  the  same  time  affords  a  fine  instance  of  Saint 
'aul's  skill  in  managing  an  argument.  The  chief  objection, 
which  the  advocate  or  advocates  for  the  Mosaic  law  had 
urged  against  him,  was,  that  he  preached  circumcision.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  Epistle  he  overturns  this  slander  by  a 
statement  of  facts,  without  taking  any  express  notice  of  it ; 
but  at  the  end  he  fully  refutes  it,  that  he  might  leave  a  strong 
and  lasting  impression  upon  their  minds. 

Though  the  erroneous  doctrines  of  the  judaizing  teacher 
and  his  followers,  as  well  as  the  calumnies  which  they  spread 
for  the  purpose  of  discrediting  him  as  an  apostle,  doubtless 
occasioned  great  uneasiness  of  mind  to  him  and  to  the  faith- 
ful in  that  age,  and  did  considerable  injtiry  among  the  Gaia- 
tians, at  least  for  some  time :  yet,  ultimately,  these  evils 
have  proved  of  no  small  service  to  the  church  in  general. 
For,  by  obliging  the  apostle  to  produce  the  evidences  of  his 
apostleship,  and  to  relate  the  liistory  of  his  life,  especially 
aiter  his  conversion,  we  have  obtained  the  fullest  assurance 
that  he  really  was  an  apostle,  called  to  be  an  apostle  by  Jesus 
Christ  himself,  and  acknowledged  to  be  such  by  those  who 
were  apostles  before  him  ;  consequently,  we  are  assured  that 
our  faith  in  the  doctrines,  of  the  Gospel  as  taught  by  him 
(and  it  is  he  who  has  taught  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel  most  fully)  is  not  built  on  the  credit  of  men,  but  on 
the  authority  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  by  whom  Saint  Paul  was 
inspired  in  the  whole  of  the  doctrine  which  he  has  delivered 
to  the  world. 

As  this  letter  was  directed  to  the  churches  of  Galatia,  Dr. 
Macknight  is  of  opinion,  that  it  was  to  be  read  publicly  in 
them  all.  He  thinks,  that  it  was  in  the  first  instance  sent 
by  Titus  to  the  brethren  in  Ancyra,  the  chief  city  of  Galatia, 
with  an  order  to  them  to  communicate  it  to  the  other  churches, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians 
was  appointed  to  be  read  to  all  the  brethren  in  that  city,  and 
in  the  province  of  Macedonia.'' 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 


tica,  vol.  vii.  pp.  311 — 509. 


Synop- 


»  Compare,  among  other  passage!;,  Gal.  iii.  2,  3.  5.  iv.  21.  v.  1 — 4. 

«  Dr.  Macknight's  Preface  to  the  IHpisUe  to  the  Gala'Jans,  sect.  3. 

3  Ibid. 

■*  Calmet,  Preface  sur  I'Epitre  au.i  Oatalo'?.  Ropcniniiller,  Scholia  in  N. 
T.  torn.  iv.  pp.  394 — 396. ;  Uloch,  C'lirnnotaxis  Srriplornm  Paiili,  pp.  l.'it — 
l.'')9. ;  I-ardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  305 — 3I'J. ;  Ito.  vol.  iii.  pp.  287 — 
291. ;  Whitby's  Preface ;  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  301 — 307.  ;  Michao- 
lis,  vol.  iv.  pji  8— 2i 


SECTION  VII. 


ON   THE    EPISTLE   TO   THE    EPHESIANS. 

I.  Account  of  the  church  at  Ephesua. — II.  Genuineness  ana 
authenticity  of  this  Epistle,  -which  7vas  addressed  to  the 
Ephesians,  and  not  to  the  church  at  Laodicea. — III.  Date. — 
IV.  Occasion  and  scope. — V.  Si/nopsis  of  its  contents. — 
VI.  Observations  on  its  style. 

I.  Christianity  Vi'as  first  planted  in  this  city  by  Saint  Paul, 
about  A.  D.  51,  when  he  reasoned  with  the  Jews  in  their  sy- 
nagogues for  the  space  of  three  months  ;  he  did  not,  however, 
contiiHie  long  there  at  that  time,  but  hastened  to  keep  the  feast 
at  Jerusalem,  promising  to  return  again  to  his  hearers.  (Acts 
xviii.  19 — 21.)  Accordingly  he  came  to  Ephesus  early  the 
following  year  (Acts  xix.  1.  et  sefj.),ai\(l  preached  the  word 
with  such  success,  and  performed  such  extraordinary  miracles 
among  them,  that  a  numerous  church  was  formed  there,  chiefly 
composed  of  Gentile  converts ;  whose  piety  and  zeal  were 
so  remarkable,  that  many  of  them,  in  abhorrence  of  the  curious 
arts  which  they  had  used,  burnt  their  magical  books,  to  a  great 
value,  (xix.  19.)  And  such  was  the  apostle's  concern  for  their 
spiritual  welfare,  that  he  did  not  leave  them  until  a.  d.  5(3, 
when  he  had  been  about  three  years  among  them.  (xx.  31.) 
After  this  he  spent  some  time  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia; 
and  on  his  return  to  Jerusalem  (a.  d.  57)  he  sent  for  the  elders 
of  the  F]phesian  church  to  meet  him  at  Miletus.  There  he 
took  an  affectionate  leave  of  them,  as  one  that  should  see 
them  no  more ,-  appealing  to  them  with  what  fidelity  he  had 
discharged  his  ministry  among  them,  and  exhorting  them  to 
"  take  heed  unto  themselves,  and  unto  the  flock"  committed 
to  their  care,  lest  they  should  be  corrupted  by  seducing 
teachers  who  would  rise  among  them,  and  aitfuUy  endeavour 
to  pervert  them.  (xx.  17 — 38.) 

II.  The  apostle  Paul  is  universally  admitted  to  be  the  author 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.  It  is  expressly  cited  as  his 
production  by  Ignatius,*  who  has  not  fewer  than  seven  dis- 
tinct allusions  to  it  ;8  and  as  he  was  contemporary  with  Saint 
Paul,  his  testimony  alone  is  sufficient  to  determine  its  genu- 
ineness. This  Epistle  is  likewise  alluded  to  by  Polycarp,^ 
and  is  cited  by  name  by  Irenseus,^  Clement  of  Alexandria,^ 
Tertullian,^''  Origen,"  and  by  all  subsequent  writers  without 
exception.  Most  of  the  ancient  manuscripts,  and  all  the  an- 
cient versions,  have  the  words  iv  E<^ia-ee,  "  at  Ephesus,"  in  the 
first  verse  of  this  Epistle,  which  is  an  evident  proof  that  the 
Epistle  was  written  to  the  Ephesians.  But  Grotius,  Mill, 
Wetstein,  Vitringa,  Venema,  JJenson,  Paley,  and  other  learn- 
ed men,  have  doubted  or  denied  that  this  Epistle  was  written 
to  the  Ephesians,  and  have  argued  that  it  must  have  been 
written  to  the  Laodiceans.  They  rest  this  opinion,  first,  on 
the  assertion  of  Marcion,  a  heretic  of  the  second  century, 
who  affirmed  the  same  thing,  but  his  testimony  is  of  no 
weight ;  for  Marcion  altered  and  interpolated  the  writings  of 
the  New  Testament,  to  make  them  fiivourable  to  his  senti- 
ments, and  upon  this  very  account  he  is  censured  by  Tertul- 
lian  (a.  d.  200),  as  setting  up  an  interpolation  of  his  own 
with  regard  to  the  Epistle  in  question,  in  opposition  to  the 
true  testimony  of  the  church. '^  They  further  appeal  to  a 
passage  in  Basil's  second  book  against  Eunomius,  in  which 
he  thus  cites  Eph.  i.  1.  "  And  writing  to  tlje  Ephesians,  as 
truly  united  to  him  '  who  is'  through  Knowledge,  he  calked 
them  in  a  peculiar  sense  'such  who  are,'  saying;  'to  the 
saints  who  are'  (or  even)  '  to  the  faithful  in  Christ  Jesus.' 
For  so  those  before  us  have  transmitted  it,  and  we  have 
found  it  in  ancient  copies. "'^  From  the  concluding  sentence 
of  this  quotation  it  is  inferred  that  certain  manuscripts,  which 
Basil  had  seen,  omitted  the  words  si^  Epsa-iii,  "  at  Ephesus." 
Michaelis,  however,  has  shown  at  considerable  length,  that 
the  omission  of  the  word  outrtv  "  who  are,"  was  the  subject 
of  Basil's  implied  censure,  as  being  hostile  to  the  inference 
he  wished  to  deduce,  and  not  the  omission  of  the  words  iv 
E(pi<rai.  And,  as  this  father,  in  another  passage  of  his  writings, 

5  Lardiier,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  70. ;  4fo.  vol.  i.  p.  316. 

6  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  78. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  3'20.  ' 
'  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  95. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  330. 

9  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  103. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  368. 
9  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  223. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  401. 
'('  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  263,  264. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  423. 
ti  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  472. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  535. 
■»  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  263,  204. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  423. 

'3  See  the  original  passage  in  I.ardner,  8vo.  vol.  iv.  p.  401. ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  p, 
406. ;  oi  in  Michaelis,  voj.  iv.  pp.  142—116. 


VII.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  EPHESIANS, 


339 


expressli/  cifen  tho  Epistle  to  the  E)))iesians'  without  any 
hesitvition,  it  is  evirh'iit  that  in  iiis  time  (the  latter  part  of 
tlie  fonrlli  century)  this  Epistle  was  not  considered  as  beinjr 
ad(lress(Ml  to  the  Laodioeaiis. 

Thirdly,  it  is  contended  that  there  are  no  allusions  in  this 
Epistle  to  St.  Paul's  havinjr  resided  amon<T  the  nersons  to 
wliorn  it  is  addressed  ;  and  that  the  expressions  in  Eph.  i.  15. 
iii.  2.  and  iv.  21.  appear  to  he  more  suitable  to  persons  whom 
he  had  never  seen  (which  was  the  case  of  the  ('hristians  at 
Laodicea),  than  to  the  Enhesians,  amonjr  wlioin  he  had  re- 
sided about  three  years.  (Acts  xx.  .31.)  Eiit  these  pass-.tires 
admit  of  easy  and  satisfactory  interpretations,  which  directly 
refute  this  hypothesis.  It  will  be  recollected  tliat  four  or  five 
years  had  elapsed  since  Saint  Paul  hail  ipiitted  E]ihesus:  he 
miii'ht,  therefore,  with  <rreat  propriety,  express  (in  i.  15.)  his 
complacency  on  /icnriiii^  that  they  continued  steadfast  in  tin; 
faith,  notwithstandinrr  the  various  temptations  to  which  tlu^ 
were  exposed.  Anain,  the  expression  in  iii.  2.  (s/^e  m'.uTJn 
mv  ciK'.vofJiixv)  which  many  translate  and  underst.uid  to  mean, 
if  i/e  /litre  heard  nf  the.  {tisj)i'nsatio)}, — more  correctly  means, 
ftinre  ychaveheiirdtlicdhpciisdlion  of  the  oracc  of  God,  which 
had  been  made  known  to  them  by  Saint  I'aul  himself.  (Jon- 
sequently  this  verse  allords  no  countenance  to  the  hypothesis 
above  mentioned.  The  same  remark  a[)plies  to  iv.  21.,  wliere 
a  similar  construction  occurs,  which  on<>ht  in  like  mnnncir  to 
be  rendered,  since  indeed  ye  huve  heard  him,  &c.  Eut  most 
stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  direction  gfiven  by  Saint  Paul 
in  Col.  iv.  1(). — that  the  Colossians  should  "cause  the  Epis- 
tle which  he  wrote  to  them  to  be  read  also  in  the  church  of 
the  Laodiceans,  and  that  they  should  likewise  read  the 
Epistle  from  Laodicea;" — which  (it  is  contended)  affords  a 
plain  proof  that  the  Epistle,  in  our  copies  inscribed  to  the 
Ephesians,  must  be  that  which  is  intended  in  Col.  iv.  !(!., 
and  consequently  was  originally  written  to  the  Laodiceans. 
But  this  conclusion  does  not  necessarily  follow :  for  it  is 
most  probable,  that  by  "  the  Epistle  from  Laodicea^''  Saint 
Paul  meant  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  a  copy  of  which 
was  sent  by  the  apostle's  directions  to  the  Laodiceans,  whose 
city  lay  between  Ephesus  and  Colosse ;  and,  as  it  was 
within  the  circuit  oi  the  Ephesian  church  (which  was  the 
metropolitan  of  all  Asia,  as  Ephesus  was  the  chief  city  of 
proconsular  Asia),  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  as  already 
remarked,^  may  refer  to  the  whole  province. 

Michaelis,  Haenlein,  Huij,  and  Cellcricr,  after  Archbishop 
Usher  and  Bengel,  get  rid  of  all  the  difficulties  attending  this 
question,  by  supposing  the  Epistle  to  have  been  encyclical  or 
circular,  and  addressed  to  the  Ephesians,  Laodiceans,  and 
some  other  churches  in  Asia  Minor.  But  it  could  hardly  be 
circular  in  the  sense  in  which  Michaelis  understands  that 
term :  for  he  supposes  that  the  different  copies  transmitted 
by  Saint  Paul  had  iv  Epia-a>,  at  Ephesus,  «v  AwJmu^,  at  Laodicea, 
&c.  as  occasion  required,  and  that  the  reason  why  all  our 
manuscripts  read  iv  E<pi<ra>  is,  that  when  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament  were  first  collected,  t!ie  copy  used  was  obtained 
from  Ephesus;  but  this.  Bishop  Middleton  observes,  seems 
to  imply — what  cannot  be  proved — that  the  canon  was  esta- 
blished by  authority,  and  that  all  copies  of  this  Epistle,  not 
agreein<r  with  the  approved  edition,  were  suppressed. 

Dr.  Macknight  is  of  opinion,  that  vSaint  Paul  sent  the 
Ephesians  word  by  Tychicus,  who  carried  their  letter,  to 
send  a  copy  of  it.  to  the  Laodiceans,  with  an  order  to  them  to 
communicate  it  to  the  Colossians.  This  hypothesis  will 
account,  as  well  as  that  of  Michaelis,  for  the  want  of  those 
marks  of  personal  acquaintance  which  the  apostle's  former 
residence  might  lead  us  to  expect,  and  on  which  so  much 
stress  has  been  laid :  for  every  thing  local  would  be  pur- 
posely omitted  in  an  Epistle  which  had  a  further  destination. 

The  reader  will  adopt  which  of  these  hypotheses  he  may 
deem  the  best  supported  :  we  think  the  solution  last  statedi, 
the  most  natural  and  probable;  and  that,  when  the  united 
testimonies  of  manuscripts,  and  all  the  fathers,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Basil,  are  taken  into  consideration,  we  are  fully  jus- 
tified in  regarding  this  Epistle  as  written  to  the  Ephesians.' 

«  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  iv.  p.  4W. ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  p.  467. 

»  See  Vol.  I.  p.  58. 

'  Stosch,  de  Epistolis  Apostolorurn  non  deperdilis,  p.  101.  et  seq.  Calmct, 
Preface  siir  I'Epitre  au.x  Ephesiens;  Rosenmuller  and  Koppe  in  their  re- 
spective Prnlcsi'niena  to  this  epistle.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  128 — HG. 
Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  41G — 156.  ;  4lo.  vol.  iii.  pp.  342  -362. 
MackniglU  on  Col.  iv.  16.  Celli'rier,  Introd.  au  Nouv.  Test.  p.  423.  Hug's 
Introd.  vbl.  ii.  pp.  425 — 433.  Bishop  Middleton  on  the  Greek  Article,  pp. 
508 — 513.  (first  edit.),  who  observes,  that  if  ever  there  were  an  epistle  from 
Saint  Paul  to  the  Laodiceans,  it  is  lost ;  for  that  which  is  extant  in  Fabri- 
cius  and  in  Mr.  Jones's  work  on  the  canon  (and  of  which  we  have  given  a 
translation  in  Appendix  I  to  Vol.  I.  Sect.  II.)  is  universally  admitted  to  be 
a  forgery  ;  yet  the  loss  of  a  canonical  writing  is  of  all  suppositions  the 
most  iuiprobablc. 


HI.  The  subscription  to  this  Epistle  states,  that  it  was 
written  from  Rome,  and  sent  to  the  Ephesians  by  'I'ychicus, 
who  was  also  the  bearer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians, 
the  similarity  of  which  in  style  and  subject  shows  that  it  was 
written  at  the  same  time.  That  this  Epistle  was  written 
during  Saint  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Home,  is  evident 
from  its  allusions  to  his  coiffinement  (iii.  1.  iv.  I.  vi.  20.); 
and  as  he  does  not  express  in  it  any  hopes  of  a  speedy  re- 
lease (which  he  does  in  his  other  Epistles  sent  from  that 
city),  we  conclude  with  Dr.  Lardner,  Bishoj)  Tomline,  and 
others,  that  it  was  written  during  the  early  part  of  Saint 
Paul's  imprisonment,  and  probably  in  the  year  Gl,  soon  after 
he  arrived  at  Rome. 

IV.  As  Saint  Paul  was,  in  a  peculiar  manner,  the  apostle 
of  the  (jentiles,  and  was  now  a  prisoner  at  Rome  in  con- 
secpience  of  his  having  provoked  the  .Jews,  by  asscrtintr  that 
the  observance  of  the  ^losaic  law  was  not  necessary  to  obtain 
the  favour  of  Cod,  he  was  a|>|)rehensive  lest  advantage  should 
be  taken  of  his  confinement  to  unsettle  the  minds  of  liis 
Ephesian  converts,  who  were  almost  wholly  (jientiles.  1  lear- 
ing,  however,  that  they  stood  firm  in  the  faith  of  (Jhrist,  he 
wrote  this  Epistle  in  order  to  establish  them  in  that  faith,  and 
to  give  them  more  exalted  views  of  the  love  of  God,  and 
of  the  excellency  and  dignity  of  Christ;  and  at  the  same 
time  to  fortify  their  minds  against  the  scandal  of  the  cross. 
With  this  view,  he  shows  them  that  they  were  saved  by 
grace ;  and  that,  however  wretched  they  once  were,  now  they 
had  equal  privileges  with  the  Jews.  He  then  proceeds  to 
encourage  them  to  persevere  in  their  Christian  calling,  by 
declaring  with  what  steadfastness  he  suffered  for  the  truth, 
and  with  what  earnestness  he  prayed  for  their  establishment 
and  continuance  in  it;  and  urges  them  to  walk  in  a  maimer 
becoming  their  profession,  in  the  faithful  discharge  both  of 
the  general  and  common  duties  of  religion,  and  of  uie  special 
duties  of  particular  relations. 

V.  In  this  Epistle  we  may  observe  the  following  par- 
ticulars, besides  the  inscription  (i.  1,  2.)  ;  viz. 

Part   I.     The   Doctrine  pathetically   explained,  which    con- 
tains, 

Sect.  1.  Praise  to  God  for  the  whole  Gospel-blessing  (i.  3 — 
14.),  with  thanksgiving  and  prayer  for  the  saints,  (i.  15 — 
23.  ii.  1—10.) 

Sect.  2.  A  more  particular  admonition  concerning  their  once 
wretched  but  now  happy  condition,   (ii.  1 1 — 22.) 

Sect.  3.  A  prayer  for  their  establishment,  (iii.) 

Part  II.   The  Exhortatioji. 

Sect.  1.  General,  to  walk  worthy  of  their  calling,  agreeable  to 

(1.)  The  unity  of  the  Spirit,  and  the  diversify  of  his  gifts,  (iv.  1—16.) 
(2.)   The  ditfcrence    between  their   former   and   present   state,    (iv. 
17—24.) 

Sect.  2.  Particular. 

(1.)  To  avoid  lying,  anger,  theft,  and  other  sins  (iv.  25 — 31.  v.  1—21.),  with 
a  connnendation  of  the  opposite  virtues. 

(2.)  To  a  faitliful  discharge  of  the  relative  duties  of  wives  and  husbands 
(V.  22 — 23.),  of  cliildren  and  parents  (vi.  1—4.),  and  of  masters  and  ser- 
vants, (vi.  5—9.) 

Sect.  3.  Final. — To  war  the  spiritual  warfare,  (vi.  10 — 20.) 

Part  III.   The  Conclusion,  (vi.  21— 21.) 

VI.  The  style  of  this  Epistle  is  exceedingly  animated, 
and  corresponds  with  the  state  of  the  apostle's  mind  at  the 
time  of  writing.  Overjoyed  with  the  account  which  tlieir 
messengcrhad  brought  him  of  their  faith  and  holiness  (i.  IS.'), 
and  transported  with  the  consideration  of  the  unsearchable 
wisdom  of  God,  displayed  in  the  work  of  man's  redemption, 
and  of  his  astonishing  love  towards  the  Gentiles  in  making 
them  partakers,  through  faith,  of  all  the  benefits  of  Christ's 
death,  he  soars  high  in  his  sentiments  on  these  grand  sub- 
jects, and  gives  his  thoughts  utterance  in  sublime  and  copious 
expressions.  Many  of  them  contain  happy  allusions  to  the 
temple  and  statue  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  "No  re«/ Chris- 
tian," says  Dr.  Macknight,  "  can  read  the  doctrinal  part  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  without  being  impressed  and 
rousea  by  it,  as  by  the  sound  of  a  trumpet."^ 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horas  Paulinae, 
Chap.  VI. 

For  a  table  of  the  corresponding  passages  in  this  Epistle, 
and  in  that  of  the  Colossians,  see  page  34.  infra. 

*  Preface  to  Ephesians,  sect.  6. 


340 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  HI. 


SECTION  VIII. 

ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  PHILIPPIANS. 

I.  Account  of  the  church  at  Philippi. — II.  Bate. — III.   Occa- 
sion.— IV.  Scope  and  synopsis  of  its  contents. 

I.  Christianity  was  first  planted  at  Philippi,  in  Mace- 
donia, by  Saint  Paul,  a.  d.  50,  the  particulars  of  which  are 
related  in  Acts  xvi.  9 — 10. ;  and  it  appears  from  Acts  xx.  6. 
that  he  visited  them  again  a.  d.  57,  thoutrh  no  particulars  are 
recorded  concerning  that  visit.  Of  all  the  churches  planted 
by  Saint  Paul,  that  at  Philippi  seems  to  have  clierishod  the 
most  tender  concern  for  him ;  and  though  it  appears  to  have 
been  but  a  small  community,  yet  its  members  were  particu- 
larly generous  towards  him.  For  when  the  Gospel  was 
first  preached  in  Macedonia,  no  other  church  contributed  any 
thing  to  his  support,  except  the  Philippians  ;  who,  while  he 
was  preaching  at  Thessalonica,  the  metropolis  of  that  coun- 
try, sent  him  money  twice,  that  the  success  of  the  Gospel 
might  not  be  hindered  by  its  preachers  becomino^  burden- 
some to  the  Thessalonians.  (Phil.  iv.  15,  10.)  The  same 
attention  they  showed  to  the  apostle,  and  for  the  same  rea- 
son, while  he  preached  the  Gospel  at  Corinth.  (2  Cor.  xi.  9.) 
And  when  they  heard  that  Saint  Paul  was  under  confine- 
ment at  Rome,  they  manifested  a  similar  affectionate  con- 
cern for  him  ;  and  sent  Epaphroditus  to  him  with  a  present, 
lest  he  should  want  necessaries  during  his  imprisonment. 
(ii.  25.  iv.  10.  14—18.) 

II.  It  appears  from  Saint  Paul's  own  words,  that  this 
Epistle  was  written  while  he  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome  (i.  7. 
13.  iv.  22.) ;  and  from  the  expectation  which  he  discovers, 
of  being  soon  released  and  restored  to  them,'  as  well  as  from 
the  intimations  contained  in  this  letter  (i.  12.  ii.  26.),  that  he 
had  then  been  a  considerable  time  at  Rome,  it  is  probable 
that  he  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  towards  the  close 
of  his  first  imprisonment,  at  the  end  of  a.  d.  62,  or  perhaps 
at  the  commencement  of  63.  The  genuineness  of  this  letter 
was  never  questioned. 

III.  The  more  immediate  occasion  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians  was  the  return  of  Epaphroditus,  one  of  their  pas- 
tors, by  whom  Paul  sent  it,  as  a  grateful  acknowled^ient 
of  their  kindness  in  sending  him  supplies  of  money.  Trom 
the  manner  in  which  Paul  expressed  himself  on  this  occa- 
sion, it  appears  that  he  was  in  great  want  of  necessaries  be- 
fore their  contributions  arrived ;  for  as  he  had  not  converted 
the  Romans,  he  did  not  consider  himself  as  entitled  to  receive 
supplies  from  them.  Being  a  prisoner,  he  could  not  work 
as  formerly;  and  it  was  his  rule  never  to  receive  any  thing 
from  the  churches  where  factions  had  been  raised  against 
him.  It  also  appears  that  the  Philippians  were  the  only 
church  from  whom  he  received  any  assistance,  and  that  he 
conferred  this  honour  upon  them,  because  they  loved  him  ex- 
ceedingly, had  preserved  the  Cliristian  doctrine  in  purity,  and 
had  always  conducted  themselves  as  sincere  Christians. 

IV.  The  scope  of  this  Epistle,  therefore,  is  to  confirm  the 
Philippians  in  the  faith,  to  encourage  them  to  walk  in  a  man- 
ner becoming  the  Gospel  of  Christ,  to  caution  them  against 
the  intrusion  of  judaizing  teachers,  and  to  testify  his  gratitude 
for  their  Christian  bounty. 

Accordingly,  after  a  short  introduction  (i.  1,  2.),  he  pro- 
ceeds, 

Sect.  I.  To  express  his  gratitude  to  God  for  their  continuing 
steadfast  in  the  faith,  and  prays  that  it  may  continue  (i.  3 — 
11.);  and,  lest  they  should  be  discouraged  by  the  tidings 
of  his  imprisonment,  he  informs  them  that  his  sufferings 
and  confinement,  so  far  from  impeding  the  progress  of  the 
Gospel,  had  "  rather  fallen  out  to  its  furtherance ;"  and 
assures  them  of  his  readiness  to  live  or  die,  as  should  be 
most  for  their  welfare  and  the  glory  of  God.  (12 — 20.)2 

Sect.  2.  He  then  exhorts  them,  in  a  strain  of  the  most  sub- 
lime and  pathetic  eloquence,  to  maintain  a  conduct  worthy 
of  the  Gospel,  and  to  the  practice  of  mutual  love  and  can- 
dour, enforced  by  the  highest  of  all  examples, — that  of  Jesus 

«  M,  Oeder,  in  a  programma  published  in  1731,  contendod  that  this  Epis- 
tle vras  written  at  a  much  earlier  period  at  Corinth,  and  shortly  after  the 
planting  of  the  cliurch  at  Pliilippi:  this  hypothesis  was  examined  and  re- 
futed by  Wolfius  in  his  Cvara?  Philologicae,  vol.  iii.  pp.  168.  et  seg.  and  271. 
el  seg.  In  1799  the  celebrated  Professor  Paulus  published  a  prosramma, 
de  Tempore  scrlptaj  prioris  ad  Timotheum  atipie  ad  Pliilippenses  Epistola; 
Paulinaj ;  in  which  he  endeavours  to  show  that  it  was  written  at  Oa?sarea; 
but  his  hypothesis  has  been  refuted  by  Heinriclisin  his  notes  on  this  Epistle. 

*  Verses  15 — 18.  are  a  parenthesis,  though  not  so  uiarlicd  in  any  editions 
or  translations  which  we  have  seen. 


Christ ;  and  to  work  out  their  own  salvation  with  fear  and 
trembling,  that  he  may  rejoice  in  the  day  of  Christ  on  their 
account  (i.    21 — 30.    ii.    1 — 17.)  ;   and  promises   to    send 
Timothy   and  Epaphroditus,  of  whom   he    makes    a  very 
affectionate  mention.  (19 — 30.) 
Sect.  3.  He  solemnly  cautions  them  against  judaizing  teach- 
ers, tvho  preached   Christ  through  envy  and  strife,   (iii. 
iv.  1.) 
Sect.  4.  After  some  admonitions  to  particular  persons  (iv.  2, 
3.),  and  some  general  exhortations  to  Christian  cheerful- 
ness, moderation,  and  prayer  (4 — 7.),  he  proceeds  to  recom- 
mend virtue  in  the  most  extensive  sense,  mentioning  all  the 
different  bases  on  which  it  had  been  placed  by  the  Grecian 
philosophers.  (8,  9.)     Towards  the  close  of  his  Epistle,  he 
makes  his  acknowledgments  to  the  Philippians  for  their  sea- 
sonable and  liberal  supply,  as  it  was  a  convinchig  proof  of 
their  affection  for  him,  and  of  their  concern  for  the  support 
of  the  Gospel,  which  he  preferred  far  before  any  secular 
interest  of  his  own,  expressly  disclaiming  all  selfish  merce- 
nary views,  and  assuring  them,  with  a  noble  simplicity,  that 
he  was  able  upon  all  occasions  to  accommodate  his  temper 
to   his  circumstances ;  and  had  learned,  under  the  teach- 
ings of  divine  grace,  in  whatever  station  Providence  might 
see  fit  to  place  him,  therewith    to  be   content.  (10 — 18.) 
After  which  the   apostle,  having  encouraged  them  to  expect 
a  rich  supply  of  all  their  wants  from  their  God  and  Father, 
to   whom  he    devoutly    ascribes    the    honour  of  all   (19.), 
concludes  with   salutations  from  himself  and  his  friends  at 
Rome   to    the    whole    church,  and  a    solemn    benediction. 
(21—23.) 
It  is  remarkable  that  the  Epistle  to  the  church  at  Philippi 
is  the  only  one,  of  all  Saint  Paul's  letters  to  the  churches,  in 
which  not  one  censure  is  expressed  or  implied  against  any  of 
its  members;  but,   on  the  contrary,  sentiments  of  unquali- 
fied commendation  and  confidence  pervade  every  part  of  this 
Epistle.      Its  style  is  singularly  animated,  affectionate,  and 
pleasing. 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horas  Paulinee, 
Chap.  VII.3 


SECTION  IX. 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  COLOSSIANS. 

I.  Account  of  the  chttrch  at    Colossx. — II.  Date. — III.   Occa 
sion  of  this  Epistle. — IV.   Scope  and  analysis. 

I.  Bv  whom  or  at  what  time  Christianity  was  planted  at 
Colossaj,'  \ye  have  no  certain  information.  Dr.  Lardner, 
Bishop  Tomline,  Boehmer,  and  others,  are  of  opinion  that  the 
church  at  Colossse  was  founded  by  Paul;  and  they  ground 
this  opinion  principally  on  the  following  considerations ;  viz. 

That  Paul  was  twice  in  Phrygia,  in  which  country  were 
the  cities  of  Colossse,  Laodicea,  and  Hierapolis, — that  he 
does,  in  elFect  say  that  he  has  dispensed  the  Gospel  to  the 
Colossians  (i.  21 — 25.), — and  that  it  appears  from  the  terms 
of  affection  and  authority  discovemblemthis  Epistle,  that  he 
did  not  address  them  as  strangers,  but  as  acquaintances, 
friends,  and  converts.  It  is  true  that  Paul  was  twice  in 
Phrygia,  but  he  does  not  seem  to  have  visited  the  three  cities 
above  mentioned  ;  for  his  route  lay  considerably  to  the  north- 
ward of  them,  from  Cilicia  and  Derbe  to  Lystra,  and  thence 
through  Phrygia  and  Galatia  toMysia  and  Troas.  (Acts  xvi. 
6.)  And  in  his  second  tour  he  also  passed  through  Galatia 
and  Phrygia  to  Ephesus  and  Troas  (Acts  xviii.  23.),  and  so 
through  the  upper  parts,  or  northern  districts,  of  Asia  Minor, 
(xix.  1.)     That  Paul  did  nol  plant  the  church  at  Colossaj,  is 

3  Uosenmiiller,  Scholia  in  Nov.  Test.  torn.  iv.  pp.  "172—475. ;  Cslmet,  Pre- 
face sur  I'Epitre  au.x  Philippiens ;  Michaelis's  introduction,  vol.  iv.  pp.  \'i'2 
—  160.  Hug's  Introduclion,  yol-  ii-  PP'  48.'j^487. ;  Lardner's  Works,  8vo. 
vol.  vi.  pp.  152 — 161. ;  Macknight's  Preface  to  this  epislle.  But  the  fullest 
view  of  the  epistle  to  the  Philippians  will  be  foimil  in  Hoog's  Specimen 
Acadeniicum  inaugni-alc  de  Coetus  Christianorum  Philippensis  Conditione 
primccvil,  ex  epistola  iis  ab  apostolo  Paulo  scripta,  prajcipue  dijudlcanda. 
Luiril.  liat.  1825.  8vo. 

<  III  Col.  i.  2.  instead  of  iv  KuKorTxii,  at  Colossa,  the  Alexandrian,  Vati- 
can, Codex  Ephrem,  and  several  other  ancient  manuscript.?,  read  m-  Kox.xrr- 
iTj.i<;,  at  Colassm,  or  among  the  Colassians.  With  them  agree  the  Syriac, 
Coptic,  and  Sclavonic  version.s,  as  well  as  Origen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and 
many  other  learned  fathers ;  but  as  the  coins  of  this  city  are  stamped 
■KOAOUiJHNOi,  and  AHMOi;  KOAOi;i;HN£iN (Eckel,  UoclrinaNnmmorum 
Veteruin,  part  i.  vol.  iii.  p.  98.),  Colossaj  appears  to  be  the  more  correct  - 
name. 


&ECT.  X.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS. 


341 


evident  from  his  own  declaration  in  ii.  1.  where  lie  says  that 
neither  the  ('olossians  nor  the  Laodicf^ans  had  then  "  seen 
his  f.ice  in  the  llesh."  Hut  thoiiirii  Paul  iiad  never  h(^en  in 
(.'eJDSsa^  wiien  he  wrote  tliis  Epistle,  yet  (Christianity  had 
evid(Mitly  hcen  tautrht,  and  a  eliureii  planted  tiiere.  lujsen- 
m  iller  is  of  opinion,  that  the  Ciospel  was  introduced  into  that 
city  liy  Kpaphras.  It  is  not  iin|)rohal)le  that  Enapiiras,  who 
is  mentioned  in  i.  7.  iv.  12,  13,,  was  one  of  the  earliest 
teachers;  hut  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  he  was  the 
person  who  first  planted  ('hristianity  there.  Indeed,  it  is 
not  iil<ely  that  the  ('olossians  would  send  away  the  founder 
of  their  chureii  whih;  it  was  y('t  in  an  infant  state.  As  it  ap- 
pears from  Acts  xix.  10.  that,  durinjr  Paul's  residence  at 
Epliesus,  many  persons,  hoth  Jews  and  (J reeks,  came  from 
various  parts  of  Asia  to  liear  the  d'ospel,  IMichaelis  supposes 
that  several  (Jolossians,  particularly  I'liilemon,  were  of  this 
numlicr.  lie  also  thinks  that 'riniothy  niiirht  have  tauyht 
them  llie  (Mirisliau  faith ;  as  Paul  subjoins  his  name  to  his 
own  (i.  1.),  and  throughout  tin;  (irst  chapter  speaks  in  their 
joint  names,  except  where  the  subject  relates  to  his  own 
iniprisoimient,  ana  where  Timothy  of  course  could  not  be 
included. 

II,  Hut  though  it  is  impossible  now  to  ascertain  the 
founder  of  the  church  at  Colossa^  the  Epistle  itself  furnishes 
us  with  a  (Tuide  to  its  date.  In  Col.  iv.  .'i.  the  apostle  alludes 
to  his  imprisonment,  from  which  circumstance,  as  well  as 
from  its  close  adinity  to  the  Epistle  addressed  to  the  Ephe- 
sians,  it  is  evident  that  it  was  written  nearly  at  the  same 
time,  Accordintrly  most  commentators  and  critics  refer  it  to 
the  year  ()'i.     Its  jrenuineness  was  never  disputed, 

III,  At  the  time  of  writing  this  Epistle,  Paul  was  "an 
ambassador  in  bonds,"  for  maintainintj  the  freedom  of  the 
Gentile  converts  from  all  subjection  to  the  law  of  Moses, 

Its  innnediate  Occasion  was,  some  difhcultics  that  had 
arisen  among  the  Colossians,  in  consequence  of  which  they 
sent  E{)aphras  to  Rome,  to  acquaint  the  apostle  with  the 
state  ot  their  alVairs  ;  to  which  we  may  add  the  letter  f  Col. 
iv,  1(>,)  sent  to  him  by  the  Laodiceans,  who  seem  to  nave 
written  to  him  concerning  the  errors  of  the  false  teachers,  and 
to  have  asked  his  advice,  Paul,  therefore,  replies  in  the 
present  Epistle,  which  he  sent  to  the  Colossians  as  bein^ 
the  larger  church,  and  also  because  the  false  teachers  had 

i)robal)ly  caused  greater  disturbances  among  the  Colossians; 
)ut  desired  that  they  would  send  the  same  Epistle  to  the  Lao- 
diceans, and  ask  them  for  a  copy  of  their  letter  to  Paul,  in 
order  that  they  might  the  better  understand  his  answer. 

Who  the  false  teachers  were,  is  a  point  not  satisfactorily 
determined,  Michaelis  is  of  opinion  that  this  Epistle  was 
directed  against  the  tenets  and  practices  of  the  Essenes,  of 
which  sect  an  account  has  been  given  in  theearly  part  of  this 
volume.  Hut  it  is  more  probable  that  they  were  partly  super- 
stitious judaizing  teachers,  who  diligently  inculcated  not 
only  the  Mosaic  mw,  but  also  the  absurd  notions  of  the  rab- 
bins, and  partial  converts  from  Gentilism  who  blended  Pla- 
tonic notions  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  Platonists  entertained  singular  ideas  concern- 
ing demons,  whom  they  represented  as  carrying  men's 
prayers  to  tied,  from  whom  they  brought  back  the  blessings 
supplicated  ;  and  the  doctrines  of  the  .lews  concerning  angels 
were  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Platonics  concerning  de- 
mons. It  apjiears  from  Col.  ii.  IG — 2.3.  that  the  false  teach- 
ers .inculcated  the  worship  of  angels,  abstinence  from  animal 
food,  the  observance  of  the  Jewish  festivals,  new  moons  and 
Sabbaths,  the  mortification  of  the  body  by  long-continued 
fastings,  and,  in  short,  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  ritual 
law,  as  absolutely  necessary  to  salvation. 

IV,  The  Scope  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  is,  to  show 
that  all  hope  of  man's  redemption  is  founded  on  Christ  our 
Redeemer,  in  whom  alone  all  complete  fulness,  perfections, 
and  sufficiency,  are  centered :  to  caution  the  Colossians 
against  the  insinuations  of  judaizing  teachers,  and  also 
against  philosophical  speculations  and  deceits,  and  human 
traditions,  as  inconsistent  with  Christ  and  his  fulness  for  our 
salvation  ;  and  to  excite  the  Colossians,  by  the  most  persua- 
sive arguments,  to  a  temper  and  conduct  worthy  of  their 
sacred  character.  The  Epistle,  therefore,  consists  of  two 
principal  parts  besides  the  introduction  and  conclusion. 

I.  AAcr  a  short  inscription  or  introduction  (i.  1,  2.)  Paul 
begins  with  expressing  great  joy  for  the  favourable  character 
which  he  had  heard  of  them,  and  assures  them  that  he  daily 
prayed  for  their  further  improvement.  (3 — 14.)  He  then  makes 
a  short  digression  in  order  to  describe  the  dignity  of  Jesus  Christ, 
who,  he  declares,  created  all  tlungs,  whether  thrones  or  dominions, 


principalities  or  powers, — that  he  alone  was  the  head  of  the 
church,  and  bad  reconciled  men  to  the  Father.  (15 — 20.)  The 
inference  from  this  description  is  cviiicnt,  that  Jesus  was  superior 
to  angels ;  that  they  were  created  beings,  and  ought  not  to  be 
worshipijcd.  In  verse  21.  I'aul  returns  from  this  digression  to 
the  sentiments  with  which  he  had  introdui-ed  it  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  verses ;  and  again  cxi)res.ses  bis  Joy,  that  the 
Colossians  remained  faithful  to  the  Gosj)el,  which  wa.s  to  bo 
preached  to  the  Gentiles,  without  the  restraints  of  the  ceremonial 
law.  From  this  view  of  the  excellency  of  Christ's  person,  and 
the  riches  of  his  grace,  the  apostle  takes  occa-iion  to  express  the 
cheerfulness  with  which  he  suffered  in  the  cause  of  the  Gospel, 
and  bis  earnest  solicitude  to  I'ullil  his  ministry  among  them  in 
the  most  successful  manner;  assuring  them  of  his  concern  for 
them  and  for  the  other  Christians  in  the  neighbourhood,  that 
they  might  be  established  in  their  adherence  to  the  Christian 
faith,  (i.  21— 2'J.ii.  1—7.) 

II.  Having  given  these  general  exhortations,  he  proceeds 
directly  to  caution  them  against  the  vain  and  deceitful  philosophy 
of  the  new  teachers,  and  their  superstitious  adherence  to  the  law  ; 
shows  the  supcri(jrity  of  Christ  to  angels,  and  warns  Christians 
against  worshipping  them.  He  censures  the  observations  of 
Jewish  sabbaths  and  festivals,  and  cautions  the  Colossians  against 
those  corrupt  additions  which  some  were  attempting  to  introduce, 
especially  by  rigours  and  superstitions  of  their  own  devising, 
(ii.  8 — 23.)  To  these  doctrinal  instructions  succeed  precepts 
concerning  the  practical  duties  of  life,  especially  the  relative 
duties  of  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  children,  servants  and 
masters,  (iii.  iv.  1 — 6.)  The  Epistle  concludes  with  matters 
chiefly  of  a  private  nature,  except  the  directions  for  reading  it  in 
the  church  of  Laodicea,  as  well  as  in  that  of  Colossse.  (iv.  7 — 18.) 
For  an  illustration  of  iv.  16.  see  Vol.  I.  p.  58. 

Whoever,  says  Michaelis,  would  understand  the  Epistles 
to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians,  must  read  them  together. 
The  one  is  in  most  places  a  commentary  on  the  other ;  the 
meaning  of  single  passages  in  one  Epistle,  which,  if  con- 
sidered alone,  might  be  variovisly  interpreted,  being  deter- 
mined by  the  parallel  passages  in  the  other  Epistle.  Yet, 
though  there  is  a  great  similarity,  the  Epistle  to  the  Colos- 
sians contains  many  things  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  that 
to  the  Ephesians;  especially  in  regard  to  the  worship  of 
anTOls,  and  many  single  points,  which  appear  to  be  Essene, 
and  might  prevail  at  Colossae.' 

The  following  Table  exhibits  the  corresponding  passages 
of  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians. 

Ephesians.       Colossians.  Ephesians.  Colossians. 
Chap.  i.  1,  2.    Chap.  i.  1,  2.         Chap.  iv.  2>— 25.    Cn\p.  iii.  9,  10. 

i.  6,  7.               i.  13.  iv.  17— 21.  i.  21.  ii.6.  iii.8— 10. 

i.   10.                  i.  19,  20.  iv.  29.  iv.  6. 

i.   15,  16.            i.  3,  4.  iv.  32.  iii.  12,  13. 

i.  17-21.           i.  9—1.5.  iv.  31.  iii.8. 

i.  22.  iii.  10, 11.  i.   16—18.  v.  5.  iii.  5. 

i.   19.  ii.  1^5.    ii.  12,  13.  v.  6.  iii.  6. 

ii.  1.                    i.  21.  V.  7,8.  iii.  7.  8. 

ii.  13—16.           i.  20.  il.  14.  v.   15,  16.  iv.  5. 

iii.  1.                   i.  24,  25.  V.  18-20.  iii.  16,  17. 

iii.  3,  &c.            i.  26—29.  v.  21—23.  vi.  1—9.  iii.  18—25.  iv.  1. 

iv.  2—4.               ii.  12—15.  vi.  18—20.  iv.  2—4. 

iv.  16.                  ii.  19.  vi.  21,  22.  iv.  7—9. 

On  the  uvdeslgned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr,  Paley's  Horaj  Paulinae, 
Chap.  VIII. 


SECTION  X. 

ON    THE    FIRST    EPISTLE    TO    THE    THESSALONIANS. 

I,  Jlccount  of  the  Christian  church  there. — II.  Genuineness 
of  this  Epistle, — III.  Its  occasi-on  and  scope — Synopsis  of 
its  contents. 

I,  Christianity  was  first  planted  at  Thessalonica  by 
Saint  Paul,  a.  d,  50,  who  formed  a  church,  composed  botli 
of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  but  the  latter  were  most  numerous. 
(Acts  xvii.  2 — 1.)  The  unbelieving  Jews,  however,  having 
stirred  up  a  persecution  against  him  and  his  company,  they 
were  forced  to  flee  to  Berasa,  and  thence  to  Athens  (xvii,  5 
— 15,),  from  which  city  he  proceeded  to  Corinth.  Heing 
thus  prevented  from  visiting  the  Thessalonians  again  as  he 

'  Bophmcr,  Isasoffe  in  Epistolam  ad  Colossenses  ;  Calmet,  Preface  sur 
I'Epitre  ;i  les  Colossiens;  Michaelis's  Introd.  vol.  iv.  pp.  116^12}.  ;  Hug's 
Introd.  vol.  ii.  pp  433 — J35. ;  Macknight's  Preface ;  Rosenmiiller,  Scholia, 
torn.  iv.  pp.  134 — 136.  In  Instituting  a  collation  of  these  two  epistles  the 
student  will  find  a  very  valuable  help  in  M.  Van  Bemmelen's  Disserlatio 
E:.\'ogctico-Critica,  de  epistolas  Pauli  ad  Epbesios  et  Colosseoses  inter  se 
collatis.  8vo.  Lugd.  Bat.  1303. 


342  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT, 

had  intended  (1  Thess.  ii.  17,  18.),  he  sent  Silas  and  Timo- 


[Paut  VI.  Chap.  HI 


thy  to  visit  them  in  his  stead  (iii.  6.),  and,  on  their  return  to 
him  from  Macedonia  (Acts  xvii.  M,  15.  xvili.  5.),  he  wrote 
the  first  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  a.  d.  52,  from  Corinth, 
and  not  from  Athens,  as  the  spurious  subscription  to  this 
Epistle  imports.' 

II.  The  first  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  is  generally 
admitted  to  have  been  one  of  the  earliest  written,  if  indeed 
it  be  not  the  very  Jirsi;^  of  all  Saint  Paul's  letters,  and  we 
find  that  he  was  anxious  that  it  should  be  read  to  all  the 
Christian  churches  in  Macedonia.  In  chap.  v.  27.  he  gives 
the  following  command  : — [adjure  you  by  the  Lord  that  this 
Epistle  be  read  unto  all  the  huly  bretliren.  This  direction  is 
very  properly  inserted  in  his  first  Epislle.  Its  genuineness 
has  never  been  disputed.  Polycarp'*  has  probably  referred 
to  it,  and  it  is  certainly  quoted  and  recoguised  as  Saint  Paul's 
production  (together  with  the  second  Epistle)  by  Irenaeus,* 
Clement  of  Alexandria,'^  Tertullian,"  Caius,'  Origen,^  and 
all  subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers. 

III.  The  immediate  occasion  of  Paul's  writing  this  Epistle 
was,  the  favourable  report  which  Timothy  had  brought  him 
of  the  steadfastness  of  the  Thessalonians  in  the  faith  of  the 
Gospel.  He  therefore  wrote  to  confirm  them  in  that  faith, 
lest  they  should  be  turned  aside  from  it  by  the  persecutions 
of  the  unbelieving  Jews,  and  also  to  excite  them  to  a  holy 
conversation,  becoming  the  dignity  of  their  high  and  holy 
calling.     This  epistle  consists  of  five  parts,  viz. 

Part  I.    The  Inscription,  (i.  1.) 

Part  II.  celebrates  tlie  grace  of  God  towards  the  Thessalonians, 

and  reminds  them  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Gospel  was 

preached  to  them.  (i.  2 — 10.  ii.  1 — 16. 
Part  III.   The  Apostle  declares  his  desire  to  see  them,  together 

with  his  affectionate  solicitude  for  them,  and  his  prayer  for 

them.  (ii.  17—20.  iii.)     In 
Part  IV.  he  exhorts  them  to  grow  in  holiness  (iv.  1 — 8.)  and 

in  brotherly  love,  with  industry.  (9^12.) 
Part  V.  contains  exhortations  against  immoderate  sorrow  for 

their  brethren,  who  had  departed  in  the  faith ,-  together  with 

admonitions  concerning  the  coming  of  Christ  to  judgment. 

(iv.  13—18.  V.  1—11.) 

The  Epistle  concludes  with  various  practical  advices  and 
instructions,  (v.  12 — 28.) 

On  the  undesigned coijicidences hetween  this  Epistle  and  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horce  Paulina,  Chap. 

IX.9 


SECTION  XI. 


ON    THE    SECOND    EPISTLE    TO   THE    THESSALONIANS. 

[.  Date,  occasion,  and  scope  of  this  Epistle. — II.  Analysis  of 
its  contents. — III.  Observations  on  this  Epistle. 

I.  The  second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  was  evidently 
written  soon  after  the  first  (a.  d.  52),  and  from  the  same 
place ;  for  Silvanus  or  Silas,  and  Timothy,  are  joined  to- 
gether with  the  apostle  in  the  inscription  of  this  Epistle  as 
well  as  that  of  the  former.  The  Epistle  was  occasioned  by 
the  information  communicated  to  Paul  by  the  person  who  had 
conveyed  his  first  letter  to  the  Thessalonians,  respecting  the 
state  of  their  church.  Among  other  things  he  was  informed, 
from  some  expressions  in  it,'o  that  many  of  them  expected  that 
the  day  of  judgment  would  happen  in  that  age ;  and  that  such 

»  Grotius  has  contended  that  t\\B  first  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  is  in 
reality  the  second,  but  he  has  not  supported  that  conjecture  by  any  histo- 
rical evidence. 

^  Calmet,  Bloch,  Dr.  Maoknight,  and  many  other  modern  critics,  after 
Chrysostom  and  Tiieodoret,  are  decidedly  of  opinion  that  this  is  the  ear- 
hest  written  of  all  St.  Paul's  Epistles. 

3  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  9(5. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  330. 

*  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  164. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  303. 

'  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  223. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  401 

«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  264. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  423. 

'  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  SW.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  432. 

8  Ibid.  Bvo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  528.  530.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  566,  567. 

9  Calmet,  Preface  sur  la  premiere  Epitre  au.K  Thessaloniens ;  Rosen- 
miiller,  Scholia,  torn.  iv.  pp.  081,  082. ;  BIocl),  ChronotaxisScriptorum  Pauli, 
pp.  99—109. ;  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  23—29.  ;  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
349 — 352.  But  the  fullest  view  of  all  the  circumstances  of  this  epistle  is 
given  in  Burgerhoudt's  Specimen  Academicum  Inausurale  de  Coetus 
Christianorum  Thessalonicensis  Ortu  Fatisque,  et  prioris Pauli  iis  scriptiB 
Epistolaj  Consilio  et  Argumento.    Lugd.  Bat.  1825.  8vo. 

'0  See  1  Thess.  iv.  15.  17.  v.  4.  6. 


of  them  as  thought  the  advent  of  Christ  and  the  end  of  the 
world  to  be  at  hand,  were  neglecting  their  secular  affairs,  as 
being  inconsistent  with  a  due  preparation  for  that  important 
and  awful  event.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  state  of  the 
Thessalonians  was  made  known  to  Paul,  he  wrote  this  second 
Epistle,  to  correct  their  misapprehension,  to  rescue  them  from 
an  error  which  (appearing  to  rest  on  apostolical  authority) 
must  ultimately  be  injurious  to  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  and 
to  recommend  several  Christian  duties. 

II.  After  a  short  introduction,  the  apostle  begins  with 
commending  the  faith  and  charity  of  the  Thessalonians,  of 
which  he  had  heard  a  favourable  report.  He  expresses  his 
joy  on  account  of  the  patience  with  which  they  endured  per- 
secution ;  which,  he  observes,  was  a  proof  of  a  righteous  judg- 
ment to  come,  where  their  persecutors  would  meet  with  their 
proper  recompense,  and  the  righteous  be  delivered  out  of  all 
their  afflictions.  And  all  this  (he  assures  them)  will  take 
place,  when  Jesus  Christ  returns  with  pomp  and  majesty  as 
universal  judge.  He  further  assures  them  of  his  constant 
prayers  for  their  further  improvement,  in  order  that  they  may 
attain  the  felicity  promised,     (ch.  i.) 

He  then  proceeds  to  rectify  the  mistake  of  the  Thessalo- 
nians, who,  from  misunderstanding  a  passage  in  his  former 
letter,  believed  that  the  day  of  judgment  was  at  hand.  "The 
day  of  the  Lord,"  he  informs  them,  will  not  come  until  a 
great  apostasy  has  overspread  the  Christian  world,  the  nature 
of  which  he  describes.  Symptoms  of  this  mystery  of  iniqui- 
ty had  then  appeared :  but  the  apostle  expresses  his  thank- 
fulness to  God,  that  the  Thessalonians  had  escaped  this  cor- 
ruption ;  and  he  exhorts  them  to  steadfastness,  praying  that 
God  would  comfort  and  strengthen  them,  (ii.) 

He  next  requests  their  prayers  for  himself,  and  for  Silvanus 
and  Timothy,  his  two  assistants ;  at  the  same  time  express- 
ing his  confidence  that  they  would  pay  a  due  regard  to  the 
instructions  he  had  given  them.  And  he  proceeds  to  correct 
some  irregularities  that  had  crept  into  their  church.  Many 
of  the  Thessalonians  seem  to  have  led  an  idle  and  disorderly 
life :  these  he  severely  reproves,  and  commands  the  faithful  to 
shun  their  company,  if  they  still  remained  incorrigible.  The 
apostle  concludes  with  his  apostolical  benediction;  and  in- 
forms them  that  his  writing  the  salutation  with  his  own  hand 
was  a  token  of  the  genuineness  of  all  the  Epistles  which  he 
wrote. 

From  the  preceding  view  of  this  Epistle,  it  will  be  seen 
that  it  consists  of  five  parts,  viz. 

1.  The  Inscription,  (i.  1,  2.) 

2.  Saint   Paul's  Thanksgiving    and    Prayer  for  them.  (i.  3 — 
12.) 

3.  The  Rectification  of  their  Mistake  concerning  the  day  of  judg- 
ment and  the  doctrine  concerning  the  man  of  sin.  (ii.) 

4.  Various  advices  relative  to  Christian  virtues,  particularly 

i.  To  prayer,  with  a  prayer  for  the  Thessalonians.  (iii.  1 — 5.) 
ii.  To  correct  the  disorderly,  (iii.  0 — 16.) 

5.  The  Conclusion,  (iii.  17,  18.) 

III.  Although  the  second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  is 
the  shortest  of  all  Saint  Paul  s  letters  to  the  churches,  it 
is  not  inferior  to  any  of  them  in  the  sublimity  of  the  senti- 
ments, and  in  that  excellent  spirit  by  which  all  the  writings 
of  this  apostle  are  so  eminently  distinguished.  Besides  those 
marks  of^  genuineness  and  authority  which  it  has  in  common 
with  the  rest  of  the  apostolical  Epistles,  it  has  one  peculiar 
to  itself,  in  the  exact  representation  it  contains  of  the  papal 
power,  under  the  characters  of  the  "  Man  of  Sin,"  and  the 
"  Mystery  of  Iniquity."  For,  considering  how  directly  oppo- 
site the  principles  here  described  were  to  the  genius  of  Chris- 
tianity, It  must  have  appeared,  at  the  time  when  this  Epistle 
was  written,  highly  improbable  to  all  human  apprehension 
that  they  should  ever  have  prevailed  in  the  Christian  church ; 
and  consequently  a  prediction  like  this,  which  answers  so 
exactly  in  every  particular  to  the  event,  must  be  allowed  to 
carry  its  own  evidence  along  with  it,  and  to  prove  that  its 
author  wrote  under  divine  influence." 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horae  Paulinae, 
Chap.  X. 

«'  Dr.  Doddridge's  Introd.  to  2  Thess.  Bloch,  ChronotaxisScriptorum 
Pauli,  pp.  109 — 115.  CahuRt's  Preface  sur  la  seconde  Epitre  aux  Tliessa- 
loniens;  Hug's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  pp.  3.33,  354.  For  a  full  illustration  of  the 
prophecy  above  mentioned,  see  Bishop  Newton's  Dissertations,  vol.  ii.  Diss. 
22.  Dr.  Benson's  Dissertation  on  tlie  Man  of  Sin  (Paraphrase  on  1  and 
2  Thess.  pp.  173—197.  2d  edit.) ;  or  Drs.  Macknight  and  A.  Clarke  on 
2  Thess.  ii. 


Sect.  XII.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  TIMOTHY, 
SECnON  XII. 


343 


ON  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  TIMOTHY. 

1.  Jiccount  of  Timothy. — II.  JJate  of  this  Epistle. — IIT.  Genu- 
ijieness  and  authenticity  nf  the  Viuti  E[)iiith:i  to  Timothy. — IV. 
Scope  anil  synopsis  of  the  first  Epistle. — V.  Observations  on 
the  iise  ivliich  the  c/iiirch  is  to  ?nake  in  every  age  of  J'auCs 
Kpistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus. 

I.  Timothy,  to  whom  tliis  Epistle  was  addressed,  was  a 
native  of  Lystra,  a  city  of  Lycaoiiia,  in  Asia  Minor.  His 
father  was  a  (ir(;ck,h\it  iiis  mother  was  a  Jewess  (Acts  xvi. 
1.),  and,  as  well  as  his  (rrandmotlier  Lo  s,a  person  of  excel- 
lent character.  (2  Tim,  i.  .'i.)  Tlie  pious  care  tlicy  took  of 
his  education  soon  appeared  to  have;  the  desired  success;  for 
we  are  assured  l)y  Saint  Paul,  that  from  his  childliood,'I'imo- 
thy  was  well  acipiainted  witii  tiie  Holy  Scriptures.  (2  Tim. 
iii.  1.5.)  It  is  {reiierally  supposed  tiiat  he  was  converted  to 
the  Christian  faith  durm<r  the  fust  visit  made  hy  Paul  and 
Barnabas  to  Lystra.  (Acts  xiv.)  From  llu;  time  of  his  con- 
version, Timothy  made  such  proficiency  in  the  know'ledije  of 
the  (jospel,  and  was  so  remarkaljle  for  the  sanctity  of  his 
maimers,  as  well  as  for  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  Christ,  that 
he  attracted  the  esteem  of  all  the  brethren  in  those  parts. 
Accordinjrly,  when  the  apostle  came  from  Antioch  in  Syria 
to  Lystra  the  second  time,  they  commended  Timothy  so 
hijjhly  to  him,  that  Paul  selected  him  to  be  tlie  companion 
of  his  travels,  havinir  previously  ciri  umcised  him  (Acts  xvi. 

2,  3.)  and  ordaiii(;d  him  in  a  solemn  manner  by  imposition 
of  Jiands  (1  Tim.  iv.  11.;  2  Tim.  i.  (>.),  thou^i  at  that  time 
he  probably  was  not  more  than  twenty  years  of  a<re.  (1  Tim. 
iv.  12.)  From  this  period,  fretiuent  mention  is  made  of  Ti- 
mothy, as  the  attendant  of  Paul  in  his  various  journeyings, 
assisting  him  in  preaching  the  Gospel,  and  in  conveyincj  his 
instructions  to  the  churches.  When  the  apostle  was  driven 
from  Thessalonica  and  Bersea  by  persecution,  he  left  Silas 
and  Timothy  there  to  strengthen  the  churches  in  the  faith, 
f  Acts  xvii.  13,  14.)  Thence  they  went  to  Paul  at  Corinth 
(xviii.  5.),  and  from  Ephesus  he  again  sent  Timothy  to  Thes- 
salonica (Acts  xix.  22. ;  1  Thess.  iii.  2,  3.)  to  comfort  the 
believers  under  their  tribulations  and  persecutions.  Timothy 
returning  to  the  apostle,  next  accompanied  him  into  Asia 
([Acts  XX.  4.),  and  was  left  at  Ephesus  (1  Tim.  i.  3,  4.)  to 
instruct  the  church  in  that  city,  the  care  of  which  was  con- 
fided to  Timothy.  How  long  he  governed  the  Ephesian 
church  is  not  known ;  and  we  are  equally  uncertain  as  to  the 
time  of  his  death.  An  ecclesiastical  tratlition  relates  that  he 
suffered  martyrdom,  being  slain  with  stones  and  clubs,  a.  d. 
97,  while  he  was  preaching  against  idolatry  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  temple  of  Diana  at  E])hesus.  His  supposed  relics 
were  translated  to  Constantinople,  with  great  pomp,  a.  d. 
35(5,  in  the  reign  of  Constantius. 

II.  The  date  of  this  Epistle  has  been  much  disputed. 
Dr.  Lardner  refers  it  to  the  year  5G  ;  Dr.  Benson,  Michaelis, 

,  and  Hug  (after  C^appel,  Grotius,  Lightfoot,  and  several  other 
critics),  date  it  in  a.  d.  58;  Bishop  Pearson,  Le  Clerc,  Dr. 
Mill,  and  Rosenmnller,  in  a.  d.  G5  ;  Drs.  Whitby,  Mackuight, 
and  Paley,  and  Bishop  Tomline,  in  G4. 
In  favour  of  the  early  date  it  is  argued, 

1.  That  it  appears  from  the  third  chapter  of  this  Epistle,  that 
no  bishops  had  been  then  appointed  at  Ephesus.  Saint  Paul 
instructs  Timothy  in  the  choice,  as  of  an  appointment  to  a  new 
office,  and  "  hopes  to  return  to  him  shortly."  And  it  is  not  pro- 
bable the  apostle  would  suffer  a  community  to  be  long  without 
governors.  Now  he  departed  from  Ephesus  when  he  travelled 
into  Macedonia  (Acts  xx.  1.),  and  wc  sec  from  v.  17.  28.  that 
on  his  return  bishops  had  been  appointed.  Consequently  this 
Epistle  must  have  been  written  at  the  beginning  of  his  journey ; 
for  Timothy  soon  left  Ephesus,  and  was  at  Corinth  with  Paul. 
(Acts  xviii.  5.)     He  even  joined  him   in  Macedonia,    for    the 

.  second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  written  in  Macedonia,  was  in 
the  joint  names  of  Paul  and  Timothy.  This  Epistle,  therefore, 
was  written  a  short  time  before  the  second  to  the  Corinthians. 

2.  It  is  further  contended,  that  Timothy,  at  the  time  this 
Epistle  was  written,  was  in  danger  of  being  "  despised  for  liis 
youth."  (I  Tim.  iv.  12.)  Ashe  became  an  associate  of  Paul  at 
Lystra  (Acts  xvi.  1.)  so  early  as  a.  d.  .50,  he  must  then  have 
been,  as  an  assistant  in  the  Gospel,  at  least  twenty  years  of  age. 

.  If  this  D|)istle  was  written  a.  d.  65,  he  must  have  been  of  the 
age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  could  not  have  been  less  than  fifteen 
years  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel.  He  could  not  in  that  case  have 
been  dcpised  for  his  youth  ;  though  he  might,  before  he  had 
reached  his  twenty-seventh  year. 


On  the  contrary,  in  behalf  of  the  later  date,  which  sup- 
poses this  Epistle  to  have  been  written  after  Saint  Paul  s 
first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  a.  d.  61  or  G5,  it  is  insisted, 

1.  That  it  appears  from  Saint  Paul's  Ei)istlcs  to  Philemon 
(22.)  and  to  the  Philippians  (ii.  24.),  that  he  evidently  designed, 
when  lie  had  a  prospect  of  being  released,  to  go  both  to  (Jolossa) 
and  into  Macedonia.  Now  it  is  admitted,  that  these  two  Epistles 
were  written  towards  the  close  of  Saint  Paul's  first  imprisonment 
at  Kome  ;  and,  if  he  executed  his  intention  of  going  to  Colossa! 
immediately  after  his  release,  it  is  very  probable  that  he  would 
visit  Ephesus,  which  was  in  the  vicinity  of  Colossa;,  and  proceed 
thence  to  Philippi. 

2.  We  further  learn  from  the  first  Epistle  to  Timothy,  that 
he  was  left  at  Ephesus  lo  ojjposc  the  following  errors  :  1.  Fables 
invented  i)y  the  Jewish  doctors  to  recommend  the  observance  of 
the  law  of  Moses  as  necessary  to  salvation  ; — 2.  Uncertain 
genealogies,  by  which  individuals  endeavoured  to  trace  their  de- 
scent from  Abraham,  in  the  jicrsuasion  that  they  would  be  saved, 
merely  because  they  had  Abraham  to  their  father; — 3.  Intricate 
questions  and  strifes  about  some  words  in  the  law  ; — 4.  Perverse 
disputings  of  men  of  corrupt  minds,  who  reckoned  that  which 
produced  most  gain  to  be  the  best  of  godliness;  and  oppositions 
of  knowledge  falsely  so  named.  But  these  errors  had  not  taken 
place  in  the  Ephesian  church  before  the  apostle's  departure  ;  for, 
in  his  charge  to  the  Ephesian  elders  at  Miletus,  he  foretold  that 
false  teachers  would  enter  among  them  after  his  departing,  Acts 
XX.  29.,  I  know  that  after  my  departing,  shall  grievous  tuolves 
enter  in  among'  you,  not  sparing  the  Jlock.  30.  ^Ilso  of  your 
own  selves  shall  men  arise,  speaking  perverse  things,  to  draw 
away  disciples  after  them.  The  same  thing  appears  from  the 
two  Epistles  which  the  apostle  wrote  to  the  Corinthians ;  the 
one  from  Ephesus  before  the  riot  of  Demetrius,  the  other  from 
Macedonia  after  that  event ;  and  from  the  Epistle  which  he  wrote 
to  the  Ephesians  themselves  from  Rome,  during  his  confinement 
there.  For  in  none  of  these  letters  is  there  any  notice  taken  of 
the  above  mentioned  errors  as  subsisting  among  the  Ephesians 
at  the  time  they  were  written,  which  cannot  be  accounted  for 
on  the  supposition  that  they  were  prevalent  in  Ephesus,  when 
the  apostle  went  into  Macedonia  after  the  riot.  We  conclude, 
therefore,  with  Dr.  Macknight,  that  the  first  Epistle  to  Timothy, 
in  which  the  apostle  desired  him  to  abide  at  Ephesus  for  the 
purpose  of  opposing  the  judaizers  and  their  errors,  could  not  be 
written,  either  from  Troas,  or  from  Macedonia,  after  the  riot,  as 
those  who  contend  for  the  early  date  of  that  Epistle  suppose  :  but 
it  must  have  been  written  some  time  after  the  apostle's  release 
from  his  confinement  in  Rome,  when,  no  doubt,  he  visited  the 
church  at  Ephesus,  and  found  the  judaizing  teachers  there  busily 
employed  in  spreading  their  pernicious  errors. 

3.  In  the  first  Epistle  to  Timothy,  the  same  persons,  doctrines, 
and  practices  are  reprobated,  which  are  condemned  in  the  second. 
Compare  1  Tim.  iv.  1 — 6.  with  2  Tim.  iii.  1 — 5.,  and  1  Tim. 
vi.  20.  with  2  Tim.  i.  14.,  and  1  Tim.  iv.  7.  and  vi.  20.  with  2 
Tim.  ii.  16.  The  same  commands,  instructions,  and  encourage- 
ments are  given  to  Timothy  in  the  first  Epistle  as  in  the  second. 
Compare  1  Tim.  vi.  13,  14.  with  2  Tim.  iv.  1 — 5.  The  same 
remedies  for  the  corruptions,  which  had  taken  place  among  the 
Ephesians,  are  prescribed  in  the  first  Epistle  as  in  the  second. 
Compare  1  Tim.  iv.  14.  with  2  Tim.  i.  6,  7.  And  as  in  the 
second  Epistle,  so  in  the  first,  every  thing  is  addressed  to  Timothy, 
as  superintendent  both  of  the  teachers  and  of  the  laity  in  tho 
church  at  Ephesus:  all  which.  Dr.  Macknight  justly  thinks,  im- 
plies tliat  the  state  of  things  among  the  Ephesians  was  the  same 
when  the  two  Epistles  were  written.  Consequently,  the  first 
Epistle  was  written  only  a  few  months  before  the  second,  and  not 
long  before  the  apostle's  death. 

To  the  Into  date  of  tins  first  Epistle,  however,  there  are 
three  plausible  objections  which  admit  of  easy  solutions. 

1.  It  is  thought,  that  if  the  first  Epistle  to  Timothy  was  writ- 
ten after  the  apostle's  release,  he  could  not,  with  any  propriety, 
have  said  to  Timothy,  iv.  12.  Z,et  no  man  despise  thy  youth. — 
B  ut  it  is  replied,  that  Servius  Tullius,  in  classing  the  Roman  people, 
as  Aulas  Gellius  relates,'  divided  their  age  into  three  periods. 
Childhood,  he  limited  to  the  age  of  seventeen :  youth,  from  that 
to  forty-six  ;  and  old  age,  from  forty-six  to  the  end  of  life.  Now, 
supposing  Timothy  to  have  been  twenty  years  old,  a.  d.  .50, 
when  he  became  Paul's  assistant,  he  would  be  no  more  than  34, 
A.  i>.  64,  two  years  after  the  apostle's  release,  when  it  is  sup- 
posed this  Epistle  was  written.  Since,  therefore,  Timothy  was 
then  in  that  period  of  life,  which,  by  the  Greeks  as  well  as 

1  Noctes  AUicae,  lib.  x.  c.  28. 


844 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI,  Chap.  UT. 


the  Romans,  was  considered  as  youth,  the  apostle,  with  propriety, 
might  say  to  him.  Let  no  man  despise  tity  youth. 

2.  When  the  apostle  touched  at  Miletus,  in  his  voyage  to 
Jerusalem,  with  the  collections,  the  church  at  Ephesus  had  a 
number  of  elders,  that  is,  of  bishops  and  deacons,  who  came  to 
him  at  Miletus,  Acts  xx.  17.  It  is  therefore  asked,  What  occasion 
was  there,  in  an  Epistle  written  after  the  apostle's  release,  to 
give  Timothy  directions  concerning  the  ordination  of  bishops  and 
deacons,  in  a  church  where  there  were  so  many  elders  already  ] 
The  answer  is,  the  elders  who  came  to  the  apostle  at  Miletus,  in 
the  year  58,  might  have  been  too  few  for  the  church  at  Ephesus, 
in  her  increased  state,  in  the  year  65.  Besides  folse  teachers  had 
then  entered,  to  oppose  whom,  more  bishops  and  deacons  might 
be  needed  than  were  necessary  in  the  year  58.  Not  to  mention, 
that  some  of  the  first  elders  having  died,  others  were  wanted  to 
supply  their  places. 

3.  Because  the  apostle  wrote  to  Timothy,  that  he  hoped  to 
come  to  him  soon,  1  Tim.  iii.  14.,  it  is  argued,  that  the  letter,  in 
which  this  is  said,  must  have  been  written  before  the  apostle 
said  to  the  Ephesian  elders,  Acts  xx.  25.,  /  knoxu  that  all  ye, 
among  whom  I  have  gone  preaching  the  kingdom  of  God,  shall 
see  my  face  no  more.  But  if,  by  this,  the  first  Epistle  to  Timo- 
thy is  proved  to  have  been  written  before  the  apostle's  interview 
with  the  elders  at  Miletus,  his  Epistles  to  the  Philippians,  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  to  Philemon,  in  which  he  promised  to  visit  them, 
must  likewise  have  been  written  before  the  interview  :  for  his 
declaration  respected  the  Philippians,  the  Hebrews,  and  Phile- 
mon, as  well  as  the  Ephesians  :  for  they  certainly  were  persons 
among  whom  the  apostle  had  gone  preaching  the  kingdom  of 
God  :  yet  no  commentator  ever  thought  the  Epistles  above  men- 
tioned were  written  to  them  before  the  apostle's  interview  with 
the  Ephesian  eliJsrs.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  universally  acknow- 
ledged, that  these  Epistles  were  written  four  years  after  the  inter- 
view ;  namely,  during  the  apostle's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome. 
When,  therefore,  he  told  the  Ephesian  elders,  that  they  and  his 
other  converts,  among  whom  he  had  gone  preaching  the  king- 
dom of  God,  should  see  his  face  no  more,  as  it  was  no  point 
either  of  faith  or  practice  which  he  spake,  he  may  well  be  sup- 
posed to  have  declared  nothing  but  his  own  opinion  resulting 
from  his  fears.  He  had  lately  escaped  the  rage  of  the  Jews  who 
laid  wait  for  him  in  Cenchrea  to  kill  him.  (Acts  xx.  3.)  This, 
with  their  fury  on  former  occasions,  filled  him  with  such  anxiety, 
that,  in  writing  to  the  Romans  from  Corinth,  he  requested  them 
to  strive  together  -with  him  m  their  prayers,  that  he  7night  be 
delivered  from  the  unbelieving  in  Jndsea.  (Rom.  xv.  30,  31.) — 
Further,  that  in  his  speech  to  the  Ephesian  elders,  the  apostle 
only  declared  his  own  persuasion,  dictated  by  his  fears,  and  not 
any  suggestion  of  the  Spirit,  Dr.  Macknight  thinks,  is  plain  from 
what  he  had  said  immediately  before,  verse  22.  Hehold  I  go  bonnd 
in  the  spirit  to  Jeriisalem,  not  knowing  the  things  which  shall 
befall  me  there :  23.  Save  that  the  Holy  Ghost  ivitnesseth  in 
every  city,  saying  that  bonds  and  afflictions  abide  me.  Where- 
fore, although  his  fears  were  happily  disappointed,  and  he  actu- 
ally visited  the  Ephesians  after  his  release,  his  character  as  an 
inspired  apostle  is  not  hurt-  in  the  least ;  if  in  saying,  he  knew 
they  should  see  his  face  no  inore,  he  declared  his  own  persua- 
sion only,  and  no  dictate  of  the  Holy  Spirit.^ 

We  conclude,  therefore,  that  Saint  Paul  wrote  his  first 
Epistle  to  Timothy  about  the  end  of  the  year  64. 

III.  But  whatever  uncertainty  may  have  prevailed  con- 
cerning the  date  of  this  Epistle,  it  has  always  been  acknow- 
ledoed  to  be  the  undisputed  production  of  the  apostle  Paul. 
Bolh  ike  first  and  secuad  Epistles  to  Timothy  are  cited  or 
alluded  to  by  the  apostolical  fathers,  Clement  of  Rome,^  and 
Polycarp;^  and  the  first  Epistle  by  Ignatius;'  and  in  the 
following  centuries  by  Irenseus  ;5  Clement  of  Alexandria,'^ 
Tertullian,^  Caius,^  Origen,^  and  by  all  subsequent  eccle- 
siastical writers  without  exception. 

Decisive  as  these  testimonies  confessedly  are,  the  au- 
thenticity of  this  Epistle  has  been  denied  by  Dr.  Schleier- 

»  Dr.  Benson's  Preface  to  1  Tim.  (pp.  220— 2?2.)  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp. 
75 — 78.  Roscnmiiller,  Scholia  in  N.  T.  toin.  v.  pp.  1—4. ;  Hnu's  Introd.  vol. 
ii.  pp.  303—402.  LarcJner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  310—320. ;  4to.  vol.  iii. 
pp.  292—294.  Doddridge  and  Wliitby's  Prefaces  to  ITiin.  Maclinight's 
Preface  to  1  Tim.  sect.  ii.  Dr.  Paley  has  advocated  the  late  date  of  this 
Epistle  Ijy  arguments  similar  to  those  above  stated.  Horte  Paulines,  pp. 
286—294. 

a  Lardnor's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  38,  39. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  298,  299. 

3  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  96,  97. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  330,  331. 

*  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  78,  79.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  321. 

6  Ihid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  1G4.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  .368. 

«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  221.  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  401. 

■>  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  26-1,  26.5. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  424. 

«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  .374.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  483. 

0  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  471, ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  535. 


macher.  Professor  Eickhorn,  and  others,  and  vindicated  by 
Professor  Hug ;  the  following  is  an  abstract  of  the  objections 
and  their  refutation : — 

1.  The  language  of  the  Epistle  cannot  be  that  of  Saint 
Paul,  because  (it  is  alleged)  expressions  occur  which  are 
either  not  to  be  found  in  his  other  Epistles,  or  at  least  not 
with  the  same  signification.  But  this  is  more  or  less  the 
case  in  other  Epistles;  and  some  of  the  words  alluded  to  are 
found  in  the  New  Testament,  "  while  the  composition  of 
others  betrays  the  apostle,  who,  unshackled  by  tne  laws  of 
grammatical  authority,  either  compounds  his  own  words  and 
forcible  expressions,  or  derives  them  in  a  manner  in  which 
trao;ic  authors  would  scarcely  have  indulged  themselves." 
If,  nowever,  "independently  of  this  peculiarity,  we  examine 
the  whole  of  the  diction,  we  shall  find  it  assuredly  Paul's. 
The  accumulation  of  words  of  allied  significations,  or  false 
synonymes,  the  enumerations,  the  short  instantaneous  bursts, 
the  parentheses,  particularly  the  long  parenthesis  in  i.  5 — 18., 
then  the  animation  which  pervades  the  whole ; — all  is  not 
an  imitation  in  the  use  of  certain  words,  in  which  any  one 
might  easily  succeed,  but  the  fac-simile  of  his  peculiar  mode 
of  communication."'o  Besides  the  difference  of  style  in  this 
Epistle,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  preceding  Epistles,  is 
accounted  for  by  new  adversaries  arising,  by  the  dinerence  of 
the  tiines  when  the  several  Epistles  were  written,  and  also  by 
the  diversity  of  the  subjects  discussed,  all  which  circumstances 
would  necessarily  produce  a  diversity  of  expression." 

2.  The  great  doubts  which  have  been  raised  against  this 
Epistle,  because  the  apostle  (i.  2G.)  has  so  very  briefly  men- 
tioned Hymenseus  and  Alexander,  are  of  no  moment.  He 
mentions  them  incidentally,  as  well-known  examples  of 
erring  self-conceit,  and  for  no  other  purpose  besides,  as  he 
has  also  done  in  other  passages,  at  this  period  cf  his  life, 
viz.  2  Tim.  i.  15.,  and  ii.  17.,  where  he  also  points  out  well- 
known  examples  of  error,  as  a  warning  to  others,  and  this  he 
also  does  incidentally. '^ 

3.  It  has  been  asserted,  that  there  is  a  contradiction  be- 
tween 1  Tim.  i.  20.  where  Alexander  is  mentioned  as  a  here- 
tic, and  2  Tim.  iv.  14.  where  he  is  an  enemy  of  St.  Paul. 
But  the  apostle  carefully  distinguishes  the  individual  in  the 
second  Epistle  from  him  who  is  noticed  in  the  first,  by  the 
epithet  oil  ^a-KKiv^,  the  worker  in  metals,  or  the  smith.  Beza 
and  Boltop  have  conjectured  that  he  was  the  person  who 
appeared  at  the  Roman  tribunal  among  the  accusers  of  Paul. 
This,  however,  is  of  little  moment,  as  from  this  name  being 
very  common,  there  must  have  been  hundreds  of  persons  who 
bore  the  name  of  Alexander.'^ 

In  short,  whoevejr  carefully  and  impartially  examines  the 
style  of  this  Epistle,  will  find  that  the  language  and  genius 
of  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  pervades  it  throughout ;  and 
that  the  animating,  urgent,  and  affecting  motives  which  it 
presents,  are  sucli  as  proceeded  from  the  heart,  and  such  as 
no  impostor  could  imitate. '^ 

IV.  Timothy,  having  been  left  at  Ephesus,  to  regulate  the 
affairs  of  the  church  in  that  city.  Saint  Paul  wrote  this  Epis- 
tle chiefly  to  instruct  him  in  the  choice  of  proper  officers  in 
the  church,  as  well  as  in  the  exercise  of  a  regular  ministry. 
Another  and  very  important  part  of  the  apostle's  design  was 
to  caution  this  young  evangelist  against  the  influence  of  those 
false  teachers  (Michaelis  thinks  they  were  Essenes),  who,  by 
their  subtle  distinctions  and  endiess  controversies,  had  cor- 
rupted the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  Gospel ;  to  press  upon 
him,  in  all  his  preaching,  a  constant  regard  to  the  interests 
of  practical  religion  ;  and  to  animate  him  to  the  greatest 
diligence,  fidelity,  and  zeal,  in  the  discharge  of  his  office. 
The  Epistle,  therefore,  consists  of  three  parts;  viz. 


Part  I.  The  Introduction,  (i.  1,  2.) 
Part  II.   Instructions  to   7  imothi 


othy  how  to  behave  in  the  Ad- 
ministration of  the  Church  at  Ephesus,-  in  which. 
Sect.  1.  After  reminding  Timothy  of  the  charge  which  had 
been  committed  to  him,  viz.  To  preserve  the  purity  of  the 
Gospel  against  the  pernicious  doctrines  of  the  false  teachers 
(ctiumerated  above'')  whose  opinions  led  to  frivolous  con- 
troversies, and  not  to  a  holy  life,  Saint  Paul  shows  the  use 
of  the  law  of  Moses,  of  which  these  teachers  were  ignorant. 
This  account  of  the  law,  he  assures  Timothy,  was  agreeable 
to  the  representation  of  it  in  the  Gospel,  with  the  preaching 
of  which  he  was  intrusted,  (i.  3 — II.)  Having  mentioned 
the  Gospel,  the  apostle,  in  the  fulness  of  his  heart,  makes  a 
digression  to  express  his  gratitude  to  God  in  calling  him, 


'0  ITiig's  Introductiofi,  vol.  ii.  pp.  403,  404. 
"  Cellorier,  Introd.  au  Nouv.  Test.  p.  J32. 
"  CeU6rier,  Litrod.  au  Nouv.  Test.  p.  432. 


>2  Hug,  vol.  ii.  p.  405. 
"  See  p.  343.  supra. 


Sect.  XIII.] 


who  had  been  a  persecutor,  to  the  Christian  faith  and  minis- 
terial office;  and  observes,  that  his  favour  was  extended  to 
him,  tliouRh  so  unworthy,  as  an  encouragement  to  all  tiiat 
should  believe  in  every  future  age.  (12 — '-iO.) 
Sect.  2.  Paul  then  proceeds  to  give  Timotliy  particular  in- 
structions, 

S  i.  Concerning  the  mannt^r  in  wliich  divine  worship  was  to  be  performed 

in  llie  Kplu'sian  clmrdi.  (ii.) 
§  ii.  Coiicerninf;  tlic  (pialificationsof  the  persons  whom  lie  was  to  ordain 

liiKliojis  and  deacons  of  that  cliurch.  (iii.)* 
S  iii.  After  foretelJinR  the  great  corruiilions  which  were  to  prevail  in  llie 

church  in  future  times  (iv.  1 — 5.),  the  apostle  instructs  Timothy, 

1.  How  to  support  tlio  sacred  character.  (6— ItJ.) 

2.  How  to  admonisli  aged  men  and  women  (v.  1,  2.),  and  in  what  man- 
ner he  should  treat  widows  (3— llj.),  elders  (17— 19  ),  and  olTenders. 
(20,  21.)  Annexed  are  some  instructions  to  Timothy  himself.  (22 — 24.) 

3.  Concerning  the  duties  of  slaves,   (vi.  1,  2.) 

Sect.  3.  condemns  trifling  controversies  and  pernicious  dis- 
putes, censures  the  excessive  love   of  money,  and  charges 
the  rich  to  bo  rich  in  good  works,  (vi.  3 — 19.) 
Part  III.   The  Vunclmion.  (20,21.) 

V.  Althoutrh  the  errors  of  the  judnizincr  tenchors  at  Ephe- 
svis,  which  gave  rise  to  Saint  Paul's  Enisllcs  to  Timotliy, 
have  lontr  disappeared,  yet  "  tlie  Epistu^s  themselves  are 
still  of  great  use,  as  they  serve  to  show  the  iun)iety  of  the 
jiriiiciples  from  which  these  errors  proceeded.  1'  or  the  same 
l)iiiiciples  arc  apt  in  every  age  to  produce  errors  and  vic(!S, 
which,  though  different  in  name  from  those  which  prevailed 
ill  Ephesus  in  the  apostle's  days,  are  precisely  of  tlie  same 
kind,  and  equally  pernicious. — These  Epistles  are  likewise 
of  great  use  in  the  church,  as  they  exhibit  to  Christian 
bishops  and  deacons,  in  every  age,  the  most  perfect  idea  of 
the  duties  of  their  function  ;  teach  the  manner  in  which  these 
duties  should  be  performed ;  describe  the  qualifications  ne- 
cessary in  those  who  aspire  to  such  holy  and  honourable 
offices,  and  explain  the  ends  for  which  these  offices  were 
originally  instituted,  and  are  still  continued  in  the  church. 

"The  very  same  things,  indeed,  the  ajjostle,  about  the 
same  time,  wrote  to  Titus  in  Crete;  but  more  briefly,  be- 
cause he  was  an  older  and  more  experienced  minister  than 
Timothy.  Nevertheless  liie  repetition  of  these  precepts  and 
charges,  is  not  without  its  use  to  the  church  still,  as  it 
niaketh  us  more  deeply  sensible  of  their  great  importance  : 
not  to  mention,  that  in  the  Epistle  to  Titus,  there  are  things 
peculiar  to  itself,  which  enhance  its  value.  In  short,  the 
Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus,  taken  together,  containing  a 
full  account  of  the  qualifications  and  duties  of  the  ministers 
of  the  Gospel,  may  be  considered  as  a  complete  body  of 
divinely-inspired  cccksiasiiad  canons,  to  be  observed  by  the 
Christian  clergy  of  all  communions,  to  the  end  of  the  world. 

"These  Epistles,  therefore,  ought  to  be  read  frequently, 
and  with  the  greatest  attention,  by  those  in  every  age  and 
country,  who  liold  sacred  oflices,  or  who  have  it  in  view  to 
obtain  them :  not  only  that  they  may  regulate  their  conduct 
according  to  the  directions  contained  in  them,  but  that,  by 
meditating  seriously  on  the  soleinti  charges  delivered  to  all 
the  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  in  the  persons  of  Timothy  and 
Titus,  their  minds  may  be  strongly  impressed  with  a  sense 
of  the  importance  of  their  fun'-tion,  and  of  the  obligation 
which  lietli  on  them  to  be  faithful  in  discliarging  every  duty 
belonging  to  it. 

"  It  is  of  importance  also  to  obsen'^e,  that,  in  these  Epis- 
tles, there  are  some  explications  of  the  Christian  doctrines, 
and  some  displays  of  Saint  Paul's  views  and  expectations  as 
an  apostle  of  Christ,  which  merit  our  attention.  For  if  he 
had  ijcen,  like  many  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  a  hypocrite 
who  held  a  double  doctrine,  one  for  the  vulgar,  and  another 

'  In  using  this  expression— Gren/  is  the  mystery  of  godliness  (iii.  16.), 
the  aposlle  is  generally  supposed  to  allude  to  the  heathen  mysteries.  As 
Iho.-ie  mysteries  have  always  a  reference  to  some  deity,  this  circumstance 
pr-ally  favours— not  to  say,  confirLus — the  common  reading  of  this  te-vt, 
which  has  lieen  so  much  controverted  :  for,  if  no  mention  had  been  made 
hi  this  case  of  a  God,  such  an  omission  would  have  maimed  the  apostle's 
description  in  a  most  essential  point,  and  obscured  the  beauty  of  his  fine 
allusion.  (Brckell's  Discourses,  p.  424.  note.)  On  the  much  litigated 
(piestion  respecting  the  reading  of  Wsoj  hi  ITim.  iii.  16.  the  reader  will 
find  a  perspicuous  statement  of  the  evidence  in  Mr.  Holden's  Scripture 
Testimonies  to  the  divinity  of  our  Lord  Jesus  (Christ,  pp.  181 — 188.  Ihere 
is  an  elaborate  essay  on  this  passage  in  tlie  Christian  Observer  for  1800, 
vol.  i.  pp.  271—277.  See  also  Vr.  Berriraan's  Critical  Dissertation  on  1  Tim. 
iii.  16.  8vo.  London,  1741.  Vellhnsen's  Observations  on  various  Subjects, 
pp.  49—104.  Svo.  London,  1773.  Dr.  Hales's  Treatise  on  Faith  in  thelloly 
Trinity,  vol.  ii.  pp.  67 — 104.  and  Mr.  Nolan's  Inrpiiry  into  the  Integrity  of 
the  Gi-ecjt  Vulgate,  pp.  271-<-276.  But  the  fullest  view  of  the  evidence, 
both  external  and  internal,  will  be  found  in  the  Kev.  Dr.  Henderson's 
Great  Mystery  of  Godliness  incontrovertible  (London,  1S30),  who  has 
hemonstrated  the  crnitineness  of  the  reaping  fc>£o;,  from  the  united  and 
ii  disputable  leslimonies  of  manuscripts,  ancient  versions,  quolations  in  the 
writings  of  the  fathers,  and  the  best  printed  editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
iiieni.  both  early  and  rcceat,  as  well  as-  from  internal  evidence. 

Vol.  H.  2  X 


ON  THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO  TIMOTHY.  345 

for  the  learned  ;  and  if  his  secret  views  and  expectations  had 


been  difierent  from  those  which  he  publicly  profi-ssed  to  the 
world,  lie  would  have  given,  without  all  doubt,  some  in- 
sinuation tiieri'of  in  letters  written  to  such  inliinate  friends. 
Yet,  throughout  the  whole  of  these  Epistles,  no  discovery  of 
that  kind  is  made.  The  doctrine  contained  in  them  is  the 
same  witb  that  taught  in  the  Epistles  designed  for  the  in- 
spection and  direction  of  the  church  in  general :  and  the  views 
and  lio])es  which  he  expresses  are  the  same  with  those  which 
he  uniformly  taught  mankind  to  entertain.  What  stronger 
proofs  can  we  desire  of  the  apostle's  sincerity  and  faithful- 
ness than  these  ]"^ 

On  the  iindciigned  coincidence.^  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  llorae  Pdulinse, 
Chap.  XI. 


SECTION  XIII. 

ON   THE    SECOND    EPISTLE    TO   TIMOTHV. 

I.  Date. — II.  0/  the  place  -where  Timotliy  ivas,  ivhen  Paid 
ivvote  this  EjuHtle  to  him. — III.  Its  scope. — IV.  Synopsis  of 
its  contents. — V.    Observations  on  this  £pistle, 

I.  'I'liAT  Paul  was  a  prisoner  when  he  wrote  the  second 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  is  evident  from  i.  8.  12.  1(5.  and  ii.  9.; 
and  that  his  iinpri.-onment  was  in  Rome  appears  from  i.  17., 
and  is  universally  admitted.  IJut,  whether  he  wrote  it  during 
his  first  imprisonment,  recorded  in  Acts  xxviii.,  or  durino-  a 
.second  imprisonment  there  (which  was  the  uniform  tradition 
of  the  primitive  church),  is  a  point  that  has  been  much  dis- 

ruted.  The  former  opinion  is  advocated  by  Drs.  Hammond, 
jightfoot,  Lardner,  and  Hug;  and  the  latter,  by  Drs.  Uenson, 
Macknight,  and  Paley,  Bishop  Tomline,  Michaelis,  Hosen- 
miiller,  and  others.  That  the  last-mentioned  opinion  is 
most  correct,  we  think  will  appear  from  the  following  con- 
siderations : — 

1.  A  collation  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  Colossians, 
Philippians,  and  Philemon  (which  are  known  to  have  been  writ- 
ten during  Saint  Paul's  first  imprisonment),  with  the  second 
Epistle  to  I'imothy,  will  show  that  this  Epistle  was  not  written 
during  the  time  when  those  Epistles  were  written.  In  the  former 
Epistles,  the  author  confidently  looked  forward  to  his  liberation 
from  confinement,  and  his  speedy  departure  from  Rome.  He 
tells  the  Philippians  (ii.  24.),  "I  trust  in  the  Lord  that  I  also 
myself  shall  come  shortly."  Philemon  he  bids  to  prepare  for 
him  a  lodging  ;  "  for  I  trust,"  says  he,  "  that  through  your  pray- 
ers I  shall  be  given  unto  you."  (ver.  22.)  In  the  Epistle  before 
us  he  holds  a  language  extremely  difTerent :  "  I  am  now  ready  to 
be  offered,  and  the  time  of  my  departure  is  at  hand.  I  have 
fought  a  good  fight ;  I  have  finished  my  course ;  I  have  kept  the 
faith  ;  henceforth  there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of  righteousness, 
which  the  Lord,  the  righteous  Judge,  shall  give  me  at  that  day." 
(iv.  6—8.) 

Again,  when  the  former  Epistles  were  written  from  Rome, 
Timothy  was  with  Paul ;  and  he  is  joined  witli  him  in  writing 
to  the  Colossians,  the  Philippians,  and  to  Philemon.  The  present 
Epistle  implies  that  he  was  absent.  Further,  in  the  former  Epis- 
tles, Ucinas  was  with  Paul  at  Rome :  "  Luke,  the  beloved  ph\  sician, 
and  Demas,  greet  you."  In  the  Epistle  now  before  us  :  "  Demas 
hath  forsaken  me,  having  loved  this  present  world,  and  is  gone 
to  Thessalonica.'  Once  more  :  in  the  former  Epistle,  Mark  was 
with  Paul,  and  joins  in  saluting  the  Colossians.  In  the  present 
Epistle,  Timothy  is  ordered  to  bring  him  with  him,  "for  he  is 
profitable  to  me  for  the  miui.strj'."   (iv.  11.) 

2.  The  circumstances  of  Paul's  imprisonment,  as  referred  to  in 
this  Epistle,  are  widely  different  from  the  imprisonment  related  in 
Acts  xxviii.  30,  31.  Then  he  was  permitted  to  dwell  alone  in  his 
own  hired  house,  and  receive  all  who  came  to  him.  and  publicly 
to  {ireach  the  Gospel,  being  guarded  only  by  a  single  soldier. 
But  it  appears  from  2  Tim.  i.  IG — 18.,  that  the  apostle  was  in 
close  confinement,  so  that  Onesiphorus,  on  his  coming  to  Rome, 
had  considerable  difliculty  in  finding  him  out.  And  that  crimes 
were  now  laid  to  his  charge  very  different  from  those  formerly 
alleged  against  him,  appears  from  ii.  9. ;  where  he  says  that  he 
sneers  evil,  even  unto  bonds,  as  u  malefactor  ;  plainly  imply- 
ing that  he  was  not  only  abridged  of  all  liberty,  but  also  that  he 
was  bound,  hands  and  feet,  in  a  close  dungeon.  Dr.  Macknight 
thinks  this  was  probably  under  the  pretence  that  he  was  one  of 
those  Christians  whom  Nero  accused  of  having  set  Rome  on  fire. 
Hence  the  word  malefactor  {Kxjtcvfyc;),  which  in  this  passage 

»  Dr.  Macknight's  Prcf.  to  1  Tim.  sect.  iv. 


k 


346 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IH 


may  mean  that  the  apostle  was  treated  as  one  of  the  worst  of 
criminals. 

3.  The  situation  of  Paul,  when  he  wrote  this  Epistle,  was  ex- 
tremely dangerous.  This  appears  from  2  Tim.  iv.  6,  7,  8.  and  from 
verse  16.  where,  at  his  first  answer,  all  men  forsook  him.  Further, 
(verse  17.)  The  Jjord  delivered  liim  from  tlw  month  of  the  lion, 
or  the  cruelty  of  Nero.  And  in  verse  18.  he  hopes  the  l^ord 
ivill  deliver  him  from  every  evil  ivork,  by  preserving  him  unto 
his  heavenly  kingdom.  This  was  totally  dillcrcnt  from  the  gen- 
tle treatment  recorded  in  Acts  xxviii.,  and  shows  that  this  epistle 
was  written  at  a  later  period  than  the  two  years'  imprisonment 
mentioned  by  Luke. 

4.  It  apjjcars  from  2  Tim.  iv.  l.S.  20.  that  when  the  apostle 
wrote,  he  had  lately  hern  at  Troas,  Miletus,  and  Corinth.  This 
was  a  diftcrent  route  from  that  described  in  the  Acts.  Also  in 
2  Tim.  iv.  13.  he  desires  Timothy  to  bring  with  him  a  trunk  and 
some  books  which  he  had  left  at  Troas.  But  in  his  journey  to 
Italy  in  Acts  xxvii.  he  did  not  come  near  Troas.  It  is  true  he 
visited  that  place  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem.  (Acts  xx.  5 — 7.) 
But  as  this  visit  to  Troas  happened  in  the  year  57,  and  the  pre- 
sent Epistle  was  not  written  before  the  year  65,  these  articles 
were  not  then  left  there  ;  for  he  would  hardly  have  delayed 
sending  for  them  for  seven  or  eight  years.  He  would  rather  have 
sent  for  them  to  Ctesarea,  where  he  was  in  ])rison  two  years  ;  or 
more  early  on  his  first  coming  to  Rome. 

5.  When  he  wrote  this  Epistle,  he  had  left  Tropliimus  sick  at 
Miletus,  (iv.  20.)  But  this  could  not  have  happened  on  the 
journey  to  Jerusalem,  because  Trophimus  was  with  Saint  Paul 
at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxi.  29.),  and  in  his  voyage  from  Coesarea  to 
Italy  he  did  not  touch  at  Miletus.  It  is  obvious,  contrary  to  Dr. 
Lardner's  hypothesis,  that  the  north  wind  would  not  sutler  them 
to  proceed  further  north  from  Cnidus  along  the  coast  of  Asia. 
(Acts  xxvii.  7.) 

6.  Paul  says  (2  Tim.  iv.  20.)  that  Erastus  stayed  behind  at 
Corinth.  The  apostle  must  therefore  have  passed  through  Co- 
rinth on  that  journey  to  Rome,  after  which  he  wrote  this  Epistle. 
But  from  Ccesarea  to  Italy,  in  Acts  xxviii.  he  did  not  pass  through 
Corinth.  Dr.  Lardner's  two  objections  to  this  argument  are  not 
satisfactory.  For  he  says  that  Erastus  stayed  behind  at  Corinth 
when  Saint  Paul  left  that  city  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  though  Timo- 
thy, who  was  then  with  Saint  Paul,  must  have  known  that  cir- 
cumstance, but  Saint  Paul  only  wished  to  remind  him  of  it, — or 
he  mentions  his  stay,  because  he  was  sent  by  Paul  from  Ephesus 
into  Macedonia  (Acts  xix.  22.) ;  and  when  Paul,  going  there  also, 
returned  to  Asia  Minor,  he  did  not  return  with  him,  not  being 
mentioned  in  Acts  xx.  4. 

The  result  of  the  preceding  observations  is,  that  this  Epis- 
tle was  written  by  Paul  at  Rome,  and  during  an  imprison- 
ment different  from  that  recorded  in  Acts  xxviii.  Paul,  we 
have  seen,'  was  released  from  his  confinement  a.  d.  63,  and, 
after  visiting  several  churches,  returned  to  Rome  early  in  65; 
where,  after  beina  confined  rather  more  than  a  year,  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  a.d.  60.  Now, 
as  the  apostle  requests  Timothy  to  come  to  him  before  winter 
(•2  Tim.  iv.  21.),  it  is  probable  that  this  Epistle  was  written 
in  the  month  of  July  or  August  a.  d.  65.2 

IL  It  is  generally  supposed  that  Timothy  was  at  Ephesus 
when  Paul  wrote  his  second  Epistle  to  him.  This  opinion 
is  advocated  by  Drs.  Lardner,  Benson,  and  Macknight,  but 
is  opposed  by  Michael  is ;  who  has  shown  that  Timothy  was 
most  probably  somewhere  in  Asia  Minor  when  Paul  sent  this 
letter  to  him,  because  the  apostle,  towards  the  close  of  the 
first  chapter,  mentions  several  persons  who  dwelt  in  that 
region,  and  also  because  (2  Tim.  iv.  13.)  he  requests  Timo- 
thy to  bring  with  him  the  cloak,  books,  and parchnienls,  vfhich 
he  had  left  behind  him  at  Troas;  and  because  Troas  does  not 
lie  in  the  route  from  Ephesus  to  Rome,  to  which  city  Timo- 
thy was  desired  to  "  make  haste  to  come  to  him  before  win- 
ter." (iv.  21.)  Michaelis  concludes,  therefore,  that  Paul, 
not  knowing  exactly  where  Timothy  was,  wrote  to  him  this 
Epistle,  which  he  intrusted  to  a  s^afe  person  (vC'hom  Dr.  Ben- 
son supposes  to  have  beenTychicus)  that  was  travelling  into 
Asia  Minor,  with  an  order  to  deliver  it  to  him  wherever  he 
might  find  him.^ 

in.  The  immediate  design  of  Paul  in  writing  this  Epistle 
to  Timothy,  was  to  apprize  him  of  the  circumstances  that 

»  See  p.  325.  supra. 

^  Paley's  Hor;e  Paulinae,  pp.  303 — 305. ;  Calmet,  Prrface  sur  la  seconde 
Epitre  a  Timothi^e;  Macknight's  Preface  to  2Tiin.  sect.  i.  ;  Dr.  Benson's 
Preface  to  2  Tim.  pp.  501 — 517. ;  Micliaelis's  Introct.  vol.  iv.  pp.  165 — 177.  ; 
Gardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  338—375.  j  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  303—321.  ; 
Hiig'f?  Introd.  vol.  ii.  pp.  440-448. 

»  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  101— IM. 


had  befallen  him  during  his  second  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
and  to  request  him  to  come  to  him  before  the  ensuing  winter. 
But,  being  uncertain  whether  he  should  live  so  long,  he  gave 
him  in  tliis  letter  a  variety  of  advices,  charges,  and  encou- 
ragements, for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  ministerial  func- 
tions, with  the  solemnity  and  affection  of  a  dying  parent ; 
in  order  that,  if  he  should  be  put  to  death  before  Tiinoth)''s 
arrival,  the  loss  might  in  some  measure  be  compensated  to 
him  by  the  instructions  contained  in  this  admirable  Epistle. 
With  this  view,  after  expressing  his  affectionate  concern  for 
liim,  he  exhorts  iiim  to  stir  up  the  gift  which  had  been  con- 
ferred upon  him  (2  Tim.  i.  2 — 5.) ;  not  to  be  ashamed  of  the 
testimony  of  the  Lord,  nor  of  Paul's  sufferings  (6 — 16.)  ;  to 
hold  fast  the  form  of  sound  words,  and  to  guard  inviolable 
that  good  deposit  of  Gospel  doctrine  (i.  13,  14.),  which  he 
was  to  commit  to  faithful  men  who  should  be  aula  to  teach 
others  (ii.  1,  2.)  ;  to  animate  him  to  endure,  with  fortitude, 
persecutions  for  the  sake  of  the  Gospel  (ii.  3 — 13.)  ;  to  sup- 
press and  avoid  logomachies  (14.  23.);  to  approve  liimself 
a  faithful  minister  of  the  word  (15 — 22.);  and  to  forewarn 
him  of  the  perils  of  the  last  days,  in  consequence  of  wicked 
hypocritical  seducers  and  enemies  of  the  truth,  wiio  even 
tlien  were  beginning  to  rise  in  the  church.  These  Saint  Paul 
admonishes  Timothy  to  flee,  giving  him  various  cautions 
against  them,  (iii.) 

IV.  The  Epistle  therefore  consists  of  three  parts;  viz. 
Part  1.   The  Inscription,  (i.  1 — 5.) 

Part  II.  Jin  Exhortation  to  Timoihy. 

Skct.  1.  To  diligence,  patience,  and  firmness  in  keeping  the 

form  of  sound  doctrine,  in  which  is  introduced  an  affecting 

prayer  in  behalf  of  Onesiphorus.   (i.  2 — 18.) 
Sect.  2.  To  fortitude  under   afilictions  and  persecutions,   to 

deliver  the  uncorruptcd  doctrine  of  the  Gospel  to  others,  and 

to  purity  of  life,  (ii.) 
Sect.  3.  To  beware  of  false  teachers  in  the  last  times  (whose 

practices  are  described),  to  be  constant  in  his  profession  of 

the   Gospel,  and  to   be  diligent  in  his   ministerial   labours. 

(iii.  iv.  1 — 8.) 
Part  III.   The  Conclusion,  containing  the  ApostWs  Request  to 
Tiniothy  to  come  to  him  as  soon  as  possible,  together  iviih 
various  Salutations  for  the  Brethren  in  Asia  31inor.  (iv.  9— 
22.) 

V.  As  this  Epistle  was  written  to  Saint  Paul's  most  inti- 
mate friend,  under  the  miseries  of  a  jail,  and  the  near  pros- 
pect of  death,  and  was  not  designed  tor  the  use  of  others,  it 
may  serve  to  exhibit  the  temper  and  character  of  the  apostle, 
and  to  convince  us  that  he  was  no  deceiver,  but  sincerely 
believed  the  doctrines  which  he  preached.  "  This  excellent 
writing,  therefore,  will  be  read  by  the  discinles  of  Christ,  to 
the  end  of  the  world,  with  the  highest  satisfaction.  And  the 
impression  which  it  must  have  on  their  minds,  will  often  be 
recollected  by  them  with  the  greatest  effect,  for  the  confir- 
mation of  their  faith  in  the  Gospel,  and  their  consolation 
under  all  the  evils  which  their  adherence  to  the  Gospel  m;.y 
bring  upon  them." 

"Imagine,"  says  Dr.  Benson,  "  a  pious  father,  under  sen- 
tence of  death  for  his  piety  and  benevolence  to  mankind, 
writing  to  a  dutiful  and  affectionate  son,  that  he  might  see 
and  embrace  him  again  before  he  left  the  world  ;  particularly 
that  he  might  leave  with  him  his  dying  commands,  and 
charge  him  to  live  and  suffer  as  he  had  done  : — and  you  will 
have  the  frame  of  the  apostle's  mind,  during  the  writing  of 
the  whole  Epistle."^ 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horse  Paulinae, 
Chap.  XII. 


SECTION  XIV. 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  TITUS. 


I.  Account  of  Titus. — II.  Christianity,  ^vhen planted  in  Crete. 
— III.  Date. — IV.  Scope  and  a7ialysis  of  this  Epistle. — V. 
Observations  on  it. 

■  I.  Titus  was  a  Greek  (Dr.  Benson  thinks  he  was  a  native 
of  Antioch  in  Syria),  and  one  of  Paul's  early  converts,  who 
attended  him  and  Barnabas  to  the  first  council  at  Jerusalem, 
A.  D.  49,  and  afterwards  on  his  ensuing  circuit.  (Tit.  i.  4. 

«  Preface  to  2Tim.  p.  517.  The  topics  above  noticed  are  ably  treated  at 
length  by  Ur.  Mackniglit  in  his  Preface  to  2  Tim.  sect.  3. 


Sect.  XV.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  PHILEMON. 


347 


Gal.  ii.  1 — 3.  Acts  xv.  2.)  SoiriR  yonrs  after  this  wft  find 
tliat  Paul  sent  him  to  Corinth  {'2  ('or.  xii.  IS.),  to  investiffate 
and  roport  to  liim  the  state  of  the  cliiirch  in  thai  city,  and 
})arti('(ilarly  to  f.'pnrt  what  fHect  had  been  prodiKM-d  Ly  his 
first  Episllo  to  tiK!  Corinthians.  'I'he  iiitclliirciicc;  i)rou<fiil 
to  the  apostle  by  Titus  aflbrdcd  him  iIk;  iiijrhcst  satisfaction, 
as  it  far  exceeded  all  his  expectations,  (vii.  G — 13.  And  as 
'J'itus  had  expressed  a  particular  regard  for  thi;  Corinthians, 
the  apostle  thoufjht  proper  to  send  him  back  a(jain,with  some 
others,  to  hasten  the  colhx'tion  lor  the  poor  brethren  iu  .Iiida-a. 
(viii.  G.)  After  this  wo.  mi ctwilh  no  further  notice  of 'I'itus; 
except  that  he  is  mentidned  in  this  Kpistlc  as  havinjr  i)een 
with  Paul  in  Crete  (Tit.  i.  .'>.),  and  in  2  'I'im.  iv.  10,  (shortly 
before  that  aposll(;'s  martyrdom)  as  bein<r  in  Dalmatia.  How 
hia[hly  he  was  esteemed  by  the  frreat  apostle  ot"  the  (icntiies,  is 
cvi(l(Mit  from  the  aflectionate  manner  in  which  he  has  spoken 
of  him  to  the  (Jorinthians.'  Whether  Titus  ever  cpiiitcul 
(.rete  we  know  not :  neither  have  we  any  certain  information 
concerninjr  the  time,  place,  or  manner  of  his  death  ;  itut, 
accordinir  to  ancient  ecclesiastical  tradition,  he  lived  to  the  ajre 
of  ninety-four  years,  and  died  and  was  buried  in  that  island. 

II.  \Ve  have  no  certain  information  when  or  by  whom 
Christianity  was  first  j)lanted  in  ('rete.  As  some  Cr(>tans 
were  present  at  the  first  elfusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  at  .leru- 
salem  (Acts  ii.  11.),  Bishop  Tomline  tbinirs  it  not  improba- 
ble, that,  on  their  return  home,  they  mijrht  be  the  means  of 
introducing  the  Gospel  amoncr  their  countrymen. 2  But  Mi- 
chaelis,  Dr.  Hales,  and  many  other  critics  are  of  opinion  that 
Christianity  was  first  planted  there  by  Paul,  during  the  year 
and  a  half  that  he  spent  at  Corinth,  between  the  latter  part 
of  A.  n.  51,  and  the  former  part  of  a.  d.  53.  It  appears  from 
2  Cor.  xii.  14.  and  xiii.  1.  that  the  apostle  did  make  an 
excursion  during  this  interval,  and  returned  to  Corinth.  In 
this  excursion  it  is  supposed  that  he  made  a  voyage  to  Crete, 
in  order  to  preach  the  Gospel  there,  and  took  1  itus  with  him 
as  an  assistant,  whom  he  left  behind  to  regulate  the  concerns 
of  that  church.  (Tit.  i.  5.)  Josephus  informs  us  that  there 
were  many  .Tews^  in  this  island  at  the  time  Paul  wrote  this 
Epistle  to  Titus;  and  the  apostle  seems  to  have  considered 
them  a  more  dangerous  people  than  the  Cretans  themselves, 
who  were  formerly  notorious  for  piracy,  luxury,  debauchery, 
and  esjjecially  for  lying.  80  infamous  were  they  for  their 
habitual  practice  of  falsehood,  that  x|«t/^s,7,  to  act  like  a  Cre- 
tan, was  a  proverbial  term  for  telling  a  lie.  With  these  vices 
they  were  charged  by  Epimenides,  one  of  their  own  poets ; 
and  Paul  has  quoted  him  as  expressing  their  true  character. 
(Tit.  i.  12.) 

HI.  No  date  is  so  controverted  as  that  of  the  Epistle  to 
Titus.  Michaelis,  who  thinks  it  was  written  soon  after  his 
supposed  visit  to  Crete,  is  of  opinion,  that,  in  the  chronologi- 
cal arrangement  of  Paul's  epistles,  it  should  be  placed  between 
the  second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  (a.  d.  52)  and  the 
first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (a.  d.  51).  Hug  jdaces  it 
between  the  two  Epistles  to  the  Corintnians;  Dr.  Hales 
dates  this  Kpistle  in  a.  d.  52 ;  Dr.  Lardner  in  56 ;  Lord  Bar- 
rington  in  57;  Dr.  Benson  and  Bishop  Tomline  in  G4  ;  and 
Bishop  Pearson,  Drs.  Whitby  and  Paley,  and  the  Bible 
chronology  in  a.  d.  G5.  The  subscription  states  this  Epistle 
to  have  been  written  from  Nicopolis  of  Macedonia,  probably 
because  Saint  Paul  desired  to  meet  him  at  a  city  called  Ni- 
copolis, but  which  could  not  be  the  place  intended  by  the 
author  of  the  subscription;  for  the  Nicopolis  referred  to  by 
him  was  situated  on  the  river  Nessus  in  Thrace,  and  was  not 
built  till  after  this  period  by  the  emperor  Trajan.  As  Luke 
is  totally  silent  concerning  Saint  Paul's  preaching  at  Crete, 
though  he  has  noticed  that  he  touched  at  the  Fair  Havens  and 
Lasea  in  his  first  voyage  to  Rome,  it  is  most  probable  that 
this  Epistle  was  written  after  his  liberation  from  his  first 
imprisonment,  a.  d.  64.  And  this  opinion  is  strengthened 
by  the  verbal  harmony  subsisting  between  the  first  Epistle 
to  Timothy  and  the  letter  to  Titus ;  which  cannot  be  natu- 
rally accounted  for,  but  by  supposing  that  they  were  both 
written  about  the  same  time,  ana  while  the  same  ideas  and 
phrases  were  present  to  the  writer's  mind.  Among  other 
mstances  that  might  be  adduced,  compare  1  Tim.  1.  1 — 3. 
with  Tit.  i.  4,  5.;  1  Tim.  i.  5.  with  Tit.  i.  14. ;  1  Tim.  iv. 
12.  with  Tit.  ii.  7.  15.,  and  I  Tim.  iii.  2 — 4.  with  Tit.  i.  6— 8.^ 

>  See  particularly  2  Cor.  ii.  13.  vii.  6.  7.  13—15.  viii.  16—23.  and  xii.  13. 

»  Elenients  of  Christian  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  446. 

»  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xv\\.  c.  12.  §  1.    De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  7.  §  1.,  &c. 

*  Calniet,  Preface  sur  I'Epitre  de  S.  Paul  .'1  Tite ;  Dr.  Benson's  Preface 
fo  his  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on  this  Epistle;  Lardner's  Works, 
8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  320—334. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  21M— 296.  ;  Michaelis's  Introd. 
vol.  iv.  pp.  29—41. ;  Hug's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  pp.  351—3(30.  Dr.  Macknighl's 
Preface  to  Titus. 


The  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  to  Titus 
were  never  questioned.* 

IV.  Titus  having  been  left  in  Crete  to  settle  the  churches 
in  the  several  cities  of  that  island  accr'rding  to  the  apostoli 
cal  i)lan,  Paul  wrote  this  Kpistle  to  him,  that  he  might  dis- 
charg.'  his  ministry  among  the  Cretans  with  the  greater  suc- 
cess, and  to  give  him  particular  instructions  coiicerning  his 
behaviour  towards  the  judaizin"  teachers,  who  endeavoured 
to  pervert  the  faith  and  disturb  the  peace  of  the  Christian 
church.  The  Epistle,  therefore,  consists  of  three  parts. 
Pakt  I.    T/ie  Inscription,  (i.  1 — 1.) 

Pakt  II.  Lutructiuns  to  'I  itus, 

Skct.  1.   Concerning  the  ordination  of  elders,  that  is,  of  bishops 
and   dcacon.s,  whose  qualilicalions  arc  enumerated,   (ft — 9.) 
Further,  to  show  Titus  how  cautious  he  ouc;ht  to  lie  in 
sclec-tiiig   men  for  the  sacred  ofl'irc,  Paul  rcmind.s  him  of 
the  acts  of  the  judaizing  teachers.   (10 — 16.) 
Sect.  2.  That  be  should  accommodate  his  exhortations  to  the 
respective  ages,  sexes,  and  circumstances  of  those  whom  he 
was   commissioned    to   instruct;    and,    to  give  the   greater 
weight  to  his  instructions,   he   admonishes  him  to  be  an 
example  of  what  he  taught,  (ii.) 
Skct.  3.  That    he  should    inculcate    obedience    to    the   civil 
magistrate,  in  opposition  to  the  Jews  and  judaizing  teachers, 
who,  being  averse  from  all  civil  governors,  except  such  as 
were  of  their  own  nation,  were  apt  to  imbue  Gentile  (j|iri.s- 
tians  with  a  like  seditious  spirit,  as  if  it  were  an  indignity 
for  the  people  of  God  to  obey  an  idolatrous  magistrate  ;  and 
also  that  he  should  enforce  gentleness  to  all  men.  (iii.  1 — 7.) 
StcT.  4.  That  he   should  enforce  good  works,  avoid   foolish 
questions,  and  shun  heretics,  (iii.  8 — 11.) 
Part  III.  An  Invitation  to  Titus,  to  come  to  the  Apostle  at  Ni- 
copolis, together  with  various  Directions,  (iii.  12- — 15.) 

V.  From  a  comparison  of  the  Epistle  of  Titus  witb  the 
two  Epistles  to  Timothy,  Dr.  Macknight  remarks,  we  learn 
that  the  judaizing  teachers  were  every  where  indefatigable  in 
propagating  their  erroneous  doctrine  concerning  the  necessity 
of  obedience  to  the  law  of  Moses,  as  the  only  means  of  ob- 
taining salvation;  that  in  the  most  distant  countries  they 
uniformly  taught  the  same  doctrine,  for  the  purpose  of  render- 
ing the  practice  of  sin  consistent  with  the  hope  of  salvation ; 
and  that  in  order  to  draw  disciples  after  them,  they  en- 
couraged them  in  sin  by  the  vicious  practices  which  they 
themselves  followeil,  in  the  persuasion  that  they  would  be 
pardoned  by  the  efficacy  of  the  Levitical  sacrifices.  That 
eminent  critic  thinks  it  probable,  from  the  apostle's  com- 
manding Titus  in  Crete,  and  Timothy  in  Ephcsus,  to  oppose 
those  errors,  that  the  judaizing  teachers  were  more  numerous 
and  successful  in  Ephesus  and  Crete  than  in  other  places. 
As,  however,  Titus  was  a  Gentile  convert,  whose  interest  it 
was  to  maintain  the  freedom  of  the  Gentiles  from  the  law  of 
Moses,  and  also  a  teacher  of  long  standing  in  the  faith,  Paul 
was  not  so  full  in  his  directions  and  exhortations  to  him,  as 
to  Timothy:  neither  did  he  recommend  to  him  meekness, 
lenity,  and  patience  in  teaching,  as  he  did  to  Timothy,  but 
rather  sharpness.  (Tit.  i.  13.  ii.  15.)  Dr.  Macknight  ac- 
counts for  this  difference  in  the  apostle's  letters  to  those  two 
evangelists,  by  supposing  that  Titus  was  a  person  of  a  soft 
and  mild  temper;  whereas  Timothy,  being  a  young  man, 
might  have  been  of  a  more  ardent  spirit  that  stood  in  need 
of  some  restraint.6 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley 's  Ilorae  Paulinae, 
Chap.  XIII. 


SECTION  XV. 

ON    THE    EPISTLE    TO    PHILEMON. 

I.  Account  of  Philemon. — II.  Bate. — IIL  Genuineness  and 
authenticity. — IV.  Occasion  and  scope  of  this  Epistle. — 
V.   Observations  on  it. 

I.  Philemon  was  an  inhabitant  of  Colossae,  as  appears 
from  Paul's  mentioning  Onesimus  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Co- 
lossians  (iv.  9.)  as  one  of  them,  and  also  from  his  saluting 
Archippus  in  this  Epistle  (ver.  2.),  who  appears  from  Col. 

s  K  is  cited  or  alluded  to  by  all  the  fathers  who  have  quoted  the  two 
Epistles  to  Timothy.    See  Ihe  references  to  them  in  p.  344.  supra. 
«  Dr.  Macknighl's  Preface  to  Titus,  sect,  t  f^e. 


348 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Pabt  VI.  Chap.  III. 


iv.  17.  to  have  been  a  pastor  of  that  chiirch.  Philemon 
seems  to  liave  been  a  person  of  great  worth  as  a  man,  and  of 
some  note  as  a  citizen  in  his  own  country :  for  his  family 
was  so  numerous  that  it  made  a  church  by  itself,  or  at  least 
a  considerable  part  of  the  church  at  Colossae.  (ver.  2.)  He 
was  likewise  so  opulent,  that  he  was  able  by  Ihe  communica- 
tion of  his  faith,  that  is,  by  his  beneficence,  to  refresh  the 
bowels  of  the  saints.  (0,7.)  According  to  Grotius,  Phile- 
mon was  an  elder  of  Ephesus  ;  Beausobre  and  Dr.  Doddridge 
suppose  him  to  have  been  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  Colos- 
sian  church  :  and  from  Paul's  requesting  him  (22.)  to  pro- 
vide a  lodging  for  him  at  Colossas,  Michaelis  thinks  that  he 
■was  a  deacon  of  that  church.  These  opinions  appear  to  have 
been  founded  on  the  inscription  of  this  Epistle,  where  Paul 
calls  him  a  fellow-labourer.  But  this  appellation,  Drs. 
Whitby,  Lardner,  and  Macknight  have  remarked,  is  of  am- 
biguous signification;  being  given  not  only  to  those  who 
were  employed  in  preaching  the  Gospel,  but  also  to  such 
pious  individuals,  oi  either  sex,  as  assisted  the  apostles  in 
any  manner.' 

Philemon  was,  most  probably,  a  converted  Gentile,  and 
from  the  nineteenth  verse  of  this  Epistle,  some  have  sup- 
posed that  he  was  converted  under  the  ministry  of  Paul ;  but, 
from  the  apostle's  saying  in  the  fifth  verse  that  he  had  heard 
of  Philemon's  faith  in  Christ  (which  was  his  usual  phrase 
when  writing  to  Christians  whom  he  had  never  seen),2  Dr. 
Benson  is  of  opinion  that,  during  Paul's  long  stay  at  Ephe- 
sus, some  of  the  Colossians  had  gone  thither,  and  heard  him 
preach  the  Christian  doctrine  (Acts  xix.  10.  xx.  31.)  ;  or  that 
the  apostle  had  sent  some  of  his  assistants  who  had  planted 
the  Gospel  at  Colossae.  If  Saint  Paul  had  not  come  into 
those  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  it  is  highly  probable  that  Phile- 
mon would  never  have  become  a  Christian  ;  the  apostle  might 
therefore  well  say,  that  Philemon  owed  unto  him  himself,  or 
his  own  soul. 

II.  It  appears  from  verses  1.  10.  13.  and  23.  of  this  Epis- 
tle, that  Paul  was  under  confinement  when  he  wrote  it ;  and 
as  he  expresses  (22.)  his  expectation  of  being  shortly  re- 
leased, it  is  probable  that  it  was  written  during  his  first  im- 
prisonment at  Rome  towards  the  end  of  a.  d.  03,  or  early  in 
63  ;  and  was  sent,  together  with  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephe- 
sians  and  Colossians,  by  Tychicus  and  Onesimus. 

III.  So  early  as  the  time  of  Jerome,  some  fastidious  critics 
showed  an  inclination  to  expunge  this  Epistle  from  the  sacred 
canon  as  being  a  private  letter,  and  consequently  of  very  little 
importance  to  the  Christian  church.  Unquestionably  the 
apostles  might  (and,  for  aught  we  know  to  the  contrary,  did) 
■write  private  letters  as  well  as  other  persons.  But  we  have 
no  reason  to  consider  the  Epistle  to  Philemon  in  this  light; 
it  was  wholly  written  with  the  apostle's  own  hand,  which 
was  much  more  than  what  he  called  the  token  in  all  his  Epis- 
tles. (2Thess.  iii.  17.)  Although  from  its  brevity,  and  the 
private  nature  of  its  subject,  it  was  but  rarely  mentioned  by 
the  primitive  ecclesiastical  writers,  yet  we  know  that  it  was 
alluded  to,  though  not  cited  by  name,  by  Tertullian,^  and  was 
reckoned  among  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  by  Caius.^  It  was 
likewise  most  expressly  quoted  by  Origen,*  and  was  pro- 
nounced to  be  authentic  by  all  the  ancient  writers  cited  by 
Eusebius,"  and  also  by  all  subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers; 
and  it  has  always  been  inserted  in  every  catalogtie  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament.  Stronger  external  testimony 
to  the  authenticity  of  any  part  of  the  Bible  exists  not,  than 
that  which  we  have  for  the  Epistle  to  Philemon,  the  argu- 
ment of  which  is  not  mean,  nor  is  any  part  of  it  unworthy  of 
the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 

"Whoever,"  says  Dr.  Benson,  "  will  carefully  study  it, 
will  discern  a  great  number  of  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of 
Christianity  expressed  or  insinuated:  for  instance,  1.  In  a 
religious  view,  or  upon  a  spiritual  account,  all  Christians  are 
upon  a  level.  Onesimus,  the  slave,  upon  becoming  a  Chris- 
tian, is  the  apostle's  dear  son  and  Philemon's  brother. 
2.  Christianity  makes  no  alteration  in  men's  civil  affairs. 
By  Christian  baptism  a  slave  did' not  become  a  freedman  ; 
his  temporal  state  or  condition  was  still  the  same;  and, 
though  Onesimus  was  the  apostle's  son  and  Philemon's  bro- 
ther upon  a  religious  account,  yet  he  was  obliged  to  be  Phi- 
lemon s  slave  for  ever,  unless  his  master  voluntarily  gave  him 
his  freedom.     3.  Servants' should  not  be  taken  or  detained 

»  See  instances  of  this  in  Rom.  xvl.  8.  and  3  John  8. 

2  See  Eph.  i.  15.     Col.  i.  4.  and  ii.  1. 

3  Gardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  465. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  424. 
«  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii  p.  274. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  482. 

'  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  472.  ;  4to.  vol  i.  p.  535. 
«  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  25. 


from  their  own  mr.eters  without  their  master's  consent.  (See 
ver.  13,  11.)  4.  We  should  love  and  do  good  unto  all  men. 
We  should  not  contemn  persons  of  low  estate,  nor  disdain 
to  help  the  meanest  slave  when  it  is  in  our  pr  <  er.  The  apr  s- 
tle  has  here  set  us  an  example  of  benevolence,  condescension, 
and  Christian  charity,  which  it  well  becomes  us  to  ft  How. 
He  took  pains  with  and  converted  a  slave,  and  in  a  most 
affectionate  and  earnest  manner  interceded  with  his  m;istei 
for  his  pardon.  5.  We  should  not  utterly  despair  of  those 
who  are  wicked,  but  should  use  our  best  endeavours  to  re- 
claim them.  Though  Onesimus  had  robbed  his  msister  and 
run  away  from  him,  the  apostle  attempted  his  conversion 
among  others,  and  succeeded  therein.  G.  Restitution  is  due 
where  an  injury  has 'been  done,  unless  the  injured  party 
freely  forgive  :  accordingly,  the  apostle  Paul  gives  a  promise, 
under  his  own  hand,  for  Onesimus's  making  restitution  as  rt 
matter  of  justice,  if  Philemon  insisted  upon  it.  7.  We  should 
be  grateful  to  our  benefactors.  This  Saint  Paul  touches  upon 
very  gently  (ver.  19.),  where  he  intimates  to  Philemon  that 
he  owed  unto  him  himself  also :  and  therefore,  in  point  of 
gratitude,  he  was  obliged  to  grant  his  request.  8.  We  should 
forgive  the  penitent,  and  be  heartily  reconciled  to  them. 
9.  The  apostle's  example  teaches  us  to  do  all  we  can  to  make 
up  quarrels  and  differences,  and  reconcile  those  who  are  at 
variance.  10.  A  wise  man  chooses  sometimes  to  address  in 
a  soft  and  obliging  manner,  even  in  cases  where  there  is  au- 
thority to  command.  11.  The  bishops  and  pastors  of  the 
Christian  church,  and  all  teachers  of  religion,  have  here  the 
most  glorious  example  set  before  them,  to  induce  them  to 
have  a  most  tender  regard  to  the  souls  of  men  of  all  ranks 
and  conditions  ;  and  to  endeavour  to  convert  a  slave,  as  well 
as  the  rich  and  great  and  honourable  of  the  earth.  He  who 
disdained  not  to  teach  a  slave,  a  fugitive  and  a  thief,  but 
preached  the  doctrine  of  salvation  to  him,  and  took  pains 
with  him,  till  he  had  restored  him  to  his  master,  an  honest 
worth}'  man  ; — how  disinterested  must  he  have  been  !  To 
whom  would  he  not  condescend  ]  or  whose  salvation  and 
happiness  would  he  not  endeavour  to  promote  ?  Would  to 
Goo  there  was  the  same  spirit  in  all  the  teachers  of  Christi- 
anity, at  all  times  and  in  all  places!  12.  Here  is  a  most 
glorious  proof  of  the  good  effects  of  Christianity,  where  it  is 
rightly  understood  and  sincerely  embraced.  It  transforms  a 
worthless  slave  and  thief  into  a  pious,  virtuous,  amiable,  and 
useful  man ;  makes  him  not  only  happier  and  better  in  him- 
self, but  a  better  servant,  and  better  in  all  relations  and  cir- 
cumstances whatever. 

"  Shall  an  epistle  so  full  of  useful  and  excellent  instruc- 
tions be  rejected  for  its  brevity  1  or  because  the  occasion 
required  that  it  should  be  written  concerning  one  particular 
person  ?  or  addressed  to  a  private  man  ?  Men  would  do  well 
to  examine  it  carefully  before  they  reject  it,  or  speak  of  it 
so  slightly."' 

IV.  We  learn  from  this  Epistle  that  Onesimus  was  the 
slave  of  Philemon,  whom  he  had  probably  robbed, 8  and  ran 
away  from  him  as  far  as  Rome.  Whether  he  repented  of 
what  he  had  done,  and  voluntarily  went  to  Paul,  or  in  what 
other  manner  they  came  to  meet  there,  we  have  no  infor- 
mation. But  the  apostle,  during  his  confinement  in  his  own 
hired  house,  opened  a  way  to  the  heart  of  the  rude  slave,  con- 
verted him  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  baptized  him.  It  also 
appears  that  Paul  kept  Onesimus  -^ith  him  for  some  time,  to 
wait  upon  himself,  until  Onesimus,  by  his  conduct,  confirmed 
the  truth  and  sincerity  of  his  conversion.  During  his  ai)ode 
with  the  apostle,  he  served  him  with  the  greatest  assiduity 
and  affection:  but,  being  sensible  of  his  fault  in  running 
away  from  his  master,  he  wished  to  repair  that  injury  by 
returning  to  him.  At  the  same  time  being  afraid  lest,  on  his 
return,  his  master  should  inflict  upon  him  the  punishment 
which  by  the  law  or  custom  of  Phrygia  was  due  to  a  fugitive 
slave,9  he  entreated  Paul  to  write  to  Philemon  in  his  behalf, 
and  requested  him  to  forgive  and  receive  him  again  into  his 
family.'  The  apostle  therefore  wrote  this  Epistle. to  Phi- 
lemon, "  in  which,  with  the  greatest  softness  of  expression, 
warmth  of  aflection,  and  delicacy  of  address,  he  not  only 
interceded  for  Onesimus's  pardon,  but  urged  Philemon  to 
esteem  him  and  put  confidence  in  him  as  a  sincere  Christian. 

I  Dr.  Benson's  History  of  tlie  First  Planting  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii.  p. 
311.  2d  edit. 

9  Maclvnight  and  Lardner  are  of  opinion  that  Saint  Paul's  e.xpressinn  In 
the  eighteenth  verse  does  not  insinuate  that  Onesimus  had  robbed  his 
master  of  any  thing  but  his  service. 

»  Grotius  informs  us  that  masters  had  a  power  to  torture  their  slaves 
wlio  behaved  ill,  and  even  to  put  t)ieni  to  death,  without  applying  to  the 
magistrate  ;  and  that  this  was  agreeable  not  only  to  the  Ilouian  but  also  to  , 
the  Grecian  law. 


BtcT.  XVI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS. 


349 


And  bccauso  restitution,  by  repairingf  the  injur}'  that  has  bnen 
tionR,  restores  the  ))«rson  who  did  th(!  injury  to  tho  chariicter 
\vhieh  hi!  had  lost,  tlie  apostle,  to  fnal)h;  Onesiinns  to  appear 
in  I'liih^Hion's  firnily  with  some  (h'lrree  of  reputation,  Ijonnd 
himself  in  this  K|)istle  hy  his  handwriting,  not  only  to  repay 
all  that  Ouesimus  owed  to  Philemon,  hut  to  inaiii!  full  repa- 
ration also  to  Philemon  for  whatcve^  injury  he  had  don<!  to 
him  hy  runninir  away."'  To  account  for  the  solicitude 
expressed  hy  Paul  in  this  Epistle  in  order  to  obtain  Onesi- 
mus's  |)ar(lon,  and  procure;  a  thoroujrji  reconciliation,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  suppose,  with  some  critics,  that  Phileirioii  was 
kecin  and  obstinate  in  his  resentments,  or  of  that  rou<(h  and 
intractable  disposition  for  which  the  Phrygians  were  pro- 
verbial. Tlu!  contrary  is  insinuated  hy  the  apostle,  who  has 
in  other  places  commiMided  his  benevolence  and  charity.  It 
is  mor.t  probable,  as  Dr.  Mackniirht  has  conjectunul,  that 
Phileiuon  bad  a  uumhtjr  of  slaves,  on  whom  the  pardonintr 
of  Ouesimus  too  easily  luii^ht  have  had  a  bad  elTect ;  and 
therefore  ho  mijrht  judire  some  punishment  necessary  as  an 
example  to  the  rest.  At  least  Paul  could  not  have  consi- 
dered the  pardoning  of  Onesiinus  as  an  alTair  that  merited  so 
much  earnest  entreaty,  with  a  person  of  Philemon's  piety, 
benevolence,  and  gratitude,  unless  he  had  suspected  lum  to 
have  entertained  some  such  intention. 

V.  Whether  Philemon  pardoned  or  punished  Onesimus,  is 
a  circumstance  concerning  which  we  have  no  information. 
From  the  earnestness  with  which  the  apostle  solicited  his 

Sardon,  and  from  the  generosity  and  goodness  of  Philemon's 
isposition,  the  eminent  critic  above  cited  conjectures  that  he 
actually  pardoned  Onesimus,  and  even  gave  him  his  freedom, 
in  compliance  with  the  apostle's  insinuation,  as  it  is  inter- 

treted  by  some,  tkat  he  would  do  more  than  he  had  asked. 
or  it  was  no  uncommon  thing,  in  ancient  times,  to  bestow 
freedom  on  those  slaves  whose  faithful  services  had  procured 
for  them  the  esteem  and  good  will  of  their  masters.  The 
primitive  Christians  preserving  this  Epistle,  and  placing  it 
in  the  sacred  canon  (Dr.  Henson  remarks V  are  strong  argu- 
ments to  induce  us  to  believe  that  Philemon  granted  the 
apostle's  recpiest,  and  received  Onesimus  into  his  house  and 
favour  again.  As  Onesimus  was  particularly  recommended 
by  Saint  Paul  to  the  notice  of  the  Colossians  (iv.  9.),  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  they  cheerfully  received  him  into 
their  church.  In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,^  Onesimus 
is  said  to  have  been  bishop  of  Beroea;  but  they  are  a  compi- 
lation of  the  fourth  century,  and  consefpiently,  of  no  authority. 
When  Ignatius  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  (a.  d.  107), 
their  bishop's  name  was  Onesimus  :  and  Grotius  thought  that 
he  was  the  person  for  whom  Saint  Paul  interceded.  But 
this,  as  Dr.  Lardner^  remarks,  is  not  certain.  Dr.  MilP  has 
mentioned  a  copy,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  it  is  said  that 
Onesinms  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  by  having  his  legs 
broken. 

The  whole  of  this  Epistle  is  indeed  a  most  beautiful  com- 
position. Such  deference  and  respect  for  Philemon,  such 
affection  and  concern  for  Onesimus,  such  distant  but  just 
insinuation,  such  a  genteel  and  fine  address  pervade  the 
whole,  that  this  alone  might  be  sufficient  to  convince  us  that 
Paul  was  not  unacfpiainted  with  the  world,  and  was  not  that 
weak  and  visionary  enthusiast,  which  the  enemies  of  reve- 
lation have  sometimes  represented  him  to  be.  It  is,  indeed, 
impossible  to  peruse  this  admirable  Epistle  without  being 
toucJied  with  the  delicacy  of  sentiment,  and  the  masterly 
address  that  appear  in  every  part  of  it.  We  see  here,  in  a 
most  striking  light,  how  perfectly  consistent  true  politeness 
is,  not  only  with  all  the  warmth  and  sincerity  of  the  friend, 
but  even  with  the  dignity  of  the  Christian  and  the  apostle. 
Every  word  has  its  force  and  propriety.  With  what  cli<rnity 
and  authority  does  Paul  entreat,  though  a  prisoner !  With 
what  condescension  and  humility  does  he  command,  though 
an  apostle !  And  if  this  letter  were  to  be  considered  in  no 
other  point  of  view  than  as  a  mere  human  composition,  it  must 
be  allowed  to  be  a  master-piece  in  its  kind.     As  an  illus- 


urged  everything  that  can  be  said  upon  the  occasion.  Pliny 
is  too  affe(;ted  to  be  affecting;  tli(i  ajiostle  takes  possession 
of  our  heart,  and  excites  our  compassion  whether  we  will  oi 
not.'' 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Ilorae  Paulinae 
Chap.  XIV. 


SECTION  XVI. 


tration  of  this  remark,  it  may  not  be  improper  to  compare  it 
with  an  Epistle  of  the  younger  Pliny,*  that  seems  to  have 
been  written  on  a  similar  occasion;  which,  though  composed 
by  one  who  has  always  been  reckoned  to  excel  in  the  cpisto- 
latory  style,  and  though  it  undoubtedly  has  many  beauties, 
yet  it  must  be  acknowledged  by  every  impartial  reader  to  be 
vastly  iqferior  to  this  animated  composition  of  the  apostle. 
Pliny  seems  desirous  of  saying  something ;  the  apostle  has 

«  Macknighi's  Preface  to  Philemon,  sect.  2. 

"  Lib.  viii.  c.  46. 

3  Works,  8vo.  vol.  iv.  p.  381. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  p.  331. 

«  Nov.  Test.  Millii  ct  Kusteri,  p.  513.  >  Lib.  Ix.  ep.  21. 


ON    THE    EPISTLE    TO   THE    HEBREWS. 

To  -whom  -written. — II.  In  -what  layi^vaffe. — III.  Its  ge- 
nuinenesH  and  authenticity. — Proofs  that  it  -was  -written  by 
Paul. — IV.  Its  date. — V.  Occasion  and  scope  of  this  Epis- 
tle.— VI.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. 

I.  After  the  thirteen  Epistles  avowedly  written  by  Paul, 
with  his  name  prefixed  to  them,  succeeds  what  we  call  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  ;  the  nature  and  authenticity  of  which 
has  been  more  controverted,  perhaps,  than  any  other  book  of 
the  New  Testament.  As  the  initiatory  formula,  usual  in  the 
other  apostolical  letters,  is  wanting  in  this  Epistle  (notwith- 
standing the  superscription  terms  it  the  Epialle  to  the  ILbrewx), 
it  has  been  questioned  whether  it  was  really  an  Epistle  sent 
to  a  particular  community,  or  only  a  discourse  or  dissertation 
intended  for  general  readers.  Michaelis  determines  that  it 
in  an  Epistle,  and  remarks  that  not  oidy  the  second  person 
plural  ye  incessantly  occurs  in  it,  which  alone  indeed  would 
be  no  proof,  but  also  that  the  author  alludes  to  special  cir- 
cumstances in  this  writing,  in  chapters  v.  11,  12.  vi.  9,  x. 
32 — 3}.,  and  above  all  in  chapter  xiii.  23,21.,  wliich  contains 
the  promise  of  a  visit,  and  various  salutations;  all  which 
circumstances  taken  together  show  that  it  really  is  an  apos- 
tolical Epistle. 

Who  the  Hebrews  were,  to  whom  this  letter  was  ad- 
dressed, learned  men  are  by  no  moans  agreed.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  was  of  opinion  that  by  "  the  Hebrews"  in  this 
E])ist!e  we  are  to  understand  those  Jewish  believers  who 
had  left  Jerusalem  a  short  time  before  its  destruction,  and 
were  now  dispersed  throughout  Asia  Minor ;'  but  of  this  we 
have  no  authentic  record.  Others  again  have  imagined  that 
it  was  addressed  to  the  Hebrew  Christians  in  Spain,  Galatia, 
Macedonia,  or  at  Corinth  or  Home,  or  to  those  who  resided 
in  Palestine.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Jerome,  Euthalius, 
Chrysostom,  Theodoret,  Theophylact,  and  other  fathers,  were 
of  opinion  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  sent  to  the 
converted  Jews  living  in  Judaea ;  who  in  the  apostle's  days 
were  called  Hebrews,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Jews  in 
the  Gentile  countries,  who  were  called  Hellenists  or  Grecians. 
(Acts  vi.  1.  ix.  29.  xi.  20.)  The  opinion  of  these  learned 
fathers  is  adopted  by  Beza,  Louis  Cappel,  Carpzov,  Drs. 
Lightfoot,  Whitby,  Mill,  Lardner,  and  INIacknight,  Bishops 
Pearson  and  Tomline,  Hallet,  Rosenmiiller,  Hug,  Scott,  and 
others.  Michaelis  considers  it  as  written  for  the  use  of  the 
Jewish  Christians  at  Jerusalem  and  in  Palestine  ;  and  Pro- 
fessor Stuarl»,  (who  is  followed  by  M.  La  Ilarjie)  that  it 
was  directed  to  Hebrews  in  Palestine,  and  probably  to  the 
church  of  Caesarea.^  The  very  ancient  opinion  last  stated  is 
corroborated  by  the  contents  of  the  Epistle  itself,  in  which 
we  meet  with  many  things  peculiarly  suitable  to  the  believers 
in  Judcca. 

1.  It  is  evident  from  the  whole  tenor  of  this  Epistle,  that  the 
persons  to  whom  it  was  addressed,  were  in  imminent  danger  of 
failing  back  from  Christianity  to  Judaism,  induced  partly  by  a 
stvcrc  persecution,  and  partly  by  the  false  arguments  of  the  rab- 
bins. This  could  hardly  have  happened  to  several  communities 
at  the  same  time  in  any  other  country  than  Palestine,  and  there- 
fore wc  cannot  suppose  it  of  several  communities  of  Asia  Minor, 
to  which,  in  the  opinion  of  some  commentators,  the  Epistle  was 


«  Doddriflge,  Tntrod.  to  Philemon. 

■>  Ol)Si:T\'ations  on  the  Apocalypse  of  Saint  .lohn,  p.  244. 

8  Stuart's  Comiri.  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  pp.  67—73.  (An- 
ilover,  N.  Am.  1827.)  In  pp.  8—^57.  he  has  discussed  the  various  hypo- 
theses of  Dr.  Storr,  vfho  supposes  it  to  have  been  written  to  the  Hebrew 
church  at  Galatia;  of  Nocsselt,  who  considered  it  as  addressed  to  tho 
church  at  Thcssalonica ;  of  Bolten,  who  imagined  that  it  was  directed  to 
Hebrews  who  were  sojourners  in  Asia  Minor;  of  Michael  Weber,  who 
advanced  and  endeavoured  to  support  the  opinion  that  it  was  addressed  to 
the  churcli  at  Corinth:  and  of  the  ancients  (whose  opinion  he  adopta), 
that  this  epislle  was  written  to  the  Helirew  church  in  Palestine. 

9  \a  Harpe,  E.ssai  Critique  sur  I'Auilieaticite  de  I'Epilre  aiix  Hebreox. 
p.  136.  (Toulouse,  1332.) 


350 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  VI.  Chap.  Ill, 


addressed.  Christianity  at  this  time  enjoyed,  from  the  tolerating 
spirit  of  the  Roman  laws  and  the  Roman  magistrates,  through- 
out the  empire  in  general,  so  much  religious  liberty,  that  out  of 
Palestine  it  would  have  been  dillicult  to  have  effected  a  general 
persecution.'  But,  through  the  inllLience  of  the  Jewish  sanhe- 
drin  in  Jerusalem,  the  Cliristians  in  that  country  underwent 
several  severe  persecutions,  especially  during  the  high-priesthood 
of  the  younger  Ananus,  when  Saint  James  and  other  Christians 
suffered  martyrdom. 

2.  Further,  if  we  examine  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  espe- 
cially those  to  the  Ephesians,  Philippians,  and  Colossians,  and 
compare  them  with  the  two  Epistles  of  Saint  Peter,  which  were 
addressed  to  the  Christians  in  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia, 
and  Bithynia,  we  shall  find,  though  mention  is  made  of  seducers, 
not  the  smallest  traces  of  imminent  danger  of  an  apostasy  to 
Judaism,  and  still  less  of  blasphemy  against  Christ,  as  we  find 
in  the  sixth  and  tenth  chapters  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  The 
two  passages  of  this  Epistle  (vi.  6.  x.  29.)  which  relate  to  blas- 
phemy against  Christ,  as  a  person  justly  condemned  and  crucified, 
are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  situation  of  communities  in  Pales- 
tine ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  read  these  passages  without  inferring 
that  several  Christians  had  really  apostatized  and  openly  blas- 
phemed Christ ;  for  it  appears  from  Acts  xxvi.  11.  that  violent 
measures  were  taken  in  Palestine  for  this  very  purpose,  of  which 
we  meet  with  no  traces  in  any  other  country  at  that  early  age. 
Neither  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  nor  those  of  Saint  Peter, 
furnish  any  instance  of  a  public  renunciation  of  Christianity  and 
return  to  Judaism :  and  yet,  if  any  such  instances  had  happened 
in  the  communities  to  which  they  wrote,  these  apostles  would 
hardly  have  passed  them  over  in  silence,  or  without  cautioning 
other  persons  against  following  such  examples.  The  circum- 
stance, likewise,  to  which  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
alludes  (x.  25.),  that  several  who  still  continued  Christians  for- 
sook the  places  of  public  worship,  does  not  occur  in  any  other 
Epistle,  and  implies  a  general  and  continued  persecution,  which 
deterred  the  Christians  from  an  open  confession  of  their  faith. 
In  this  melancholy  situation,  the  Hebrews,  almost  reduced  to 
despair,  are  referred  (x.  25.  35 — 38.)  to  the  promised  coming  of 
Christ,  which  they  are  requested  to  await  with  patience,  as  being 
not  far  distant.  This  can  be  no  other  than  the  promised  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  (Matt,  xxiv.),  of  which  Christ  himself  said 
(Luke  xxi.  28.),  "  When  these  things  begin  to  come  to  pass, 
then  look  up,  and  lift  up  your  heads,  for  your  redemption  draweth 
nigh."  Now  this  coming  of  Christ  was  to  the  Christians  in 
Palestine  a  deliverance  from  the  yoke  with  which  they  were 
oppressed ;  but  it  had  no  such  influence  on  the  Christians  of 
other  countries.  On  the  contrary,  the  first  persecution  under 
Nero  happened  in  the  year  65,  about  two  years  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Jewish  war,  and  the  second  under  Domitian, 
about  five-and-twenty  years  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

3.  From  ch.  xii.  7.  though  no  mention  is  made  in  express 
terms  of  martyrs  who  had  suffered  in  the  cause  of  Christianity, 
we  may  with  great  probability  infer,  tliat  several  persons  had 
really  suffered,  and  afforded  a  noble  example  to  their  brethren.  If 
this  inference  be  just,  the  "Hebrews,  to  whom  this  Epistle  was 
written,  must  have  been  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  for  in  no  other 
part  of  the  Roman  empire,  before  the  year  65,  had  the  enemies 
of  Christianity  the  power  of  persecuting  its  professors  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  deprive  them  of  their  lives,  because  no  Roman 
court  of  justice  would  have  condemned  a  man  to  death,  merely 
for  religious  opinions ;  and  the  pretence  of  the  Jews,  that  who- 
ever acknowledged  Jesus  for  the  Messiah  was  guilty  of  treason 
against  the  emperor,  was  too  sophistical  to  be  admitted  by  a  Ro- 
man magistrate.  But,  in  Palestine,  Stephen  and  the  elder  James 
had  already  suffered  martyrdom  (Acts  vii.  xiii.)  ;  both  Saint  Peter 
and  Saint  Paul  had  been  in  imminent  danger  of  undergoing  the 
same  fate  (Acts  xii.  3 — 6.  xxii.  11 — 21.  26.  30.)  ;  and  according 
to  Josephus,2  several  other  persons  were  put  to  death,  during  the 
high-priesthood  of  the  younger  Ananus,  about  the  year  64  or  65. ^ 

4.  The  declarations  in  Heb.  i.  2.  and  iv.  12.,  and  particularly 

>  This  is  evident  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  See  also  Lardner's  Credi- 
bility, chap.  vii.  (Works,  8vo.  vol.  i.  pp.  164—201.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  90—110.) 

«  Ant.  .lud.  lib.  xx.  c.  9.  §  1.  The  words  of  Josephus  are  as  follow  : — "  The 
younger  Ananus,  who  had  obtained  the  office  ofhigh-priest,  was  a  man  of 
desperate  character,  of  the  sect  of  the  Saducees,  who,  as  I  have  observed 
In  other  places,  were  in  general  severe  in  their  punishments.  This  Ananus 
embraced  the  opportunity  of  acting  according  to  his  inclination,  after  the 
death  of  Festus,  and  before  the  arrival  of  his  successor  Albinus.  In  this 
interval  he  constituted  a  court  of  justice,  and  brought  before  it  .lames,  a 
brother  of  .lesus  who  was  called  Christ,  and  several  others,  where  they 
were  accused  of  having  violated  the  law,  and  were  condemned  to  be  stoned 
to  death.  But  the  more  moderate  part  of  the  city,  and  they  who  Strictly 
adhered  to  the  law,  disapproved  highly  of  this  measure." 

'  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  193—197, 


the  exhortation  in  ii.  1 — 4.,  are  peculiarly  suitable  to  the  believers 
of  Judaea,  where  Jesus  Christ  himself  first  taught,  and  his  disci- 
ples after  him,  confirming  their  testimony  with  very  numerous 
and  conspicuous  miracles. 

5.  The  people  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  sent  were  well  ac- 
quainted with  our  Saviour's  sufferings,  as  those  of  Judjea  must 
have  been.  This  appears  in  Heb.  i.  3. ;  ii.  9.  18. ;  v.  7.  8. ;  ix. 
14.  28.;  X.  12.;  xii.  2,  3.;  and  xiii.  12. 

6.  The  censure  in  v.  12.  is  most  properly  understood  of  Chris- 
tians in  Jerusalem  and  Juda;a,  to  whom  the  Gospel  was  first 
preached. 

7.  Lastly,  the  exhortation  in  Heb.  xiii.  12 — 14.  is  very  difficult 
to  be  explained,  on  the  supposition  that  the  Epistle  was  written 
to  Hebrews  who  lived  out  of  Palestine;  for  neither  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  nor  in  the  other  Epistles,  do  we  meet  with  an 
instance  of  expulsion  from  the  synagogue  merely  for  a  belief  in 
Christ ;  on  the  contrary,  the  apostles  themselves  were  permitted 
to  teach  openly  in  the  Jewish  assemblies.  But  if  we  suppose 
that  the  Epistle  was  written  to  Jewish  converts  in  Jerusalem, 
this  passage  becomes  perfectly  clear,  and  Dr.  Lardner  observes, 
must  have  been  very  suitable  to  their  case,  especially  if  it  was 
written  only  a  short  time  before  the  commencement  of  the  Jewish 
war,  about  the  year  65  or  66.  The  Christians,  on  this  suppsition, 
are  exhorted  to  endure  their  fate  with  patience,  if  they  should  be 
obliged  to  retire,  or  should  even  be  ignominiously  expelled  from 
Jerusalem,  since  Christ  himself  had  been  forced  out  of  this  very 
city,  and  had  suffered  without  its  walls.  It  was  a  city  devoted  to 
destruction,  and  they  who  fled  from  it  had  to  expect  a  better  in 
heaven.  The  disciples  of  Christ  had  been  already  warned  by 
their  Master  to  flee  from  Jerusalem  (Matt.  xxiv.  15 — 22.),  and  the 
time  assigned  for  their  flight  could,  when  this  Epistle  was  written, 
be  not  far  distant.  That  they  actually  followed  his  advice,  ap- 
pears from  the  relation  of  Eusebius  ;''  and,  according  to  Josephus,* 
the  most  sensible  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  took  similar  measures 
after  the  retreat  of  Cestius  Gallus,  which  happened  in  Novem- 
ber 66,  and  likewise  left  the  city.  If  we  suppose,  therefore,  that 
the  Epistle  was  written  to  the  Hebrews  of  Jerusalem,  the  passage 
in  question  is  clear ;  but  on  the  hypothesis,  that  it  was  written  to 
Hebrews,  who  lived  in  any  other  place,  the  words,  "  Let  us  go 
forth  -with  him  out  of  the  camp,  bearing  his  reproach"  lose 
their  meaning.  Further  (x.  25.)  the  exhortation,  JV'ot  forsaking 
the  assembling  of  ourselves  together,  as  the  manner  of  some  is, 
but  exhorting  one  another,  and  so  much  the  more  as  ye  see  the 
day  approaching,  is  an  additional  confirmation  of  this  opinion. 
The  approaching  day  can  mean  only  the  day  appointed  for  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  downfall  of  the  Jewish  nation : 
but  this  event  immediately  concerned  only  the  Hebrews  of  Pa- 
lestine, and  could  have  no  influence  in  determining  the  inhabitants 
of  other  countries,  such  as  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Spain,  either 
to  forsake  or  to  frequent  the  places  of  public  worship.'^ 

To  these  clear  and  decisive  evidences,  that  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  was  addressed  to  Jewish  Christians  resident  in 
Palestine,  it  has  been  objected, 

1.  That  the  words  in  Heb.  xii.  4.  (?/e  have  not  resisted  unto 
blood,  combating  against  sin)  cannot  apply  to  the  church  of 
Jerusalem,  where  there  had  already  been  two  martyrs,  viz.  Stephen 
and. James.  But  this  objection  is  of  no  weight;  for  the  apostle 
was  addressing  the  laity  of  that  church,  to  whom  alone  this 
Epistle  was  directed,  and  not  to  the  rulers ;  and  few,  if  any,  of 
the  common  people,  had  hitherto  been  put  to 'death,  though  they 
had  been  imprisoned,  pillaged,  and  defamed.  Compare  Acts  viii. 
1—3.  xxvi.  10,  11.  and  1  Thess.  ii.  14. 

2.  That  the  remark  in  Heb.  vi.  10.  (God  is  not  unrighteous  to 
forget  your  -work  and  labour  of  love,  in  that  ye  have  ministered 
to  the  saints,  and  do  mi7uster)  is  not  suitable  to  the  state  of  the 
church  at  Jerusalem,  at  that  time,  because,  though  the  members 
of  that  church  at  first  were  in  a  state  of  affluence,  when  they  had 
all  things  in  common,  yet  afterwards  they  became  so  poor  that 
they  were  relieved  by  the  contributions  of  the  Gentile  Christians 
in  Macedonia,  Galatia,  Corinth,  and  Antioch.  There  is,  however, 
no  force  in  this  objection.  Ministering  to  the  saints  in  those 
days  did  not  consist  solely  in  helping  them  with  money.  Attend- 
ing on  them  in  their  imprisonment — rendering  them  any  little 
offices  of  which  they  stood  in  need — speaking  to  them  in  a  kind 
and  consolatory  manner — these  and  such  other  services  as  may 
be  performed  without  money  were,  and  still  are,  as  much  minister- 
ing to  the  saints  as  affording  them  pecuniary  aid.      And,  doubt- 

«  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  25. 
«  Bell.  Jud.  hb.  ii.  cSO.  §1. 

«  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  p.  199.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vl.  pp.  383—387.  y 
4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  32(5,  327. 


Sect.  XVI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS. 


351 


less,  the  members  of  the  church  at  Jenisalcm  ministered  in  that 
manner  to  one  another  in  th<'ir  afllictions.  IJut,  thoui^h  the  gene- 
rality of  the  members  of  tiiat  church  were  reduced  to  poverty  l)y 
the  sufli^riiigs  tlicy  had  sustained,  yet  in  all  jiroliaiiiiity  there 
were  some  among  tliem  in  better  circumstances  who  might  have 
deserved  the  conunenihition,  tiiat  tliey  /mil  administered  mid  did 
minister  to  the  sainls,  by  giving  them  a  share  of  their  worldly 
goods. I 

Upon  a  review,  thnrcforo,  of  all  tho  circumstances,  we 
shall  he  justified  in  adoptinjf  the  opinion  of  tiie  ancient  church, 
that  tills  Epistle  was  addrcs.sed  to  Ilehnnv  (christians  in  Pa- 
lestine; but  it  is  fas  Micliaelis  lias  observed)  a  question  of 
little  or  no  importance,  whether  it  was  sent  to  Jerusai(Mii 
alone,  or  to  any  other  city  in  Palestine;  because  an  Epistle, 
intended  for  the  use  of  Jewish  converts  at  .Jerusalem,  must 
equally  have  concerned  the  other  Jewish  converts  iu  that 
cotintry.^ 

II.  The  next  question  concerning  this  Epistle  relates  to 
the  IiANfit'A(;i.:  in  which  it  was  written.  On  this  subject  there 
have  been  two  principal  opinions;  one,  tiiat  it  was  oiiirinally 
written  in  Hebrew,  and  translated  into  (Jreek  by  Luke  or 
liariiabas;  and  the  other,  that  it  was  written  in  (Ireek.  Tlie 
former  opinion  is  entertained  by  the  fathers,  C'lement  of  Alex- 
andria, lOullialius,  TluHidortd,  'riieojihylact,  Jerome,  and  (as 
Some  have  su|)])osed)  Orijreii,  and  also  by  liahrdt,  INIichaelis, 
and  otlu^rs  amoiijr  the  moderns.  'I'ln;  latt(>r  o|)iiiion — that  it 
was  orijrinally  composed  in  (ireek — is  held  by  Faiiricius, 
Ueausobre,  (_'appel,  Owen,  liasnafro,  Mill,  Leusden,  Pictet, 
Wetstein,  IJraunius,  lleidefraer.  Van  Til,  ('alinet,  Oarpzov, 
Pritius,  Moldenhawer,  Lardner,  Doddridfre,  Macknitrht,  Ro- 
senm  iller,  Rumpa^us,  Viscr,  xVlber,  IJishop  Toinline,  Dr. 
Hales,  Professor  iStuart,  and  we  believe,  by  almost  every 
modern  commentator  ami  critic  who  has  treated  on  this  book. 

The  arjruments  for  the  Helirew  or  Syro-(Jhaldaic  original 
of  this  Epistle  may  be  reduced  to  the  two  following: — 

1.  As  this  Epistle  was  written  for  the  use  of  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians, it  was  proper  that  it  should  be  written  in  their  own  lan- 
guage. To  this  argument,  it  has  been  replied,  Jirst,  That  if  it 
was  proper  that  the  apostle  should  write  to  them  in  the  Hebrew 
tongue,  it  must  have  been  equally  proper  for  him  to  write  his 
letter  to  the  Romans  in  their  own  language ;  yet  wc  know  that 
Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  not  written  in  Latin, 
the  language  of  Rome,  but  in  Greek:  nay,  that  all  his  Epistles, 
and  those  of  the  other  apostles,  were  written  in  Greek,  and  not 
in  the  languages  of  the  churches  and  persons  to  whom  they 
were  addressed.  Secondly,  The  Apostolical  Epistles  being  in- 
tended for  the  use  of  the  whole  Christian  world  in  every  age,  as 
well  as  for  the  persons  to  whom  they  were  sent,  it  was  more 
proper  that  they  should  be  written  in  Greek  than  in  any  provincial 
dialect ;  because  the  Greek  language  was  then  universally  un- 
derstood. The  arguments  already  adduced,  to  show  that  Greek 
was  the  original  language  of  the  New  Testament  generally,  arc 
equally  applicable  to  prove  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was 
never  written  in  Hebrew.' 

2.  It  is  objected,  that  this  Epistle  has  been  originally  written 
in  Hebrew,  because  its  Greek  style  is  Superior  to  that  of  Saint 
Paul's  other  Epistles.  To  which  Rosenmiiller,  after  Carpzov, 
has  replied  by  observing,  that  the  difference  in  style  may  be 
readily  accounted  for,  by  considering,  that  this  was  one  of  the 
apostle's  last  Epistles,  and  that  from  his  extensive  intercourse 
with  men  of  various  ranks  and  conditions,  during  his  numerous 
journeys,  "Paul  the  aged"  would  naturally  write  in  a  different 
style  from  Paul  when  a  young  man.  To  this  remark  we  may 
add,  that  there  are  such  coincidences  of  expression  between  this 
Epistle  and  Saint  Paul's  other  letters,  which  were  in  Greek,  as 
plainly  show  that  he  was  its  author,  and  consequently  did  not 
write  it  in  Hei)rew  ;  but  as  this  topic  is  discussed  more  at  length 
in  a  subsequent  page,'  we  proceed  to  remark,  that,  as  the  Syriac 
version  of  this  Epistle  was  made  from  the  Greek  at  the  end  of 
the  first  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  it  is  evident 
that  no  Hebrew  original  was  then  extant;  and  consequently  that 
Michaelis's  hypothesis,  respecting  the  blunders  committed  by  the 
supposed  translator,  has  no  foundation  whatever.  Again,  the 
Epistle  is  saul  to  have  been  translated  by  Clement  of  Rome,  but 
where  or  when,  we  are  not  informed.  Was  this  translation 
efxecutcd  in  Italy  before  it  was  sent  to  the  Hebrews  1     If  so,  what 

>  Mackrtiaht's  Preface  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  sect.  2.  §  1. 

"^  Michaelis,  Inlrocl.  vol.  iv.  p.  193. 

'  See  Vol.  I.  Part  I.  Cliap.  I.  Sect  HI.  §  11.  pp.  19-3, 194.  To  the  above  argu- 
ment we  may  add,  that  the  apostolic  father  Barnabas  wrote  his  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  in  the  Greek  language. 

«  See  pp.  352 — 356.  infra,  where  the  question  respecting  the  author  of 
this  epistle  is  cuusidcreii. 


purpose  could  be  answered  by  writing  it  in  Hebrew  when  it  was 
only  to  be  used  in  Greek?  Was  it  sent  in  Hebrew  before  the 
supposed  translation  1  In  what  language  was  it  communicated 
to  others  by  the  (Christians  who  first  received  it  !  Clement  was 
never  in  the  East  to  translate  it.  And  if  all  the  first  copies  of  it 
were  dispersed  in  Hebrew,  how  came  they  to  be  so  utterly  lost, 
that  no  authentic  report  or  tradition  concerning  them,  or  any  one 
of  them,  ever  remained  :  besides,  if  it  were  translated  by  Clement 
in  the  West,  and  that  translation  alone  were  preserved,  how 
came  it  to  jiass,  that  it  was  so  well  known  and  generally  received 
in  the  East  before  the  Western  churches  received  it  into  their 
canon  of  Scripture  1  This  tradition,  therefore,  respecting  its 
translation  by  Clement,  is  every  way  groundless  and  improbable. 

Independently  of  the  preceding  considerations,  which  show 
that  the  l']|)istle  to  the  Hebrews  was  never  extant  in  the 
Hebrew  or  Nyro-(Jhaldaic  dialect,  the  Epistle  itself  furnishes 
us  with  decisive  and  positive  evidence  that  it  was  originally 
written  in  the  language  in  which  it  is  now  extant. 

1.  In  the  first  place,  the  style  of  this  Epistle,  throughout, 
manifests  that  it  is  no  translation.  It  has  altogether  the  air  of 
an  original.  There  is  nothing  of  the  constraint  of  a  translator, 
nor  do  we  meet  with  those  Hebraisms  which  occur  so  constantly 
in  the  Septuagint  version.* 

2.  Hebrew  names  arc  interpreted  :  as  J\lelchizedek  by  Kiiiff 
of  Jiiffhteonsness  (vii.  2.),  and  Salem  by  Peace,  which 
interpretation  would  have  been  superfluous  if  the  Epistle  had 
been  written  in  Hebrew.  If  this  Epistle  be  a  translation,  and  not 
an  original,  because  the  interpretation  of  a  few  words  is  added, 
we  may  with  equal  propriety  allirm  that  Saint  Paul  wrote  his 
Ejjistles  to  the  Galatians  and  Romans  in  Hebrew,  becau.se  he  has 
added  the  interpret;Uion  of  the  Syriac  word  Abba, — father  (Rom. 
viii.  1.5.  Gal.  iv.  6.),  or  that  John  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Hebrew, 
because  (i.  47.  xx.  16.)  he  has  explained  the  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  word  Rabboni.  The  same  remark  may  be  extended  to 
the  other  three  evangelists,  all  of  whom,  we  have  seen,  wrote 
in  Greek,  as  the  whole  current  of  Christian  antiquity  also  attests. 
A  further  proof  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  originally 
written  in  Greek,  and  consequently  was  not  a  translation,  is,  that 
the  argument  of  the  author  is  founded  on  the  interpretation  which 
he  has  given  us  of  the  words  above  cited. 

3.  The  passages,  cited  from  the  Old  Testament  in  this  Epistle, 
are  not  quoted  from  the  Hebrew,  but  from  the  Septuagint,  where 
that  faithfully  represented  the  Hebrew  text.  Frequently  the 
stress  of  the  argument  taken  from  such  quotations  relies  on 
something  peculiar  in  that  version,  which  could  not  possibly 
have  taken  place  if  the  Epistle  had  been  written  in  Hebrew. 
And  in  a  few  instances,  where  the  Septuagint  did  not  fully 
render  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  author  of  tho 
Epistle  has  sub.stituted  translations  of  his  own,  from  which  he 
argues  in  the  same  manner,  whence  it  is  manifest  that  this  Epis- 
tle never  was  extant  in  Hebrew.  ^ 

Independently  of  these  (we  think  indisputable  and  posi- 
tive) arguments  for  the  Greek  original  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  which  Michaelis  has  attempted  to  answer,  but 
without  success,  the  hypothesis  that  it  was  written  in  He- 
brew is  attended  with  several  difficulties,  and  particularly  the 
two  following : — 

1.  That  at  the  time  the  author  (Paul,  as  is  shown  in  a  subse- 

»  The  numerous  paronomasia;?,  or  occurrences  of  words  of  like  sound, 
but  which  cannot  be  rendered  in  English  with  due  efTect,  that  are  to  be 
found  in  this  Episile,  have  been  uT^cA  as  a  clear  iiroof  that  it  is  not  a  trans- 
lation. See  in.slances  of  such  paronomasias  in  Hebrews  v.  8.  14.  vii.  3.  19. 
22.  ix.  10.  X.  34.  xi.  37.  and  xiii.  14.  (Gr.)  But  of  these  paronomasias.  Prof. 
Smart  observes  that  the  instance  from  Heb.  x.  34.  is  the  only  one  which 
appear.s  to  betray  any  marks  of  design  ;  and  even  here  the  marks  are  by 
no  means  of  a  decisive  nature.  "U  they  are  altogether  accidental,  they 
may  have  occurred  in  the  Epistle  to  the  ftebrews,  even  if  its  present  lan- 
suage  is  merely  that  of  a  translation.  In  fact,  even  designed  paronoma- 
sias may,  not  unfrequently,  occur  in  a  translation.  The  argument  in 
favour  of  the  Greek  being  the  original  language  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
l)rews  built  on  such  instances  of  paronomasia  as  those  above  cited  (where, 
in  most"  examples  "it  is  a  mere  homophony  of  like  tenses  or  cases),  is 
loo  uncertain  and  too  slender  to  be  rested  on,  as  a  proper  support  of  the 
opinion  in  question."    Stuart's  Conmi.  on  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  p.  282. 

6  Dr.  Owen  has  ably  treated  this  topic  in  his  fifth  exercitaiion  on  the 
Hi'brews,  vol.  i.  pp.  46 — 53.  folio  edition.  Calmet,  Comment.  Literal,  torn. 
viii.  pp.  6;il.  632.  Stuart's  Commentary,  vol.  i.  pp.  052—2^5.  Calvin  and 
smeral  other  divines  have  laid  much  stress  upon  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
l)rpw  word  herith  by  ii^ji-xn,  which  denotes  either  testament  or  covenant: 
and  Michaelis  has  acknowledged  that  this  is  the  most  specious  of  all  the 
arguments  adduced  to  prove  that  the  Ei>i3tle  to  the  Hebrews  was  originally 
written  in  Greek.  But  Braiinius  affimis  that  it  proves  nothing  either  way. 
Proleg.  in  Ep.  ad  Hebr.  p.  25.  The  objections  to  this  Epistle  of  Urs.  Schulz 
and  SrvHarth,  grounded  on  the  moiie  in  which  its  author  quotes  and  appeals 
to  the  Olii  Testament  (and  also  on  particular  phrases  and  expressions),  are 
examined  in  detail,  and  most  satisfactorily  refuted  by  Professor  Sluart. 
(Commentary,  vol.  i.  pp.  205—252.,  or  pp.  236 — 290.  of  the  Loudon  ediliaa.) 


352 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  VI.  Chap.  HI. 


quent  page),'  coulJ  not  determine  in  what  dialect  he  should 
write  to  the  Hebrews,  which  they  might  all  un<lcrstand ;  for  the 
pure  Hebrew  then  existed  in  the  Old  Testament,  though  it  was 
not  in  popular  use.  Among  the  Jews  there  were  several  dialects 
spoken,  as  the  East  Aramaean  or  Chaldee,  and  the  West  Ara- 
nisean  or  Syriac;  which  sulVored  various  alterations  from  the 
places  where  the  Jews  were  dispersed  ;  so  that  the  original  Hebrew 
was  known  comparatively  to  few,  and  those  who  were  conver- 
sant in  Syriac  might  not  be  acquainted  with  the  Chaldee.  If 
therefore  this  Epistle  had  been  written  in  biblical  Hebrew,  the 
learned  few  Only  could  have  read  it ;  and  had  it  been  written  in 
cither  of  the  other  dialects,  a  part  only  of  the  Jews  could  have 
perused  it. 

2.  By  writing  in  Hebrew,  the  author  of  this  Epistle  could 
have  instructed  only  his  own  nation  ;  and  his  arguments  would 
have  availed  only  with  the  pious  few,  while  the  unbelieving 
multitude  would  in  all  probability  have  ridiculed  his  doctrines, 
and  misrepresented  them  to  the  uninformed  and  to  strangers. 
But  by  writing  the  Epistle  in  Greek,  which  language,  we  have 
seen,  was  at  that  time  universally  known  and  understood,  he 
instructed  his  own  countrymen,  and  also  explained  the  Christian 
covenant  to  the  Gentiles.^ 

The  preceding  is  a  summary  of  the  arguments  adduced  on 
this  much  litigated  point :  and  upon  the  whole,  we  are  com- 
));;lled  to  draw  the  conclusion,  that  the  original  language  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  must  have  been  Greek.  The 
reader,  however,  will  adopt  which  opinion  he  deems  best 
supported  concerning  the  Hebrew  or  Greek  original  of  this 
Papistic.  If  he  prefer  the  former,  it  may  be  satisfactory  to 
him  to  be  reminded,  that  the  circumstance  of  this  Epistle 
he'ing  first  written  in  Hebrew,  and  then  translated  into  Greek, 
by  no  means  affects  its  genuineness  and  authenticity.^ 

III.  The  next  object  of  inquiry  respects  the  Author  of  this 
Epistle,  some  ascribing  it  to  Barnabas,  the  companion  of 
Paul ;  others  to  Clement  of  Rome,  to  the  evangelist  Luke,  to 
Silas  or  Silvanus,  or  to  ApoUos ;  and  the  Christian  church 
generally  to  the  apostle  Paul. 

Tertullian''  was  the  first  who  ascribed  this  Epistle  to  Bar- 
nabas, and  his  opinion  was  adopted  by  Cameron,  and  subse- 
miently  by  Dr.  Storr;  but  it  rests  on  mere  conjecture,  for 
Tertullian  cites  no  authority,  and  does  not  even  say  that  this 
opinion  was  received  by  the  church.  He  is  also  contradicted 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria,*  who  mentions  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  as  Saint  Paul's ;  to  which  we  may  add,  that  the 
style  of  the  Epistle  ascribed  to  Barnabas  differs  so  widely 
from  that  of  the  letter  to  the  Hebrews,  as  to  prove  that  it 
could  not  have  been  written  by  him.  Further,  it  appears 
from  Heb.  xiii.  24.  that  this  Epistle  was  written  from  Italy, 
where  there  is  no  evidence  that  Barnabas  ever  went.  Phi- 
lastries^  relates,  that  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  many 
persons  attributed  this  Epistle  to  Clement  of  Rome ;  but  this 
notion  is  contradicted  by  the  fact  that  Clement  has  himself 
repeatedly  quoted  this  Epistle. 

The  same  author  also  informs  us  that  some  ascribed  it  to 
Luke  ;  and  this  hypothesis  has  been  adopted  by  Grotius  and 
by  Janssens,  on  account  of  a  supposed  resemblance  of  style 
between  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  the  writings  of 
Luke,  and  especially  on  account  of  the  greater  elegance  of 
style  and  choice  of  words  discoverable  in  this  Epistle,  than  is 
to  be  found  in  Paul's  other  letters.  But  to  this  hypothesis 
there  are  several  objections.  For,  1.  Luke  was  a  Gentile  by 
birth,  and  could  not  have  acquired  that  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  Hebrew  literature  aird  religion  which  Paul  possessed, 
who  was  instructed  by  Gamaliel  and  other  celebrated  Jewish 
teachers.  2.  If  Luke  wrote  this  Epistle,  why  did  he  not 
rather  ascribe  it  to  the  Greeks,  who  were  his  countrymen "? 
.3.  Ecclesiastical  antitjuity  is  totally  silent  concerning  this 
E  pistle  as  being  written  by  that  evangelist,  to  whom  all  the 
primitive  Christian  writers  unanimously  ascribe  the  Gospel 
which  bears  his  name,  and  also  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
4.  The  author  of  this  Epistle  addresses  the  Hebrews  (xiii. 
18,  19.)  as  persons  among  whom  he  had  preached  the  Gos- 
pel :  and  as  it  nowhere  appears  that  Luke  had  preached  to 
the  converted  Jews,  it  follows  that  he  could  not  be  the  author 
of  this  Epistle. 

Among  the  modern  writers,  C.  F.  Boehme,  in  his  Latin 

>  See  pp.  352—356.  infra. 

»  Fraiicisci  Juiiii  Piirallela  Sacra,  lib.  3.  c.  9.  in  Ep.  ad  Hebr.  torn.  i.  p. 
1.595.  edit.  GeneviB.  1(513. 

=■  iSfc  the  observations  on  this  topic  in  Vol.  I.  p.  49. 

*  De  Pudicitia,  c.  20. 

'  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  34.  See  the  passage  also  in  Lardner,  8vo. 
vol.  ii  p.  211.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  391. 

«  Ua;r.  c.  89.    Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  iv.  p.  500. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  022. 


translation  of  this  Epistle,  ascribes  it  to  Silas  or  Silvanus 
(by  whom  he  imagines  it  was  directed  to  the  church  at  An- 
tioch),"  and  the  illustrious  reformer  Luther  thought  that  this 
Ejnstle  was  written  by  Apollos,  who  is  mentioned  in  Acts 
xviii.  24.  28.  as  being  an  eloquent  man,  mighty  in  the  Scrip- 
ture, fervent  in  spirit,  and  one  that  convinced  the  Jews  out 
of  the  Scripture  itself;  all  which  characters  unquestionably 
are  found  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  But  both  these 
conjectures  are  totally  unsupported  by  historical  testimony, 
no  mention  whatever  bein^  made  of  any  Epistle  or  other 
writing  as  being  composed  either  by  Silas  or  by  Apollos. 
Some  weight  would  certainly  have  attached  to  Luther's  con- 
jecture, if  the  excellent  qualities  ascribed  to  Apollos  had 
been  peculiar  to  him,  or  if  they  had  not  all  been  found  in 
Paul  in  a  more  eminent  degree  than  in  Apollos.  But  Paul 
being  endowed  with  more  ample  gifts  and  excellencies  than 
Apoflos,  and  being  also  a  divinely  constituted  apostle,  the 
conjecture  of  Luther  necessarily  falls  to  the  grouna.8 

We  are  now  to  consider  the  evidence,  both  external  and 
internal,  for  the  opinion  which  has  generally  prevailed  in  the 
Christian  church,  viz.  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  the 
genuine  production  of  the  great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles. 

1.  External  Evidence  or  Historical  Testimony. 

[i.]  In  the  first  place,  it  is  aclmoivledged  to  be  the  production 
of  Paul  by  the  apostle  Peter  in  his  second  Epistle  (iii.  15,  16.)  ; 
from  ivhich  passage  it  is  evident, 

(1.)  That  Peter  had  read  all  Paul's  letters. 

(2.)  That  Paul  had  written  to  those  Christians  to  whom  Peter 
was  then  writing,  that  is,  to  the  believing  Jews  in  general 
(2  Pet.  i.  I.),  and  to  those  of  the  dispersion  mentioned  in  1  Pet. 
i.  1.  Now,  since  there  is  no  evidence  to  prove  that  this  Epistle 
was  lost,  it  follows  that  it  must  be  that  wliich  is  now  inscribed  to 
the  Hebrews. 

(3.)  That  Paul  wrote  to  them  concerning  the  same  topics 
which  were  the  subjects  of  Peter's  Epistle.  Thus  Peter  writes 
that  by  Christ  are  given  to  us  all  things  pertaining  to  life  and 
godliness  (2  Pet.  i.  3,  4.),  and  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of 
God,  in  tuhoin  the  Father  is  well  pleased  luitli  us,  of  whom  the 
prophets  spoke.  These  very  topics  are  copiously  discussed  in 
Heb.  i.  to  x.  19.  Again,  Peter  exhorts  them  to  faith  and  holi- 
ness (2  Pet.  i.  5 — 16.  ii.  15.)  ;  so  also  does  Paul.  (Heb.  ii.  1 — 5. 
iii.  1.  6 — 19.)  Peter  shows  the  danger  of  apostasy  (2  Pet.  ii. 
20,  21.),  and  so  does  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
(Heb.  vi.  4—9.) 

(4.)  In  the  Epistle  mentioned  by  Peter,  he  seems  to  ascribe  to 
Paul  an  eminency  of  wisdom.  It  was,  he  says,  ivritten  accord- 
ing to  the  ivisdom  given  to  him.  As  Paul  made  use  of  that  wis- 
dom which  had  been  conferred  on  him  in  writing  all  his  other 
Epistles,  so  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  exerted  the  same  wisdom, 
zeal,  and  love  in  writing  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews :  but,  in  the 
passage  now  under  consideration,  Peter  eminently  distinguishes 
that  apostle's  wisdom.  He  does  not  refer  to  Paul's  spiritual 
wisdom  in  general,  in  the  knowledge  of  the  will  of  God  and  of 
the  mysteries  of  the  Gospel ;  but  he  particularly  alludes  to  the 
especial  holy  prudence  which  Paul  has  displayed  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  whom  the  structure  of  his 
arguments  was  singularly  adapted  to  convince, .  if  unbelievers  : 
while  his  warnings  and  encouragements  were  admirably  calcu- 
lated to  animate  the  believing  Hebrews  to  constancy  and  fortitude 
in  the  faith  of  the  Gospel.  At  flie  same,  time  nothing  more 
clearly  shows  the  singular  wisdom,  which  Peter  asserts  to  be 
manifest  in  tliis  letter,  than  Paul's  condescension  to  the  capa- 
cities, prejudices,  and  affections  of  those  to  whom  he  wrote  and 
whom  he  constantly  urged  with  their  own  principles  and  con- 
cessions. 

(5.)  That  Peter  affirms  there  were  some  things  discussed  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  which  were  hard  or  difficvlt  to  be 
UTulerstood  {tiv^  Jvo-vmitci).  Now  Paul  explicitly  states  (Heb.  v. 
11.)  that  some  of  the  topics  which  he  was  to  dismiss  in  that 
Epistlp  were  Suo-ip/MViuT^,  hard  to  be  Jittered,  or  difficult  to  be 
interpreted,  and  consequently  hard  to  be  understood  ;  particularly 
the  topic  he  immediately  had  in  view,  viz.  the  typical  nature  of 
the  person  of  Mclchisedek.  Or  if  it  refer  to  the  priesthood  of 
Christ,  that  would  be  still  more  "  hard  to  be  uttered,"  because  it 
implies  not  only  his  being  constituted  a  priest  after  this  typical 
order,  but  also  his  paying  down  the  ransom  for  the  sins  of  the 
whole  world,  and  his  satisfaction  of  divine  justice  by  this  sacrifice, 
and  thus  opening  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to  all  believers.  Topics 
like  these  it  would  be  difficult  for  the  apostle  to  explain  in  a 

■>  Epistola  ad  ITebrseos,  Praefat.  pp.  xl. — xlviii.   (Lipsise,  1825.  8vo.) 
8  It  is  adopted,  however,  by  Dindorf,  in  his  Excursus  ad  J.  A.  Emesli 
Lectiones  Acadouiicas  in  Epistolam  ad  Hebraeos,  p.  1180.  8vo.  Lipsia;,  1815. 


Sect.  XVI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS. 


353 


proper  manner  to  the  Hebrews:  not  because  they  were  in  them- 
Bclves  abstruse,  but  because  the  Hel)rcws  were  dull  of  apprehen- 
sion, through  their  prejudiced  attachment  to  the  Levitical  law 
and  priesthood.' 

Tiie  precedinfT  considerations  will  show  that  the  Epistln 
to  the  Hebrews  was  the  identical  letter  which  Peter  had  in 
view.  We  have  insisted  the  more  strenuously  upon  his  tes- 
timony, because,  as  he  was  an  ins|)ired  apostle,  we  think  his 
evidence  suflicieiit  to  determine  the  controversy  respectiiifr 
this  Epistle,  and  to  demonstrate  (notwithstandinjr  the  skep- 
tical declaration  of  Michaelis  to  the  contrary)  that  it  is  a 
genuine  and  inspired  production  of  tin;  illustrious  apostle 
Paul.  There  are,  however,  many  other  testimonies  to  prove 
the  same  j)oint,  which  we  shall  now  proceed  to  stale  ;  each 
of  them  singly  outbalancin<r  the  weight  of  the  conjectures 
advanced  airainst  it,  hut  all  of  which,  taken  collectively,  fur- 
nish such  a  body  of  evidence  in  favour  of  Paul  heiiiir  the 
author  of  this  Epistle,  as  can  be  adduced  for  no  other  ancient 
anonymous  writing  whatever.  We  therefore  proceed  to  re- 
mark, 

[ii.]  Secondly,  that  the  Epistle  to  the  I/ehretvs  ;'s  found  in 
the  niost  ancient  Oriental  and  fVentcrn  Vemivns  which  are  ex- 
tant. 

It  is  found  in  the  Peschito  or  Old  Syriac  Version  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  was  executed  at  the  close  of  the  first,  or  in  the 
early  part  of  the  second  century,  and  in  the  Old  Latin  Versions 
made  during  the  former  part  of  the  second  century.  As  these 
versions  were  in  common  use  and  authority  among  the  churches 
of  the  East  and  the  West,  this  is  a  fact  of  very  great  importance  ; 
because  it  alVords  palpable  evidence  that  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  was  widely  circulated  among  Christians  a  short  time 
after  the  apostolic  age, 

[iii.]  Thirdly,  the  testimony  of  ecclesiastical  antiquity  de- 
cidixtly  ascribes  this  Epistle  to  Find, 

(1.)  Among  the  fathers  of  the  Greek  or  Easteux  CiirRcii, 
who  wrote  in  the  Greek  language,  we  find  allusions  to  it  in  the 
Epistles  of  Ignatius,  about  the  year  1 07.  The  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  seems  to  be  referred  to  by  Poiycarp  bishop  of  Smyrna, 
in  his  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  in  the  year  108,  and  in  the  re- 
lation of  his  martyrdom,  written  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  This  Epistle  is  quoted  twice  by  Justin  Martyr  in  his 
dialogue  with  Trypho  the  Jew,  a.  n.  140.  It  is  often  cited  as 
Paul's,  without  any  hesitation,  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  about 
the  year  194.  It  is  received  and  quoted  as  Paul's  by  Origen 
about  230.2  Jt  ^vas  also  received  as  the  apostle's  by  Dionysius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria,  in  247.  It  is  plainly  referred  to  by  Theo- 
gnostus  of  Alexandria  about  282.  It  aj)pears  to  have  been  received 
by  Methodius  about  292,  by  Pamphilus  about  294,  and  by 
Archelaus  bishop  of  Mesopotamia  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century,  by  the  Manicheans  in  the  fourth,  and  by  the  Paulicians 
in  the  seventh  century.  It  was  received  and  ascribed  to  Paul  by 
Alexander  bishop  of  Alexandria  in  the  year  313,  and  by  the 
'Arians  in  the  fourth  century.  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Csesarea, 
about  31.5,  says,  "  There  are  fourteen  Epistles  of  Paul  before  the 
public  and  well  known :  but  yet  there  arc  some  who  have  re- 
jected (tosc  ))3-fT>iKacr/)  that  to  the  Hebrews,  alleging  in  behalf 
of  their  opinion,  that  it  was  not  received  by  the  church  of  the 

•  To  the  preceding  argument  it  has  been  objected,  that  the  Epistle  par- 
ticularly inlcmled  by  Peter  may  be  that  written  to  the  Knuians,  in  which 
Saint  I'aul  !>peaks  to  the  Jews  by  name  (ii.  17.),  and  in  which  tltere  is  an 
e.xliortation  to  account  the  long-sufrpring  of  God  to  be  salvation,  or  that 
which  leads  to  repentance.  Hut  to  this  objection  Whilby  has  well  replied, 
(1.)  That  what  Is  written  in  the  Epi.slle  to  the  Romans  is  addrcs.scd  to  the 
unbclievinj;  Jews  only,  whereas  Peter  writes  to  the  brethren  (2  Pet.  iii. 
12.),  the  ftf/orerf  (verses  I.  14.  17.),  to  those  who  hail  receirtd  li/.e  precious 
faith,  (i.  1.)  He  thcrefi)re  could  not  mean  the  Jews,  of  whom  Paul  speaks 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Nor  (2.)  can  that  Epistle  with  propriety  be 
said  to  be  written  to  the  dispersed  Jews,  because  it  is  addressed  to  those 
at  Rome  only  (Rom.  i.  7.),  and  chiclly  to  the  Gentiles  there,  (i.  13.  xi.  13. 
XV.  15,  16.) — (3).  The  words  of  Paul  in  Rom.  ii.  are  not  an  exhorlalion  to 
count  the  long-sufTerii'ij;  of  God  salvation,  but  a  repinof  for  despising  this 
long-suffering :  whereas  in  the  Episile  to  the  Hebrews  (xii.)  he  commends 
their  patience  under  sufferings,  and  assures  them  that  it  would  obtain  sal- 
vation ;  and  that,  if  they  lived  by  failh,  their  Lord  would  come,  and  would 
not  tarry.  To  which  we  may  add,  that  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (iv. 
9.  xii.  1-1.  13.  24.)  mention  is  made  of  the  introduction  of  the  righteous  into 
the  heavenly  country,  which  is  one  of  the  topics  mentioned  in  the  second 
Epistle  of  Peter. 

*  The  words  of  Origen  (who  was  of  opinion  that  the  ideas  were  those  of 
Paul,  though  not  the  style)  are  very  remarkable.  He  says  that  "  not  with- 
out cause  did  the  ancients  transmit  this  (epistle)  as  Paul's."  (Euseb.  Eccl. 
Hi-Jt.  lib.  vlnc.  25.)  Now,  it  is  very  certain  that  the  churches  and  writers, 
•who  were  ancients  with  respect  to  Origen,  must  have  conversed  with  the 
apostles  themselves,  or  at  least  with  their  successors.  And  since  this  tra- 
dition was  ancient  in  the  times  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen,  about 
one  hundred  and  thirty  years  after  the  Epistle  was  written,  it  must  have 
had  its  rise  in  the  days  of  I'aul  himself,  and  so  cannot  reasonably  be  con- 
tested. 

Vol.  n.  2  Y 


Romans  as  a  writing  of  Paul,"^  It  is  often  quoted  by  Etisebiue 
himself  as  Paul's  and  as  sacred  Scripture.  This  Epistle  was 
received  by  Athanasius  without  any  hesitation.  In  his  enumera- 
tion of  Paul's  fourteen  Epistles,  this  i.s  placed  next  after  the  two 
to  the  Thessalonians  and  before  the  Epistles  to  Timothv,  Titus, 
and  Pliilemoii.  The  same  order  is  observed  in  the  iSvnopsis  of 
Scri]iture  ascribed  to  him.  This  Epistle  is  received  as  Paul's  by 
Adamanlius,  author  of  a  dialogue  against  the  Marcionitcs,  in  330, 
and  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  in  348  ;  by  the  council  of  Laodicea  in 
3G3,  where  Paul's  Epistles  are  enumerated  in  the  same  order  as 
in  Athanasius,  just  noticed.  This  Epistle  is  also  received  as 
Paul's  by  Epiphanius  about  368;  by  the  apostolical  con.stitutions 
about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century;  by  Basil  about  370;  by 
Gregory  Nazianzen  in  370  ;  by  Amphilochius  also.  But  he  says 
it  was  not  universally  received  as  Paul's.  It  was  received  by 
Gregory  Nys.sen  about  371;  by  Didymus  of  Alexandria  about 
the  .same  time ;  by  Ephraim  the  Syrian  in  370,  and  by  the 
churches  of  Syria:  by  Diodore  of  Tarsus  in  378;  by  Hierax,  a 
learned  Egjptian,  about  the  year  302  ;  by  Serapion,  bishop  of 
Thmuis  in  Egypt,  about  317;  by  Titus,  bi.shop  of  Boslra  in 
Arabia,  about  3(52 ;  by  Theodore,  bishop  of  Mopsuestia  in 
Cilicia,  about  the  year  394  ;  by  Chrysostom  in  the  year  398  ;  by 
Severian,  bishop  of  Gabala  in  Syria,  in  401  ;  by  Victor  of  Antioch 
about  401  ;  by  Palladius,  author  of  a  life  of  Chrysostom,  about 
408  ;  by  Isidore  of  Pelusium  about  412 :  by  Cyril,  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria, in  412  ;  by  Theodoret  in  423  ;  by  Euthcrius,  bishop  of 
Tyana  in  Cappadocia,  in  431  ;  by  Socrates,  the  ecclesiastical 
hi-storian,  about  440;  by  Euthalius  in  Egypt  about  4.58;  and, 
probably,  by  Dionysius,  falsely  called  the  Areopagite;  by  the 
author  of  the  Qiixstiones  et  Responsiones,  commonly  ascribed 
to  Justin  Martyr,  but  rather  written  in  the  fifth  century.  It  is  in 
the  Alexandrian  manuscript  written  in  the  sixth  century,  and  in 
the  Stichometry  of  Niccphorus  about  806  ;  and  is  received  za 
Paul's  by  Cosmas  of  Alexandria  about  535  ;  by  Leontius  of  Con- 
stantinople about  610;  by  John  Damascen  in  730;  by  Photius 
about  858  ;  by  QDcumenius  about  the  year  950  ;  and  by  Thco- 
phylact  in  1070. 

(2.)  Among  the  fathers  of  the  Latix  on  Westerx  Curncn, 
we  may  first  cite  Clement,  who  was  bishop  of  Rome,  though  he 
wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  in  Greek  a.  n.  96,  or,  according 
to  some  critics,  about  the  year  70.  In  this  Epistle  there  arcseveraJ 
allusions  or  references  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. '  Irenaeus,  bi- 
shop of  Lyons  about  178,  we  are  assured  by  Eusebius,  cited  some 
passages  out  of  this  Epistle  in  a  work  now  lost;  nevertheless  it 
does  not  appear  that  he  received  it  as  Saint  Paul's.  By  Tertui- 
lian,  presbyter  of  Carthage,  about  the  year  200,  this  EpLstle  is 
ascribed  to  Barnabas.  Caius,  about  212,  supposed  to  have  been 
presbyter  in  the  church  of  Rome,  reckoning  up  the  Epistles  of 
Saint  Paul,  mentioned  thirteen  only,  omitting  that  to  the  He- 
brews. Hippolitus,  who  flourished  about  220,  did  not  receive 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  as  Saint  Paul's.  This  Epistle  is  not 
quoted  by  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  about  248  and  after- 
wards, nor  does  it  appear  to  have  been  received  by  Novatus,  or 
Novatian,  presbyter  of  Rome,  about  251  ;  nevertheless,  it  was  in 
after  times  received  by  his  foUov.-ers.  It  may  be  thought  by  some 
that  this  Epistle  is  referred  to  by  Arnobius  about  306,  and  Lac- 
tantius  about  the  same  time.  It  is  plainly  quoted  by  another  Ar- 
nobius in  the  fifth  century.  It  was  received  as  Paul's  by  Hilary 
of  Poictiers  about  354 ;  and  by  Lucifer,  bishop  of  Cagliary  in 
Sardinia,  about  the  same  time,  and  by  his  followers ;  it  was  also 
received  as  Paul's  by  C.  M.  Victorinus.   Whether  it  was  received 

»  Eusebius,  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  iii.  c.  3.  It  does  not  follow  that  the  tii>?  of 
Eusebius  were  writers  ;  but  even  if  they  were,  they  did  not  appeal  lo  older 
Greek  writers,  but  only  to  the  Roman  churcli.  This  word  nvi,- — some — 
indicates  merely  an  exception  to  the  general  opinion  of  the  Greeks,  there 
being  some  who  were  inlluenccd  by  respect  or  prepossession  for  the  Ro- 
mans ;  and  this  exception  is  itself  a  proof  that  the  Greek  church  at  large 
acknowledged  this  epistle  as  a  production  of  the  apostle  Paul,  according  tc 
the  well  known  principle,  exceptiofir/nal  regulam.  The  fact,lhatthe  Arians 
were  the  first  in  the  IJreek  churches,  whom  history  charges  with  denying 
Paul  to  be  the  author  of  this  epistle,  adds  no  ordinary  desree  of  weight 
to  the  declarations  of  Eusebius ;  and  recommends  his  cliaracter  as  a  histo- 
rian, whom  no  predilection  for  a  party  could  betray  into  a  departure  from 
historical  truth.  Hue's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  p.  509.  Schmucker's  Biblical 
Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  109. 

♦  It  is  a  siiigufai  circumstance  that  no  hook  of  the  New  Testament  has 
been  so  frequently  quoted  by  Clement  as  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
Prof  Stuart  has  arranged  his  quotations  under  four  different  classes ;  viz. 
1.  Passages  in  which  the  exact  words,  or  nearly  so,  of  the  epistle,  are 
cited  ;— 2.  Passages  containing  the  same  sentiment,  with  more  or  less  con- 
traction of  the  expression,  or  an  exchange  of  the  original  word  for  a  syno- 
nymous one; — 3.  Passages  which  are  a  paraphrastic  imitation  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews ;  or  in  which  the  stvle  or  phraselogy  of  this  epistle  is  more 
or  less  exhibited  :— and  4.  Passages  similar  to  texts  in  the  Old  Testament, 
but  which  Clement  probably  quoted  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
These  different  classes  of  quotations  Prof.  Stuart  has  elucidated  with  many 
valuable  observations,  for  which  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred  lo  his 
Commentaiy,  vol.  i.  pp.  77—81.,  or  pp.  91— JOiJ.  of  the  London  edition. 


354 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  HI. 


by  Optatus  of  Milevi  in  Africa,  about  370,  is  tloubtful.  It  was 
received  as  Paul's  by  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  about  374  ;  by 
the  Priscillianists  about  378.  About  the  year  380  was  published 
a  commentary  upon  thirteen  Epistles  of  Paul  only,  ascribed  to 
Hilary,  deacon  of  Rome.  It  was  received  as  Paul's  by  Philaster, 
bishop  of  Brescia  in  Italy,  about  380  ;  but  he  takes  notice  that  it 
was  not  then  received  by  all.  His  successor  Gaudentius,  about  387, 
quotes  this  Epistle  as  Paul's  ;  it  is  also  readily  received  as  Paul's 
by  Jerome  about  392  ;  and  he  says  it  was  generally  received  by 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Christians  in  the  East,  but  not  by  all  the  La- 
tins.' It  was  received  as  Paul's  by  Ruflinus  in  397  ;  it  is  also  in  the 
catalogue  of  the  third  council  of  Carthage  in  397.  It  is  frequent- 
ly quoted  by  Augustine  as  Paul's.  In  one  place  he  says,  "  It  is 
of  doubtful  authority  with  some,  but  he  was  inclined  to  follow  the 
opinion  of  the  churches  in  the  East,  who  received  it  among  the 
canonical  Scriptures."  It  was  received  as  Paul's  by  Chromatius, 
bishop  of  Aquileia  in  Italy,  about  401  ;  by  Innocent,  bishop  of 
Rome,  about  403  ;  by  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola  in  Italy,  about 
403.  Pelagius  about  405  wrote  a  commentary  upon  thirteen 
Epistles  of  Paul,  omitting  that  to  the  Hebrews ;  nevertheless  it  was 
received  by  his  followers.  It  was  received  by  Cassian  about  424  ; 
by  Prosper  of  Aquitaine  about  434,  and  by  the  authors  of  the 
works  ascribed  to  him  ;  by  Eucherius,  bishop  of  Lyons,  in  434  ; 
by  Sedulius  about  818;  by  Leo,  bishop  of  Rome,  in  440;  by 
Salvian,  presbyter  of  Marseilles,  about  440 ;  by  Gelasius,  bishop 
of  Rome,  about  496  ;  by  Facundus,  an  African  bishop,  about  540  ; 
by  Junilius,  an  African  bishop,  about  566  ;  by  Cassiodorus  in 
556 ;  by  the  author  of  the  imperfect  work  upon  Matthew,  about 
560  ;  by  Gregory,  bishop  of  Rome,  about  590  ;  by  Isidore  of  Se- 
ville about  596  ;  and  by  Bede  about  701,  or  the  beginning  of  the 
eighth  century .2 

From  the  preceding  testimonies  it  is  evident,  that  within 
about  thirty  years  at  most  after  this  Epistle  was  written  (for 
its  date,  see  p.  356.  infra)  "  it  had  acquired  such  currency 
and  credit,  that  the  church  at  Rome,  the  metropolitan  of  the 
world,  in  a  letter  addressed  by  Clement  their  bishop  to  the 
church  at  Corinth,  made  repeated  appeals  to  it  as  a  book  of 
divine  authority,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  imply  a  knowledge 
and  acknowleogment  of  it  by  the  Corinthian  church,  similar 
to  their  own.  Further,  Justin  Martyr  has  evidently  appealed 
to  its  contents  as  sacred,  a.  d.  140;  about  which  time,  or  not 
long  after,  it  was  inserted  among  the  canonical  books  of  the 
New  Testament  by  the  churches  of  the  East  and  West:  and 
consequently  it  must  have  had,  a  period  very  little  after  the 
apostolic  age,  a  currency  and  a  credit  not  at  all  or  at  most 
very  little  inferior  to  that  of  other  acknowledged  books  of  the 
New  Testament.''^ 

2.  Internal  Evidence  that  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews   IS   THE    GENUINE    PRODUCTION    OF    SaINT    PaUL. 

[i.]  In  the  first  place,  Paul  cherished  an  ardent  zeal  and 
afftdion  towards  his  kinsmen  according  -to  the  flesh.  (Rom.  ix, 
1—4.,  &c.) 

And  can  we  think  it  likely  that  he  should  never  write  to  those 

»  The  non-recognising  of  this  epistle  as  St.  Paul's  production  "by  all  the 
J.atins,"  according  to  Jerome,  and  tlie  circumstance  of  its  being  "of 
doubtful  authority  with  some"  in  tlie  Latin  church,  according  to  Augus- 
tine, are  thus  accounted  for  by  Hug.  The  Western  church  was  kept 
actively  employed  by  the  Montanists.  In  vindication  of  their  tenet,  that 
those  guilty  of  grievous  transgressions  should'be  irrevocably  cut  off  from 
the  church,  they  rehed  especially  on  Hebrews  vi.  4,  5.  as  we  learn  from 
Tertullian  (de  Pudicitia,  c.  20.)  and  Jerome  (adv.  Jovinian,  1.  ii.  c.  3.) ;  on 
which  account  the  ministers  of  the  Latin  church  made  cautious  and 
sparing  use  of  this  epistle.  Not  long  probably  after  the  death  of  Ireneeus, 
the  presbyter  Caius  assumed  the  tone  of  clamorous  opposition  against  this 
epistle,  in  a  work  which  he  pubhshed  against  the  Montanists :  and  from 
that  time  this  opinion  was  adopted  by  the  greater  part  of  the  Latin  church. 
Even  the  Montanists  themselves  receded  from  their  original  position  on 
this  subject,  and  in  their  polemical  works  received  this  epistle  only  as  far 
as  Us  authority  was  acknowledged  by  their  opponents,  namely,  as  a  pro- 
duction of  an  apostolical  teacher,  Barnabas,  or  Clement,  <fec.  About  forty 
years  after  Caius's  attack,  arose  the  Novatians ;  who,  as  we  learn  from 
Jerome,  Augustinej  Epiphanius,  Theodoret,  and  others,  also  used  the  pas- 
sage Heb.  vi.  4,  5.  as  the  principal  defence  of  their  tenets.  While  the 
Greeks  were  calm  spectators  of  the  contest,  aiid  evaded  the  argument  from 
Heb.  vi.  by  their  interpretations,  the  Latin  churches  were  led  by  the  pres- 
sure of  circumstances  to  deny  the  aulhority  of  the  book,  whose  contents 
they  were  unable  to  refute.  But  the  Latin  churches  had  no  ecclesia,stical 
tradition,  no  authority  of  earlier  churches  to  which  they  could  appeal:  the 
whole  controversy  proceeded  on  the  ground  of  internal  evidence.  It  was 
for  this  reason  that  Jerome  and  Augustine  could  not  adopt  the  opinion  of 
tl>e  church  to  which  they  belonged;  because  they  were  convinced  of  the 
contrary  by  the  testimony  of  the  ancients  :  and  llieir  influence  tended  to 
give,  at  a  subsequent  day,  a  different  turn  to  the  opinion  of  the  Latin 
church.  Schmucker's  Biblical  Theology,  vol.  i.  pp.  115,  116.  Hug's  Intro- 
duction, vol.  ii.  pp.  516 — 525. 

^  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  391—395. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  329—331. 
In  his  notes  there  are  references  to  the  various  parts  of  the  preceding, 
volumes,  in  which  the  extracts  from  the  above  named  fathers  are  to  be 
found. 

»  Stuart's  Commentary,  vol.  i.  p.  109. 


who  were  so  exceedingly  dear  to  hirn  ?  Knowing  their  prejudices 
concerning  the  Levitical  law,  what  subject  could  he  select  more 
appropriate  for  their  instruction  and  edification,  than  the  abro- 
gation of  the  Levitical  priesthood,  and  the  surpassing  excellence 
of  Christ's  person  and  oHice,  especially  of  his  true,  spiritual,  and 
eternal  pricsthootl,  of  which  the  Levitical  priesthood  was  but  a 
shadow,  and  of  which  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
has  treated  so  largely  ? 

[ii.]  Secondly,  If  an  aiifhor^s  method  of  treating  his  subjects, 
together  with  his  manner  of  reasoning,  is  a  sure  mark  by  lohich 
he  maybe  ascertained  {^as  all  good  judges  of  composition  allow), 
we  shall  without  hesitation  pronounce  Faul  to  be  the  author  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 

(1.)  The  general  arrangement  or  method  pnrsned  in  this 
Epistle  corresponds  luith  that  of  Paul  in  his  other  Epistles. 

His  method  of  procedure  is  the  same  with  that  of  his  other  Epistles, 
which  was  also  peculiar  to  him.  He  fir.st  lays  down  (he  doctrinal  myste- 
ries of  the  Gospel,  vindicating  them  from  opposiiions  and  exceptions ;  and 
then  he  descends  to  exhortations  to  obedience,  deduced  from  them,  with 
an  enumeration  of  those  moral  duties  of  wliich  it  was  nece.ssary  to  remind 
those  Christians  to  whom  he  wrote.  In  this  respect  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews bears  the  greatest  resemblance  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  and 
especially  that  addressed  to  the  Romans.  Like  them,  the  former  half  of 
this  Episile  (ch.  i. — x.  19.)  is  principally  doctrinal,  but  with  occasional 
oxhorlations  intermixed,  which  the  strength  of  the  writer's  feelings  plainly 
appears  to  have  forced  from  him.  From  ch.  x.  20.  to  tlje  end,  the  Epistle 
is  hortatory  and  practical.  "In  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  just  before  the 
salutatory  part  begins,  the  writer  earnestly  asks  for  a  special  interest  in 
the  prayers  of  those  whom  he  ailrlressed,  in  order  that  he  may  be  delivered 
from  the  power  of  persecution  ,  and  he  follows  this  request  with  a  petition, 
that  the  God  of  Peace— i  c-jfo;  T">i5  n^tfviti — might  be  with  them,  and  con- 
cludes with  an  Amen.  (Rom.  xv.  30 — 33.)  The  very  same  order,  petition, 
f'tyle,  and  conclusion,  appear,  at  the  close  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
(X  ii.  18 — 21.)  The  writer  begs  an  interest  in  their  prayers,  that  he  may 
be  restored  to  them  the  sooner  ;  commends  them  to  the  God  of  Peace  (an 
expression  used  no  where  else  but  in  Saint  Paul's  writings  and  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews);  and  concludes  with  an  Ajnen.''*  Similar  coinci- 
dences as  to  methoil  occur  in  the  epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians 
(Professor  Stuart  adds,  to  the  Philipplans  and  Thessalonians  also) ;  which 
conclude  with  an  Amen  before  the  salutation. 

(2.)  In  this  letter,  ive  find  that  overfioiving  of  sentiment 
briefly  expressed,  which  distinguishes  Paid  from  every  other 
sacred  -writer. 

"Therein  also  are  abrupt  transitions  from  the  subject  in  hand  to  some- 
thing subordinate,  but  at  the  same  time  connected  with  it ;  which,  having 
pursued  for  a  httle  while,  the  writer  returns  to  his  subject,  "■  and  illustrates 
it  by  arguments  of  great  force,  couched  sometimes  in  a  short  expression, 
and  sometimes  in  a  single  word, — all  which  are  peculiar  to  Paul.  In  this 
Epistle,  likewise,  contrary  to  the  practice  of  other  writers,  but  in  Paul's 
manner,  we  meet  with  many  elliptical  expressions,  which  are  to  be  supplied 
either  from  the  foregoing  or  from  the  following  clauses.  In  it  also,  as  in 
Paul's  acknowledged  Epistles,  we  find  reasonings  addressed  to  the  thoughts 
of  the  reader,  and  answers  to  objections  not  proposed;  because,  being 
obvious,  the  writer  knew  they  would  naturally  occur,  and  therefore  needed 
to  be  removed.  Lastly,  after  Paul's  manner,  the  author  of  the  epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  has  subjoined  to  his  reasonings  many  exhortations  to  piety 
and  virtue  ;  all  which,  to  persons  who  are  judges  of  writing,  plainly  point 
out  the  apostle  Paul  as  the  author  of  this  Epistle. "« 

(3.)  JMany  things  in  this  Epistle  {too  numerous  and  indeed 
too  ohvioxis  to  require  any  emimeraiion)  evidently  manifest 
that  its  author  ivas  not  only  mighty  in  the  Scriptures,  but  also 
exceedingly  xvell  skilled  in  the  customs,  practices,  opinions, 
traditions,  expositions,  and  applications  of  Scripture,  then 
received  in  the  Jetvish  church. 

"  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  we  find  such  enlarged  views  of  the  divine 
dispensations  respecting  religion;  such  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the 
Jewish  Scriptures,  according  to  their  ancient  and  true  interpretation,  which 
Paul,  no  doubt,  learned  from  the  celebrated  doctors  under  whose  tuition 
he  studied  in  his  younger  years  at  Jerusalem  ;  such  a  deep  insight  also  into 
the  most  recondite  meanings  of  these  Scriptures,  aild  such  admirable  rea- 
sonings founded  thereon  for  the  confirmation  of  the  Gospel  revelation,  as-, 
witliout  disparagement  to  the  other  apostles,  seem  to  have  exceeded,  not 
their  natural  abilities  and  education  only,  but  even  that  degree  of  inspira- 
tion with  which  they  were  endowed.  None  of  them  but  Paul,  who  was 
brought  up  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel,  and  who  profited  in  the  Jewish  religion 
and  learning  above  many  of  his  fellow-students,  and  who  in  his  riper 
years,  was  intimately  acquainted  with  the  learned  men  of  his  own  nation 
(Acts  Ix.  1,  2.  14.  xxvi.  4,  5.),  and  who  was  called  to  the  apostleship  by  Christ 
himself,  when  for  that  purpose  he  appeared  to  him  from  heaven, — nay,  who 
was  caught  up  by  Christ  into  the  third  heaven, — was  equal  to  the  subjects 
treated  of  in  this  most  admirable  Epistle."' 

[iii.]  fn  the  third  place,  Not  only  does  the  general  scope  of 
this  Epistle  tend  to  the  same  point,  on  ichich  Saitjt  Paul  lays 
so  much  stress  in  his  other  Epistles,  namely,  that  we  are  justi- 
fied and  obtain  salvation  only  through  Jesus  Christ,  and  that 
the  Mosaic  institutions  cannot  effect  this  object ,-  hut  the\-e  are 

*  Stuart's  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  pp.  152, 
iri.i.  ;  or  pp.  185 — 187.  of  the  London  edition.  Schmidii  Hist,  et  Vindicatio 
Canonis,  pp.  6G5,  6')6.    Owen  on  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  Exercltation  2. 

'  Of  those  parenthesis  see  an  example  in  Heb.  i.  2 — 4.,  in  which  the 
truth  of  the  Gospel  is  argued  from  the  dignity  of  Christ's  person  ;  in  verSe 
5.  the  discourse  is  continued  from  the  first  verse.  See  other  instances  in 
Heb.  iii.  7—11.  14.  and  iv.  2,  &c. 

«  Macknight's  Preface  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  Sect.  L  §lii. 

■>  Ibid. 


Sect.  XVI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS. 


355 


various   doctiunai,   propositions  m  ihis  Epistle,  which  are 
found  in  Ike  other  uckiwwledi^ed  Kpidlcs  of  I'aul, 

Professor  Stuart  and  M.  De  Groot  liave  discussed  this  subject 
at  length,  especially  the  former :  our  limits  will  only  permit  a 
very  few  examples  to  l)c  given,  showing  the  sui>eriority  of  the 
Gospel  over  the  Mosaic  dispensation  : — 

1.  Js  to  the  superior  decree  of  Rklioious  KNOWLEno£ 
imparted  by  the  Gospel. 

"Ill  his  ackiiowli;(l:;0(l  Epistlfis,  Paul  cnlls  Judaism  t«  irrisixi'ia  tou  xo<r. 
f«ou  (Gal.  iv.  y.),  tlif  rlrmnils  or  Titdiinints  nf  tin-  irorld,  tliat  is,  ihe  ele- 
ments or  principles  of  a  relifjion  accoimiKKlated  to  llu;  iKiioraiit  and  iniliecile 
men  of  the  present  ajic  or  world ;  and  again,  i*  iio-jn^  k»i  -rtix*  o-toi-^hx 
((Jal.  iv.  y  J,  iCL'jk  anil  beggarly  elements,  U>  denote  its  inipcrfeclion.  He  re- 
liresents  it  as  adapted  to  chiUlrcii,  hittis.  (CJal.  iv.  3.),  who  are  in  a  stale  of 
nona^^c  and  i>upila){c,  or  in  the  eomlition  of  servants  rather  than  that  of 
lioirs.  (Gal.  iv.  1.)  On  the  other  hand.  Christians  attain  to  a  higher  know- 
ledfie  of  God  (Gal.  iv.  U.)  :  they  arc  no  more  as  servants,  but  become  son-s 
and  obtain  the  privileges  of  ado|)tion.  (G;il.  iv.  5,  0.)  They  are  rejjresonted 
asTi^iio.  (I  Cor.  xiv.  ao.);  as  being  furnished  with  instruction  ade<iuate 
to  make  them  ttv^lja;  Ti^i.ou;.  (Epii.  iv.  11—13.)  Christianity  leads  them 
to  see  the  jjlorious  displays  of  himself  which  God  has  made,  with  an 
unveilctl  face,  that  is,  clearly  (2  Cor.  iii.  18.);  while  Judaism  threw  a  veil 
over  these  thin!;s.  (2  Cor.  ii.  13.)  Christianity  is  engraven  on  the  hearts  of 
its  votaries,  iiaxov.»  tou  jrvi\iftxTOi  (o  Cor.  iii.  8),  while  Judaism  was 
cnjrraven  on  tablets  of  stone,  ivTiTu;T-o^ii/>,  iv  toi,-  >.i?oii.  (2  Cor.  iii.  7.)" 

Let  us  now  compare  the  preceding  sketch  of  the  apostle's  views  on  this 
point,  as  contained  in  his  acknowledged  lipistles,  with  those  which  are 
developed  in  the  Kpistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

"This  lOpisllc  coiiuiicnces  with  the  declaration,  that  God,  who  in  times 
past  spake  to  the  falhcrs  by  Ihe  projihels,  hath  in  these  last  ilays  spoken  to 
us  by  his  Son.  (Ileb.  i.  I.  ii.  1.)  Judaism  was  revealed  only  by  the  media- 
lion  of  aiigils  (ii.  2.),  while  Chrislianily  was  revealcil  by  the  Son  of  God, 
anil  abuiulanlly  confirmed  by  miraculous  gills  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  (ii.  3,  4.) 
The  ancient  covenant  was  imperfect  with  respect  to  tlie  means  which  it 
furnished  for  the  dilTusion  of  knowledge;  but  the  new  covenant  provides 
that  all  shall  know  the  Lord  from  the  least  to  ttic  greatest,  (viii.  9— U.) 
The  law  was  only  a  sketch  or  imperfect  representation  of  religious  bless- 
ings ;  while  tlie  Gospel  protTers  the  blessings  themselves,  (x.  1.)  The 
wortliic's  of  ancient  times  had  only  imperfect  views  of  spiritual  blessings, 
while  Christians  enjoy  them  in  full  measure,  (xi.  39,  40.)"i 

2.  ^s  to  the  views  which  the  Gospel  displays  concerning 
God  the  Father,  in  the  bestowment  of  the  gifts  of  the  Uoly 
Spirit. 

No  one  has  spoken  so  frequently  as  Saint  Paul  concerning  the  Holy 
Spirit,  nor  has  any  one  of  the  inspired  writers  adduced  the  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  as  an  argument  for  the  truth  of  Ihe  Gospel,  besides  Saint  Paul 
and  the  author  of  the  Epi.stle  to  the  Hebrews.  (See  1  Cor.  xiv.  22,  ikc.) 
The  apostle  e.xprcssly  uses  the  word  fnfiC",  to  dislrihute,  with  regard  to 
these  gills  in  Hoiii.  xii.  3.  and  2  Cor.  vii.  17. ;  and  in  Heb.  ii.  4.  he  say.s,  that 
tlie  mission  of  the  apostles  was  confirmed  by  God  with  divers  miracles, 
and  IInu^txTO,-  A^  i:u  .uijjiiTjUoif,  distributions  or  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
These  gifts.  Saint  I'aul  exclusively  alliniis,  are  variou.sly  imparted  accord- 
ing to  the  irill  of  God  (Rom.  xii.  3—6.  Kiih.  iv.  7.  and  especially  1  Cor.  xii. 
4.  7 — 11.  28.);  and  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  these  gifts  are  conferred 
xxTx  T»i»  xurov  iiKittTiv,  according  to  his  will. 

3.  Concerning  the  person  and  tnediatorial  office  of  the  Lonn 
Jesus  Chiijst. 

He  is  the  Creator  of  all  things  (Col.  i.  IG.  Eph.  iii.  9.  1  Cor.  viii.  6.),  and 
by  Him  all  things  subsist.  (Col.  i.  17.)  He  is  the  image  or  liketiess  of  Gad, 
nxiijv  TOU  Wiov  (2  Cor.  iv.  4.);  the  image  of  the  invisible  Ood,  iIumv  tou 
fciiou  TOU  xifxTov.  (Col.  i.  15.)  He  being  in  the  form  of  God,  iv  yfOfTX  ©fou, 
— that  is,  in  the  condition  of  God — humbled  himself,  assumed  an  inferior  or 
humble  station, — taking  the  condition  of  a  servant,  being  made  after  the 
similitude  of  men,  and  being  found  in  fashion  as  a  man,  he  exhibited  his 
humility  by  obedience,  even  to  the  death  of  the  cross,  wherefore  God 
higldy  exalted  him  lo  supreme  dignity;  and  he  must  reign  till  he  hath  put 
all  things  under  his  feet.  (Phil.  ii.  6 — 9.  1  Cor.  xv.  25—27.) 

Correspondent  to  these  representations  are  the  declarations  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  The  Son  of  God  is  affirmed  to  be  the  reflected 
splendour  of  the  glory  of  God,  that  is,  one  in  whom  the  divine  majesty  is 
conspicuous,  the  x^f^i'T,.!)  utoo-txo-sm;  tou  llarpof,  the  exact  image,  rep- 
resentation, or  counterpart  of  the  Father  (i.  3),  by  whom  God  made  all 
things  (i.  2.),  and  upholds  the  universe  by  liis  word.  Yet  he  was  in  a  state 
of  humiliation,  being  tnade  a  little  loicer  than  the  angels  (ii.  9.);  he 
assumed  flesh  and  blood,  "  in  order  that  he  might  by  his  own  death  render 
null  and  void  the  destructive  power  of  the  devil,  (ii.  14.)  On  account  of 
the  suffering  of  death  he  is  exalted  to  a  state  of  glory  and  honour,  (ii. 
9.)  He  enilured  the  sufTering  of  the  cross,  making  no  account  of  its  dis- 
grace, hut  having  a  regard  to  the  reward  set  before  him,  which  was  a  seat 
at  the  right  hand  of  God.  (xii.  2.)  All  things  are  put  under  his  feet  (ii.  8. 
X.  13.) ,  where  the  very  same  passage  from  the  Old  Testament  is  quoted, 
which  Paul  quotes  in  1  Cor.  xv.  25—28.,  and  it  is  applied  in  the  same 
manner."* 

But  chiefly  does  Saint  Paul  expatiate  in  his  acknowledged  Epistles  on 
the  death  of  Christ  as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  sin,  and  the  reconciliation 
of  sinners  lo  God  by  means  of  this  sacrifice.  He  is  there  said  to  have 
come  into  the  world  to  save  sinners  (ITiin.  i.  15.);  lo  have  died  for  us  and 
for  our  sins  (Tit.  ii.  14.  I  Cor.  xv.  3),  and  to  be  a  propitiation  for  our  sins. 
(Rom.  iii.  25.)  In  him  we  have  redemption  through  his  blood.  (Eph.  i.  7.) 
This  salvation  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  by  the  law;  it  could  only  be 
effected  by  Jesus  Christ,  who  accomplished  what  the  law  could  not  do. 
(Rom.  iii.  20—28.  viii.  3.  Gal.  ii.  16.  21.)  Finally,  Jesus  is  our  constant 
Mediator  and  Intercessor  with  God.  (I  Tim.  ii.  5.  Rom.  viii.  34.)  In  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  we  find  the  same  sentiments  urged  with  the  same 
ardour,  particularly  in  chapters  vii.— x.    To  adduce  a  few  instances  :— 

•  StUt-Brt's  Commentary,  vol.  i.  pp.  143, 144.  (174,  175.  of  the  London  edition.) 
In  pp.  144 — 148.  (175 — 17S.  of  the  London  edition)  he  admirably  illustrates 
the  superiority  of  Ihe  motives  to  piety  contained  in  the  Gospel,  as  well  as 
its  superior  efficacy  in  insuring  the  happiness  of  mankind,  and  the  perpe- 
tuity of  the  Christian  dispensation. 

«  De  Groot,  de  Epist.  ad  Hebra?os,  pp.  ?10,  3il.  Stuart's  Commentary, 
vol.  I  p.  149.  (or  p.  182.  of  the  London  edition.) 


Christ  was  offered  to  bear  the  sics  of  many.  (Heb.  ix.  2i)  He  lasted 
death  for  every  man.  (Heb.  ii.  9.)  He  put  away  sin  by  the  sacrifice  of  hhii- 
self.  (Heb.  ix.  2ti.)  The  Jewish  offerings  being  altogether  insutficient  to 
make  expiation,  Christ  has  by  his  own  blood  once  for  all  made  expiation 
for  sin.  (ix.  9—1-5.  x.  10—12.  14.  19.)  He  is  the  Mediator  of  a  new  covenant 
(ix.  15.  xii.  24.),  which  is  better  than  the  ancient  one.  (vii.  22.  viii.)  E.valled 
to  the  throne  of  the  universe  (li.  0 — lU.),  he  ajipears  in  the  presence  of  God 
for  iiH  (ix.  24.)  ;  he  ever  lives  lo  make  intercession  for  all  that  come  unto 
(iod  by  him  (vii.  25.);  and  he  is  ever  able  and  ready  to  assist  us.  (iv.  14^ 
Itj.)  Many  of  Ihc  doctrines  explained  in  this  Epistle,  particularly  those 
conccriiiiig  the  mediation  and  intercession  of  Jesus  Christ,  are  uut  aaea- 
lioned  by  any  of  the  inspired  writers,  except  Paul. 

[iv.]  Fourthly,  There  is  such  a  similarity  between  the  modes 
of  tjuutation,  and  style  of  phrancohii^y  (f  this  Epistle,  and 
those  which  occur  in  the  apostle's  acftnowledged  Epistles,  as 
clearly  shows  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  his  undoubted 
production. 

Braunius,  Carpzov,  Langius,  Schmidt,  Lardncr,  Macknight, 
Do  Groot,  and  above  all  Professor  Stuart,  have  adduced  numerous 
instances  at  considerable  length,  from  which  the  following  have 
been  abridged : — 

(1.)  JModes  of  quotation  and  interpretations  of  some  pas- 
sages of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  which  are  peculiarly  J'atiline, 
because  tliey  are  to  be  found  only  in  the  writings  of  Saint 
Paid. 

That  the  apostle  should  more  abound  with  testimonies  and  quotations 
out  of  tlie  01<1  Testament  in  this  than  his  other  epistles,  is  nolhuig  umm 
than  the  subject  of  which  he  treats,  and  Ihe  persons  to  whom  In-  winle, 
necessarily  required.  Thus,  Psal.  ii.  7.  "  Thuu  art  my  Son:  today  1  hare 
begotten  thee;"  is  quoted  and  applied  to  Jesus  (Heb.  1.  5.)  just  as  Paul,  ia 
his  discourse  to  the  Jews  in  the  synagogue  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  cited  and 
applied  the  same  passage  of  Scripture  to  him.  (Acts  xiii.  .'i3  )  In  like 
manner,  the  quotation  and  explanation  of  Psal.  viii.  4.  and  of  Psal.  ex.  1., 
given  by  Paul,  1  Cor.  xv.  25.  27.  are  found  in  Heb.  ii.  7,  8.  So  also  Ihe  e«-. 
planaticm  of  the  covenant  with  Abraham  (Heb.  vi.  14.  18.)  is  nowhere  found 
but  in  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  (iii.  8.  9.  14.  13. )» 

(2.)  Instances  of  agreement  in  the  style  and  phraseology 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  and  in  the  acknowledged  Epis- 
tles of  Paul. 

i.  Particular  Worbs,  peculiaji  to  Pacl,  or  ■which  are  most  frecii'Ent 
IN  HIS  Writings. 

Wetslein  enumerates  eleven  instances,  to  which  Schmidt  has  added 
forty-eight  others ;  De  Groot  has  considerably  enlarged  the  list,  wIhcIi  he 
refers  to  certain  classes;  as  also  does  Professor  Stuart,  who  has  giveR 
upwards  of  sixty  examples.*  Our  limits  will  allow  a  few  only  to  be  sub- 
joined. 

The  word  of  God,  in  Paul,  is  a  sword,  /ux%»ipse.  (Eph.  vi.  17.  Heb.  iv.  12.) 

C/iildren  in  religion,  thai  is,  those  who  are  comjjaratively  ignorant  and 
uninformed,  are  termed  ^htio.  in  1  Cor.  iii.  1.  Eph.  iv.  14.  Rom.  ii.  20.  Gal. 
iv.  3.  and  Heb.  v.  13. ;  and  instruction  for  such  persons  is  termed  milk,  and 
for  strong  persons  (nKimi),  or  those  who  are  well  taught,  it  is  \~fi>i^x, 
meat,  and  o-Tifsx  Tp'Ti,  or  strong  meat,  in  1  Cor.  iii.  2.  and  Heb.  v.  14. ; 
and  their  advanced  or  mature  slate  of  Christian  knowledge  is  called 

TtXilOTUf. 

M:o-iT>,,-  or  Mediator,  to  denote  Jesus  Christ,  is  exclusively  Pauline. 
(Gal.  iii.  19,  20.  1  Tim.  ii.  5.  Heb.  viii.  6.) 

'Ayix^tiv,  to  cleanse  from  sin,  that  is,  to  expiate,  to  liberate  from  the 
imputation  of  sin,  to  render  God  propitious,  occurs  in  Eph.  v.  26.  Heb.  ii. 
11.  .X.  10.  and  xiii.  12. 

^>iix.  Si  shadow,  that  is,  a  shadowing  forth,  or  adumbration,  ast  opposed 
to  the  perfect  image,  or  delineation.  (Col.  ii.  17.  Heb.  viii.  5.  x.  1.) 

'OfinKnyix,  religion,  religious  or  Christian  profession.  (2  Cor.  ix.  13. 
Heb.  iii.  1.  iv.  14.  x.  23.) 

"Oixo;  Beou,  the  house  of  God,  that  is,  the  church.  (ITim.  iii.  15.  Heb.  iiL  6.) 

KA.iipoi'o/ioj,  Lord  or  possessor.  (Heb.  i.  2.  Rom.  viii.  17.) 

KxTxf,yciv,  to  annul,  aboUsU,  or  abrogate.  (Rom.  iii.  3.  31.  vi.  6.  1  Cor. 
i.  23.  Gal.  V.  11.  Heb.  ii.  14.) 

^rrtfitx  TOU  A&fxxft,  the  Seed  of  Abraham,  or  Christians,  occurs  in  GaL 
iii.  29.  and  Heb.  ii.  6. 

ii.  Agonistic  Expressions  or  ALf,rsiONS  to  tife  Gajies  and  Exerclses 
which  were  then  in  great  repute,  and  were  fretifently  solemnized  in 
Greece  and  other  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  particclablv  at 
Jerusalem  and  Cjesarea  by  Herod.  (I  Cor.  ix.  24.  Phil.  iii.  12—14.  2Tim. 
ii.  5.  iv.  6—8.  compared  with  Heb.  vi.  18.  and  xii.  1—3,  4.  12.) 

(3.)  Coincidences  between  the  exhortations  in  this  Epistle 
and  those  in  Paul's  other  letters. 

See  Heb.  xii.  3.  compared  wilh  Gal.  vi.  9.  2Thess.  iii.  13.  and  Eph.  iii.  13.; 
Heb.  xii.  14.  with  Horn.  xii.  IS. ;  Heb.  Xiii.  1.  3,  4.  with  Eph.  v.  2—4. ;  Heb. 
xiii.  16.  with  Phil.  iv.  IS.    See  also  Rom.  xv.  26.  2  Cor.  viii.  24.  and  ix.  13. 

(4.)  Coincidences  between  the  conclusion  of  this  Epistle 
and  the  conclusions  of  Paul's  Epistles,  in  several  respects. 

Compare  Heb.  xii.  18.  with  Rom.  xv.  30.  Eph.  vi.  18,  19.  Co),  iv.  3. 
1  Tliess.  V.  25.  and  2Thess.  iii.  1.  ;  Heb.  xiii-  20,  21.  with  Rom.  xv.  30—33. 
Eph.  vi.  19—23.  1  Thess.  v.  23.  and  2Thess.  iii.  16.:  Heb.  xiii.  24.  with 
Rom.  xvi.  21— 23.  1  Cor.  xvi.  19—21.  2  Cor.  xiii.  13.  Phil.  iv.  21,  22. ;  Heb. 
xiii.  %\  with  2Thess.  iii.  IS.  Col.  iv.  13.  Eph.  vi.  24.  ITim.  vi.  21.  2  Tim. 
iv.  22.  and  Tit.  iii.  15. 

[v.]  Lastly,  There  are  several  circumstances  towards  the 

3  Macknight's  Pref.  to  Ep.  to  the  Hebrews.  Sect.  L  §iii.  De  Groot  gives 
instances  not  only  of  the  formuliE  of  quotation,  but  al.so  of  the  design  with 
v^•hich  the  apostle  introduces  his  quotations,  (pp.  2!o,  216.)  Prof  Stuart 
principally  elucidates  the  mode  of  appealing  to  rhe  Jewish  Scriptures,  and 
the  apostle's  manner  of  reasoning.  Commentary,  vol.  i.  pp.  1j3— ICO.,  or 
pp.  1R7— 195.  of  the  London  edition.  ^  ^^„    ,,_ 

4  Wetslein,  Nov.  Test.  lorn.  ii.  p.  .386.  Schmidii  Hist.  Canonis,  pp  662—664. 
De  Groot,  pp.  247—250.  Stuart,  vol.  i.  pp.  160— 16S.,  or  pp.  1%—M.  of  the 
London  edition. 


356 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI,  Chap,  IH. 


close  of  this  Epistle,  -which  evidently  prove  that  it  -was  written 
by  Paul.     Thus, 

(1.)  Heb.  xiii.  23.  The  departure  of  Timothy  is  mentioned  ;  and  we  know 
from  the  commencement  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Philippians,  Colossians,  and 
to  Philemon,  that  he  was  with  Paul  during  his  imprisonment  at  Rome. 

(2.)  Heb.  xiii.  ai.  They  of  Italy  salute  you  :  the  writer,  therefore,  was 
then  in  Italy,  whither  Paul  was  sent  a  prisoner,  and  where  he  resided  two 
years  (Acts  xxviii,  30.);  where  also  he  wrote  several  Epistles  which  are 
still  extant. 

(3.)  Heb.  X.  34.  The  apostle  makes  mention  of  his  bonds,  and  of  the 
compassion  which  the  Hebrew  Christians  showed  him  in  his  sufferings, 
and  during  his  imprisonment. 

Now  it  is  scarcely  credible,  that  any  other  person  in  Italy,  where  Paul 
then  was,  should  write  to  the  Hebrew  Christians,  and  ihereiu  make  men- 
tion of  his  own  bond.s,  and  of  Timothy  being  witli  hiui,  who  was  a  man 
unknown  to  Ihem  except  through  Paul,  and  not  once  intimate  any  thing 
concerning  bis  condition.  Besides,  the  constant  sign  and  token  of  Paul's 
Epistle.s,  which  himself  had  publicly  signified  to  be  so  (2Tlioss.  iii.  17,  18.), 
is  subjoined  to  this : — Grace  be  with  you  all.  (Heb.  xiii.  25.)  That  this  was 
originally  written  with  his  own  hand,  there  is  no  ground  to  question  ;  but 
rather  appears  to  be  so  because  it  was  written  :  for  he  affirms,  that  it  was 
his  custom  to  subjoin  that  salutation  with  his  own  hand.  Now  this  was  an 
evidence  to  the  persons  to  whom  the  original  of  the  Epistle  first  came,  but 
not  to  those  who  had  only  transcribed  copies  of  it.  The  salutation  itself 
was  their  token,  being  peculiar  to  Paul;  and  all  these  circumstances  will 
yet  receive  some  additional  force  from  the  consideration  of  the  ti7ne  when 
this  Epistle  was  written.  '(See  par.  iv.  in  the  next  column.) 

Is  it  possible  that  all  these  coincidences  (which  are  compa- 
ratively a  small  selection)  can  be  the  effect  of  mere  accident? 
The  arrangement  and  method  of  treatment,  the  topics  dis- 
cussed, and  the  peculiarity  of  sentiments,  words,  and  phrases, 
are  all  so  exclusively  Pauline,  that  no  other  person  could  have 
been  its  author,  except  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles, 
Yet,  notwithstandiBff  this  strong  chain  of  proof  for  the  authen- 
ticity of  this  Epistle,  doubts  have  still  been  entertained, 
whether  it  is  a  genuine  production  of  Saint  Paul,  These 
doubts  rest  principally  on  the  omission  of  the  writer's  name, 
and  the  superior  elegance  of  the  style  in  which  it  is  written, 

1,  It  is  indeed  certain  that  all  the  acknowledged  Epistles  of 
Paul  begin  with  a  salutation  in  his  own  name,  and  that  most  of 
them  were  directed  from  some  particular  place,  and  sent  by  some 
special  messengers;  whereas  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  ano- 
nymous, and  is  not  directed  from  any  place,  nor  is  the  name  of 
the  messenger  introduced  by  whom  it  was  sent  to  Judaea.  These 
omissions,  however,  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  conclusive 
against  the  positive  testimony  already  adduced.  And  they  are 
satisfactorily  accounted  for  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  by  Je- 
rome, who  intimate,  that  as  Jesus  Christ  himself  was  the  pecu- 
liar apostle  to  the  Hebreivs  (as  acknowledged  in  this  epistle,  iii.  1 .), 
Paul  decUned,  through  humility,  to  assume  the  title  of  an  apostle. 
To  which  Theodoret  adds,  that  Paul  being  peculiarly  the  apos- 
tle of  the  uncircumcision,  as  the  rest  were  of  the  circumcision 
(Gal.  ii.  9.  Rom.  xi.  13.),  he  scrupled  to  assume  any  public  cha- 
racter when  writing  to  the  people  of  their  charge.  He  did  not 
mention  his  name,  messenger,  or  the  particular  persons  to  whom 
it  was  sent,  because  (as  Dr.  Lardner  judiciously  remarks)  such 
a  long  letter  might  give  umbrage  to  the  ruling  powers  at  this 
crisis,  when  the  Jews  were  most  turbulent,  and  might  endanger 
himself,  the  messenger,  and  those  to  whom  it  was  directed.  But 
they  might  easily  know  the  author  by  the  style,  and  also  from 
the  messenger,  without  any. formal  notice  or  superscription.  But 
the  absence  of  the  apostle's  name  is  no  proof  that  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  was  not  written  by  Paul,  or,  that  it  is  a  treatise  or 
homily ,2  as  some  critics  have  imagined  ;  for,  in  our  canon  of  the 
New  Testament,  there  are  Epistles  universally  acknowledged  to 
be  the  production  of  an  inspired  apostle,  notwithstanding  his 
name  is  nowhere  inserted  in  them.  The  three  Epistles  of  John 
are  here  intended,  in  all  of  which,  that  apostle  has  omitted  his 
name,  for  some  reasons  not  now  known.  The  first  Epistle 
begins  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  ;  and  in 
the  other  two,  he  calls  himself  simply  the  elder  or  presbyter. 
That  Paul,  however,  did  not  mean  to  conceal  himself,  we  learn 
from  the  Epistle  itself: — "  Know  ye,"  says  he,  "  that  our  brother 
Timothy  has  been  sent  abroad,  with  whom,  if  he  come  shortly, 
J  -will  see  you"'^  (Heb.  xiii.  23.)  The  objection,  therefore,  from 
the  omission  of  the  apostle's  name,  necessarily  falls  to  the  ground. 

2.  With  regard  to  the  objection,  that  this  Epistle  is  superior  in 
point  of  style  to  Paul's  other  writings,  and  therefore  is  not  the 
production  of  that  apostle,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  "  there  does 
not  appear  to  be  such  a  superiority  in  the  style  of  this  Epistle  as 

«  Schmidii  Hist.  Canonis,  p.  665.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  402, 
403. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  p.  33.5.    Owen  on  the  Hebrews,  part  i.  exercitation  2. 

«  The  hypothesis  of  Berger,  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  ori- 
ginally an  homily,  is  examined  and  refuted  by  Prof  Stuart.  Commentary, 
vol.  i.  pp.  4 — 7.,  or  pp.  4 — 9.  of  the  London  edition. 

3  Michaelis  thinks  it  highly  improbable  that  Paul  would  visit  Jerusalem 
again,  and  expose  his  life  to  zealots  there.  But  surely.  Dr.  Hales  remarks, 
he  might  revisit  Judaea  without  incurring  that  danger.  Analysis  of  Chrono- 
logy, vol.  ii.  book  ii.  p.  1130. 


should  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  not  written  by  Paul." 
Those  who  have  thought  differently  have  mentioned  Barnabas, 
Luke,  and  Clement,  as  authors  or  translators  of  this  Epistle. 
The  opinion  of  Jerome  was,  that  "  the  sentiments  are  the  apostle's, 
but  the  language  and  composition  of  some  one  else,  who  com- 
mitted to  writing  the  apo.stle's  sense,  and,  as  it  were,  reduced 
into  commentaries  the  things  spoken  by  his  master."  Dr.  Lard- 
ner conjectures  that  Paul  dictated  the  Epistle  in  Hebrew,  and 
that  another,  who  was  a  great  master  of  the  Greek  language,  im- 
mediately wrote  down  the  apostle's  sentiments  in  hLs  own  elegant 
Greek ;  but  who  this  assistant  of  the  apostle  was,  is  altogether 
unknown.  But  surely  the  writings  of  Paul,  like  those  of  other 
authors,  may  not  all  have  the  same  precise  degree  of  merit ;  and 
if,  upon  a  careful  perusal  and  comparison,  it  should  be  thought 
that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  written  with  greater  elegance 
than  the  acknowledged  compositions  of  this  apostle,  it  should  also 
be  remembered  that  the  apparent  design  and  contents  of  this  Epis- 
tle suggest  the  idea  of  more  studied  composition,  and  yet  that 
there  is  nothing  in  it  which  amounts  to  a  marked  difference  of 
style."'  Besides  the  sublime  subject  of  this  Epistle,  the  grand 
ideas  which  the  apostle  developes  with  equal  metbod  and  warmth, 
did  not  permit  him  to  employ  the  negligent  style  of  a  familiar 
letter.  On  the  other  hand,  as  we  have  already  seen,*  there  are 
the  same  construction  of  sentences,  and  the  same  style  of  ex- 
pression, in  this  Epistle,  which  occur  in  no  part  of  the  Scriptures 
except  in  Saint  Paul's  Epistles.^ 

Upon  the  whole,  we  conclude  with  Braunius,  Langius, 
Carpzov,  Pritius,  Whitby,  Lardner,  Macknight,  Hales, 
RosenmuUer,  Bengel,  Bishop  Tomline,  Janssens,  De  Groot, 
Professor  Stuart,  and  almost  every  other  modern  commen- 
tator and  biblical  critic,  that  the  weight  of  evidence,  both 
external  and  internal,  preponderates  so  greatly  in  favour  of 
Paul,  that  we  cannot  but  consider  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
as  written  by  that  apostle ;  and  that,  instead  of  containing 
"  far-fetched  analogies  and  inaccurate  reasonings  "  (as  the 
opponents  of  our  Saviour's  divinity  and  atonement  affirm),  its 
composition  is  more  highly  wrought,  and  its  language  more 
finished,  than  any  of  Paul's  other  Epistles,  and  that  it  affords 
a  finished  model  of  didactic  writing. 

IV.  Withregard  to  the  time  when  this  Epistle  was  written, 
critics  and  commentators  are  not  agreed,  some  referring  it  to 
A.  D.  58,  but  the  greater  part  placing  it  between  a.  d.  61  and 
64.  If  (as  we  believe)  Paul  was  its  author,  the  time  when 
it  was  written  may  easily  be  determined  ;  for  the  salutations 
from  the  saints  in  Italy  (Heb.  xiii.  24.),  together  with  the 
apostle's  promise  to  see  the  Hebrews  shortly  (23.),  plainly 
intimates  that  his  imprisonment  was  then  either  terminated, 
or  on  the  point  of  being  so.  It  was  therefore  written  from 
Italy,  perhaps  from  Rome,  soon  after  the  Epistles  to  the 
Colossians,  Ephesians,  and  Philemon,  and  not  long  before 
Paul  left  Italy,  viz,  at  the  end  of  a.  d.  62,  or  early  in  G3.  It 
is  evident  from  several  passages,  as  Lardner  and  Macknight 
have  observed,  that  it  was  written  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  and  probably,  Professor  Stuart  thinks,  but  a  short 
time  before  that  event;  for  in  Heb.  viii.  4,  ix,  25,  x.  II.  and 
xiii.  10.  the  temple  is  mentioned  as  then  standing,  and  the 
Levitical  sacrifices  are  noticed  as  being  then  offered.  To 
which  we  may  add,  that  in  x.  32 — 37.  the  apostle  comforts 
the  believing  Hebrews  under  the  persecution  which  their 
unbelieving  brethren  were  carryiri^  on  against  them,  by  the 
prospect  of  Christ's  speedy  advent  to  destroy  Jerusalem  and 
the  whole  Mosaic  economy. 

V.  The  occasion  of  writing  this  Epistle  will  be  sufficiently 
apparent  from  an  attentive  review  of  its  contents.  The  Jews 
did  every  thing  in  their  power  to  withdraw  their  brethren, 
who  had  been  converted,  from  the  Christian  faith.  To  perse- 
cutions and  threats,  they  added  arguments  derived  from  the 
excellency  of  the  Jewish  religion.  They  observed,  we  may 
infer,  that  the  law  of  Moses  was  given  by  the  ministration 
of  angels  ;  that  Moses  was  far  superior  to  Jesus  of  Nazareth, 
who  suffered  an  ignominous  death ;  that  the  public  worship 
of  God,  instituted  by  their  great  legislator  and  prophet,  was 
truly  splendid  and  worthy  of  Jehovah  :  while  the  Christians, 
on  the  contrary,  had  no  established  priesthood,  no  temple,  no 
altars,  no  victims,  &c.  In  opposition  to  such  arguments^  the 
apostle  shows,  what  the  learned  doctors,  scribes,  and  elders 
at  Jerusalem  strongly  denied ;  viz,  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth, 
whom  they  had  lately  put  to  death,  was  the  Messiah,  the 

*  Bishop  Tomline's  Elements  of  Christian  Theology,  vol.  i.  pp.  455,  456. 

'  See  pp.  354,  355.  supra. 

«  The  objections  of  Bertholdt  and  others,  taken  from  the  style  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  are  examined  in  detail,  and  refuted  by  Professor- 
Stuart,  vol.  i.  p.  ISO.  et  seq. 


Sect.  XVI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS. 


357 


Son  of  God,  and  far  superior  to  the  anpfcls,  to  Moses,  to  the 
high-priest  of  tlu^  Old  Testament,  and  to  all  other  priests : 
that  from  his  sufi'ering^s  and  deatli,  which  he  endured  for  us, 
much  gri^atcr  and  more  lastinjr  benefits  have  resulted  to  the 
whole  human  race,  than  the  .lews  ever  derived  from  their 
temple  service,  and  from  the  numerous  rites  and  ordinances 
of  the  Levitical  laws,  which  were  absolutely  inefficacious  to 
procure  the  pardon  of  sin.  The  reality  of  the  sacrifice  of 
liimself,  which  ('hrist  offered  for  sin,  is  clearly  demonstrated. 
From  these  and  other  arijuments,  the  apostle  proves  that  the 
reiijrion  of  .lesus  is  much  more  excellent  and  perfect  than 
that  of  Moses,  and  exhorts  the  Christian  converts  to  con- 
stancy in  the  faith,  and  to  the  unwearied  pursuit  of  all  god- 
liness and  virtue. 

The  {Treat  object  of  tlie  apostle,  therefore,  in  this  Epistle, 
is  to  show  the  deity  of  Jesus  CMirist,  and  the  excellency  of 
his  (lospel,  when  compared  with  the  institutions  of  Moses; 
to  prevent  the  llei)rews  or  Jewish  converts  from  relapsing 
into  those  rites  and  ceremonies  which  were  now  abolished; 
and  to  point  out  their  total  insufficiency,  as  means  of  recon- 
ciliation and  atonement.  The  reasonings  are  interspersed 
with  numerous  solemn  and  afft'ctionate  warnings  and  exhor- 
tations, addressed  to  dilferent  descriptions  of  persons.  At 
length  Saint  Paul  shows  the  nature,  efficacy,  and  triumph  of 
faith,  by  which  all  the  saints  in  former  ages  had  been  ac- 
cepted oy  Ciod,  and  (>nabled  to  obey,  suffer,  and  perform  ex- 
ploits, in  defence  of  their  holy  religion  ;  from  which  he  takes 
occasion  to  exhort  them  to  steadfastness  and  perseverance  in 
the  true  faith. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  consists  of  three  parts  ;  viz. 
Part  I.  demnnist rates  the  Deity  of  Christ  by  the  explicit  Declu' 
rations  of  Scripture,  (ch.  i. — X.  18.) 
The  proposition  is,  that  Christ  is  the  true  God.  (i.  1 — 3.) 

The  proofs  of  this  are, 
Sect.  1.  His  superiority  to  angels,  by  whom  he  is  worshipped 

as  their  Creator  and  Lord.  (i.  4 — 14.) 
Inference. — Therefore  we  ought  to  give  heed  to  him.    (ii. 
1—4.) 
The  superiority  of  Christ  over  angels  asserted,  notwithstand- 
ing his  temporary  humiliation  in  our  nature  (ii.  5 — 9.)  ;  with- 
out which  he  could  not  have  accomplished  the  work  of  man's 
redemption  (ii.  10 — 15);  and  for  this  purpose  he  took  not  upon 
him  the  nature  of  angels,  but  that  of  Abraham,  (ii.  16 — 18.) 
Sect.  2.  His  superiority  to  Moses,  who  was  only  a  servant, 
whereas  Christ  is  Lord.  (iii.  1 — 6.) 
Application  of  this  argument  to  the  believing  Hebrews,  who 
are  solemnly  warned  not  to  copy  the  example  of  their  un- 
believing ancestors  who  perished  in  the  wilderness,  (iii.  7 — 
19.  iv.  1  —  13.) 
Sect.  3.  His  superiority  to  Aaron  and  all  the  other  high-priests 
demonstrated.     Christ  is  the   true  high-priest,  adumbrated 
by  Mclchizedek  and  Aaron,  (iv.  14 — 16.  v. — viii.)     In  ch. 
v.  1 — 14.  and  ch.  vi.  the  apostle  inserts  a  parenthetical  di- 
gression, in  which  he  reproves  the  Hebrew  Christians  for 
their  ignorance  of  the  Scriptures. 
Sect.  4.  The  typical  nature  of  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture, 

and  of  the  ordinances  there  observed,  (ix.  1 — 10.) 
Sect.  H.  The  sacrifice  of  Christ  is  that  true  and  only  sacrifice 
by  which  all  the  Levitical  sacrifices  arc  aboUshed.  (ii.  1 1 — 
28.  X.  1—18.) 
Part  IL   77je  .Application  of  the  preceding  .Arguments  and 


Proofs,  (x.  19 — 39. — xiii.  1 — 19.)  in  which  the  Hebrews  are 
exhorted. 

Sect.  1.  To  faith,  prayer,  and  constancy  in  the  Gospel,  (x. 
19 — 25.)  l^his  exhortation  is  enforced  by  representations 
of  the  danger  of  wilfully  renouncing  Christ,  after  having 
received  the  knowledge  of  the  truth,  and  is  interspersed  with 
warnings,  expostulations,  and  encouragements,  showing  tho 
nature,  excellency,  and  efficacy  of  faith,  illustrated  by  ex- 
amples of  the  most  eminent  saints,  from  Abel  to  the  end  of 
the  Old  Testament  disfMjnsation.  (x.  26 — 39.  xi.) 
Sect.  2.  To  patience  and  diligence  in  their  Christian  course, 
from  the  testimony  of  former  believers,  and  by  giving  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  example  of  Christ,  and  from  the 
paternal  design  and  salutary  effect  of  the  Lord's  corrections, 
(xii.  1—1.3.) 
Sect.  3.  To  peace  and  holiness,  and  to  a  jealous  watchfulness 
over  themselves  and  each  other,  enforced  by  the  case  of  Esau 
(xii.  14—17.) 
Sect.  4.  To  an  obedient  reception  of  the  Gospel,  and  a  reve- 
rential worship  of  God,  from  the  superior  excellency  of  the 
Christian  dispensation,  and  the  proportionably  greater  guilt 
and  danger  of  neglecting  it.  (xii.  18 — 29.) 
Sect.  5.  To  brotherly  love,  hospitality,  and  compassion;  to 

charity,  contentment,  and  the  love  of  God.  (xiii.  1 — 3.) 
Sect.  6.  To  recollect  the  faith  and  examples  of  their  deceased 

pastors,   (xiii.  4 — 8.) 
Sect.  7.  To  watchfulness  against  false  doctrines  in  regard  to 

the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  (xiii.  9 — 12.) 
Sect.  8.  To  willingness  to  bear  reproach  for  him,  and  thanks- 
giving to  God.  (xiii.  13 — 15.) 
Sect.  9.  To  subjection  to  their  pastors,  and  prayer  for  the 
apostle,  (xiii.  16 — 19.) 
Part  III.    The   Conclusion,  containing  a  Prayer  for  the  He- 
brews,  and  jlpostolical  Salutations,  (xiii.  20- — 25.) 
The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  Dr.  Hales  observes,  is  a  mas- 
terly supplement  to  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Gala- 
tians,  and  also  a  luminous  commentary  on  them  ;  showing 
that  all  the  legal  dispensation  was  originally  designed  to  be 
superseded  by  the  new  and  better  covenant  of  the  Christian 
dispensation,  in  a  connected  chain  of  argument,  evincing  the 
profoundest   knowledge  of  both.     The  internal  excellence 
of  this  Epistle,  as  connecting  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
New^  in  the  most  convincing  and  instructive  manner,  and  elu- 
cidatinor  both  more  fully  than  any  other  Epistle,  or  perhaps 
than  aTl  of  them,  places  its  divine  inspiration  beyond  all 
doubt.     We  here  find  the  great  doctrines,  which  are  set  forth 
in   other  parts  of  the  New  Testament,  stated,  proved,  and 
applied  to  practical  purposes,  in  the  most  impressive  manner. ' 

«  Heidegger,  Enchiridion.  Biblicura,  pp.  600—611.  Dr.  Owen's  Exerclfa- 
tions  on  the  Epislle  to  tlie  Hebrews,  pp.  1 — 44.  fol.  edit.  Lardner's  Works, 
8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  381—415. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  324 — 341.  Macknight's  Preface 
to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  iii.  pp.  321 — 3-U.  4to.  edit,  or  vol.  v.  pp.  1—27. 8vo.  edit. 
Braunii  Comment,  in  Epist.  ad  Helirsos,  pp.  1 — 36.  Carpzovii  Exercita- 
tiones  in  Epist.  ad  Hebrwos,  pp.  Ixii. — cvi.  Scliniidii  Hist,  et  Vindicatio 
Canonis,  pp.  6r>5 — 673.  Langii  Commentalio  de  Vita  et  Epi.stolis  Apo.-*l<)li 
Pauli,  pp.  153 — 160.  J.  A.  Ernesti  Lecliones  Academics!  m  Epist.  ad  Me- 
bran)3,  pp.  1 — 8.  1173—11.85.  8vo.  Lipsia;,  1815.  Michaclis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  11»2 
—269.  Ur  Hales's  Analysi.s  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  rni.  1128— 1137.  Pritii 
Inlrod.  ad  Lectionem  Nov.  Test,  pp.38 — 61.  312 — 31.8.  Kosenmidler,  Scholia 
in  Nov.  Test.  vol.  v.  pp.  142 — 148,  Moldenhawer,  Introd.  ad  I.ibros  C'anoni- 
ros  Vet.  et  Nov  Test.  pp.  332 — 340.  Alber,  Inslilutiones  Hermeneulic>e 
Nov.  Test.  lorn.  i.  pp.  244—250.  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  4.88—533. 
.Tanssens,  Hermeneutique  Sacree,  torn.  ii.  pp.  61 — 68.  Whitby's  and  Scott's 
Commentaries  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 


358 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Pabt  VI.  Chap.  IV. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ON    THE    CATHOLIC    EPISTLES. 

SECTION  I. 


ON  THE  GENUINENESS  AND  AUTHENTICITY  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  EPISTLES. 

Ori^^in  of  the  Appellation  Catholic  Epistles. — II.  Its  Antiquity. —  Observations  on  their  Authenticity. — HI.    On  the  Order 

in  -which  they  are  usually  placed. 


I.  The  Epistles  of  Paul  are  followed  in  the  canon  of  the 
New  Testament  by  seven  Epistles,  bearing  the  names  of  the 
apostles  James,  Peter,  Jude,  and  John.  For  many  centu- 
ries, these  Epistles  have  been  generally  termed  Catholic 
Epistles^ — an  appellation  for  which  several  conjectures  have 
been  assigned. 

1.  Salmeron  and  others  have  imagined  that  they  were  de- 
nominated Catholic  or  general  Epiatles,  because  they  were  de- 
signed to  be  transcribed  and  circulated  among  the  Christian 
churches,  that  they  might  be  perused  by  all ;  for  they  contain 
that  one  catholic  or  general  doctrine,  which  was  delivered  to 
the  churches  by  the  apostles  of  our  Saviour,  and  which  might 
be  read  with  advantage  by  the  universal  church  of  Christ.  In 
like  manner  thev  might  be  called  canonical,  as  containing 
canons  or  general  rules  and  precepts  which  concern  all  Chris- 
tians. Unquestionably,  the  doctrines  they  contain  are  truly 
catholic  and  excellent ;  and  they  also  contain  general  rules 
and  directions  that  concern  all  Christians,  as  well  as  precepts 
that  are  binding  upon  all,  so  far  as  their  situations  and  cir- 
cumstances are  similar.  But  these  remarks  are  equally  ap- 
plicable to  the  other  books  of  the  New  Testament,  and  Paul  s 
Epistles  may,  for  the  same  reasons,  with  equal  propriety,  be 
termed  catholic  or  canonical  Epistles  ;  for  the  doctrines  there 
delivered  are  as  catholic  and  excellent  as  those  comprised  in 
the  seven  Epistles  now  under  consideration.  They  likewise 
contain  many  general  precepts  that  are  obligatory  upon  all 
Christians ;  and  the  particular  precepts  are  binding  so  far  as 
the  circumstances  of  Christians  in  later  ages  are  similar  to 
those  referred  to  by  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 

2.  Others  are  of  opinion  that  they  received  the  appellation 
of  catholic  or  general  Epistles,  because  they  were  not  writ- 
ten to  one  person,  city,  or  church,  like  the  Epistles  of  Paul, 
but  to  the  catholic  church,  Christians  in  general,  or  to  Chris- 
tians of  several  countries,  or  at  least  to  all  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians wherever  they  were  dispersed  over  the  face  of  the  earth. 
CEcumenius,  Leontius,  Whitby,  and  others,  have  adopted 
this  opinion,  which,  however,  does  not  appear  to  be  well 
founded.  The  Epistle  of  James  was,  indeed,  written  to  the 
Christians  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel  in  their  several  dis- 
persions; but  it  was  not  inscribed  to  the  Christians  in  Judaea, 
nor  to  Gentile  Christians  in  any  country  whatever.  The  two 
Epistles  of  Peter  were  written  to  Christians  in  general,  but 
particularly  those  who  had  been  converted  from  Judaism. 
The  first  Epistle  of  John  and  the  Epistle  of  Jude  were  pro- 
bably written  to  Jewish  Christians  ;  and  the  second  and  third 
Epistles  of  John  were  unquestionably  written  to  particular 
persons. 

3.  A  third  opinion  is  that  of  Dr.  Hammond,  adopted  by 
Dr.  Macknight  and  others,  which  we  think  is  the  most  pro- 
bable. It  is  this: — The  first  Epistle  of  Peter  and  the  first 
Epistle  of  John,  having  from  the  beginning  been  received  as 
authentic,  obtained  the  name  of  catholic  or  universally  ac- 
knowledged (and  therefore  canonical)  Epistles,  in  order  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  Epistle  of  James,  the  second  of 
Peter,  the  second  and  third  of  John,  and  the  Epistle  of 
Jude,  concerning  which  doubts  were  at  first  entertained,  and 
they  were  considered  by  many  as  not  being  a  rule  of  faith. 
But  their  authenticity  being  at  length  acknowledged  by  the 
generality  of  the  churches,  they  also  obtained  the  name  of 
catholic  or  universally  received  Epistles,  and  were  esteemed 
of  equal  authority  with  the  rest.  These  Epistles  were  also 
termed  canonical  by  Cassiodorus  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century,  and  by  the  writer  •  of  the  prologue  to  these  Epistles, 
which  is  erroneously  ascribed  to  Jerome.  The  propriety  of 
this  latter  appellation  is  not  satisfactorily  ascertained.  Du 
Pin  says  that  some  Latin  writers  have  called  these  Epistles 
canonical,  either  confounding  the  name  with  catholic,  or  to 
denote  that  they  are  a  part  of  the  canon  of  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament. 


II.  The  denomination  of  Catholic  Epistles  is  of  very  con- 
siderable antiijuity,  for  Eusebius  uses  it  as  a  common  appel- 
lation in  the  fourth  century,  and  it  is  probably  earlier;  for 
John's  first  Epistle  is  repeatedly  called  a  catholic  Epistle  by 
Origen,  and  by  Dionysius  bishop  of  Alexandria.  Of  these 
Epistles,  two  only,  viz.  the  first  Epistle  of  Peter  and  the  first 
Epistle  of  John,  were  universally  received  in  the  time  of 
Eusebius  ;  though  the  rest  were  then  well  known.  Athana- 
sius,  Epiphanius,  and  later  Greek  writers,  received  seven 
Epistles  which  they  called  catholic.  The  same  appellation 
was  also  given  to  them  by  Jerome. 

Although  the  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  of  James,  the 
second  of  Peter,  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  and  the  second  and  third 
Epistle  of  John,  was  questioned  by  some  ancient  fathers,  as 
well  as  by  some  modern  writers,  yet  we  have  every  reason  to 
believe  that  they  are  the  genuine  and  authentic  productions 
of  the  inspired  writers  whose  names  they  bear.  The  claims 
to  authenticity  of  these  disputed  Epistles  are  discussed  in  the 
following  sections.  We  may,  however,  here  remark,  that 
the  primitive  Christians  were  extremely  cautious  in  admitting 
any  books  into  their  canon,  the  genuineness  and  authenticity 
of  which  they  had  any  reason  to  suspect.  They  rejected  all 
the  writino;s  forged  by  heretics  in  the  names  of  the  apostles  ; 
and,  therefore,  most  assuredly,  would  not  have  received  any, 
without  previously  subjecting  them  to  a  severe  scrutiny. 
Now,  though  these  five  Epistles  were  not  immediately 
acknowledged  as  the  writings  of  the  apostles,  this  only  shows 
that  the  pei^ons,  who  doubted,  had  not  received  complete  and 
incontestable  evidence  of  their  authenticity.  But,  as  they 
were  afterwards  universally  received,  we  have  every  reason 
to  conclude,  that,  upon  a  strict  examination,  they  were  found 
to  be  the  genuine  productions  of  the  apostles.  Indeed,  the 
ancient  Christians  had  such  good  opportunities  for  examining 
this  subject,  they  were  so  careful  to  guard  against  imposition, 
and  so  well  founded  was  their  judgment  concerning  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament,  that,  as  Ur.  Lardner  has  remarked, 
no  writing  which  they  pronounced  genuine  has  yet  been 
proved  spurious ;  nor  have  we  at  this  day  the  least  reason  to 
believe  any  book  to  be  genuine  which  they  rejected. 

III.  The  order  in  which  these  Epistles  are  placed,  varies 
in  ancient  authors ;  but  it  is  not  very  material  in  what  man- 
ner they  are  arranged.  Could  we  fix  with  certainty  the  date 
of  each  Epistle,  the  most  natural  order  would.be  according 
to  the  time  when  they  were  written.  Some  have  placed  the 
three  Epistles  of  John  first,  probably  because  he  was  the 
beloved  disciple  of  our  Lord.  Otlrers  have  given  the  priority 
to  the  two  Epistles  of  Peter,  becduse  they  considered  him  as 
the  prince  of  the  apostles.  Some  have  placed  the  Epistle 
of  James  last,  possibly  because  it  was  later  received  into  the 
canon  by  the  (Christian  church  in  general.  By  others,  this 
Epistle  has  been  placed  first,  either  because  it  was  con- 
jectured to  have  been  the  first  written  of  the  seven  Epistles, 
or  because  Saint  James  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  the  most  ancient  and  venerable,  and  the 
first  of  all  the  Christian  churches;  or  because  the  Epistle 
was  written  to  the  Christians  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel, 
who  were  the  first  believers.  In  the  following  sections  the 
usual  order  has  been  retained.' 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES. 

I.  Account  of  the  author  of  this  Epistle. — II.  Its  genuineness 
andauthejiticity. — III.  To  luhom  addressed. — IV.  Its  scope.  — 

>  Benson's  Preface  to  the  Catholic  Epistles.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  269 — 
271.  Pritii  Introd.  ad  No«.  Test.  pp.  62 — 65.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi. 
pp.  465 — 168. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  366,  367.  Rosenmiiller,  Scholia,  vol.  v.  pp. 
317,  318. 


Sect.  IL] 

V.  Synopsis    of    its    contents. — VI.   Obsei-vations    on   this 
Epistle. 

I.  Considerable  doubts  liave  existed  respectintr  tlie  autlior 
of  this  Epistle;,  Two  iipostles  of  the  numo  of  James  are 
inoiitioiif'd  ill  tiio  New  'restaincnt. 

'I'iie  first  was  tlie  son  of  Zchcdec,  a  fisherman  upon  the 
lake  of  (ialilce,  and  the  brother  of  the  evanirelist  Joiin;  and 
as  he  is  uniformly  mentioned  by  the  evangelists  before  John 
(excei)l  ill  1/uke  ix.  28.),  he  is  su|)p6sed  to  have  been  the 
elder  of  the  two.  As  he  was  |)ut  to  death  by  1  lerod  Agrippa, 
A.  D.  11  (Acts  xii.),  it  is  evident  that  he  was  not  the  author  of 
the  Epistle  which  l)ears  the  name  of  James,  because  it  con- 
tains passages  wiiicli  refer  to  a  later  jxTiod,  viz.  v.  1 — 8., 
which  intimates  the  tlien  immediately  ap])rnacliirig  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  the  subversion  of  the  Jewish  ])olity. 

Tho  other  Jam(!S  was  the  son  of  Alpheus  or  t.'leopas;  he 
is  called  the  brother  or  near  relation  ol  our  Lord  (Clal.  i.  18, 
11).),  and  is  also  generally  termed  "the  Eess,"  \y,\x\.\y  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  the  other  James,  and  |)robably,  also,  because 
he  was  lower  in  slatun\  That  he  was  an  a])ostle,  is  evident 
from  various  |)assages  in  tlu;  New  Test-uiient,  though  it  does 
not  appear  wIhmi  his  d(;signation  to  this  office  took  place. 
lie  was  honoured  by  Jesus  ('lirist  with  a  sej)arate  interview 
soon  after  his  resurrection.  (A  ('or.  xv.  7.)  lie  was  distin- 
guished as  one  of  the  aj)ostles  of  the  circumcision  (Acts  i. 
i:{.) ;  and  soon  after  the  death  of  Stephen,  a.  n.  31,  he  seems 
to  have  been  apj)oiiited  jiresideiit  or  bishop  of  the  Christian 
church  at  Jerusalem,  to  have  dwelt  in  that  city,  and  to  have 
presided  -at  the  council  of  the  apostles,  which  was  convened 
there  a.  d.  49.  On  account  of  his  distinoruished  piety  and 
sanctity,  be  was  surnamed  "  the  Just."  But,  notwithstand- 
ing the  high  opinion  that  was  generally  entertained  of  his 
cliaraeter,  his  life  was  prematurely  terminated  by  martyrdom, 
according  to  the  account  of  Ilegesippus,  an  ecclesiastical 
liistorian,  who  flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  second 
century.  Having  made  a  public  declaration  of  his  faith  in 
Christ,  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  excited  a  tumult  among 
the  Jews,  which  began  at  the  temple  :  or  at  least  they  availed 
themselves  of  a  general  disturbance,  however  it  might  have 
originated,  and  demanded  of  James  an  explicit  and  public 
declaration  of  his  sentiments  concerning  the  character  of 
Christ.  The  ajjostle,  standing  on  an  eminence  or  battlement 
of  the  temple,  whence  he  could  be  heard  by  the  assembled 
multitude,  avowed  his  faith,  and  maintained  his  opinion,  that 
Jesus  was  the  Messiah.  The  Jews  were  exasperated,  and 
precipitated  him  from  the  battlement  where  he  was  standing ; 
and  as  he  was  not  killed  by  the  fall,  they  began  to  cast  stones 
at  him.  The  holy  apostle,  kneeling  down,  prayed  to  God  to 
forgive  his  murderers,  one  of  whom  at  length  struck  him 
with  a  long  pole,  which  terminated  his  life.  According  to 
Ilegesippus,  this  event  took  place  about  the  time  of  the 
passover  a.  d.  C2.  At  this  time  the  procurator  Festus  is 
supposed  to  have  been  dead,  and  his  successor  Albinus  had 
not  arrived  ;  so  that  the  province  was  left  without  a  governor. 
Such  a  season  left  the  Jews  at  liberty  to  gratify  their  licen- 
tious and  turbulent  passions ;  and  from  their  known  character 
and  sentiments  about  this  time,  they  were  very  likely  to  em- 
brace the  opi)ortuiiity.  We  may  therefore  date  the  apostle's 
death  about  the  time  assigned  by  Hegesippus,  viz.  a.  d.  62, 
in  which  year  it  is  placed  by  most  learned  men,'  who  are 
agreed  in  d.atinor  the  Lpistle  of  James  in  the  year  Gl.^ 

II.  A  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  has  prevailed 
respecting  the  canonical  authority  of  this  Ejiistle  ;  but 
though  Michael  is  and  some  other  modern  critics'  are  un- 
decided on  this  subject,  we  apprehend  that  there  is  sufficient 
evidence  to  i)rove  that  it  was  written  in  the  apostolic  age. 
Clement  of  Home  has  alluded  to  it  twice.'     Hennas  has  not 

•  Hejresippus,  cileil  by  Kusebius,  Hist.  Ec.cl.  lili.  ii.  c.  23.  Eusebiusalso 
quolos  a  |i;is.-<aKi>  iVoiii  .losciihu.s,  that  is  no  lonu'T  extant  iu  his  works, 
ill  wliioli  ilio  .li'wisli  historian  oonsiiltM-s  the  niisr-ries  wtiich  shortly  after 
overwheUiieil  liis  counlrynioii  as  a  judgment  for  their  iimider  of  James, 
whom  he  calls  a  most  righteous  person.  The  genuineness  of  Josephus's 
testimony  lias  been  queslioneil,  so  that  no  reliance  can  be  placed  ujion  it. 
Oriuen  and  .leroiiie  cile  it  as  aulheiilic,  and  they  are  followed  by  Bishop 
I'ear.son,  who  has  defended  its  genuineness.  Dr.  Doddridge  considi  .s  the 
li-simioiiy  of  .losephus  as  unworthy  of  credit ;  and  Ur.  Benson  thinks  that 
boih  the  accouiiis  of  Josephus  and  Hegesippus  are  extremely  dubious. 

»  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  4b8— .Wi.  ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  363— 
3S^I.  Dr.  Benson's  History  of  Saint  James,  prefixed  to  his  raraphrase,  pp. 
I— 1.3.  2d  edit.    Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  273—292. 

»  It  is  well  known  that  the  venerable  Martin  Luther,  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the>lleformation,  spoke  rather  in  a  slighting  manner  of  this  Epistle, 
which  he  called  straminna  epistola,  a  strawy  epistle,  and  excluded  it  at 
first  from  the  sacred  canon  on  account  of  its  supposed  contradiction  of 
Saint  Paul  concerning  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  ;  but  more 
mature  experience  and  deeper  research  induced  him  subsequently  to 
retract  his  opinion. 

«  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  14. ;  -lie.  vol.  i.  p.  301. 


ON  THE  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES. 


359 


fewer  than  seven  allusions  to  it,'  which  Dr.  Lardner  thinks 
sufficient  to  prove  the  antiquity  of  this  Epistle.  It  is  classed 
by  Eusebius  among  the  AvT/xej^^tvai,  or  writings  conceniing 
whose  authenticity  the  ancients  were  not  unanimous,  thougu 
the  majority  was  in  favour  of  them.  This  Epistle  was  quoted 
as  genuine  by  Origen,  Jerome,  Athanasius,  and  most  of  the 
subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers :  and  it  is  found  in  all  the 
catalotrues  of  the  canonical  books  of  Scrijjture,  which  were 
published  hy  the  general  and  provincial  councils.  But  the 
most  decisive  proof  of  its  canonical  authority  is,  that  the 
Epistle  of  James  is  inserted  in  the  Sj'riac  version  of  the  New 
Testament,  ex»!cuted  at  the  close  of  the  first  or  early  in  the 
second  century,  in  which  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter,  tho 
second  and  third  of  John,  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  and  the  book 
of  Revelation  are  omitted.  This,  Dr.  Maeknight  truly 
remarks,  is  an  argument  of  great  weight;  for  certainly  tho 
Jewish  believers,  to  whom  that  Epistle  was  addressed  and 
delivered,  were  much  better  judges  of  its  authenticity  than 
the  converted  Gentiles  to  whom  it  was  not  sent,  and  who  had 
perhaps  no  o|)portunity  of  heiiig  acquaintiid  with  it  until  long 
alter  it  was  written. 

III.  Commentators  and  critics  are  by  no  means  agreed 
concerning  the  j)crsons  to  wiiom  this  Ei)istle  was  addressed. 
IJeza,  Cave,  Scott,  Fabricius,  Bishop  Tomline,  and  others, 
are  of  opinion  that  it  was  addressed  to  the  believing  Jews 
who  were  dispersed  all  over  the  world.  Grotius  and  Dr. 
Wall  think  that  it  was  written  to  all  the  people  of  Israel 
living  out  of  Judaea.  Michaelis  considers  it  certain  that 
James  wrote  to  persons  already  converted  from  Judaism  to 
(Jhristianity  ;  but  at  the  same  time  he  believes,  as  the  apostle 
was  highly  respected  by  the  Jews  in  general,  that  he  wished 
and  designed  that  it  should  also  be  read  by  the  unbelieving 
Jews,  and  that  this  design  and  intention  had  some  influence 
on  the  choice  of  his  materials.  Dr.  Benson  is  of  opinion 
that  this  Epistle  was  addressed  to  the  converted  Jews 
out  of  Palestine;  but  Whitby,  Lardner,  and  after  them 
Maeknight,  think  it  was  written  to  the  whole  Jewish  nation, 
both  wi'thin  and  without  Juda;a,  whether  believers  or  not. 
This  opinion  is  grounded  on  some  expressions  in  the  first  ten 
verses  of  the  fourth  chapter,  and  in  the  first  five  verses  of  the 
fifth  chapter,  which  they  suppose  to  be  auplicable  to  unbe- 
lievers only.  It  is  true  that  in  the  fifth  cliapter  the  apostle 
alludes  to  the  then  impending  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and 
the  miseries  which  soon  after  befell  the  unbelieving  Jews ; 
but  we  think,  with  Bishop  Tomline,  that  in  these  passages 
the  apostle  alludes  merely  to  the  great  corruptions  into  which 
the  Hebrew  Christians  had  fallen  at  that  time. 

It  does  not  appear  probable  that  James  would  write  part 
of  his  Epistle  to  believers,  and  part  to  unbelievers,  without 
any  mention  or  notice  of  that  distinction.  It  should  also  be 
remembered,  that  this  Epistle  contains  no  general  arguments 
for  the  truth  of  Christianity,  nor  any  reproof  of  those  who 
refused  to  embrace  the  Gospel ;  and,  therefore,  though  Bishop 
Tomline  admits  that  the  inscription  "  to  the  twelve  tribes  that 
are  scattered  abroad"  might  comprehend  both  unbelieving 
and  believing  Jews,  yet  he  is  of  opinion  that  it  was  intended 
for  the  believing  Jews  only,  and  that  Saint  James  did  not 
expressly  make  the  discrimination,  because  neither  he  nor 
any  other  apostle  ever  thought  of  writing  to  any  but  Christian 
converts.  "The  object  of  the  apostolical  Epistles,"  he 
further  observes,  "  was  to  confirm,  and  not  to  convert ;  to 
correct  what  was  amiss  in  those  who  did  believe,  and  not  in 
those  who  did  not  believe.  The  sense  of  the  above  inscription 
seems  to  be  limited  to  the  believing  Jews  by  what  follows 
almost  immediately, '  The  trial  of  your  faith  worketh  patience.' 
(i.  3.)  And  again,  '  My  brethren,  have  not  the  faith  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Lord  of  glory,  with  respect  of  per- 
sons.' (ii.  1.)     These  passages  cuuld  not  be  addressed  to 


this 


uniielicvers."" 

IV.  The  design  of  the   apostle  James,  in  wrilinc^ 
I-'pistle,  we  may'coUect,  from  a  consideration  of  its  contents, 
to  be  as  follows  : — 

First.,  to  prevent  the  Jewish  Christians  from  falling  into 
the  vices  Mhich  abounded  among  the  Jews ;  such  as  pride 
in  prosperity,  impatience  under  poverty,  or  any  other  afflic- 
tion ;  unworthy  thoughts  of  God,  and  more  particularly  the 
looking  upon  him  as  tlie  author  of  moral  evil ;  a  valuing 
themselves  on  their  faith,  knowledge,  or  right  opinion, 
without  a  virtuous  practice ;  a  very  criminal  partiality  for 
the  rich,  and  a  contempt  for  the  poor ;  an  affectation  of  being 
doctors  or  teachers ;  indulging  passion  and  rash  anger,  envy 
and   uncharitableness,  strife   and   contention;    abusing  the 

>  I.ardner'3  Works,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  5S— 60. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  309,  310. 

•  Bishop  Tomliue's  Elements  of  Chribtian  Theology,  p.  472. 


360 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IV. 


noble  faculty  of  speech,  and  being  guilty  of  the  vices  of  the 
tongue,  such  as  cursing  and  swearing,  slander  and  backbiting, 
and  all  rash  and  unguarded  speeches  whatever.  So,  likewise, 
he  wrote  to  caution  them  against  covetuousness  and  sensual- 
ity, distrusting  the  divine  goodness,  neglecting  prayer,  or 
praying  with  wron^  views,  and  the  want  of  a  due  sense  of 
their  constant  and  immediate  dependence  upon  God. 

Secondly,  to  set  the  Jewish  Christians  right  as  to  the  doc- 
trine oi  jmtijication  by  faith.  For  as  they  were  not  to  be 
justified  by  the  law,  but  by  the  method  proposed  in  the  Gos- 
pel, and  that  method  was  said  to  be  by  faith  without  the  works 
of  the  law ,-  they,  some  of  them,  weakly,  and  others,  perhaps, 
wilfully,  perverted  that  discovery;  and  were  for  understandings, 
by  fiiith,  a  bare  assent  to  the  truth  of  the  Gospel,  without  that 
living,  fruitful,  and  evangelical  faith,  which  "  worketh  by 
love,^'  and  is  required  of  all  that  would  be  saved. 

Thirdly,  to  intimate  unto  such  of  them  as  laboured  under 
sickness  or  any  bodily  disorders  occasioned  by  their  crimes, 
that  if  they  were  penitent,  they  might  hope  for  a  miraculous 
cure. 

Fourthly,  another  and  a  principal  reason  of  Saint  James's 
writing  this  Epistle  to  the  Jewish  Christians  at  this  time 
was,  to  prevent  their  being  impatient  under  their  present 
persecutions  or  dark  prospects ;  and  to  support  and  comfort 
them,  by  assuring  them  that  the  coming  of  the  Lord  loas  at 
hand.  It  is  evident  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  many 
of  the  Epistles,  that  most  of  the  persecutions  which  befell 
the  Christians  arose  from  the  unbelieving  Jews.  Now,  as 
their  destruction  was  approaching  swiftly,  the  evils,  which 
the  Christians  suffered  from  them,  were  as  swiftly  drawing 
to  an  end.  And  it  was  highly  proper  for  Saint  James  to  put 
them  in  mind  of  these  things ;  for  the  prospect  of  a  speedy 
deliverance  is  one  of  the  greatest  motives  to  patience  under 
any  calamity. 

"V.  Conformably  with  this  design,  the  Epistle  divides  itself 
into  three  parts,  exclusive  of  the  introduction  (i.  1.)  ;  viz. 

Part  I.  contains  Exhortaiimis, 

1.  To  joyful  patience  under  trials,   (i.  2 — 4.) 

2.  To  ask  wisdom  of  God,  in  faith,  and  with  an  unwavering 
mind.  (.5—8.) 

3.  To  humility.  (9—11.) 

4.  To  constancy  under  temptations,  in  which  part  of  the  Epis- 
tle the  apostle  shows  that  God  is  not  the  author  of  sin,  but 
the  source  and  giver  of  every  good.  (12 — 18.) 

5.  To  receive  the  word  of  God  with  meekness,  and  to  reduce 
it  to  practice.  (19 — 27.) 

Part  II.  censures  and  condemns, 

1.  Undue  respect  of  persons  in  their  religious  assemblies, 
which  is  contrary  to  the  law  of  love.  (ii.  1 — 9.)  It  is  then 
shown  that  the  wilful  transgression  of  one  commandment 
violates  the  whole  law  of  God.   (10 — 12.) 

2.  Their  mistaken  notions  of  justification  by  faith  without 
works ;  these  mistakes  are  corrected  and  illustrated  by  the 
examples  of  Abraham  and  Rahab.   (ii.  13 — 26.) 

3.  The  affectation  of  being  doctors  or  teachers  of  their  religion  ; 
for  as  all  are  offenders,  more  or  less,  so  vices  in  such  a  sta- 
tion would  be  the  more  aggravated,  (iii.  1,  2.)  Hence  the 
apostle  takes  occasion  to  show  the  fatal  effects  of  an 
unbridled  tongue,  together  with  the  difficulty  and  duty  of 
governing  it  (3 — 12.)  ;  and  contrasts  in  a  most  beautiful 
manner  the  nature  and  effects  of  earthly  and  heavenly  wis- 
dom. (13—18.) 

4.  Those  who  indulge  their  lusts  and  passions,   (iv.  1 — 5.) 

5.  The  proud,  who  are  exhorted  to  repentance  and  submission 
to  God.   (6— 10.) 

6.  Censoriousness  and  detraction ;  annexed  are  exhortations 
to  immediate  and  constant  dependence  upon  God,  enforced 
by  considerations  of  the  shortness  and  uncertainty  of  the 
present  life.   (11 — 17.) 

7.  Those  who  placed  undue  reliancenipon  their  riches,  (v.  1 — 6.) 

Part  III.  contains  Exhortations  and  Cautions ,-  viz. 

1.  An  exhortation  to  patience  and  meekness  under  trials,  in 
the  hope  of  a  speedy  deliverance,  (v.  7 — 1 1.) 

2.  A  caution  against  swearing,  and  an  admonition  to  prayer 
and  praise.   (12,13.) 

3.  Concerning  visiting  the  sick,  and  the  efficacy  of  prayer. 
(14—18.) 

4.  An  encouragement  to  attempt  the  conversion  of  sinners,  and 
tlie  recovery  of  their  offending  brethren.  (19,  20.) 


VI.  This  Epistle  of  James  is  one  of  the  most  pathetic  and 
instructive  in  the  New  Testament.  Its  style  possesses  all 
that  beautiful  and  elegant  simplicity  which  so  eminently 
characterizes  the  sacred  writers.  Having  been  written  with 
the  design  of  refuting  particular  errors  which  had  been 
introduced  among  the  Jewish  Christians,  it  is  not  so  replete 
with  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  Christianity  as  the  Epistles 
of  Paul,  or  indeed  as  the  other  apostolical  Epistles;  but  it 
contains  an  admirable  summary  of  those  practical  duties 
which  are  incumbent  on  all  believers,  and  which  it  enforces 
in  a  manner  equally  elegant  and  affectionate. • 


SECTION  III. 

ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  PETER. 

I.  Account  of  the  apostle  Peter. — ^11.    Genuineness    and  ca- 
nonical authority  of  this  Epistle. — III.  To  ivhom  ivritten. 

IV.  Of  the  place  -whence  it  ivas  sent. — Date. — V.  Its  design 
and  contents. — VI.  Observations  on  the  style  of  Saint  Peter's 
two  Epistles. 

I.  Simon,  surnamed  Cephas  or  Peter,  which  appellation 
signifies  a  stone  or  rock,  was  the  son  of  Jonas  or  Jonah,  and 
was  born  at  Belhsaida,  on  the  coast  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 
He  had  a  brother,  called  Andrew,  and  they  jointly  pursued 
the  occupation  of  fishermen  on  that  lake.  These  two  brothers 
were  hearers  of  John  the  Baptist;  from  whose  express 
testimony,  and  their  own  personal  conversation  with  Jesus 
Christ,  they  were  fully  convinced  that  he  was  the  Messiah 
(John  i.  35 — 42.)  ;  and  from  this  time  it  is  probable  that  they 
had  frequent  intercourse  with  our  Saviour,  and  were  witnesses 
of  some  of  the  miracles  wrought  by  him,  particularly  that 
performed  at  Cana  in  Galilee.  (John  ii.  1,2.)  Both  Peter 
and  Andrew  seem  to  have  followed  their  trade,  until  Jesus 
Christ  called  them  to  "  follow  him,"  and  promised  to  make 
them  both  "fishers  of  men."  (Matt.  iv.  18,  19.  Mark  i.  17. 
Lukev.  10.)  From  this  time  they  became  his  companions, 
and  when  he  completed  the  number  of  his  apostles,  they 
were  included  among  them.  Peter,  in  particular,  was 
honoured  with  his  master's  intimacy,  together  with  James 
and  John.  With  them  Peter  was  present,  when  our  Lord 
restored  the  daughter  of  Jairus  to  life  (Mark  v.  37.  Luke  viii. 
51.)  ;  when  he  was  transfigured  on  the  mount  (Matt.  xvii.  1. 
Mark  ix.  2.  Luke  ix.  28.),  and  during  his  agony  in  the  garden 
(Matt.  xxvi.  36 — 56.  Mark  xiv.  32 — 42.);  and  on  various 
other  occasions  Peter  received  peculiar  marks  of  his  Master's 
confidence.  At  the  time  when  Peter  was  called  to  the  apos- 
tleship,  he  was  married  and  seems  to  have  removed,  in  con- 
sequence, from  Bethsaida  to  Capernaum,  where  his  wife's 
family  resided.  It  appears  also  that  when  our  Lord  left 
Nazareth,  and  came  ana  dwelt  at  Capernaum  (Matt.  iv.  13.), 
he  took  up  his  occasional  residence  at  Peter's  house,  whither 
the  people  resorted  to  him.^ 

In  the  evangelical  history  of  this  apostle,  the  distinguish- 
ing features  in  his  character  are  very  signally  poitrayed ;  and 
it  in  no  small  dejrree  enhances  the  credibility  of  the  sacred 
historians,  that  they  have  blended  without  disguise  several 
traits  of  his  precipitance  and  presumption,  with  the  honour- 
able testimony  which  the  narration  of  facts  affords  to  the 
sincerity  of  his  attachment  to  Christ,  and  the  fervour  of  his 
zeal  in  the  cause  of  his  blessed  Master.  His  ardour  and 
forwardness  are  apparent  on  many  occasions.  He  is  the  first 
to  reply  to  all  questions  proposed  by  our  Lord  to  the  whole 
collective  body  of  disciples,  of  which  we  have  a  memorable 
instance  in  Matt.  xvi.  13 — 16.  He  hesitates  not  to  rebuke 
our  Lord  himself,  when  he  first  announced  his  future  suffer- 
ings. The  ardour  of  his  spirit  is  strikingly  evinced  in  his 
venturing  to  walk  on  the  sea  to  meet  his  Master  (Matt.  xiv. 
28 — 31.');  and  still  more  decisively  in  his  conduct  towards 
the  high-priest's  servant,  whom  he  smote  with  his  sword, 
and  wnose  right  ear  he  cut  oft',  when  the  Jewish  officers  were 
about  to  apprehend  our  Lord.^  His  presumption  and  self- 
confidence  sufficiently  appear  in  his  solemn  asseverations 
that  he  would  never  abandon  his  Master  (Matt.  xxvi.  33.)  ; 

»  Bonson's  Preface  to  Saint  James,  pp.  14 — 20.  Macknight's  Preface, 
sect.  2 — 1.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  292—314.  Pritii,  Introd.  ad  Nov.  Test.  pp. 
67—70.  Harwood's  Introd.  to  the  NewrTest.  vol.  i.  pp.  216—220.  Heidegger, 
Encliirid.  IJibl.  pp.  612 — 617.  Janssens,  Hermeneutique  .Sacr6e,  toui.  ii. 
pp.  68 — 72.     See  also  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  519 — 584. 

3  Luke  iv.  40.     Matt.  vifi.  16.  xvii.  24—27.    Mark  i.  32.  34. 

3  Matt.  xxvi.  51—54.  Mark  xiv.  46,  47.  Luke  xxii.  50,  51.  John  xviii.  10, 11 


Seot.  III.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  PETER. 


361 


and  his  weakness,  in  his  subsenuent  denial  of  Christ:  for, 
though  Peter  followed  him  afar  off  to  the  hijjh-iiriest's 
palace,  when  all  the  other  disciples  forsook  him  and  fled,  yet 
he  thrice  disowned  him,  each  time  under  circumstances  of 
pec\iliar  a<rj£ravation.'  It  dova  not  appear  ihat  Peter  followed 
Christ  any  further;  probably  remorse  and  shame  prevented 
him  from  attendinjr  tiie  crucifixion,  as  we  find  Saint  John  did. 
On  the  day  of  Christ's  resurrection,  after  appearinir  to  Mary 
Mapdalen  and  some  other  women,  the  next  pcsrson  to  whom 
he  showed  himself  was  Peter.  (3n  anotlier  occasion  (John 
xxi.)  our  Lord  afforded  him  an  opportunity  of  tlirice  profess- 
ing his  love  for  him,  and  chartred  him  to  feed  the  nock  of 
Christ  with  fidelity  and  tenderness. 

After  our  Saviour's  ascension,  Peter  took  an  active  part  in 
the  affairs  of  the  infant  church.  It  was  he  who  proposed 
the  election  of  a  successor  to  the  traitor  Judas  (Acts  i.  1.0 — 
26.),  and  on  the  ensuing  day  of  Pentecost  he  preached  (Christ 
so  effectually,  that  three  tiiousand  souls  were  added  to  the 
church.  (Acts  ii.  II — 11.)  We  next  find  him,  in  company 
with  Joiin,  healing  a  lame  man  at  the  gate  of  the  temple, 
which  was  followed  by  an  address  to  the  people,  many  of 
whom  were  convinced  and  embraced  the  (iospel.  (Acts  iii.) 
He  was  next  imprisoned,  brought  before  the  saidiedrin, 
threatened  and  dismissed,  (iv.)  After  the  death  of  Ananias 
and  Sapphira,  whose  fraud  Peter  detected  and  reprehended 
(v.),  Peter  and  John  preached  successively  at  Samaria  (viii.), 
ana  performed  various  miracles,  (ix.  x^  During  his  apos- 
tolical travels  in  Judaea,  Samaria,  and  Galilee,  he  converted 
Cornelius  the  Roman  centurion,  the  first  Gentile  convert  who 
was  admitted  into  the  church  without  circumcision,  or  any 
injunction  to  comply  with  the  Mosaic  observances  (x.)  ;  ana, 
on  his  return  to  Jerusalem,  he  satisfied  the  Jewish  Christians 
that  God  had  granted  repentance  unto  life  to  the  Gentiles  as 
well  as  to  the  Jews.  (xi.  18.)  Soon  after  this,  being  appre- 
hended by  Herod  Agnppa,  a.  d.  44,  who  designed  to  put  him 
to  death,  Peterwasmiraculously  delivered  by  an  angel,  (xii.) 
In  the  apostolic  council  held  at  Jerusalem,  a.  d.  49,  Peter 
took  an  active  part,  declaring  his  opinion  most  explicitly, 
that  the  yoke  of  the  ceremonial  law  ought  not  to  be  imposed 
on  the  Gentiles  (Acts  xv.  7 — 11.)  From  this  time  Peter 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  nor  have  we 
any  certain  information  respecting  his  subsequent  labours. 


Asia  Minor,  and  Bithynia  (1  Pet.  i.  1,  2.),  he  is  supposed  to 
have  preached  in  those  countries.  At  length  he  arrived  at 
Rome,  in  the  course  of  the  year  63,2  subsequently  to  Paul's 
departure  from  that  city,  durini^  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Nero  ;  and,  after  preaching  the  Gospel  for  some  time,  he  was 
crucified  there  with  his  head  downwards.  Clement  of 
Alexandria  adds,  from  an  ancient  tradition  cuiTent  in  his 
time,  that  Peter's  wife  suffered  martyrdom  a  short  time  before 
liim.5 

II.  The  genuineness  and  canonical  authority  of  the  first 
Epistle  of  Peter  have  never  been  disputed.  It  appears  to  be 
twice  referred  to  by  Clement  of  Rome  ;^  it  is  twelve  times 
distinctly  quoted  by  Polycarp,^  and  is  once  cited  in  the  Epistle 
of  the  churches  of  Vienna  and  Lyons."  It  was  received  by 
Theophilus  bishop  of  Antioch,  and  quoted  by  Papias,  Ire- 
nffius,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  TertuJlian;  and  Eusebius 
informs  us  that  it  was  universally  acknowledged  to  be  the 
production  of  Saint  Peter  in  the  fourth  century,'  since  which 
time  its  authenticity  has  never  been  questioned. 

III.  Concerning  the  persons  to  whom  this  Epistle  was 
sent,  different  opinions  have  prevailed  ;  Beza,  Grotius,  Cave, 
Mill,  Tillemont,  Dr.  Hales,  Rosenmnller,  Hug,  and  others, 
suppose  that  it  was  addressed  to  the  Jewish  Christians  who 

>  Matt.  xxvi.  69 — 75.  Mark  xiv.  GO — 73.  Luke  xxii.  51— C2.  John  xviii. 
15—11^.  26,  27. 

»  We  have  seen  (p.  325.  supra)  that  Saint  PanI  r|iiittcfl  Rome  in  Itic  early 
part  of  A.  D.  63,  at  which  time  it  is  evident  that  S;iint  Peter  hail  not  arrived 
tliere;  for  if  these  two  eminent  servants  of  C'lnist  had  met  in  that  city, 
Peter  would  have  been  mentioned  by  Saint  Paul  in  some  of  the  Epistles, 
which  he  wrote  thence,  towards  the  close  of  his  imprisonment. 

»  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  509— 5C1. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  3SS — 41.1. 
Scaliger,  Salmasius,  Frederick  Spanheim,  and  others,  have  denied  tlial 
Saint  Peter  was  ever  at  Rome ;  but  the  contrary  opinion  has  been  advo- 
cated by  Cave,  Bishop  Pearson,  Le  Clerc,  Basnage,  and  particularly  by 
Dr.  Lardner,  who  has  clearly  shown  that  Peter  never  was  bishop  of  Rome. 
The  prete;(ided  primacy  of  I*eter,  on  which  the  Romanists  insist  so  much, 
has  been  unanswerably  refuted  by  Dr.  Harrow  in  his  Treatise  on  the 
Pope's  Supremacy,  forming  vol.  i.  of  the  folio  edition  of  his  works. 

♦  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  il.  p.  44. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  3D2. 

•  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  9S,  99.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  331,  332. 
«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  152. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  362. 

'  Ibid.  8vo  vol.  vi.  pp.  562,  563. ;  4lo.  vol.  iii.  p.  415. 

Vol.  II.  2  Z 


'I'iiat  tli(!  persons  heie  addres.sed  were  l)clievinir 
not  l)elieving  G(;nliles,  w 


were  scattered  through  the  countries  mentioned  in  the 
inscription ;  while  Lord  Ijarrington  and  Dr.  Benson  think 
that  it  was  written  to  proselytes  of  the  gate ;  and  Michaelis 
is  of  opinion,  that  it  was  directed  to  the  Jews,  that  is,  to 
those  native  heathens  in  Pontus,  &c,  who  were  first  proselytes 
to  Jiiilaism,  and  then  were  converted  to  Clirisliaiiity.  But 
FiStius,  Whitby,  Pott,  Lardner,  Macknight,  and  Bishop 
Tomline,  think  that  it  was  written  to  Christians  in  general, 
whether  Jews  or  Gentiles,  residing  in  the  countries  above 
noticed. 

In  this  diversity  of  opinion,  the  only  rule  of  deterinination 
must  be  the  inscription,  together  with  such  other  circum- 
stances as  may  be  collected  from  the  apostolical  history  or 
tiie  Fpistle  itself.  The  inscription  runs  thus:  Feler,  aa 
(ipoxlle  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  the  strauirers  scattered  t/iroui^/totU 
I'lintus,  Ga/atia,  L'a/)pa(l4ic!a, .f/sia, and  /iit/ti/nia.  (1  Pet.  i.  l.) 

Jews,  anu^ 
we  apprehend  will  appear  from  the 
following  considerations : — 

1.  We  learn  from  Acts  ii.  .5.  9.  that  there  were  at  the  fca.st  of 
Pentecost,  waiting  at  Jerusalem,  Jews,  devout  men,  out  nf  every 
nation  under  lieaven,  divellera  in  Judxu,  Cappudociu,  in  l*on- 
tua  and  Jlnia.  Whence  it  is  evident  that  there  were  Jews  dis- 
persed in  those  countries. 

2.  Peter,  by  agreement  among  the  apostles,  had  the  ministry 
nf  the  circumcision  peculiarly  committed  to  him.  (Gal.  ii.  8.)  It 
is,  therefore,  more  probable  that  he  wrote  to  Jews  than  to  Gen- 
tiles. 

3.  The  persons  to  whom  the  apostle  writes  arc  termed  Stran- 
gers, scattered,  naf,f7rk5>i/utci ;  which  word  properly  denotes  strangers 
from  another  country.  Such  were  the  Jews,  who,  through  per- 
secution in  Judoca,  fled  into  foreign  countries  ;  whereas  believing 
Gentiles  were  rather  called  Pro.sclytes.   (Acts  ii.  10.) 

4.  They  are  said  to  be  redeemed  from  their  vain  conversation 
received  by  tradition  frorn  their  fathers  (1  Pet.  i.  18.)  :  in  which 
description  the  apostle  plainly  refers  to  the  traditions  of  the  Jew- 
ish rabbins  and  elders. 

5.  The  persons  to  whom  Peter  writes  are  styled  Jl  chosen 
generation,  a  royal  priesthood,  a  holy  nation,  a  peculiar  people 
(1  Pet.  ii.  9.),  which  are  the  prai-ses  of  the  Jewish  people  (Exod. 
xix.  6.),  and  are  in  no  respect  applicable  to  the  Gentiles. 

On  these  grounds  we  conclude  that  this  E])istle  was 
addressed  to  those  dispersed  Hebrew  Christians,  afllicted  in 
their  dispersion,  to  whom  the  apostles  James  and  Paul  had 
respectively  addressed  their  Epistles. 

IV.  It  appears  from  1  Pet.  v.  12,  13.  that  this  Epistle  was 
written  from  Baliylon,  and  sent  to  the  Jews  by  "  Silvnmis,  a 
faithful  brother;"  but  whether  Babylon  is  to  be  understood 
here,  literally  or  mystically,  as  the  city  of  the  same  name  in 
Mesopotamia  or  Egypt,  or  rather  Rome,  or  Jerusalein,  has 
been  long  and  warmly  contested  by  the  learned.  Bishop 
Pearson,  Mill,  and  Le  Clerc,  are  of  opinion,  that  the  apostle 
speaks  of  Babylon  in  Egypt.  Erasmus,  Drusius,  Beza,  Dr. 
Lightfoot,  Basnage,  Beausobre,  Dr.  Cave,  Wetstein,  Drs. 
Benson  and  A.  Clarke,  think  that  Peter  intended  Babylon  in 
Assyria;  Michaelis,  that  it  was  Babylon  in  Mesopotamia,  or 
rather  Seleucia  on  the  Tioris.  Ami  Grotius,  Drs.  Whitby, 
Lardner,  Macknight,  and  Hales,  Bishop  Tomline  and  all  the 
learyed  of  the  Romish  communion,  are  of  opinion  that  by 
Bal)ylon  Peter  meant,  figuratively,  Jioine,  whicli  city  is  called 
Babylon  by  the  apostle  John.  (Rev.  xvii.  xviii.) 

From  a  careful  examination  of  the  evidence  adduced  for 
the  literal  meaning  of  the  word  Babylon,  and  of  the  evidence 
for  its  figurative  or  mystical  application  to  Rome,  we  think 
that  the  latter  was  intended,  and  for  the  following  reasons  : — 

1.  This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  the  general  testimony  of  anti- 
quity, which.  Dr.  Lardner  remarks,  is  of  no  small  weight. 
Eu.sebiuss  relates,  on  the  authority  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
Papias  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  that  .Mark's  Gosi)el  was  written  at 
the  request  of  Pcler'.s  hearers  in  Rome  ;  and  that  "  Peter  makes 
mention  of  Mark  in  his  first  Epistle,  which  was  written  at  Rome 
itself.  And  that  he  (Peter)  signifies  this,  calling  that  city  figura- 
tively Babylon,  in  these  words.  The  church  ~^vhich  is  at  liahylon, 
elected  jointly  with  you,  snluteth  you.  .Ind  so  doth  Sifurk  my 
son."  This  passage  of  Eusebius  is  transcribed  by  Jerome,'-'  who 
adds  positively,  that  "Peter  mentions  this  Mark  in  his  first 
Epistle,  figuratively  denoting  Rome  by  the  name  of  Babylon ; 
the  church  which  is  at  Babylon,'"  &c.  CEcumenius,  Bede,  and 
other  fathers,  also  understand  Rome  by  Babylon.  It  is  generally 
thought  that  Peter  and  John  gave  to  Rome  the  name  of  Babylon, 


'  Hist.  Ecel.  lib.  ii.  c.  15. 


3  Do  Vlris  must.  c.  8. 


I 


362 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chip.  IV, 


figuratively  to  signify  that  it  would  resemljle  Babylon  in  its  idol- 
atry, and  in  its  opposition  to  and  persecution  of  the  church  of 
God;  and  that,  like  Babylon,  it  will  be  utterly  destroyed.  But 
these  things  the  inspired  writers  did  not  think  fit  to  say  plainly 
concerning  Rome,  for  a  reason  which  every  reader  may  under- 
stand. 

2.  From  the  total  silence  of  ecclesiastical  history,  it  is  not  pro- 
bable that  Peter  ever  visited  Babylon  in  Chaldaea ;  and  Babylon 
in  Egypt  was  too  small  and  insignificant  to  be  the  subject  of  con- 
sideration. 

3.  Silvanus  or  Silas,  the  bearer,  was  the  fuilhful  brother,  or 
associate  of  Paul  in  most  of  the  churches  which  he  had  planted. 
And  though  he  was  not  at  Rome  with  the  apostle  when  he  wrote 
nis  last  Epistle  to  Timothy,  he  might  naturally  have  come  thither 
soon  after ;  and  have  been  sent  by  Paul  and  Peter  jointly,  to  con- 
firm the  churches  in  Asia  Minor,  &c.  which  he  had  assisted  in 
planting.  But  Silvanus,  Paul,  and  Peter  had  no  connection 
with  Babylon,  which  lay  beyond  their  district ;  and,  therefore,  they 
were  not  likely  at  any  time  to  build  upon  another's  foundation. 
The  Gospel  was  preached  in  Persia  or  Parthia,  by  the  apostle 
Thaddeus,  or  Jude,  according  to  Cosmas ;  and  Abulfaragi  reck- 
ons, that  the  ancient  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament  was 
made  in  his  time,  and  probably  by  his  authority,  for  the  use  of 
the  Oriental  churches.' 

4.  The  Jews,  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  written,  were  fond  of 
mystical  appollations,  especially  in  their  captivities:  Edom  was  a 
frequent  title  for  their  Heathen  oppressors  ;  and,  as  Babylon  was 
the  principal  scene  of  their  first  captivity,  it  was  highly  probable 
that  Rome,  the  principal  scene  of  their  second,  and  which  so 
strongly  resembled  the  former  in  her  "  abominations,  her  idola- 
tries, and  persecutions  of  the  saints,"  should  be  denominated  by 
the  same  title.  And  this  argument  is  corroborated  by  the  similar 
usage  of  the  Apocalypse,  where  the  mystical  application  is  un- 
questionable. (Rev.  xiv.  8.  xvi.  19.  xviii.  2.,  &c.)  It  is  highly 
probable,  indeed,  that  John  borrowed  it  from  Peter ;  or  rather  that 
both  derived  it,  by  inspiration,  from  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah, 
(xxi,  9.) 

5.  The  second  Epistle  is  generally  agreed  to  have  been  writ- 
en  shortly  before  Peter's  death  ;  but  a  journey  from  Babylon  to 

Rome  (where  he  unquestionably  suffered)  must  have  employed 
a  long  time,  even  by  the  shortest  route  that  could  be  taken.  And 
Peter  must  have  passed  through  Pontus,  &c.  in  his  way  to  Rome, 
and  therefore  it  would  have  been  unnecessary  for  him  to  write. 
Writing  from  Rome,  indeed,  the  case  was  diiferent,  as  he  never 
expected  to  see  them  more. 

As  Peter  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome,  a.  d.  64  or  65,  and 
we  have  no  evidence  that  he  arrived  there  before  the  year  63, 
we  are  warranted  in  dating  this  Epistle  in  a.  d.  64. 

V.  It  appears  from  the  Epistle  itself  that  it  was  written 
during  a  period  of  general  calamity,  when  the  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians were  exposed  to  severe  persecutions.  The  design  of 
this  Epistle,  therefore,  is  partly  to  support  them  under  their 
afflictions  and  trials,  and  also  to  instruct  them  how  to  behave 
under  persecution.  It  likewise  appears  from  the  history  of 
that  time,  that  the  Jews  were  uneasy  under  the  Roman  yoke, 
and  that  the  destruction  of  their  polity  was  approaching.  On 
this  account  the  Christians  are  exhorted  to  honour  tlie  em- 
peror (Nero),  and  the  presidents  whom  he  sent  into  the  pro- 
vinces, and  to  avoid  all  grounds  of  being  suspected  of  sedition 
or  other  crimes  that  would  violate  the  peace  and  welfare  of 
society. — And,  finally,  as  their  character  and  conduct  were 
liable  to  be  aspersed  and  misrepresented  by  their  enemies, 
they  are  exhorted  to  lead  a  holy  life,  that  they  might  stop  the 
mouths  of  their  enemies,  put  their  calumniators  to  shame, 
and  win  others  over  to  their  religion,  by  their  holy  and  Chris- 
tian conversation. 

The  Epistle  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  four  sec- 
tions, exclusive  of  the  introduction  and  conclusion. 
Tlie  Introduction,  (i.  1,  2.) 

Sect.  1.  contains  an  exhortation  of  the  Jewish  Christians  to 
persevere  steadfastly  in  the  faith  with  all  patience  and  cheer- 
fulness, and  to  maintain  a  holy  conversation,  notwithstand- 
ing all  their  sufferings  and  persecutions.  This  is  enforced 
by  the  consideration  of  the  peculiar  blessings  and  privileges 
which  were  freely  bestowed  upon  them.  (i.  .3 — 25.  ii.  1 — 10.) 

Sect.  2.  comprises  an  exhortation, 

i.  To  a  holy  conversation  in  general,  (ii.  11,  12.) 

ii.  To  a  particular  discharge  of  their  several  duties,  as 

Dutiful  subjects  to  their  soverei(;n.  (13—15.) 

Servants  to  their  masters.  (16—2.5.) 

Husbands  to  their  wives,  (iii.  1 — 13.) 


»  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  v.  p.  272. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  p.  55.    Michaclis,  vol.  ii.  p.  30. 


Sect.  3.  contains  an  exhortation  to  patience,  submission,  and 
to  holiness  of  life,  enforced, 

i.  By  considering  the  example  of  Christ,  (iii.  14—18.) 

ii.  Uy  reminding  tliem  how  God  puiiislied  the  disobedient  In  the  days  of 
Noah.  (19—22.)  "' 

iii.  By  reminding  them  of  the  example  of  Clirist,  and  that  by  their 
conversion  tliey  bocajne  dead  to  the  llrsh.  (iv.  1 — 0.) 

iv.  By  sliowing  tliom  tlie  approacliing  destruction  of  the  Jewish  polity. 
(7— U.) 

v.  By  showing  them  that,  under  the  CJospel,  ihey  should  consider  afflic- 
tion as  their  portion,  and  as  matter  of  joy.  (12 — I'J.) 

Sect.  4.  Directions  to  the  ministers  of  the  churches,  and  the 
people,  how  to  behave  towards  each  other,   (v.  i — H.) 
Tlie  Conclusion,  (v.  12 — 14.) 

VI.  As  the  design  of  this  Epistle  is  excellent,  so  its  ex- 
cellence, in  tlie  judgment  of  the  best  critics,  does  not  fall 
short  of  its  design.  Erasmus  pronounces  it  to  be  worthy  of 
the  prince  of  the  apostles,  and  adds  that  it  is  sparing  in  words, 
but  full  of  sense.  That  great  critic,  Joseph  8caliger,  calls  it 
majestic ;  and  Osterwald^  says  that  the  first  Epistle  of  Peter 
is  one  of  the  finest  books  in  the  New  Testament,  that  the 
second  is  written  with  great  strength  and  majesty,  and  that 
both  of  them  evidently  show  their  divine  origin.  Every  part, 
indeed,  of  Peter's  writings  indicates  a  mind  that  felt  the 
power  of  the  doctrines  he  delivered,  and  a  soul  that  glowed 
with  the  most  ardent  zeal  for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel.  His 
style  expresses  the  noble  vehemence  and  fervour  of  his  spirit, 
his  perfect  knowledge  of  the  Gospel,  and  his  strong  assurance 
of  the  truth  and  certainty  of  its  doctrines.  Little  solicitous 
about  the  choice  or  harmonious  disposition  of  words,  his 
thouirhts  and  his  heart  were  absorbed  with  the  grand  truths 
whicn  he  was  divinely  commissioned  to  proclaim,  and  the 
indispensable  obligation  of  Christians  to  adorn  their  profes- 
sion by  a  holy  life.  Hence,  in  his  first  Epistle,  he  writes 
with  such  energy  and  rapidity  of  style,  that  we  can  scarcely 
perceive  the  pauses  of  his  discourse,  or  the  distinction  of  his 
periods.  And  in  his  second  Epistle  he  exposes  with  holy  in- 
dignation and  vehemence  the  aoandoned  principles  and  prac- 
tices of  those  false  teachers  and  false  prophets,  who  in  those 
early  times  sprang  up  in  the  Christian  church,  and  dissemi- 
nated their  pernicious  tenets  with  so  much  art  and  cunning. 
His  prophetic  description  of  the  general  conflagration,  and  of 
the  end  of  all  terrestrial  things  (2  Pet.  iii.  8 — 12.),  is  very 
awful.  W^e  see  the  planetary  heavens,  and  this  our  earth, 
enveloped  in  the  devouring  flames  :  we  hear  the  groans  of  an  ex- 
piring world,  and  the  crash  of  nature  tumbling  into  universal 
ruin.  How  solemn  and  affecting  is  this  practical  inference! 
(2  Pet.  iii.  IL)  ^^  Seeing  then  that  all  these  things  shall  be 
dissolved,  what  manner  of  persons  ought  ye  to  be  in  all  holy 
conversation  and  godliness.''''  The  meanest  soul  and  lowest 
imagination  cannot  think  of  that  time,  and  the  awful  de- 
scription of  it  which  we  meet  with  in  this  place,  and  in 
several  other  passages  of  Holy  Writ,  without  the  greatest 
emotion  and  the  deepest  impressions.^ 


SECTION  IV. 


ON   THE    SECOND    GENERAL   EPISTLE    OF    PETER. 

I.  Its  g-enuineness     and   canonicar  authority.  —  W.  Bate. — 
III.   Scope  and  synopsis  of  its  coiitents. 

I.  Some  doubts  were  entertained  by  the  primitive  churches 
respecting  the  authenticity  of  this  Epistle,  which  has  been 
received  as  the  genuine  production  of  Peter  ever  since  the 
fourth  century,  except  by  the  Syrian  church,  in  which  it  is 
read  as  an  excellent  book,  though  not  of  canonical  authority. 
Wc  have,  however,  tiie  most  satisfactory  evidence  of  its  ge- 
nuineness and  authenticity.  Clement  of  Rome^  has  three 
allusions  to  the  second  chapter,  and  one  to  the  third  chapter 
of  til  is*  Epistle ;  and  it  is  twice  referred  to  by  Hernias,''  once 
by  Justin  Martyr,"  and  also  by  Athcmagoras.'  Although  this 
Epistle  docs  not  appear  to  be  cited  by  any  writer  of  the  third 

»  Nouv.  Test.  pp.  276.  281.  edit.  Neufchafel,  1772.  folio.  > 

3  Blacl?wall's  Sacred  Classics,  vol.  i.  pp.;W2 — 301.  Pritii,  Introd.  ad  Nov. 
Test.  pp.  79—89.  Macknight's  Preface  to  1  Peter.  Benson's  History  of 
Saint  Peter  and  his  First  Epistle,  pp.  137 — 159.  Lardner's  Worlds,  Svo.  vol. 
vi.  pp.  562—583  ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  414 — 425.  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii. 
book  ii.  pp.  1144—1147.  Micliaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  315 — 346.  See  also  Hug's 
Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  584 — 599. 

<  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  45. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  302. 
■   '  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  61.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  311. 

B  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  126.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  347. 

1 1bid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  186. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  381. 


Sect.  IV.] 


ON  THE  SECOND  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  PETER. 


3G3 


century,'  ynt  in  the  fourth  and  followirif''  centuries  it  was 
acknowleclfred  by  Allianasiiis,  Tyril  of  .leriis-,dem,  the  eoun- 
cil  of  Laodieea,  K|)i|)lianius,  .Icroiiie,  liiifuins,  Aujrn.stine, 
and  all  snl)se(|ucnt  writers.  lOusehius''  jjlaces  it  ainoiifr  the 
AvrihtycyttutV^u'pui,  or  hooks  w'liost!  eaiionical  authority  was 
doubted  by  .so/z/f,  thouirh  mentioned  and  a()|)roved  by  most  of 
the  ancients,  btit  he  ])lain!y  dislinjjwishes  it  from  such  as  were 
confesscidly  spurious.  Hi; also  relates,'  from  the  tradition  of 
his  predecessors,  that,  thf)Uirh  it  was  not  acknowledged  as  part 
of  the  N(!W  Testanieut,  yet,  because  to  many  it  seemed  use- 
ful, it  was  diljirciilly  read  tntretiicr  with  the  other  Seri|)tures. 
On  this  statem(Mil  of  Kns(l)iiis,  liC  (Jierc  forcil)ly  remarks, 
that  if  it  had  not  been  Peter's  it  would  not  have  S(!emed  use- 
ful to  any  man  of  tolerabh;  j)rudenee,  seeintr  the  writer  in 
many  places  pn'ttnids  to  be  I'eter  himscdf;  for  it  would  be 
Tioxiini.s  on  account  of  its  beiii<>-  a  forircry,  as  well  as  un|)ardoiH 
able  in  any  man  to  foriri^  another  man's  name,  or  pretend  to 
l)e  the  person  he  is  not.'  After  a  dilitrent  com|)arison  of  th(> 
first  Kpislle  with  that  whicdi  is  aserilied  to  I'eler  as  the 
second,  Miehaelis  pronounci^s  tin!  afrreement  between  them  to 
be  such,  that,  if  the  second  was  not  written  by  Peter,  as  wtdl 
as  th(^  first,  the  jjcrson  who  forgetl  it  not  only  possessed  the 
power  of  imitation  in  a  very  unusual  deirree,  but  tmderst(jo(i 
likewise  the  design  of  tiie  first  Kpistle,  with  which  the  an- 
cients do  not  appear  to  have  been  ae(|uainted.  Now,  if  this 
bo  true,  tin;  supposition  that  the  second  Knistle  was  not 
written  by  Peter  nimself  involves  a  contradii-tion.  Nor  is  it 
credible,  that  a  pious  impostor  of  the  first  or  second  century 
should  have  imitated  Peter  so  successfidly  as  to  betray  no 
marks  of  a  forgery;  for  tlie  spurious  proiluctions  of  those 
ages,  which  were  sent  into  the  world  imder  the  name  of  the 
apostles,  are  for  the  most  part  very  unhaj)py  imitations,  and 
discover  evident  marks  that  they  were  not  written  by  the 
persons  to  whom  they  were  ascribed.  Other  productions  of 
this  kind  betray  their  origin  by  the  poverty  of  their  materials, 
or  by  the  circumstance,  that,  instead  of  containing  original 
thoughts,  they  are  nothing  more  than  a  rhapsody  of  senti- 
ments collected  from  various  parts  of  the  Binle,  and  put  to- 
ffether  without  plan  or  order.  This  charge  cannot  possibly  be 
aid  to  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter,  which  is  so  far  from  con- 
taining materials  derived  from  other  parts  of  the  Bible,  that 
the  third  chapter  exhibits  the  discussion  of  a  totally  new  sub- 
ject. Its  resemblance  to  the  Epistle  of  .lude  will  be  hardly 
urged  as  an  arijument  against  it;  for  there  can  he  no  doubt, 
that  the  seconu  Epistle  of  Peter  was,  in  respect  to  the  Epis- 
tle of  .Tude,  the  original  and  not  the  copy.  Lastly,  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult,  even  for  a  man  of  the  greatest  talents,  to  forge 
a  writing  in  the  name  of  another,  without  sometimes  insert- 
ing what  the  pretended  author  either  would  not  or  could  not 
have  said  ;  and  to  support  the  imposture  in  so  complete  a 
manner,  as  not  to  militate,  in  a  single  instance,  either  against 
Ids  character,  or  ngainst  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Now  in 
the  second  Epistle  of  Peter,  tnough  it  has  been  a  subject  of 
examination  full  seventeen  hundred  years,  nothing  has  hither- 
to been  discovered  which  is  unsuitable  either  to  the  apostle 
or  to  the  apostolic  a^e.  We  have  no  reason,  therefore  to 
believe  that  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter  is  spurious,  especially 
as  it  is  difficult  to  comprehend  what  motive  could  nave  in- 
duced a  (Christian,  whether  orthodox  or  heretic,  to  attempt  the 
fabrication  of  such  an  Epistle,  and  then  falsely  ascribe  it  to 
Peter.5 

Various  reasons,  indeed,  have  been  assigned,  why  this 
Epistle  was  not  earlier  acknowledged  as  the  writing  of  Peter. 
Jerome  informs  us  that  the  difference  of  style  between  this 
and  the  former  Epistle  was  in  his  day  the  principal  cause  of 
its  authenticity  being  disputed ;  and  the  same  objection  has 
been  adopted  by  Salmasius  and  other  modern  writers.  But 
this  remarkable  difference  in  style  is  confined  to  the  second 
chapter  of  the  second  Epistle.      No  objection,  however,  can 

«  Tlie  second  Epistle  of  Peter  was  first  placed  among  the  disputed 
writings  of  the  New  Testan)enl  hy  Origen.  (Euseb.  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  vi.  c.  ar>.) 
It  is  natural  to  supnosc.  that  if,  from  incidental  causes,  the  second  Epistle 
of  Peter  did  not  become  known  so  early  as  the  first,  some  churches, 
which  had  for  a  lenRth  of  time  been  accustomed  to  read  only  one  Epistle 
of  Peier,  misht  hesitate  to  receive  another.  Suspicion  mifiht  also  have 
arisen  against  the  genuineness  of  this  Epistle,  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
brought  from  Asia  Minor,  the  abode  of  the  Montanists,  wlw  were  accused 
of  a  disposition  to  fabricate  new  writings.  (Eusebius,  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  vi.  c. 
2U.)  More  especially  may  this  have  been  the  case,  as  the  passage,  2  Pet.  ii. 
2(1.,  could  be  urged  in  vindication  of  the  rigour  of  the  Montanistic  disci- 
pline :  or,  the  departure  of  the  Christians  in  Asia  Minor  from  the  cus- 
tomary Anode  of  celebrating  the  Easter  solemnities,  may  have  produced  in 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Christians  an  indisposition  to  receive  this  book. 
Schmucker's  Biblical  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  12>.,  where  various  writers  are 
enumerated  who  have  vindicated  the  genuineness  of  this  Epistle. 

»  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  25.  »  Ibid.  lib.  iii.  c.  3. 

*  ClericI,  Hist.  Eccl.  p.  412!  note. 

*  Michaclis,  vol  iv.  p.  350. 


be  drawn  from  this  circumstance;  for  the  subject  of  that 
chapter  is  different  from  the  rest  of  Peter's  writings,  and 
nothing  is  so  well  known  as  that  different  subjects  suggest 
different  styles.  Further,  when  a  person  expresses  his  own 
sentiminits,  he  writes  in  his  own  ])ro])er  style,  whatever  that 
may  be;  but  when  he  translates  from  another,  he  naturally 
follows  the  genius  of  the  original,  and  adopts  tlie  figures  and 
metaphors  of  the  author  before  him.  Peter,  when  describ- 
ing the  character  of  .some  flagitious  impostors,  feels  an  in- 
dignation which  he  cannot  sn])press  :  it  breaks  out,  therefore, 
in  the  bold  and  animated  figures  of  some  ancient  Hebrew 
writer,  wlio  had  left  behind  him  a  description  of  the  false 
proplnits  of  his  own,  or,  perhaps,  of  earlier  times.^ 

To  these  considerations  we  may  add,  that,  being  written  a 
short  liuK^  before^  the  apostle's  martyrdom,  and  not  having  been 
sf)  pul)licly  avowed  by  him,  and  ck-arly  known  to  be  his,  the 
scrupulous  caution  of  the  church  hesitated  about  admitting  it 
into  the  sacred  canon,  until  internal  evidence  convinced  the 
most  competent  judges  that  it  was  fully  entitled  to  that  high 
distinclion.  And  since  this  Ejiistle,  having  i)assed  through 
so  severe  and  accurate  a  scrutiny,  was  received  as  genuine  by 
those  who  were  in  those  early  times  most  capable  of  deciding, 
and  wh(j  have  {riven  sufficient  (jvidence  of  their  care  and  (rapa- 
city for  judging  of  its  authenticity, — and  since  it  has  been  trans- 
mitted to  us  in  every  manuscript  and  ancient  version  (the 
Syriac  excepted), — we  have  every  satisfactory  external  proof 
that  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter  is  the  undoubted  production 
of  that  holy  and  zealous  apostle.  Let  us  now  briefly  consider 
the  internal  evidence  for  its  authenticity. 

1.  The  writer  styles  himself  Symcon  Peter  (i.  1.  Gr.)  ;  from 
which  circumstance  we  conclude  that  this  Ej)istlo  was  written 
by  the  apostle  Peter.  Should  it  be  objected  tluit  the  apostle's 
name  was  Simon,  not  Simeon,  Dr.  Macknight  replies,  that  thougli 
his  name  was  commonly  written  Simon  in  Greek,  yet  its  Hebrew 
form  was  Simeon ;  and  so  it  is  written  in  the  Old  Testament 
history  of  Jacob's  sons,  and  so  Peter  is  expressly  termed  in  Acts 
XV.  14.  ((>r.)  It  has  further  been  objected,  that  in  the  fir.'^t 
Epistle,  which  is  unquestionably  genuine,  he  has  styled  himself 
simply  Peter,  and  not  Simon  Peter.  But  it  is  worthy  of  obser- 
vation, that  Saint  Luke  has  called  this  apostle  Simon  Peter,  and 
that  Saint  John  has  given  him  that  name  not  less  than  seventeen 
times  in  his  Gospel, — perhaps  (Dr.  Macknight  thinks)  to  show 
that  he  was  the  author  of  the  Epistle  which  begins  with  Symeon 
Peter,  a  servant  and  an  apostle,  &c.  The  same  eminent  critic 
is  further  of  opinion,  that  though  Peter's  surname  only  is  men- 
tioned in  the  inscription  of  the  first  letter,  because  he  was  sulli- 
ciently  known  by  it,  yet  he  might,  for  the  greater  dignity,  insert 
his  name  complete  in  the  second  Epistle,  because  he  intended 
authoritatively  to  rebuke  the  false  teachers  who  had  already  arisen, 
or  might  thereafter  arise.  Since,  therefore,  Symeon  Peter  is  the 
same  as  Simon  Peter,  no  objection  can  be  raised  against  the 
authenticity  of  this  Epistle  on  account  of  the  name ;  neither  does 
it  afford  any  countenance  to  the  opinion  of  Grotius,  that  this 
Epistle  was  written  by  Simeon  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  who  suc- 
ceeded James  the  Lord's  brother, — an  opinion  that  is  not  only 
destitute  of  all  authority  from  antiquity,  but  is  also  inconsistent 
with  the  whole  tenor  of  the  Epistle  itself. 

2.  There  are  several  incidental  allusions  to  particular  circum- 
stances in  this  Epistle  which  answer  to  no  other  person  but 
Peter.  Thus,  the  writer  of  it  testifies  that  he  must  shortly  put 
off  his  tabernacle,  even  as  our  Lord  Jesus  had  shown  him. 
(2  Pet.  i  14.)  Now  Christ  foretold  or  showed  this  to  none  of 
his  apostles  besides  Peter.  (John  xxi.  19.)  Again,  the  writer 
of  this  Epistle  was  with  Christ  upon  the  mount  at  his  transfigu- 
ration, beheld  his  majesty,  and  heard  the  voice  of  the  Father, 
from  heaven,  when  he  was  with  Christ,  on  the  holy  mount.  (2 
Pet.  i.  16 — 18.)  Now  there  were  only  three  of  Christ's  apostles 
permitted  to  witness  this  transfiguration  (Matt.  xvii.  1,  2.),  viz. 
Peter,  James,  and  John.  The  Epistle  in  question,  therefore,  must 
be  written  by  one  of  them,  and,  consequently,  must  be  of  apos- 
tolical authority ;  but  as  it  never  was  ascribed  to  James  or  John, 
nor  is  there  any  reason  for  attributing  it  to  them,  it  follows  that 
this  Epistle  is  the  production  of  Peter. — Once  more  the  author 
of  it  calls  this  his  second  Epistle  (iii.  1.)  and  intimates  that  he 
wrote  both  his  letters  to  the  same  persons,  viz.  the   believing 

«  Such  is  the  opinion  of  Bishop  Sherlock,  which  has  been  generally 
adopted.  Bishop  Tomline,  however,  deems  this  conjecture  very  improba- 
ble, and  accounts  for  the  ditTerence  of  style  in  the  second  chapter  of  this 
Epistle,  by  supposing  thai  the  apostle's  pen  was  guided  by  a  higher  degree 
of  inspiration  tnan  when  writing  in  a  didactic  manner,  and  that  he  wrote 
with  the  animation  and  energy  of  the  prophetic  style ;  but  he  does  not 
think  that  there  is  any  thing,  either  in  phrase  or  sentiment,  which  is 
inconsistent  with  the  acknowledged  writings  of  Saint  Peter.  Elements  of 
Christian  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  490. 


364 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT, 


Hebrews.  Compare  1  Pet.  i.  1.  and  2  Pet.  i.  1,  with  2  Pet.  iii. 
1,  2.  Consequently,  as  the  authenticity  of  the  first  Epistle  was 
never  disputed,  the  second  was  unquestionably  written  by  the 
same  person,  viz.  Peter. 

3.  Whoever  wrote  this  Epistle  calls  Paul  his  beloved  brother 
(iii.  15,  16.),  commends  him,  and  approves  the  authority  of  his 
Epistles,  which  none  but  an  apostle  could  venture  to  affirm. 

4.  A  holy  and  apostolical  spirit  breathes  throughout  the  whole 
of  this  Epistle ;  in  which  we  find  predictions  of  things  to  come, 
and  admonitions  against  false  teachers  and  apostasy,  together 
with  exhortations  to  a  godly  life,  and  condemnations  of  sin,  de- 
livered with  an  earnestness  and  feeling  which  show  the  author 
to  have  been  incapable  of  imposing  a  forged  writing  upon  the 
world :  and  that  his  sole  design  in  this  Epistle  was  to  promote 
the  interests  of  truth  and  virtue  in  the  world. 

5.  Lastly,  the  style  is  the  same  in  both  Epistles.  The  sen- 
tences in  the  second  Epistle  are  seldom  fluent  and  well  rounded, 
but  they  have  the  same  extension  as  those  in  the  first.'  There 
are  also  repetitions  of  the  same  words,  and  allusions  to  the  same 
events.  Thus  the  word  a.va.Tpo<p>j,  conversation  or  behaviour, 
which  is  so  peculiar  to  the  first  Epistle,^  likewise  occurs  in  the 
second, 3  though  less  frequently  than  in  the  former.  So  the  deluge, 
which  is  not  a  common  subject  in  the  apostolical  Epistles,  is 
mentioned  in  1  Pet.  iii.  20.,  and  also  in  2  Pet.  ii.  5. ;  and  in  both 
places  the  circumstance  is  noted,  that  eight  persons  only  were 
saved,  though  in  neither  place  does  the  subject  require  that  the 
number  should  be  particularly  specified.  Michaelis  observes  that 
Peter  was  not  the  only  apostle  who  knew  how  many  persons 
were  saved  in  the  ark ;  but  he  only,  who  by  habit  had  acquired  a 
familiarity  with  the  subject,  would  ascertain  the  precise  numbca-, 
where  his  argument  did  not  depend  upon  it. 

The  result  of  all  these  evidences,  both  external  and  internal, 
is,  that  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter  is  unquestionably  the 
production  of  that  apostle,  and  claims  to  be  received  and  stu- 
died virith  the  same  devout  care  and  attention  as  the  rest  of 
the  inspired  writings  of  the  New  Testament. 

n.  That  Peter  was  old  and  near  his  death,  when  he  vv^rote 
this  Epistle,  is  evident  from  ch.  i.  14. ;  and  that  it  was  written 
soon  after  the  first  Epistle,  appears  from  the  apology  he 
makes  (i.  13.  15.)  for  writing  this  second  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brew Christians.  Dr.  Lardner  thinks  it  not  unlikely  that, 
soon  after  the  apostle  had  sent  away  Silvanus  with  his  first 
letter  to  the  Christians  in  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Bithynia,  some  persons  came  from  those  countries 
to  Rome  (whither  there  was  a  frequent  and  general  resort 
from  all  parts),  who  brought  him  information  concerning  the 
state  of  religion  among  them.  These  accounts  induced  him 
to  write  a  second  time,  most  probably  at  the  beginning  of 
A.  D.  G5,  in  order  to  establish  in  the  faith  the  Christians  among 
whom  he  had  laboured. 

in.  The  scope  of  this  Epistle  is  to  confirm  the  doctrines 
and  instructions  delivered  m  the  former;  to  establish  the 
Hebrew  Christians  in  the  truth  and  profession  of  the  Gospel ; 
to  caution  them  against  false  teachers,  whose  tenets  and  prac- 
tices he  largely  describes ;.  and  to  warn  them  to  disregani 
those  profane  scoffers,  who  made  or  should  make  a  mock  of 
Christ's  coming  to  judgment;  which  having  asserted  and 
described,  he  exhorts  them  to  prepare  for  that  event  by  a  holy 
and  unblameable  conversation.  The  Epistle  consists  of  throe 
parts;  viz. 

Part  I.   The  Introduction,  (i.  1,  2.) 

Part  II.  Having  stated  the  Blessings  to  which  God  had  called 
them,  the  Apostle, 

Sect.  1.  Exhorts  the  Christians,  who  had  received  these  pre- 
cious gifts,  to  endeavour  to  improve  in  the  most  substantial 
graces  and  virtues,   (i.  3 — 11.) 
Skct.  2.  To  this  he  incites  them, 
i.  From  the  firmness  of  true  teachers,  (i.  12 — 91.) 

ii.  From  the  wickedness  of  false  teachers,  whose  tenets  and  practices 
he  exposes,  and  predicts  the  divine  judgments  against  them,  (ii.) 

Sect.  3.  He  guards  them  against *cofle.rs  and  impostors,  who, 
he'  foretells,  would  ridicule  their  expectation  of  Christ's 
coming : — 

i.  By  confuting  their  false  assertions,  (iii.  1—7.) 

ii.  By  showing  the  reason  why  that  great  day  was  delayed ;  and  de- 
scribing its  circumstances  and  consequences,  adding  suilable  exhorta- 
tions and  encouragements  todiligence  and  holiness,  (iii.  8—14.) 

Part  III.   The  Conclusion,  in  which  the  .flpostle. 
Sect.  1.  Declares  the  agreement  of  his  doctrine  with  that  of 
Saint  Paul.  (iii.  15,  16.) 

'  See  the  observations  on  Saint  Peter's  style,  p.  302.  supra. 

■'  See  1  Pet-  i.  15. 18.  ii.  12.  iii.  1,  2.  10.  »  2Pet.  ii.  7.  iii.  11. 


[Part  VL  Chap.  TV 

Sect.  2.  And  repeats  the  sum  of  the  Epistle,  (iii.  17,  18.) 
On  account  of  the  similarity  of  style  and  subject  between 
the  second  chapter  of  this  epistle  and  that  of  Jude,  Dr.  Ben- 
son and  Michaelis  place  the  latter  immediately  after  the  second 
Epistle  of  Peter.'' 


SECTION  V. 


ON    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    EPISTLE    OF    JOHN. 

I.  Genuineness  and  canonical  authority. — II.  Date. — III.  Of 
the  persons  to  whom  this  E/nstle  -zuas  ivritten. — IV.  Its 
occasion  and  scope. — Account  of  the  false  teachers  -whose 
principles  are  refuted  by  the  apostle.-^Y.  Synopsis  of  its 
contents. — VI.  The  question  concerning-  the  authenticity  of 
the  disputed  claxise  in  1  John  v.  7,  8.  considered. 

I.  Although  no  name  is  prefixed  to  this  book,  its  authenti- 
city as  a  genuine  production  of  the  apostle  John  is  unques- 
tionable. It  was  almost  universally  received  as  his  compo- 
sition in  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  and  appears  to  be 
alluded  to  by  Hermas.*  It  is  distinctly  cited  by  Polycarp,^ 
and  in  the  Epistle  of  the  churches  of  Vienne  and  Lyons,' 
and  is  declared  to  be  genuine  by  Papias,^  Irenseus,^  Clement 
of  Alexandria,'"  TertuUian,"  Crimen, '2  Cyprian,  Eusebius, 
Athanasius,  and  all  subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers.'^  A  still 
more  decisive  testimony  is  the  fact  that  it  is  found  in  the 
Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament,  executed  at  the  close 
01  the  first  or  very  early  in  the  second  century,  and  which 
contains  only  those  books  of  the  New  Testament,  respecting 
whose  authenticity  no  doubts  were  ever  entertained.  But, 
besides  this  external  proof,  we  have  the  strongest  internal 
evidence  that  this  Epistle  was  written  by  the  apostle  John, 
in  the  very  close  analogy  of  its  sentiments  and  expressions 
to  those  of  his  Gospel. '^  There  is  also  a  remarkaole  pecu- 
liarity in  the  style  of  this  apostle,  and  particularly  in  this 
Epistle.  His  sentences,  considered  separately,  are  exceed- 
ingly clear  and  intelligible ;  but,  when  we  search  for  their 
connexion,  we  frequently  meet  with  greater  difficulties  than 
we  experience  even  in  the  Epistles  of  Paul.  Artless  simpli- 
city and  benevolence,  blended  with  singular  modesty  and 
candour,  together  with  a  wonderful  sublimity  of  sentiment, 
are  the  characteristics  of  this  Epistle ;  in  which  John  appears 
to  have  delivered  his  conceptions  as  they  arose  in  his  mind, 
and  in  the  form  of  aphorisms,  in  order  that  they  might  pro- 
duce the  greater  effect.  In  his  Gospel  John  does  not  content 
himself  with  simply  affirming  or  denying  a  thing,  but  denies 
its  contrary  to  strengthen  his  affirmation  ;  and  in  Tike  manner, 
to  strengthen  his  denial  of  a  thing,  he  affirms  its  contrary. 
See  John  i.  20.  iii.  36.  v.  24.  vi.  22.  The  same  manner  of 
expressing  things  strongly  occurs  in  this  Epistle.  See  ii.  4. 
27.  and  iv.  2,  3.  In  his  Gospel  also.  Saint  John  frequently 
uses  the  pronoun  or  oino?,  a.irnt,  rovro,  this,  in  order  to  express 
things  emphatically.  See  i.  19.  iii.  19.  vi.  29.  40.  50.  and 
xvii.  3.  In  the  Epistle  the  same  emphatical  mode  of  ex- 
pression obtains.  Compare  i.  5.  ii.  25.  iii.  23.  v.  3.  4.  6. 
and  14.'5 

II.  With  regard  to  the  date  of  this  Epistle,  there  is  a  con- 
siderable diversity  of  opinion,  ^s.  Benson,  Hales,  and 
others,  place  it  in  the  year  G8 ;  Bishop  Tomline  in  69 ; 
Lampe,  after  the  first  Jewish  war,  and  before  the  apostle's 
exile  in  Patmos;  Dr.  Lardner,  a.  d.  80,  or  even  later;  Mill 
and  Le  Clerc,  in  a.  d.  91  or  92;  Beausobre,  L'Enfant,  and 
Du  Pin,  at  the  end  of  the  first  century;  and  Grotius,  Ham- 
mond, Whitby,  Michaelis,  and  Macknight,  place  it  before  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  but  without  specifying  the  precise 
year.  The  most  probable  of  these  various  opinions  is  that 
which  assigns  an  early  date  to  this  Epistle,  viz.  before  the 

«  Pritii  Introd.  ad  Lect.  Nov.  Test.  pp.  90 — 99.  Moldenhawer,  Introd.  ad 
Libros  Bkblicos,  pp.3.'32— 35.5.  Heidegger,  Enchirid.  Bibl.  pp.  624 — 628.  Ben. 
son  on  the  Catholic  Epistles,  pp.  321—329.  Lardner's  Works,  8Vo.  vol.  vi. 
pp.  562—58.3. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  414 — 425.  Macknight's  Preface  to  2  Peter. 
Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  346—363. 

6  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  61. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  311. 

«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  99.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  332. 

■>  Ibid.  8vo.  vol,  ii.  p.  1.52.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  362.  ' 

8  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  108.  109.  113. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  337.  310. 

9  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  168. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  370. 
■0  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  227. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  403. 
n  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  275.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  429. 
'■i  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  481. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  ,540. 

>3  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  vi.  p.  584,  535. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  525, 526. 

»•  See  several  instances  of  this  analogy,  supra,  Vol.  I.  pp.  51,  52.  notes. 
■  '5 1..ampe,  Commentarias  in  Evangelium  Johannis,  torn.  i.     Prolegomena, 
p.  104.    Macknight's  Preface  to  1  .Tohn,  sect.  2.    Langii,  Hermeneutica 
Sacra,  pars  ii.    be  Interpretatione  Epistolarum  .lohannis,  pp.  167—175. 


Sect.  V.] 

destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  subversion  of  the  Jewish 
polity.     For, 

1.  In  the  first  place.  The  expression  in  ii.  18.,  It  is  the  last 
hour,  is  more  applicable  to  the  last  hour  or  time  of  the  duration 
of  the  Jewish  state  than  to  any  later  period,  especially  as  the 
apostle  adds — Jlnd  us  ye  have  heard  that  ^Intichrist  is  comincf, 
even  so  now  there  have  been  many  Jintichrists  ;  ivhence  ive 
know  that  it  is  the  last  hour :  in  which  passage  the  apostle 
evidently  alludes  to  our  l^ord's  prediction  concerning  the  spring- 
ing up  of  false  (vhrists,  false  teachers,  and  false  jirophets,  before 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  (Matt.  xxiv.  .') — 'Zfy.)  Some  critics, 
however,  contend  that  the  "  last  time"  may  allude,  not  to  the 
destruction  of  that  city,  but  to  the  close  of  the  apostolic  age. 
But  Michaelis  confirms  the  propriety  of  this  argument  for  the 
early  date  of  this  Epistle,  by  observing  that  John's  Gospel  was 
opposed  to  heretics,  who  maintained  the  same  opinions  as  are 
oi)i)osed  in  this  E|)istle;  which  tenets  he  has  confuted  by  argu- 
ment in  his  Gospel,  whereas  in  the  Epistle  he  exjircsses  only 
his  disapprobation.  Michaelis,  therefore,  concludes,  that  the 
Epistle  was  written  before  the  Gospel  ;  because  if  Saint  John 
had  already  given  a  complete  confutation  when  he  wrote  this 
Epistle,  he  would  have  tliought  it  unnecessary  to  have  again 
declared  the  falsehood  of  such  opinions. 

2.  Secondly,  the  expression  (ii.  13,  14.),  Ye  have  known  him 
from  the  beginning,  applies  better  to  the  disciples,  immediately 

before  Jerusalem  was  destroyed,  than  to  the  few  who  might  have 
been  alive  at  the  late  date  which  some  critics  assign  to  this 
Epistle.  In  the  verses  just  cited,  the  fathers  or  elders  arc  twice 
distinguished  from  the  "  young  men'"  and  the  "  children,'^  by 
this  circumstance,  that  they  had  seen  him  during  his  ministry,  or 
after  his  resurrection.  Thirty-five  years  after  our  Lord's  resurrec- 
tion and  ascension,  when  Jerusalem  was  destroyed,  many  such 
persons  might  have  been  alive ;  whereas  in  98,  or  even  in  92,  there 
could  not  have  been  many  persons  alive  of  that  description. 

To  these  two  argumeitts  for  the  early  date  of  John's  first 
Epistle,  Dr.  Hales  has  added  the  three  tollowing,  which  have 
not  been  noticed  by  any  other  biblical  critic  : 

1.  As  the  other  apostles,  James,  Jude,  Paul,  and  Peter,  had 
written  Cathohc  Epistles  to  the  Hebrew  Christians  especially,  it 
is  likely,  that  one  of  the  principal  "pillars  of  the  church,"  the 
greatest  surety  of  the  mother-church,  the  most  highly  gifted  and 
illuminated  of  all  the  apostles  of  the  circumcision,  and  the 
beloved  disciple,  would  not  be  deficient  likewise  in  this  labour 
of  love. 

2.  Nothing  could  tend  so  strongly  to  establish  the  faith  of  the 
early  Jewish  converts  as  the  remarkable  circumstances  of  our 
Lord's  crucifixion,  exhibiting  the  accomplishment  of  the  ancient 
types  and  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  respecting  Christ's 
passion,  or  sufferings  in  the  flesh.  These  John  alone  could  record, 
as  he  was  the  only  eye-witness  of  that  last  solemn  scene  among 
the  apostles.  To  these,  therefore,  he  alludes  in  the  exordium  as 
well  as  to  the  circumstances  of  our  Lord's  appearances  after  the 
resurrection ;  and  to  these  he  again  recalls  their  attention  in  that 
remarkable  reference  to  "  the  water"  at  his  baptism,  to  "  the  water 
and  blood"  at  his  passion,  and  to  the  dismissal  of  "his  spirit" 
when  he  commended  it  to  his  Father,  and  expired,   (v.  5 — 9.) 

3.  The  parallel  testimony  in  the  Gospel  (John  xix.  3.5 — 37.) 
bears  witness  also  to  the  priority  of  the  Epistle,  in  the  expression, 
"  He  that  saw  hath  testified"  (/us/A»p^ufi):x.i),  intimating  that  he 
had  delivered  this  testimony  to  the  world  already  ;  for  if  7iow, 
for  the  first  time,  it  should  rather  be  expressed  by  the  present 
tense,  /u^tprupu,  "  testificth."  And  this  is  strongly  confirmed  by 
the  apostle's  same  expression,  after  giving  his  evidence  in  the 
Epistle,  "  this  is  the  testimony  of  God,  -which  he  hath  testified 
{fAi/udLprvimKi)  concerning  his  Son"  (ver.  9.),  referriflg  to  the  past 
transaction,  as  fulfilling  prophecy.' 

We  conclude,  therefore,  that  Saint  John  wrote  his  first 
Epistle  in  68,  or  at  the  latest  in  69 ;  though  it  is  impossible 
to  ascertain  from  what  place  he  sent  it,  whether  from  Patmos, 
as  Grotius  supposes,  or  from  some  city  in  Judaea,  as  Dr. 
Macknight  supposes,  or  from  Ephesus,  as  Irenseus  and  Euse- 
bius  relate  from  ancient  tradition,  which  has  been  generally 
received. 

HI.  It  is  still  more  difficult  to  decide  concerning  the  persons 
to  whom  this  Epistle  was  written.  Augustine,  Cassiodorus, 
and  the  venerable  Bede,  called  it  the  Epistle  of  John  to  the 

»  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  587—539. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  426—428. 
Lampe,  torn.  i.  p.  106.  Pritius,  p.  106.  Benson's  Paraphrase  on  the  Catholic 
Epistles,  pp.  5ft>— 510.  Macknight's  Preface  to  1  .John,  sect.  4.  Pritii,  Inlrod. 
in  Nov.  Test.  pp.  99— lOS.  Uales'a  Sacred  Chronology,  vol.  iU.  p.  452. 
second  edition. 


ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 


365 


Parthians,  because  the  apostle  is  reported  to  have  preached 
the  Gospel  to  that  people;  but  this  opinion  is  entirely  unsup- 
|)orted  by  the  evidence  of  antiquity.  Dr.  Benson  thiid<s  that 
the  Epistle  was  addressed  to  the  Jewish  Christians  in  Juda>a 
aiul  Galilee.  But  the  most  probable  opinion  is  that  of 
(Ecumenius,  Lampe,  Dupin,  Lardner,  Michaelis,  Macknight, 
Bishop  Tomline,  and  others,  who  think  it  was  written  for"the 
use  ol  (Christians  of  every  denomination  and  of  every  country. 
For,  1.  It  has  always  been  called  acatholic  or  general  Episth;; 
— 2.  It  does  not  contain  any  words  of  limitation  that  can 
restrict  it  to  a  particular  people ; — 3.  The  admonition  in  1 
John  ii.  1.5.  would  be  unnecessary  to  believers  in  Juda-a,  a.  d. 
68,  after  the  war  had  commenced  with  the  Romans ;  it  is 
rather  suited  to  people  in  easy  circumstances,  and  who  were 
in  danger  of  being  ensnared  by  the  allurements  of  prosperity  ; 
— 1.  Lastly,  the  concluding  exhortation  to  believers  to  "  keep 
themselves  from  idols"  is  in  no  respect  suitable  to  believers 
in  Juda;a,  but  is  much  more  likely  to  be  addressed  to  Chris- 
tians living  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  where  idolatry  pre- 
vailed. 

IV.  This  book  is  usually  entitled  'ITie  General  Epistle  of 
St,  Juhn.  "  But  in  the  composition  of  it,  narrowly  inspected, 
nothing  is  to  be  foinid  in  the  epistolary  I'orm.  It  is  not 
inscribed  either  to  any  individual,  like  Paul's  to  Timothy  and 
Titus,  or  the  second  of  the  two  which  follow  it,  '  To  the 
well-beloved  Gains' — nor  to  any  particular  church,  like 
Paul's  to  the  churches  of  Rome,  Corinth,  Ephesus,  and 
others — nor  to  the  faithful  of  any  particular 'region,  like 
Peter's  first  Epistle 'To  the  strangers  scattered  throughout 
Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and  Bithynia' — nor  to 
any  principal  branch  of  the  Christian  church,  like  Paul's  to 
the  Hebrew.s — nor  to  the  Christian  church  in  general,  like 
the  second  of  Peter,  '  To  them  that  had  obtained  like  pre- 
cious faith  with  him,' and  like  Jude's,  'To  them  that  are 
sanctified  by  God  the  Father,  and  preserved  in  Jesus  Christ, 
and  called.'  It  bears  no  such  inscription  :  it  begins  without 
salutation,  and  ends  without  benediction.  It  is  true,  the 
writer  sometimes  speaks,  but  without  naming  himself,  in  the 
first  person — and  addresses  his  reader  without  naming  him, 
in  the  second.  But  this  colloquial  style  is  very  common  in 
all  writings  of  a  plain  familiar  cast :  instances  of  it  occur 
in  John's  Gospel;  and  it  is  by  no  means  a  distinguishing 
character  of  epistolary  composition.  It  should  seem  that 
this  book  hath  for  no  other  reason  acquired  the  title  of  an 
epistle,  but  that  in  the  first  formation  of  the  canon  of  the 
New  Testament  it  was  put  into  the  same  volume  with  the 
didactic  writings  of  the  apostles,  which,  with  this  single 
exception,  are  all  in  the  epistolary  form.  It  is,  indeed,  a 
didactic  discourse  upon  the  principles  of  Christianity,  both  in 
doctrine  and  practice :  and  whether  we  consider  the  subli- 
mity of  its  opening  with  the  fundamental  topics  of  God's 
perfections,  man's  depravity,  and  Christ's  propitiation — the 
perspicuity  with  which  it  propounds  the  deepest  mysteries 
of  our  holy  faith,  and  the  evidence  of  the  proof  which  it 
brings  to  confirm  them ;  whether  we  consider  the  sanctity 
of  its  precepts,  and  the  energy  of  argument  with  which  they 
are  persuaded  and  enforced — the  dignified  simplicity  of  lan- 
guage in  which  both  doctrine  and  precept  are  delivered ; 
whether  we  regard  the  importance  of  the  matter,  the  propri- 
ety of  the  style,  or  the  general  spirit  of  ardent  piety  and 
warm  benevolence,  united  with  a  fervid  zeal,  which  breathes 
throughout  the  whole  composition — we  shall  find  it  in  every 
respect  worthy  of  the  holy  author  to  whom  the  constant  tra- 
dition of  the  church  ascribes  it,  '  the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved.'  "2 

The  design  of  this  treatise  is. 

First,  to  refute,  and  to  guard  the  Christians  to  whom  he 
wrote  against  erroneous  and  licentious  tenets,  principles,  and 
practices ;  such  as  the  denial  of  the  real  Deity  and  proper 
humanity  of  Christ,'  of  the  reality  and  efficacy  of  his  suf- 
ferings and  death  as  an  atoning  sacrifice,  and  the  assertion, 
that  believers  being  saved  by  grace,  were  not  required  to  obey 
the  commandments  of  God.  These  principles  began  to 
appear  in  the  church  of  Christ  even  in  the  apostolic  age,  and 
were  afterwards  maintained  by  the  Cerintnians,  and  other 
heretics  who  sprang  up  at  the  close  of  the  first  and  in  the 
second  century  of  the  Christian  aera.'' 

Secondly,  To  stir  up  all  who  profess  to  know  God,  to  have 

«  Bishop  Horsley's  Sermons,  pp.  144,  145.  2d  edit. 

'  The  late  Dr.  Randolph  has  admirably  illustrated  those  parts  of  the 
present  Epistle  which  assert  the  Deity  of  Christ,  in  his  Praeleclio  xiii.  vol. 
li.  pp.  512 — 523.  of  his  Viewr  of  our  Saviour's  Ministry. 

«  For  an  ample  account  of  the  tenets  of  the  Cerinthians,  see  p.  316.  of 
the  present  volume. 


366 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IV. 


communion  with  him,  and  to  believe  in  him,  th^it  they  walk 
in  the  lii^ht  and  not  in  darkness  (i.  5 — 7.),  that  is,  in  holiness 
and  not  in  sin;  that  they  walk  as  Chri-sl  walked  (ii.  G.)  ;  and 
that  they  keep  the  commandments,  and  esj)ecially  abound  in 
sincere  brotherly  love  towards  each  other,  (ii.  4.  9 — 11.  iii. 
10 — 21.  iv.  20,  21.  V.  1 — 3.)  This  rational  and  Christian 
spirit,  the  apostle  enforces  upon  the  best  principles,  and  with 
the  strongest  arguments,  derived  from  the  love  of  God  and 
of  Chrisf;  showing  the  utter  insufficiency  of  faith,  and  the 
mere  external  profession  of  religion,  without  the  accompa- 
nying evidence  of  a  holy  life  and  conduct. 

TTurdly,  to  help  forward  and  to  provoke  real  Christians  to 
communion  with  God  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (i.  3,  4.) ;  to 
constancy  in  the  true  fiiith,  against  all  that  seduced  them  (ii. 
24 — 28.);  to  purity  and  holiness  of  life  (ii.  1.  iii.  3 — 13.),' 
and  that  those  who  believe  on  the  name  of  the  Son  of  God,  may 
know  that  they  have  eternal  life.  (v.  13.) 

V.  Heidegger,  Van  Til,  Pritius,  Moldenhawer,  Langius, 
and  other  analysts  of  Scripture,  have  each  suggested  different 
tabular  synopses  of  this  Epistle,  with  a  view  to  illustrate  its 
divisions  and  to  show  the  bearings  of  the  apostle's  ar- 
guments. Extreme  prolixity  and  extreme  brevity  charac- 
terize their  respective  schemes.  The  following  synopsis, 
however,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  found  to  show  the  leading  di- 
visions of  the  Epistle  or  treatise  with  sufficient  perspicuity 
and  conciseness.  It  consists  of  six  sections,  besides  the 
conclusion,  which  is  a  recapitulation  of  the  whole. 

Sect.  1.  asserts  the  true  divinity  and  humanity  of  Christ,  in 
opposition  to  the  false  teachers,  and  urges  the  union  of  faith 
and  holiness  of  life  as  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  Chris- 
tians to  enjoy  communion  with  God.  (i.  1 — 7.) 

Sect.  2.  shows  that  all  have  sinned,  and  explains  the  doc- 
trine of  Christ's  propitiation,  (i.  8 — 10.  ii.  1,  2.)  Whence 
the  apostle  takes  occasion  to  illustrate  the  marks  of  true 
faith;  viz.  obeying  his  commandments  and  sincere  love  of 
the  brethren  ;  and  shows  that  the  love  of  the  world  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  love  of  God.  (ii.  3 — 1 7.) 

Sect.  3.  asserts  Jesus  to  be  the  same  person  with  Christ,  in 
opposition  to  the  false  teachers  who  denied  it.  (ii.  18 — 29.) 

Sect.  4.  On  the  privileges  of  true  believers,  and  their  conse- 
quent happiness  and  duties,  and  the  marks  by  which  they 
are  known  to  be  "  the  sons  of  God."  (iii.) 

Sect.  5.  Contains  criteria  by  which  to  distinguish  Antichrist 
and  false  Christians,  with  an  exhortation  to  brotherly  love. 
(iv.) 

Si.  A  mark  to  know  one  sort  of  Antichrist, — the  not  confessing  that 

Christ  came  in  the  flesh,  (iv.  1 — 3.) 
§  ii.  Criteria  for  distinguishing  false  Christians ;  viz. 

(1.)  Love  of  tiie  world.  (4—6.) 

(2.)  Want  of  brotherly  love.  (7—12.) 

(3.)  Denying  Christ  to  be  the  true  Son  of  God.  (13—15.) 
§iii.  A  recommendation  of  brotherly  love,  from  the  consideration  of  the 

love  of  God  in  giving  his  Son  for  sinners.  (16 — 21.) 

Sect.  6.  shows  the  connection  between  faith  in  Christ,  rege- 
neration, love  to  God  and  his  children,  obedience  to  his 
commandments,  and  victory  over  the  world ;  and  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  truly  the  Son  of  God,  able  to  save  us,  and  to  hear 
the  prayers  we  make  for  ourselves  and  others,  (v.  1 — 16.) 

The  conclusion,  which  is  a  summary  of  the  preceding  treatise, 
shows  that  a  sinful  life  is  inconsistent  with  true  Christianity  ; 
asserts  the  divinity  of  Christ ;  and  cautions  believers  against 
idolatry,  (v.  17—21.) 

The  preceding  is  an  outline  of  this  admirable  Epistle; 
which  being  designed  to  promote  right  principles  of  doctrine 
and  practical  piety  in  conduct,  abounds,  more  than  any  book 
of  the  New  Testament,  with  criteria  by  which  Christians 
may  soberly  examine  themselves  whether  they  be  in  the  faith. 
(2  Cor.  xiii.  5.) 

The  style  of  this  Epistle  is  pure,  clear,  and  flowing;  and 

t  Roberta's  Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  827. 


an  affectionate  spirit  pervades  the  whole,  except  in  those 
passages  where  the  apostle  exposes  and  reprehends  hypocrites 
and  false  teachers,  whose  dangerous  practices  and  tenets  he 
exposes  in  such  a  faithful,  plain,  and  even  authoritative  man- 
ner, as  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  reason  why  our  Saviour 
gave  him,  together  with  his  brother  James,  the  appellation 
oi Boanerges,  or  sons  of  thunder.  (Mark  iii.  17.) 

VI.  Before  we  conclude  this  section,  it  may  be  proper  to 
notice  the  controversy  respecting  the  clauses  in  I  John  v.  7, 
8.  concerning  the  Heavenly  Witnesses,  which  has  for  nearly 
four  centuries  divided  the  opinions  of  learned  men,  and  which 
the  majority  of  biblical  critics  nowabandon  as  spurious.  As 
the  limits  assigned  to  this  discussion  are  necessarily  confined, 
we  shall  briefly  state  the  evidence  for  and  against  its  genu- 
ineness. 

In  the  Textus  Receptus,  or  received  Greek  Text  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  seventh  and  eighth  verses  of  the  fifth  chapter 
of  this  Epistle  are  as  follows  : — 

'Oti  Tpu;  a«v  ct  /uafn-uftouvn;  [sv  t«  cupu.va>  o  riiTJifi,  o  Aoyc;,  kh  to 
ayicv  Tlvaijua.'  x,m  outoi  ot  Tfm  h  ao-/.      K-«  Tfs(c  atr/v  o(  /uuprupcuvn;  iv 

Til  y>i\    TO  TrVVJfJL'X,  km  to  CJ'cep,  KAl  TO  Ul/UOt,'  K'M  cl  TpE/C  U?    TO  iV  il(rl. 

In  the  Vulgate  Latin,  and  our  authorized  English  version, 
they  run  thus  : 

Cluoniam  tres  sunt  qui  testimo-  For  there  are  three  that  bear  re- 

nium  dant  [m  ccEto,  Pa/er,  Verbum,  cord   [in  heaven,    the   Father,   the 

et  SpiritusSanctus:  ethitresunum  Word,  and  the  Holy  Ghost;   and 

sunt.   Et  tres  sunt  qui  testimonium  these  three  are  one.     Aiid  there  are 

dant  in  terra:]  spiritus,  et  aqua,  et  three  that  bear  witness  in  earth,] 

sanguis:  et  hi  tres  in  unum  sunt.  the  spirit,  and  the  water,  and  the 
blood  ;  and  these  three  agree  in  one. 

The  disputed  passage  is  included  between  the  brackets. 

The  decision  of  the  controversy  depends  partly  upon  the 
Greek  manuscripts,  partly  upon  the  ancient  versions,  and 
partly  upon  the  quotations  which  occur  in  the  writings  of  the 
ancient  fathers. 

AGAINST  THE  GENUINENESS  OP  THE  CONTROVERTED  PASSAGE, 
IT  IS  URGED, 

:  1.   That  this  clause  is  not  to  be  found  in  a  single  Greek 
manuscript  -written  before  the  sixteetith  century. 

Of  all  the  manuscripts  hitherto  discovered  and  collated  which 
contain  this  Epistle,  amounting  to  one  hundred  and  forty-nine,^ 
if  we  deduct  several  that  are  either  mutilated  or  imperfect  in  this 
place,  it  wiir  be  found  that  four  only  have  the  text,  and  two  of 
these  are  absolutely  of  no  authority;  viz. 

1.  The  Codex  Guelpherbytanus,  which  is  evidently  a  manu- 
script of  the  seventeenth  century,  for  it  contains  the  Latin  trans- 
lation of  Beza,  written  by  the  same  hand,  and  consequently  is  of 
no  use  whatever  in  sacred  criticism. 

2.  The  Codex  Ravianus  or  BeroKnensis,  which  is  obviously 
a  forgery ;  it  is  for  the  most  part  only  a  transcript  of  the  Greek 
text  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  printed  in  1514,  with  some 
various  readings  from  Stephens's  third  edition  ;  and  the  remain- 
der (from  Mark  v.  20.  to  the  end  of  Saint  John's  Gospel  and 
Rom.  i. — vi.  and  xiii. — xvi.)  is  a  copy  of  the  same  edition,  with 
some  various  readings  taken  partlj'  from  Stephens's  margin,  and 
partly  from  the  Complutensian  Polyglott.^ 

3.  The  Codex  Britannicus,  as  it  was  called  by  Erasmus,  now 
better. known  by  the  appellation  of  the  Codex  JVIontfortii,  J\fo7it- 
fortianus,  or  Dublinensis,  which  is  preserved  in  Trinity  College 
Library,  Dublin.     A  fac-simile  of  it  fs  annexed. 

2  In  this  number  are  now,  for  the  first  time,  comprised  one  of  the  manu- 
scripts collated  by  Dr.  Scholz,  and  three  manuscripts  in  the  archiepiscopal 
library  at  Lambetli,  numbered  1182,  1183,  and  1185,  which  were  brought 
from  the  Greek  islands  by  the  late  Professor  Carlyle.  (See  a  notice  of 
them  in  our  first  volume.)  The  information,  that  the  disputed  clause  does 
not  exist  in  these  MSS.  was  communicated  to  the  author,  with  equal 
promptitude  ami  kindness,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  D'Oyly,  Manuscript-Librarian 
to  his  Grace  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

3  See  this  proved  in  Griesbach's  Symbola;  Criticre,  pars  i.  p.  clxxxi.  and 
especially  in  Pappelbaum's  Codices  Manuscript!  Raviani  Examen,  8vo.  Ber- 
lin, 1796.  Bishop  Marsh  has  given  a  very  valuable  extract  from  Pappel- 
baum's treatise,  with  remarks,  in  the  Appendix  to  his  Letters  to  Mr. 
Archdeacon  Travis,  pp.  241—252. 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 


367 


/"^J, 


<7CC"  if  i/SJ(nV  ct  /<xiiphJ 

.     (Ik    jy-r 

Off  Kcu^TiYcc  ajiov* 


The  passage,  divested  of  its  contractions,  runs  thus : — 


K»l    OUTOl    01   Tpili,   IV   lITi-   K»l    rpsi;    lltriv   Ol   ^XfTU 

"' 

p1U»TI{    ll>    Tl|    yvi,     jri/lU/«»,    U\   .p,    X»l      X1,UX-    (1     r^i/ 

jjow  y^ni^jv  ij-Tii',  OTi  »uTi|  iirriv  i)  /ixfrufix  too  ^jo 

J,    OT 

Tlic  Codex  Britannicus  is  described  by  Erasmus  as  a  latinizing 
miuuiscrii)t :  and  that  this  charge  is  well  foundcil  we  have  shown 
in  the  first'  vohime  of  this  work.'  If  any  ad<litional  evidence 
were  wanting,  it  is  furnished  in  the  passage  just  given  ;  which 
is  written  in  such  Greek  as  manifestly  betrays  a  translation  from 
the  Tiatin.  It  will  be  observed,  that  "  the  article  is  omitted  be- 
fore the  words  expressive  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  be- 
cause there  is  no  article  in  the  Latin,  and  it  occurred  not  to  the 
translator  that  the  usual  Greek  was  o  Trum^g,  a  xoyoc,  t*  Trvaifxu.. 
He  has  also  &  th  yn,  for  itti  txc  yn^,  because  he  found  in  terra. 
He  has  likewise  omitted  nxt  oi  rgu;  u;  to  iv  ti^tv,  which  is  wanting 
in  many  Latin  manuscripts ;  because  the  Lateran  council,  held 
in  1215,  had  rejected  it  through  polemical  motives.  The  omis- 
sion of  this  clause  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  verse  is  a  proof,  not 
only  that  the  writer  of  the  Codex  Montfortianus  copied  from  the 
Vulgate,  because  no  ancient  Greek  manuscript  omits  the  clause 
in  that  place ;  but  also  that  ho  copied  even  from  modern  tran- 
scripts of  the  Vulgate,  because  this  final  clause  is  found  in  all 


the  manuscripts  of  the  Vulgate  written  before  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury."- Such  are  the  internal  evidences  against  the  authority  of 
the  Codex  Montfortianus ;  nor  are  the  external  evidences,  found- 
ed on  its  date,  more  weighty.  Dr.  Adam  Clarke  indeed  assigns 
it  to  the  fourteenth,  or  even  to  the  thirteenth  century  (which  lat- 
ter date  is  adopted  by  Bishop  Burgess)  ;  but  as  there  is  reason 
to  believe,  that  in  the  thirteenth  century  the  seventh  verse  waa 
extant  in  a  great  majority  of  the  copies  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  a 
Greek  manuscript  of  that  age  may  easily  have  been  interpolated 
from  those  copies,  Michaclis  refers  the  Codex  Montfortianus  to 
the  sixteenth  century  ;  and  Bishop  Marsh,  after  Griesbach,  to  the 
fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century  ;  that  is,  subsequently  to  the  inven- 
tion of  the  art  of  printing.  Other  learned  men  have  observed, 
that  the  form  of  the  letters  is  the  same  with  that  of  our  printed 
Greek  Testaments,  with  accents  and  spirits:  so  that  it  may  pos- 
sibly have  been  written  subsequently  to  the  invention  of  print- 
ing.' The  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  therefore,  is  the  most 
probable  date.  Conceding,  however,  every  advantage  that  can 
be  claimed  for  this  manuscript  by  its  most  strenuous  advocates, 
it  is  still  modern :  and  the  testimony  of  a  witness,  of  so  excep- 
tionable an  internal  character,  can  be  of  no  value  in  opposition 
to  all  other  evidence. 

4.  The  Codex  Ottobonianus,  298.  in  the  Vatican  Library,  is 
the  only'  other  manuscript,  in  which  the  disputed  clause  is  to  be 
found,  as  appears  in  tlie  following  fac-simile  : — 


^ms^tn^  ^w 


< 
'  < — 

S  O 


a/ 

&   (Sill 


which,  divested  of  its  contractions,  runs  thus  : — 


Quia  tres  sunt 
qui  testimoiiiuin  darit  in 
ccio,  pater,  verbiun,  et  spiritus  sanctus, 
et  hi  tres  unuin  sunt.    Et 
tres  sunt  qui  tesliuioniiim 
(lant  in  terra,  spiritus,  aqua  et 
sanguis:  si  tcsliiuoniuui 


OTl  Tf«l{  IITIK 

01  fixprupivvrti  etvo  tov 

oupxvou'  ?r*T»jp  Koyof  xxt  jrvivfiet  xyiO¥ 

xxt  Oi  Tpiij  tis  to  fv  ttTf  XXI 

Tpit5  Ita-iv  01  /*eepTWpouvTi5 

*e»3rO  TII5  y'^i  TO   WlvflX  TO  u^ojp  XXI 

TO   »llJl»'  tl   TIJV  flXfTVflXV 


It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  this  manuscript  has  ctrro  tcu  oup^tvou 
FnoM  heaven,  instead  of  iv  to)  mfMie  in  heaven,  and  o-tto  txc  >»c 
ritoM  earth,  instead  of  tv  tm  yn  on  earth,  which  words  occur  in 

■  Son  Vol.  1.  Part  I.  Chap.  III.  Soct.  II.  §  4.  ii.  No.  61. 

«  Michaelis,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  p.  2S6.  part  ii.  p.  7l>i  The  late  learned  Pro. 
fessor  Porson  ohjerteil  to  tlie  Codex  Montfortianus  the  badness  of  its 
Orock,  parlirulaily  llie  omission  of  llio  arlicli-s.  In  reply  to  liis  conclusions, 
Bislinp  Hiii'iiiss  ad'liiii'd  si'vrral  pii,-;s:i!;i's  from  tlio  New  Tostauient,  and 
from  .-^Hiur  (Jrri-k  lUllicrs,  in  wliii'li  llw  arrii-li;  is  similarly  oniitti'd  ;  wlience 
he  (li'durcs  an  ariiumenl  for  the  conuinoncss  of  the  reading  of  the  Codox 
Montfortianus.  His  examples  are  ^iven  at  length  in  his  own  words,  and 
his  reasonings  are  examined  in  derail,  and  (it  must  candidly  be  admitteil) 
refuted  by  a  learneil  member  of  the  University  of  Canibri(lge,  under  the 
Binnat\ire  of  "Crito  Cantabrijjiensis,"  in  his  vindication  of  the  Literary 
Character  of  the  late  Profes.sor  Porson,  pp.  12—29.  (Caoibridge,  1827.) 
•   '  Benson  on  the  Epistles,  vol.  ii.  p.  G40. 

*  At  least,  we  may  presume,  that  it  is  the  oiily  other  manuscript  which 
contains Xhe  disputed  clause:  since  Prof  Scliolz  states,  that  he  has  ex- 
amine<l  the  MSS.  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris,  and  tlie  Libraries  at  Flo- 
rence, Milan,  and  Rome,  also  in  Greece  and  Palestine.  If  he  had  discovered 
any  other  manuscript  in  which  the  disputed  clause  appears,  he  would  most 
assuredly  have  comiuunicattid  some  notice  of  it  to  the  public. 


the  Codex  Montfortianus ;  and  the  absence  of  the  article  (as  in 
that  manuscript)  before  the  words  expres.sive  of  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost,  manifestly  indicates  the  Latin  origin  of  the 
Codex  Ottobonianus ;  which  has  further  been  altered  in  many 
places  to  make  it  agree  with  the  Latin  Vulgate.  And  as  this 
manuscript  is  stated  to  have  been  written  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
this  late  date,  in  addition  to  the  very  doubtful  internal  evidence 
which  it  aflbrds,  renders  its  testimony  of  no  force  whatever.* 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance,  which  confirms  the  argu- 
ment against  the  genuineness  of  the  clause  in  tjuestion,  that 
in  those  manuscripts  which  have  it  not,  there  is  no  erasure 
in  this  part,  or  the  slightest  indication  of  any  kind  of  de- 
ficiency. 

2.  This  clause  is  -wanting  in  the  earliest  and  best  critical 
editions  of  the  Greek  Testament. 

»  Scholz,  BiMischeKritische  Reise,  p.  105.  See  a  further  account  of  the 
Cudex  Ottobooianus  in  Vol.  I.  Part  I.  Chap.  IIL  Sect,  U.  S  5. 1 


368 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IV. 


It  is  not  printed  in  Erasmus's  first  edition,  published  in  1516, 
nor  in  his  second  edition,  in  1519  ;  nor  in  the  editions  of  Aldus, 
1518;  GerbeUus,  1521 ;  Cephalajus,  1524  ;  and  of  Colinceus,  1534. 
Erasmus,  it  is  true,  inserted  it  in  his  third  edition  published  in 
1522,  on  the  faith  of  the  Codex  Britannicus  or  Montfortianus 
above  mentioned, — not  from  any  conviction  of  its  genuineness, 


but  (as  he  says)  "  to  avoid  calumny."'  It  is  found  indeed  in  the 
Greek  text,  and  in  the  Vulgate  Latin  version  of  the  Compluten- 
sian  Polyglott,  of  which  a  fac-simile  is  given  in  the  annexed 
engraving,  which  is  accurately  copied  from  the  exemplar  pre- 
served in  the  library  of  Sion  College,  London. 


(Jip/O)^  uapTi/povpTec'^etT/'Toi'^ovpqpoi).  /o"  loa^ 
THp^Kai^o''  ^oyo^^Hcxi/To*cityiov^z»>^j£\ifjacc  r  ""Kcti 

Tvpo\j^T£s^ea5  I'Th^  Vh^.'^^o^  Cu}J£\>xia' Ka\/'To ''A> 
^cop  ^  Kai/'To*auia-^tt/TH^^JuiapTvpCcxp/'Ta>p^ay 
-epcococD  p'' AaJu.fid(|/oit£|),^>|''jaapr  vp{cx/7ov5^eo\> 

*'^eou'Hy^jLieJuapT<{pHKt*7TEpvTov*vio\>^avTov; 


On  this  fac-simile  it  is  to  be  observed,  1.  That  the  first  five 
lines,  both  of  the  Greek  and  Latin,  are  at  the  top  of  the  opposite 
page  to  that  on  which  the  other  four  lines  are  found;  and  2.  That 
the  alphabetical  letters,  intermingled  with  the  Greek  text,  refer 
to  the  corresponding  words  in  the  Latin  text,  which  is  printed 
in  a  parallel  column  in  the  Complutensian  edition,  and  marked 
with  the  same  letters,  in  order  to  ascertain  more  easily  the  corres- 
ponding Greek  and  Latin  words.  As  the  size  of  our  page  does 
not  admit  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  texts  being  disposed  in  parallel 
columns,  they  are  necessarily  placed  one  below  the  other. 

But  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  however  rare  and  valuable 
in  other  respects,  is  in  this  case  of  no  authority  beyond  that  of 
any  common  Greek  Testament,  any  further  than  it  is  supported 
by  ancient  MSS.  The  editors  of  the  Complutensian  Greek 
Testament,  indeed,  profess  to  have  followed  the  best  and  most 
ancient  manuscripts  of  the  Vatican  :  but  in  that  age  copies,  two 
or  three  hundred  years  old,  were  considered  as  ancient.  It  is, 
however,  most  certain  that  they  did  not  consult  the  celebrated 
Codex  Vaticanus,  which  is  reputed  to  be  one  of  the  most  ancient 
MSS.  if  it  be  not  the  most  ancient  manuscript  extant  (for  that 
manuscript  has  not  the  disputed  clause)  ;  and  that  they  have  not 
only  departed  from  its  readings  in  many  places,  but  have  also 
varied  from  the  order  of  things  in  point  of  time  and  place.  Wet- 
stein,  Semler,  and  Gricsbach  are  unanimously  of  opinion  that 
the  MSS.  used  by  the  Complutensian  editors  were  neither  ancient 
nor  valuable :  for  they  scarcely  ever  consent  with  the  most  an- 
cient copies  or  fathers,  except  in  conjunction  with  modern  copies, 
and  they  almost  always  agree  with  the  modern  copies  where 
these  differ  from  the  more  ancient.  Because  the  Complutensian 
editors  admitted  the  disputed  passage  into  their  text  of  the  New 
Testament,  it  has  been  supposed  that  they  found  it  in  their  MSS. ; 
but  it  is  more  probable,  that  they  inserted  it  upon  the  authority 
of  the  Latin  Vulgate  Version.     For, 

(1.)  In  the  first  place.  It  is  not  usual — indeed  it  forms  no 
part  of  the  plan  of  the  Complutensian  edition — to  insert  notes 
in  the  margin  of  the  Greek  text.  Not  more  than  three  instances 
of  such  notes  occur  throughout  this  edition  :  "  and  therefore," 
as  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  forcibly  argued,  "  there  must  be  some- 
thing extraordinary,  and  that  in  respect  of  the  Greek,  because 


it  is  in  the  margin  of  this  text.  Tn  1  Cor.  xv.  there  is  noticed  in 
this  margin  a  notable  variation  in  the  Greek  reading.  In  Matt. 
vi.  13.,  where  they,  in  their  edition,  recede  from  the  Greek  copies 
and  correct  it  by  the  Latin,  they  make  a  marginal  note  to  jus- 
tify their  doing  so.  And  so  here,  where  the  testimony  of  '  the 
Three  in  heaven'  is  generally  wanting  in  the  Greek  copies,  they 
make  a  third  marginal  note,  to  secure  themselves  from  being 
blamed  for  printing  it.  Now,  in  such  a  case  as  this,  there  is  no 
question  but  they  would  make  the  best  defence  they  could  ;  and 
yet  they  do  not  tell  of  any  various  lections  in  the  Greek  manu- 
scripts, nor  produce  any  one  Greek  manuscript  on  their  side,  but 
have  recourse  to  the  authority  of  Thomas  Aquinas."^ — "Thomas, 
say  they,  in  treating  of  the  three  which  bear  witness  in  heaven, 
teaches,  that  the  words  '  these  Three  are  one,'  are  subjoined  for 
insinuating  the  unity  of  the  Essence  of  the  Three  Persons. 
And  whereas  one  Joachim  interpreted  this  unity  to  be  only  love 
and  consent,  it  being  thus  said  of  th«  Spirit,  Water,  and  Blood, 
in  some  copies,  that '  these  Three  are  one  :'  Thomas  replied,  that 
this  clause  is  not  extant  in  the  true  copies,  but  was  added  by  the 
Arians  for  perverting  the  sense."  Thus  far,  this  annotation. 
"  Now  this  plainly  respects  the  Latin  copies  {for  Aquinas  jtn- 
derstood  not  Greek),  and  therefore  part  of  the  design  of  this 
annotation  is  to  set  right  the  Latin  reading.     But  this  is  not  the 

'  Amon<;  modern  editions  of  note,  the  disputed  clause  is  omitted  In 
Mace's  Greet?  and  English  edition,  1729,  in  that  of  Har wood,  1770,  in  whose 
edition  the  text  of  the  epistles  represents  the  Clermont  manuscript ;  Mat- 
tha;i,  1782-88;  and  Griesbach,  1774-5,  and  the  various  subsequent  editions 
of  his  tejct.  In  the  editions  of  Bowyer,  in  1763,  1772,  and  1782;  of  Knappe, 
in  1797  ;  of  Tittman,  in  1820;  of  Vater,  in  1824  ;  of  Goeschcn,  1832;  and  of 
Bloomfiekl,  1832;  this  clause  is  included  between  brackets. 

2  The  following  is  a  literal  transcript  (from  the  copy  in  Sion  College  Li- 
brary) of  the  original  of  the  marginal  note  above  alluded  to: — "Sanctus 
Thomas,  in  expositione  secunde  decretalis  de  suma  trinitate  et  fide  catholica, 
tractans  istum  passuin  contra  abbatem  Joachim,  lit  tres  sunt  qui  testimo- 
nium dant  in  coelo,  pater,  verbum,  et  spiritus  sanctus :  dicit  ad  literam, 
verba  sequentia.  Et  ad  insinuandam  unitatem  trium  personarum  subditur, 
et  hii  ires  unum  sunt.  Quod  quidem  dicitur  propter  essefttie  unilatism. 
Sed  hoc  .loachim  perverse  trahere  volens,  ad  unitatem  charitatis  et  con- 
sensus inducebat  consequentem  auctoritatem :  Nam  subditur  ibidem,  et 
tres  sunt  qui  testimonium  dant  in  terra  s.  [i.  e.  scilicet]  spiritus:  aqua:  et 
sanguis.  Et  in  quibusdam  libris  additur;  et  hii  tres  unum  sunt.  Sed  hoc 
in  veris  exemplaribus  non  habetur  ;  sed  dicitur  esse  appositum  ab  here- 
ticis  arrianis  ad  pervertendum  intellectum  sanum  auctoritatis  premisse  de  . 
unitate  easentie  trium  personarum.    Hec  bealus  Thomas  ubi  supra." 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 


369 


main  design.  For  so  the  annotation  should  have  been  set  in  the 
iiiarj^in  of  the  Latin  version.  Its  being  set  in  the  margin  of  the 
Greek  text  shows,  that  its  niaii:  di^sign  is  to  justify  tlie  Greek  by 
the  Latin  thus  rectified  an<l  confirmed.  Now  to  niakt;  Thomas 
thus,  in  a  few  words,  do  all  the  work,  was  very  artiliciai  :  and  in 
Spain,  where  Thomas  is  of  apostolical  authority,  it  might  pass  for 
a  very  judicious  and  substantial  defence  of  the  printed  Greek. 
But  to  us,  Thomas  Aquinas  is  no  apostle.  We  arc  seeking  for 
the  authority  of  Greek  manuscrijjts." 

(2.)  Secondly,  We  have  a  further  proof  that  this  text  was  not 
extant  in  Greek,  but  was  inserted  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  (and 
consequently  translated  into  Greek),  in  the  fact  that  when  Stu- 
nica,  one  of  the  four  editors  of  the  Coniplutensian  Polyglolt,  on 
censuring  Erasmus  for  omitting  it,  was  challenged  by  him  to 
produce  his  authority  for  inserting  it,  he  never  appealed  to 
Greek  manuscripts.  On  the  contrary,  he  aflirmed  that  the  Greek 
copies  were  corrupt,  but  that  the  Latin  contained  the  very  truth.' 
Now  this  declaration  is  of  great  importance ;  as  it  amounts  to  a 
confession  that  none  of  the  manuscripts  procured  for  that  edition 
by  the  great  influence  of  Cardinal  Ximenes  contained  the  dis- 
puted passage. 

3.  //  is  contaitud  in  Ike  manuscripts  of  no  other  ancient  va- 
siun  besides  the  Latin  J 

It  is  wanting  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  Old  Si/riac  version, 
executed  at  the  beginning  of  the  second,  if  not  in  the  first  cen- 
tury;' and  also  in  those  of  the  Fhiloxenian  Syriac,  a  version 
made  in  the  fifth  century.  It  is  wanting  in  the  manu.scripts  of 
the  Coptic,  a  version  in  the  dialect  anciently  spoken  in  Lower 
Egypt,  which  is  referred  to  the  fifth  century;  and  in  those  of  the 
Stiliidic,  a  version  in  the  dialect  anciently  spoken  in  Upper 
Egypt,  which  is  considered  as  having  been  made  in  the  second 
century.  It  is  wanting  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  Ktliiojdc  ver- 
sion, executed  in  the  fourth  century  ;  and  in  tho.se  of  the  Arme- 
nian version,  which  is  referred  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  or  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  It  is  wanting  in  all  the  manu- 
scripts of  all  the  known  Arabic  versions;  and  it  is  absent  from 
all  the  manuscripts  of  the  Sclavonic  or  old  Russian  version, 
executed  in  the  ninth  century. 

4.  Not  all  the  manuscripts,  even  of  the  Latin  version,  contain 
this  clause,  which  is  wanting  in  the  most  ancient  manuscripts 
of  that  version. 

The  Vulgate  Latin  version  is  justly  valued  as  an  important  relic 
of  Christian  antiquity,  and,  generally  speaking,  as  a  good  and  faith- 
ful translation  :  but,  in  its  passage  from  the  fifth  to  the  fifteenth 
century,  it  has  undergone  many  corruptions  and  interpolations. 
The  disputed  clause  does  not  appear  in  any  manuscripts  written 
before  the  tenth  century.  It  is  -wanting  in  considerably  more 
than  forty  of  the  oldest  Latin  manuscripts;''  in  others  it  occurs 
>  only  in  the  margin  ;  and  in  others  it  is  interlined  by  a  later  hand. 
"  At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  the  celebrated  Latin  Father 
Augustine,  who  wrote  ten  treatises  on  the  first  Epistle  of  Saint 
John,  in  all  of  which  we  seek  in  vain  for  the  seventli  verse  of  the 
;  fifth  chapter,  was  induced  in  his  controversy  with  Maximin  to 
i  compose  a  gloss  upon  the  eighth  verse.  Augustine  gives  it  pro- 
fessedly as  d  gloss  upon  the  words  of  the  eighth  verse,  and  shows 
by  his  own  reasoning  that  the  seventh  verse  did  not  then  exist.' 
Tiie  high  character  of  Augustine  in  tlie  Latin  church  soon  gave 

>  Sir  Isaac  Ne%vton's  History  of  Two  Texts.  (I  John  v.  7,  8.  and  1  Tim. 
iii.  H).)    Works,  vol.  v.  pp.  5'JO— u'^'i. 

•  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Work.s,  vol.  v.  pp.  5iJ,  523. 

»  The  expression,  " munuscripls  of  all  other  versions,"  is  here  design- 
edly used:  for  the  disputed  clause  has  been  inserted  in  some  printed 
editions  of  the  Syriac  and  Armenian  versions,  in  opposition  to  the  Syriac 
and  Armenian  manitscripls.  See  Bp.Marsli's  Letters  to  Archdeacon  Tra- 
vis. Preface,  notes  9,  9,  10,  U. ;  and  also  Mr.  Oxlee's  Three  Letters  to  the 
Kcv.  F.  Nolan,  pp.  130,  131. 

«  We  are  informed  by  Dr.  Buchanan,  that  it  is  not  to  be  found  in  a 
Peschito  or  Syriac  manuscript  which  belom^cd  to  the  Syrian  church  in 
India  above  a  thousand  years,  nor  in  any  copy  of  the  Syriac  Scriptures 
which  he  had  seen.  (Christ.  Researches  in  Asia,  p.  118.)  This  manuscript 
is  now  in  the  Public  Library  at  Cambridge.  Nor  is  it  in  any  of  the  ancient 
Syriac  MSS.  brout;ht  from  the  East  by  the  late  Mr.  Rich,  which  are  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum. 

»  Marsh's  Letters  to  Travis,  Preface,  p.  xi.  note. 

«  Augustine,  in  his  Treatise  contra  Maximinutn  Arianum,  lib.  li.  cap.  22. 
(torn.  viii.  col.  725.  ed.  Benedict),  thus  quotes  the  words  of  the  eighth 
verse:  "Tres  sunt  testes,  spiritus,  et  aqua,  et  sanguis;  el  Ires  unuin 
sunt."  lie  then  makes  various  remarks  on  the  words,  spiritus,  aqua,  .san- 
guis, and  proceeds  thus  :  "Si  vero  ea,  qu.'e  his  s/^n//ica/a  sunt  velimus 
inquirere,  non  ahsurtle  ocrurit  ipsa  Trinitas,  qu;e  uuus,  solus,  verus, 
Einnmes  est  Deus,  Paler  et  Filius,  et  Spiritus  Sanclus,  de  quibus  vcrissime 
(iiri  polttit,  'Tres  sunt  testes  et  tres  unum  sunt:'  ut  nomine  spiritus  si'g'- 
nificatum  aocipiamus  Deum  Palrem— nomine  autem  sanguinis  Filium — et 
nomine  aquoe  Spiritual  Sanctum."  The  gloss  which  .\ugustine  here  puts 
on  the  eighth  verse,  very  clearly  shows,  that  ho  knew  nothing  of  the 
seventh  verse,  which  appearis  also  from  the  fact  that  he  has  never  quoted 
that  verse. 

Vol.  IL  3  A 


celebrity  to  his  gloss ;  and  in  a  short  time  it  was  generally 
adopted.  It  appeared,  indeed,  under  diflcrent  forms  ;  but  it  was 
still  the  gloss  of  Augustine,  though  variously  modified.  The 
glo.ss  liaving  once  obtained  credit  in  the  Latin  church,  the  pos- 
sessors of  Latin  manuscripts  began  to  note  it  in  the  margin,  by 
the  side  of  the  eighth  verse.  Hence  the  oldest  of  those  Latin 
manuscrijits,  which  have  the  passage  in  the  margin,  have  it  in  a 
dilFerent  hand  from  that  of  the  text.  In  later  manuscripts  we 
find  margin  and  text  in  the  same  hand  ;  for  transcribers  did  not 
venture  immediately  to  move  it  into  the  budij  of  the  text,  though 
in  some  manuscripts  it  is  interlined,  but  interlined  by  a  later 
han<l.  After  the  eighth  century  the  insertion  became  general. 
For  Latin  manuscript-s  written  after  that  period  have  generally, 
though  not  always,  the  passage  in  the  body  of  the  text.  Further, 
when  the  seventh  verse  made  its  first  appearance  in  the  Latin 
manuscri|its,  it  appeared  in  as  many  different  forms,  as  there 
were  forms  to  the  gloss  upon  the  eighth  verse.'  And  though  it 
now  precedes  the  eighth  verse,  it  folloivcd  the  eighth  verse,  at 
its  first  insertion,  as  a  gloss  would  naturally  follow  the  text  upon 
which  it  was  made."" 

Many  mauuscrijits  of  the  Vulgate  version,  and  also  the  printed 
text,  evt'n  that  of  Pope  Clement  VIII.,  have  the  final  clause  of 
the  eighth  ver.se,  tres  unum  sunt,  which  is  manifestly  a  corruption 
from  the  homoioleleuio7i,'^  TPF.IiHli':  while  others  omit  that 
final  clause.  Some  add,  in  Christo  Jesu  ;  some  read  Filius 
instead  of  Verbum  ;  surie  omit  Sanctus ;  other.'-  transpose 
qiioniam  and  ct ;  and  the  more  ancient  of  thoSe,  which  have  the 
passage,  put  the  eighth  verse  before  the  seventh.  This  un- 
certainty and  fluctuation  is,  itself,  a  most  suspicious  mark  of  in- 
terpolation. "  It  is  not,  therefore,  a  matter  of  mere  conjecture, 
that  the  seventh  verse  originated  in  a  Latin  gloss  upon  the  eighth 
verse  :  it  is  an  historical  fact,  supported  by  evidence  which  cannot 
be  resisted."'" 

5.  The  clause  in  question  is  not  once  quoted  in  the  genuine 
works  of  any  one  of  the  Greek  Fathers,  or  early  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Writers,  even  in  i/iose  places  where  we  should  most  ex- 
pect it. 

For  instance,  it  docs  not  occur  in  the  Exposition  of  Faith 
printed  with  the  works  of  Justin  Martyr,  nor  in  the  works  of 
Irenaius,  Clemens  Alcxandrinus,  Hippolytus  against  Noetu.s, 
Dionysius  Alexandrinus  in  the  cpi.stle  addressed  to  Paul  of 
Samosata,  Athanasius,  Uidymus,  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Gre- 
gory of  Nyssa,  Epiphanius,  Ca;sarius,  Chrysostom,  Proclus,  Alex- 
ander or  Alexandria,  the  author  of  the  Synopsis  of  Scripture, 
Andreas  Ca3sariensis,  Joannes  Damascenus,  Elias  Cretensis,  Ger- 
manus  of  Constantinople,  Oecumenius,  Theophylact,  Euthymius 
Zigabenus,  Nicetas,  in  six  dillerent  catenae  cited  by  Simon,  and 
one  cited  by  Matthaii,  nor  in  the  Greek  Scholia  of  various  manu- 
scripts." But  the  bare  silence  of  the.se  writers  is  not  all.  Many 
of  them  wrote  professedly  on  the  Trinity,  the  Deity  of  Christ, 
and  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  their  unity,  equality,  consubstantiality, 
&c. :  and  in  order  to  prove  these  points,  they  diligently  examined 
the  entire  Bible;  and,  in  particular,  they  have  frequently  cited 
the  preceding  verse,  as  well  as  that  which  immediately  follows. 
"  The  mantiscrijits  which  were  used  by  Ireiia;us  and  Clement 
of  Alexandria  could  not  have  been  written  later  than  the  second 
century.  Tlie  manuscripts  used  by  Origen  could  not  have  been 
written  later  than  the  third  century.  The  manuscripts  used  by 
the  Greek  fathers,  who  attended  the  Nicene  council,  could  not 
have  been  written  later  than  {he  fourth  century.  In  this  manner 
we  may  prove  that  the  Greek  manuscripts,  in  every  century, 
were  destitute    of  the    passage,    until    we    come    to  the  period 

'  The  various  forms,  in  which  the  seventh  verse  made  its  first  appear- 
ance in  the  Latin  MSS.  may  be  seen  on  consulting  the  notes  of  Erasmus, 
Mill,  and  Sabatier,  to  1  John  v.  7.  Siiuun,  Hist.-des  Versions,  chap.  ix.  and 
Por.-fon's  Cth  l-etter. 

'  Bengelii  Appar.  Crit.  pp.  4t;7.  ed.  2*'.  It  is  so  placed  also  by  Vigiliua 
Ta4)sensis,  who  quotes  thus  :  Ties  sunt  qui  testimuiiium  perhibent  inierrt^ 
aqua,  sanguis,  et  caro  ;  et  tres  in  nobis  sunt :  et  tres  sunt  qui  lestiiiionitiin 
peihibeiit  in  cieIo,  Pater,  Verbum,  et  Spiritus  sanctus,  et  hi  tres  unum 
sunt.     Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  vi.  pp.  19 — li.'. 

»  That  is,  the  recurrence  of  theteauie  word  at  ihe  end  of  two  contiguous 
clauses. 

•0  Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  vi.  p.  22.  Bi.shop  Burgess  has  endea- 
voured to  obviate  the  above  very  forcible  arguments  by  slating  that, 
although  the  seventh  verse  is  wanting  in  s<jme  of  the  "  more  ancient"  manu- 
scripts, yet  it  is  found  in  some  of  the  "most  ancient,"  for  instance,  in  the 
Vauxcelles  Bible  of  the  eighth  century,  and  in  three  MSS.  containing  the 
Catholic  F.pistles,  wfiich  are  in  the  library  at  Verona,  of  the  same  century, 
in  one  of  which  the  eighth  verse  is  wantmg.  (Vindication  of  1  John  v.  7. 
p.  M.)  But  his  observations  are  shown  to  be  inapplicable  by  "Crito  Can- 
tabrigiensis."     Vindication  of  Por-son's  Literary  Character,  pp.  I3S.  et  sen. 

"In  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Christian  Observer,  for  1>W,  pp.  2^—289. 
there  is  a  neat  abstract,  with  English  translations,  of  the  principal  passages 
of  the  most  eminent  Greek  fathers,  who  must  have  quoted  the  disputed 
clause,  had  it  been  extaiit  in  their  copies  of  tlie  New  Testament. 


370 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Pakt  VI.  Chap.  IV. 


when  the  oldest  of  our  existins^  manuscripts  were  written.'  Now, 
that  the  Greeli  fathers  should  not  avail  themselves  of  so  strong 
and  apposite  a  text  in  their  controversies  with  the  Arians  and 
other  sectaries,  as  an  additional  confirmation  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Holy  Trinity,  is  utterly  inexplicable,  on  any  other  sup- 
position than  that  of  its  not  being  in  existence.  Bishop  Bur- 
gess, indeed,  contends  that  it  is  quoted  in  the  second  Symbol um 
Antiochenum,  or  creed  drawn  up  at  the  council  which  was  con- 
vened at  Antioch  a.  d.  341,  and  which  consisted  of  ninety -seven 
bishops,  of  whom  nearly  one  half  were  Arians,  and  who  pro- 
fessed in  that  creed  to  follow  "  the  evangelical  and  apostolical 
tradition."  After  declaring  their  belief  in  one  God  the  Father, 
in  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  add  the 
following  sentences : — "  The  Father  being  truly  a  Father,  and 
the  Son  truly  a  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  truly  a  Holy  Ghost, — 
the  names  being  given  not  vainly  and  unmeaningly,  but  accu- 
rately expressing  the  subsistence,  order,  and  glory  of  each  of  the 
persons  named;  so  that  they  are  turee  m  substance,  and  onk 
ill  consent,  ai;  wu  tx  /xsi  vrc<rT!ti7-it  TPIA,  t«  Jj  <ru/u<puvtu.  EN  :  or, 
without  the  explanatory  terms,  u;  W3.t  tgiu.  iv,  so  that  the  three 
are  one."  These  expressions  the  learned  prelate  considers  as  a 
quotation  from  St.  John :  they  are  not,  he  admits,  precisely  the 
same  as  the  words  of  1  John  v.  7.,  but  he  is  of  opinion  that 
they  may  nevertheless  be  a  quotation  from  it.^  j 

There  is,  doubtless,  some  similarity  between  this  passage  and! 
I  John  v.  7. :  but  similarity  and  identity  are  very  different  things.' 
And  it  is  (we  apprehend)  as  plain  as  possible  that  the  words  inj 
the  Antiocheian  Creed  are  -not  a  quotation  from  the  disputed 
text, — not  only  from  the  total  silence  of  the  Greek  fathers  of  that 
particular  period  concerning  the  disputed  text,  which  they  must 
have  cited  during  their  keen  controversies  with  the  Arians,  if  it 
had  really  been  in  their  copies ;  but  also  from  the  fact,  that  the 
sentiment  of  the  passage  above  given  from  the  Actiocheian  Creed 
is  in  unison  with  the  last  clause  of  1  John  v.  8.  d  t£s;c  m  to  h 
titriv,  and  these  three  agree  in  one  and  the  same  thing;  viz.  that 
the  Son  of  God  is  come.  (See  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Paraphrastic 
Exposition,  in  p.  373.  infra.)  Further,  it  will  be  observed,  that  the 
Antiocheian  Creed  varies  from  the  commonly  received  text,  the 
masculine  t§/£c  being  turned  into  the  neuter  Tgict :  if  a  quotation 
had  been  intended,  the  framer  of  that  confession  of  faith  would 
have  used  the  words  ol  rgac  h  ua-t — these  three  are  one.  But  what 
most  materially  neutralizes  the  passage  adduced  by  Bishop  Bur- 
gess from  this  creed,  is  the  fact,  that  the  clause  was  not  cited  by 
any  Greek  writer'  earlier  than  Manuel  Calecas,  who  lived  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  whose  attachment  to  the  Romish  church 
was  so  great  that  he  became  a  Dominican  monk,  and  adopted 
the  tenets  of  that  church  concerning  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  in  opposition  to  those  maintained  by  the  Greek  church. 
Calecas  is  succeeded  by  Bryennius,^  a  writer  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  who  also  was  so  attached  to  the  Romish  church,  that  he 
quotes  1  John  v.  6.  not  with  ro  7ry&ifji.a.  ittiv  «  olkiiBu'X  (the  Spirit 
is  truth),  but  with  I  Xpia-Toc:  iTTiv  i  oixnOs;*  (Christ  is  truth), 
which  is  the  reading  of  the  Latin,  and  omits  the  final  clause  of 
the  eighth  verse,  in  opposition  likewise  to  the  Greek  manuscripts, 
and  in  conformity  with  only-  modern  transcripts  of  the  Vulgate. 
The  next  Greek  writer  who  has  cited  this  clause  is  Peter  Mongi- 
las,  who  lived  in  the  seventeenth  centmy,  and  who  is  followed 
by  the  Greeks  in  general  of  the  present  age.  Nor  should  it  be 
forgotten,  that,  when  the  passage  first  appeared  in  Greek,  it  pre- 
sented itself  under  as  many  diflerent  shapes  as  when  it  first  made 

>  Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  vi.  p.  17. 

a  Letter  to  tlie  Clergy  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  David's,  pp.  97.  104.  10.  1 1. 

3  IVIemoir  of  the  Controversy  respecting  the  three  Heavenly  Witnesses, 
p.  214. 

<  The  only  expression  which  approximates  very  nearly  to  that  in  the 
Antiocheian  Creed  is  the  following,  which  occurs  in  the  works  of  Gregory 
Nazianzen,  who  lived  and  wrote  during 'the  middle  and  laller  part  of  the 
fourth  century  : — "  For  the  Godhead  is  one  in  three,  and  the  three  are  one." 
■Ev  yxp  iv  Tfio-ii.  ^  isoi-.,?,  ^3.1  T»  rp.a  £v.  (Opp.  p.  030.  Culonia,  1690.)  Unt 
it  has  been  shown  by  Crito  Canfabrigiensis,  that  there  is  nothing  in  Gre- 
gory's manner  of  introducing  this  expression  which  indicates  aii  intention 
of  quoting  the  sacred  writers.  (Vindication  of  Prof.  Person,  pp.  53,  54.)  It 
is  proper  to  remark,  that  Crito  adducui  another  passage  from  Gregory, 
which,  together  with  that  just  produced,'  was  traced  by  Mr.  Porson  as  being 
cited  from  him  by  Euthymius  Zigabeiius:  this  we  liave  omitted,  because 
it  has  no  immediate  reference  to  our  present  argument.  As  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  condense  within  the  limits  of  a  note  the  facts  and  arguments  of 
"Crito,"  to  show  that  the  Greek  fathers,  cited  by  Porson,  did  not  cite  the 
disputed  clause,  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred  to  his  "Vindication," 
pp.  37—75. 

'  "  In  the  Greek  Acts  of  the  Lateran  Council,  verhwn  et  spiritus  sanc- 
tus  (the  Word  and  the  Holy  Spirit)  had  been  badly  translated  by  a-oj-o;  nxi 
7xvi\ii/.3.  xytov,  without  an  article,  because  there  is  none  in  the  Latin  ;  but 
Calecas  and  Bryennius,  who  were  native  Greeks,  and  therefore  felt  this 
deficiency,  wrote  o  Koyoq  x.xi  to  irvsu^*  to  iyiov  with  an  article  more  than 
the  Coniplutensian  editors  and  Erasmus  inserted."  Bishop  Marsh'a  Let- 
ters to  Travis,  p.  xvii.  note  21. 


its  appearance  in  the  Latin,  which  would  scarcely  have  happened, 
if  it  had  been  derived  from  the  autograph  of  St.  John.^ 

G.  The  di.ypuied  clause  is  not  once  r/uo/ed  hij  any  of  the 
Lalin  Fathers,  even  where  the  subject  uf  luh.lch  they  were  ireai- 
iiig  required  it,  and  where  we  should  expect  to  see  it  cited. 

For  instance,  it  is  not  cited  by  the  author  of  the  treatise  on  the 
baptism  of  heretics  among  Cyprian's  works,  nor  by  Novatian, 
Hilary  bishop  of  Poictou,  Lucifer  bishop  of  Cagliari,  Ambrose, 
Faustiims  the  Presbyter,  Leo  the  Great  (who  transcribes  the 
whole  context,  but  passes  over  this  verse  in  his  celebrated  epistle 
to  Flavianus,  wluch  was  tran.slated  into  Greek,  and  read  in  the 
council  of  Chalcedon),  the  author  of  the  treatise  De  Promissis, 
Jerome,  Augustine,  Euclierius,  the  pseudo-Athanasius,  the  author 
of  the  Disputation  against  Arius,  Facundus,  Junilius,  Cercalis, 
Rusticus,  Bede,  Gregory,  Boethius,  Philastriu.i  bishop  of  Bre.sciaj 
Paschasius,  Arnobius  junior,  and  Pope  Eusebius  I.  The  atlvo- 
cates  for  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause,  indeed,  affirm 
that  it  is  quoted  by  TertuUian,  Cyprian,  and  other  ancient  fathers 
of  the  Latin  church  ;  but  this  again  has  been  denied  by  those  who 
maintain  that  the  clause  in  question  is  spurious.  The  supposed 
testimonies  of  these  fathers  are  considered  in  pp.  371 — 373.  infra. 

7.  The  Protestant  Reformers  either  rejected  I  John  v.  7.  or  at  ■ 
least  marhd  it  as  doubtful ,-  and  though  the  Editors  of  the  Eng- 
lish New   Testament,  daring  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
Edward  VI.,  uniformly  admitted  this  verse  into  the  text,  yet 
they  generally  expressed  a  doubt  of  its  authenticity. 

Thus  it  is  wanting  in  the  German  translation  of  the  illustrious 
reformer.  Dr.  Martin  Luther,  and  in  all  the  editions  of  it  pub- 
lished during  his  lifetime.  The  last  edition  printed  under  Lu^ 
titer's  superintendence  (and  which  was  not  quite  finished  till 
after  his  death)  was  that  of  1546,  in  the  preface  to  which  he  re- 
quests that  no  person  will  make  any  alterations  in  it.  But  this 
great  and  good  man  had  not  been  dead  thirty  years,  when  the 
passage  was  interpolated  in  his  German  translation.  The  fir.st 
edition,  in  which  this  act  of  inju.stice  took  place,  and  in  which 
Luther's  text  at  least  was  corrupted,  is  that  which  was  printed  at 
Frankfort  in  1574.  But  in  the  edition  of  1583,  printed  in  the 
same  place,  and  also  in  several  still  later  Frankfort  editions,  the 
passage  was  again  omitted.  The  oldest  Wittenberg  edition,  which 
received  it,  was  that  of  1596  ;  and  in  the  Wittenberg  edition  of 
1599  it  is  likewise  contained,  but  is  printed  in  Roman  charac- 
ters. In  1596  it  was  inserted  also  in  the  Low  German  Bible, 
printed  in  that  year  at  Hamburg.  In  the  seventeenth  century, 
if  we  except  the  Wittenberg  edition  of  1607,  which  remained 
true  to  Luther's  text,  the  insertion  was  general ;  and  since  that 
time  it  is  found  in  every  edition  of  his  German  translation  of  the 
Scriptures. 

Calvin,  who  retained  it,  speaks  very  doubtfully  of  it.  In  the 
Latin  version  printed  by  Stephens  in  1544,  and  ascribed  to  Leo 
Juda  (who  embraced  the  theological  views  of  Zwingle  the  re- 
former of  Switzerland),  it  is  dismissed  from  the  text,  but  retained 
in  the  margin ;  and  in  Castalio's  Latin  version,  printed  at  Basil 
in  1551  and  again  in  1563,  it  is  included  between  brackets. 

Of  the  English  versions,  the  earliest  is  that  of  William  Tindal, 
printed  in  1544,  aiid  again  in  1546.  Coverdale's  Bible  was 
printed  in  folio  in  1535.  Matthew's  in  1537,  partly  from  Tui- 
dal  and  partly  from  Coverdale,  and  reprinted  in  1549  and  1551. 
Cranmer's  Bible  was  printed  in  1539  and  1541,  In  1540  and 
1541  two  folio  editions  were  published  by  Taverner.  In  1541 
a  folio  Bible  was  printed  under  the  inspection  of  Bishops  Tonstal 
and  Heath.  In  1549  Tavcrner's  was  reprinted.  In  1.550  a  New 
Testament  in  octavo,  in  Latin  and  English,  was  printed  by  Gual- 
tier  for  Sir  John  Cheeke.  In  1552  a  Testament,  in  quarto,  by 
Hill.  In  1553,  a  Bible  hi  small  quarto,  by  Grafton.  In  1556, 
an  English  Bible,  in  folio,  was  printed  at  Rouen  ;  and  in  1562  a 
folio  Bible  was  printed  in  London,  by  Harrison. 

All  the.se  editions  contain  1  John  v.  7.  but  not  without  marks 
of  doubt,  either  including  the  verse  between  parentheses,  or  print- 
ing it  in,  diminutive  letters.  Thus,  in  (Jranmer's  Bible,  usually 
called  the  Great  Bible,  on  account  of  its  size,  in  the  edition  of 
1539,  it  appears  in  the  following  manner: — 

"This  Jesus  Christ  is  he  that  came  by  water  and  bloud,  not  by  water 
onely,  but  by  water  and  bloud.  And  it  is  the  spretethat  beareth  wytnes, 
because  the  Sprete  is  trneth. 

(For  ther  are  Ihre  which  beare  recorde  in  heaven,  the  father,  the  worde,  and  the  wholy  goosl. 
And  these  thre  are  one),  and  ther  are  thre  which  beare  recorde  (m  erth)  the 
sprete,"  AiC" 


6  Bp.  Marsh's  Letters  to  Travis,  pp.  xvi. — xix. 

■>  III  his  piologue,  (^rannier  explains  what  is  meant  by  the  small  letters: 
~"  Wliere  as  oticn  ye  shall  fiiide  a  small  lettre  in  the  texte,  it  signifyeth, 
that  so  moche  as  is  in  the  small  lettre  dolh  abounde,  and  is  more  in  the 
coinujon  translacyon  in  Latyne,  than  is  founUe,  either  in  the  Hebrue  or 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE   FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 


371 


On  the  other  hand,  there  are  three  old  editions  which  insert 
the  disputed  piissago  williout  any  ninrk  of  suspicion  :  viz.  one  in 
15;)(j,  l)elicvc(l  to  be  jjrintcd  by  (joni^b,  from  Tindal's  version  : 
the  New  Testament,  in  15.^2,  translated  by  command  of  Edward 
VI.  ;  and  the  Ceneva  Hibl<',  in  l.'i.'j?.  The  En-^lish  Testaments, 
printed  in  IMH  and  l.').'jH,  are  not  inchided  in  llic  preceding  no- 
tices of  translations  in  our  language:  both  of  tliem  were  trans- 
lated from  the  Vulgate,  and  consequently  have  the  disputed 
pas.sage.' 

FOK  THE  GENUINENESS  OF  THE  CONTROVERTED  CLAUSE,  IT  IS 
CONTENDED  THAT, 

( I . )   Exlernul  Evidence. 

1.  It  in  found  in  the  ancient  Latin  Version,  ^vliich  was  cur- 
rent in  JJrica  l/rfore  tlie  Validate  I'a-.sion  urns  made,  and  also 
in  /«<«/  niunu.scrijjfn  of  Jerome'' s,  or  the  Validate  Latin  Version, 

The  ancient  version  current  in  Africa,  and  which  is  preserved 
in  the  writings  of  the  African  fathers,  is  not  only  older  by  many 
centuries  than  the  most  ancient  copy  of  the  Vulgate  Latin  Ver- 
sion of  the  catholic  lOpistlcs  now  extant  (so  that  we  have  in 
these  versions  two  distinct  aiitlwvitii-n  for  the  verse),  but  it  is 
also  much  more  ancient  than  the  oldest  (Jreek  manuscri])ts. 
But  it  must  be  admitted,  that  although  most  of  the  manuscripts 
of  the  Vulgate  Latin  Version  contain  the  disputed  clause,  yet 
they  are  the  least  ancient  and  most  incorrect.  It  must  also  be 
recollected,  that  no  version  has  been  so  corrupted  as  the  Latin. 
The  Latin  transcribers  took  the  most  unwarrantable  liberties, 
inserting  in  one  book  of  the  New  Testament  passages  which 
they  took  from  another,  and  frequently  transferring  into  the  text 
what  they  found  written  in  the  margin  of  the  manuscript  whence 
they  copied.  Under  these  circumstances,  Michaclis  concludes 
every  one  must  immediately  suspect  that  a  passage,  which  is 
wanting  in  all  the  ancient  Greek  manuscripts,  and  is  likewise 
wanting  in  many  ancient  coj)ies  even  of  the  Latin  version,  is  an 
interpolation  in  those  Latin  manuscripts  which  contain  it.  And, 
in  the  present  instance,  the  same  cause  that  has  procured  so 
many  '/.ealous  advocates  in  favour  of  1  John  v.  7.  was  the  princi- 
pal cause  of  its  introduction  and  general  reception  ;  viz.  the  im- 
portance of  the  doctrine  which  it  contains. 

2.  //  is  found  in  the  Confession  of  Faith,  and  also  in  the 
Liturgjj  of  the  Greek  Churcli. 

The  Confession  of  Faith  of  the  Greek  Church  thus  intro- 
duces the  clause: — Goo,  in  his  nature,  is  true  and  eternal,  and 
the  Creator  of  all  things,  visible  and  invisible  ;  such  also  is  the 
Son,  and  the  Holy  Spiiiit.  They  are  also  of  the  same  essence 
among  themselves,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, who  says,  "  There  are  three  that  bear  testimony  in  Heax'e7i, 
THE  Father,  the  Woiid,  and   the  Holy  Spirit,  and  these 

THREE   ARE   ONE." 

In  the  Liturgies  of  the  Greek  C/iurch,  among  other  portions 
of  Scripture,  this  verse  is  directed,  by  the  Greek  rituals,  to  be 
read  in  its  course,  in  the  thirty-fifth  week  of  the  year.' 

3.  //  is  found  in  the  ORDO  ROMANUS,  or  Primitive  Li- 
turgy  of  the  Latin  C/titrch,  which  recites  this  verse  in  the 
offices  for  Trinity  Sunday,  and  for  the  octave  of  Easter,  and 
also  in  the  office  for  the  administration  of  baptism.' 

These  two  testimonies.  Dr.  Hales  imagines,  are  decisive  in 
favour  of  the  authenticity  of  the  clause.  For  (he  argues)  when 
we  consider  tlie  lasting  schism  that  prevailed  between  the  Greek 
and  Latin  churches,  from  the  time  of  the  Arian  and  Atlianasian 
controversy,  about  the  Homo-ousian  and  Honioi-ousian  doctrine 
of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son ;  and  about  the  procession  of  the 
ZIoly  Spirit  from  the  Father  and  from  the  Son  ;  which  was  main- 
tained from  both  by  the  Latin  church  ;  but  contested  respecting, 
the  latter  by  the  Greek,  inasmuch  as  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  from  the  Son  is  not  expressly  asserted  in  Scripture,  though 
it  may  fairly  be  implied;'  we  may  rest  assured  that  the  clergy 

the  ttroke,  which  wordes  and  sentences  we  have  added,  not  only  to  mani- 
festo tlic  same  unto  yon,  but  also  to  salisfie  and  content  iliose  tliat  herebe- 
foretynie  hath  niyssed  such  sentences  in  the  Bybles  and  New  Testaments 
before  set  fortti." 

'  Cliristian  Observer  for  1S09,  vol.  vlii.  p.  210.  In  this  volume  the  lover 
of  biblical  criticism  will  find  an  elaborate  and  interesting  dissertation  on 
the  various  readings  in  the  principal  passages  of  llie  New  Testament, 
respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

»  Dr.  Smith's  Miscellanea,  p.  155.    London,  16S6. 

a  Tr^is's  Letters  to  Gibbon,  pp.  61,  62. 

♦  That  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father,  we  learn  from  the 
express  authority  of  Christ,  who  says,  "The  Spirit  of  Truth  which  pro- 
ceedeth  from  the  Father."  (John  xv.  26.)  In  the  same  verse  he  says,  "  I 
will  send  the  Spirit."  And  St.  Paul  tells  the  G^latians,  "  God  hath  sent 
forth  the  Spirit  of  his  Son  into  your  hearts."  (Gal.  iv.  6.)  Hence  we  infer, 
thai  the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Son  also. 


of  the  Greek  church  would  never  have  adopted  the  clau.se  merely 
upon  the  authority  of  the  Latin,  if  they  had  not  suflicient  vouch- 
ers for  it  in  their  own  Greek  verity  ;  and  even,  perhaps,  in  the 
autograph  and  primary  copies  of  St.  John's  Epistles,  which  were 
probably  subsisting  in  the  church  of  Ephesus,  till  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  at  Ica.st.^  These  two  testimonies,  on  which  this 
learned  writer  thus  forcibly  argues,  would  uiKjuestionably  be 
entitled  to  great  weight,  if  we  were  certain  that  the  Confession 
and  liiturgies  of  the  Greek  church  had  come  down  to  us  uncor- 
nipted.  But  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  clause  in 
qucstiim  was  interpolated  therein,  in  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth 
century,  by  some  of  the  f Jreek  clergy,  who  were  devoted  [larti- 
zans  of  l\n:  Homish  See,  when  the  majority  of  the  conmion  peo- 
ple from  their  ignorance  could  7iot  detect  the  imposition ;  conse- 
quently this  argument  falls  to  the  gtoiyid. 

4.  //  is  cited  by  numerous  Latin  fathers. 

In  reply  to  this  argument  it  is  urged  that  the  authority  of  the 
Latin  fathers  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  CJreek  fathers  in  deleriiiin- 
ing  the  readings  of  the  Greek  marniscri()ts ;  for,  in  writing  to 
tlie  Latin  churches,  they  usually  refer  to  their  own  version  of  the 
Scriptures,  and,  like  our  divines,  must  be  understood  to  quote  the 
established  translation,  unless  they  give  notice  of  the  contrary  ; 
now,  if  the  Latin  fathers  were  unexceptionable  witnesses,  and 
if  they  had  quoted  in  express  terms  the  whole  of  the  controverted 
passage,  their  quotations  would  prove  nothing  more  than  that 
the  passage  stood  in  their  manuscripts  of  the  Latin  version,  and 
consecpiently  that  the  Latin  version  contained  it  in  a  very  early 
age ;  but  their  evidence,  it  is  asserted,  is  very  unsatisfactory. 

Among  the  Latin  fathers,  whom  the  advocates  for  the  genu- 
ineness of  1  John  v.  7.  affirm  to  have  quoted  this  verse,  Tertul- 
lian  in  the  second,  Cyprian  in  the  third,  Jerome  in  the  fourth,'' 
and  the  African  bishops  at  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  have 
principally  been  relied  on. 

(1.)  The  evidence  of  TertuUian,  the  oldest  Latin  writer,  who 
has  been  quoted  in  favour  of  1  John  v.  7.,  is  contained  in  the 
following  pa.ssage  of  his  treatise  against  Praxeas,  respecting  the 
Paraclete  or  Comforter: — 

"This  comforter,"  says  he  (Christ),  "shall  take  of  mine,  a.,  the  Son 
himself  had  taken  of  the  Father's.  Thus,  the  connection  of  the  Father  in 
the  Son,  and  of  the  Son  in  the  Paraclete,  makes  three  coherent  Persons, 
one  in  the  other ;  which  three  are  one"  [in  substance,  unum\  "  not  one" 
[in  nuniber,  unus] ;  "in  the  same  manner  in  which  it  was  said,  /  and  mij 
F\itlifr  are  one,  to  denote  the  unity  of  substance,  not  singularity  of  num- 
ber.'"' 

It  is  contended  that  if  these  words — -which  itiree  are  one,  qui 
tres  unnm  sitnt — had  not  been  in  Tcrtullian's  copy  of  the  New 
Testament,  most  assuredly  we  should  never  have  seen  them  in 
this  place.  But  it  has  been  replied.  What  can  be  made  of  these 
words  of  TertuUian,  in  order  to  prove  the  genuineness  of  this 
text  ?  It  is  plain  that  he  has  not  cited  the  controverted  passage, 
because  his  quotation  begins  with  ijvomodo  dictum  est,  in  the 
same  manner  as  it  is  written,  /  and  my  Father  are  one.  (John 
X.  30.)  That  the  controverted  text  was  neither  known  to  him, 
nor  cited  by  him,  is  highly  probable  ;  for  he  has  never  quoted  it 
in  all  his  works.  Indeed  he  would  have  had  no  occasion  to 
have  cited  John  x.  30.  if  he  had  known  any  thing  of  a  text 
which  had  affirmed  of  the  Father,  the  Word,  and  the  Spirit,  that 
ihese  three  are  one.  For  that  would  have  sounded  better,  and 
appeared  more  like  a  proof  of  the  unity  of  the  substance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  with  the  Father  and  the  Son,  than  any  text  which 
he  has  alleged  in  proof  of  that  point.s 

(2.)  From  the  writings  of  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  two 
passages  have  been  cited  to  prove  that  1  John  v.  7.  was  contained 
in  his  manuscript  of  the  Latin  version.  The  first  is  from  his 
seventy-third  Epistle,  addressed  to  Jubaianus,  in  a.  d.  256,  the 

»  The  author  of  the  Chroniron  Alexandriniim,  in  the  fourth  century, 
atfirms,  that  the  originals  of  St.  John's  writings  were  then  preserved  at 
Kpliesus.    Dr.  Hales  on  the  Trinity,  vol.  ii.  pp.  196,  197. 

«  The  testimony  of  Vigilius,  bishop  of  Thapsus,  who  wrote  in  the  fifth 
century,  is  designedly  omitted,  as  he  is  a  writer  of  very  little  credit,  wtio 
imposed  his  sentiments  upon  the  world  under  the  names  of  .Mhanasius, 
Idaiius,  and  others ;  and  also  because  (he  passage,  in  w  hich  he  is  supposed 
to  h.ive  referred  to  the  disputed  clause,  is  suspected  not  to  be  genuine. 

1  Caeterum  dc  meo  sumet,  inqiiit,  sirut  ipse  de  patris.  lla  connexus, 
Patris  in  Filio,  et  Filii  in  Paracleto  tres  efficit  cohrerentes,  allerum  ex 
altero,  qui  tres  unum  sunt,— non  unus  ;  quomodo  dictum  est,  "  £Jgo  et 
Paler  unum  xvmus"  ad  substantia?  unitatem  non,  ad  nunieri  singolarita- 
tern.    TertuUian  adv.  Praxeam,  c.  25. 

8  Benson  on  the  Epistles,  vol.  ii.  p.  6.'52.  Michaelis  (vol.  iv.  p.  421.)  hw 
considered  the  above-cited  passage  of  TertuUian,  which,  he  determines,  is 
not  a  quotation.  But  the  ftillost  consideration  of  it  will  be  found  in  Bishop 
Kaye's  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Second  and  Third  Centuries,  illus- 
trated from  TertuUian  (pp.  544—546.) ;  who  concludes  his  observatioiis  by 
e.x-pressing  his  opinion,  that  "the  passage  in  TertuUian,  far  from  contauiing 
an  allusion  to  1  John  v.  7.,  furnishes  most  decisive  proof  that  he  knew 
nothing  of  the  verse."  p.  546. 


372 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IV. 


object  of  which  is  to  invalidate  the  baptism  administered  by  he- 
retics.    In  this  Epistle,  the  following  passage  occurs: — 

"7/"  any  one  could  lie  bajHiznd  by  a  he.rellc,  and  could  obtain  remission 
of  sins, — if  lie  has  oblnined  remission  of  sins,  and  is  sanctified,  and 
become  the  temple  of  God  I  I  ask,  of  tchat  God!  If  of  the  Creator,  he 
cannot  be  his  temple,  who  has  nut  believed  in  llim;  if  of  Christ,  neither 
can  he  who  denies  Him  to  be  God,  be  His  temple  ;  if  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
since  the  three  are  one,  how  can  the  Holy  Spirit  be  reconciled  to  him,  who 
is  an  enerny  either  of  the  Father  or  of  the  Son!"'- 

In  this  passage  Dr.  Mill  and  other  advocates  for  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  disputed  clause,  contend  that  there  is  plainly  an  ar- 
gument founded  upon  the  unity  of  the  Father,  of  the  Son,  and 
of  the  Holy  Sjtirit.  But  how  does  Cyprian  make  out  or  prove 
that  unity  ]  He  attempts  no  proof  of  such  unity,  but  presup- 
poses it  as  a  point  that  must  be  admitted. — "  Since  the  three," 
he  says,  "are  one,  the  Holy  Sjtirit  cannot  be  reconciled  to  him, 
■who  is  an  enemy  either  of  the  Father  or  of  the  Son."  That 
they  are  one,  he  supposes  every  one  will  know  who  has  read 
the  New  Testament,  and  therefore  he  only  just  alludes  to  the 
text  as  his  authority.  In  opposition  to  this  reasoning,  Michaelis 
observes,  that  the  words — cum  tres  unum  sunt, — though  inserted 
in  the  later  editions  of  Cyprian's  works,  are  not  contained  in 
that  edition  which  was  pubUshed  by  Erasmus  ;  and  that  even  if 
they  were  genuine,  they  will  prove  nothing  more  than  the  same 
words  which  are  quoted  by  TertuUian.^ 

The  other  passage  of  Cyprian,  above  alluded  to,  is  to  be  found 
in  his  treatise  on  the  Unity  of  the  Church,  written  a.  d.  251, 
where  he  thus  expressly  cites  the  disputed  clause : — 

"The  Lord  saith,  I  and  my  Father  are  one  ;  and  again  it  is  written  of 
theFatlier,  and  of  the  Son,  andof  the  Holy  Spirit,  And  these  three  areone.''^ 

This,  it  is  urged  by  the  advocates  of  the  contested  clause,  is  a 
plain  citation  of  two  different  texts  of  Scripture,  viz.  The  first, 
of  what  Jesus  Christ  says  of  himself,  in  John  x.  30. — "  The 
Lord  says,  I  and  my  Father  are  one  ;"  and  the  second  (which 
is  expressly  accompanied  with  the  ancient  formula  of  quotation, 
it  is  written)  is  a  citation  of  what  is  spoken  of  them,  and  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  some  other  place.  "  And  again,"  it  is  written,  of 
the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  .^7id  these 
three  are  one.  But  where  is  it  so  written,  except  in  1  John  v.  7. 1 
On  the  other  hand,  admitting  that  the  words  Et  tres  iinum  sunt — 
And  these  three  are  one — were  so  quoted  from  the  verse  in 
question,  Michaelis  asks  whether  a  passage  found  in  no  ancient 
Greek  manuscript,  quoted  by  no  Greek  father,  and  contained  in 
no  other  ancient  version  but  the  Latin,  is  therefore  to  be  pronounced 
genuine,  merely  because  one  single  Latin  father  of  the  first  three 
centuries,  who  was  bishop  of  Carthage,  where  the  Latin  version 
only  was  used,  and  where  Greek  was  unknown,  has  quoted  it? 
Under  these  circumstances,  should  we  conclude,  that  the  passage 
stood  originally  in  the  Greek  autograph  of  Saint  John  '\  Certainly 
not;  for  the  only  inference,  which  could  be  deduced  from 
Cyprian's  quotation,  would  be  this,  that  the  passage  had  been 
introduced  into  the  Latin  version  so  early  as  the  third  century. 
This  answer  Michaelis  thinks  sufficient  to  invalidate  Cyprian's 
authority,  in  establishing  the  authenticity  of  1  John  v.  7.  on  the 
supposition  that  Cyprian  really  quoted  it.  But  that  he  did  so,  it 
is  asserted  to  be  more  than  any  man  can  prove.  The  words  Tres 
nnum  sunt  are  contained  not  only  in  the  seventh  but  likewise  in 
the  eighth  verse,  which  is  a  part  of  the  ancient  and  genuine  text 
of  John  ;  and  therefore  it  is  at  least  possible,  that  Cyprian  took 
them,  not  from  the  seventh,  but  from  the  eighth  verse.  It  is  true 
that  he  says,  These  words  are  written  of  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost,  whereas  Tres  unum  sunt  in  the  eighth  verse  relate 
only  to  the  spirit,  the  water,  and  the  blood.  But  it  must  be 
observed  that  the  Latin  fathers  interpreted  Spiritiis,  Aqua,  et 
Sanguis,  not  literally  but  mystically,  and  some  of  them  really 
understood  by  these  words  Pater,  Filius,  et  Spiritussanctus,  taking 
aqua  in  the  sense  of  Pater,  sanguis  in  the  sense  of  Filius,  and 
epiritus  in  the  sense  of  Spiritus  sanctus.^ 

,  >  Si  baptizari  quis  apnd  liajrcticum  pofuit,  ulique  et  remissam  peccato- 
runi  consequi  potuit,— si  peccatorum  remissam  consccutus  est,  et  santifi- 
catus  est,  et  teinplum  Uei  factus  est ;  quajro  cu jns  Dei  ?  Si  Creatoris,  non 
potuit,  qui  in  euni  non  credidit;  si  Cliristi,  non  Hujus  potest  fieri  tem[ilum, 
qui  negat  Oeum  Christum  ;  si  Spiritus  Sancticujjj  tres  unum  sunt  quomodo 
Spiritus  Sanctus  placatus  esse  ei  potest,  qui  aut  Patris  aut  Filii  inimicus 
est  ?    Cypriani  Opera  a  Fell.  p.  203.  folio.    Oxon.  1G82. 

2  See  p.  371. 

'  Dicit  Dominus,  Ego  et  Pater  unum  sumus :  et  iterum  de  Patre,  et 
Filio,  et  Spiritu  Sancto  scriptutn  est,  Et  tres  unum.  sunt.  De  Unitate 
Ecclesiee,  Op.  p.  109. 

*  Michaelis's  Introduction,  vol.  iv.  p.  423.  He  adduces  instances  of  such 
mystical  interpretation  from  Augustine,  who  wrote  a  century  after  Cyprian  ; 
from  Eucherius,  who  wrote  a.  d.  434;  and  from  Facundus,  who  wrote  in 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century.  (Ibid.  p.  424.)  Bishop  Marsh,  after 
Michaelis,  has  coUecled  similar  instances  of  myslical  interpretation.  (Let- 
ters to  Travis,  Pref  pp.  xii. — xiv.  note  15.)  Dr.  Hales  (on  the  Trinity,  vol. 
ji.  pp.  197,  198.)  has  endeavoured  to  vindicate  the  citations  of  Augustine 
and  Eucherius  as  real  quotations,  and  not  myslical  interpretations  of  the 


(3.)  The  third  Latin  father,  produced  in  favour  of  this  disputed 
passage,  is  Jerome  ;  who  flourished  in  the  latter  end  of  the  fourth 
or  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  and  resided  chiefly  at  Beth- 
lehem. His  profound  knowledge  of  the  original  Scriptures  has 
caused  his  biblical  labours  to  be  held  in  the  highest  esteem.  In 
several  editions  of  the  Latin  version,  there  is  a  preface  or  prologue 
to  the  Catholic  Epistles,  ascribed  to  him  ;  which  pretends  that  all 
the  Greek  copies  had  the  seventh  verse,  and  complains  of  the 
Latin  translators  as  unfaithful,  for  leaving  it  out. 

On  this  supposed  prologue  of  Jerome  many  advocates  of  the 
disputed  clause  have  founded,  as  they  imagine,  a  powerful  ar- 
gument for  its  genuineness  :  while  others  have  candidly  admitted 
that  the  prologue  is  spurious.  In  fact,  this  preface  is  of  no  au- 
thority whatever  ;  for,  1.  Its  style  is  so  barbarous  as  to  prove  that 
it  could  not  have  been  written  by  Jerome  ;  2.  It  is  wanting  in, 
his  catalogue  of  prefaces,  as  well  as  in  the  best  and  most  ancient 
manuscripts  of  Jerome's  version ;  3.  It  is  often  found  in  Latin 
copies  without  his  name ;  it  makes  use  of  the  term  Efiisiolx 
Cunoniae,  "  Canonical  Epistles,"  whereas  Jerome's  title  for  them 
was  Epistolx  Catholicse,  "('atholic  Epistles;"  4.  Further,  this 
preface  is  prefixed  to  some  Latin  copies  of  the  Catholic  Epistles, 
in  which  the  disputed  text  is  7iot  inserted  :  whence  it  is  evident 
that  the  ancient  MSS.  from  which  such  copies  were  made  had 
not  the  disputed  text,  though  the  transcribers  had  the  folly  to 
insert  that  preface ;  5.  And,  finally,  what  proves  that  it  is  utterly 
destitute  of  authority,  is  the  fact,  that  "it  insinuates  one  falsehood, 
and  asserts  two  other  direct  and  notorious  falsehoods.  It  in- 
sinuates that  all  the  Greek  copies  of  the  New  Testament  had 
this  verse  ;  whereas  none  of  them  had  it,  nor"  (as  we  have 
already  seen)  "  has  any  of  the  genuine  works  of  the  Greek 
fathers  once  mentioned  it.  And  Jerome  above  all  men,  who  was 
so  conversant  iti  the  Greek  copies  of  the  New  Testament  and  in 
the  Greek  fathers,  must  needs  have  known  this  to  have  been  a 
direct  falsehood.  Again,  the  preface  asserts  that  the  Latin  trans- 
lators were  unfaithful  in  leaving  out  the  testimony  of  the  Father, 
the  Word,  and  the  Spirit,  and  that  he  [Jerome]  had  restored  it."* 

(4.)  But  a  chief  argument  arising  from  the  quotations  of  the 
Latin  fathers  is  derived  from  the  confession  of  faith,  drawn  up  by 
Eugenius,  bishop  of  Carthage,  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  and 
presented  by  nearly  four  hundred  bishops  to  Hunncric,  king  of 
the  Vandals,  an  Arian  and  a  bitter  enemy  to  those  who  professed 
the  orthodox  faith.  In  this  confession,  which  is  recorded  by 
Victor  Vitensis,"  the  following  passage  occurs  : — 

Utadhuc  luce  clarius  unius  divinitatis  esse  cum  Patre  et  Fiho  Spiritum 
Sanctum  doccamus,  Joannis  Evangelistte  testiraonio  couiprobatur.  Ait 
namque,  Tres  sunt,  aui  testimonium  perhibent  in  ccelo,  pater,  verbum, 

ET  SPIRITUS  SANCTUS,  ET  HI  TRES  UNUM  SUNT. 

In  Enghsh  thus: — "That  we  may  further  show  it  lo  be  clearer  than  the 
light,  that  the  divinity  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  is  one, 
we  have  the  testimony  of  the  evangelist  John  ;  for  he  says, — there  are 

THREE  WHICH  BEAR  RECORD  IN  HEAVEN,  THE  FATHER,  THE  WORD,  AND  THE 
HOLY  SPIRIT,  AND  THESE  THREE  ARE  ONE." 

In  this  passage  of  the  confession  of  the  African  bishops,  1  John 
V.  7.  is  clearly  and  distinctly  quoted  ;  and  the  circumstances  under 
which  it  was  delivered  to  sworn  enemies  of  the  Catholic  faith 
(for  which  these  bishops  suffered  very  severe  persecutions)  have 
been  urged  as  proofs  for  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause, 
the  authenticity  of  which  the  hostile  Arians  would  not  fail  to 
have  challenged  or  denied,  had  it  even  been  considered  of  doubt- 
ful origin.''     But  the  appearance  of  this  verse  in  the  confession 

eighlVi  verse  ;  and  Bishop  Burgess  bas  argued,  that  neither  Cyprian  nor 
any  other  father  before  Facundus  (who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century)  did  interpret  the  eighth  verse  mystically.  (Vindication  of 
1  John  v.  7.  pp.  xvii.  et  seq.  136 — 138.)  His  arguments,  however,  are  ably, 
and,  we  think,  satisfactorily  controverted  by  Crito  Cantabrigiensis.  who 
lias  particularly  considered  the  passages  supposed  to  be  cited  by  Augus- 
tine, Eucherius,  Fulgentius,  Cassiodorus,  and  Leo  the  Great,  Bisliop  of 
Rome.  (Vindication  of  Porson,  pp.  230— 288.)  See  also  on  this  topic  I>r. 
Benson  on  the  Epistles,  vol.  ii.  pp.  633,  634. 

'  Benson  on  tlie  Epistles,  vol.  ii.  p.  635.  Hieronymi  Opera  a  Marfianay, 
torn.  i.  col.  1671 — 1673.  Paris,  1693.  Kettner,  wlio  reluctantly  admits  that 
the  preface  in  question  is  not  the  production  of  Jerome,  yet  maintains  that 
it  is  good  evidence  for  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  text  in  the  eighth, 
nintli,  aqd  following  centuries  !  (Ilisloria  Dicti  Joannei,  1  .lohn  v.  7.  p.  172.) 
See  also  the  Vindication  of  Professor  Porson  by  Crito  Cantabrigiensis, 
pp.  182—209. 

0  Historia  Persecutionis  VandalicaB,  p.  29.  edit.  Ruinart.  Mr.  Travis  has 
related  the  history  of  this  transaction  in  liis  "Letters  to  Edward  Gibbon, 
Esq."  pp.  57 — 60. ;  and  he  has  printed  the  confession  at  length  in  his  Appen- 
dix, No.  xxxi.  pp.  31.  et  seq.  ' 

•■  See  Mr.  Butler's  Hora3  Biblicoe,  vol.  ii.  pp.  292—295.  2d  edit.  The  argu- 
ments briefly  noticed  above  are  urged  at  length  under  twelve  heads,  with 
great  ingenuity,  by  Mr.  Butler ;  and  if  the  historian,  from  whose  expres- 
sions he  has  deduced  them,  had  been  a  writer  of  unimpeachable  veracity, 
lliey  would  go  far  towards  deciding  the  controversy.  But,  unhappily  for 
the  testimony  of  Victor  Vitensis,  that  historian  has  not  only  rendered  his 
credit  extremely  suspicious  by  his  account  of  the  Vandalic  persecution, 
but  he  has  also  excited  4he  sneers  of  infidelity  (see  Gibbon's  Dechne  and 
Fall,  vol.  vi.  pp.  283 — 295.  8vo.  edit),  by  recording  some  ridiculous  miracles, 
the  trutii  of  which,  notwithstanding,  he  solemnly  pledged  himself  to  prove. 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 


373 


of  the  African  bishops,  Michaclis  remarks,  proves  nothing  in 
resj)cct  of  its  authenticity  ;  for  the  only  inference  which  we  can 
deduce  is,  that  the  passage  was  contained  in  the  Latin  nianu- 
scrijjts  tiien  used  in  Africa.  "  We  may  infer  that  Eugenius,  who 
dr(!w  up  the  confession,  found  the  passage  in  his  Latin  manu- 
script ;  Itut  that  all  the  bishops  who  signed  this  confession  found 
the  quoted  passage  likewise  in  their  manuscripts  is  a  very  un- 
warrantable inference.  For  wlien  a  formulary  of  religious  articles 
is  composed,  however  numerous  the  persons  may  be  who  set 
their  names  to  it,  it  is  in  fact  the  work  only  of  him  who  drew  it 
up;  and  a  subscription  to  such  a  formulary,  though  it  conveys  a 
general  assent  to  the  doctrines  contained  in  it,  by  no  means  im- 
plies that  every  sul)scriber  has,  previous  to  liis  subscription, 
examined  every  argument  adduced,  or  every  quotation  that  is 
alleged  in  it,  and  ol)tained  a  thorough  conviction  that  not  one 
of  them  is  exceptionable.  But  it  is  said,  the  Arians  themselves 
who  were  present  when  this  confession  was  delivered  made  no 
objection  to  the  (juotation, '  'i'res  sunt  qui  testimuninm  pci-hibetit 
in  cah,'  &c.  ;  that  they  acknowledged,  therefore,  by  their  very 
silence,  that  the  passage  was  not  spurious.  Now  this  is  a  very 
weak  and  even  absurd  argument.  For,  in  the  first  place,  we 
have  no  further  knowledge  of  this  transaction  than  what  the  or- 
thodox themselves  have  given  of  it ;  and,  therefore,  it  is  not  fair 
to  conclude,  that  the  Arians  made  no  objections,  merely  from  the 
circumstance  that  no  objections  are  on  record.  Secondly,  if  the 
conclusion  were  admissible,  nay,  were  it  absolutely  certain,  that 
the  .\rians,  who  were  present  at  this  conference,  admitted, '  Tres 
aiiiit  qui  testimonium  perliibent  in  calo^  &c.  it  would  follow 
only  that  the  passage  was  in  their  Latin  manuscripts,  as  the 
quotation  of  it  shows  that  it  was  in  the  Latin  manuscript  of 
Eugenius,  who  drew  up  the  confession.  For  these  Arians  were 
Vandals  who  had  been  driven  out  of  Spain  into  Africa,  who 
read  the  Bible  only  in  the  Latin  translation,  and  were  totally 
unacquainted  with  Greek.  Consequently  their  silence  on  the 
quotation  of  a  passage  from  the  Latin  translation,  at  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century,  alVords  no  presumption  whatsoever  that  the 
passage  existed  in  the  Greek  original.  Lastly,  the  whole  transac- 
tion between  Hunneric  with  his  Arian  Vandals  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  orthodox  bishops  of  Africa  on  the  other,  was  of  such 
a  nature  as  was  very  ill  adapted  to  the  decision  of  a  critical 
question.  For  these  Vandals  did  not  combat  by  argument,  but 
by  force ;  and  they  brought  their  adversaries  to  silence,  not  by 
reasoning  with  them,  but  by  cutting  out  their  tongues.  To  argue, 
therefore,  from  the  silence  of  such  men  to  the  authenticity  of 
1  John  v.  7.  is  nearly  the  same  as  an  appeal  in  its  favour  to  the 
testimony  of  a  Russian  corporal."' 

Such  is  the  external  evidence  for  tlie  genuineness  of  this 
much  litigated  clause.  It  only  remains  that  we  brielly 
notice, 

(2,)    Tke  Internal  Evidence  adduced  in  its  Behalf. 

1.  //  is  contended  that  the  connection  of  the  disputed  clause 
requires  it  to  be  inserted,  in  order  to  complete  the  sense  ,■  while 
'  those  loho  reject  it  affirm  that  its  insertion  injures  the  whole 
passage. 

Various  commentators  both  of  the  Romish  and  Protestant 
churches  have  given  explications,  the  design  of  which  is  to 
show  that  the  verse,  if  properly  interpreted,  instead  of  dis- 
turbing the  sense  of  the  verses  with  w-hich  it  is  joined,  rather 
renders  it  more  connected  and  complete.  But  the  argument, 
wliieli  they  would  derive  from  this  supposed  necessary  con- 
nection, is  denied  by  the  opponents  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
disputed  clause,  who  contend  that  the  sense  would  also  be 
more  complete,  and  the  connection  more  clear,  without  it. 
That  the  reader  may  be  enabled  duly  to  estimate  the  force  or 
weakness  of  thisargument,  the  exposition  of  Bishop  Ilorsley, 
which  is  drawn  up  on  the  assumption  that  it  contains  the 
"  genuine  words"  of  the  apostle,  shall  be  subjoined,  together 
with  the  explanation  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  snow  that  the  sense  is  entire  without  the  disputed 
clause. 

i.  Bishop  Horsley's  Paraphrastic  Exposition. 

"  There  arc  three  in  Hearen  that  bear  record, — record  to  this  fact,  that 
Jesus  is  the  Christ,—'  the  Father,  the  Word,  and  the  Huly  Ghost.' 

"The  Father  bare  witness  by  liis  own  voice  from  heaven,  twice  declar- 
ing Jesus  liis  beloved  Son  ;  first  after  his  baptism,  wlien  he  came  up  out  of 
the  river,  and  again  at  the  transfiguration.  A  third  time  the  Father  bare 
witness  when  he  sent  his  angel  to  Jesus  in  agony  in  the  garden. 

"The  eternal  M''ord  bare  witness  by  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead  dwell- 
ing in  Jesus  bodily, — by  that  plenitude  of  strength  and  power  with  which 
he  was  supplied  for  the  performance  of  his  miracles,  and  the  endurance 
in  his  frail  and  mortal  body  of  the  fire  of  the  Father's  wrath.  The  Word 
bare  witness,— perhaps  more  indirectly,— still  the  word  bare  witness,  by 

«  Michaelis's  Introduction,  vol.  iv.  pp.  427  428. 


the  preternatural  darkness  which  for  three  hours  obscured  the  snn,  while 
Jesus  hung  in  torment  upon  the  cross;  in  the  quaking  of  the  earth,  the 
rending  ol  the  rocks,  and  the  opening  of  the  graves,  lo  liberate  the  bodies 
of  the  saints  which  appeared  in  the  holy  city,  after  our  Lord's  les^urrec- 
lion;  for  these  extraordinary  convulsions  of  Ihe  material  world  must  be 
ascribed  to  that  power  by  which  God  in  the  beginning  created  it,  and  still 
ilirectM  the  course  of  it,- that  is,  to  Ihe  immediate  act  of  the  Word  ;  for, 
'  by  him  all  things  were  made,  and  he  upholdeth  all  things  by  the  word  of 
his  own  power.' 

"The  Holy  Ghost  bare  witness,  by  Ihe  acknowledgment  of  Ihe  infant 
Jesus,  made,  by  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Sj)iril,  by  the  mouths  of  his 
servants  and  instrument,  Simeon  and  Anna;  and  more  directly,  by  hie 
visible  descent  upon  the  adult  Jesus  at  his  baptism,  and  upon  the  aposlled 
of  Jesus  afti-r  Ihe  ascension  of  their  I-ord. 

"Thus  the  three  in  heaven  bare  uilness ;  and  these  three,  the  apostle 
adds,  are  one, — one,  in  the  unity  of  a  consentient  testimony  ;  (or  thai  iiiiily 
is  all  that  is  requisite  lo.  Ihe  purpo.se  of  the  apostle's  present  argument 

He  goes  on  :   And  there  are  three  in  earth  that  bear  irilnesa, —  llie 

Spirit,  and  the  Water,  and  the  Blood  ;  and  these  three  agree  in  one. 

"The  Spirit  is  here  evidently  to  be  understood  of  the  gifts  preternatu- 
rally  conferred  upon  believers. 

"The  tc'tter  and  the  blood  mentioned  here  as  witnesses,  are  Ihe  water 
and  the  blood  which  issued  from  the  Redeemer's  side,  when  his  body, 
already  dead,  was  pierced  by  a  soldier  with  a  spear. 

"But  how  do  this  water  and  this  blooil  bear  witness  that  the  crucifie'i 
Jesus  was  the  Christ?  Water  and  blood  were  Ihe  indispensable  instru- 
ments of  cleansing  and  expiation  in  all  the  cleansings  and  expiations  of  Ihe 
law.  'Almost  all  things,'  saith  Saint  Paul,  'are  by  Ihe  law  pnrged  with 
blood;  and  without  shcilding  of  blood  there  is  no  rcmis.sion.'  Hut  the  pur- 
gation was  not  by  blood  only,  but  by  blood  and  water ;  for  the  same  apostle 
says,  "  When  Aloses  bad  spoken  every  precejit  to  all  Ihe  people,  according 
to  the  law,  he  took  the  blood  of  calves  and  of  goats,  with  water,  and  sprink- 
led both  the  liook  and  all  the  people.'  All  the  cleansings  and  expiations  of 
tlie  law,  by  water  and  animal  blood,  were  typical  of  the  real  cleansing  ol 
Ihe  conscience  by  the  water  of  baptism,  and  of  the  expiation  of  real  giiiU 
by  the  blood  of  Christ  shed  upon  the  cross,  and  virlually  taken  and 
received  by  Ihe  faithful  in  the  Lord's  supper.  The  llowing,  therefore,  of 
Ibis  water  and  this  blood  immediately  upon  our  Lord's  death,  from  the 
wound  opened  in  his  side,  was  a  notification  to  the  surrounding  multitudes, 
though  at  the  time  understood  by  few,  that  the  real  expiation  was  now 
couiplete,  anri  the  cleansing  fount  set  open. 

"  Thus  I  have  endeavoured  to  explain  how  the  water  and  the  blood, 
tonether  with  the  spirit,  are  witnesses  upon  earth,  to  establish  the  faith 
which  overcometh  the  world."' 

It  will,  however,  be  observed,  that  this  argument  assumes  that 
ev  rn  yn,  uf)07i  earth,  in  the  eighth  verse,  implies  that  something 
had  preceded  with  a  tm  cjfatai,  in  heaven.  "  But  they  who  argue 
in  this  manner"  (Bishop  Marsh  observes)  "forget  that  »  th  yx  i.s 
wanting  in  the  Greek  MSS.  as  well  as  a  Ttv  cvfuva.  Also,  in 
the  oldest  Latin  MSS.  the  8th  verse  is  equally  destitute  of  in 
tei-7-a,  which  was  inserted  for  the  very  purpose  of  having  some- 
thing to  correspond  with  i?i  calo,  and  shows  how  well  the  seve- 
ral parts  of  the  interpolation  have  been  fitted  to  each  other."^ 

ii.  Sir  Isaac  JK^eivtoii's  Paraphrastic  Exposition. 

"  Who  is  he  that  orercometh  the  world,  but  he  that  believelh  that  JEsra 
is  the  Son  of  God,  tliat  Son  spoken  of  in  the  Psalms,  where  he  sailh,  'Thou 
art  my  Son,  this  day  have  1  begotten  thee.'  This  is  he  that,  after  Ihe  Jews 
had  long  expected  him,  came,  first  in  a  mortal  body,  by  baptism  of  uater, 
and  then  in  an  immortal  one  by  shedding  his  blood  upon  the  cross,  and 
rising  again  from  the  dead  ;  not  by  trater  only,  but  by  ttater  and  blood; 
being  the  Son  of  God,  as  well  by  his  resurrection  from  the  dead  (Acts  xiii. 
33.),  as  by  his  supernatural  birth  of  the  Virgin.  (Luke  i.  3.5.)  Anil  it  is  the 
Spirit  also,  that,  together  with  the  water  and  blood,  beareth  icitness  of  the 
truth  of  his  coming  ;  because  the  Spirit  is  truth,  and  so  a  fit  and  unexcep- 
tionable witness.  For  there  are  three  that  bear  record  of  his  coming;  the 
Spirit,  which  he  promised  to  send,  and  which  was  since  sent  forth  upon  us 
in  the  form  of  cloven  tongues  and  of  various  gifts;  the  baptism  of  trater, 
wherein  God  testified  'this  is  my  beloved  Son  ;'  and  the  shedding  of  his 
blood,  accompanied  with  his  resurrection,  whereby  he  became  the  most 
faithful  martyr  or  witness  of  this  truth.  And  these  three,  the  Spirit,  the 
baptism,  and  passion  of  Christ,  a^ree  in  witnessing  one  and  Ihe  same 
thing  (namely,  that  the  Son  of  God  is  come)  ;  and  therefore  their  evidence 
is  strong  ;  for  the  law  retpiires  but  two  consenting  witnesses,  and  here  we 
have  three  ;  and  if  ire  receire  the  teitness  of  tnen,  the  threefold  iritness 
of  God,  which  he  bare  of  his  Son,  by  declaring  at  his  baptism  'This  is  my 
beloved  Son,'  by  raising  him  from  the  dead,  and  by  pouring  out  his  Spirit 
on  us,  is  greater ;  and  therefore  ought  to  be  more  readily  received." 

"  This,"  Sir  Isaac  Newton  observes,  "  is  the  sense  plain  and 
natural,  and  the  argument  full  and  strong ;  but  if  you  insert  the 
testimony  of  the  three  in  heaven,  you  interrupt  and  spoil  it :  for 
the  whole  design  of  the  apostle  being  here  to  prove  to  men  by 
witness  the  truth  of  Christ's  coming,  I  would  ask  how  the  testi- 
mony of '  the  three  in  heaven'  makes  to  this  purpose  ?  If  their 
testimony  he  not  given  to  men,  how  does  it  prove  to  them  the 
truth  of  Christ's  coming  1  If  it  be  [given],  how  is  the  testimony 
in  heaven  distinguished  from  that  on  earth  ?  It  is  the  same 
spirit  which  witnesses  in  heaven  and  in  earth.  If  in  both  cases 
it  witnesses  to  us  men,  wherein  lies  the  difference  between  its 
witnessing  in  heaven  and  its  witnessing  in  earth  1  If  in  the 
first  case  it  docs  not  witness  to  men,  to  whom  does  it  witness  ? 
And  to  what  purpose  7  And  how  does  its  witnessing  make  to 
the  design  of  St.  John's  discourse  ?  Let  them  make  good  sense 
of  it  who  are  able.  For  my  part,  I  can  make  none.  If  it  be 
said,  that  we  are  not  to  determine  what  is  Scripture,  and  what 
not,  by  our  private  judgments,  I  confess  it  in  places  not  contro 

»  Bp.  Horsley's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  pp.  193—201, 

•  Bp.  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  vL  p.  27.  note.  i 


374 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  Chap.  IV. 


verted  ;  but,  in  disputable  places,  I  love  to  take  what  I  can  best 
understand."' 

2.  At  the  seventh  verse,  the  three  that  hear  record  are  mani- 
feslly  persons,  and  the  tvords  that  express  two  of  them  are  mas- 
culine nouns,  0  nu^Hp  (the  Father),  and  o  Aoyoc  (the  Word)  ; 
whence  we  niatf  naturally  expect  that  the  adjuncts,  or  adjectives 
ivhich  allude  to  them,  would  all  be  of  the  nuMCuline  gender  like- 
wise: consCfpientU/  we  find  the  hei'vtnli/  witnesses  to  be  denoted 
by  the  words  Tfaiua-n  d  y.Afrufow'TK  {lliere  are  three  that  bear 
record"). 

Thus  far,  all  is  conformable  to  the  rules  of  plain  grammar. 
Besides,  it  cannot  be  dilficult  to  conceive  that  the  sacred  writer, 
when  about  to  express  the  earthly  witnesses  in  the  next  verse, 
might  carry  on  the  same  expression  or  adjuncts  to  that  verse  ;  and 
the  correspondence  in  the  number  of  witnesses,  and  the  similarity 
of  their  design  in  bearing  witness  to  the  truth  of  the  religion  of 
Christ,  may  tend  to  confirm  this  sentiment.  But  if  the  former  verse 
did  not  precede,  and  should  be  rejected  as  spurious,  it  will  be 
difficult  to  account  for  the  use  of  the  masculine  gender  ;  and  we 
should  rather  be  inclined  to  suspect  that  the  words  would  have 
been  tjih.  u<ri  rat.  fxupTvp'Mvrt,  as  all  the  terms  that  follow  to  denote 
the  earthly  energies,  or  attestations,  are  every  one  of  the  neuter 
gender.  It  appears,  then,  that  the  turn  of  the  language,  as  well 
as  the  nature  of  the  witnesses,  would  require  the  use  of  this  gen- 
der ;  and  therefore  the  accuracy  of  the  construction,  or  the  strict 
rules  of  grammar,  Ta\xst  favo7ir  the  present  text.^ 

3.  Bishop  Middleton  has  a  long  and  elaborate  dissertation, 
the  design  of  which  is  to  show  that  the  article  TO  before 
h  ii^iv  in  the  eighth  verse  must  necessarily  refer  to  the  word 
"EN  in  the  preceding  verse,  and  consequently  that  both 
verses  must  be  retained,  or  both  rejected. ^ 

This  argument  is  not  of  a  nature  to  admit  of  abridgment ;  but, 
in  order  to  be  strictly  correct,  there  should  be  an  identity  in  the 
subject,  and  not  a  similarity  only.  A  doubt  may  be  reasonably 
entertained,  whether,  in  the  language  of  St.  John,  TO  ~^EN  is  not 
used  as  equivalent  to  TO  ATTO,  as  it  is  in  Phil.  ii.  2. ;  in  which 
case  no  reference  to  any  preceding  expression  would  be  applied. 
To  this  we  may  add,  that  if  the  Vulgate  preserves  the  true  read- 
ing, the  translators  must  have  supposed  the  EI2  TO  'EN  of  the 
8th  verse  to  be  equivalent  to  the  'EN  of  the  7th ;  for  all  the  ma- 
nuscripts, which  retain  the  concluding  clause  of  the  8th  verse  (a 
very  large  portion  of  them  omitting  it),  read  tres  unum  sunt,  as 
in  the  7th  verse.^ 

4.  The  mode  of  thinking  and  diction  is  peculiar  to  St.  John. 
No  other  evangelist  or  apostle  speaks  of  the  witness  of  the  Father 
or  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  he  does  in  his  Gospel ,-  and  no  other  evan- 
gelist or  apostle  calls  the  Son  of  God  the  Word. 

This  argument  has  been  strenuously  urged  by  Kettner,  Ben- 
gel,  and  other  zealous  advocates  for  the  disputed  clause.'  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  contended  that  there  is  no  such  identical  ex- 
pression in  the  whole  Bible  besides ;  and  it  is  not  strictly  correct 
that  no  other  evangelist  calls  the  Son  of  God  the  Word,  because, 
as  we  have  already  seen,^  that  appellation  is  expressly  applied  to 
Jesus  Christ  by  Saint  Luke.   (i.  2.) 

5.  Further,  those  critics  who  advocate  the  genuineness  of 
this  text,  observe  that  omissions  in  ancient  manuscripts,  ver- 
sions, and  authors,  are  neither  absolute  contradictions,  nor 
direct  impeachments  of  facts.  They  only  supply  food  for 
conjecture,  and  conjectural  criticism  ought  to  be  sparingly 
and  cautiously  applied  before  it  can  be  admitted  as  sufficient 
authority  for  altering  the  received  text.  Besides,  the  omis- 
sion in  the  present  case  may  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for, 
from  various  circumstances.     Thus, 

(1.)  There  may  have  been  two  editions  of  this  Epistle,  in 
the  first  of  luhich  the  disptited  clavse  -was  omitted,  btit  is  re- 
tained in  the  second  or  later  edition. 

This  hypothesis  was  first  announced  by  the  late  Mr.  Charles  Taylor,'  the 


»  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Hist,  of  Two  Texts.    Works,  vol.  v.  pp.  528,  529. 

»  Classical  Journal,  vol.  ii.  pp.  869 — 871.  See  also  Mr.  Nolan's  Inquiry, 
pp.  260.  304. 

'  See  Bishop  Middleton  on  the  Greek  Article,  pp.  633—653. 

*  Cluarterly  Review,  vol.  xxvi.  p.  330. 

>  In  support  of  the  above  argument,  Bishop  Burgess  refers  to  John  v.  31 
— 37.  viii.  13.  and  xv.  26. ;  and  before  him,  Griesbach  (who  gives  up  the  dis- 
puted passage  as  spurious)  had  candidly  said,  that  John  here  refers  to 
Christ's  discourse  in  .John  v.  31 — 39.,  compared  with  John  viii.  13.  18.  ;  and 
adds,  that  when  Jesus  Christ  had  there  taught,  the  apostle  wished  to  prove 
to  his  readers  by  the  same  argutn^nts ;  which  being  the  case,  the  seventh 
verse  (it  is  inferred)  could  not  be  wanting.  Bp.  Burgess's  Vindication,  p. 
115.  2d  edit. 

"  See  p.  311.  note  2.  of  the  present  volume. 

1  Calmet's  Dictionary,  voL  iv.  (4th  edit.)  pp.  281—288.  Fragment,  no. 
dccx2d. 


English  editor  of  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.    According  to  his  hypo- 
thesis verses  5 — 9.  of  1  John  v.  stood  thus  in  the  two  editions: — 

PinST  EDITION.  SECOND  EDITION. 

Who  is  he  that  overcometh  Who  is  he  that  overcometh  the  world, 
the  world,  unless  it  be  one  wlio  unless  it  be  one  who  believes  that  Jesus  is 
believes  that  Jesus  is  the  Son  of  the  Son  of  God?  This  is  he  who  came  by 
God!  This  is  he  who  came  by  water  and  blood;  Jesus  the  Christ;  not 
water  and  blood;  Jesus  the  by  water  only,  but  by  water  and  blood: 
Christ:  not  by  water  only,  but  but  the  spirit  is  that  "which  beareih  wit- 
by  water  and  blood:  but  the  ness.  They  which  bear  witness  tlien  en 
spirit  is  that  which  beareth  wit-  eurlh,  are  these  three  ;  the  sjiirit,  and  the 
ness.  They  which  bear  wit-  water,  and  the  blood  ;  and  these  lliree  are 
ness,  then,  are  these  three  ;  the  combined  in  one.  Currispondenlly,  thuse 
spirit,  and  the  water,  and  the  v/io //ear  witness  in  heiiren,  arc  three  ; 
blood,  and  these  are  combined  the  Father,  and  the  Word,  and  the  Holy 
in  one.  If  we  receive  the  wit-  Spirit  ;  and  these  three  are  the  one.  If 
ness  of  men,  the  witnessof  God  we  receive  the  witness  of  men,  the  wit- 
is  greater;  and  assuredly  this  ness  of  God  is  greater,  a7id  assuredly 
IS  the  witness  of  God,  which  is  this  is  the  witness  of  God  which  is  wit- 
witnessed  of  his  Son,  &c.  nessed  of  his  Son. 

From  this  hypothesis  it  is  impossible  to  withhold  the  praise  of  ingenuity  ; 
but  it  cannot  be  admitted  as  positive  evidence  in  deterioining  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  disputed  clause,  from  the  total  absence  of  historical  or  even 
traditionary  testimony  to  support  it. 

(2.)  The  great  havoc  and  destruction  of  the  ancient  copies 
of  the  Greek  Testament,  in  the  Dioclesian  persecution  espe- 
cially, -which  raged  throtighout  the  Roman  empire,  as  far  as 
Britain,  but  was  lighter  in  Africa,  probably  occasioned  a 
scarcity,  of  ancient  Greek  copies  ;  and  left  the  remnant  more 
open  to  adulteration,  either  from  the  negligence  of  transcr'i- 
bers,  or  the  fraud  of  heretics  ;  especially  during  the  prevalence 
of  the  Arian  heresy  in  the  Greek  church,  for  forty  years, 
after  the  death  of  Constantine  the  Great  (j)articularly  during 
the  reign  of  Constantius),  until  the  accession  of  Theodosius 
the  Great. 

That  such  an  adulteration  of  the  sacred  text  might  take  place,  is  within 
the  verge  of  possibility.  It  is,  however,  all  but  morally  impossible  that 
it  could  take  place  without  detection  ;  for  how  is  it  possible  that  the 
Arians  could  conspire  all  the  world  over,  at  once,  in  the  latter  end  of  Con- 
stantius's  reign,  to  get  into  their  po.taession  all  the  copies  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament then  in  being,  and  correct  them  throughout,  without  being  per- 
ceived 1  And  that  they  should  accomplish  this  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave 
no  blot  or  chasm  in  such  copies,  by  which  the  fraud  might  besu.spectedor 
discovered;  further,  that  they  should  succeed  in  so  utterly  etfacing  the 
very  memory  of  it,  that  neither  Athanasius  nor  any  other  of  their  contem- 
poraries could  afterwards  remember  that  they  had  ever  before  seen  it  in 
their  sacred  books  ;  and,  finally,  that  they  should  erase  it  out  of  their  own 
copies,  so  that  when  they  turned  to  the  consubstantial  faith  (as  they  gene- 
rally did  in  the  western  empire  soon  after  the  death  of  Constantius),  they 
could  remember  no  more  of  it  than  any  other  person.' 

(3.)  The  Arians  might  have  designedly  expunged  it,  as 
being  inimical  to  their  doctrine. 

The  charge  of  having  expunged  this  passage  has  been  brought  against 
the  Arians  only  in  modern  times ;  but  it  is  indignantly  repelled  by  Dr.  Mill 
(an  advocate  for  the  disputed  clause),  who  asks,  How  should  the  Arians 
expunge  these  words,  which  were  out  already,  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
before  Arius  was  born  7  To  which  we  may  add  that  it  is  utterly  incredible 
that  the  orthodox  should  have  been  so  careless,  as  to  have  allowed  the 
Arians  to  get  possession  of  all  their  copies,  for  the  purpose  of  expunging 
the  words  in  question. 

(4.)  The  orthodox  themselves  might  have  designedly  tvith- 
draion  it  out  of  regard  to  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity,  under 
the  persuasion  that  such  a  passage  as  1  Jolm  v.  7.  ought  not 
to  be  exposed  to  every  reader. 

Without  examining  the  strength  or  weakness  of  this  and  the  preceding 
reason,  Michaelis  observes,  that  such  causes,  though  they  anight  have  pro- 
duced the  omission  of  the  passage  in  some  copies,  could  not  possibly  have 
occasioned  it  in  all  the  ancient  Greek  manu,scripts,  and  in  all  the  ancient 
versions,  except  the  Latin.  Besides,  they  are  wholly  foreign  to  the  present 
purpose  :  they  do  not  tend  to  show  the  authenticity  of  1  John  v.  7.  but 
account  merely  for  its  omission,  on  the  previous  supposition  that  it  is 
authentic.  But  this  is  the  thing  to  be  pi>oved.  And  it  is  surely  absurd  to 
account  for  the  omission  of  a  passage  in  Saint  John's. first  Epistle  before  it 
has  been  shown  that  the  Epistle  ever  contained  it.  "Suppose,"  he  con-. 
linues,  "  I  were  to  cite  a  man  before  a  court  of  justice,  and  demand  from 
him  a  sum  of  money,  that  on  being  asked  by  the  magistrate,  whether  1  had 
any  bond  to  produce  in  support  of  the  demand,  I  answered,  that  I  had 
indeed  no  bond  to,  produce,  but  that  a  bond  might  have  been  very  easily 
lost  during  the  troubles  of  the  late  war.  In  this  case,  if  the  magistrate 
should  admit  the  vahdity  of  the  demand,  and  oblige  the  accused  party  to 
pay  the  sum  required,  every  man  would  conclude  not  so  much  that  he  was 
unjust,  as  that  his  mental  faculties  were  deranged.  But  is  not  this  case 
similar  to  the  case  of  those  who  contend  that  1  John  v.  7.  is  genuine, 
because  it  might  have  been  lost"!  In  fact,  their  situation  is  still  worse, 
since  the  loss  of  a  single  manuscript  is  much  more  credible  than  the  loss 
of  one  and  the  same  passage  in  more  than  eighty  manuscripts. "» 

(5.)  The  negligence  of  transcribers  may  have  caused  the 
omission  of  the  disputed  clause.  The  seventh  verse  begins  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  eighth ;  and  therefore  the  ti'anscribers 
might  easily  have  overlooked  the  seventh  verse,  and  cpnse- 
que7itly  have  omitted  it  by  accident. 

The  following  illustration  will  enable  the  reader  who  under- 
stands no  other  language  but  English,  readily  to  apprehend  how 
the  words  came  to  be  omitted : — 

The  word  which  in  the  seventh  verse  is  rendered  hear  record,  and  in  the 
eighth  bear  witness,  is  the  same  in  Greek  (of  ^xfrupouvTs;) ;  and  if  it  had 

'  Hewlett's  Commentary,  toI.  v.  p.  508.  8vo.  edit. 
»  Michaelis's  Introduction,  vol.  iv.  p.  434. 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  "EHE   FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 


375 


been  translated  in  both  verses  alike,  as  it  ought  to  have  been,  the  two 

verses  would  have  run  iIiuh: — 

Foil  TIIEUE  AllE  THREK  THAT  BEAR  WITNESS 
IN  HEAVEN,  TRE  FATHEU,  THE  WOllD,  AND  TUB 
HOLV  OHoST,  AND  THKHK  THItEE  ARE  ONE. 
AND  TIIEKE  AltE  TMItEE  THAT  HEAIl  WITNESS 
IN  EAHTII,  THli  SI'lltlT,  THE  WATEll,  AND  TUB 
BLOOD,  AND  THESE  THHEE  AUllEE  IN  ONB. 

Now,  how  easy  it  is,  for  one  who  is  transcribing,  and  perhaps  in  haste,  to 
slip  his  eye  from  the  words  thbue  are  three  that  beak  witnksx  in  the  7lh 
verse,  to  the  same  worils  there  are  three  that  beau  witness  in  the  8lh 
verse  any  person  may  easily  conceive  who  has  been  accustomed  to  trail- 
scribiiiK  himself,  or  who  has  ever  read  and  observed  the  Iranscripls  of 
olhers,  or  has  been  much  employed  in  correcting  the  press.  Similar 
omissions  fre(|ueiilly  occur  in  Mill's  and  Uriesbach's  critical  editions  of  the 
New  Teslaiiient.  I'ur  where  the  be|iinniii)>  and  endiiiR  of  two  sentences, 
within  a  lino  or  two,  happen  to  be  alike,  the  copyists  so  freipjenlly  omit  the 
former,  tliul  if  the  le.Yl  under  dispute  had  been  f(>und  in  all  the  manuscripts 
anil  co])ies,  we  should  have  had  a  (treat  deal  more  reason  l<i  woniler  thmi 
we  have  now,  that  it  appears  in  so  few.  Let  it  be  grained,  therefore,  that 
an  omission  of  Hie  inlerniediale  words  might  naturally  happen;  yet  still, 
the  ajipeariiig  of  the  omission,  lioth  early  and  wide,  proves  no  more  than 
that  the  words  happened  lo  be  early  dropped,  ami  overlookid  in  some 
slill  more  early  copy.  It  mii{ht  \>i:  dropped,  for  any  IbiiiK  we  know,  out  of 
a  ropy  taken  immedialely  from  the  original  of  Aiuit  .Icilm  hitnself.  And 
llien,  most  assiireilly,  all  fiilnrc  transcripts,  inedialely  or  immediately  de- 
rived from  that  coiiy,  must  continue,  at  least,  as  imperfect  anil  faully  as 
thai  lirst  copy  ilsell.  And  if  there  should  have  been  but  few  copies  taken 
fnuu  the  original  in  all  (and  who  will  pretend  to  say  liow  many  were  really 
laken  0,  if  is  no  wonder  Ihat  while  some  churches,  as  those,  for  instance, 
ill  .Africa  and  Kiirope  (whifher  the  perfect  copies  had  been  carried),  had 
the  friie  ri'adiiig,  olher  churi'hcs  in  Asia  and  the  East,  from  an  imperfect 
copy,  should  transmit  an  imjicrfecf  reading. 

(6.)  Several  of  the  early  fathers  may  have  desiffnedly  omit- 
ted to  quote  the  clause  in  tjuestion,  from  consideriug  it  as  a 
proof  of  the  unity  of  the  testimony  of  the  heavenly  ivitnesses 
to  the  ^Messiahshif)  of  Christ,  and  not  of  the  unity  of  their  na- 
ture, and  consequently  not  relevant  to  the  controversies  in  which 
those  -writers  were  engaged. 

(7.)  The  silence  of  several  of  the  earlier  Greek  fathers  is 
fin  proof  at  all  that  their  copies  of  the  Greek  Testament  wanted 
the  clause  in  question  ;  since  in  their  controversies  they  have 
omitted  to  quote  other  texts  referring  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  with  which  other  parts  of  their  writings  show  that 
they  must  have  been  well  acquainted.  Besides,  the  silence  of 
several  of  the  fathers  is  more  than  compensated  by  the  total 
silence  of  all  the  heretics  or  false  teachers,  at  least  from  the 
days  of  J'raxeas  (/;i  the  second  century'),  who  never  charged 
the  orthodox  fathers  of  being  guilty  of  interpolation. 

Let  us  now  briefly  recapitulate  the  evidence  on  this  much 
litigated  question. 

\.  Against  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause,  it  is 
urged,  that 

1.  It  is  not  to  be  found  in  a  single  Greek  manuscript,  written 
before  the  sixteenth  century. 

2.  It  is  wanting  in  the  earliest  and  best  critical  editions  of  the 
Greek  Testament. 

3.  It  is  contained  in  the  manuscripts  of  no  other  ancient  ver- 
sion besides  the  Tjatin  ;  and 

4.  Not  all  the  manuscripts  even  of  the  Latin  version  contain 
this  clause. 

It  is  iriin'ing  in  upwards  of  forty  of  the  oldest  Latin  mnnuscripfs,  and  in 
other  .MSS.  it  is  fimnd  only  in  the  margin,  eridenlUj  inserletl  hi/  a  later 
hiituf ;  and  even  in  those  manuscripts  which  tlo  conlain  if,  this  passage  is 
variously  placed,  sometimes  before  and  sometimes  after  the  earllily  wit- 
nesses. 

5.  It  is  not  once  quoted  in  the  genuine  works  of  any  one  of 
the  Greek  fathers,  or  early  ecclesiastical  writers,  even  in  those 
places  where  we  should  most  expect  it. 

6.  It  is  not  once  ijiioted  by  any  of  the  Latin  fathers,  even 
where  the  subject  of  which  they  were  treating  required  ;  and 
where,  consequently,  wc  should  expect  to  see  it  cited. 

7.  The  Protestant  Reformers  either  rejected  it,  or  at  least  mark- 
ed it  as  doubtful. — On  the  other  hand, 

II.  //(  BicnALK  (f  the  genuineness  if  the  disputed  clause,  it 
is  contended,  that 

(1.)   External  Kviilence. 

1.  It  is  found  in  the  Latin  version  which  was  current  in  Africa 
before  the  Latin  Vulgate  version  was  made,  and  also  in  most 
manuscripts  of  the  Vulgate  version. 

Bill  the  aiiihorify  of  these  manuscripts  is  justly  to  be  suspected,  on 
account  of  the  many  alterations  and  corruptions  which  the  Vulgate  version 
has  umlergone. 

2.  It  ^s  found  in  the  Confession  of  Faith,  and  Liturgy  of  the 
Greek  cburcb. 

3.  It  is  found  in  the  Primitive  Liturgy  of  the  Latin  church. 

Hut  it  is  very  probable  that  the  clause  in  question  was  interpolated  from 
the  Liturgy  of  the  Latin  church  into  that  of  the  Greek  church  by  some  of 
the  Greek  clergy,  who  were  devoted  partisaus  of  the  Romish  church,  in 


the  fourteenth  or  flfleenth  century,  at  which  time  the  majority  of  the  com. 
mon  people,  from  the  ignorance  which  at  that  time  generally  prevailed 
throughout  Kurope,  were  incapable  of  detecting  the  imposition. 

4.  It  is  cited  by  numerous  Latin  fathers. 

The  contrary  is  maintained  by  the  antagonists  of  the  di.sputed  clause; 
and  in  pp.  371—373.  we  have  shown  that  the  authorities  of  Terlulllan, 
Cyprian,  Jerome,  anil  the  African  bishops,  which  have  principally  been 
relied  on,  are  inapplicable  to  prove  the  point  for  which  Ihcy  have  been 
adduced. 

(2.)   Internal  jPvidence. 

1.  The  connection  of  the  di.sputed  clause  requires  its  insertion, 
inasmuch  as  the  sense  is  not  perfect  without  it. 

This  argument  is  rebuffed  by  the  fact  that  the  context  admits  of  an  expo- 
sition, which  makes  the  sense  complete  trithuut  the  disputed  clause. 

2.  The  grammatical  structure  of  the  original  Greek  requires 
the  insortioii  of  the  seventh  verse,  and  consequently  that  it  should 
be  received  as  genuine. 

Otherwise  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  verse,  the  authenficiiy  of  which 
was  never  questioned  (as  indeed  it  cannot  be,  being  found  in  eteri/  known 
manuscript  thai  is  extant),  must  likewise  be  rejected. 

3.  The  doctrine  of  the  Greek  article,  which  is  found  in  both 
verses,  is  such,  that  both  must  be  retained,  or  both  nmst  be 
rejected. 

4.  The  mode  of  thinking  and  diction  is  peculiar  to  St.  John. 

To  this  it  is  replied,  that  there  is  no  such  identical  expression  in  the 
whole  Ihble,  besides  I  John  v.  7. 

5.  The  omission  of  this  clause  may  be  satisfactorily  accounted 
for.     Thus 

(1.)  There  may  have  been  two  editions  of  this  epistle,  In  the  first  of 
which  the  disputed  clause  was  omitted,  though  it  is  retained  in  the 
second. 

(2.)  The  great  scarcity  of  ancient  Oreek  copies,  caused  by  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  Christians  by  the  Roman  emperors,  would  leave  the 
rest  open  to  the  negligence  of  copyists  or  lo  the  frauds  of  false 
teachers. 

(3.)  The  Arians  might  have  designedly  expunged  it,  as  being  inimical  to 
their  doctrine. 

(4  )  The  orthodox  themselves  might  have  designedly  withdrawn  it  out  of 
regard  to  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity. 

(.5.)  The  negligence  of  transcribers  is  a  cause  of  other  omissions. 

(6.)  Several  of  the  fathers  may  have  designedly  omitted  the  clause  in 
question. 

(7.)  The  silence  of  several  of  the  Greek  fathers  is  no  proof  that  their 
coi)ies  of  the  Greek  Testament  wanted  the  clause  in  question  ;  since, 
in  their  controversies  respecting  the  Trinifv,  they  have  omitted  to 
quote  other  texts  with  which  they  must  have  been  well  acquainted. 

Upon  a  review  of  all  the  preceding  arguments,  the  disputed 
clause  (we  think)  must  be  abandotied  as  spurious ;  nor  can 
any  thing  less  tnan  the  positive  authority  of  unsuspected 
manuscripts  justify  the  admission  of  so  important  a  passage 
into  the  sacred  canon.  Much  stress,  it  is  true,  has  been  laid 
upon  some  points  in  the  internal  evidence,  and  particularly 
the  supposed  grammatical  arguments  (Nos.  2.  and  3.),  and 
the  reasons  assigned  for  the  omission  of  this  clause.  But 
some  of  these  reasons  have  been  shown  to  be  destitute  of 
the  support  alleged  in  their  behalf;  and  the  remainder  are 
wholly  hypotiielical,  and  unsustained  by  any  satisfactory 
evidence.  "  Internal  evidence,"  indeed  (as  Bishop  Marsh 
forcibly  argues),  "  may  show  that  a  passage  is  spurious, 
though  external  evidence  is  in  its  favour ;  for  instance,  if  it 
contain  allusions  to  things  which  did  not  exist  in  the  time  of 
the  reputed  author.     Bl't  no  internal  evidence  can  prove 

A    PASSAGE    TO    BE    GENUINE,    WHEN    EXTERNAL    EVIDENCE    IS 

DECIDEDLY  AGAINST  IT.  A  spurious  passagc  may  be  fitted  to 
the  context  as  well  as  a  genuine  passage.  No  arguments, 
therefore,  from  internal  evidence,  however  ingenious  they 
may  appear,  can  outweigh  the  mass  of  external  evidence 
which  applies  to  the  case  in  question."' 

But,  although  the  disputed  clause  is  confessedly  spurious, 
its  absence  neither  does  nor  can  diminish  the  weight  of  irre- 
sistible EVIDENCE  w  hich  Other  undisputed  passages  of  Holy 
Writ  afford  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.^  The  proofs  of 
our  Lord's  true  and  proper  Godhead  remain  unshaken — 
deduced  from  the  prophetic  descriptions  of  the  Messiah's 

'  Bp.  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  vl.  p.  27.  Bishop  Burgess  has  argued,  at 
considerable  length,  in  favour  of  the  superiority  of  internal  eviilence,  even 
when  the  external  evidence  is  decidedly  against  a  passage.  (Vindication, 
pp.  xxix. — xxxiv.)  His  arguments  are  minutely  considered,  and  (it  must, 
we  think,  be  admitted)  set  aside,  by  Crito  Cantabrigiensis.  (Vindication  of 
Mr.  Porson's  Literary  Character,  pp.  75 — 84.) 

i»  On  this  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  a  small  volume  by  the  author 
of  this  work,  entitled,  T/ie  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  briejiy  staled 
and  ilefinded,  &c.  (Second  edition,  12iiio.,  London,  1.S26.)  In  the  appendix 
to  that  volume  he  has  exhibited  the  very  strong  collateral  testimony,  fur- 
nished to  the  scriptural  evidence  of  this  doctrine,  by  the  actual  profession 
of  faith  in,  and  worship  of,  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  well  as  of 
God  the  Father,  by  the  Christian  church  in  every  a^e  ;  together  with  other 
documents  illustrative  of  this  important  truth  of  divine  revelation,  derived 
from  ecclesiastical  history  and  the  writings  of  the  falhers  of  Uie  first  tbrad 
centuries  of  the  Christian  xra 


376 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  Chap.  IV, 


person  in  the  Old  Testament — from  the  ascription  to  him  of 
the  attributes,  the  works,  and  the  homage,  which  are  peculiar 
to  the  Deity — and  from  those  numerous  and  important  re- 
lations, whicli  he  is  affirmed  in  Scripture  to  sustain  towards 
his  holy  and  universal  church,  and  towards  each  of  its  true 
members.  "  There  are,"  to  adopt  the  deliberate  judgment 
of  Ciriesbach,  "so  many  arguments  for  the  true  Deity  of 
Christ,  that  I  see  not  how  it  can  be  called  in  question ;  the 
divine  authority  of  Scripture  being  granted,  and  just  rules  of 
interpretation  acknowledged.  The  exordium  of  Saint  John''s 
Gospel,  in  particular,  is  so  perspicuous  and  above  all  exception, 
that  it  NEVER  cati  be  overturned  by  the  daring  attacks  of  inter- 
preters and  critics,  and  taken  away  from  the  defenders  of  the 
truth."!- 


SECTION  VI. 


ON   THE    SECOND    AND   THIRD    EPISTLES    OF    JOHN. 

I.  Genuineness,  authenticity,  and  date  of  these  Epistles. — II. 
The  second  Epistle,  to  ivhorn  addressed. — III.  Its  scope. — 
IV.  The  tliird  Epistle,  to  luhnm  addressed. — V.  Its  scope. 
— VI.    Observations  on  this  Epistle. 

I.  Although,  in  the  fourth  century,  when  Eusebius  wrote 
his  ecclesiastical  history,  these  two  Epistles  were  classed 
among  the  hvTiKiyofjLiva  or  books  which  were  received  by  the 
majority  of  Christians  (though  some  doubts  were  entertained 
by  others  respecting  their  authenticity),  yet  testimonies  are 
not  wanting  to  prove  that  they  were  both  known  and  received 
as  genuine  productions  of  the  apostle  John.  The  second 
Epistle  is  cited  by  Ireneeus,  ancf  received  by  Clement  of 
Alexanaria.  Origen  mentions  all  three  Epistles,  though  he 
says  that  the  second  and  third  were  not  allowed  to  be  genuine 
by  all  persons.  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  mentions  tliem  as 
being  ascribed  to  St.  John.  The  second  Epistle  was  quoted 
by  Alexander  bisfiop  of  Alexandria;  and  all  three  Epistles 
were  received  by  Athanasius,  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  by  Epi- 
phanius,  Jerome  (a  few  of  whose  contemporaries  doubted  the 
authenticity  of  these  Epistles'),  Rufinus,  and  almost  every 
subsequent  writer  of  note. 2  They  are  not,  indeed,  received 
in  the  Syrian  churches ;  but  the  thoughts  and  style  are  so 
similar  to  those  of  the  first  Epistle,^  that  almost  all  critics 
attribu'ie  them  to  the  author  of  the  first  Epistle,  namely,  John ; 
and  they  were,  in  all  probability,  written  about  the  same  time 
as  that  Epistle,  viz.  a.  d.  G8  or  6i).  Consequently  these 
Epistles  could  not  have  been  written  by  John  the  elder,  a 
member  of  the  Ephesian  church,  as  some  of  the  fathers,  and 
also  some  modern  critics,  have  imagined.  Various  reasons 
have  been  assigned  why  these  two  Epistles  were  not 
received  earlier  into  the  canon.  Michaelis  is  disposed  to 
think  that  doubt  was  excited  concerning  their  genuineness 
by  the  address,  in  which  the  author  neither  calls  himself 
John,  nor  assumes  the  title  of  an  apostle,  but  simply  names 
himself  the  "elder"  (0  Trpi-j-^wnfoi);  as  Saint  Peter  (1.  ch.  v. 
1.)  styles  himself  a  "fellow  elder"  (cn/^^pso-^i/Ts/isc),  which 
title,  after  Peter's  death,  the  apostle  John  might  with  great 
propriety  assume,  as  being  the  only  remaining  apostle.  It 
is,  however,  most  probable  that,  being  letters  to  private 
persons,  they  had  for  a  considerable  time  been  kept  in  the 
possession  of  the  families  to  whom  they  were  originally  sent, 
and  were  not  discovered  till  long  after  the  apostle's  decease, 
and  after  the  death  of  the  persons  to  whom  they  had  been 
addressed.  When  first  discovered,  all  the  immediate 
vouchers  for  their  genuineness  were  necessarily  gone;  and 
the  church  of  Christ,  ever  on  its  guard  against  imposture, 
particularly  in  relation  to  writings  professing  to  be  the  work 
of  apostles,  hesitated  to  receive  them  into  the  number  of 
canonical  Scriptures,  until  it  was  fully  ascertained  that  they 
were  divinely  inspired. 

II.  Considerable  uncertainty  prevails  respecting  the  person 
to  whom  the  second  Epistle  was  addressed,  some  conjecturing 

«  Atqne  sunt  profecto  tam  niulta  et  luculonta  argumenta  et  Scripturas 
loca,  quibus  vera  Deltas  Christo  vindicatur,  ut  ego  quidcm  intelligere  vix 
possim  quomodo,  concessa  Scripturae  Sacrffi  divina  auctoritate  et  admissis 
justis  interpretaiidi  regulis,  dogma  hoc  in  diibiuin  a  quoquaui  vocari  posse. 
In  primis  locus  ille,  Joh.  i.  1,  2;  3.,  tain  perspicuus  est,  atque  omnibus  ex- 
ceptionibus  major,  ut  neque  interprelurn,  neque  crilicorum  audacihus 
conatibus  UNauAM  everti  atque  veritutis  de/ensoribus  eripi  possit.  Nov. 
Test.  torn.  ii.  Praef.  pp.  viii.  ix.  Hala;,  1775. 

»  See  the  references  to  the  above-named  fathers  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Works, 
8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp,  534—586.  ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  525,  526. 

^  Dr.  Mill,  and  after  him  Dr.  Lardner,  observe,  that,  of  the  thirteen  verses  ■ 
composing  the  second  Epistle,  eight  arc  to  be  found  in  the  firsi  eJLlier  in 
sense  or  in  expression. 


a  particular  person  to  be  intended,  while  others  understand  it 
figuratively,  as  of  the  church.  The  ancient  commentators 
supposed  It  to  be  figurative,  but  most  of  the  modern  commen- 
tators and  critics  understand  it  literally,  though  they  do  not 
agree  in  their  literal  interpretation.  Archbishop  Newcome, 
Wakefield,  Macknight,  and  the  venerable  translators  of  our 
authorized  version,  make  EKxatT«  to  be  an  adjective,  and  render 
the  inscription  "To  the  elect  (or  excellent,  or  chosen)  Lady;" 
the  Vulgate  version,  Calmet,  and  others,  consider  Rkkixti,  to 
be  a  proper  name,  and  translate  it  "To  the  Lady  Electa;"' 
J.  B.  Carpzov,  Schleusner,  and  Rosenmiiller  take  Kufict  to  be 
a  proper  name,  and  the  Epistle  to  be  addressed  to  Cyria,  or 
Kyria,^  the  Elect,  and  Michaelis  conjectures  Ku/w*  to  be  an 
ellipsis  of  Kupia.  EnK^na-tu,  which,  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
signified  an  assembly  of  the  people  held  at  a  stated  time, 
and  was  held  at  Athens  three  times  in  every  month ;  and 
that,  since  the  sacred  writers  adopted  the  term  Exx\>i<rix  from 
its  civil  use  among  the  Greeks,  KvpiA  'E.KKX^cnu.  might  here 
mean  the  stated  assembly  of  the  Christians,  held  every  Sun- 
day ;  and  thus  tx  sk^jktu  Kufi^.,  with  muhita-ix  understood,  would 
signify,  "  To  the  elect  church  or  community  which  comes 
together  on  Sundays."  He  admits,  however,  that  he  knows 
not  of  any  instance  of  such  ellipsis ;  and  Bishop  Middleton 
does  not  think  that  this  explanation  can  be  very  easily  esta- 
blished. Of  these  various  hypotheses,  the  most  probable 
opinion  is  that  which  considers  the  Epistle  as  addressed  to 
the  Lady  Electa,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  eminent 
Christian  matron  :  what  confirms  this  opinion  is,  that  the 
Greek  article  is  absent,  which  would  have  been  absolutely 
necessary  if  the  inscription  had  been  "To  tlie  elect  Lady,"  or 
to  "  Kyria  the  Elect." 

III.  The  SECOND  Epistle  of  John  is  an  epitome  of  the  first, 
and  touches,  in  few  words,  on  the  same  points.  The  "  Lady 
Electa"  is  commended  for  her  virtuous  and  religious  educa- 
tion of  her  children;  and  is  exhorted  to  abide  in  the  doctrine 
of  Christ,  to  persevere  in  the  truth,  and  carefully  to  avoid  the 
delusions  of  false  teachers.  But  chiefly  the  apostle  beseeches 
this  Christian  matron  to  practise  the  great  and  indispensable 
commandment  of  Christian  love  and  charity. 

IV.  The  THIRD  Epistle  of  John  is  addressed  to  a  converted 
Gentile,  a  respectable  member  of  some  Christian  church, 
called  Caius;  but  who  he  was  is  extremely  uncertain,  as 
there  are  tjrree  persons  of  this  name  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  viz.  1.  Gains  of  Corinth  (1  Cor.  i.  14.);  whom 
Paul  calls  his  "  host,  and  the  host  of  the  whole  church" 
(Rom.  xvi.  23.) ;  2.  Gains,  a  native  of  Macedonia,  who  ac- 
companied Paul,  and  spent  some  time  with  him  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  xix.  29.) ;  3.  Caius  of  Derbe  (Acts  xx.  4.),  who  also 
was  a  fellow-traveller  of  Paul.  Michaelis  and  most  modern 
critics  suppose  the  person  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  address- 
ed to  be  the  Caius  of  Corinth,  as  hospitality  was  a  leading 
feature  in  his  character.  His  hospitable  temper,  particularly 
towards  the  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  is  strongly  marked  in  the 
fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  verses  of  this  Epistle. 

V.  The  Scope  of  this  Epistle  is  to  commend  his  steadfast- 
ness in  the  faith  and  his  general  hospitality,  especially  to  the 
ministers  of  Christ;  to  caution  him  against  the  ambitious 
and  turbulent  practices  of  Diotrephes,  and  to  recommend 
Demetrius  to  his  friendship;  referring  what  he  further  had 
to  say  to  a  personal  interview. 

VI.  Commentators  are  by  no  means  agreed  who  this  Dio- 
trephes was.  Bede,  Erasmus,  Michaelis,  and  others,  suppose 
him  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  new  sect,  and  that,  as  he 
delivered  false  doctrines,  he  objected  to  those  who  propagated 
the  true  faith.  Grotius,  Le  Clerc,  and  Beausobre  imagined 
that  he  was  a  Gentile  convert  who  would  not  receive  Jewish 
Christians.  But  it  is  most  probable  that  he  was  an  ambitious 
elder  or  bishop  in  the  church  of  which  Gains  was  a  member, 
and  that,  having  been  converted  from  Judaism,  he  opposed 
the  admission  of  the  Gentiles,  and  set  himself  up  as  the 
head  of  a  party  in  opposition  to  the  apostles.  If  (as  we  sup- 
pose) the  Gains  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  addressed  was 
the  generous  "  host  of  the  church  at  Corinth,"  it  is  possible 
that  this  Diotrephes  might  have  been  the  leading  opponent  of 
Saint  Paul  in  that  city,  whom  he  forbore  to  name  out  of  de- 
licacy, though  he  censured  his  conduct.  See  I  Cor.  iii,.  3 — 
5.  iv.  6.,  &c. 

Demetrius,  who  is  so  highly  commended  by  the  apostle  in 

*  As  the  Syriac  name  Martha  is  of  the  same  import  as  KupiM,  Carpzov 
conjectured  that  this  epistle  was  addressed  to  the  sister  of  Lazarus,  and 
that  she  changed  her  name  from  Martha  to  Kyria  or  Cyria,  after  the  perse- 
cution of  the  church  which  followed  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen,  for  the 
security  of  her  person.  The  conjecture  is  ingenious,  but  is  not  supporte(J 
V  any  authority.    Epist.  Calh.  Septenarius,  p.  185. 


Sect.  VIL] 


ON  THE  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JUDE. 


377 


this  Epistle,  is  thought  to  have  held  some  sacred  ofTice  in  the 
church  of  which  Gaius  was  a  member;  but  tlli^^  opinion  is 
rejected  by  Dr.  Benson,  because  on  that  supposition  Gaius 
must  have  known  him  so  well,  as  to  need  no  information 
concerning  his  character  from  the  apostle.  He  therefore  be- 
lieved him  to  have  been  the  bearer  of  this  letter,  and  one  of 
the  bretiiren  who  went  forth  to  preach  to  the  Gentiles.  With 
this  conjecture  Rosenmviller  coincides.  Oalinet  supposes 
that  he  was  a  member  of  the  same  church  as  (iaius,  whose 
piety  and  hospitality  he  imitated.  But  whoever  Demetrius 
was,  his  character  and  deportment  were  the  reverse  of  the 
character  and  conduct  of  Diotrephes ;  for  the  apostle  speaks 
of  the  former  as  having  a  {rood  testimony  from  all  nuMi,  and 
whose  temper  and  behaviour  W(!re  in  every  n^spcct  conform- 
able to  the  precepts  of  the  (iospel,  and  therefore  ISaint  Joiin 
recommends  liim  as  an  example  to  (jJaius,  and  the  other 
members  of  the  church  to  which  he  belonged.' 


SECTION  VII. 


ON   THE    GENERAL   EPISTLE    OF    JUDE. 

I.  Account  of  the  author. — IT.  Genuineness  and  authenticity. — 
III.  Date. — IV.  Of  the  persons  to  luhom  this  Epistle  ivas 
addressed. — V.  Its  occasion  and  scope. — VI.  Observations 
on  its  style. 

I.  JuDE  or  Judas,  who  was  surnamed  Thaddens  and  Leb- 
beus,  and  was  also  called  the  brother  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  xiii. 
55.),  was  the  son  of  Alpheus,  brother  of  James  the  Less, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  We  are  not  informed  when 
or  how  he  was  called  to  the  apostleship;  and  there  is  scarce- 
ly any  mention  of  him  in  the  New  Testament,  except  in  the 
different  catalogues  of  the  twelve  apostles.  The  only  parti- 
cular incident  related  concerning  Jude  is  to  he  found  m  John 
xiv.  21 — 23. ;  where  we  read  that  he  addressed  the  following 
question  to  his  Divine  Master — Lord  !  how  is  it  that  thou  will 
manifest  thyself  unto  us,  and  not  unto  the  world?  Full  of 
ideas  of  temporal  grandeur  and  universal  monarchy,  he  could 
not  imagine  how  our  Saviour  could  establish  a  kingdom  with- 
out manifesting  it  to  the  world ; — a  proof  how  much  this 
apostle  was  actuated  by  Jewish  prejudices,  and  what  delusive 
hopes  he  cherished,  in  common  with  all  the  other  apostles, 
of  soon  beholding  his  Master  erect  a  powerful  and  magnificent 
empire. 

As  Jude  continued  with  the  rest  of  the  apostles  after  our 
Lord's  resurrection  and  ascension  (Acts  i.  13.),  and  was  with 
them  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (ii.  1.),  it  is  not  unreasonable 
to  suppose,  that  after  having  received  the  extraordinary  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  he  preached  the  Gospel  for  some  time  in 
Judaea,  and  performed  miracles  in  the  name  of  Christ.  And 
as  his  life  seems  to  have  been  prolonged,  it  is  probable  that 
he  afterwards  quitted  Judaea,  and  preached  the  Gospel  to  Jews 
and  Gentiles,  m  other  countries.  It  has  been  said  that  he 
preached  in  Arabia,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Persia,  and  that 
he  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  last  mentioned  country.  The 
Syrians  still  claim  him  as  their  apostle ;  but  we  have  no  ac- 
count of  his  travels  upon  which  we  can  rely,  and  it  may  even 
be  questioned  whether  he  was  a  martyr.  ^ 

II.  In  the  early  ages  of  Christianity  the  Epistle  of  Jude 
was  rejected  by  several  persons,  because  the  apocryphal 
books  of  Enoch,  and  of  the  Ascension  of  Moses,  were  sup- 
posed to  be  quoted  in  it ;  and  Michaelis  has  rejected  it  as 
spurious.  We  have,  however,  the  most  satisfjictory  evi- 
dences of  the  authenticity  of  this  Epistle.     It  is  found  in  all 

«  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  442—^56.  Lardncr,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  5S1— 607.  ;  4to. 
vol.  iii.  pp.  425 — 437.  Benson  on  Ihe  Catholic  Epistles,  pp.  003— 680.  Buddei 
Ecclesia  Apostolica,  pp.  314—316.  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol. 
ii.  book  ii.  pp.  1150— lUVZ  Bishop  Middleton  on  the  Greek  Article,  pp.  653 
—656.  (first  edition.)  Lampe,  in  Evang.  Joannis,  torn.  i.  pp.  111—115.  Pritii, 
Introd.  in  Nov.  Test.  pp.  109,  110. 

«  It  is  more  certain  that  Jude  wa.s  a  married  man,  and  had  children  ;  for 
Eusebins  relates,  on  the  authority  of  the  ecclesiastical  historian  llegesip- 
pus  (a  converted  Jew,  who  flourished  in  the  second  century),  that  the 
emperor  Doinitian,  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  ordered  inquiry  to  be  made  con- 
cerning the  posterity  of  David,  on  which  occasion  some  of  the  grandchil- 
dren of  Jude  were  brought  before  him.  The  emperor,  first  asking  them 
several  questions  respecting  their  profession  and  manner  of  life,  which 
was  husbandry,  ne.xt  inquired  concerning  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  and  when 
it  should  appear  t  To  this  they  replied,  that  it  was  a  heavenly  and  spiritual, 
not  a  temporal  kingdom  ;  and  that  it  would  not  be  manifested  till  the  end  of 
the  worldi  Domilian,  thus  finding  that  they  were  mean  persons  and  per- 
fectly harmless,  dismissed  them  unbound,  and  by  edict  appeased  the  per- 
secution which  had  been  raised  against  the  church.  Hegesippus  adds, 
that,  on  their  release,  the  grandchildren  of  Jude  afterwards  presided  over 
churches,  both  as  being  martyrs  (more  correctly  confessors),  and  also  as 
being  allie.1  to  our  Lord.  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  cc  19  20 
VOL.  II.  3  B 


the  ancient  catalogues  of  the  sacjed  writings  of  the  New 
Testament :  it  is  asserted  to  be  genuine  by  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, and  is  quoted  as  Jude's  production  by  TertuUian,  by 
()rig(;n,  and  by  the  greater  part  of  the  ancients  noticed  by 
Eusebius.^  Independently  of  this  external  evidence,  the 
genuineness  of  the  Epistle  of  Jude  is  confirmed  by  the  sub- 
jects discussed  in  it,  which  are  in  every  respect  suitable  to 
th(!  character  of  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ;  for  the  writer's 
design  was,  to  ciiaracterize  and  condemn  the  false  teachers, 
who  endeavoured  in  that  age  to  make  proselytes  to  tiieir 
erroneous  and  dangerous  tenets,  to  reprobate  the  impious 
doctrines  wiiich  they  taught  for  the  sake  of  advantage,  and 
to  enforce  the  practice  of  holiness  on  all  who  prole-ssed  the 
(iospel.  In  short,  as  Dr.  Macknight  most  truly  observes, 
there  is  no  error  taught,  no  evil  practice  enjoined,  for  the 
saku  ofwhicii  any  iiiii)ostor  could  be  induced  to  impose  a 
forgery  of  this  kind  upon  the  world. 

With  regard  to  the  objection  against  the  genuineness  of 
this  Epistle,  which  is  derived  from  the  supposed  quotation 
by  Jucle  of  an  apocryphal  book  of  Enoch,  it  is  to  be  (jbserved, 
that  the  apostle,  by  quoting  sucii  book,  gives  it  no  authority. 
It  was  no  canonical  book  of  the  Jews ;  and  though  such  a 
book  existed  among  them,  and  was  apocrynhal,  yet  it  might 
contain  some  things  that  were  true.  Jude  s  quoting  from  it 
the  prophecy  under  consideration  would  not  lessen  the  au- 
thority of  his  Epistle,  an3>more  than  Paul's  quotations  from 
the  heathen  poets  Aratus  (Acts  xvii.  28.),  Menander  (I  Cor. 
XV.  33.),  and  Epimenides  (Tit.  i.  12.),  have  lessened  tiie 
authority  of  the  history  of  the  Acts,  and  of  that  apostle's 
letters,  where  these  quotations  are  foimd.  The  reason  is  (as 
Macknight  most  forcibly  observes),  if  the  things  contained  in 
these  quotations  were  true  in  themselves,  tney  migiit  be 
mentioned  by  an  inspired  writer  without  giving  authority  to 
the  poems  from  which  they  were  cited.  In  like  manner,  if 
the  prophecy  ascribed  to  Enoch,  concerning  the  future  judg- 
ment and  punishment  of  the  wicked,  was  agreeable  to  the 
other  declarations  of  God  respectinsr  that  eVent,  Jude  might 
cite  it,  because  Enoch  (who,  like  Noah,  was  a  preacher  of 
righteousness)  might  actually  have  delivered  such  a  pro- 
phecy, though  it  is  not  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament;  and 
because  his  quoting  it  did  not  establish  the  authority  of  the 
book  whence  he  took  it,  if  he  took  it  from  any  book  extant 
in  his  time.  The  preceding  observations  have  been  made  on 
the  supposition  that  the  apostle  did  quote  an  apocryphal  book 
of  Enoch:  but  it  has  been  remarked  with  equal  force  and 
truth,  that  "  it  is  incredible  that  Jude  cited  a  book  then 
extant,  claiming  to  be  the  prophecies  of  Enoch:  for,  had  it 
been  genuine,  tlie  Divine  Spirit  would  not  surely  have  suf- 
fered his  own  word  to  be  afterwards  lost;  and,  had  it  been 
apocryphal,  the  inspired  apostle  woufd  not  have  stamped  it 
with  his  authority,  and  have  declared  it  to  have  been  the 
production  of  '  Enoch,  the  seventh  from  Adam.'  Indeed, 
the  language  of  Jude  by  no  means  implies  that  he  quoted 
from  any  book  whatever  (a  circumstance  which  most  writers 
on  this  controverted  subject  have  mistaken)  ;  and  hence 
some  persons  have  come  to  the  highly  improbable  conclu- 
sion that  the  prophetic  words  attributed  to  Enoch  were  com- 
municated to  the  apostle  by  immediate  revelation.  But  this 
conclusion  is  not  more  improbable  than  it  is  unnecessary. 
There   is   yet   another  source,   from   which   this   insulated 

Eassage  might  have  been  derived.  There  is  nothing  to  for- 
id,  but  much  to  establish,  the  supposition,  that  some  his- 
torical facts,  omitted  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  were  handed 
down  by  the  uninspired  authors  of  the  Jewish  nation.  Al- 
though it  is  true  that,  in  the  most  ancient  remains  of  Hebrew 
literature,  history  is  so  obscured  by  fable  as  to  be  altogether 
an  uncertain  guide,  yet  some  truth  doubtless  exists  in  this 
mass  of  fiction.  This  observation  may  be  applied  with 
greater  force  to  the  Jewish  records  which  existed  in  the 
apostolic  age.  We  know,  indeed,  from  the  highest  authority, 
that  the  Jewish  doctors  of  that  period  '  had  made  the  word  of 
God  of  none  effect  by  their  traditions ;'  but  still  their  unin- 
spired records  must  have  contained  some  authentic  narratives. 
From  such  a  source  we  may  rationally  suppose  that^  Jude 
gathered  the  traditional  antediluvian  prophecy  of  Enoch, 
under  the  direction  of  that  infallible  Spirit,  who  preserved 
the  inspired  writers  from  error,  and  guided  them  into  all 
truth.  We  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  apostle  did  not 
quote  from  any  book  extant  in  his  day  purporting  to  hav© 
been  written  by  Enoch."' 

3  See  the  passages  of  the  above-named  writers  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Works. 
Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.613— 61S.  ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp. 440— 443. 
*  Christian  Obser\'er,  July,  1829,  vol.  xsix  p.  417. 


378 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  VI. 


TliP  fore<roing  remarks  apply  with  equal  force  to  verr^e  9., 
ill  which  the  apostle  is  supposed  to  cite  an  apocryphal  rela- 
tion or  tradition  concerninor  the  arch;ino^el  IMicliael's  disputing 
with  Satan  for  the  body  of  Moses.  Tliis  is  by  some  writers 
referred  to  a  book  called  tiie  "  Assumption  or  Ascension  of 
Christ,"  which  in  all  probability  was  a  forgery  much  later 
than  the  time  of  Jude;  but  Dr.  Lardner  thinks  it  much  more 
credible  that  the  apostle  alludes  to  the  vision  in  Zech.  iii. 
1 — 3. ;  and  this  opinion  is  adopted  and  eiucidat'-d  by  Dr. 
Mackniffht  in  his  note  on  the  verse  in  question.  In  further 
lllustratTon  of  this  verse,  we  may  remark,  that  it  was  a 
Jewish  maxim,  that  "  it  is  not  lawful  for  man  to  prefer  ijrno- 
minious  reproaches,  even  against  wicked  spirits."  Miglit 
not  the  apostle,  then,  have  used  it  merely  as  a  popular  illus- 
tration (without  vouching  for  the  fact)  of  that  sober  and 
wholesome  doctrine,  tiof  to  speak  evil  of  diicnitits?  from  the 
example  of  the  archangel,  who  did  not  venture  to  rail  even 
at  Satan,  but  meekly  said,  '•'■The  Lord  rebuke  t/iee  .'"'''  The 
hypothesis,  that  Jude  copied  the  prophecy  of  Enoch  from 
the  writings  of  Zoroaster  (which  some  continental  critics 
liave  imagined)  is  too  absurd  to  deserve  a  serious  refuta- 
tion.' 

III.  The  time  and  place,  when  and  where  this  Epistle  was 
written,  are  extremely  uncertain.  Dr.  Mill  fixes  its  date  to 
the  year  90,  principally  because  the  false  teachers,  whom 
Peter  describes  as  yet  to  wine,  are  mentioned  by  Jude  as 
alreadi/  come.  But  on  a  comparison  of  this  Epistle  with  the 
second  of  Peter,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  such  a  remark- 
able difference  in  their  phraseology  as  will  be  sufficient  to 
prove  that  Jude  wrote  his  Epistle  so  long  after  Peter's  second 
Epistle  as  Dr.  Mill  supposed  :  though  it  proves,  as  most 
critics  agree,  that  it  was  written  after  the  latter.     The  very 

great  coincidence  in  sentiment  and  style  between  these  two 
Ipistles  renders  it  likely  that  they  were  written  about  the 
same  time;  and,  since  we  have  seen  that  the  second  Epistle 
of  Peter  was  in  all  probability  written  early  in  a.  d.  G5,  we 
are  induced  with  Laraner  to  place  it  towards  the  close  of  the 
same  year,  or  perhaps  in  a.  d.  66.  Bishop  Tomline,  however, 
dates  it  in  a.  d.  70  ;  Beausobre  and  L'Lnfant,  between  a.  d. 
70  and  75  ;  and  Dodwell  and  Dr.  Cave,  in  71  or  72. 

IV.  There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  concerning  the 
persons  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  addressed.  Estius  and 
VVitsius  were  of  opinion  that  Jude  wrote  to  Christians  every 
where,  but  especially  to  the  converted  Jews.  Dr.  Hammond 
thought  that  the  Epistle  was  directed  to  Jewish  Christians 
alone,  and  with  the  design  of  guarding  them  against  the 
errors  of  the  Gnostics.  Dr.  Benson  also  thought  that  it  was 
written  to  Jewish  believers,  especially  to  those  of  the  Western 


dispersion.  Moldcnhawer  was  of  opinion,  tliat  it  was 
inscribed  to  the  Eastern  churches,  among  wliom  the  apostle 
had  probably  laboured.  But,  from  the  inscription.^  Drs. 
Lardner  and  Macknight,  Bishop  Tomline  and  Dr.  A.  Clarke, 
concur  in  thinking  that  it  was  written  to  all,  without  dis- 
tinction, who  had  embraced  the  Gospel.  The  only  reason. 
Dr.  Macknight  remarks,  which  has  induced  commentators 
to  suppose  that  Jiule  wrote  to  the  Jewish  believers  alone,  is, 
that  he  makes  use  of  arguments  and  examples  taken  from  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Jews.  But  Paul,  we  have  seen,  followed 
the  same  course  when  writing  to  the  Gentiles ;  and  both 
ajjostles  did  so  with  propriety,  not  only  because  all  who 
embraced  the  Gospel  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the 
Jewish  Scriptures,  but  also  because  it  was  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  make  the  Gentiles  sensible  that  the  Gospel 
was  in  perfect  unison  with  the  ancient  revelation. 

V.  The  design  of  this  Epistle  is,  to  guard  believers  against 
the  false  teachers  who  had  begiin  to  insinuate  themselves 
into  the  Christian  church ;  and  to  contend  with  the  utmost 
earnestness  and  zeal  for  the  true  faith,  against  the  dangerous 
tenets  which  they  disseminated,  resolving  the  whole  of  Chris- 
tianity into  a  speculative  belief  and  outward  profession  of  the 
Gospel.  And  haviuff  thus  cancelled  the  obligations  of  mo- 
rality and  personal  holiness,  they  taught  their  disciples  to  live 
in  all  manner  of  licentiousness,  and  at  the  same  time  flattered 
them  with  the  hope  of  divine  favour,  and  of  obtaining  eternal 
life.  The  vile  characters  of  these  seducers  are  further  shown, 
and  their  sentence  is  denounced;  and  the  Epistle  concludes 
with  warnings,  admonitions,  and  counsels  to  believers,  how 
to  persevere  in  faith  and  godliness  themselves,  and  to  rescue 
others  from  the  snares  of  the  false  teachers. 

VI.  There  is  very  great  similarity  between  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  and  the  second  chapter  of  Peter's  second  Epistle,  in  sub- 
ject, style,  vehemence,  and  holy  indignation  against  impudence 
and  lewdness,  and  against  those  wno  insidiously  undermine 
chastity,  purity,  and  sound  principles.  The  expressions  are 
remarkably  strong,  the  language  is  animated,  and  the  figures 
and  comparisons  are  bold,  apt,  and  striking.  In  the  Epistle 
of  Jude,  particularly,  there  is  an  energy,  a  force,  a  grandeur 
of  expression  and  style — an  apparent  labour  for  words  and 
images,  expressive  enough  to  give  the  reader  a  just  and 
adequate  idea  of  the  profligate  characters  he  exposes ;  and 
the  whole  is  admirably  calculated  to  show  how  deeply  the 
holy  apostle  was  grieved  at  the  scandalous  immoralities  of 
those  who  called  themselves  Christians,  and  with  what 
fervour  and  courage  he  tore  off  the  mask  from  these  hypo- 
crites, that  the  church  and  the  world  might  see  all  the  turpi- 
tude and  deformity  that  lurked  beneath  it.^ 


CHAPTER  V. 


ON    THE    REVELATION    OF    SAINT    JOHN    THE    DIVINE. 


I.    Title. — II.   The  Genuineness  of  this  Book  shorvti,    1.  From  external  Evidence;  2.  Frotn  internal  Characters. — III.  Its 
Date — IV.    Occasion  and  Scope — V.  Synopsis  of  its  Conteiits. — VI.    Observations  on  tlds  Book. 


I.  The  first  three  verses  of  the  Apocalypse  form  its  Title  ; 
but  as  this  is  inconvenient  on  account  of  its  length,  various 
shorter  inscriptions  are  given  in  the  Manuscripts  and  Ancient 
Versions.  Thus,  in  C.  or  the  Codex  Ephrera  it  is  termed 
ATnuxKo-^K  ice-jivvcu,  the  Jlevelation  of  John  ;  in  the  Codex 
Coislinianus  199.  (17.  of  Griesbach's  notation)  ....  tcu 
B-ioKoyou,  of  John  the  Divine  ,■  in  B.  a  manuscript  belonging  to 

the  monks  of  St.  Basil  at  Rome  (of  the  seventh  century) 

KM  'EuctyyiKia-Tou,  of  John  the  Divine  and  Evangelist;  in 
42.  (Codex  Pio-Vaticanus  150.,  of  the  twelfth  century), 
A:TC/K.5txu4'f  lai'ti'vou  TOW  ATTo^roKou  K'M  'EuiyyiKta-Tov,  the  Revelation 
of  John  the  Jipostle  and  Evangelist ^;  in  30.  (Codex  Guelpher- 
bytanus  XVI.  7.  a  manuscript  of  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth 
century),  h7ro>i.xKv~\,K  rou  nytou  x.*t  ivSo^oTXTou  aTroa-ToKcu  km  luny- 
jex/o-TC/i/,  TT'ii^aaj  xyoLTrttfAivm,  i7ria-r»^tou  laiavvou  ^ijKoycv,  the  Reve- 
lation of  the  holy  and  most  glorious  apostle  and  evangelist,  the 
beloved  virgin  who  lay  in  the.  bosom  [of  Jesus  Christ],  John  the 
Divine.     In  16.  (the  Codex  Uffenbachianus),  it  is  the  Apo- 

<  The  reader  will  find  an  interesting  account  of  the  different  hypotheses 
which  critics  have  entertained  concerning  tlie  propliecy  of  Enocli,  men- 
tioned by  Jude,  in  Launnann's  Collectanea,  sive  Notre  Criticae  ct  Coniinen- 
tarius  in  Epistolain  Judre,  pp.  137—173.  220-233.  8vo.  Groningce,  1S18. 
See  also  Calmet's  Commentaire  Litttral,  toiii.  viii.  pp.  1031—1010. 


calypse  .  .  ,  iiv  h  TIutixqi  r»  v»^ai  ed-iA<retTo,  which  he  beheld  in 
the  island  Patnios ,-  and  in  26.  (the  Codex  Wakianus  1.  a 
manuscript  of  the  eleventh  century,  in  the  library  of  Christ's 
College,  Oxford),  it  is  Ixs-ou  Xp/o-Tcu  l\.7r(jiL<LKv-\,K  SoS-uTct  toi  Swaoj-cd 
laia.nii,  the  Revelation  of  Jesus  Christ  given  to  John  the  Divine. 
In  the  Syriac  Version,  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  it  is 
entitled  the  Revelation  which  loas  made  by  God  to  John  the 
Evangelist  in  the  island  [of]  Patmos,  into  which  he  was  throvm 
[or  banished]  by  Nero  Cxsar  ;  and  in  the  Arabic  Version  it 
IS  the  Vision  of  John  the  Apostle  and  Evangelist,  namely,  the 
Apocalypse.  None  of  these  titles  are  of  any  authority ;  nor 
can  any  certain  reason  be  assigned  for  giving  the  appellation 
of  Qioxoyoi,  or  the  Divine,  to  the  apostle  and  evangelist  Jolin.'* 
II.  It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance,  that  the  authenticity  of 
this  book  was  very  generally,  if  not  universally,  acknowledged 
during  the  first  two  centuries,  and  yet  in  the  third  century  it 

5  To  them  that  are  sanctified  by  God  the  Father,  and  preserved  in  Jesus 

Christ,  and  called Beloved,  when  I  gave  all  diligence  to  write  unto 

you  of  tlie  COMMON  salvation,  &c.  Jude  I.  3. 

3  Henson  on  the  Catholic  Epistles,  pp.  437 — 448.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo. 
vol.  vi.  pp.  619 — 627. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  443—447.  Macknight's  Preface  to  Jude. 
Black  wall's  Sacred  Classics,  vol.  i.  pp.  304, 305.  Pritii  Introd.  in  Nov.  Test. 
pp.  110—117.  ' 

*  Oriesbach,  and  Dean  Woodhouse,  on  Rov.  i.  1,  Pritii  Introductio  ad 
Lectionem  Novi  Testameiiti,  I'p.  127, 128. 


Chap.  V.] 


ON  THE   REVELATION  OF  SAINT  JOHN  THE  DIVINE. 


379 


began  tob(M]U(;filiono(l.  Tliis  seoms  to  linvo  been  occaKionod  by 
fi/init  absurd  notions  conf(Tiiiii<r  lh(^  Milleiniinm,  whicb  a  ftw 
v/ell  inoaninfT  l)ut  fancit'ul  expositors  (rrotnidcul  on  tliis  i)Ooli ; 
wbich  notions  tbeir  op))on(Mits  injndicionsly  and  ])r('siinij)tu- 
ously  endeavoured  to(liscredit,  by  denyintr  tneautborily  f)rtiie 
l)ooi<  itself.  So  little,  iiowever,  has  tliis  portion  of  Holy 
Writ  KidVered  from  tin;  ordeal  of  criticism  to  which  it  has  in 
consemience  be(;n  subjecled,  that  (as  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has 
lonnr  since  remarked)  tliere  is  no  other  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment so  stroni^ly  attested,  or  commented  upon  so  (rarly,  as  the 
Apocalypse.  And  Dr.  I'rii  stiey  (no  mean  jud^e  of  biblical 
(juestions  where  bis  peculiar  creed  was  not  concerned)  has 
declared,  that  ho.  tbiiiKS  it  impossible  for  any  intelliirent  and 
candid  person  to  peruse  it  withonl  beiiiij  struck,  in  the  most 
forciblt!  manner,  with  the  peculiar  dijrnity  and  sul>limity  of 
its  composition,  superior  to  that  of  any  other  writings  what- 
ever; so  as  to  he  coiwinced,  tliat,  considering  the  age  in 
which  it  app(v.ired,  it  could  only  have  hisen  written  by  a  per- 
son divinely  insjiired.  The  nnimrous  marks  of  genuine  piety, 
that  occur  through  the  whole  book,  will  preclude  the  idea  of 
imposition,  in  any  |)erson  acfjuainted  witli  human  nature.  It 
is  likewise  so  suitable  a  continuation  of  the  prophecies  of 
Daniel,  that  the  New  Testament  dis])ensation  would  bav(! 
been  incomplete  without  this  prophetic  book  ;  for  it  has  been 
the  uniform  plan  of  the  diviiK^  proceedings  to  give  a  nmrt; 
distinct  view  of  inti^resting  futurcuivents,  as  the  time  of  their 
accomplishment  approached.'  Since,  howev(^r,  two  eminent 
critics^  of  later  times  hav(^  suspected  this  book  to  be  spurious, 
and  as  their  valuable  writings  are  in  the  hands  ot  almost 
every  biblical  student,  it  becomes  necessary  to  examine  the 
external  and  internal  evidence  for  its  genuineness. 

1.  The  External  Evidence  for  the  authenticity  and  inspira- 
tion of  the  Apocalypse  is  to  be  collected  from  the  same  sources 
as  the  evidence  for  the  other  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
viz.  from  the  testimonies  of  those  ancient  writers,  who,  living 
at  a  period  near  to  its  publication,  appear  by  their  ouotations 
or  allusions  to  have  received  it  as  a  part  of  sacred  Siripture. 
And  this  evidence  is  so  abundant  and  explicit,  that  the  only 
difliculty  is  how  to  comprise  it  within  that  short  compass 
which  tne  nature  of  the  present  work  requires. 

(1.)   Testimonies  of  Writers  in  the  apostolic  age. 

In  the  "Sheplienl"  or  "Pastor"  of  Ilpriins  (a.  d.  100),  tliore  are  seve- 
ral expressions  so  closely  rosrnibliiiff  tin'  slyic  ami  senliinonts  of  the  Apo- 
calypse, as  to  reniler  il  more  than  piobiibh'  l\\M  ho  liad  read  and  iuiilated 
this  book.'  The  reation  why  the  Apocalyiiso  and  other  books  of  the  New 
Testament  were  not  e.vpressly  cited  by  Uiis  father,  is,  that  il  was  not  suita- 
ble to  his  desiijn  ;  but  the  allusions  to  them  sufficiently  show  the  respect  in 
which  they  were  held.* 

Ignatius  (K.  D.  107)  is  supposed  by  Michaclis  to  have  passed  over  the 
A|i()r;Uypse  in  silence;  but  Dr.  VVoodhouse  has  produced  three  pas^a^'es 
from  the  writings  of  that  father,  which  have  escaped  the  researches  of  the 
learned  and  accurate  Dr.  l.ardner,  and  in  which  the  verbal  resenjhiance  is 
so  decisive,  that  it  is  impossible  lo  conceive  otherwise  than  that  the  Reve- 
lation was  known  to  and  read  by  Ignatins. 

I'olycarp  also  (a.  d.  108)  has  cited  the  Apocalypse  once  in  the  only  epis- 
tle ot  his  that  has  come  down  to  otir  times;  and  tlie  pious  and  sublime 
l)raycr  which  tliis  holy  man  uttered  at  the  awful  moiueni  when  the  llames 
were  about  lo  be  kindled  around  him,  begins  with  the  identical  words  of 
the  elders  in  Rev.  xi.  17.«  There  is  likewise  strong  reason  to  believe 
that  it  was  received  by  I'apias,  a.  d.  116.''  Jlis  wrilinirs,  except  a  few  frai;- 
uienls,  are  lost ;  but  critics  and  commentators  include  him  among  the  de- 
cided witnesses  in  favour  of  the  Apocalypse. 

(2.)   Testimonies  of  ll'riters  in  the  second  century. 

.Tuslin  Martyr  (ad.  110)  was  acf(uaintcil  with  the  Apocalypse,  and  re- 
ceived it  as  written  by  the  apostle  John  ;  and  it  appears  from  the  te.'^tiiiiony 
of  .leroine,  that  he  also  interpreted  or  wrote  commentaries  on  some  parts 
of  this  mystical  book,  thoush  no  work  of  this  kind  has  come  down  to  us.» 

Among  tlie  works  of  Mrlito,  bishop  of  Sardis  (a.  d.  177),  was  a  coiiuuen- 
lary  on  the  Apocalypae.'  It  is  al.io  most  distinctly  quoted  in  the  Epistle  of  the 
cliurches  of  Viemie  and  Lyons  (a.  d.  177).  conceriiiiig  the  stifTeriugs  of  their 
inanyrs.'O  Ircna-us,  bishop  of  Lyons  in  Gaul  (a.  d.  178),  who  in  his  younger 
flays  was  acrpiainted  with  Polycarp.  repeatedly  quotes  this  book  as  "  the 
Ke'velation  of  .lohn  the  <liscipfe  of  the  Lord."  l)r.  Lardner  remarks  that 
his  testimony  is  so  strong  and  full,  that  he  seems  to  put  it  beyond  all  ipies- 
tion  that  it  is  the  work  ot^  John  the  apostle  and  evangelist."    To  these  we 


•  Dr.  Priestley's  Notes  on  Scripture,  vol.  iv.  p.  574.  The  argument,  briefly 
noticeil  by  him,  is  pro.secuted  at  lengtli  by  Mr.  Lowman  in  his  Paraphrase 
and  ('ommentary  on  the  Revelations,  pp.  x.  el  seq.Svo.  edit. 

^  Michaclis  and  Dr.  Less. 

»  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  52—65.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  311— 313. 

*  Dr.  Woodhousc  thinks  the  evidence  from  Hennas  not  satisfactory. 
Dissertation  on  the  .\pocalypse,  pp.  35.  et  sirq. 

»  Woodhousc,  pp.  31-sH.  The  testimony  of  Ignatius  is,  we  think,  most 
satisfactorily  vindicated  against  the  exceptions  of  Michaclis. 

«  Ibid.  pp.  36—38. 

'  liiid.  pp.  38 — 43.  where  the  evidence  of  Papias  is  vindicated  against 
MichaeH^.     See  also  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  113,  114.  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  ;3-10. 

»  l.ardner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  126.  vol.  vi.  p.  6iS. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  31S.  vol.  iii. 
p.  417.  i-  '  I 

»  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  147,  148.;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  339,  360. 
">  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  1.52,  153. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  362.     Woodhouse,  pn.  46-^8. 
"  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  170. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  372.    The  testimony  of'irenasus 
is  vindicated  by  Dr.  Woodhouse,  pp.  26—28. 


may  add  the  undisputed  testimonies  of  Alhena2oras,i»Theopliiliis  bishop  of 
Anlioch(A.D.  181),"  Apoll(.nius(A.D.  l8(jor  l>57),'<  Cli'ment  of  Alexandria," 
ami  especially  of  Tertulliaji,  who  defends  the  authemicily  of  this  book 
against  the  heretic  Marcion  and  his  followers,  by  as.seiting  its  external  evi- 
dince.  He  ajipeals  to  the  Asiatic  churches,  and  assures  us  that  ''though 
.Maicion  rejects  Ins  (John's)  Revelation,  yet  the  succession  of  bi.-<hops, 
traced  to  its  origin,  will  establish  .lohn  to  be  its  aiiihor."  It  also  appears 
from  another  part  of  his  writings  that  this  book  was  much  read  and  gene- 
rally received  in  the  African  churches  of  the  second  century. ■« 

(3.)  .^movg  the  testimonies  of  ll'riters  in  the  third  century, 
those  of  Ilippolytus  Portucnsis  (a.m. 220)  and  Origcn  (a.  ii.  230) 
are  conspicuous. 

Hippolytus,'''  who  was  a  disciple  of  Irena>ii9,  received  the  Apocalypse 
as  ihf  work  of  Saint  John,  and  wrote  two  books  in  its  defence  ;  one  in  op- 
piisiliiin  lo  ('aiiis,  a  writer  of  the  seconil  century,  who  is  said  to  have  as- 
cribed the  Revelation  to  Cerinlhiis,  and  the  other  in  opjiosition  lo  llie  Alogi, 
who  rfMi-cted  the  (Jospel  of  Saint  John  as  sjinrious.  Origen,"  to  whose 
crilii-al  labours  biblical  literature  is  so  deeply  indebted,  most  explicitly 
acknowledged  the  Revelation  lo  be  the  production  of  .St.  John,  and  hax 
citiil  it  repi.aledly  in  his  works.  More  minute  evidence  than  this  il  is  not 
necessary  lo  adduce,  as  those  who  oppose  the  genuineness  of  (his  book  ilo 
not  dencend  lower  than  the  time  of  Origen.  Il  may,  however,  he  satisfac- 
tory lo  know  that  il  was  subsecpienlly  received  by  fi'regory  of  Neo-Co'sa- 
rea  ;'»  by  (-'ypriun  and  the  African  churches  ;  by  the  presbyters  and  others 
of  Uw  Western  church  ;  by  various  Latin  aiilhors  whose  history  is  ab- 
stracted by  Dr.  Lardner ;  by  the  anonymous  author  of  a  work  agam.st  the 
Niivations;  by  the  Novatians  themsrlves;  by  ('omiiiodian;  by  ViiMurinu.*), 
who  wrote  a  coiiimenlary  upon  it ;  by  the  author  of  the  poem  againvt  the 
•Miircionites;  by  Methodius,  who  also  coiiimented  upon  it;  by  the  Mani- 
cbeiiiis;  by  the  later  Arnobius;  by  the  Donalists;  by  Lactautius ;  and  by 
the  Ariuns.*" 

(4.)  In  the  time  of  Eusebius  {the  former  part  of  the  fourth 
century)  the  Apocalyp.sc  was  generally,  thoutih  not  universally, 
received  ;  and  therefore  he  classes  it  among  the  AcT/xsj^c^jy^,  or 
contradicted  books.^' 

Vet  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  these  doubts  originated  solely  in  the 
s;//);;o.verf  difference  of  style  and  manner  from  that  fif  Saint  John;  and  that 
no  one,  however  desirous  he  may  have  been  lo  invalidate  the  authority  of 
the  book,  appears  to  have  been  able  to  produce  any  tx/erna/ evidence 
which  might  suit  the  purpose. 

It  was  received  after  the  lime  of  Eusebiu.s,  by  the  Latin  churches,  almnnt 
without  cxcejilion.  Jerome,  the  most  learned  and  diligent  inrpiirer  of  that 
century,  pronounced  most  positively  in  its  favour  ;  and  was  followed  uni- 
versally by  the  fathers  of  the  Western  churches ;  and  from  him  we  learn 
the  grounds  upon  which  he  received  the  Apocalypse,  which  he  assigns  to 
be  "the  authority  of  the  ancients,"  Ihat  is,  external  evidence;  and  he 
tells  us,  at  the  same  time,  that  he  does  not  follow  "the  fashion  of  his  times" 
— that  fashion  by  which  some  of  the  Greek  churches  were  induced  lo 
reject  the  Apocalypse. 

"  This  fashion  of  the  times,"  Dr.  Woodhouse  justly  remarks,  ''  seeins  to 
have  consisted  in  a  daring  contempt  of  the  testimonies  of  the  ancient 
church,  and  a  ready  acquiescence  in  those  argunients  which  were  confi- 
dently drawn  from  internal  evidence.  Vet,  notwithstanding  this  fashion, 
which  appears  to  have  had  considerable  prevalence  in  the  Greek  chiirrli, 
and  perhaps  to  have  inllnenced  those  eminent  men,  (-.'yril  of  Jerusalem 
ai'.d  J(din  (ihrysoslom  (neither  of  whom  appears  lo  have  quoted  the  Apoca- 
lypse), many  of  great  name  in  the  Greek  church  appear  still  lo  have  re- 
ceiveii  it ;  and.  in  the  fourth  century,  it  is  supporte<l  by  lestimoniis  in  thie 
church  from  Athanasius,  Basil,  Epiphanius,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  Gregory 
of  Na/.ianzum."M 

Upon  the  whole,  though  doubts  were  entertained  concern- 
ing this  book  by  many  individuals  of  the  Greek  church  after 
the  time  of  Eusebius,  and  though  we  have  no  satisfactory 
information  how  early,  or  to  what  extent,  it  was  received  bj"^ 
the  Syrian  churches,  yet,  from  the  dtjcisive  evidence  above 
adduced,  we  are  authorized  to  aflirm  that  the  Apocalypse  has 
been  generally  received  in  all  ages.  To  borrow  the  eloquent 
sentiments  of  Dr.  Woodhouse, — "  We  have  seen  its  rise,  as 
of  a  pure  fountain,  from  the  sacred  rock  of  the  apostolical 
churcli.  We  have  traced  it  through  the  first  century  of  its 
passage,  flowing  from  one  fair  field  to  another,  identified 
ihrough  them  all,  and  every  where  the  same.  As  it  proceeded 
lower,  we  have  seen  attempts  to  obscure  its  sacred  origin,  to 

i«  l.ardner,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  196.  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  381. 

•  »  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  200,  201.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  369. 

'*  .\pollonius  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome.  His  writings  have  perished; 
but  Eusebius  relates  thai  he  supiiorted  the  Apocalypse  by  aulhorilies  taken 
from  it.     Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  v.  c.  18.  fine,  and  c.  21. 

'»  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  229',  230. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  pp.  404,  4^15. 

•«  Tertullian  adv.  Marcion,  lib.  iv.  c.  5.  De  Monogam.  c.  12.  Sec  Lardner, 
Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  '277.  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  430.     Woodhouse,  p.  51. 

•  ■■  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  412.;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  502. 

1'  Ihi<l.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  466,  467.  483. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  pp.  .532.  5.3.3.  .541 

'»  The  testimony  of  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (a.  d.  247)  is  here  desifm- 
ed!y  omitted.  He  allowed  the  Apocalypse  lo  be  written  by  John;  a  holy 
and  inspireil  apostolical  man,  but  not  the  evangelist  .lohn  ;  and  he  groundi  d 
his  inference  on  some  supposed  differences  in  style.  This  subject  is  con- 
sidered in  pp.  3?0,  381.  infra. 

»»  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  p.  629. ;  4lo.  vol.  iii.  p.  448.,  where  there  are  re- 
ferences to  the  former  volumes  of  hisworks,  containin,?  the  testimonies  of 
the  above  cile<l  fathers  and  others  .at  length.  Woodhouse,  pp.  60 — 77. 
I.ampe,  Comment,  in  Evangeliuin  Joannis,  torn.  i.  pp.  115 — 124.  Pritiilntrod. 
ad  Nov.  Test.  p.  117.  et  scg. 

«'  The  Apocalypse  is  omitted  in  the  catalogues  of  cancnical  hooks  formed 
by  Cyril,  bishop  of  .Jerusalem  (a.  d.  340.).  and  by  the  council  of  l.aodicea 
(a.  d.  36-!.),  and  in  one  or  two  other  early  catalogues  of  the  Scriptures ; 
but  this  omission  was  probably  owing  not  to  any-  suspicion  concerning  its 
authenticity  or  genuineness,  but  because  its  obscurity  and  my.slerionsness 
were  thought  to  render  it  less  lit  to  be  read  publicly  and  generally.  Rishop 
Tomline's  Elements  of  Christian  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  506. 

M  Woodhouse,  pp.  78— &4.  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  630,  631. ;  4to.  vol. 
iii.  pp.  443,  449. 


380 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI, 


arrest  or  divert  its  course,  to  lose  it  in  the  sands  of  antiquity, 
or  bury  it  in  the  rubbish  of  the  dark  ages.  We  have  seen 
these  attempts  repeated  in  our  own  times,  and  by  a  dexterous 
adversary.  But  it  has  at  length  arrived  to  us,  such  as  it 
flovs^ed  forth  at  the  beginning."' 

In  short,  so  far  as  external  evidence  can  enable  us  to  de- 
termine concerning  this  book,  w^e  may  indubitably  pronounce 
that  it  IS  TO  BE  RECEIVED  as  "  divine  Scripture  communicated 
to  the  church  by  John  the  apostle  and  evangelist." 

2.  We  now  proceed  briefly  to  consider  the  Internal  Evi- 
dence for  the  genuineness  and  divine  authority  of  the  Apo- 
calypse. This  we  may  reduce  to  three  points;  viz.  1.  Its 
correspondence,  in  point  of  doctrine  and  of  imagery,  with 
other  hooks  of  divine  authority ; — 2.  The  sublimity  of  this 
book ; — and,  3.  The  coincidence  of  its  style  with  the  un- 
contested writings  of  John. 

(1.)  The  Apocalypse  corresponds  in  doctrine  and  imagery 
■with  other  books  of  divine  authority. 

Though  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  are  by  no  means  a.  principal  sub- 
ject of  tliis  book,  yet,  if  we  advert  to  the  doctrines  actually  delivered  in 
it,  we  shall  find  a  perfect  congruity  with  those  delivered  in  the  other  apos- 
tolical writings.  Michaelis  lias  said,  that  "the  true  and  eternal  Godhead 
of  Christ  is  certainly  not  taught  so  clearly  in  the  Apocalypse  as  in  Saint 
John's  Gospel."  To  this  Dr.  Woodhouse  replies, — Could  he  expect  so 
clear  an  exposition  from  a  prophecy  which  respects  future  events,  as  from 
a  Gospel  which  the  ancients  have  described  as  written  principally  with  the 
view  of  setting  forth  the  divine  nature  of  Christ  ?  But  this  divine  nature  is 
also  set  forth  m  the  Apocalypse,  and  as  clearly  as  the  nature  of  the  book, 
and  as  symbols  can  express  it.  Compare  Rev.  i.  11.  iii.  21.  v.  6 — 14.  xix.  13. 
and  xxii.  8  ^  The  description  of  the  Millennium  in  the  twentieth  chapter, 
where  the  servants  of  Christ  are  seen  raised  from  the  dead  to  reign  with 
him  a  thousand  years,  has  been  objected  to,  as  introducing  doctrines  in- 
consistent with  the  purity  enjoined  in  the  Gospel.  But  the  representation 
hi  question  is  no  doctrine ;  it  is  a  prediction  delivered  in  a  figurative  style, 
and  yet  unfulfilled.  The  extravagant  notion.s  of  the  Chiliasts  cannot  with 
justice  be  charged  upon  the  Apocalypse.  The  prophecy  can  only  be  ex- 
plained in  general  terms ;  in  due  time  we  believe  that  it  will  be  fulfilled,  and 
in  the  mean  time  it  must  be  received  as  the  word  of  God,  though  we  under- 
stand it  not.  It  has  also  been  objected  by  Dr.  Less,  that  the  triumph  of  the 
saints,  upon  the  horrid  punishment  of  their  enemies  (Rev.  xix.  I — 10.  xxii. 
8,  9.),  is  irreconcilable  with  the  charitable  spirit  of  the  Gospel.  But  no 
such  literal  triumph  was  designed  ;  the  passage  in  question  is  the  triumph 
of  pure  religion  over  idolatrous  superstition  and  tyranny,  represented 
aUegorically,  at  which  every  true  believer  must  rejoice.  Michaelis  like- 
wise has  objected  to  other  passages  of  the  Apocalypse,  as  containing  doc- 
trines repugnant  to  those  delivered  in  the  other  parts  of  Scripture  ;  but 
these  passages,  when  fully  examined,  will  be  found  to  contain  no  doctrines, 
but  figurative  representations  of  future  events.  "  We  may,  therefore, 
truly  assert  of  the  Apocalypse,  that,  fairly  understood,  it  contains  nothing 
which,  either  in  point  of  doctrine,  or  in  relation  of  events,  past  or  to  come, 
will  be  found  to  contradict  any  previous  divine  revelation.  It  accords  with 
the  divine  counsels  already  revealed.  It  expands  and  reveals  them  more 
completely.  We  see  the  gradual  flow  of  sacred  prophecy  (according  to 
the  true  tenor  of  it,  acknowledged  by  divines),  first  a  fountain,  then  a  rill, 
then,  by  the  union  of  other  divine  streams,  increasing  in  Its  course,  till  at 
length,  by  the  accession  of  the  prophetical  waters  of  the  New  Testament, 
and,  above  all,  by  the  acquisition  of  the  apocalyptical  succours,  it  becomes 
a  noble  river,  enriching  and  adorning  the  Christian  land."^ 

(2.)  The  sublimity  of  the  ideas  and  imagery  is  another 
etrihing  internal  evidence  of  the  gemdneness  and  divine  ori- 
gin of  the  Apocalypse. 

These  ideas  and  this  imagery  are  such  as  are  only  to  be  found  in  the 
sacred  Scriptures.  "  In  the  word  of  God  there  is  a  grandeur  and  majesty, 
independent  of  the  accidents  of  language,  consisting  in  the  greatness  and 
sublimity  of  the  things  revealed.  Men  of  genius  may  catch  some  sparks 
of  this  heavenly  fire  ;  they  may' imitate  it,  and  with  considerable  success: 
but  no  one  is  foimd  so  confident  in  this  kind  of  strength,  as  to  neglect  the 
arts  of  composition.  Mahomet  was  a  man  of  superior  genius  ;  in  writing 
his  pretended  revelation,  he  borrowed  much  from  the  sacred  Scriptures  ; 
he  attempted  often,  in  imitation  of  them,  to  be  simply  sublime  ;  but  he  did 
not  trust  to  this  only,  he  endeavoured  to  adorn  his  work  with  all  the  impos- 
ing charms  of  human  eloquence  and  cultivated  language  ;  and  he  appealed 
to  the  perfection  of  his  compositions  as  a  proof  of  their  divine  original. 
Such  an  appeal  would  have  little  served  his  cause  in  a  critical  and  enlight- 
ened age,  which  would  expect  far  other  internal  proofs  of  divinity  than 
those  which  result  from  elegant  diction.  The  learned  of  such  an  age  would 
reject  a  prophet  appealing  to  a  proof  which  has  never  been  admitted  with 
respect  to  former  revelations ;  a  prophet,  who,  both  in  doctrine,  and  in  the 
relation  of  events,  past  and  future,  is  seen  to  contradict,  or  add  strange 
extravagant  conceits  to,  the  credible  and  well-attested  revelations  of  former 
times. 

"There  is  nothing  of  this  kind  in  the  Apocalypse.  Compare  it  with 
forged  prophecies  :  many  such  have  been  written  ;  some  calculated  to  de- 
ceive, others  only  to  ainuse.  These  works,  if  they  amaze  us,  as  appearing 
to  have  been  fulfilled,  are  commonly  found  to  have  been  written  of/er  the 
events  foretold,  and  to  have  a  retrospective  date  whicli  does  not  belong  to 
them.  But  no  one  can  show  that  the  Apocalypse  contains  prophecies  which 
were  fulfilled  before  they  were  written.^* 

Compare  also  the  Apocalypse  with  the  apocryphal  revelations  ascribed 
to  the  apostles  Peter,  Paul,  Thomas?,  and  Stephen,  some  fragments  of  which 


>  Woodhouse,  p.  87.     The  external  evidence  for  the  genuineness  of  this 
book  is  discussed  at  langth  by  Hug.     Introduction,  vol.  ti.  pp.  G30 — OUS. 

«  We  may  add,  also,  that  the, J-ea/;7»/ of  Christ's  sufTerings  is  explicitly 
asserted  (Rev.  i.  5.  and  7.)  in  conformity  with  the  accounts  of  the  evange- 
fists,  and  the  constant  tenor  of  tlie  New  Testament.  Whence  it  is  evident 
that  the  Apocalypse  could  not  have  been  written  by  the  heresiarch  Cerin- 
thus  (as  some  early  writers  have  asserted),  for  he  maintained  that  Christ 
did  not  suffer,  but  only  Jesus.  Michaelis  (vol.  iv.  p.  460.)  and  Dr.  Lardner 
(Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  Ill,  112. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  G38,  639.)  have  both  shown 
that  Cerinthus  could  not  have  been  the  author  of  the  Revelation. 
^  a  Woodhouse,  pp.  89—96.  133.  «  Ibid.  p.  99, 


are  still  extant.'  How  different  are  the  language,  character,  and  senti- 
ments of  these  spurious  productions  !  The  lathers  of  the  first  centuries 
compared  them  at  length,  and  rejected  them  all  except  this  acknowledged 
work  of  Saint  John  ;  which  they  guarded  with  so  sedulous  a  care  as  to 
preserve  it,  in  the  main,  free  from  interpolations,  while  the  genuine  pro- 
ductions of  Polycarp,  Ignatius,  and  other  apostolical  men,  are  known  to 
have  suffered  from  the  contact  of  profane  pens.* 

(3.)  The  style  of  the  Apocalypse  coincides  -with  the  style  of 
the  undisputed  ivritings  of  Saint  John, 

The  proof  of  this  depends  upon  a  collation  of  passages:  Wetslein  and 
Dr.  Lardner  have  both  collected  a  great  number  of  evidences,  in  which 
the  same  forms  of  expression  occur  in  the  Apocalypse  as  are  found  in  his 
Gospel  and  first  Epistle,  and  which  are  peculiar  to  tills  apostle. 

From  their  lists  we  have  selected  the  following;  more  might  easily  b 
added,  if  we  had  room  for  their  insertion.— Compare 

Rev.  i.  1.       •  •         with        John  xii.  33.  xviii.  37.  xxi.  19. 

Rev.  i.  5.       -  .  -  1  John  i.  7. 

Rev.  i.  7.       -  -  -  John  xix.  37. 

Rev.  ii.  7.       •  •  -  John  vi.  32. 

Rev.  ii.  10.    -  •  -  John  xx.  27. 

Rev.  ii.  17.    -  -  •  John  vi.  32. 

Rev.  iii.  4.     •  •  -  John  vi.  66. 

Rev.  iii.  7.     -  •  -  John  i.  14.  xiv.  6.  1  John  v.  20. 

Rev.  iii.  7.  9.  •  -  John  xv.  20.  xvii.  6.  1  John  ii.  5. 

Rev.  iii.  9.    •  -  -  John  xi.  27. 

Rev  iii.  10.   -  -  -  John  xii.  27. 

Rev.  iii.  21.    -  -  -  IJohn  ii.  13,  14.  iv.  4.  v.  5. 

Rev.  V.  6. 12.  .  •  John  i.  29.  36. 

Rev.  vi.  2.      -  -  -  John  i.  29. 

Rev.  ix.  5.     -  -  -  John  xviii.  26.  iii.  17. 

Rev.  xii.  9.    •  -  •  John  xii.  31. 

Rev.  xix.  13.  -  •  John  i.  1. 

Rev.  xxi.  6.  -  -  -  John  vii.  37. 

Rev.  xxi.  27.  -  John  vi.  36.  1  John  i.  4.  (Gr.) 

In  all  which  passages  we  have  in- 
stances of  neuter  adjectives  and 
participles  put  for  masculines. 

Rev.  xxii.  14.  •  -  John  i.  12.     EJouo-ix,  t-j'^/,?. 

Rev.  xxii.  8. 10.        -  •  John  viii.  51,  52.  55.  xiv.  23,  24.'' 

In  these  passages  the  agreement  both  in  style  and  expression 
is  so  great,  that  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  how  such  striking 
coincidences  could  exist  in  writings  so  difl'erent  in  their  natures 
as  the  Gospel  and  first  Epistle  of  John  and  the  Apocalypse,  if 
they  were  not  all  the  productions  of  one  and  the  same  author. 
But  it  has  been  objected,  that  there  are  differences  in  the  style 
of  this  book,  which  render  it  uncertain  whether  it  was  really 
written  by  the  apostle.  These  objections  were  first  started  by 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  who  contended  that  the  Apocalypse 
was  not  the  production  of  Saint  John,  and  conjectured  that  it 
was  written  by  John,  an  elder  of  the  Ephesian  church.  His 
objections  are  six  in  number;  and  as  some  of  them  have  bean 
adopted  by  Michaelis,  we  shall  briefly  state  and  consider  them. 

Objection  1.  The  evangelist  John  has  not  named  himself 
either  in  his  Gospel  or  in  his  Catholic  Epistles  ;  but  the  -writer 
of  the  Revelatio7i  7iames  himself  more  than  once. 

Answer.  It  was  not  the  practice  of  the  other  evangelists  to  put  their 
names  to  their  Gospels ;  nor  is  any  name  prefixed  to  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrevvs;  yet  these  writings  are  universally  received  as  genuine  and  au- 
thentic. But  though  St.  John  has  not  named  himself  in  his  Gospel,  yet  he 
has  there  so  described  himself,*  that  it  is  impossible  not  to  know  him  ;  and 
with  regard  to  the  Epistles,  the  persons  to  whom  they  were  sent  could  not 
be  ignorant  from  whom  they  came. 

On-TKCTiox  2.  Though  the  -writer  of  the  Revelation  calls 
himself  John,  he  has  7iot  shoxvn  us  that  he  is  the  apostle  of  that 
name.  Michaelis  thinks  that  he  ought  at  least  to  have  made 
himself  known  by  some  such  circumlocution  as  he  had  used  in 
the  Gospel — the  disciple  -whom  .Tesus  loved. 

Answer.  "Such  addition  to  the  name  orf'.Iohn  was  totally  needlpss.  ITe 
wrote  to  the  seven  churches,  and  from  Patmos,  iii^  which  island  he  e.v- 
presses  that  '  he  is  suffering  tribulation  for  the  word  of  God  and  the  testi- 
mony of  Jesus  Christ.'  All  the  churches  knew  that  he  was  then  suffering 
banishment  in  that  island,  and  they  knew  the  cause  of  it,  '  for  the  word 
of  God.'  An  Epistle  containing  the  history  of  a  heavenly  vision,  seen  by 
John  in  the  island  of  Patmos,  re(iulred  no  other  addition.  What  .John 
would  write  John  alone,  without  other  addition  or  explanation,  excepting 
the  great  .John,  John  the  apostle  and  president  of  all  the  churches'!  A  pri- 
vate person  would  have  described  himself  by  the  addition  of  his  father's 
name,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  ancients.  A  bishop  or  presbyter 
would  have  added  the  name  of  his  church  ;  but  .lohn  the  apostle  needed 
no  such  distinguishing  mark  or  appellation.  A  fabricator  of  an  Epistle, 
containing  a  revelation  in  Saint  .lohn's  name,  would  perhaps  have  added 
his  lilies  of 'Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,'  &c.,  or  would  have  introduced  some 
circumlocution  in  imitation  of  those  in  his  Gospel;  but,  from  tjie  expres- 
sion as  it  now  stands,  we  derive  a  much  stronger  evidence  that  it  is  the 
genuine  work  of  Saint  John. "9 


5  In  the  Codex  Pseudepigiaphus  Novi  Testamenfi  of  Fabricius,  and  Mr- 
Jeremiah  .lones's  elaborate  work  on  the  New  Testament.  , 

e  Woodhouse,  p.  100. 

'  Wetstenii  Nov.  Test.  torn.  ii.  p.  747.  vole..  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol. 
ii.  pp.  121—123. ;  4fo.  vol.  i.  pp,  643,  644.  See  also  Dr.  Jortin's  Discourses 
on  the  Christian  Religion,  pp.  225,  226.  note. 

8  See  .lohn  xxi.  24.  and  other  places. 

'Saint  Paul,  in  the  opening  of  his  Epistles,  has  used  generally,  not 
always,  the  term  "Apostle;"  but  with  him  it  was  more  necessary  than 
with  Saint  John,  who  was  confessedly  such,  having  been  numbered  with 
the  twelve.  Saint  PauPs  right  to  the  apostleship,  having  been  established 
more  privately,  had  been  doubted  by  some,  which  leads  hiin  to  say,  "Am' 


Chap  V.] 


ON  THE  REVELATION  OF  SAINT  JOHN  THE  DIVINE. 


381 


Objection  3.  The  Jievelation  does  not  mention  the  Catholic 
Epistle,  nor  the  Catholic  Epistle  the  Revelation, 

Answer.  It  is  not  th';  practice  of  ttie  sacreil  writers  to  f|Uote  thoniselves, 
or  refer  to  tlipir  own  works,  unless  they  write  more  than  one  Kpistle  to 
the  same  rhurclies  or  persons;  in  which  case  tliey  mention  such  former 
Kpiolle.  Tiiis,  Or.  I^rdner  ohserves,  is  natural,  anil  it  is  done  hy  Saint 
I'aul  i  hut  in  his  Epislle  to  the  Uonians  he  is  totally  silent  concernini;  any 
of  his  former  Upistlcs,  though,  at  the  time  of  writiii);  it,  he  liad  written 
several. 

OiiJECTiox  4.  There  is  a  great  resemblance  in  sentiment, 
manner,  and  expression  between  the  Gospel  and  the  Jirst  Epis- 
lle of  Saint  John  ;  but  the  Revelation  is  altogether  different, 
•without  any  affinity  or  resemblance  -whatever. 

ANsWEfj.  In  the  first  place,  if  it  were  true  that  there  was  such  a  dif- 
ference of  style  as  Uionysius  and  (after  him)  Michaells  have  asserted,  it 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  dill'erence  of  subject.  The  style  of  history 
is  not  the  style  of  an  epistle  or  a  prophecy.  The  style  of  history  is  sim- 
ple ;  of  an  ej)islle,  familiar;  and  that  of  prophecy  is  sublime;  and  such 
unquestionably  is  the  slyle  of  the  Kevelalion.  Hut,  secondly,  this  objec- 
tion Is  coiiiia<lk'led  bv  tiict;  and  the  proofs  adduced  in  p.  380.  will  show 
that  the  ciiiiicidence  between  the  Apocalypse  and  the  undisputed  fJospel 
and  Kpisile  ol  Saint  John  is  such,  that  they  must  have  been  written  by  one 
and  the  same  author. 

Objection  5.  The  Gospel  and  Epistle  of  John  are  -written 
in  correct  and  elegant  Greek,  but  the  winter  of  the  Revela- 
tion discoi<ers  no  accurate  knowledge  of  that  language  :  on 
the  contrary,  the  Jlpocalypse  abounds  with  barbarisms  and 
solecisms. 

Answer.  This  objection  is  founded  on  the  mistaken  idea  that  the  writers 
of  the  NewTcstament  wrote  in  Atlic  Greek;  which,  we  have  already  seen,' 
is  not  the  case.  The  same  grammatical  irregularities  which  have  been 
objected  to  in  the  Apocalypse  are  also  observable  in  the  Siptuagint,  as  well 
as  in  the  Gospels  and  other  writings  of  the  New  Testament.  But  this  dif- 
ference of  language  may  also  be  accounted  for  by  the  length  of  time  which 
may  have  elapsed  between  the  composing  of  these  books;  for  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  one  and  the  same  person  writin"  upon  ditTerent  arguments,  and 
at  a  great  distance  of  time,  especially  if  hel)e  one  who  does  not  frequently 
e.icercise  his  style,  or  write  in  the  intermediate  sj)ace,  should  have  a  very 
ditTerent  manner  in  his  several  performances.  Now  the  Gospel  of  Saint 
John,  we  have  seen,  was  written  about  the  year  97 — that  is,  about  sixty 
years  after  the  events  recorded  in  it.  At  such  a  distance  of  lime,  Dr.  Wood- 
liouse  remarks,  the  mind  is  enabled  to  look  back  with  composure,  and  to 
represent  with  serenity  transactions  which  could  not  be  narrated  soon 
after  they  had  happened,  without  warm  and  passionate  expressions.  It 
seems  to  be  owing  partly  to  this  cause,  that  the  evangelist  is  seen  to  relate 
in  so  cool  a  style,  in  the  Go.spel,  those  sufferings  of  his  beloved  Lord  which 
he  had  witnessed,  and  which,  if  related  by  him  immediately  after  the 
events  had  taken  place,  could  not  have  been  told  otherwise  than  with 
emotion  and  indignation.  But  the  Apocalypse  was  written  by  its  author 
immediately  after  he  had  seen  the  vision  ;  the  impression  on  his  mind  had 
no  lime  to  cool ;  his  expressions  kept  pace  with  his  feelings,  and  his  style 
became  vivid  and  glowing.'  There  is  no  necessity,  therefore,  for  having 
recourse  to  the  hypothesis  of  a  Hebrew  oi  iginal,  and  of  supposing  our 
Greek  text  to  be  a  version  of  it,  as  some  critics  have  imagined  ;  but  which 
hypothesis  is  totally  unsupported  by  the  evidence  of  antiquity. 

Objection  6.  The  book  is  so  obscure  as  to  be  unintelligible, 
and  is  therefore  improperly  called  a  Revelation. 

This  trifling  objection,  for  such  it  is  pronounced  to  be  by  Dr. 
Lardncr,  was  first  published  by  Dionysius,  who  represents  it  as 
being  entertained  by  many  persons  in  his  time  (the  middle  of 
the  third  century).  In  our  time  it  has  been  adopted  by  Michaelis, 
who  has  laid  much  stress  upon  it ;  but  this  objection  admits  of 
the  following  simple  and  satisfactory. 

Answer.  In  the  first  place  the  author  might  with  great  propriety  call 
that  a  revelation,  which  had  been  communicated  to  him  in  an  extraordinary 
manner;  though  he  had  received  it,  and  was  to  represent  it,  in  a  figurative 
and  emblematical  style.  But,  secondly,  this  revelation  is  often  spoken  of 
as  a  prophecy.  (See  Rev.  i.  13.  and  xxii.  7.  10.  18,  10.)  Now,  it  is  the  nature 
of  i)rophecies  to  be  obscure  when  delivered,  and  for  some  time  after,' 
even  in  the  case  of  prophecies  fulfilled;  "because  the  language  in  which 
they  are  delivered  is  symbolical,  which,  though  governed  by  certain  rules, 
anil  therefore  attainable  by  the  judicious  among  the  learned,  is  neverthe- 
less very  liable  to  nu'sconstruction  in  rash  and  imskilful  hands.  Hut  pro- 
j)tiecies,  yet  unfulfilled,  are  necessarily  involved  in  deeper  darkness, 
because  tlie  es'ent  is  wanting  to  compare  with  the  prediction,  which  of 
it-aclf  is  flesigncdly  obscure.  This  same  objection  of  obscurity  will  operate 
as  fcuvibly  against  many  of  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  and  of  the  New 
Testament,  as  against  those  of  the  Apocalypse  ;  particularly  the  predictions 
which  appertain  to  the  latter  days.  The  book  of  Daniel,  which  has  our 
Saviour's  seal  to  it  (Malt.  xxiv.  1.").),  must  be  rejected  with  the  Apocalypse, 
if  it  be  a  suflicient  objection  to  if,  that  it  is  yet  in  many  places  obscure."* 
A  conclusion  this,  to  which  no  Christian  can  or  will  give  his  assent. 

So  far,  however,  is  the  obscurity  of  this  prophecy  from  making  against 
its  genuineness,  that  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  strong  intertial  proof  of  iis 
aulhenlicily  and  divine  original:  "  for  it  is  a  part  of  lliis  prophecy,"  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  well  argues,  "  that  it  should  not  be  understood  before  the 
last  age  of  the  world  ;  and  therefore  it  makes  for  the  credit  of  the  prophecy 
that  it  is  not  yet  understood.  The  folly  of  interpreters,"  he  justly  con- 
tinues, "  has  been,  to  foretell  times  and  things  by  this  prophecy,  as  if  God 
designed  to  make  them  prophets.  By  this  rashness  they  have  not  only 
exposed  themselves,  but  brought  the  prophecy  also  into  contempt.    The 


not  1  an  apostle  1"  <Scc.  (ICor.  ix.  1);  and  therefore  he  generally  asserts 
himself,  in  his  Epistles,  to  be  an  apostle.  Saint  John  had  no  need  to  use 
the  term  :  his  authority  as  an  apostle  was  undoubted :  he  therefore  calls 
himself>l>y  an  humbler  title,  "A  brother  and  companion  in  tribulation:" 
so  Saint  James,  although  an  apostle,  mentions  himself  only  as  "A  servant 
of  God,  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  (James  i.  1.)  VVoodhouse,  p.  114. 

>  See  Vi)|.  1.  pp.  104—196.     On  the  Nature  of  the  New  Testament  Greek. 

'  Woodhouse,  p.  122. 

'  See  2  Pet.  i.  10.  1  Pet.  i.  10—12.  and  Luke  x.xiv.  25—27.  32.  44-46. 

*  VVoodhouse,  p.  103. 


design  of  God  was  riiuch  otherwise.  He  gave  this  and  the  prophecies  of 
the  Old  Testament,  not  to  gratify  men's  curiosities,  by  enabling  thera 
to  foreknow  things,  but  that,  after  that  they  were  fulfilled,  they  mighl  be 
interpreted  by  the  event,  and  his  own  providence,  not  the  inlerpreter's, 
be  then  manifested  thereby  to  the  world.  For  the  event  of  things,  pre- 
dicted many  ages  before,  will  then  be  a  convincing  argument  that  the  workl 
is  governed  by  providence.  For  as  the  few  and  obscure  prophecies  con- 
cerning Christ's  first  coming  were  for  selling  up  the  Christian  religion, 
which  all  nations  have  since  corrupted  ;  so  the  many  and  clearprophecies 
concerning  the  things  to  be  done  at  Cliri.st's  second  coming  are  not  only 
for  predicting,  but  also  for  effecting  a  recovery  and  reeslabllshment  of  the 
long  lost  truth,  and  setting  up  a  kingdom  wherein  dwells  righteousness. 
The  event  will  prove  the  Apocalypse  ;  and  this  prophecy,  thus  proved  and  ' 
understood,  will  open  the  old  prophets,  and  altogether  will  make  known 
the  true  religion,  and  establish  it.  There  is  already  so  much  of  the  pro- 
phecy fulfilletl,  that  as  many  as  will  take  pains  in  this  study  mav  sec  suffi- 
cient instances  of  Goil's  providence  ;  but  then  the  signal  revolutions  pre- 
dicted by  all  the  holy  prophets  will  at  once  Ixjth  turn  men's  eyes  uponcon- 
siilering  the  predictions,  and  plainly  interpret  Ihein.  Till  I'lien  we  must 
content  ourselves  with  interpreting  what  hath  been  alreeuly  fulfilled."* 

Such  are  the  most  material  objections  that  have  been 
broutrht  against  the  genuineness  and  divine  authority  of  this 
portion  of  the  New  Testament.  In  addition  to  the  very 
satisfactory  answers  above  given,  from  the  writintrs  of  pious 
and  learned  men,  it  were  no  difficult  task  to  adcT  numerous 
other  considerations,  all  tending  to  show  its  divine  original ; 
but  the  preceding  testimonies,  both  external  and  internal, 
will,  we  apprehend,  be  found  abundantly  sufficient  to  prove 
that  the  Apocalypse  is  the  unquestionable  production  of  the 
apostle  and  evangelist  John,  and  of  no  other  John  who  is 
mentioned  by  ecclesiastical  writers.  It  consequently  follows, 
that  this  book  has  an  indubitable  right  to  that  place  in  the 
canon  of  sacred  Scripture,  which  the  ancient  fathers  of  the 
church  have  assigned  to  it,  and  which  the  reformers  in  the 
Protestant  churches  have  with  mature  deliberation  con- 
firmed.*' 

III.  The  Time  when  this  book  was  written  is  a  subject 
that  has  much  engaged  the  attention  of  the  learned ;  anci  on 
this  point  not  fewer  than  six  opinions  have  been  advanced. 
Four  of  these  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  considered  in 
this  place. 

1.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  Apocaljnse  was  written  in 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Claudius.  Epipnanius  is  the  only 
ancient  father  whose  testimony  has  been  adduced  in  behalf 
of  this  opinion  ;  and  he  did  not  live  till  three  hundred  years 
later  than  St.  John.  Although  this  date  is  sanctioned  by 
Grotius,  who  supposes  that  the  visions  of  the  book  were 
seen  at  several  times,  and  that  they  were  afterwards  joined 
together  in  one  book ;  yet  there  are  two  very  material  objec- 
tions against  it.  The  first  is,  that  there  was  no  persecution 
of  the  Christians  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  and  consequently 
John's  banishment  to  Patmos  cannot  be  referred  to  that 
period.  This  emperor  did,  indeed,  issue  an  edict  for  banish- 
ing the  Jews  from  Rome,  but  it  did  not  affect  the  Jews  in  the 
provinces,  much  less  the  Christians;  and  the  governors  had 
no  authority  to  banish  either  Jews  or  Christians  out  of  their 
provinces  without  an  order  from  the  emperor :  besides,  it 
does  not  appear  that  Saint  John  was  at  Ephesus  during  the 
reign  of  Claudius.  The  second  objection  to  this  date  is 
founded  on  the  circumstance,  that  the  seven  churches  in 
Asia,  to  which  the  Apocalypse  is  addressed,  did  not  exist  so 
early  as  the  rei^n  of  Claudius ;  for  this  fact  cannot  be  recon- 
ciled w  ith  the  nistory  given  of  the  first  planting  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Asia  ISIiiior  related  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

2.  It  has  been  maintained,  on  the  authority  of  the  sub- 
scription to  the  Syriac  version  of  the  Apocalypse,  that  Saint 
John  wrote  it  in  the  island  of  Patmos,  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Nero,  before  the  dtalructiwi  of  Jerusalem.  This 
opinion  is  adopted  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  ;'  but  it  is  untenable, 
for  the  Apocalypse  was  not  translated  into  Syriac  until  the 
middle  ol  the  sixth  century,  and  the  anonymous  subscription 
is  of  no  force. 

»  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Observations  on  the  Prophecies  of  Daniel  and  the 
Apocalypse  of  Saint  John,  pp.  251—253. 

«  Lampe,  Comment,  in  Evang.  Joannis,  tom.  i.  pp.  125 — 131.  Ijirdner's 
Works,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  1 10—128.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  627—647.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv. 
pp.  461— 600.  528— &l4.  Ur.  Woodhouse's  Uissertation,  pp.  80— 141.  Dr.  W. 
has  considered  at  length  and  refuted,  several  minor  objections  of  Michaelis 
and  Dr.  Less,  which  want  of  room  has  compelled  us  to  omit. 

'  Sir  Isaac  Newton  endeavoured  to  support  his  hypothesis  by  alleging 
that  the  apostolic  epistles  contain  quotations  from  the  Apocalypse  ;  and  his 
hypothesis  has  recently  been  adopted  by  Dr.  Tilloch  in  his  "Disseriations" 
introductory  to  the  study  of  this  book.  Dr.  T.,  it  must  be  acknowledged, 
has  conducted  his  view  of  the  subject  with  equal  ingenuity  and  skill ;  but 
the  arguments  for  the  tale  date  are  decisive  to  the  writer  of  these  pages. 
The  collection  of  verbally  parallel  passages,  between  the  Apocalypse  and 
the  Epistles,  it  has  been  forcibly  observed,  "  appear  to  prove  that  the 
apostles  in  general  were  well  acquainted  with  tlie  subjects,  concerning 
which  Saint  John  prophesied,  but  that  they  knev/  them  by  the  influence  of 
the  same  Holy  Spirit  which  dictated  them  to  St.  John.  The  expressions  in 
question,  therefore,  were  common  to  all  the  inspired  writers  of  the  New 
Testament."  Townsend's  New  Testament  arranged  in  Chronological  Order, 
vol.  ii.  p.  653, 


383 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Piar  Vr. 


3.  Another  hypothesis  makes  this  book  to  have  been 
written  before  the  time  of  Domitian,  and  before  the  Jewish 
war  ;  but  it  does  not  determine  whether  it  was  in  the  reign 
of  Claudius,  or  in  that  of  Nero. 

4.  The  most  probable  and  fjenerally  received  opinion  is, 
that  John  was  banished  into  Patinos  towards  the  end  of 
Domitian's  reign,  by  virtue  of  his  edicts  for  persecuting  the 
Christians ;  and  that  he  had  the  Revelations  contained  in  the 

.Apocalypse  during  his  exile;  though  the  book  itself  could 
not  have  been  published  until  after  the  apostle's  release  and 
return  to  Ephesus.  The  unanimous  voice  of  Christian  anti- 
(|uity  attests  that  John  was  banished  by  the  order  of  Domi- 
tian. Iren«us,  Origen,  and  other  early  fathers,  refer  the 
apostle's  exile  to  the'latter  part  of  Domitian's  rei^n,  and  they 
concur  in  saying  that  he  there  received  the  Revelations 
described  in  the  Apocalypse.  Internal  evidence  likewise 
supports  this  conclusion.  For,  in  the  first  three  chapters  of 
the  Apocalypse,  the  seven  Asiatic  churches  are  described  as 
being  in  that  advanced  and  flourishing  state  of  society  and 
discipline,  and  to  have  undergone  those  changes  in  their  faith 
and  morals,  which  could  not  have  taken  place  if  they  had  not 
been  planted  for  a  considerable  time.  Thus,  the  church  of 
Kphesus  is  censured  for  having  left  "her  first  love."  That 
of  Sardis  "  had  a  name  to  live,  but  was  dead."  The  church 
of  Laodicea  had  fallen  into  lukewarmness  and  indifference. 
Now  the  church  of  P]phesus,  for  instance,  was  not  founded 
by  Paul  until  the  latter  part  of  Claudiau's  reign  :  and  when 
he  wrote  to  them  from  Rome,  a.  d.  61,  instead  of  reprov- 
ing them  for  any  want  of  love,  he  commends  their  love 
and  faith.  (Eph.  i.  15.)  Further,  it  appears  from  the 
Revelation  that  the  Nicolaitans  formed  a  sect  when  this  book 
was  written,  since  they  are  expressly  named  :  whereas  they 
were  only  foretold  in  general  terms  by  Saint  Peter  in  his 
second  Epistle,  written  a.  d.  65,  and  in  Saint  Jude's  Epistle, 
which  was  written  about  a.  d.  65  or  66.  It  is  also  evident, 
from  various  passages  of  the  Revelation,  that  there  had  been 
an  open  persecution  in  the  provinces.  John  himself  had 
been  banished  into  Patmos  for  the  testimony  of  Jesus.  The 
church  of  Ephesus  (or  its  bishop)  is  commended  for  its 
"  labour  and  patience,''''  which  seems  to  imply  persecution. 
This  is  still  more  evident  in  the  following  address  to  the 
church  of  Smyrna  (Rev.  ii.  9.), — "  1  know  thy  works  and 
tribulation,''''  S-a/4'v  :  which  last  word  always  denotes  perse- 
cution in  the  New  Testament,  and  is  so  explained  in  the 
following  verse. 

Lastly,  In  Rev.  ii.  13.  mention  is  made  of  a  martyr  named 
Antipas,  who  was  put  to  death  at  Pergamos.  Though 
ancient  ecclesiastical  history  gives  us  no  mformation  con- 
cerning this  Antipas,  yet  it  is  certain,  according  to  all  the 
rules  of  language,  that  what  is  here  said  is  to  be  understood 
literally,  and  not  mystically,  as  some  expositors  have  ex- 
plainedf  it.  Since,  therefore,  the  persecution,  mentioned  in 
the  first  three  chapters  of  the  Apocalypse,  cannot  relate  to 
the  time  of  Claudms,  who  did  not  persecute  the  Christians, 
nor  to  the  time  of  Nero,  whose  persecution  did  not  reach  the 
provinces,  it  must  necessarily  be  referred  to  Domitian,  ac- 
cording to  ecclesiastical  tradition.' 

Domitian's  death  is  related  to  have  happened  in  September, 
a.  d.  96.  The  Christian  exiles  were  then  liberated,  and  John 
was  permitted  to  return  to  Ephesus.  As,  however,  the 
emperor's  decease,  and  the  permission,  to  return,  could  not 
be  known  in  Asia  immediately,  some  time  must  intervene 
before  the  apostle  could  be  at  liberty  either  to  write  the 
Apocalypse  at  Ephesus,^  or  to  send  it  by  messeuTOrs  from 
Patmos.  We  conclude,  therefore,  with  Dr.  Mill,  Le  Clerc, 
Basnage,  Dr.  Lardner,  Bishop  Tomline,  Dr.  Woodhouse, 
and  other  eminent  critics,  in  placing  the  Apocalypse  in  the 
year  96  or  97.^ 

IV.  The  Occasion  of  writing  the  Apocalypse  is  suffi- 
ciently evident  from  the  book  itself.  John,  being  in  exile 
in  the  island  of  Patmos,  is  favoured  with  the  appearance  of 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  to  him,  and  is  repeatedly  commanded 
to  commit  to  writing  the  visions-whicn  he  beheld.  (See 
Rev.  i.  11.  19.  ii.  1.  8.  12.  18.  iii.  1.  7.  14.  xiv.  13.  xix.  9. 
and  xxi.  5.)  The  Scope  or  design  of  this  book  is  twofold  ; 
first,  generally  to  make  known  to  the  apostle  "  the  things 
which  are"  (i.  19.),  that  is,  the  then  present  state  of  the 

'  Beausobre  et  L'Enfant,  Preface  sur  I'Apocalypsc  de  Saint  Jean,  pp. 
613,  6U. 

»  From  the  expression  in  Rev.  i.  9.  "/was  in  the  Isle  of  Patmos,"  Dr. 
Woodhouse  is  of  opinion  that  there  seems  to  be  internal  evidence  that  the 
Revplation  was  written  after  Saint  .lohn  had  left  Patmos. 

3  Micbaelis,  V(il.  iv.  pp.  518 — 528.  I.ardner,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.633— 638. ;  4to. 
vol.  i.  pp.  4.'j0 — 153.  Dr.  WoodUouse's  Dissertation,  pp.  6—25.  Pritii  Iiitrod. 
ad  Nov.  Test.  pp.  120—132. 


I  Christian  churches  in  Asia ;  and,  necondhj,  and  principally, 
to  reveal  to  him  "  the  things  which  shall  be  hereafter,"  or 
the  constitution  and  fates  of  the  Christian  church,  through 
its  several  periods  of  propagation,  corruption,  and  amend- 
ment, from  its  beginning  to  its  consummation  in  glory. 
"  The  prophecy  of  the  Revelation,"  says  Daubuz,  "  was 
designed  as  a  standing  monument  to  the  church,  to  know 
what  destinies  attend  it;  and  that,  when  men  should  suffer 
for  the  name  of  Christ,  they  might  here  find  some  consolation 
both  for  themselves  and  for  the  church : — for  themselves, 
by  the  prospect  and  certainty  of  a  reward; — tor  the  church, 
by  the  testimony  that  Christ  never  forsakes  it,  but  will 
conquer  at  last." 

V .  The  Apocalypse,  therefore,  consists  of  two  principal 
divisions  or  parts  ;  viz. 

After  the  title  of  the  book.  (i.  1 — 3.) 
Part  I.  contains  a  ua-i,  the  '■'•things  which  are,-''''  that  is,  the 

then  present  state  of  the  church. 

Sect.  1.  The  Epistle  of  John  to  the  seven  churches,  and  his 
account  of  the  appearance  of  the  Lord  Jesus  with  the  sym- 
bols of  his  power,  together  with  the  conirais.sion  given  by 
him  to  the  apostle,  to  write  what  he  beholds,  (i.  9 — 20.) 

Sect.  2.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Ephesus. 
(ii.  1-7.) 

Sect.  3.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Smyrna, 
(ii.  8—11.) 

Sect.  4.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Pergamos. 
(ii.  12—17.) 

Sect.  5.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Thyatira. 
(ii.  18—29.) 

Sect.  6.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Sardis.  (iii. 

Sect.  7.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Philadel- 
phia, (iii.  7— 13.) 

Sect.  8.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Laodicea. 
(iii.  14—22.) 

The  seven  churches  of  the  Lydian  or  Proconsular  Asia,  to  which  these 
Epistles  were  addressed,  are  supposed  to  have  been  planted  by  the  apostle 
Paul  and  his  assistants  during  their  ministry.  They  lie  nearly  in  an  am- 
phitheatre, and  are  addressed  according  to  their  geographical  positions.* 
Vitringa  and  other  eminent  commentators  have  supposed  that  the  seven 
Epistles  to  the  Apocalyptic  churches  are  prophetical  of  so  many  successive 
periods  and  slates  of  the  church,  from  the  beginning  of  Christianity  to  the 
consummation  of  all  things.  But  for  this  opinion,  Bishop  Newton  thinks, 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  sufficient  evidence,  and  it  is  in  fact  contradicte  J 
by  the  book  of  Revelation  itself;  for  the  last  state  of  the  church  is  here 
described  as  the  most  glorious  of  all,  but  in  the  last  of  these  Epistles, 
that  of  Laodicea,  the  church  is  represented  as  "  wretched  and  miserable, 
and  poor,  and  blind,  and  naked."  But  though  these  Epistles  have  rather 
a  literal  than  a  mystical  meaning,  yet  they  contain  e.xcellent  precrpts  and 
e.vhortations,  commendations  and  reproofs,  promises  and  Ihreatenings, 
which  are  calculated  to  afford  instruction  to  the  universal  church  of  Christ 
at  all  times.  "Some  churches,"  Dr.  Hales  remarks,  "like  those  of  Sardis, 
Thyatira,  and  Laodicea,  are  lukewarm  and  greatly  corrupted;  others  in  a 
mixed  state,  as  those  of"  Ephesus  and  Pergamos ;  and  some  still  rich,  or 
rather  nourishing,  and  have  not  denied  the  faith  of  Christ,  as  Smyrna  and 
Philadelphia.  And  the  admonitions  addressed  to  them — 1.  To  repent  and 
reform  their  ways  ; — 2.  To  reject  false  apostles  and  corrupt  doctrines; — 
3.  To  retain  Iheir  patience  and  steadfastness  in  the  faith; — 4.  Uiuler  the 
penalty  of  having  their  'lamps  removed,'  or  their  estalilislied  cliurches 
extiiiguished— are  ecpially  addressed  to  all.  '  IJe  thai  ha  If,  an  par,  let  him 
hear  what  the  i'i'2iirit  saith  to  the  churches'  in  general."  (Rev.  ii.  29.  iii.  22.)' 

Part  II.  contains  a  Prophecy  of  d/  fxa^xu  -^inTd-ut,  "  the  things 
which  shall  be  hereafter,^'  or  the  Future  State  (if  the  Church 
through  succeeding  ages,  from  the  time  when  the  apostle 
beheld  the  apocalyptic  visions  to  th^Grand  Consummation  of 
all  things. 

Sect.  1.  The  representation  of  the  divine  glory  in  heaven,  (iv.) 
Sect.  2.  The  sealed  book,  the  Lamb  who  opens  it,  and  the 

praises  sung  by  the  heavenly  choir,  (v.) 
Sect.  3.   The  opening  of  the  first  six  seals,  (vi.) 
Sect.  4.  The  .sealing  of  the  hundred  and  forty-four  thousand, 

and  the  presentation  of  the  palm-bearing  multitude  before 

the  throne,  (vii.) 
Sect.  5.  The  opening  of  the  seventh  seal,  and  the  first  six 

trumpets,  and  the  prophetic  conunission  to  John. 

§  i.  The  opening  of  the  seventh  seal,  and  the  commission  to  The  angel 

with  the  seven  trinupcts.  (viii.  1 — 5.) 
§ii.  The  first  four  trumpets  (viii.  6 — 12.),  and  the  denunciation  of  the 

three  woes.  (13.) 
§  iii.  The  fifth  trumpet  and  the  first  wo.  (ix.  1 — 12.)  ' 

§  iv.  The  sixth  trumpet  and  the  second  wo.  (ix.  13—21.)  '  '^ 

§  V.  The  first  prophetical  vision  of  the  open  little  book,  representing  the 

different  statesof  the  Christian  church  to  the  end  of  the  sixth  trumpet, 

— tlic  measuring  of  tlie  temple,  anil  the  two  witnesses,  (x.  1 — 11.  xi. 

1-M.) 


■•  An  account  of  the  abovp-mentioned  cities  is  given  in  the  Historical 
and  Geographical  Index,  in  Vol.  II.  of  the  present  work. 

»  Dr.  Ilales's  Analyses'  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  ii.  p.  1291.  Bishop 
Newton's  Dissertations,  vol.  ii.  p.  167. 


CiiAP.  v.] 


ON  THE  REVELATION  OF  SAEVT  JOHN  THE  DIVINE. 


383 


Sec;t.  6.  The  sounding  of  the  seventh  trumpet — the  vision  of 
the  woman  persecuted  by  the  dragon,  and  of  the  wild  beasts 
from  the  sea  and  from  tlic  hind.  (ix.  1.5 — 19.  xii.  xiii.) 

Skct.  7.  The  vision  of  the  Lainl)  and  the  liundrcd  and  forty- 
four  thousand  elect  on  Mount  Sion,  and  the  proclamations 
or  warnings. 

§  i.  Tlie  Lanib  on  Mount  Sion.  (xiv.  1— 5.) 

§  ii.  The,  firs  I  ancd  proclaims,  (xiv.  C,  7.) 

§  jii.  The  siTOnd  aiiirol  proclaims    (xiv.  8.) 

§  iv.  The  tkird  iiiiKi'l  pruclaiiMH.  (xiv.  9 — 12.) 

§  V.  The  ble.sse<lii«;s.s  of  those  who  die  in  the  I.oril  proclaimed,  (xiv.  13.) 

S  vi.  The  vision  of  the  harvest  and  the  vintage  (xiv.  11 — iW.) 

Skpt.  8.  contains  the  seven  vials  and  the  episode  of  the 
harlot  of  Babylon  and  her  fall. 

§  i.  Tlie  vision  preparatory  to  tlic  seven  vials,  (xv.  xvi.  1.) 
§  ii.  The  pouring  out  of  the  seven  vials,  (xvi.  2—21.) 
§  iii.  Tlie  (treat  harlot,  or  Babylon,  (xvii.) 
%  iv.  The  jnd^tuient  of  Uabylon  conlinuerl.  (xviii.) 

S  v.  Kxult'ation  in  heaven  over  the  fallen  Babylon,  and  ujion  the  approach 
of  the  New  Jerusalem,  (xix.  1—10.) 

Sect.  9.  contains  the  grand  conflict,  the  millcimium,  the  con- 
flict renewed,  the  judgment,  and  the  new  creation. 

§  i.  The  appearance  of  the  Lord  willi  his  followers,  for  battle  and  victory. 

(xix.  11  — H.) 
5  ii.  The  conllict  and  victory  over  the  beast  and  false  prophet,   (xix. 

I'.t-21.) 
5  iii.  Salan  bound,  and  the  millcnniimi.  (xx.  1 — 6.) 
§  iv.  S;ilan  loosed,  deceives  the  nations,  and  is  cast  into  the  burning  lake. 

(XX.  7—10.) 
%  V.  The  general  resurrection  and  final  jud(iment.  (xx.  11 — 15.) 

Sbct.  10.  Descriptionof  the  new  Jerusalem,  (xxi.xxii.  1 — 5.) 
The  CoxcLusioN.  (xxii.  6 — 21.) 

VI.  No  book  has  been  more  commented  upon,  or  has  given 
rise  to  a  greater  variety  of  interpretations,  than  the  Apocalypse, 
which  has  ever  been  accounted  the  most  difficult  portion  of 
the  New  Testament.  The  figrnrative  lantruagc  in  which  the 
visions  are  delivered ;  the  variety  of  symbols  under  which 
the  events  are  presignified ;  the  extent  of  the  prophetical 
information,  which  appears  to  pervade  all  ages  of  the  Chris- 
tian church,  afford  little  hope  of  its  perfect  elucidation,  till  a 
further  process  of  time  shall  have  ripened  more  of  the  events 
foretold  ill  it,  and  have  given  safer  scope  to  investigation.' 

Kefening  the  reader,  therefore,  to  the  works  of  Mede, 
Daubuz,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Bishops  Newton  and  Hurd, 
Lowman,  Faber,  Dr.  Hales,  and  others,  who  have  attempted 
to  illustrate  these  sublime  and  mysterious  prophecies,  and 
especially  to  the  learned  and  pious  labours  of  Dr.  vVoodhouse, 
we  siiall  conclude  this  article  with  the  following  canons  of 
interpretation,  which  have  been  proposed  by  the  last-men- 

«  Brit.  Crit.  vol.  xxix.  p.  191.  RosenmnUer  (Scholia,  vol.  v.  pp.  C14 — 619.) 
and  Dr.  A.  Clarke  (Preface  to  the  Revelation,  pp.  i. — x.)  have  given  an  ab- 
stract of  various  liypotheses  relative  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse, some  of  which  arc  sulBciently  extravagant.  See  also  Cellerier's 
Introduction  au  Nouv.  Test.  pp.  497—001.  and  Hug's  Litroduction,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  605— tJ67. 


tioned  eminent  critic  and  divine,  who  has  most  successfully 
applied  them  to  the  exposition  of  the  Apocalypse : — 

1.  Compare  the  language,  the  symbols,  and  the  predictions  of 
the  Apocalypse  with  those  of  former  revelations ;  and  admit  only 
such  interpretation  as  shall  appear  to  have  the  sanction  of  this 
divine  authority. 

2.  Unless  the  language  and  symbols  of  the  Apocalypse  should 
in  particular  passages  direct,  or  evidently  require,  another  mode 
of  application,  the  predictions  arc  to  be  applied  to  the  progressive 
church  of  Christ. 

.3.  The  kingdom  which  is  the  subject  of  this  prophetic  book  ia 
not  a  temporal  but  a  s[)iritual  kingdom  ; — not  "  a  kingdom  of  this 
world"  (John  xviii.  30.),  not  established  by  the  means  and  ap- 
paratus of  worldly  pomp,  not  bearing  the  external  ensigns  of 
royalty  ;  but  governing  the  inward  man,  by  possession  of  the 
ruling  principles  :  the  khiffdom  of  God,  says  our  Lord,  ia  -within 
you.  (Luke  xvii.  21.)  The  predictions  relative  to  this  kingdom, 
therefore,  are  to  be  sjiiritualiy  interpreted.  Wars,  conquests,  and 
revolutions,  of  va.st  extent  and  great  political  import,  are  not  the 
object  of  the  ajiocalyptical  prophecies ;  unless  they  appear  to  have 
promoted  or  retarded  in  a  considerable  degree  the  real  progress 
of  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ,  whose  proper  reign  is  in  the 
hearts  and  consciences  of  his  subjects.  "  His  reign  is  advanced, 
when  Christian  principles,  when  faith,  and  righteousness,  and 
charity  abound.  It  is  retarded,  when  ignorance,  impurity,  ido- 
latrous superstition,  and  wickedness  prevail." 

4.  We  are  not  to  attempt  the  particular  explanation  of  those 
prophecies  which  remain  to  be  fulfilled.^ 

Although  many  parts  of  the  Apocalypse  are  necessarily 
obscure  to  us,  because  they  contain  predictions  of  events 
still  future,  yet  enough  is  sufficiently  clear  to  convey  to  U9 
the  most  important  religious  instruction.  This  book  is  to 
us  precisely  what  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
to  the  Jews,  nor  is  it  in  any  degree  more  inexplicable.  "  No 
prophecies  in  the  Revelation  can  be  more  clouded  with  ob- 
scurity, than  that  a  child  should  be  bom  of  a  pure  virgin — 
that  a  mortal  should  not  see  corniption — that  a  person  de- 
spised and  numbered  amon^  malefactors  should  be  established 
for  ever  on  the  throne  of  David.  Yet  still  the  pious  Jew 
preserved  his  faith  entire  amidst  all  these  wonderful,  and, 
in  appearance,  contradictory  intimations.  He  looked  into 
the  uoly  books  in  which  they  were  contained,  with  reve- 
rence ;  and  with  an  eye  of  patient  expectation  '  waited  for 
the  consolation  of  Israel.'  vVe,  in  the  same  manner,  look 
up  to  these  prophecies  of  the  Apocalypse,  for  the  full  con- 
summation of  the  great  scheme  of  the  Gospel;  when  Chris- 
tianity shall  finally  prevail  over  all  the  corruptions  of  the 
worl(i,  and  be  universally  established  in  its  utmost  purity."^ 

»  Dr.  Woodhouse's  translation  of  the  Apocalypse,  pp.  xii. — xix.  Many  of 
the  observations  in  Vol.  I.  Part  II.  Chap.  IV.  Sect.  I.  eire  applicable  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  Apocalypse. 

3  Gilpin's  Exposition  of  the  New  Testament,  voL  ii.  p.  428. 


APPENDIX. 

No.  I. 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS 

I.  Different  //iffiotlwsps  stated. — U.  Examination  of  the  Jfijlmthesis,  that  the  Evangelists  abridged  or  copied  from  each  other. — 
III.  K.riimination  of  the  Jli/pothesis,  that  the  Evangelists  derived  their  information  from  a  primary  Greek  or  Hehreio  Docu- 
ment.— IV.  Examination  of  the  Jljifio thesis,  that  they  consulted  several  Documents. — V.  Jind  of  the  Hypothesis,  that  oral 
Tradition  -was  the  Source  of  the  Jirst  three  Gospels. — VI.  That  the  ojily  Document  consulted  by  the  first  three  Evangelists 
■was  the  Preaching  of  our  Saviour  himself 

I.  That  the  fiospols  of  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  should 
contain  so  much  voil)al  airreement,  and  yet  tliat  tlien;  should 
exist  such  strikinjr  diircrenccs  as  appear  in  the  parallel  ac- 
counts of  these  three  Kvan<relists  when  they  relate  the  same 
discourses  or  transactions,  is  iiidcied  a  most  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance. I  lence  sev(^ral  eminent  writers  have  been  induced 
to  discuss  this  siiiiiiilar  I'act  with  great  ability  and  equal 
ingenuity  :  and  altiiougii  tin;  testimonies  which  we  have  to 
the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  Gosptds,  are  so  clear 
and  decisive,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  private 
Christians;  yet,  since  various  learned  men  have  offered  dif- 
ferent hypotheses  to  account  for,  and  explain,  these  pheno- 
mena, the  author  would  deem  his  labours  very  imperfect,  if 
he  sulfered  tiiem  to  i)ass  vninoticed. 

Four  principal  iiypotheses  have  been  offered,  to  account 
for  tiiese  verbal  similarities  and  occasional  differences  be- 
tween the  first  three  evangelists;  viz.  1.  That  one  or  two 
of  the  (iospels  were  taken  from  another; — 2.  That  all  three 
were  derived  from  some  original  document  common  to  the 
evangelists; — 3.  That  they  were  derived  from  detached  nar- 
ratives of  part  of  tlie  liistory  of  our  Saviour,  communicated 
by  the  apostles  to  the  first  converts  to  Christianity; — and, 
4.  Tiiat  they  were  derived  from  oral  tradition.  We  shall 
briefly  state  the  arguments  that  have  been  offered  for  and 
against  these  various  hypotheses. 

II.  The  FinsT  and  most  commonly  received  opinion  has 
been,  that  one  or  two  of  the  first  three  evangelists  nad  copied 
or  abridged  from  the  third,  or  one  from  the  other  two.  'I  bus 
Vogel  endeavoured  to  show  that  Mark  made  use  of  the  Gos- 
pel of  Luke,  and  that  Matthew  drew  from  Mark  and  Luke.' 
(irotius.  Mill,  Simon,  Calmet,  VVetstein,  Wolfius,  Drs. 
Owen  and  llarwood,  and  others,  after  Augustine,  have  as- 
serted that  Mark  was  an  epitomiser  of  Matthew.  Griesbach^ 
and  Dr.  Townson-'  have  maintained  that  both  Mark  and  Luke 
had  seen  and  consulted  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  Hug  has 
defended  the  opinion  that  Mark  had  before  him  the  Gosj)el 
written  by  Matthew  for  the  Jews  dwelling  in  Palestine,''  and 
that  Luke  made  use  of  the  Gospels  of  INIatthew  and  Mark.' 
Seiler  aliirmed  that  Mark  translated  into  Greek  and  enlarged 
the  Syro-Chaldaic  (iospel  of  Matthew;  that  this  Syro-Chal- 
daic  Gospel,  enlarged  in  many  places,  either  by  Matthew 
himself,  or  by  other  men  worthy  of  credit,  was  suosequently 
translated  into  Greek  either  by  the  evangelist  or  some  other 
person;  and  that  the  Greek  translator  consulted  the  Gospel 
of  Mark.fi  Storr  endeavoured  to  prove  that  the  Gospel  of 
JNIark  was  the  source  whence  Matthew  and  Luke  derived 


•  Vogel.  fiber  die  Entstehuni  dor  drey  ersten  Evangelien  (on  the  Origin 
of  the  tirst Three  Oospels),  in  fiabler'sJournatfiirauserleseiieTheologisch 
LIHTatur,  band  1.  stucit  1.  p.  1.  et  seq. 

«  Oriesbach,  in  Kuinfiel's,  Rnperii's,  and  Velthusen's  Commentationes 
Tlieulogica:,  toni.  i.  pp.  303.  et  srq.  Griesbach's  liypothesis  was  refuted  by 
Kcippe,  in  Pott's  and  lliiperti's  Sylloge  Coinuientationuin  Theologicarurn, 
toiii.  i.  pp.  5.1.  et  sell:  Ainmon  deiended  Griesbach's  hypotheses,  and  also 
LiiMtoiid.'d  tliat  I.uke  made  use  of  the  Greek  version  of  St.  Matthew's  Gos- 
ivl,  wliich  he  corrected  and  enlarged.  Uissertatio  de  Luca  eiuendatore 
M.iitha-i.     ErlaIlga^  IRK).  -Ito. 

3  Discourses  on  the  Four  Gospels,  0.\ford,  1778,  4to. ;  or  vol.  i.  of  Dr. 
Townson's  Works,  pp.  1—273. 

*  Hug's  Iiilroduction  to  the  New  Testament,  translated  by  Dr.  Walt, 
vol  ii.  pp.  73-83.  Ill— 1:M. 

'  Ibid,  vol.  ii.  pp.  152—18.").  Dr.  Wait's  translation  having  been  executed 
from  line's. /ir.9f  edition.  Ilie  learned  translator  of  Dr.  Schleiermacher's 
Critical  Essay  on  the  Go.spel  of  St.  Luke  has  given  an  abstract  of  Hug's 
hypothesis  from  his  second  edition  published  in  1S21.  Introduction,  pp. 
xcviii. — cxv. 

«  Seiler,  Dissertationcs  If.  de  tempore  et  ordine  quibus  tria  Evangelia 
priora  canonica  scripta  sunt.     Erlanesp,  1805-6.  4to. 

Vol.  XL— App.  3  C 


materials  for  their  Gospels.^  Busching  was  of  opinion  that 
Matthew  and  Mark  compiled  from  Luke.^  Saunier  main- 
tains that  the  Gospels  of  Matthew,  Luke,  and  John,  are 
authentic  and  independent  narratives;  that  Mark  made  use 
of  those  by  Matthew  and  Luke;  and  that  the  passages,  not 
to  be  found  in  either  of  these,  were  supplied  by  Peter,  under 
whose  direction  he  wrote.9  And,  lastly,  Janssens  affirms 
that  the  agreement  and  disagreement  between  the  Gospels 
of  Matthew  and  Mark  are  sulhciently  accounted  for,  by  say- 
ing, after  the  ancient  fatliers,  that  Mark  composed  his  Gospel 
after  that  of  Matthew,  and  after  the  preacning  of  Peter. "> 
Not  to  dwell  upon  the  uncertainty  of  these  various  hypothe- 
ses, all  of  which  differ  as  to  the  point  which  was  the  original 
writer,  and  which  of  the  evangelists  were  copyists  or 
abridgers,  the  opinion  which  they  respectively  are  uesigntHi 
to  advocate  is  contradicted  by  the  following  weighty  consi- 
derations : — 

1.   They  could  have  no  motive  for  copying  from  each  other. 

"  For,  as  each  acknowledged  the  authority  and  veracity  of  tlie 
others,  when  their  narratives  were  known,  they  could  not  have 
been  so  absurd  as  to  repeat  what  had  been  already  rightly  told. 
Had  tliey  then  written  successively,  with  knowledge  of  each  ollier's 
writings,  it  is  probable,  nay,  it  is  almost  certain,  that  each  subse- 
quent author  would  have  set  down  only,  or  at  least  chiefly,  what 
his  predecessors  had  happened  lo  omit.  To  repeat  in  substance, 
but  in  ditrerent  words,  what  another  had  sufficiently  told,  might 
have  been  practised  by  writers  who  valued  themselves  tipon  their 
peculiar  style  of  expression,  or  their  own  mode  of  compilation.  But 
to  copy  the  very  words  of  another,  whose  account  we  do  not  mean 
to  supersede,  and  to  introduce  them  in  the  very  same  manner,  is 
an  idle  and  superfluous  task,  which  no  man  in  his  senses  would 
ever  undertake.ii  That  the  two  evangelists,  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Luke,  who  were  not  eye-witnesses  of  the  fads,  and  heard  not  the 
discourses  of  Christ  pronounced,  relate  them  nearly  in  the  same 
words  with  those  who  were  actually  present,  appears  to  me  to 
prove  that  the  narratives  of  all  the  witnesses  perlectly  agreed. 
That  what  one  wrote  others  had  told,  atid  each  precisely  in  the 
same  maimer.  The  witnesses  had  all  taken  such  care  to  remem- 
ber, with  minute  e.xactness,  the  principal  discourses  of  tlieir  Lord, 
and  the  occasions  on  which  they  were  spoken,  and  were  so  ofien 
called  upon  to  repeat  them,  in  making  and  confirming  converl.s  to 
the  faith,  that  a  precision  was  obtained  in  relating  these  particu- 
lars, of  which,  if  no  other  e.xample  occurs  in  the  aimals  of  the 
world,  the  retuson  is,  because  no  other  relators  of  facts  and  dis- 
courses were  ever  so  situated.  No  other  men  ever  had  such 
words  and  actions  to  relate;  such  frequent  occasions  to  repeat 
them;  or  so  many  powerful  reasons  to  relate  them  with  the  slrict- 
est  accuracy,  on  every  possible  occasion.  From  this  cause  it  natu- 
rally arose,  that  they  who  wrote  as  original  witnesses,  and  they 
who  wrote  from  the  testimony  of  such  witnesses,  agreed,  not  oidy 
substantially,  but  almost  verbally.  .  The  e.xact  and  literal  truth, 
without  alteration  or  embellishment,  was  equally  delivered  by 
them;  as  when  several  perfect  mirrors  reflect  the  same  object,  the 
images  will  be  the  same  in  form,  at  the  first  or  second  reflection."'' 

1  Siorr,  Dissertatio  de  fonte  Evangeliorura  Matthael  et  Lucae,  in  Kuinoel's, 
Ruperti's,  and  Velthusen's  Commentationes  Theologicce,  torn.  iil.  pp.  140. 
et sen. 

»  Busching,  narmonie  der  Evangelistei,  pp.  M.  103.  118.  rt  seq.  Kui- 
noel's Comnientarius  in  Libras  Historicos  Novi  Testamenti,  lorn.  i.  Prole- 
gom.  pp.  1 — 3. 

'  Saunier,  Ueber  de  Quellen  des  Evangelinms  des  Marcus.  Berlin, 
1827.  8vo.  The  above  notice  of  Saunier's  hypothesis  i«  given  from  the 
Christian  Examiner  or  Church  of  Ireland  Magazine,  vol.  iv.  p.  3S9. 

10  Janssens,  Ilerineneutiquc  Sacrt'e,  lorn.  ii.  p.  11.     Paris,  1S28.  Svo. 

>'  "If  I  follow  another  writer,  and  copy  the  substance  of  his  account  In 
other  words,  I  make  it  my  own,  and  become  responsible,  as  a  second  wit-, 
ness ;  but  if  1  take  his  very  words,  my  account  is  resolvable  into  his,  an4 
it  is  still  but  one  testimony." 

«»  Nares's  Veracity  of  the  Evangelists,  pp.  33— 3S. 

385 


386 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


But,  further,  "  the  copying  of  one  book  from  another  is  usually 
the  resource  either  of  ignorance  or  indolence.  Of  ignorance,  when 
the  writer  has  no  knowledge  of  the  facts,  except  what  he  derives 
from  ttie  aiiilior  whom  he  copies:  of  indolence,  when,  though  pre- 
viously informed,  he  takes  the  statement  of  another,  which  he  ap- 
proves to  save  himself  the  thought  and  trouble  which  would  be 
required  for  Ibrming  an  original  narrative.  With  rcsi>ect,  tlien,  to 
the  evangelists,  above  all  other  writers,  we  may  surely  ask,  if  they 
knew  not  of  a  certainty  what  they  undertook  to  write,  why  did 
they  undertake  it?  But  if  ihey  knew  from  their  own  recollection 
or  inquiries,  Vvhy  should  they  copy  Iroin  any  other  person?  If  they 
thought  a  now  narrative  was  wanted,  why  should  they  copy  one 
■which  was  already  to  be  had?  If  they  are  supposed  to  have  copied 
through  ignorance,  why  did  they  presume  to  alter  even  a  single 
word  ?  If  they  copied  through  indolence,  the  very  same  indolence 
would  doubtless  have  led  them  to  copy  word  for  word,  which  is 
much  more  ca.sy  than  to  copy  with  variations,  but  which  it  never 
can  be  pretended  they  have  done,  for  many  lines  together.  I  know 
but  of  one  more  supposition,  which  can  be  made,  and  that  is  so 
dishonourable  to  the  evangelists,  that  I  think  no  sincere  Christian 
could  be  induced  to  make  it.  It  is  this.  That  they  copied,  indeed, 
through  ignorance  or  indolence,  or  both,  but  inserted  slight  altera- 
tions, as  they  went  on,  for  the  purpose  of  disguising  or  concealing 
their  thcft.s.  Should  an  enemy  even  presume  to  say  this,  for  surely 
no  oihcr  would  say  it,  to  him  I  would  boldly  reply,  that,  if  so,  they 
■were  very  awkward  and  blundering  contrivers;  for  they  altered 
so  very  little,  that  copying  has  been  generally  imputed  to  them; 
and  yet  sometimes  so  indiscreetly,  that  their  diiierences  have  been, 
without  reason  indeed,  but  hastily,  regarded  as  contradictions."' 

2.  It  does  not  appear  that  any  of  the  learned  ancient  Chris- 
tian -writers  had  a  suspicion,  that  either  of  the  first  three 
evang-elists  had  seen  the  other  Gospels  before  he  wrote  his  oivn. 

They  .wy,  indeed,  "that  when  the  three  first-written  Gospels 
had  been  delivered  to  all  men,  they  were  also  brought  to  Saint 
John,  and  that  he  confirmed  the  truth  of  their  narration;  but  said, 
that  there  were  some  things  omitted  by  them  which  might  be  pro- 
fitably related :"  or,  "  that  he  wrote  last,  supplying  some  things 
-^which  had  been  omitted  by  the  former  evangelists."  To  mention 
no  others,  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Csesarea,^  Epiplianius,3  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,''  and  Jerome,^  express  themselves  iu  this  manner. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  indeed,  or  early  in  the 
fifth,  Augustine^  supposed  that  the  first  three  evangelists  were  not 
totally  ignorant  of  each  other's  labours,  and  considered  Mark's 
Gospel  as  an  abridgment  of  Saint  Matthew's ;  but  he  was  the  first 
of  the  fathers  who  advocated  that  notion,  and  it  does  not  appear 
that  he  was  followed  by  any  succeeding  writers,  until  it  was 
revived  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  by  Grotius 
and  others. 

3.  It  is  not  suitable  to  the  character  of  any  of  the  evange- 
lists, that  they  should  abridge  or  transcribe  another  historian, 

Matthew  was  an  apostle  and  an  eye-witness,  and  consequently 
was  able  to  write  from  his  own  knowledge ;  or,  if  there  were  any 
parts  of  our  Lord's  ministry  at  which  he  was  not  present,  he  might 
obtain  information  from  his  fellow-apostles  or  other  eye-witnesses. 
And,  with  respect  to  things  which  happened  before  tlie  calling  of 
the  apostles  (as  the  nativity,  infancy,  and  youth  of  Christ),  the 
apostles  might  ascertain  them  from  om-  Saviour  himself,  or  from 
his  friends  and  acquaintance,  on  whose  information  they  could 
depend. 

Mark,  if  not  one  of  Christ's  seventy  disciples,  was  (as  we  have 
already  seen)''  an  early  Jewish  believer,  acquainted  with  all  the 
apostles,  and  especially  with  Saint  Peter,  as  well  as  with  many 
other  eye-witnesses:  consequently  he  was  well  qualified  to  write 
a  Gospel ;  and  that  he  did  not  abridge  Matthew,  we  have  shown 
by  an  induction  of  various  particulars.*  Luke,  though  not  one  of 
Christ's  seventy  disciples,  nor  an  eye-witness  of  his  discourses  and 
actions,  was  a  disciple  and  companion  of  the  apostles,  and  espe- 
cially of  Paul ;  he  must  therefore  have  been  well  qualified  to 
write  a  Gospel.  Besides,  as  we  have  shown  in  a  former  page,^  it 
is  manifest,  from  his  introduction,  that  he  knew  not  of  any  authen- 
tic history  of  Jesus  Christ  that  had  been  then  written;  and  he 
expressly  says,  that  he  had  accurately  traced  all  things  from  the 
source  in  succession  or  order,  and  he  professes  to  write  of  them  to 
Theophilus.  After  such  an  explicit  declaration  as  this  is,  to  affirm 
that  he  transcribed  many  things  from  one  historian,  and  still  more 
from  another,  is  no  less  than  a  contradiction  of  the  evangelist 
himself 

4.  It  is  evident  from  the  nature  and  design  of  the  first  three 
Oospels,  that  the  evangelists  had  not  seen  any  authentic  -writ- 
ten history  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Tlicre  can  bo  no  doubt  but  that  John  had  seen  the  other  three 
Gosi)els;  for,  as  he  is  said  to  have  lived  to  a  great  age,  so  it  ap- 
pears from  his  Gospel  itself  that  he  carefully  avoided  the  repetition 

Nares's  "Veraeity  of  the  Evangelists,  pp.  168 — 170. 
'  Sec  th<^  passages  from  Eusebius  in  l)r.  Larilner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  iv. 
pp.  '226,  227. ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  p.  369. 
3  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  Iv.  pp.  314,  315. ;  4to.  vol.  Ii.  p.  418. 

*  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  iv.  pp.  511,  512.  ;  4to.  vol.  II.  p.  529. 
»  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  V.  p.  41.  ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  p.  553. 

«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  v.  p.  93.  ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  p.  583, 
'  See  p.  304.  of  ihls  volume. 

•  See  PI).  306,  307.  of  this  volume.  »  See  p.  311.  supra. 


of  things  related  in  them,  except  a  few  necessary  facts.  But  (here 
is  no  certain  evidence,  either  that  Mark  knew  that  Matthew  had 
written  a  Gospel  before  him,  or  that  Luke  knew  that  the  two 
evangelists  had  written  Gospels  before  him.  If  Mark  had  seen  the 
work  of  Matthew,  it  is  likely  that  he  would  have  remained  satisfied 
with  it  as  being  the  work  of  an  apostle  of  Christ,  that  is,  an  eye- 
witness, which  he  was  not.  JNor  would  Luke,  who,  from'  the  begin- 
ning of  his  Gospel,  appears  to  have  been  acquainted  with  several 
memoirs  of  the  sayings  and. actions  of  Christ,  liavc  omitted  to  say 
that  one  or  more  of  them  was  written  by  an  apostle,  as  Matthew 
was. — His  silence,  therefore,  is  an  additional  proof  that  the  first 
three  evangelists  were  totally  unacquainted  with  any  previous 
authentic  written  history  of  Christ. 

5.  T'he  seeming  contradictions  occ2irri7ig  iii  the  first  three 
Gospels  (all  of  -which,  hoivever,  adjnit  of  easy  solutions),  are 
an  additional  evidence  that  the  evangelists  did  not  write  by  con- 
cert, or  after  having  seen  each  other's  Gospels. 

6.  7?j  sowie  of  the  histories  recorded  by  all  these  three  evan- 
gelists, there  are  small  varieties  and  differences, -which  plainly 
shoiv  the  same  thing. 

In  illustration  of  this  remark,  it  will  suffice  to  refer  to  and  com- 
pare the  accounts  of  the  healing  of  the  demoniac  or  demoniacs  in 
the  country  of  the  Gadarenes  (Matt.  viii.  28 — 34.  with  Mark  v. 
1 — 20.  and  Luke  viii.  2G — 40.) ;  the  account  of  our  Lord's  transfi- 
guration on  the  mount  (Matt.  xvii.  1 — 13.  with  Mark  ix.  1 — 13.  and 
Luke  ix.  28 — 36.),  and  the  history  of  the  healing  of  the  young  man 
after  our  Saviour's  descent  from  the  mount.  (Matt.  xvii.  14 — 21. 
with  Mark  ix.  14^29.  and  Luke  ix.  37 — 42.)  In  each  of  the  ac- 
counts here  cited,  the  agreeing  circumstances  which  are  discovera- 
ble in  them,  clearly  prove  that  it  is  the  same  history,  but  there  are 
also  several  differences  equally  evident  in  them.  Whoever,  there- 
fore, diligently  attends  to  these  circumstances,  must  be  sensible 
that  the  evangelical  historians  did  not  copy  or  borrow  from  each 
other. 

7.  There  are  some  very  remarkable  things  related  in  Saint 
J\Iutthe-w's  Gospel,  of  which  neither  Saitit  JMark  nor  Saint 
Luke  has  take?i  any  notice. 

Such  are  the  extraordinary  events  recorded  in  Matt.  ii.  xxvii.  19. 
xxvii.  51 — 53.  and  xxviii.  11 — 15. :  some  or  all  of  which  would  have 
been  noticed  by  Mark  or  Luke,  had  they  written  with  a  view  of 
abridging  or  confirming  Matthew's  history.  It  is  also  very  observ- 
able, that  Luke  has  no  account  of  the  miracle  of  feeding  "  four 
thousand  with  seven  loaves  and  a  few  small  fishes,"  which  is  re- 
lated in  Matt.  xv.  32 — 39.  and  Mark  viii.  1 — 9.  The  same  remark 
is  applicable  to  Luke's  Gospel,  supposing  (as  Dr.  Mackuight  and 
others  have  imagined)  it  to  have  been  first  written,  as  it  contains 
many  remarkable  things  not  to  be  found  in  the  other  Gospels. 
Now,  if  Matthew  or  Mark  had  written  with  a  view  of  abridging 
or  confirming  Luke's  history,  they  would  not  have  passed  by  those 
things  without  notice. 

8.  Jill  the  first  three  evangelists  have  several  things  peculiar 
to  themselves  ;  which  show  that  they  did  not  borrow  from  each 
other,  and  that  they  were  all  well  acquaiJited  with  the  things 
of  which  they  undertook  to  write  a  history. 

Many  such  peculiar  relations  occur  in  Matthew's  Gospel,  besides 
those  just  cited ;  and  both  Mark'"  and  Luke,i'  as  we  have  already 
seen,  have  many  similar  things,  so  that  it  is  needless  to  adduce  any 
additional  instances. 

9.  Lastly,  Dr.  Mill  has  argued  that  the  similarity  of  style  and 
composition  is  a  proof  that  these  evangelists  had  seen  each 
other's  writings. 

But  this  argument  in  Dr.  Lardner's  judgment  is  insufficient.  In 
fact.  Mill  himself  allows'^  that  a  very  close  agreement  may  easily 
subsist  between  two  authors  writing  on. the  same  subject  in  the 
Greek  language.'^ 

III.  The  SECOND  hypothesis,  by  ■which  some  disting^uished 
critics  have  attempted  to  explain  the  verbal  harmony  ob- 
servable in  the  first  three  Gospels,  is  that  vvliich  derives 
them  from  some  .Common  Greek  or  Hebrew  Document  or 
source,  which  occasioned  the  evangelists  so  frequently  to 
adopt  the  same  terms  and  forms  of  expression.  Le  Clerc''' 
was  the  first  writer  to  whom  this  idea  occurred;  and  after  it 
had  lain  dormant  upwards  of  sixty  years,  it  was  revived  and 
advocated  by  Koppe,'^  and  has  been  modified  in  various 
ways  by  subsequent  writers,  so  that  (as  it  has  been  severely 
but  not  tmjustly  remarked)  "hypothesis  has  been  knocked 
down  by  hypothesis,  till  the  Gospels  must  begin  to  feel 
themselves  in  a  very  awkward  conciition.""^ 

Of  these  various  modifications  the  following  is  a  concise 
outline : — 


'«  Millii  Proleg.  §  108. 
223—233.;  4to.   vol.  ii.  pp. 


">  Sec  p.  30S.  supra,  of  this  volume. 

II  See  p.  311.  note  6.  supra,  of  this  volume. 

13  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,   8vo.  vol.  vi.   pp. 
!ilo— 250. 

i*  Clerici  Ecel.  Hist.  sfeo.  i.  anno  Ixiv.  §  xi.  pp.  429,  430. 

'5  In  his  dissertation  entitled  Marcus  non  Epitomator  Matthsei.  See  Pott's, 
anil  Ruperti's  Sylloge,  ton},  i.  pp.  65—68. 

»«  British  Critic  and  Theol.  Review,  vol.  ii.  pp.  351. 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS, 


387 


1.  MicHAELis,  in  tlie  fourth  German  edition  of  his  Introduc- 
tion,' abaiidoniniT  liis  former  opinion  that  Mark  copied 
from  Matthew,  "  attributes  tiie  vi^rhal  harmony  of  all  tliree 
evangelists  to  the  use  of  the  same  documents.  But,  as  he 
assumes  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  in  H(!l)rew,  he  sup|)o.-;es, 
not  that  Matthew  himself,  but  his  Greek  translator,  had 
access  to  the  same  (jreek  document  or  documents  whieli 
had  been  used  both  by  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke;  and  that 
hence  arose  the  verbal  harmony  between   the  Greek  (Jos- 

fel  of  St.  Matthew  and  the  Gospels  of  St.  Mark  and  St. 
■ukt^"-! 

2.  Skmi,ku,3  in  1783,  intimated  rather  than  enunciated  the 
hypothesis  of  a  common  Hebrew  or  Syriac  document  or 
documents,  wlxMice  tin;  first  thr<M',  evangelists  derived  the 

Erincipal  materials  of  iheir  (iospels.  Tin;  hypothesis  of 
emler  was  snbse(iiiently  adopted  by  15(!rchtold,  who 
maintained  that  the  verbal  conformity  in  the  corresponding 
passacTcs  of  our  Gospels  was  produced  by  the  alterations 
of  transcribers.'' 

3.  In  17rtt  Lkssino  asserted  the  h3fnothesis  of  a  common 
Syriac  or  (!hal(lee  original,  wiiich  lie  supposes  to  be  the 
Gospel  accordinor  to  tlie  II(>brews,  or  the  Gospel  according 

.  to  the  twelve  Apostles.  From  tiiis  (iospel  be  imagines 
that  Matthew  (who  in  his  opinion  wrote  oidy  in  Greek), 
Mark,  and  Luke,  d(Tived  the  principal  materials  of  their 
Gospels,  and  accordingly  translated  it  more  or  less  fully, 
mon^  or  h>ss  closely  into  Greek.''  Niemeyer,''  Ilalfeld,^ 
and  Paulus,'*  adopted  and  improved  upon  Lessing's  notion  : 
but  their  views  have  been  eclipsed. 

4.  By  the  late  Professor  Eichhorn,  of  whose  earlier  modifi- 
cations of  the  hyi)othesis  of  a  primary  document,  Bishop 
Marsh  has  given  an  interesting  account. ^  According  to 
Eichhorn's  hypothesis,  as  developed  in  the  second  edition 
of  his  (German)  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,'" 
there  were  four  co()ies  of  the  Aramaic  Original  which 
formed  the  basis  of  the  first  three  Gospels ;  which  with 
their  respective  translations  he  thus  designates  : — 

"  A.  An  Aramaic  Text  of  the  original  doctrine,  with  some 
of  the  great  additions  now  found  in  St.  Matthew.  This 
was  early  translated. 

B.  An  Aramaic  Text,  with  some  of  the  crreater  additions  now 

in  St.  Luke.     Not  translated  inuependently, 

C.  An  Aramaic  Text  comj)ounded  of  A.  and  B.   This  forms 

St.  Mark's  Gospel,  having  been  either  translated  by 
himself,  or  an  early  translation  of  it  having  been  re- 
vised by  him. 

D.  An  Aramaic  Text,  with  some  of  the  other  great  additions 

in  St.  Luke,  which  was  also  translated  early. 

E.  St.  Matthew's  Aramaic  Text,  composed  out  of  A.  and 

D.,  except  some  additions  made  oy  St.  Matthew  him- 
self, who  arranged  the  whole  of  the  original  Gospel 
and  the  additions  chronologically.  The  translator  of 
this  into  Greek  used  the  early  translations  of  A. 
and  D. 

F.  St.  Luke's  Aramaic  Text,  composed  of  B.  and  D.  (except 

some  additions  peculiar  to  St.  Luke),  and  translated 
by  himself,  with  the  assistance  of  the  existing  trans- 
lation of  D.  B.  is  thus  common  to  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Luke,  but  they  had  no  common  translation  of  it."" 
This  scheme,  it  will  be  seen,  on  comparison,  does  not 
materially  vary  from  that  proposed  by 

5.  Bishop  Marsh,  in  his  elaborate  "  Dissertation  on  the 
Origin  and  Composition  of  our  first  three  Gospels."  After 
many  preparatory  steps,  assigning  reasons  for  the  rejection 

Vol.  iii.  part  1.  ch.  5.  sect.  5.  of  Bp.  Marsh's  translation. 

»  Bp.  Marsli's  Micliaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  p.  186. 

»  III  the  notes  to  his  German  translation  of  Dr.  Townson's  Discourses. 
(Townson,  Abliantllunfjen  fiber  die  vier  Evangelien,  vol.  i.  pp.  221.  2!I0.) 
Micliaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  j).  1S7.  KuiniJel, .  Couuneiit.  in  Lib.  Hist.  Nov. 
Test,  toiii.  i.  Prolesoiii.  pp.  3,  4. 

*  An  outline  of  BerctitoM's  hypothesis  will  be  found  in  the  Introduction 
to  the  Enslisli  translation  of  Schleieriuacher's  Critical  Essay  on  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Luke,  pji.  xcvU  xcvii. 

»  l.essing's  Theolojiisclier  Nachlass  (Theological  Remains),  pp.  45 — 72., 
cited  by  Bp.  Marsh,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  pp.  187,  18?. 

«  Niemeyer,  Conjecluraj  a<t  illustrandum  plurimorum  N.  T.  Scriptorum 
Silenliiim  lie  primordiis  Jesu  Clirisli.     Ilal.-e,  17;K).  4to. 

•■  Halfeld,  Cominentatio  de  Orisine  quatuor  Evangcliorum  et  de  eorum 
canonica  auetoritate.     Gotting.f ,  17*1.  4to. 

'  I'auhis,  Iiitroduclio  in  N.  T.  capita  selectiora,  quibus  in  origincm,  sco- 

Suni,  el  arKiimentorum  Evangcliorum  et  Actuu.    Aposlolorum  inquiritur. 
ena;.  1799.  Svo. 

»  >hohaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  pp.  181—205. 
>o  Einleitung  in  das  N.  T.  vol.  i.  1820. 

"  For  the  preceding  ab.stract  of  Eichhorn's  latest  hypothesis,  the  author 
is  indebted  to  the  learned  reviewer  of  Schleierniaclier's  Essay  on  the  Gos- 
pel of  St.  Luke  in  the  British  Critic  and  Theol.  Eeview,  vol.  ii.  pp.  W6,  3i7. 


of  Other  hypotheses,  and  various  forms  of  this  h^T^othesis, 
Bishop  Marsh  proposes  his  own  in  the  following  terms, 
marking  the  common  Hebrew  document,  which  he  sup- 
poses the  evangelist  to  h-ive  consulted,  by  tli'^  sign  n.  and 
certain  translations  of  it  with  more  or  less  additions  by  the 
letters  <t,  /S,  &c. 

"Saint  Matthew,  Saint  Mark,  and  Saint  Luke,  all  three, 
used  copies  of  the  common  Hebrew  document  m:  the  ma- 
terials of  which  Saint  Matthew,  who  wrote  in  Hebrew, 
retained  in  the  language  in  which  he  found  them,  hut 
Saint  Mark  and  Saint  Luke  translated  them  into  G'reek. 
TIk^V  had  no  knowledge  of  each  other's  G'ospel ;  but  Saint 
Mark  and  Saint  Luke,  besides  their  copies  of  the  Hebrew 
document  n.  used  a  Greek  translation  of  it,  which  had 
been  made  before  any  of  the  additions  *,  yS,  Arc.  had  been 
inserted.  Lastly,  as  the  Gospcds  of  Saint  Mark  and  Saint 
Luke  contain  Greek  translations  of  Hebrew  materials, 
which  were  incorporated  into  Saint  Matthew's  Hebrew 
Gospel,  the  person  who  translated  Saint  Matthew's  He- 
brew Gospel  into  Greek  frequently  derived  assistance  from 
the  Gospel  of  Saint  Mark,  where  Saint  Mark  had  matter 
in  common  with  Saint  Matthew ;  and  in  those  places,  but 
in  those  places  only,  where  Saint  Mark  had  no  matter  in 
common  with  Matthew,  he  had  frequently  recourse  to  St. 
Luke's  Gospel. "'2 

The  hypothesis  thus  stated  and  determined,  its  author 
conceives,  will  account  for  all  the  phenomena  relative  to 
the  verbal  agreement  and  disagreement  of  our  first  three 
Gospels,  as  well  as  for  the  other  manifold  relations  which 
they  hear  to  each  other;  and  he  has  accommodated  it  with 

{•Teat  attention  to  particular  circumstances,  emuneratrd  by 
lim  in  the  former  part  of  his  "  Dissertation  on  the  Origin 
of  the  first  three  Gospels,"  which  circumstances,  liowever, 
we  have  not  room  to  detail.  This  document,  he  thinks, 
may  have  been  entitled  in  Greek,  AiHrH2i2  7rii,t  Tm  7i-»ta»- 
pc<^-^fiifAii'av  &  yifxit  Trfi^f^/^a.reriv,  K^tbtm  'TrapJoT^.v  yi/utt  ci  cnr'af^xt 
cujr(.7rTcfu  KM  uTnifmn  nu  Kcycv,  that  is,  A  Narrativk  of  /hone 
things  which  are  most  firmly  believed  among  ti.s,  even  as  they^ 
who  from  the  beginning  were  eye-witnesses  and  ministers  of 
the  word,  delivered  them  tinio  us.  Consequently,  if  this 
conjecture  be  well  founded,  the  document  in  question  is 
actually  referred  to  by  Saint  Luke.'^  In  addition  also  to 
this  supposed  first  Hebrew  document  n  and  its  translations. 
Bishop  Marsh  supposes  the  existence  of  a  supplemental 
Hebrew  document,  which  he  calls  a,  and  which  contained 
a  collection  of  precepts,  parables,  and  discourses,  delivered 
by  our  Saviour  on  various  occasions,  but  not  arranged  in 
chronological  order.  This  he  terms  a  Tva>/uc\'.yia,  and  con- 
ceives that  it  was  used  only  by  Matthew  and  Luke,  who 
had  copies  of  it  differing  from  each  other. 
6.  In  order  to  unite  the  two  hypotheses  of  Eichhorn  and 
Bishop  Marsh,  Professor  Gratz  supposes  that  there  was 
a  Hebrew  or  Sjnro-Chaldaic  original  Gospel  for  the  use 
of  the  preachers  of  the  Christian  faith  in  Palestine,  from 
which  Matthew  composed  his  Hebrew  Gospel.  When 
they  began  to  propagate  the  (christian  doctrines  in  other 
countries,  this  original  Gospel  was  translated  into  Greek, 
and  enriched  with  several  additions.  From  this  version 
Mark  and  Luke  composed  their  books,  and  hence  arose  the 
agreement  both  as  to  facts  and  expressions,  which  is  ob- 
servable in  their  respective  Gospels.  The  Gospel  of 
Matthew  was  also  translated  into  Greek,  in  executing 
which  version  the  translator  made  use  of  the  writings  of 
Mark,  whence  he  also  sometimes  interpcJated  Matthew ; 
and  this  circumstance  gave  rise  to  a  similarity  between 
them  as  to  matter,  in  places  where  Luke  differs  Irom  them. 
But  the  agreement  between  Matthew  and  Luke,  to  the 
exclusion  of  Mark,  was  effected  by  subsequent  interpola- 
tions, since  these  passages  were  transcribed  from  the  Gos- 

<«  Michaelis,  vol  iii.  part  2.  p.  361. 

i»  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  pp.  36.3.  368.  But  the  absence  of  the  Greek 
article  is  fatal  to  the  conjecture  of  Bishop  Marsh,  and  proves  tbat  the  sup- 
posed document  never  existed.  Tlie  force  of  this  objection  seems  to  have 
struck  the  mind  of  that  learned  writer;  for  he  has  candidly  left  it  toothers 
to  determine  whether  his  conjecture  is  not  rendered  abortive  by  the  want 
of  the  article  before  iif.yr.irtv  (narrntive  or  declaration)  In  Luke  i.  I.  On 
this  topic  Bishop  Middleton  is  decisively  of  opinion  that  it  is  rendered 
totally  abortive.  With  respect  to  tlie  Greek  article,  he  remarks,  that  "the 
rule  is,  that  the  title  of  a  book,  as  prefixed  to  the  book,  should  be  ajiar- 
Ihroiis"  (i.  c.  without  the  article);  "  but  that  when  the  book  is  referred  to, 
the  article  should  be  inserted."  And  he  adduces,  among  other  instances, 
Hesiod's  poem,  entitled  Ao-n-i?  HpstK>.i»u5  (Ifercules's  Shield),  which  Lon- 
ginus  thus  cites — nyt  'Hirioiou  xn  THN  Ao-t.Sx^iti^v  (if  indeed  thb 
shield  may  be  ascribed  to  Hesiod).  Bishop  Middleton  on  the  Greek  article, 
p.  289.  first  edition.  In  the  two  following  pages  he  has  controverted  the 
translation  of  Luke  i.  1—4.  proposed  by  the  traufilator  of  Michaelis. 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


388 

pel  of  Matthew  into  that  of  Luke ;  and  in  those  places, 

where  the  original  Gospel  has  no  additions,  they  all  agree 

in  matter  as  well  as  harmonize  in  words.' 

The  modifications  of  the  hypothesis  that  there  was  an 
oritJ-inal  Aramajan  Gospel,  proposed  by  Eichliorn  and  Bishoj) 
Mcfrsh,  have  been  adopted  by  Ivuinoel,^  Schoell,'*  and  some 
other  continental  critics;  but  they  have  been  strenuously 
opposed,  on  the  continent,  by  Professor  Hug,'  and  in  this 
country  by  the  late  Bishops  Randolph*  and  Middleton,« 
Bishop  Gleig,'  the  editors  of  the  British  Critic,^  and  other 
distinguished  writers,^  of  whose  arguments  and  reasonings 
the  following  is  an  abstract : — 

1.  Stipltosiuff  such  a  theory  to  be  necessary,  iJi  order  to  ac- 
count for  the  verbal  similarities  and  differences  of  the  first 
three  ex!angelists  (luhich  necessity,  hoivever,  is  by  no  means 
admitted),  the  obvious  fault  of  this  hypothesis,  in  all  its  modifi- 
cations, is  its  extreme  complexity. 

To  omit  the  earlier  modifications  which  have  yielded  to  the 
schemes  ofEichhorn  and  Bishop  Marsh: — According  to  the  former 
there  are  an  Aramaic  original  Gospel,  which  was  translated  into 
Greek,  and  five  compilations  from  it,  with  various  additions. 
According  lo  the  latter  there  are  two  Hebrew  or  Aramaic  docu- 
ments, and  several  Greek  versions,  with  additions  gratuitously 
supposed,  which  the  algebraical  notations,  introduced  by  their 
author,  can  scarcely  enable  the  reader  to  distinguish  from  each 
other.  To  describe  the  sources  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  by  this 
method,  not  fewer  than  seven  marks  are  employed ;  viz.  N,  a,  y,  a, 
ri,  3,  and  i».     Besides  these,  there  are  the  marks  peculiar  to  Saint 

Luke  or  Saint  Mark,  &,  B,  and  N, — in  all,  ten  different  signs  stand- 
ing lor  so  many  separate  documents  or  modifications  of  documents ; 
and  ail  these  gratuitously  supposed  without  proof  for  the  existence 
of  one  among  the  number.  This  hypothesis  Bishop  Marsh  consi- 
ders as  simple;  but,  with  every  possible  deference  to  such  an 
authority  in  all  matters  respecting  biblical  literature,  it  is  sub- 
mitted, that  few  persons  will  be  found  to  coincide  in  his  opinion. 
And  allhough  he  states,  with  respect  to  the  steps  of  this  hypothesis, 
that  "there  is  no  improbability  attending  any  one  of  them;  they 
are  neither  numerous  nor  complicated  :"  yet  we  must  observe  that, 
aitflgether,  they  are  both  numerous,  and,  consequently,  by  the  com- 
binations supposed  in  their  application,  they  become  extremely 
complicated.  Further,  though  no  particular  step  may  be  in  itself 
improbable,  yet  the  discovery  of  ten  different  sources  to  certain 
works,  by  mere  analysis,  is  a  circumstance  of  the  highest  improba- 
bility, and  forms  such  a  discovery  as  was  never  yet  made  in  the 
world,  and  probably  never  will  be  made ;  because,  if  not  abso- 
lutely impossible,  it  approaches  so  nearly  to  impossibility,  that  the 
mind  can  scarcely  conceive  a  distinction.'" 

2.  But  if  either  of  these  hypotheses  would  solve,  without  dif- 
ficulty or  exception,  all  the  phenomena,' '  of  every  description, 
which  are  assumed  to  exist  in  the  first  three  Gospels,  the  total 
SILENCE  of  ecclesiastical  antiquity  presents  a  direct  and  invin- 
cible argument  against  the  existe7ice  of  any  such  primary 
document. 

(1.)  To  commence  with  the  apostolic  age: — is  it  to  be  supposed 
that  there  ever  existed  a  work  of  such  approved  excellence,  and 
such  high  authority,  as  to  become  the  basis  of  the  first  three  Gos- 
pels, and  yet  that  nothing — not  even  the  memory  of  it — should 
survive  that  age  V^  "  Were  we  indeed  as  certain,  that  the  apostles, 
before  they  separated,  had  really  met  for  the'  purpose  of  drawing 
up  a  copious  and  authentic  history  of  their  Divine  Master's  life  and 
doctrines,  as  we  are  that  an  authentic  record  was  kept  at  Jerusa- 
lem of  the  reigns  of  the  different  kings,  the  state  of  religion  under 
each,  and  the  preaching  of  the  prophets,  this  would  be  by  much 
the  easiest,  and,  perhaps,  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  account- 

»  Gratz,  Neuer  Versuch,  die  Enstehung  der  drey  ersten  Evangelien  zu 
erlcliiren  (Tubingen,  1812),  cited  in  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii,  p.&S.  There 
is  an  aljstract  of  Gratz's  scheme,  witti  remarljs  by  the  translator  of 
Schleioruiaclier  (Inlrod.  pp.  Ixxxvj. — xciii),  who  considers  it  "to  be  not 
only  unwarranted,  but  contradicte<i  by  every  memorial  we  have  remain- 
ing, of  tiie  earliest  transactions  in  Cliristian  history.'' 

»  Comm.  in  Hist.  Lib.  Nov.  Test.  vol.  i.  pp.  7 — 9. 

3  Histoire  Abrt-gt'-e  de  la  Litterature  Grecque,  torn.  ii.  pp.66 — S2. 

<  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  89—101. 

s  Ur.  Randolph  in  his  "  Rernarics  on  INIichaelis's  Introduction,  8vo.  vols. 
iii.  and  iv."    London,  1802. 

6  On  the  Doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article,  pp.  286—291. 

'  In  his  valuable  edition  of  Staclihouse's  History  of  the  Bible,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  103—112. 

8  Brit.  Crit.  vol.  xxi.  (O.  S.)  p.  178.  et  seq.  Erit.  Grit,  and  Theological 
Review,  vol.  ii.  pp.  347 — 350. 

s  Particularly  Mr.  Veysie,  in  his  "Examinationof  Mr.  Marsh's  Hypothe- 
sis," 8vo.  London,  1808,  and  Mr.  Falconer,  in  his  Bampton  Lectures  for 
1810.  p.  105.  et  seq.  See  also  the  Christian  Observer  for  1808,  voL  viii. 
pp.  623—628.,  and  the  late  Dr.  Milner's  Strictures  on  some  of  the  Publica- 
tions of  the  Rev.  Herbert  Marsh,  D.D.  Lond.  1813,  8vo. 

1"  Brit.  Crit.  vol.  xxi.  (O.S.)  p.  180. 

i»  Mr.  Veysie  has  instituted  a  minute  examination  of  Bishop  Marsh's 
statement  of  the  phenomena  observable  in  the  first  three  Gospels,  in  which 
rie  has  showTi  its  incompetency  to  explain  those  phenomena.  As  this  in- 
vestigation is  not  of  a  nature  to  admit  of  abridgment,  we  refer  the  reader 
to  Mr.  V.'s  "Examination,"  pp.  12—50. 

'»  Oh  the  subjeiit  here  necessarily  treated  with  brevity,  see  Mr.  Falcon- 
er's Bampton  Lectures  for  1810,  pp.  115—120, 


ing  as  well  for  the  harmony  as  for  the  discrepancies  which  we  find 
among  the  several  abridgments  made  by  the  lirst  three  evangelists. 
But,  that  the  apostles  met  for  such  a  puriiose  as  this,  belbre  they 
left  Jerusalem,  has  never  been  supposed  ;  and,  indeed,  ibe  hypo- 
thesis, had  it  even  been  made  and  siip|)orIcd  by  the  most  unexcep- 
tionable testimoines  of  the  earliest  uninspired  writers  ol'the  church, 
would  deserve  no  regard  whatever,  unless  these  wrilcrs  had  eaidi 
declared,  without  collusion  among  themselves,  that  he  had  pos- 
sessed a  copy  of  the  original  record.  Even  then,  unless  a  copy  of 
it  were  still  in  existence,  from  which  we  might,  i'rom  internal 
evidence,  decide  on  its  claims  to  an  aposlolical  origin,  we  sluudd 
hesitate,  afler  tlie  imposture  of  the  book  called  the  ' Aposlalital 
Consl'itutions'  to  admit  the  authcniicily  of  such  a  record.  Tl;e 
apostles,  in  a  state  of  persecution,  had  not  the  same  facilities  for 
publicly  recording  the  actions  of  their  Lord,  as  the  ministers  of 
state,  called  the  Scribe  and  the  Jiernrder,  possessed  in  the  king- 
doms of  Jtidah  and  Israel  for  writing  registers  of  the  deeds  of  their 
respective  sovereigns;  nor  do  we  ever  find  the  evangelists  appeal-  ' 
ing  lo  any  such  record,  wliile  the  wrilcrs  of  the  historical  boolis 
of  the  Old  Testament  frequently  appeal  to  the  annals  or  chronicles 
of  the  kingdom.'^  A  common  record,  from  whicli  all  the  evange- 
lists selected  the  materials  of  their  histories,  must,  therefore,  he 
abandoned  as  an  hypothesis  perfectly  groundless,  notwithstanding 
all  the  learning  and  ingenuity  which  have  been  displayed  in  sup- 
port of  that  hypothesis."'* 

(2.)  If  we  consult  the  writings  of  the  apostolical  fathers,  who 
were  the  immediate  disciples  of  the  apostles  and  evangelists,  we 
shall  find  that  the  same  silence  prevails  among  them;  for,  although 
they  did  not  cite  by  name  the  various  books  of  the  New  Testament 
(the  canon  not  being  completed  until  the  close  of  the  first  century), 
yet  in  their  allusions  to  the  evangelical  writings  they  refer  to  our 
foiir  Gospels,  and  do  not  so  much  as  intimate  the  existence  of  any 
other  document.  Ignatius,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century  (a.  d.  107),  is  supposed  to  have  mentioned  the  book 
of  the  Gospels  under  the  term  "Gospel,"  and  the  Epistles  under 
that  of  "Apostles ;"'5  but  as  this  point  has  been  controverted  by 
learned  men,  we  shall  waive  any  positive  evidence  which  might 
be  offered  from  his  writings,  observing  only  that  he  nowhere  alludes 
or  refers  to  any  other  books  of  the  Mew  TestameiU,  besides  those 
which  have  been  transinitted  to  us;  and  that  his  silence  concerning 
the  existence  of  any  other  document  affords  a  very  strong  pre- 
sumptive argument  against  its  existence.  Let  us  now  consider  the 
evidence  of  the  fathers  who  were  either  contemporary  with  Igna- 
tius, or  who  lived  within  a  few  years  of  his  time.  The  first  witness 
we  shall  adduce  is  Papias,  who  flourished  a.  d.  116,  and  had  con- 
versed with  apostolical  men,  that  is,  with  those  who  had  been  the 
immediate  disciples  of  the  apostles.  It  is  remarkable,  that  this 
father  refers  to  no  primary  document  whatever;  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, he  bears  a  most  express  testimony  to  the  number  of  the  Gos- 
pels, which  were  only/o»r,  in  his  day.'^  Four-and-twenty  years 
afterwards  lived  Justin  Martyr,  whose  evidence  is  still  more  ex- 
plicit:— for  instead  of  quoting  any  such  source,  under  the  name  of 
An-o;Mi/>,;ttoi/iu^»TM  Tiuv  ATTO-ro-KMv,  OX  "Meiiioirs  of  the  Apostles,"  he 
expre.ssly  declares  that  he  means  the  GospelsP  Tatian,  Irena;us, 
Theophilus,  Bishop  of  Anlioch,  and,  in  short,  every  subsequent 
ecclesiastical  writer  of  antiquity,  is  equally  explicit  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  the  Gospels,  and  equally  silent  as  to  the  existence  of  any 
source  whence  the  evangelists  derived  the  materials  of  their  Gos 
pels.'^ 

3.  The  incongruities  and  apparent  contradictions,  which 
(^as  ive  have  seen')  form  a  slro7ig  objection  against  the  suppi- 
sition  that  the  eva7igelists  copied  from  each  other,  form  an 
objection  no  less  strong  against  the  supposition  that  they  all 
copied  from  one  and  the  same  docjiment. 

For  if,  as  this  hypothesis  requires,  they  all  adhered  to  their  do- 
cument, no  difference  could  have  arisen  between  them ;  but  they 

13  See,  among  a  variety  of  such  appeals,^!  Kings  xvi.  19.  and  IChron, 
xxvii.  24. 

I'l  Bp.  Gleig's  edition  of  Stackhouse's  History  of  the  Bible,  vol.  iii.  p.  103. 

«">  On  this  topic,  see  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  81. :  4to.  vol.  i. 
p.  322. 

»«  See  the  testimony  of  Papias  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii. 
pp.  107—110.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  337,  338. 

n  In  his  first  apology  for  the  Christians,  which  was  delivered  to  the 
Emperor  Antoninus  Pius  (c.  66.),  .Tustin  gives  the  following  reason  for  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  supper  among  the  Christians : — "  For  the  apostles, 
in  the  Memoirs  (xj70^m^ovev/4:«rir)  composed  by  them,  which  arc  called 
Gospels  (i  x:tA.£iT3ei  ETArrEAiA),  have  thus  assured  us,  that  Jesus  or- 
dered thein  to  do  it;  that  he  took  bread,  gave  thanks,  and  then  said,  'This 
do  in  remembrance  of  me ;  this  is  my  body  :'  that  in  like  manner  he  look 
the  cup,  and  after  he  had  given  thanks,  said,  'This  is  my  blood."' — And 
in  another,  passage  (c.  67.),  when  giving  the  emperor  an  account  of  tlie 
Christian  worship,  he  says,  "The'  Memoirs  of  Die  A])ostlesa.re  read,  ortlie 
Writings  of  the  Prophets,  according  as  time  "allows ;  and,  when  the  reader 
has  ended,  the  president  of  the  community  makes  a  discourse  exhorting 
them  to  the  imitation  of  such  excellent  things." — An  evident  proof  this, 
that,  so  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  the  four  Gospe,ls 
(and  no  greater  number)  were  not  only  generally  known  among  the  Chris- 
tians, but  were  revered  even  as  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament,  that 
is,  as  divine  books.  The  late  Bishop  of  London  (Dr.  Randolph)  has  satis- 
factorily vindicated  the  testimony  of  Justin  against  the  charge  made  by  the 
translator  of  Michaclis,  that  this  father  had  ipioted  what  does  not  exist  in 
sense  or  substance  in  any  of  our  four  Gospels.  See  his  "Remarks  on 
Michaelis's  Introduction,"  &c.  p.  78.  et  seq.  second  edition. 

"  See  the  references  lo  the  individual  testimonies  of  these  fathers  in 
the  Index  to  Dr.  Lardner'^s  Works,  voce  Gospels.  See  also  the  British' 
Critic  and  Theological  Review,  vol.  ii.  pp.  347 — 350.  for  some  forcible  objec- 
tions against  the  existence  of  any  primary  document. 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


389 


would  all  have  aRrceil  in  rolatin;?  thosamo  ihini?  in  the  same  man- 
nrr,  as  niiicli  as  tlioy  must  have  ilcmc,  il'llicy  had  copiod  Croiii  each 
otluT.  II',  in  order  lo  avoid  lliis  dilUcidly',  it  I";  sii|i|«>scd  lliul  lliey 
did  not  all  adln^ri^  to  llicir  dociiiiiiiil,  lint  that  occasionally  some 
ono  (or  iMorcO  ofllicm  nave  a  dilli'rciil  representation  (irsoiuf!  Iticl, 
either  Ironi  his  own  liiiouled^^c,  or  lidiii  iidorination  derived  from 
uiiotlier  source  (as  the  supjiosed  docuiiienl  3,  &ic.),  this  appearH  lo 
sap  iho  very  foundation  oi'  the  evidence;  (or  in  tliis  case,  what 
becomes  of  the  authority  oC  the  primary  doctniieiit  ?  And,  how  can 
all  three  evanf;;clisls  l)(t  said  to  have  tierivcd  from  it  alone  all  the 
mailer  vvliich  they  have  in  conniiou  ?  In  wiialevJT  lii'.ht,  then,  we 
view  tli(!  suhject,  we  caniiol  see  how  any  modidealioii  of  the  j/ene- 
ral  supposition,  tlial  the  three  cvant;elisls,  in  the  composition  of 
their  (iospels,  used  only  one  doeinnent,  can  salisliictorily  e.\|)jain 
all  the;  exatnples  of  vcrlial  disagreement  which  occur  in  the  (Jos- 
pels.  We  conclude,  thereliire,  that  no  hypothesis  wliich  is  built 
u|io:i  '.his  liiiindalion  can  be  the  true  one.' 

IV.  'V\u^  Tiiiitn  livpothesis,  wliifli  hvis  honn  onTcred,  to 
nccoiml  for  tin;  verliiil  siiiiilurilics  ami  (lisiiirrceiiictits  iti  the 
first  tliree  (Jospcls,  is  that  of  a  pm'kamtv  ok  documknt.s. 
Of  tills  liypotliesis  thcri-  iiave  bcoa  two  iiiodilications  : — one 
by  till!  late  Rov.  Mr.  Veysie,  the  other  by  Professor  Sclileier- 
inaclK^r. 

1.  Mr.  Veysie  gives  the  following  description  of  his  hypo- 
thesis :2 — 

"Tiio  apostles,  both  in  their  public  preaching  and  in 
their  |)rival(;  conversations,  wt^re  doitbtless  accustomed 
frt'(niently  to  instntct  and  improve  their  hearers  by  the 
recital  of  some  action  or  discourse  of  our  blessed  Saviour. 
And  many  pious  Christians,  unwilling  to  trust  to  memory 
alone  for  tl\e  preservation  of  these  valuable  cotiimutiica- 
tions  respi-ctiiig  their  Hedcemer,  v/crc  induced  to  commit 
to  writing  the  preaciiing  of  the  apostles  while  it  was  fresh 
in  their  memory.  And  thus  at  a  very  early  period,  before 
any  of  our  canonical  Gospels  were  written,  believers  were 
in  ])ossessiou  of  many  narratives  of  detached  parts  of  the 
history  of  .lesus; — drawn  up,  some  in  the  llebrew  lan- 
guage, and  others  in  the  Greek.  Of  the  llebrew  narra- 
tives, the  most  important  was  soon  translated  into  (Jreek, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  (ireek  Christians,  to  whom  they  were 
uninielligible  in  the  original,  and  vice  versa." 

From  th(\se  detached  narratives  Mr.  Veysie  is  of  opinion 
that  the  first  three  canonical  Gospels  were  principally  com- 

|)ile(l.  Of  the  authors  of  these  Gospels,  he  thinks  that  as 
Vlatthew  alone  was  an  eye-witness,  he  alone  could  write 
from  personal  knowledge  of  the  facts  which  he  recorded ; 
and  that  even  he  did  not  judge  it  expedient  to  draw  exclu- 
sively froin  his  own  stores,  but  blended  with  these  de- 
tached narratives  such  additional  facts  and  discourses  as 
the  Holy  Spirit  brought  to  his  remembrance.  Mark,  our 
author  further  thinks,  had  no  knowledge  of  Matthew's 
(Jnspel ;  and  having  collected  materials  for  a  Gospel,  he 
adiled  to  them  numerous  explanations  in  order  to  adapt 
them  to  the  use  of  the  Gentile  converts,  together  with 
various  circumstances,  the  knowledge  of  whicli  he  proba- 
bly acquired  from  Peter.  And  he  is  of  opinion  also,  that 
-  Luke  compiled  his  Gospel  from  similar  detached  narra- 
tives, many  of  which  were  the  same  as  had  been  used  by 
the  other  evangelists,  though  some  of  them  had  been 
drawn  tip  by  difl'erent  persons,  and  perhaps  from  the 
preaching  of  other  apostles;  and  that  Luke,  being  diligent 
m  his  iitipiiries  and  researches,  was  enabled  to  add  greatly 
to  the  number.  Matthew,  Mr.  V.  thinks,  wrote  in  He- 
bn;w,  and  the  other  two  evangelists  in  Greek.  "  But 
Mark  btunga  plain  unlettered  man,  and  but  meanly  skilled 
in  the  Greek  language,  was,  for  the  most  part,  satisfied 
with  the  very  words  of  his  (Jreek  documents,  and  with 

ifiving  a  literal  version  of  such  as  he  translated  from  the 
-lebrew.  Whereas  Luke,  being  a  greater  master  of  the 
Greek  language,  was  more  attentive  to  the  diction,  and 
frequently  expressed  the  meaning  of  his  documents  in 
more  pure  words,  and  a  more  elegant  form.  Only  he 
adhered  more  closely  to  the  very  expression  of  his  diocu- 
ments,  when  he  came  to  insert  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament,  or  to  recite  discourses  and  conversations,  and 
especially  the  discourses  of  our  blessed  Saviour.  Both 
Mark  and  Luke  adhered  to  the  arrangement  which  they 
found  in  those  documents  which  contained  inore  facts  than 
one.  The  documents  themselves  they  arranged  in  chro- 
nological order.  All  the  evangelists  connected  the  docu- 
ments QUO  with  another,  each  lor  himself  and  in  his  own 
way. "3  Our  author  also  conjectures  that  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel was  translated  into  Greek  some  time  after  tlie  two 

«  Veysie's  Examination,  p>  56.  ■>  Ibid.  p.  97. 

«  Rxaiuination  of  Mr.  Marsh'a  Hjrpothesis,  pp.  96,  99. 


other  Gospels  were  in  circulation;  that  the  translator  made 
great  use  of  them,  frequently  copying  their  very  words 
where  they  suited  his  purjiose;  that,  however,  he  made 
most  use  of  Mark's  Gosnel,  having  recourse  to  that  of 
Luke  only  when  he  could  derive  no  assistance  from  the 
otlu^r;  and  that  where  he  had  no  doubt,  or  perceived  no 
didiculty,  he  frequentlj  translated   for  himself,  without 
looking  for  assistance  from  either  .Mark  or  Jjtike.' 
Such  is  the  hypothesis  projjoscd  by  Mr.  Veysie  in  pre- 
ference to  that  of'Bislioj)  Marsh.    That  it  accounts  for  all  the 
phenomena,  which  have,  in  (Jermany,  been  supposed  to  in- 
volve so  many  dilhculties,  we  have  no  inclination  to  contro- 
vert;   for,   as    he    observes    of    his    lordship's    hypothesis, 
"  being  framed  by  a  man  of  genius  and  learning,  jirincipally 
with  a  view  to  explain  the  phenomena  which  the  author  had 
observed,  it  may  reasonably  be  ('Xjiected  to  answer,  in  every 
point  of  importance,  the  jnirpose  for  w  hicli  it  was  intended.'' 
vVe  are  even  ready  to  grant,  that  it  answers  this  purpose 
more  completely  than  that  of  the  learned  tr.inslatfjr  of  Mi- 
chaelis,  of  whiidi,  therefore,  it  may  bt;  considered  as  an  im- 
provement; but  to  improve  recpiires  not  the  same  effort  of 
genius  as  to  invent.     Both,  however,  are  mere  hypotheses, 
or  rather  complications  of  various  hypotheses,  whicli  he  who 
rejects  them  cannot  by  argument  or  testimony  he  compelled 
to  adtiitt;  while  both  appear  to  us  to  d(!tract  much  from  the 
authority  which  has  hitherto  been  allowed  to  the  first  three 
Gospels. 

'I  o  this  author's  detached  narratives  the  same  objections 
seem  to  lie  which  he  has  so  forcibly  urged  against  the  very 
existence  of  Bishop  Marsh's  documents,  and  which  have 
been  already  stated.     Some  of  these  narratives  must  have 
been  of  considerable  length ;  for  some  of  the  examples  of 
verbal   agreement,   which   they   have   occasioned   between 
Matthew  and  Mark,  are  very  long  and  remarkable.     They 
must  likewise  have  been  deemed  of  great  importance,  since 
they  were  translated  from  Hebrew  into  Greek  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Greek  (Christians;  and  appear,  indeed,  from  this  ac- 
count of  them,  to  have  furnished  the  whole  matter  of  Mark's 
Gospel,  except  the  explanation  of  some  Jewish  customs  and 
names,  and  some  circumstances  actjuired  from  Peter.     Such 
narratives  as  these  are  exactly  Bishop  Marsh's  documents, 
and  one  of  them  his  document  n  an  entire  Gospel,  of  whick 
not  even  the  memory  survived  the  apostolic  age.* 
2.  The  hypothesis  of  Professor  Schieiermacher,  who  is  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  classical  scholars  in  Germany, 
is  developed  in  his  "Critical  Essays  on  the  Gospel  of 
Saint  Luke.""     He  supposes  that  there  existed,  at  a  very 
early  period,  detached  narratives  of  remarkable  incidents 
in  the  life  of  Jesus  Christ,  of  his  miracles,  and  discourses; 
which  were  collected  by  different  individuals  with  various 
objects.    From  these  minor  collections  Dr.  Schieiermacher 
conceives  that  the  works  now  called  Gospels  might  be 
framed ;  and  he  is  of  opinion  that  Saint  Luke  formed  his 
Gospel  by  the  mere  iuxta-position  of  these  separate  narra- 
tives, without  any  alteration  whatever  on  the  part  of  the 
compiler,  except  the  addition  of  copulative  particles.    The 
result  of  the  examination  which  he  institutes  in  support 
of  his  hypothesis  is,  that  the  evangelist  "  is  neither  an 
independent  writer,  nor  has  made  a  compilation  from  works 
which  extended  over  the  whole  life  of  Jesus ;"  and  that 
"  he  is,  from  beginning  to  end,  no  more  than  a  compiler 
and  arranger  of  what  he  found  in  existence,  and  whicK  he 
allows  to  pass  unaltered  through  his  hands."' 

The  only  difference  between  this  hypothesis  and  that 
of  Mr.  Veysie  is,  that  the  latter  supposes  the  first  Chris- 
tians to  have  made  memoranda  of  what  they  heard  in  the 
public  preaching  and  private  conversation  oi  the  apostles; 
while,  according  to  Professor  Schieiermacher,  the  memo- 
randa of  the  (yhristians  were  collected  by  various  persons, 
as  chance  or  inclination  directed  them.  On  the  continent, 
his  hypothesis  has  been  attacked  by  Fritsch,  Plank,  and 
Gersdorf;  and  in  this  country  it  has  been  examined  and 
refuted  at  great  length  by  the  learned  author  of  the  critique 
upon  his  essay  in  tne  British  Critic  and  Quarterly  Theo- 

*  Examination  of  Mr.  Marsh's  Hypothesis,  pp.  100,  101. 

«  Briiisli  Critic,  vol.  xx.xiv.  (O.  S.)  p.  114.  An  hypothesis  similar  to  that 
of  Mr.  Veysie  was  olTored  hy  a  learned  writer  in  the  Eclectic  Review  (vol. 
viii.  part  i.  pp.  423,  424.);  but  as  it  is  liable  to  the  same  objections  as  Mr. 
V.'s,  this  brief  notice  of  it  may  suffice. 

«  A  Critical  Essay  on  tlie  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  by  Dr.  Frederick  Schieier- 
macher, with  an  Introduction  by  the  translator,  containing  an  account  of 
the  controversy  respecting  the  oriuin  of  the  first  three  Gospels  since  Bishop 
Marsh's  Dissertation.  London,  1S25.  8vo.  The  original  German  work  waa 
published  at  Berlin,  in  1817. 

1  Sclileiermacher,  p.  313.   British  Critic  and  Theol.  Rev.  vol.  ii.  p.  351. 


390 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


logical  Review;  of  whose  observations  the  following  is 
an  abstract: — 

1.  This  Inipothesis  is  in  itself  extremeh/  improbable,  and  7iot 
reconcilable  -with  certain  facts  dediicihlc  from  the  studi/  of  the 
style  and  language  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel. 

(1.)  The  lii/polhesis  is  in  itself  extremely  improbahle. 
"That  a  person  employed  in  writing  an  historical  work  should 
use  such  existing  narratives  as  lie  could  depejid  on,  is  undoubtedly 
both  probable  and  rational.  'J''liat  he  should  make  tip  his  history 
of  such  fragmentary  materials  has  iliis  clear  objection  to  it,  that 
the  writer,  wanting  narratives  of  every  period,  cannot  possibly  be 
nice  in  his  selection,  but  must  take  such  as  he  can  find,  and  where 
he  can  meet  with  none  of  high  authority,  must  of  necessity  be 
satisfied  with  others  of  less.  That  this  must  be  the  cojisequence 
of  so  composing  an  history  is,  we  think,  quite  clear  on  mere  rea- 
sonable grounds;  and  that  it  is  practically  true  Professor  Schlcier- 
niacher,  at  least,  cannot  deny,  for  he  himself  states  that  St.  Luke 
has  introduced  incorrect,  inilbunded,  and  almost  fabulous  narratives 
into  his  Gospel.  But,  we  would  ask,  is  an  author  to  be  supposed 
totally  without  perception  of  this  obvious  objection;  or,  in  other 
words,  is  it  to  be  supposed  that  he  willingly  produces  a  less  valua- 
ble and  authentic  history  where  he  could  produce  one  more  so? 
We  must  be  allowed  to  think  that  if  this  is  true  of  a  common  his- 
tory, it  is  still  more  so  of  such  a  history  as  a  gospel — the  history  of 
a  new  religion  and  its  f()under.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the 
knowledge  or  powers  of  its  historian,  thus  much  all  will  allow, 
that  he  thought  Christianity  true,  that  is  to  say,  he  thought  himself 
employed  in  giving  an  account  of  a  revelation  from  God,  the  whole 
value  of  which  depends  on  its  hemg  true." — Now,  "a  person  so 
em|)loyed  would  assuredly  feel  a  deep  responsibility  attaching  to 
him,  and  an  earnest  desire  to  obtain  the  very  best  and  most  au- 
thentic accounts  of  the  weighty  matters  of  which  he  was  treating. 
And  if  the  truth  of  these  remarks  be  admitted,  their  force  can  only 
be  evaded  by  saying  either  that  St.  Luke  had  not  the  power  of 
obtaining  better  materials,  or  had  no  discrimination,  no  power  of 
judging  which  were  better  and  which  worse.  Now  with  respect 
to  the  first  of  these  alternatives,  without  at  all  inquiring  whether 
he  was  or  was  not  himself  a  witness  to  any  of  our  Lord's  miracles, 
it  cannot  be  denied,  with  any  show  of  argument,  that  he  lived  at 
the  time  of  the  transactions  of  which  he  treated,  nor  that  he  had 
ready  access  to  those  most  capable  of  giving  him  exact  and  accu- 
rate accounts  of  all  that  passed  in  our  Lord's  life.  We  have  posi- 
tive evidence  of  his  having  been  for  a  long  time  the  companion  of 
St.  Paul,  and  of  his  having  gone  with  him  to  Jerusalem,  when  that 
apostle  was  seized,  and  his  long  imprisonment,  previous  to  his 
voyage  to  Rome,  commenced.  At  the  close  of  that  imprisonment 
he  was  at  hand,  and  accompanied  St.  Paul  to  Rome.  Where  he 
spent  the  intermediate  time,  certainly  is  not  positively  mentioned, 
but  from  his  being  with  St.  Paul  at  the  commencement  and  the 
elose  of  his  imprisonment,  and  from  his  having  come  to  Jerusalem 
as  his  companion  and  friend,  we  think  it  most  probable  that  he 
was  not  far  distant  during  its  continuance;  at  all  events,  it  is  espe- 
cially mentioned  that  at  Jerusalem  he  went  with  St.  Paul  to  St. 
/James,  when  all  the  elders  were  present.  It  is  therefore  indis- 
/  putable,  that  he  had  every  opportunity  of  acquiring  the  best  infor- 
mation respecting  our  Lord,  from  his  apostles  and  other  eye-wit- 
ne.sses  of  his  life  and  actions.  What,  then,  we  would  ask,  could 
be  the  temptation  to  a  person  under  St.  Luke's  circumstances,  to 
prefer  written  narratives,  circulating  with  an  authenticity  at  least 
loosely  established  (and,  in  fact,  according  to  Professor  Schleier- 
macher,  often  worthless),  to  the  oral  testimony  of  the  most  compe- 
tent witnesses;  the  dead  words  of  dead  writing  to  the  living  voices 
of  living  men  who  had  been  the  constant  attendants  of  our  Lord, 
and  must  daily  have  given  Luke,  at  least,  sufficient  testimony  that 
they  were  led  by  the  Spirit  of  God?  They  who  adopt  this  hypo- 
thesis are  surely  bound  to  give  some  account  of  the  motives  which 
could  induce  a  person  situated  like  St.  Luke,  led  either  by  inclination 
or  a  sense  of  duty  to  become  the  historian  of  the  faith  he  had  learned 
and  accepted,  and  influenced  by  the  feelings  by  which  he  and 
every  honest  Christian  undertaking  such  a  work  must  have  been 
influenced,  to  prefer  imperfect  to  perfect  testimony,  and  a  set  of 
floating  narratives  of  doubtful  character  to  the  certain  evidence 
of  eye-witnesses.  Professor  Schleiermacher,  who  cannot  argue 
that  the  evangelist  would  take  pains  to  procure  only  authenticated 
narratives  (because  he  has  stated  his  belief  that  many  erroneous 
ones  have  found  their  way  into  this  Gospel),  takes  the  other  alter- 
native to  which  we  have  alluded,  and  frequently  says  that  the 
■  nicety  and  exactness  which  we,  '  who  are  a  critical  generation,' 
require,  were  unknown  to  former  ages,  which  were  easily  satisfied 
with  a  less  rigid  scrupulousness  as  to  accuracy,  and  that  St.  Luke 
might,  therefore,  be  contented  with  materials  really  imperfect. 
But  to  us  this  appears  a  poor  answer  to  the  difficulty;  for  there  is 
no  question  here  as  to  any  research,  any  abstruse  reasoning,  any 
difficult  inquiry.  The  question  to  be  considered  is  simply  this — 
whether  an  honest  and  sincere  man  undertaking  to  write  the  his- 
tory of  events  of  no  trivial  importance,  but  concerning  the  eternal 
welfare  of  mankind,  and  living  with  those  who  had  been  present 
and  personally  engaged  in  the  most  remarkable  of  them,  would 
apply  to  these  competent  witnesses  for  information,  or  would  deem 
it  a  wiser  and  a  better  plan  to  collect  a  set  of  doubtful  narratives 
of  these  events,  written  by  doubtful  authors,  till  he  had  obtained 
some  sort  of  account  of  all  that  interested  him,  and  then  to  string 
his  Collectanea  together  (without  a  word  of  addition,  of  correction, 


or  of  explanation),  like  Martial's  Epigrams,  some  good,  some  indif- 
ferent, and  more  bad,  into  a  hook."' 

('2.)  This  hypothesis  is  not  reconcilahle  with  certain  facts  deducible 
from  a  study  of  the  style  and  language  of  St.  Luhe's  Gospel. 

The  validity  of  this  objection  is  supported  by  the  learned  re- 
viewer, who  has  cited  very  numerous  instances  of  ihe  evangelist's 
style  and  language,  compared  with  those  occurring  in  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  for  which  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred  to  the 
journal  already  cited.'^  It  must  suffice  to  state  in  this  place,  that 
the  passages  adduced  clearly  show  that  the  Gospel  of  Luke  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  throughout  the  production  of  the  same 
author;  peculiar  words  and  phrases,  which  are  rarely  or  never 
used  by  the  other  evangelists,  being  used  through  various  parts 
of  the  Gospel  and  Acts;  while  a  large  number  of'  these  peculiar 
words  and  phrases  are  derivable  from  one  source — the  Septuagint; 
and,  what  is  very  curious,  a  largo  number  of  words  not  used  by  the 
other  writers  of  the  New  Testament  are  common  to  St.  Luke  and 
to  St.  Paul,  whose  companion  the  evangelist  was  for  many  years. 
"  If,"  therefore,  the  reviewer  forcibly  argues,  "  a  peculiar  phrase- 
ology runs  through  two  works,  if  much  of  that  peculiar  phraseology- 
is  constantly  referable  to  one  known  source,  and  if  much  of  it  is 
also  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  a  per.son  for  many  years  the  con- 
stant companion  of  the  reputed  author  of  these  works,  there  is  very 
strong  reason  lor  believing  the  common  opinion  to  be  the  correct 
one.  Chance  can  hardly  have  done  so  much — can  hardly  have 
distinguished  the  greater  part  of  above  forty  narratives  (according 
to  Professor  Schleiermacher)  by  the  use  of  the  same  peculiar 
phraseology — can  hardly  have  produced  a  striking  connection  be- 
tween their  style  and  that  of  the  intimate  friend  of  their  compiler."* 
In  a  note,  the  reviewer  states  the  following  to  be  the  result  of  a 
pretty  laborious  examination  of  the  New  Testament:  "There  are 
ill  St'.  Luke  as  many  words  peculiar  to  him  as  in  the  three  other 
evangelists  together.  In  the  Acts  very  far  more.  In  St.  Paul  as 
many  nearly  as  in  the  rest  of  the  New  Testament.  In  inquiring 
into  the  words  peculiar  to  one  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts,  we  find 
more  than  three  times  as  many  in  St.  Luke  as  in  either  of  the 
others.  With  respect  to  words  peculiar  to  one  of  the  Gospels  and 
St.  Paul,  there  are  nearly  three  times  as  many  in  St.  Luke  as  in 
St.  Matthew,  and  more  than  three  times  as  many  as  in  St.  Mark  or 
St.  John.  Of  such  words  there  are  also  in  the  Acts  ahoul  five  times 
as  many  as  in  either  Matthew,  Mark,  or  John.  And  there  are 
about  as  many  words  common  to  St.  Luke,  the  Acts,  and  St.  Paul, 
and  peculiar  to  these  books,  as  there  are  words  peculiar  to  St.  Luke 
and  St.  Paul  alone."'' 

2.  Further,  the  principles,  on  which  Professor  Schleierma- 
cher conducted  the  examination  of  St.  Lake's  Gospel,  do  not 
bear  him  out  in  the  hypothesis  -which  he  has  framed. 

(1.)  For, , in  applying  the  test  of  probability.  Professor  Schleier- 
macher assumes,  in  an  unwarrantable  manner,  the  right  of  supplying, 
from  his  own  fancy,  all  the  circumstances  and.  details  of  every  nar- 
ration which  he  finds  in  the  Gospel ;  and  then  he  explains  the  whole 
transaction  by  means  of  the  very  details  he  has  furnished. 

Five  examples  are  adduced  by  the  reviewer  of  Dr.  Schleierma- 
cher, in  illustration  of  this  remark  =5  one  of  which  will  be  sufficient 
to  confirm  it.  "In  commenting  on  the  fifth  chapter  of  the  Gospel 
(p.  81.)  he  tells  us,  that  the  narrative  (ver.  27 — 39.)  of  the  calling 
of  Matthew,  and  our  Lord's  discourse  with  the  scribes  and  phari- 
sees,  was  not  written  in  connection  with  the  narrative  (ver.  17 — 26.) 
of  the  cure  of  the  paralytic,  which  also  contains  a  conversation  of 
the  same  parties,  for  the  following  reasons:  According  to  Professor 
Schleiermacher,  '  the  conversation  of  Christ  and  the  pharisees  is 
evidently  the  main  point  of  the  second  narrative.'  That  is,  the 
call  of  St.  Matthew  is  not  so.  That  is  only  mentioned  because  the 
conversation  would  not  have  been  intelligible  without  the  fact 
that  Christ  and  his  disciples  had  partaken  of  a  repast  at  the  publi- 
can's house. 

"  'But  the  doctors  of  the  law  would  scarcely  have  stayed  without 
till  the  splendid  repast  was  at  an  end^for  they  were  sure  enough  of 
finding  Christ  and  his  disciples  at  the  usual  time  of  public  business 
the  next  day,  and  this  conversation  could  scarcely  follow  immediately, 
after  the  banquet.  Had  this  history,  therefore,  been  related  in  a 
continuous  thread  with  the  former,  we  should  have  found  them 
connected  either  in  this  manner,  Still  they  were  minded,  after  this, 
again  to  question  his  disciples,  for  that  the  day  before  he  had  sat 
at  meat  with  them  at  the  house  of  a  publican,  with  many  other  publi- 
cans and  sinners:  or  thus.  And  he  went  hence  to  a  great  feast  which 
a  publican  had  made  for  him,  and  from  this  the  scribes  and  pharisees 
took  occasion  afresh,  <^c.  Ours,  however,  sounds  quite  like  an  in- 
dependent narrative  which  premises  the  circumstances  necessary 
to  be  known,  without  concerning  itself  about  any  further  connec- 
tion. The  phrase  Ku.t  fMrd  TouTct,  is  much  too  vague  to.  seek  in  it 
a  view  to  any  precise  reference  to  the  preceding  passage.' 

"  From  this  specimen  our  readers  will  see  somewhat  of  the  na- 
ture of  Professor  Schleiermacher's  proceedings.  He  supposes  that 
we  are  able  to  judge  accurately  of  the  writer's  aim  in  a  parti^cular 
narrative ;  that  we  know  enough  of  the  circumstances  of  the  event 
he  relates,  to  judge  whether  it  is  probable  that  the  doctors  of  the 
law  would  wait  for  Christ  till  he  had  finished  a  visit  to  a  given 
person  7)re,SM?ned  to  be  objectionable  to  them;  that  we  can  decide 
whether  these  habits  were  so  strongly  rooted,  that  even  the  unusual 


«  British  Critic,  yol.  ii.  pp.  354—356. 
»  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  357. 
i  Ibid.  pp.  365-568. 


2  Ibid.  pp.  358—364, 
«  Ibid.  p.  357.  note. 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


391 


excitement  of  a  teacher  rome  U>  oppose  their  law  would  not  iiulucc 
them  to  any  cliatige,  hut  would  compel  lliem  to  wail  till  the  usual 
hours  oC  husini^ss  litr  an  interview  witli  him;  wlieiher  in  a  small 
place  lliey  could  not  have  met  with  him  inslantly  on  his  leaving 
the  house,  wilhout  derogating  I'rom  their  dignity ;  and  again,  thai 
we  can  pronounce  with  some  certainly  as  to  the  method  hy  which 
the  writer  uoiMd  connect  the  preceding  and  Buccecding  parts  of 
Lis  narrative."' 

(2.)  //('  /^raluiloiisli/  a.imunrx  the  exisltntre  of  the  most  incredilile 
stiipii/ili/  itiitt  ifriiordiicc  on  llie.  piirL  of  llir  ftit  rvil  writers,  whenever 
he  can  get  rid  of  any  difficult ij  hi/  such  an  hi/jxilhcxis. 

"For  exam|>le,  he  slates  it  (p.  92.)  as  his  hejiel',  ihal  there  was 
no  solemn  calling  of  the  aposlles,  and  thai  St.  Luke  did  not  mean 
to  stale  any  such  calling.  But  he  allows  ihal  Si.  Mark  does,  in  the 
most  d(!(i(led  manner.  .And  how  does  he  reconcile  liiis  wilh  his 
denial  of  ihe  iiicl  ?  Sim|)ly  hy  su[)posing  that  Si.  Mark  saw  this 
passage  in  Si.  Luke,  and  misunder.slood  it!  'I'here  are  two  inon- 
Rlrous  improhabililies  lo  he  got  over  in  this  slalement ;  ii>r  we 
would  ask,  lirsl,  whether  it  is  credihle  that  Si.  Ahirk  did  not  know 
vvheiher  there  was  a  solemn  calling  of  Ihe  aposlles  or  not?  an<l, 
secondlv.  \%hal  possihie  reason  there  is  l()r  supposing  that  he  was 
more  likely  lo  misundersiand  St.  Luke  than  ourselves."'^ 

(3.)  Aid  onh/  dor.i  I'rofexsor  Srhliivrmaihir  allow  himself  the 
most  ealraiirdiniiri/  license  in  conjurin<f  up  fniiniis,  intentions,  mo- 
tives, and  ciriiimstiinirs;  liiU  in  manij  instances  these  conjectures 
are  as  iudiii/)/)i/.  ami  the  motives  and  circumstances  conjectured  [are] 
as  forced  and  as  im/irnlialde  as  it  is  possilile  to  i?naf;ine. 

"ilo  forms  a  theory  as  lo  the  way  in  which  a  parlicular  occur- 
rence look  place,  and  then  imagines  circunislanccs  to  suit  il." 
'J'hus,^  "  I'roles.sor  Schleiermaclier  observes,  that  Luke  (viii.  22.) 
does  not  lell  us  ihe  object  of  our  Loid  and  his  disciples  in  going  on 
the  sea;  and  he  wishes  lo  show  ihal  ihey  went  out  wilhout  any 
parlicular  object,  and  iiol  wilh  the  inienlion  of  making  a  journey. 

"'The  easiest  v\ay  of  conceiving  Ihe  v\  hole  occurrence  is  lo 
imagine  Ihal  ihe  disciples  had  gone  out  in  llic  boat  to  fsh,  and  ihal 
Jesus  acr-ompanied  ihem;  li»r  why  should  he  ahmijs  have  let  ihc 
time  so  spent  be  lost  t<)r  their  insiruclion  and  ihe  exertion  of  his 
whole  inllueiice  on  ihemT  &e.  lie  appears  to  have  forgollen  that 
Si.  Mailhcvv  menlions  a  circumstance  rather  adverse  to  Jesus  being 
employed  in  leaching  his  di.sciples  on  this  occasion — namely,  that 
he  was  asleep.  (Mall.  viii.  24.)"-' 

(4.)  Lastli/,  the  details  conjecturalli/  supplied  hij  Professor  Schleier- 
macher  are  not  onli/  improhalile,  hut  do  great  injustice  to  the  character 
of  Jesus  Christ,  considered  not  as  a  divine  liting,  hut  as  a  heavenly 
teacher,  and  are  i/itile  inappropriate  to  such  a  character. 

"It  may  noi  l)e  very  easy  to  say  what  w<ndd  be  the  exact  line 
of  conduct  pm'sued  by  such  a  teacher,  or  how  far  he  might  enter 
into  the  common  detail  of  lile;  but  surely  noihing  can  be  less  rea- 
sonable than  lo  reduce  every  action  and  every  movement  to  ihe 
ordinary  level  of  ordinary  life,  and  to  contend  ihal  every  thing 
which  cannot  be  so  reduced  is  improbable.  But  this  is  the  level 
lo  which  Professor  Schleiermaclier  secdcs  to  reduce  all  the  transac- 
tions of  the  life  of  Jesus;  this  is  the  lest  by  which  he  tries  them; 
and  these  are  the  grounds  on  which  he  passes  sentence  of  impro- 
bability on  so  many  of  them.  Kow  let  any  man  look  at  the  Gospel 
ol'  Jesus  {'hrisi,  and  believing  (if  after  such  examination  he  can) 
that  ils  author  was  a  mere  man,  yet  under  that  belief  let  him  say 
wheiher,  in  a  sysiem  so  opposed  lo  the  spirit  of  the  time  in  which 
il  was  propagaied,  so  abstract  from  the  world,  so  pure,  so  holy,  so 
simple  it  may  be,  and  yel  so  sublime,  he  does  not  find  ample  reason 
for  concluding  that  ils  aulhor  must  on  very  many  occasions  have 
entirely  avoided  and  renounced  all  the  common  routine  of  life,  and 
Sedicated  himself  to  thought,  relirenieni,  and  prayer.  Jesus,  we 
are  told,  passed  Ihe  night  on  the  Mount  in  prayer.  Is  there  any 
thing  in  any  way  improbable  in  this,  if  he  were  a  mere  man,  be- 
lieving himself  sent  by  (Jod  to  insiruci  and  reform  mankind?  It  is 
mockery  to  pul  ihc  qtiesiion  if  he  were  really  a  heavenly  teacher. 
Yet  Profes.sor  Schleiermaclier  choose-s  lo  account  (iir  ihis  by  sup- 
posing (wilhout  a  trace  of  it  in  the  history)  that  he  must  have  been 
at  a  festival;  that  he  was  returning  to  his  abode  wilh  a  caravan, 
and  from  the  hustle  of  the  inn,  which  he  disliked,  was  driven  out 
to  pass  the  nighl  in  the  air!  All  this,  it  seems,  is  easier  than  the 
simple  fact,  Ihal  he,  who  was,  or  at  all  events  believed  himself  to 
be,  a  heavenly  teacher,  desired  to  strengthen  jiiiuscu"  ii)r  his  oflice 
by  solitude  and  prayer."'' 

V.  Tlip  last  I'.ypothesis,  which  remains  to  be  noticed,  is  that 
which  supposes  the  first  throe  (iospels  to  be  derived  not 
from  any  written  GospeL  but  I'rom  oral  tradition  from  the 

APOSTI.KS  AND  OTHER  DISCIPLES  OF  JeSUS  ChRIST. 

1.  This  hypotliesis  was  first  stiocrpsted  by  Herder  about 
thirty  years  since.  He  ajrrees  with  Eichliorn  in  assumin<r 
a  common  Hebrew  or  Clialdoe  Gospel;  but  he  dilTers  from 
him  in  most  other  respects,  by  sup|)osinfr  this  common  docu- 
ment to  be  a  mere  veroal  gospel,  wliich  consisted  only  in  the 
preachinor  (^KXfu-^/u*)  of  the  first  teachers  of  Christianity  ;  and 
•which,  lie  says,  had  been  verbally  propacrated  for  tiiirty 
years,  when  the  substance  of  it  was  committed  to  writing  in 
three  dift^jrent  Gospels.     According  to  the  form  of  this  oral 

«  British  Critic,  vol.  ii.  pp.  365,  360.  a  Ibid.  p.  363. 

»  t'riiical  Essay,  pp.  131,  132.  *  Hrit.  Cril.  vol.  ii.  p.  372. 

»  Hritish  Critic,  vol.  ii.  pp.  373,  374.  In  pp.  374—395.  various  other  exam- 
ples are  aililuced,  aail  the  erroneous  reasonings  of  Professor  Schleier- 
inacher  exposed  witli  equal  industry  and  learning. 


gospel  or  preachinw,  the  written  Gospels  of  Matthew,  Mark, 
and  Luke,  were  regulated.  Hence  arose  their  similarity; 
hut  il  is  useless,  Herder  further  asserts,  to  examine  the 
u-ordf  used  in  our  first  three  Gospels,  for  this  very  reason, 
that  they  ])roceeded  not  from  a  written  document,  hut  from 
a  m(!re  oral  gospel  or  preaching:  and,  accordingly,  in  his 
opinion,  whoever  attempts  by  an  analysis  of  our  fi^rst  three 
Gospels  to  discover  the  contents  of  a  supposed  common 
docuim^nt,  can  never  succeed  in  the  undertakinjr.ti 

2.  The  hypothesis  of  Herder  was  adopted  by  riCKERMANN, 
who  coiKH'ived  the  existence  of  an  oral  or  traditirmal  gospel, 
in  which  the  discourses  of  Jesus  were  preserved;  and  he 
imagined  that  Matthew  wrote  the  principal  parts  of  it  in  the 
Arama'an  dialect.  Hence  he  accounted  for  the  similarity  in 
the  first  three  (Jospels,  by  supiiosing  that  Mark  and  Luke 
collected  the  materials  of  their  Gospels  at  J<Tusalein;  which 
existing  in  this  oral  gospel  could  not  but  exhibit  a  striking 
n^semblanct!  to  that  of  .Matlliew.'  So  imprcjbable,  however, 
did  this  hypothesis  appear  in  itself,  at  the  time  it  was  an- 
nounced, tfiat  it  was  generally  disapproved,  and  was  at 
length  exploded  as  a  mere  fiction;  and  Kekermann  himself 
is  stattnl  lo  have  subseipiently  abandoned  it,  and  to  have  em- 
braced the  ancient  o])iiiioii  respecting  the  first  three  Gospels. ^ 

3.  More  recently,  the  hypothesis  of  Herder  has.  been 
revived  and  modified  by  Dr.  J.  C  Gieseler»  in  the  following 
manner: — 

The  evangelical  history,  previously  to  being  committed  to 
w'riting,  was  for  a  long  time  transmitted  from  mouth  to  mouth 
with  respectful  fidelity:  thus  it  became  tlie  object  of  oral 
tradition,  but  a  pure  tradition,  and  carefully  preserved.  As 
the  first  ('hristians  came  out  of  the  .lewish  church,  and  were 
familiarly  acquainted  with  that  tradition,  they  had  neither 
desire  nor  occasion  for  possessing  a  written  history  of  their 
Master.  But  when  the  Gospel  was  propagated  in  distant 
places,  and  reckoned  among  its  followers  wise  men  who  had 
been  converted  from  paganism,  their  literary  habits  and  their 
previous  ignorance  ot  the  history  of  Christianity  cansed  them 
to  wish  for  written  books;  and  tlie  first  Gospels  were  ac- 
cordingly published.  In  this  way,  Luke  wrote  for  Tbeo- 
philus.  liut  the  evangelists  only  transcribed  accurately  the 
most  important  portions  of  the  oral  Iradilion,  selecting  from 
it  such  particulars  as  were  best  suited  to  the  place,  time,  and 
particular  design,  on  account  of  which  they  wrote.  Drawing 
from  the  same  source,  they  have  fre(iuently  said  the  same 
things;  but,  writing  under  different  circumstances,  they  have 
often  differed  from  each  other.  Further,  oral  tradilion  was 
held  in  higher  authority  by  the  church  than  written  Gospels, 
and  was  also  more  frenuenlly  consulted  and  cited.  l?y  de- 
grees those  Gospels,  which  followed  it  with  great  fidelity, 
became  possessed  of  the  same  respect,  and  finally  supplanted 
it.  The  heretics  contributed  much  to  this  result.  They, 
indeed,  first  introduced  into  the  church  a  spirit  of  argumenta- 
tion and  dispute,  and  they  were  the  first  persons  who  devoted 
their  attention  in  an  esj)ecial  manner  to  the  theoretical  part 
of  religion.  Li  no  long  time,  from  the  love  of  discussion 
and  the  pride  of  knowledge,  they  composed  gospels  for 
themselves,  also  derived  from  oral  tradition,  but  mutilated 
and  altered.  The  true  Christians,  w'ho  had  hitherto  been 
occupied  in  loving  and  in  doing  good,  rather  than  in  reason- 
ing upon  religion,  and  who  had  been  accustomed  to  derive 
their  retiuisite  knowledge  from  oral  tradilion,  were  obliged, 
in  defence  of  their  faith,  to  have  recourse  to  their  Gospels, 
which  were  the  authentic  works  of  the  disciples  of  Jesus. 
Then  they  accustomed  themselves  to  read  them,  to  meditate 
upon  them,  and  also  to  quote  them,  in  order  that  they  might 
be  armed  against  the  heretics  and  their  falsified  histories. 
Thus,  gradually  and  silently,  wilhout  any  decree  or  decision 
of  a  council,  our  four  Gospels  universally  displaced  oral  tra- 
dition. In  the  middle  oj  Ihe  second  century,  they  were  ac- 
knowledged by  the  whole  church,  and  since  that  time  they 
have  constantly  and  universally  possessed  canonical  authority. 
Such  are  the  prominent  features  of  Gieseler's  system. 
That  it  solves  all  the  phenomena  and  difliculties  which  its 
author  imagines  to  exist  in  the  first  three  Gospels,  we  may 
readily  concede;  because,  being  framed  for  the  purpose  of 
explaining  those  phenomena,  it  may  be  expected  to  answer 

«  Up.  Marsh's  Micliaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  p.  203.,  where  Herder's  Christ- 
liche  St-liriflen  ((.'hrislian  Wrilinjis),  vol.  iii.  pp.  303 — 116.  are  quoted. 
Kuiiioel.  Coiiiiiient.  ia  Lib.  Hist.  Nov.  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  5. 

■>  Dr.  Wait's  Translation  of  Hug's  Inlroduclion,  voL  i.  Pref.  pp.  v.  ■vi. 

8  I'areaii,  de  Mylhica  Inlerpretatione,  p   190. 

9  This  notice  olGieseler's  hypotliesis  is  abridged  froinCellerier's  Intro- 
duclion  an  Nouv.  Test.  pp.  260— 207.,  who  cites  Ur.  G.'sllistorisch-Kritis- 
clier  Versiich  Tiber  die  Enlstehung  und  die  fri'ihesten  scbicksale  der 
schrifllichen  Evangelien.  (HistoricoCritical  Essay  on  the  Origin  and 
early  Fates  of  the  written  Gospels.)  Minden,  1818. 


392 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS, 


that  purpose ;  but  that  both  this  hypothesis  and  that  of  I 
Herder  are  destitute  of  any  real  foundation,  will  (we  think) 
apj^ear  from  the  following  considerations : — 

1.  In  the  first  place,— not  to  dwell  on  the  total  silence  of  anti- 
(juily  respecting  the  assumed  existence  of  these  verbal  gospels,  it 
is  utterly  incredible  that  so  long  a  time  should  elapse,  as  bolh 
Herder  and  Gieseler  suppose,  before  any  Gospel  was  conimitted  to 
writing;  because  every  Christian,  who  had  once  heard  so  important 
a  relation,  must  have  w  ished  to  write  down  at  least  the  principal 
materials  of  it,  had  it  been  only  to  assist  his  own  memory.  Besides, 
a  mere  oral  narrative,  after  it  had  gone  through  so  many  diflerent 
mouths,  in  the  course  of  so  many  years,  must  at  length  have  ac- 
quired such  a  variety  of  forms,  that  it  must  have  ceased  to  deserve 
the  title  of  a  common  Gospel  (as  Herder  termed  it) ;  and  tlierefore 
tlie  supposition  that  our  first  three  Gospels  were  moulded  m  one 
form  is  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  opinion  of  a  mere  oral  gospel, 
which  must  necessarily  have  assumed  a  variety  of  fjrms.'  Further, 
the  suppositions  of  these  writers  respecting  the  length  of  time  which 
they  imagine  must  have  elapsed  before  any  Gospel  was  connnitled 
to  writing  is  contradicted  by  the  evidence,  bolh  external  and  inter- 
nal, for  the  early  date  of  Matthew's  Hebrew  Gospel,  which  has 
already  been  staled  in  pp.  296,  297  of  this  volume. 

2.  Although  we  should  concede  to  Dr.  Gieseler,  that  the  evange- 
lical history  was  so  well  known  to  the  first  Christians,  that  they 
had  no  occasion  for  written  documents  until  after  the  expiration 
oCmany  years;— that  the  first  Christians,  more  occupied  with  the 
cultivation  of  Christian  virtues  than  with  theological  science,  paid 
less  attention  to  the  words  of  the  Gospels  than  to  the  facts  and  les- 
sons contained  in  the  evangelical  history  ;— that  they  restricted  the 
appellation  of  rfx(f„  or  Scriplure  to  the  Old  TestameiU ;— that  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament  were  not  yet  collected  together,  and 
that  they  designated  its  precepts  and  instructions  by  the  formula  of 
0  Xp.o-ros,  Christ  ?ms  said  (7.— although  these  points  should  be  con- 
ceded, yet  does  it  necessarily  follow  that  they  undervalued  or  dis- 
regarded written  documents?  that  they  preferred  oral  tradition  to 
them,  and  that  they  did  not  generally  make  use  of  our  four  Gospels 
until  the  middle  of  the  second  century?  By  no  means.  Such  a 
conclusion  appears  to  us  to  be  contradicted  by  the  nature  of  things, 
since  the  writings  of  the  apostles  must  have  been  held  in  at  least 
equal  estimation  with  that  tradition,  by  which  the  subjects  of  their 
preaching  were  preserved ;  since  the  heathens,  who  were  converted 
to  the  Christian  faith,  coidd  with  difhculiy  have  recourse  to  oral 
tradition,  and  would  eagerly  avail  themselves  of  written  documents 
as  soon  as  they  could  obtain  them,  that  is  to  say,  early  in  the  second 
century. 

3.  Much  stress  has  been  laid  by  Dr.  Gieseler  on  the  small  num- 
ber of  quotations  from  the  Gospels  in  the  writings  of  the  fathers, 
previously  to  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  But  this  paucity 
of  quotations  is  sufficiently  accounted  lor  by  the  small  number  of 
Christian  writers  whose  works  have  been  transmitted  to  us,  by 
their  preference  of  practical  piety  to  science  and  theory,  and  by 
t'ae  persecutions  to  w^hich  the  church  of  Christ  was  exposed :  so 
thiit  there  is  no  necessity  for  concluding  that  the  Gospels  were  at 
thai  time  but  little  known.  Such  of  tliose  quotations  as  refer  to 
the  K.!fuyA'«  or  preaching  of  the  apostles  do  not  necessarily  imply  a 
reference  to  oral  tradition ;  and  they  may  equally  be  understood 
of  written  documenls. 

4.  Gieseler  has  further  urged,  in  behalf  of  his  hypothesis,  our 
total  ignorance  of  llie  precise  time  when,  and  of  the  occasion  on 
which,  our  Gospels  were  admitted  as  canonical  by  the' whole 
church.  But  the  profound  and  universal  veneration  in  which 
these  Gospels  were  held  from  and  after  the  middle  of  the  second 
century, — that  is  to  say,  from  the  very  time  when  there  was  a 
greater  number  of  Christian  writers  and  books, — evidently  demon- 
strates that  their  authority  was  by  no  means  new,  but  had  been  of 
some  continuance.  The  very  nature,  too,  of  our  Gospels  leads  to 
the  same  result.  In  every  one  of  them  there  is  so  evidently  dis- 
cernible a  special  design  with  reference  to  the  circumstances 
under  which  they  were  written,  and  to  the  churches  which  became 
the  depositories  of  them,  that  we  cannot  imagine  that  they  could 
have  been  addressed  to  a  few  individuals  only,  and  that  they  should 
have  been  forgotten  by  the  mass  of  believers  for  nearly  half  a 
century. 

5.  Lastly,  although  the  hypothesis  of  an  oral  traditionary  docu- 
ment should  be  necessary,  in  order  to  solve  all  the  difficulties 
whichare  alleged  to  exist,  respecting  the  sources  of  the  first  three 
Gospels,  yet  we  must  take  into  consideration  the  real  difficulties 
which  it  substitutes  in  place  of  those  pretended  difficulties.  We 
must  conceive  how  such  oral  tradition,  which  was  diffused  from 
Rome  to  Babylon,  continued  without  the  slightest  alteration,  amidst 
the  great  number  of  new  converts,  who  .were  daily  occupied  in 
studying  them,  and  in  transmitting  them  to  others. — We  must  ima- 
gine in  what  manner  such  tradition  continued  sufficiently  uniform; 
80  that  persons,  who  committed  some  fragments  of  it  to  writing,-;— 
one,  for  instance,  at  Jerusalem,  and  another  at  Rome, — should  in 
the  same  narrative  frequently  make  use  of  the  same  phrases  and 
even  the  same  words.  And,  finally,  we  must  reconcile  the  hypo- 
thesis with  the  authenticity  of  our  Gospels  (which  has  been  both 
historically  and  critically  proved) ;  and  prevent  the  followers  of 
this  system  from  deducing  thence  the  evidently  false  conclusion, 
which  some  German  neologians  have  not  been  slow  in  forming,  viz. 
that  our  Gospels  were  supposititious  productions  posterior  to  the 
time  of  the  evangelists. 

«  Bp.  Marsh's  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  p.  304. 


V.  Since,  then,  the  four  hjrpotheses,  with  their  several 
modifications,  above  discussed,  are  insufficient  to  account 
for  the  liarmony,  both  of  words  and  of  thought,  which  appear 
in  the  first  three  Gospels,  should  it  be  asked  how  are  we  to 
account  for  such  coincidences'?  We  reply  that  they  may  be 
sufficiently  explained  without  having  recourse  to  either  of 
these  hypotheses,  and  in  a  manner  that  cannot  but  satisfy 
every  serious  and  inquiring  reader. 

"  It  is  admitted  on  all  hands,"  says  Bishop  Gleig,  "  that 
the  most  remarkable  coincidences  of  both  language  and 
thought,  that  occur  in  the  first  three  Gospels,  are  found  in 
those  places  in  which  the  several  writers  record  our  Lord's 
doctrines  and  miracles;  and  it  will  likewise  be  admitted, 
that  of  a  variety  of  things  seen  or  heard  by  any  man  at  the 
same  instant  of  time,  those  which  made  the  deepest  impres- 
sion are  distinctly  remembered  long  after  all  traces  of  the 
others  have  been  effaced  from  the  memory.  It  will  also  be 
allowed,  that  of  a  number  of  people  witnessing  the  same 
remarkable  event,  some  will  be  most  forcibly  itujiressed  by 
one  circumstance,  and  others  by  a  circumstance  which, 
tliough  equally  connected  with  the  principal  event,  is,  con- 
sidered by  itself,  perfectly  different.  The  miracles  of  our 
blessed  Lord  were  events  so  astonishing,  that  they  must 
have  made,  on  the  minds  of  all  who  witnessed  tliem,  im- 
pressions too  deep  to  be  ever  effaced;  though  the  circum- 
stances attending  each  iniracle  must  have  affected  the  different 
spectators  very  differently,  so  as  to  have  made  impressions, 
some  of  them  equally  indelible  with  the  miracle  itself,  on 
the  mind  of  one  man;  whilst  by  another,  whose  mind  was 
completely  occupied  by  the  principal  event  itself,  these  very 
circumstances  may  have  been  hardly  observed  at  all,  and  of 
course  been  soon  forgotten. 

"  That  this  is  a  matter  of  fact  which  occurs  daily,  every 
man  may  convince  himself  by  trying  to  recollect  all  the  par- 
ticulars of  an  event  which  powerfully  arrested  his  attention 
many  years  ago.  He  will  find  that  his  recollection  of  the 
event  itself,  and  of  many  of  the  circumstances  which  attended 
it,  is  as  vivid  and  distinct  at  this  day  as  it  was  a  month  after 
the  event  occurred ;  whilst  of  many  other  circuinstances, 
which  he  is  satisfied  must  have  accompanied  it,  he  has  but  a 
very  confused  and  indistinct  recollection,  and  of  some,  no 
recollection  at  all.  If  the  same  man  take  the  trouble  to  in- 
quire of  aqy  friend  who  was  present  with  him  when  he  wit- 
nessed the  event  in  question,  he  will  probably  find  that  his 
friend's  recollection  of  the  principal  event  is  as  vivid  and 
distinct  as  his  own  ;  that  his  friend  recollects  likewise  many 
of  the  accompanying  circumstances  which  were  either  not 
observed  by  himself,  or  have  now  wholly  escaped  from  his 
memory ;  and  that  of  the  minuter  circumstances,  of  which 
he  has  the  most  distinct  recollection,  his  friend  remembers 
hardly  one.  That  such  is  the  nature  of  that  intellectual 
power  by  which  we  retain  the  remembrance  of  past  events,  I 
know  from  experience ;  and  if  there  be  any  man  who  has 
never  yet  made  such  experiments  on  himself,  let  him  make 
them  immediately,  and  I  am  under  no  apprehension,  that,  if 
they  be  fairly  made,  the  result  will  not  be  as  I  have  always 
found  it.  Let  it  be  remembered,  too,  as  a  universal  fact,  or 
a  law  of  huiTian  nature,  as  certainly  as  gravitation  is  a  law. 
of  corporeal  nature,  that  in  proportion  as  the  impression  made 
on  the  mind  by  the  principal  object  in  any  interesting  scene 
is  strong,  those  produced  by  the  fess  important  circumstances 
are  weaK,  and  therefore  liable  to  be  soon  'effaced,  or,  if  re- 
tained  at  all,  retained  faintly  and  confusedly ;  and  that  when 
the  impression  made  by  the  principal  object  is  exceedingly 
strong,  so  as  to  fill  the  mind  completely,  the  unimportant 
circumstances  make  no  impression  whatever,  as  has  been  a 
hundred  times  proved  by  the  hackneyed  instance  of  a  man 
absorbed  in  thought  not  hearing  the  sound  of  a  clock  when 
striking  the  hour  beside  him.  If  these  facts  be  admitted  (and 
I  cannot  suppose  that  any  reflecting  man  will  call  them  in 
question),  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  ht/po- 
theses,'to  account  either  for  that  degree  of  harmony  wbich 
prevails  among  the  first  three  evangelists,  when  recording 
the  miracles  of  our  blessed  Lord,  or  for  the  discrepancy  whicn 
is  found  in  what  they  say  of  the  order  in  .which  those  mira- 
cles were  performed,  or  of  the  less  important  circumstances 
accompanying  the  performance.  In  every  one  of  them  the 
principal  object  was  our  Lord  himself,  whose  powerful  voice 
the  winds  and  waves,  and  even  the  devils,  obeyed.  The 
power  displayed  by  him  on  such  occasions  must  have  made 
so  deep  an  impression  on  the  minds  of  all  the  spectators  as 
.never  to  be  effaced;  but  whether  one  or  two  demoniacs  were 
restored  to  a  sound  mind  in  the  land  of  the   Gadarenes;- 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


393 


whether  one  or  two  blind  men  miraculously  received  their 
sifrht  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jericho;  and  whether  tliat  mi- 
racle was  performed  at  one  end  of  the  town  or  at  the  olhcr, 
are  circumstances  which,  when  compared  with  the  miracles 
themselves,  are  of  so  little  importance,  as  may  easily  be 
supposed  to  have  made  but  a  slijrjit  impression  on  the  minds 
of  even  some  of  tlie  most  attentive  observers,  whose  whole 
attention  liad  been  directed  to  l\w.  principal  object,  and  by 
whom  these  circumstauc(!s  would  he  soon  for<>ott('n,  or,  if 
remembered  at  all,  remenilxrcd  confusrdly.  To  the  ord(,'r 
of  time  in  which  the  miracles  were  perftjrmed,  the  evange- 
lists appear  to  hav<^  paid  very  little  regard,  but  to  have  re- 
cordecl  tliem,  as  Boswell  records  many  of  the  sayings  of 
Johnson,  without  marking  tlmir  dates;  or  as  Xenophon  has 
recorded  the  memorabilia  of  Socrates  in  a  work  which  has 
been,  in  this  respect,  compared  to  the  Cjios])els."' 

With  respect  to  the  doctrines  of  our  Lord,  it  should  be 
recollected  tliat  the  sacred  historians  are  labouring  to  report 
with  accuracy  the  speeches  and  discourses  of  another;  in 
which  case  even  common  historians  would  endeavour  to 
preserve  the  exact  sense,  and,  as  far  as  their  memory  would 
serve  them,  the  same  words.  "  In  seeking  to  do  this,"  says 
the  late  eminently  learned  Bishop  of  London  (Dr.  Randolph), 
"  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  tliat  two  or  three  writers  should 
often  fall  upon  verbal  agreement:  nor,  on  the  contrary,  if 
they  write  independently,  that  they  should  often  miss  of  it, 
because  their  memory  would  often  fail  them.  With  regard 
to  the  sacred  writers,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  them  studious 
of  this  very  circumstance;  and  we  have  also  reason  to  think, 
that  they  had  assistance  from  above  to  the  same  effect :  and  yet 
it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  either  their  natural  faculty, 
or  the  extraordinary  assistance  vouchsafed  them,  or  both, 
should  have  brought  them  to  a  perfect  identity  throughout; 
because  it  was  not  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  Providence, 
and  because  it  would  have  affected  their  character  of  original 
independent  witnesses.  Let  me  add,  that  these  discourses, 
before  they  were  committed  to  writing  by  the  evangelists, 
must  have  been  often  repeated  amongst  the  apostles  in  teach- 
ing others,  and  in  callinor  them  to  remembrance  among 
themselves.  Matthew  had  probably  often  heard  and  known 
how  his  fellow-labourers  recollected  the  same  discourses 
which  he  had  selected  for  his  own  preaching  and  writing. 
We  know  not  how  much  intercourse  they  had  with  each 
other,  but  probably  a  great  deal  before  they  finally  dispersed 
themselves.  Marlt  and  Luke  had  the  same  opportunities, 
even  if  they  were  not  original  eye-witnesses.^  1  admit,  thai, 

«  Bp.  Gleig's  edition  of  Slaclthouse's  History  of  the  Bible,  vol.  iii.  p.  lOJ. 

»  "  As  no  two  human  niimls  ever  proceed  with  an  exact  parallelism  of 
ideas,  or  suggest  an  unvaried  flow  of  the  same  words,  so  in  reporting  these 
things,  witU  all  their  care,  the  evangelists,  like  other  men,  made  some 
minute  variations.  Substantially,  their  accounts  are  the  same,  and  bespeak 
the  same  origin ;  namely,  truth,  reality,  and  correct  representation.  Inspi- 
ration was  doubtless  a  further  guarantee  for  this  substantial  agreement, 
though  it  went  not  to  the  Icngtii  of  suggesting  word.-^.  In  little  matters,  there- 
fore, they  vary,  so  that  one  reports  the  same  fact  rather  more  fully,  an- 
other more  concisely ;  one  preserves  more  of  our  Lord's  words,  auolber 


of  a  common  document ,-  but  that  document  was  iw  other  than 

the  PREACHING    OK    OIJH    BLESSED  LoRD    HIMSELF.       lie  Was  the 

irreat  Prototype.  In  looking  up  to  him,  the  Jluthor  of  their 
faith  and  mission,  and  to  the  very  words  in  which  he  was  wont 
to  dictate  to  them  {which  not  only  yet  sounded  in  their  ears,  but 
were  also  recalled  by  the  aid  of  his  Holy  Spirit  promised^  for 
that  very  purpose"),  they  have  given  us  three  Gospels,  often 
agreeing  in  words,  though  not  without  much  diversification,  ana 
always  in  sense." ^ 

To  this  powerful  reasoning  we  can  add  nothing:  pro- 
tracted as  this  discussion  has  unavoidably  been,  the  import- 
ance of  its  subjects  must  be  the  author's  apology  for  the 
length  at  wiiich  the  preceding  questions  have  been  treated; 
because  tlie  admission  of  eitiier  the  copying,  documentary, 
or  traditionary  hypotheses  is  not  only  detrimental  to  the 
character  of  the  sacred  writers,  but  also  diminishes  the  value 
and  importance  of  their  testimony.  "  Thoy  seem  to  think 
more  justly,"  said  that  eminent  critic  Le  Clerc,  "  who  say 
that  the  first  tiiree  evangelists  were  unacquainted  with  each 
other's  design :  thus  greater  weight  accrues  to  their  testi- 
mony. When  witnesses  agree,  who  have  previously  con- 
certed together,  they  are  suspected :  but  those  witnesses  are 
justly  credited  who  testify  the  same  thing  separately,  and 
without  knowing  what  others  have  said."* 

fewer ;  one  subjoins  a  reason  or  an  explanation,  which  another  did  not 
feel  to  be  necessary ;  and  thus,  we  may  be  assured,  would  three  of  the 
most  correct  observers,  and  scrupulously  exact  reporters  in  the  world  do 
always,  if  they  separately  related  what  tliey  had  seen  or  heard  the  very 
day  before.  Probably  each  would  do  so  if  lie  twice  related,  in  conversa- 
tion only,  the  very  same  transactions  or  discourses.  Our  daily  experience 
may  prove  this  to  us.  Narrations  of  the  same  facts,  or  of  the  same  dis- 
courses, always  ditTer  from  each  other;  generally,  indeed,  more  than 
they  ought  to  differ;  from  carelessness,  inaccuracy,  or  the  love  of  embel- 
lishment. But  setting  these  causes  aside,  they  still  must  differ.  One  per- 
son will  relate  rather  more,  another  rather  less,  of  the  facts  or  words;  one 
will  try  to  explain  as  he  goes,  another  to  illustrate  ;  and  the  expressions 
used  will  always  savour,  more  or  less,  of  the  habitual  mode  of  discourse 
peculiar  to  the  individual.  But  in  reporting  speeches,  the  more  care  is 
taken  to  preserve  the  very  words  of  the  speaker,  the  less  there  will  be,  in 
that  part,  of  the  usual  difference  of  expressions.  Still,  something  there 
will  always  remain,  because,  however  careful  a  man  may  be  to  describe 
or  imitate  another,  he  is  never  able  to  put  ofT  himself.  This,  then,  is  the 
correct  view,  and  I  hesitate  not  to  say,  the  only  correct  view,  of  the  resem- 
blances and  dilferences  in  the  Gospels.  They  agree  as  narratives  will 
agree,  whose  common  model  is'the  truth.  They  differ  as  distinct  narratives 
will  always  differ,  while  men  are  men ;  but  they  neither  agree  nor  differ 
as  copied  narratives  would,  for  the  reasons  already  assigned."  Mr.  Arch- 
deacon Nares's  Veracity  of  the  Evangelists  demonstrated,  pp.  171—174. 
In  pp.  175,  176.  297—301.  the  coincidence  and  difference  of  the  evangehsts 
are  appositely  illustrated  by  harmonized  tables  of  the  parable  of  the  sower, 
and  of  St.  Paul's  two  narratives  of  his  own  conversion,  and  the  historical 
narrative  of  St.  Luke. 

»  John  xiv.  26. 

«  "Remarks  on  Michaelis's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,"  p.  32. 
et  seq.    See  also  Bishop  Gleig's  edition  of  Stackhouse,  vol.  iii.  pp.  105—112. 

»  Multo  rectiiis  sentire  videntur,  qui  evangelistas  tres  priores  scripsisse' 
suas  historias  censent,  cflm  neuter  aliorum  consilii  conscius  esset  unde 
etiam  eorum  testimonio  majus  accedit  pondus.  Cum  enim  conse'ntiunt 
testes,  qui  inter  se  capita  contulerunt,  suspecti  potiiis  habentur :  sed  testes 
qui  idem  testantur  seorsim,  nescii  aliorum  testiraonii,  raerito  verumdicere 
videntur.— Joannis  Phereponi  [i.  e.  Le  Clerc]  Animadversiones  in  Augus- 
tini  Librumde  Consensu  Evangeliorum.  Appendix  Augustiniana,  p.  532. 
Antverpiae  1703.  folio. 


Vol.  II. — App. 


3D 


No.  II. 
TABLES  OF  WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  MONEY, 

MENTIONED    IN    THE    BIBLE. 


Extracted  chiefly  from  the  Second  Edition  of  Dr.  ArbuthnoVs  Tables  of  Ancient  Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures. 


[Referred  to  in  page  189.  of  this  Volume.] 


1.  Jewish  Weights  reduced  to  English  Troy  Weight. 


The  gerah,  one-twentieth  of  a  shekel 
Bekah,  half  a  shekel 

The  shekel 

The  maneh,  60  shekels 

The  talent,  50  maneh  or  3000  shekels 


lbs.  oz.  pen.    gv, 
"     "     "     12 


0    0  0 

0    0  5 

0    0  9 

2    3  6 

113  10  1 


0 

lOf 
101 


2.  Scripture  Measures  of  Length  reduced  to  English  Measure. 


A  digit 

4  I  A  palm 

A  span 


12 


24  I 


96  I    24 


144  I    36 


192  I    48 


1920  I  480 


3  I  A  cubit 
6  I    2  I  A  fathom 
12  I    6  I  1^  I  Ezekiel's  reed 

An  Arabian  pole 


16 


2  1   n 


160  I  80  I  20  I  13j^  I  10  I 


A  schoenus  or  mea- 
suring line 


Eng. 

feet.  in.  dec. 

0  0  912 
0  3  648 

0  10  944 

1  9  888 
7  3  552 

10  11  328 

14  7  104 

145  11  004 


3.  The  long  Scripture  Measures. 


A  cubit 


Eng. 
miles,  paces,  ft.     dec. 


400  I  A  stadium  or  furlong 
2000  I      5  I  A  sabbath-day's  journey 
4000  I     10  I    2  I  An  eastern  mile 
12000  I    30  I    6  I    3  I  A  parasang 


96000  I  240  I  48  I  24  I  8  I  A  day's  journey  . 


0  0 

0  145 

0  729 
1 
4 

33  172 


824 

6 

0 


403    1    0 

153    3    0 

4    0 


4.  Scripture  Measures  of  Capacity  for  Liquids,  reduced  to 
English  Wine  Measure, 


A  caph 

W\  A  log 

5.',        4  I  A  cab 


16  I    12  I      3  I  A  hin       . 
32  I    24  I      6  I    2  I  A  seah 


96  I    72  I    18  I    6  I    3  I  A  bath  or  ephah  .     . 
060"!  720  I  180  I  60  I  30  I  10  I  A  Itor  or  toros,  chomer  or  homer    75 


gal.  pints. 

0 

Of 

0 

0* 

0 

H 

1 

2 

2 

4 

7 

4 

75 

5 

5.  Scripture  Measures  of  Capacity  for  dry  TTiings,  reduced  to 
English  Corn  Measure. 


Agachal 


20  I  A  cab 


pecks,  gal. 

0     0 
0 


36  I     1^1  An  omer  or  gomer 


120 


6  I    3^  I  A  seah 


360  I  18  I  10  I  3  I  An  ephah 
1800  I  90  I  50  I  15  I  5  I  A  letech 


3600  I  180  I  100  I  30  I  10  I  2  I 


pints. 

0-1-7- 
"l20 

H 
1 

3 
0 
1 


6.  Jewish  Money  reduced  to  the  English  Standard. 

£     s.     d. 

A  gerah 0    0  ly^V 

10  I  A  bekah 0    1  1J.1. 

20  I        2  I  A  shekel 0    2  3§ 

1200  I    120  I      50  I  A  maneh,  or  mina  Hebraica       5  14  0| 

60000  I  6000  I  3000  j  60  |  A  talent       .        .        .      342    3  9 


£  s.  d. 

0  12  0§ 

1  16  e" 

3  2  6 

A  talent  of  gold  was  worth      .        .        .        .        .       5475  0  0 


A  solidus  aureus,  or  sextula,  was  worth 

A  siclus  aureus,  or  shekel  of  gold,  was  worth 

A  pound,  or  mina 


7.  Roman  and  Greek  Money,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
reduced  to  the  English  Standard. 


A  mite  (Asa-TOw  or  Ao-o-apiov) 

A  farthing  (KoJpawT^s)  about 
A  penny,  or  denarius  (A>(v«ptoi/) 


£  s.  d.  far. 

0  0  0  O3V 

0  0  0  li 

0  0  7  3 


In  the,  preceding  table,  silver  is  valued  at  5s.  and  gold  at  £4  per 


394 


No.  III. 
A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

OF    THE 

PRINCIPAL  EVENTS  RECORDED  IN  THE  BIBLE. 


PART  L 

Jl  Table  (if  the  nio.if  Remarkable  Events  comprised  in  the  Old  Testament,  abridged  from  Archbishop  Vshfm  and  Father 
(/ALMET,  tdsxcthcr  with  the  corrc.sjxmdiinj;  Dritis  adopted  hi/  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hales  in  his  ^^  New  Analysis  uf  Chrunology"  and 
by  the  Jiig/U  llcv.  Dr.  (jLEIg,  in  his  new  Edition  of  iStackliouse's  History  of  t lie  Bibk. 

*^*  The  true  Date  of  the  Birth  of  Christ  is  four  years  before  the  common  JEra,  or  A.  D. 


100 
101 
201 
230 
4:!5 
iViti 
7'.'; 
!),•,() 
W-li 
12S7 
1471 

9:)() 

MH' 

1142 

lC>5(i 

V.IM 

\W.U 

1()90 

1922 

il3f. 


„/  (Ac 


3 
4 

128 
130 
235 
32;') 
3'.).-) 
4f.(i 
C22 
t>87 
871 
930 
987 
1042 
10.')f) 
1110 
123.0 
1290 
1422 
1530 


2227 
2348 


1G51 
1G5G 


Period  I. 
From  t/ie  Creation  to  the  Deluge. 

The  creation 

ICve,  tempted  by  the  serpent,  disobeys  God, 
and  persuades  her  luishand  Adam  to  diso- 
bedience also.  God  drives  them  out  of  pa- 
radise. 

Cain  born,  Adam's  eldest  son. 

Abel  born,  Adam's  second  son. 

Cain  kills  his  brother  Abel. 

Soih  born,  son  of"  Adam  and  Eve. 

Kiios  born,  son  of  Seth. 

Caiiian  born,  son  of  Enos. 

.Miiluilalt'ol  born,  son  of  Cainan. 

.lared  born,  son  of  Mahalaleel. 

I'liioeh  born,  son  of  Jared. 

iMethuselah  born,  .son  of  Enoch. 

Lamech  born,  son  of  Methuselah. 

Adam  dies,  aged  930  years. 

I'.noch  translated  :  he  had  lived  365  years. 

Spih  dies,  aged  912  years. 

Noah  born,  son  of  Lamech. 

I'uos  dies,  aged  905  years. 

Cainan  dies,  aged  910  years. 

Mahalaleel  dies,  aged  895  years. 

Jared  dies,  aged  9G2  yeare. 

God  informs  JNoah  of  the  future  deluge,  and 
commissions  him  to  preach  repentance  to 
mankind,  120  years  before  the  deluge. 

Lamech  dies,  the  father  of  JNoah,  aged  777 
years. 

Methuselah  dies,  the  oldest  of  men,  aged  909 
years,  in  the  year  of  the  deluge;  and  the 
same  year,  Noah,  being  600  years  old,  by 
divine  command  eaters  the  ark. 


before 
Christ 
4000 
be  J  or  t 
A.D. 

4004 


.5311 
5310 
.5210 


3998 
3997 
13870 
3874  5181 
3709:4990 
i()79[l780 
3009  1(")10 
3511:1151 


3382 
3317 
3130 
3074 
3017 


lGo7 


1G58 


225S 
2393  1093 
252311723 


20)57 
2797 
2857 

2857 


2787 
2919 
3049 
3128 
3198 
200t^ 
3258 


r 

1770 
1770 

1771 


r 

1P19 
1849 
1878 
1948 
200C 
2008 


2902  420.9 
294837.55 
2804  1071 
2709  3877 


Period  II. 
From  the  Deluge  to  the  Birth  of  Abraham. 

Xoah  and  his  family  quit  the  Ark.  lie  oflen 
sacrifices  of  thanksgiving,  (iod  appoints  the 
rainlxjvv  as  a  pledge  that  he  would  send  no 
more  an  universal  deluge. 

.\rphaxad  born,  the  son  of  Shcm. 

Salah  born,  son  of  Arphaxad. 

Heber  born,  son  of  Salali. 

I'lialeg  born,  son  of  Ileber. 

The  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel. 

The  confusion  of  languages,  and  dispersion  of 
the  nations. 

The  beginning  of  the  Babylonian  or  Assyrian 
monarchy  by  Nimrod ;  and  of  the  Egyptian 
empire  by  Ham  the  father  of  Mizraim.  . 

The  trial  of  Job,  according  to  Dr.  Hales,  took 
place 

Rcu  bom,  the  son  of  Phaleg. 

Scrug  bom,  son  of  Reu. 

\ahor  born,  son  of  Serug. 

Tcrah  born,  the  son  of  IVahor. 

Haran  born,  the  son  of  Terah. 

Xoah  dies,  aged  950  years. 

.\bram  bom,  the  son  of  Terah. 


5411 


4289 
4124 
3937 
4481 
3914 


14 

2582 
2468 


2353 
2349 


3721 
3489 
3275 


3184 
3155 


2347 


234G 
2311 
2281 
2247 
2234 


2233 


3154 


3153 
3018 
2888 
2754 
2614 
2554 

2554 


3208 
3318 


3333 


3334 


year 
o/  the 
World 


2018 
2083 


2083 


2084 


33412091 


2130 

221 

2185 

2155 

2126 

2056 

1998 

19% 


2337 
2624 
2492 
2302 
2283 
2213 
2805 
2153 


3344 


3357 


3358 
3383 


3398 
3418 


2094 


2107 


2108 
2133 


2148 
2168 


3438  2186 
349512245 


3526  2276 


3539 


3683 


3723 


3763 


Period  III. 

From  the  Birth  of  Abraham  to  the  Depar 
ture  of  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt,  and 
their  Return  into  the  Land  of  Canaan 

Sarai  bom,  wife  of  Abram.  iggO 

The  call  of  Abram  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  to  1917 
Haran  in   Mesojwtamia,  where  his   father 
Terah  died,  aged  205  years. 

The  second  call  of  Abram  from  Haran. — He  1921 
comes  into  Canaan  with  Sarai  his  wife,  and 
Lot  his  nephew;  and  dwells  at  Sichem. 

Abram  goes  into  Egypt;   Pharaoh  takes  his  1920 
wife,  but  soon  restores  her  again.     Abram 
returns  from  Egypt;  he  and  Lot  separate. 

Abram's  victory  over  the  five  kings,  and  rescue  1913 
of  Lot. 

Sarai  gives  her  maid  Hagar,  for  a  wife,  to  her  1910 
husband  Abram. 

Ishmael  born,  the  son  of  Abram  and  Hagar. 
Abram  was  86  years  old.  (Gen.  xvi.  16.) 

The  new  covenant  of  the  Lord  with  Abraham.  1897 
(Gen.  xvii.) 

Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  and  Zeboim,  burnt 
by  fire  from  heaven.  Lot  is  preserved ;  re- 
tires to  Zoar;  commits  incest  with  his  daugh- 
ters. 

Abraham  departs  from  the  plains  of  Mamre  to  1896 
Beer-sheba.    Isaac  born. 

Abraham  offers  his  son  Isaac  for  a  burnt-offer-  1871 
ing. 

Sarah  dies,  aged  127  years. 

Isaac  marries  Rebekah. 

Jacob  and  Esau  born,  Isaac  being  60  years  old. 

Abraham  dies,  aged  175  years. 

Isaac  blesses  Jacob,  who  withdraws  into  Me^ 
sopotamia,  to  his  uncle  Laban ;  and  marries 
first  Leah,  and  then  Rachel. 

Joseph,  being   17  years  old,  tells  his  father 
Jacob  his  brethren's  faults;  they  hate  him, 
and  sell  him  to  strangers,  who  take  him  into 
Egypt.    Joseph  sold  again,  as  a  slave,  to 
Poiiphar. 
2289  Pharaoh's  dreams  explained  by  Joseph,  who  is 
made  govemor  of  Egypt 
354812298  Joseph's  ten  brethren  come  into  Eg\'pt  to  buy 
com.   Joseph  imprisons  Simeon. — -His  breth- 
ren return;  Joseph  discovers  himself,  and 
engages  them  to  come  into  Egypt  with  their 
father  Jacob,  then  130  years  old. 
2433  A  revolution  in  Egypt.    The  Israelites  perse- 
cuted. 

Moses  bom ;  exposed  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile ; 
and  found  by  Pharaoh's  daughter,  who 
adopts  him. 
2473  Moses  kills  an  Egyptian;  flees  into  Midian; 
marries  Zipporah,  the  daughter  of  Jethro: 
has  two  sons  by  her,  Gershon  and  Eliezer. 

Accord  in"^  to  archbishop  Usher,  the  trial  of 
Job  took  place 
2513  Moses,  commissioned  by  God,  retums  into 
Egypt.  Pharaoh  refuses  to  set  the  Israelites 
at  liberty.  Moses  inflicts  ten  plagues  on 
Egypt ;  after  w  hich  the  Israelites  are  libe- 
rated. 

395 


Viar 
before 
Clirul 
4004 
before 

l.D. 


1858 

1836 
1818 
1759 


1728 


1715 
1706 


1571 


1531 


1520 
1491 


2143 
2093 


2078 

2077 

2070 
2067 

2054 


2053 
2028 


2013 
1993 
1973 
1916 


1885 


1872 
1863 


1728 


1688 


1648 


396 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


Dr.H. 

3763 


3764 
3765 


3803 


3803 


3804 
3811 


A.  M. 

2513 


2514 
2515 


2553 


2553 


2554 
2561 


Pharaoh  pursues  the  Israelites  with  his  army, 
and  overtakes  them  at  Fi-hahiroth.  Tlie 
waters  divided.  Israel  goes  througli  on  dry 
ground.  Ttie  Egyptians  drowned ;  21st  ol' 
the  first  month. 

The  delivery  ol"  the  law,  with  various  circum- 
stances ol  terror,  &c. 

The  people  resolve  on  entering  Canaan,  but 
are  repulsed  by  the  Amaleliites  and  the 
Canaanites.  Establishment  ol"  the  priest- 
hood, &c. 

The  sedition  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram, 
is  supposed  to  have  happened  about  this 
time. 

The  Israelites  enter  Canaan. 

The  death  of  Moses,  who  is  succeeded  by 
Joshua 

Joshua  sends  spies  to  Jericho. 


Period  IV. 

From  the  Return  of  the  Israelites  into  the 
Land  of  Canaan  to  the  Establishment  of 
the  Regal  State. 

The  people  pass  the  river  Jordan. — Joshua 
restores  circumcision. — Jericho  taken. — The 
Gibeonites  make  a  league  with  Joshua. — 
War  of  the  five  kings  against  Gibeon,  whom 
Joshua  defeats;  the  sun  and  moon  stand 
still. 

War  of  Joshua  against  the  kings  of  Canaan ; 
conquest  and  division  of  that  country,  &e. 

Joshua  renews  the  covenant  between  the 
Lord  and  the  Israelites. — Joshua  dies,  aged 
110  years. 

After  his  death  the  elders  govern  about  eigh- 
teen or  twenty  years,  during  which  time 
happen  the  wars  of  Jiidah  with  Adoni- 
bezek. 


B.  C. 

Dr.H. 

Dr.H. 

A.  M. 

1491 

1648 

3849 

2599 

1490 

1647 

3985 

2469 

4045 

2519 

4189 

2663 

4259 

2723 

1451 

1608 

4341 

2745 

4343 

2747 

4351 

2755 

4361 

2785 

1451 

1608 

4375 

2819 

4381 

2825 

1451 

1609 

1443 

1582 

4391 

3001 

4421 

3029 

During  the  succeeding  anarchy  happened  the 
idolatry  of  iVIicah,  and  the  war  of  tiie  twelve 
tribes  against  Benjamin,  to  revenge  the  out- 
rage committed  on  the  wife  of  a  Levite. 

God  sends  his  prophets  in  vain  to  reclaim  the 
Hebrews.  He  permits,  therefore,  that  they 
should  fall  into  slavery  under  their  enemies. 

Deborah,  Barak,  and  others  judge  the  Israel- 
ites. 

Gideon  delivers  Israel. 

Under  his  judicature  God  raises  up  Samson. 

The  actions  of  Samson. 

The  birth  of  Samuel. 


Period  V. 

From  the  Establishment  of  the  Regal  State 
to  the  Sabylonish  Captivity, 

The  Israelites  ask  a  king  of  Samuel. — Saul  is 
appointed  and  consecrated  king. 

War  of  the  Philistines  against  Saul,  who,  hav- 
ing disobeyed  Samuel's  orders,  is  rejected 
by  God. 

Saul's  second  offence. 

David  succeeds  to  Saul  on  the  throne  of  Israel. 

Absalom's  rebellion  against  his  father  David 
quashed. — The  restoration  of  David. 

Adonijah  aspires  to  the  kingdom.  David 
causes  his  son  Solomon  to  be  crowned,  who 
is  proclaimed  king  by  all  Israel. 

The  death  of  David,  aged  70  years. 

Solomon  reigns  alone,  having  reigned  about 
six  months  in  the  lifetime  of  his  father  Da- 
vid.    He  reigned  in  all  40  years. 

The  temple  of  Solomon  finished,  being  seven 
years  and  a  half  in  building. — Its  dedication 

The  death  of  Solomon,  succession  of  Reho- 
boam,  and  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes.  Jero- 
boam the  son  of  Nebat  acluiowledged  king 
of  the  ten  tribes. 


1405 


Dr.H. 
1561 


1535 


1485 
1341 


1271 


1259 
1257 


1249 
1219 
1185 

1179 


1003 
971 


1366 
1222 


1152 


1110 
1108 


1100 
1070 
1036 

1030 


1020 
991 


Dr.H. 

4422 


4424 
4438 

4439 

4441 

4471 


A.  M. 

3030 

3032 
3046 

3047 

3049 

3064 


4482 


4514 
4515 


Kings  of  Judah,  for  388  years. 
Rehoboam,  intending  to  subdue  the  ten  tribes, 
is  commanded  to  Ibrbear. 


Rehoboam  gives  himself  up  to  impiety. 

Rehoboam  dies.  Abijam  succeeds  him;  reigns 
three  years. 

Abijam's  victory  over  Jeroboam;  who  loses 
many  thousands  of  his  troops. 

Abijum  dies.  Asa  succeeds  him,  and  sup- 
presses idolatiy  in  Judah. 

Asa  engages  Ben-hadad,  king  of  Syria,  to  make 
an  irruption  into  the  territories  of  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  to  force  Baasha  to  quit  his 
undertaking  at  Ramah. 


3090 


3107 
3108 


4517  3115 
4515  3117 


Death  of  Asa,  who  is  succeeded  by  Jehosha- 
phat.     He  expels  superstitious  worship. 


Elijah  removed  from  this  world  in  a  fiery  cha- 
riot. 

Jehoshaphat  accompanies  Ahab  in  his  expedi- 
tion against  Ramoih  Gilead ;  where  he  nar- 
rowly escapes  a  great  danger. 

Jehoshaphat  equips  a  fleet  for  Ophir;  Ahaziah 
king  of  Israel  partaking  of  the  design,  the 
fleet  is  destroyed  by  tempest. 


Jehoshaphat  dies ;  Jehoram  succeeds  him. 

Jehoram,  at  the  importunity  of  his  wife  Atha- 
liah,  introduces  into  Judah  the  worship  of 
Baal.  He  is  smitten  by  God  with  an  in- 
curable distemper  in  his  bowels ;  makes  his 
son  Ahaziah  viceroy,  or  associate  in  his 
kingdom.    Jehoram  dies. 


B.  c. 
970 


967 
954 

953 

951 

936 


910 


893 
892 


885 
884 


Dr.B. 
990 


987 
973 

972 

970 

940 


929 


897 
896 


904 
896 


Dr.H. 

4422 


4439 
4443 
4445 

4468 
4469 

4469 

4473 

4480 

4503 

4504 
4506 

4507 
4508 


A.  M. 

.3030 


3047 
3050 
3052 

3074 
3075 

3075 

3079 

3086 

3096 

3103 
3107 

3108 
3109 


Kings  of  Israel,  for  254  years. 
Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat,  the  first  king  of  Is- 
rael,  or  of  the  revolted  ten  tribes. — He  abo- 
lishes the  worship  of  the  Lord,  and  sets  up 
the  golden  calves. 


Jeroboam    overcome    by   Abijam,   who   kills 

500,000  men. 
Jeroboam  dies ;  Nadab  his  son  succeeds ;  reigns 

two  years. 
Nadab  dies ;  Baasha  succeeds  him. 


Baasha  dies ;  Elah  his  son  succeeds  him. 
Elah  killed  by  Zimri,  who  usurps  the  kingdom 

seven  days. 
Oniri  besieges  Zimri  in  Tirzah ;  he  burns  him 

self  in  the  palace. 
Omri  builds  Samaria ;  makes  it  the  seat  of  his 

kingdom. 
Omri  dies ;  Ahab  his  son  succeeds. 


The  prophet  Elijah  presents  himself  before 

Ahab,  and  causes  the  false  prophets  of  Baal 

to  be  slain. 
Gives  the  prophetic  unction  to  Elisha. 
Con-hadad  king  of  Syria  besieges  Samaria  ;  is 

forced  to  quit  it. 
Ahab  wars  against  Ramoth  Gilead ;  is  killed 

in  disguise.     Ahaziah  succeeds. 

Ahaziah,  falling  from  the  lattice  of  his  house, 
is  dangerously  wounded,  and  dies  ;  Jehoram 
his  brother  succeeds  him,  and  makes  war 
against  iVIoab. 

Elisha  foretells  victory  to  the  army  of  Israel, 
and  procures  water  in  abundance. 


B.  c. 
970 


Dr.H. 

990 


953 
950 
946 

926 
925 

925 

921 

914 

904 

901 

897 

896 
895 


972 
968 
966 


943 
942 

942 

938 

931 

908 

905 
900 

899 


CHROINOi.OGICAL  INDEX. 


397 


Dr.H. 
4515 

451G 

4522 
45G2 
45G3 

4591 

4G02 


4654 


4669 
4670 


4671 


A.  M. 

3117 
3120 

3126 
3104 
31G5 

3178 

3189 


3246 


3261 
3262 


3263 


4686  3278 


Kings  of  Juda/t. 

Ahaziah  reigns  but  one  year. 

Joa«h  or  Jelioash  born. 

Homer  the  Greek  [Kjut  flourishes. 

Alia/.iah  accompanies  Jehoram  king  of  Israel 

to  the  siege  oi°  Uamotii  Gilead.     lie  is  slain 

\}y  Jehu. 
Alhuliiih    kills   all   the   royal   family;   usurps 

iho    kingdom.     Jehoash   is    preserved   and 

kept  secretly  in  the  temple  six  years. 
Jehoiada  the  high-priest  sets  Jelioash  on  the 

throne  ui'Judah,  and  slays  Athaliah. 

Zechariah  tlie  high-priest,  son  of  Jehoiada, 
killed  in  the  temple  by  order  of  Jelioash. 

Ilaxael  king  of  Syria  wars  against  Jelioash. 

Ila/.ael  returns  against  Jelioash;  and  li)rces 
large  sums  from  him.  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  23.) 

Jehoosh  dies;  and  is  succeeded  by  Amaziah. 


Amaziah  wars  against  Jehoash  king  of  Israel 
is  defeated  by  him. 


Amaziah  dies;  Uzziah  or  Azariah  succeeds 

him. 
Isaiah  and  Amos  prophesy  in  Judah  under 

this  reign. 


Uzziah  dies  ;  Jotliam  his  son  succeeds. 
Isniali  sees  the  glory  of  the  Lord.   (Isa.  vi.) 
Isaiah  and  llosea  continue  to  prophesy. 


Rozin  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah  king  of  Israel, 
invade  Judah. 

Jotham  dies ;  Ahaz  succeeds  him.  Rezin  king 
of  Syria,  and  Pekah  king  of  Israel,  continue 
their  hostilities  against  Judah. 

Isaiah  foretells  to  Ahaz  the  birth  of  the  Mes- 
siah, and  a  speedy  deliverance  from  the 
two  kings  his  enemies.  Nevertheless,  the 
year  following  they  return  again  and  spwil 
his  country. 

.\haz  invites  to  his  assistance  Tiglath-pileser 
king  of  Assyria,  and  submits  to  pay  him 
tribute. 


Ahaz  king  of  Judah  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by 
his  son  Hezekiah,  w'ho  restores  the  worship 
of  the  Lord  in  Judtea,  which  Ahaz  had 
almost  entirely  subverted. 


B.  c. 

884 


879 


878 
836 


Dr.U. 

890 


895 


889 
849 


835   848 


822 


810 


754 


735 


722 


820 


809 


757 


742 
741 


740 


725 


Dr.H. 
4515 


4516 


4544 


4561 


1579 


4576 


4577 


4640 


J.  M. 

3119 


3120 


3148 


Kings  of  Israel. 
Samaria  besieged  by  Bcn-hadad  king  of  Syria. 

Ben-hadad    and  his   army,  seized  with   a 

panic,  flee  during  the  night. 
Elislia,  going  to  Damascus,  foretells  the  death 

of  Ben-hadad,  and  the  reign  of  llazacl. 

Jehoram  marches  with  .\liaziah  against  lia- 
molli  (iilead  ;  is  dangerously  wounded,  and 
carried  to  Jczreel. 

Jehu  rebels  against  Jehoram;  kills  him,  and 
usurjis  the  throne. 

Jehu  dies;  Jehoahaz  his  son  succeeds  him. 


4640 
4641 


4653 
4655 


4665 


3232 
3233 


3243 
3245 


3254 


4673 


4683 
4687 


4692 


3165  Jehoahaz  dies.  Joash,  or  Jehoash,  whom  he 
had  associated  with  himself  on  the  throne 
A.  M.  3102,  succeeds  him. 

3168  Ilnzacl  king  of  Syria  dies;  and  Ben-hadad 
succeeds  him. 
Jehoash  wars  against  Ben-hadad. 

3178  Jehoash  obtains  a  great  victory  over  Amaziah 
king  of  Judah. 

3179  Jehoash  king  of  Israel  dies;  Jeroboam  II.  suc- 
ceeds him. 

Jonah,  Ilosea,  and  Amos  in  Israel,  prophesy 
during  this  reign. 


3232 


3264 


3265 
3276 


3279 


Jeroboam  II.  dies ;  Zachariah  his  son  succeeds 

him. 

The  chronology  of  this  reign  is  very  per- 
plexed. 
Zachariah  killed  by  Shallum,  after  reigning 

six  months. 
Shallum  reigns  one  month;  is  killed  by  Me- 

nahem. 
Pul  (or  Sardanapalus)  king  of  Assyria  invades 

Israel ;    Menahem    becomes    tributary    to 

him. 
Menahem  dies ;  Pekahiah  his  son  succeeds. 
Pekahiah  assassinated  by  Pekah,  son  of  Re- 

maliah. 


Arbaces,  governor  of  Media,  and  Belesis,  go- 
vernor of  Babylonia,  besiege  Sardanapalus 
king  of  Assyria  in  Nineveh,  who,  after  a 
siege  of  three  years,  burns  himself  in  his 
palace,  with  all  his  riches.  ,\rbaces  is 
acknowledged  king  of  Media,  and  Belesis 
of  Babylon, 


Tiglath-pileser  defeats  and  slays  Rezin  king 
of  Damascus;  enters  the  land  of  Israel,  and 
takes  many  cities  and  captives,  chiefly 
from  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh.     The  first  captivity  of  Israel. 

Hoshea  son  of  Elah  slays  Pekah,  and  usurps 
the  kingdom. 

Shalmaneser  succeeds  Tiglath-pileser  king 
of  Nineveh. 


Hoshea  makes  an  alliance  with  So  king  of 
Egypt,  and  endeavours  to  shake  off  the 
yoke  of  Shalmaneser,  who  besiegess  Sama- 
ria; takes  it  after  three  years'  siege,  and 
carries  beyond  the  Euphrates  the  tribes 
that  Tiglatn-pileser  had  not  already  carried 
into  captivity ;  and  puts  an  end  to  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  after  it  had  subsisted  two 
hundred  and  fifty-four  years. 


881 


880 


852 

835 
822 

821 

820 


779    792 


768 
767 


757 
755 


746 


736 


735 
724 


721 


398 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


Dr.H.\A.  M. 

4696  3385 


4702 


3291 


4687 
4715 
4734 
4740 
4758 
4770 

4772 
4803 


4809 


4813 
4815 


3292 
3306 
3323 
3329 
3347 
3361 


3363 
3376 


3394 


3398 


3402 
3404 


4816 


3406 


4821 
4823 


3410 
3412 


4826 


3415 


Judah  alone. 

On  the  death  of  Shalmaneser,  Sennacherib 
succeeds  him,  and  invades  Judah,  and 
takes  several  cities. 

Hezekiah's  sickness  and  miraculous  cure. 
He  gives  money  to  Sennacherib,  who  still 
contniues  his  war  against  him.  He  sends 
Rabshakeh  to  Jerusalem,  and  marches  liim- 
self  against  Tiriialiah  king  of  Cush  or  Ara- 
bia. Returning  into  Judoea,  the  angel  oi' 
the  Lord  destroys  many  thousands  of  his 
army;  he  retires  to  ]\ineveh,  where  he  is 
slain  by  liis  sons. 

Esar-haddon  succeeds  Sennacherib. 

Micah  the  Morasthite,  and  Nahum,  prophesy. 

Hezekiah  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Manas- 
seh. 

Esar-haddon  becomes  master  of  Babylon;  re- 
unites the  empires  of  Assyria  and  Chaldaea. 

Manasseh  taken  by  the  Chalda;ans,  and  car- 
ried to  Babylon. 

The  war  of  Ilolofemes,  who  is  slain  in  Judaea 
by  Judith. 

Manasseh  dies.  He  returned  into  Judaea  a 
considerable  time  before,  but  the  period  is 
not  exactly  known;  Amon  succeeds  him; 
reigns  two  years. 

Amon  dies ;  Josiah  succeeds  him. 

Jeremiah  begins  to  prophesy,  in  the  thirteenth 
year  of  Josiah. 

Josiah  opposes  the  expedition  of  Necho  king 
of  Egypt  against  Carchemish,  is  mortally 
wounded,  and  dies  at  Jerusalem.  Jeremiah 
composes  lamentations  on  his  death. 

Jehoahaz  is  placed  on  the  tlirone  by  the  peo- 
ple; but  Necho,  returning  from  Carche- 
mish, deposes  him,  and  installs  Eliakim,  or 
Jehoiakim,  his  brother,  son  of  Josiah. 

Nebuchadnezzar  besieges  and  takes  Jerusa- 
lem; leaves  Jehoiakim  there,  on  condition 
of  paying  him  a  large  tribute.  Daniel  and 
his  companions  led  captive  to  Babylon. 

Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  a  great  statue 
explained  by  Daniel. 

Jehoiakim  revolts  against  Nebuchadnezzar, 
who  sends  an  army  from  Clialdaea,  Syria, 
and  Moab,  which  ravages  Judtea,  and 
brings  away  3023  Jews  to  Babylon,  in  the 
seventh  year  of  Jehoiakim. 

Cyrus  born,  son  of  Cambyses  and  Mandane. 

Jelioiakim  revolts  a  second  time  against  Ne- 
buchadnezzar;  is  taken,  put  to  death,  and 
cast  to  the  Ibwls  of  the  air. 

Jehoiachin  or  Coniah,  or  Jeconiah  succeeds 
liim.  Nebuchadnezzar  besieges  him  in 
Jerusalem,  and  takes  him,  alter  he  had 
reigned  tliree  months  and  ten  days.  He  is 
carried  to  Babylon,  with  part  of  the  people. 
Mordecai  is  among  the  captives. 

Zedekiah,  his  uncle,  is  left  at  Jerusalem  in 
his  place. 

Ezekiel  begins  to  prophesy  in  Chaldaea. 

Zedekiah  takes  secret  measures  with  the  king 
of  Egypt,  and  revolts  against  the  Chaldae- 
ans.  Nebuchadnezzar  marches  against  Je- 
rusalem; besieges  it;  quits  the  siege  to 
repel  the  king  of  Egypt,  who  comes  to  as- 
sist Zedekiah ;  returns  to  the  siege.  Jere- 
miah continues  prophesying  during  the 
whole  of  tlie  siege,  which  continued  almost 
three  years.  Ezekiel  also  describes  the 
same  siege  in  Chaldaea. 

Jerusalem  taken  on  the  ninth  day  of  the 
fourth  month  (July),  the  11th  year  of  Zede- 
kiah. Zedekiah,  endeavouring  to  flee  by 
night,  is  taken,  and  brought  to  Ribla,  to 
Nebuchadnezzar;  his  eyes  are  put  out,  and 
he  is  carried  to  Babylon. 

Jerusalem  and  the  temple  Inimt;  seventh  day 
of  the  fourth  month. 

The  Jews  of  Jerusalem  and  Judaea  carried 
captive  beyond  the  Euphrates;  the  poorer 
classes  only  left  in  the  land. 
Thus  ends  the  kingdom  of  Judaea,  after 
it    had   subsisted   four    hundred    and 
sixty-eight  years,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  David :  and  three  hun- 
dred and  eighty-eight  years  from  tlie 

I  separation  of  Judah  and  the  ten  tribes. 


B.C. 

Dr.H. 

Dr.B. 

A.  M. 

712 

lib 

706 

709 

4827 

3416 

4858 

3447 

4860 

3449 

705 

708 

4875 

3464 

694 

696 

677 

677 

4876 
4882 

3465 
3471 

671 

671 

489U 
4895 

3479 
3484 

653 

653 

4926 

3515 

4928 

3517 

639 

641 

4947 

353G 

4948 

3537 

4951 

3540 

637 

639 

4954 

3543 

4958 

3547 

606 

608 

4988 

3577 

4991 

3580 

602 

602 

598 

598 

596 

596 

4991 

3580 

4998 

3587 

5038 

3627 

5070 

3659 

595 

595 

5090 

3679 

5111 

3700 

5120 

3709 

5135 

3724 

5161 

3750 

5194 

3783 

5216 

3805 

5236 

3825 

590 

590 

5237 

3827 

5247 

3837 

5251 

3840 

5258 

3847 

5268 

3857 

5275 

3864 

5305 

3894 

588 

586 

5306 
5333 

3895 
3922 

5342 

3931 

5342 

3931 

5348 

39S7 

5371 

3900 

5373 

3963 

5411 

4000 

Period  VI. 

From  the  Babylonish  Captivity  to  JVehe- 
mialis  Reform. 

The  beginning  of  the  seventy  years'  captivity 
foretold  by  Jeremiah.  Gedaliah  made  go- 
vernor of  the  remains  of  the  people.  He  is 
slain. 

Median  and  Persian  Dynasty. 

Darius  the  Mede- 

Cyrus  the  Persian. 

Babylon  taken  by  Cyrus,  who  sets  the  Jews 

at  liberty,  and  permits  them  to  return  into 

Judaea  under  Zorobabel.     Joshua,  the  first 

high-priest,  in  the  same  year. 
The  second  temple  begun. 
Death  of  Cyrus;  Cambyses  reigns. 
Darius  Hystaspes. 
The  temple  finished. 
Death   of  Darius ;   Xerxes   succeeds   to  the 

throne. 
Jehoiakim  high-priest. 
Artaxerxes  succeeds  Darius. 
He  stops  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem. 
Artaxerxes  marries  Esther. 
He  sends  Ezra  to  Jerusalem,  with  several 

priests  and  Levites. 
Eliashib  high-priest. 
Nehemiah  governor  of  Judaea. 
Darius  Nothus. 

Nehemiah's  reform  among  the  Jews 
End  ol'  the  Old  Testament  canon. 


Period  VII. 

From  JVehemiah's  Reform  to  the  Birth  of 
John  the  Baptist. 

Persian  Dynasty. 

Jewish  High-priests. 

Eliashib. 
Joiada  or  Judas. 
Jonathan  or  John. 
Jaddua  or  Jaddus. 

Macedo-Grecian  Dynasty. 

Jewish  High-priests. 

Onias  I. 

Simon  the  Just. 

Eleazar. 

Manasses. 

Onias  II. 

Simon  II. 

Onias  III. 

Jesus  or  Jason. 

Onias  or  Menelaus. 

AsMONiEAN  Princes  or  Maccabees. 

Judas  Maccabaeus.  ^■ 

Jachim  or  Alcimus,  high-priest. 

Jonathan. 

He  is  appointed  high-priest. 

Simon. 

John  Hyrcanus. 

Aristobulus  and  Antigonus. 

Alexander  Jannaeus. 

Queen  Alexandra. 

Hyrcanus  II. 

Aristobulus  II. 

Roman  Dynasty. 

Pompey  takes  Jerusalem. 

Hyrcanus  II.  again. 

Antigonus. 

Idumaean  king,  Herod  the  Great. 

John  the  Baptist  born  six  months  before  the 
birth  of  Jesus  Christ. 
The  birth  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Clirisl  took  place  a.  m.  4000  according 
to  the  vulgar  era;  but  its  true  date  ac 
cording  to  Calmet  is  a.  m.  4004,  and 
A.  M.  5411  according  to  Dr.  Hales. 


B.  C. 

Dr.U. 

587 

586 

553 

553 

551 

551 

536 

536 

535 

535 

529 

529 

521 

521 

516 

516 

485 

485 

483 

483 

464 

464 

463 

463 

460 

460 

457 

457 

453 

453 

423 

423 

420 

420 

420 

420 

413 

413 

373 

373 

341 

341 

321 

321 

300 

300 

291 

291 

276 

276 

250 

250 

217 

217 

195 

195 

175 

175 

172 

172 

163 

163 

160 

160 

153 

153 

143 

143 

136 

136 

106 

106 

105 

105 

78 

78 

69 

69 

69 

69 

•63 

63 

40 

40 

37 

37 

4 

V  5 

CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


399 


PART  11. 

A  Tabk  of  the  Principal  Events  recorded  in  the  New  Testament,  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  ana 

the  Cumpktion  (f  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament. 


A.M. 

r.cf 
J.  c. 

ll.l.rr 

lilt 
miliar 
JEra. 

A.  M. 

r.of 

J.  V. 

A.  D. 

4000 

The  nativity  of  Jesus  Christ. 

The  circumcision,  purification,  and  presentation 

of  Christ  in  the  Icniplo. 
Archclaus,  Etlumrch  of  Judcca. 

1 

4 
3 

V.JE. 

A.n. 

4069 

Cestius  Callus  governor  of  Syria  comes  to  Jerusa- 
lem ;  enumerates  the  Jews  at  the  passover. 

Disturbances  at  Ceesarea,  and  at  Jerusalem. 

Floras  puta  several  Jews  to  death. 

The  Jews  rise,  and  kill  the  Roman  garrison  at 
Jerusalem. 

69 

66 

•1012 

Christ  visits  the  temple 

12 

8 

A  massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Caesarea  and  Palestine. 

4o:t2 

The  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist. 

32 

29 

All  the  Jews  of  Scythopolis  slain  in  one  night 

1033 

Tiio  baptism  and  temptation  of  Christ 

First  I'assoveu. — Clirist  purges  the  temple,  and 

proaclies  in  Juduja. — Imprisonment  of  John  the 

Baptist. 

33 

30 

Cestius  governor  of  Syria  comes  into  Judaea. 
He  besieges  the  temple  of  Jerusalem;  retires;  is 
defeated  by  the  Jews. 

The  Christians  of  Jerusalem,  seeing  a  war  about 

4034 

Seco.nd   Passovkr. — The   twelve    apostles    sent 
forth.    John  the  Baptist  beiioaded. 

34 

31 

to  break  out,  retire  to  Pella,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Agrippa,  beyond  Jordan. 

4035 

TniiiD  Passover. — Seventy  disciples  sent  forth. 

35 

32 

Vespasian  appointed  by  Nero  for  the  Jewish  war. 
Josephus  made  governor  of  Galilee. 

Transfiguration  of  Jesus  Ciirist. 

4036 

Fourth  Passover. — The  crucifixion,  death,  resur- 
rection, and  ascension  of  Christ 
Feast  of  Pentecost. — Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit 

36 

33 

Vespasian   sends   his    son  Titus   to   Alexandria; 
comes  himself  to  Antioch,  and  forms  a  numerous 
army. 

4037 

The  church  increased. 

37 

34 

4070 

Vespasian  enters  Judaja;  subdues  Galilee. 

70 

67 

4038 

Tlie  church  multiplied. 

38 

35 

Tiberias  and  Tariehea,  which  had  revolted  against 

403'J 

Tlio  martyrdom  of  Stephen. — First  Jewish  perse- 
cution of  the  church. 

39 

36 

Agrippa,  reduced  to  obedience  by  Vespasian. 
Divisions  in  Jerusalem. 

4040 

Conversion  of  Paul. 

The  Hebrew  Gospel  of  Matthew  probably  written 
about  this  time. 

40 

37 

The  Zealots  seize  the  temple,  commit  violences  in 
Jerusalem,  and  send  for  the  Idumsans  to  suc- 
cour Jerusalem. 

4044 

Herod  Agrippa,  king  of  Judsca. 

44 

39 

4071 

Vespasian  takes  all  the  places  of  strength  in  Judsea 

71 

68 

4047 

Second  Jewisli  persecution  of  the  church. 

47 

44 

about  Jerusalem. 

4()f>l 

Paul  imprisoned  at  Jerusalem. 

Gl 

58 

Simon  son  of  Gioras  ravages  Judaea  and  the  south 

40G3 

lie  is  sent  to  Rome,  and  shipwrecked  at  Malta. 

64 

61 

of  Idumaea. 

4064 

He  arrives  at  Rome,  and  continues  there  a  pri- 
soner two  years. 
The  General  Epistle  of  James,  and   the   Greek 

In  tliis  or  the  following  year  John  writes  his  three 
Epistles. 

4073 

Titus  marches  against  Jerusalem  to  besiege  it 
Comes  down  before  Jerusalem  some  days  before 

73 

70 

Gospel  of  Matthew  written  alwut  this  time. 

4065 

Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Philippians. 
Epistles  to  the  Colossians,  Ephesians,  and  Phile- 
mon. 
Martyrdom  of  James  the  Less,  bishop  of  Jerusalem. 

65 

62 

the  passover. 
The  factions  unite  at  first  against  the  Romans,  but 

afterwards  divide  again. 
The  Romans  take  the  first  enclosure  of  Jerusalem; 

4066 

Epislle  of  Paul  to  the  Hebrews,  written  from  Italy 

soon  after  he  was  set  at  liberty. 
Luke  writes  his  CJospel  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles in  tliis  or  tiie  following  year. 

66 

63 

then  the  second ;  they  make  a  wall  all  round 
the  city,  which  is  reduced  to  distress  by  famine. 
July   17.   The  perpetual  sacrifice  ceases   in   the 
temple. 

4066 

Epislle  of  Paul  to  Titus,  and  his  first  Epistle  to 

Timothy. 
Mark  writes  his  Gospel  about  tliis  time. 

66 

63 

The  Romans  become  masters  of  the  court  of  the 

Gentiles,  and  set  fire  to  the  galleries. 
A  Roman  soldier  sets  the  temple  on  fire,  notwith- 

4067 

Paul   comes  out  of  Italy  into  Judsea:  visits  the 
churches  in  Crete,  Ephesus,  Macedonia,  and 

67 

64 

standing  Titus  commands  the  contrary. 

The  Romans,  being  now  masters  of  the  city  and 

Greece. 

temple,  offer  sacrifices  to  their  gods. 

Peter  writes  his  first  Epistle,  probably,  from  Rome. 

The  last  enclosure  of  the  city  taken. 

4068 

Peter  writes  his  second  Epistle,  probably,  from 

Rome,  about  the  beginning  of  this  year. 
Several  prodigies  at  Jerusalem,  this  year,  during 

68 

65 

4074 

Titus  demolishes  the  temple  to  its  very  founda- 
tion. 

He  also  demolishes  the  city,  reserving  the  towers 
of  Hippicos,  Phazael,  and  Mariamne. 

74 

71 

the  pa.ssover. 

Paul  goes  to  Rome  the  last  lime ;  is  there  put  into 

Titus  returns  to  Rome  with  his  father  Vespasian; 

prison;  also  Peter. 

they  triumph  over  Judsea. 
John  banished  to  Patmos. 

Second  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Timothy. 

4098 

98 

95 

Tlie  Epislle  of  Judo  written  in  Ikis  or  the  follow- 

4100 

John  liberated  from  exile. 

100 

97 

ing  year. 

Jolin  writes  his  Gospel  and  Revelation  about  this 

4069 

The  martyrdom  of  Paul  and  Peter  at  Rome. 

69 

66 

time. 

Grotto  at  Nazarcili,  said  to  have  been  the  House  of  Joseph  and  Mary. 


No.  I. 

A  BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL 

INDEX 

OF   THE    PRINCIPAL    PERSONS,    NATIONS,    COUNTRIES,    AND    PLACES, 
MENTIONED    IN    THE    HOLY    SCRIPTURES. 


TTiis  Index  is  compiled  from  the  works  of  Calmct,  Reland,  Wells,  Chompri,  Gesenius,  Schleusner,  Robinson  (of  Andover,  N.  A.),  Serieys, 
Coquerel,  Machean,  Drs.  Wfiifhi/,  Hales,  ami  Parish,  M.  Ancinetil,  and  various  other  writers  and  commentators,  who  have  treated  on 
Sacred  History,  Biographij,  and  Geographi/ ;  and  also  from  Inc.  Travels  in  Palestine  and  Asia  Minor,  of  Bishop  Pococke,  the  Rev.  Dr. 
E.  D.  Clarke,  Lieutenant-colonel  Leake,  the  Hon.  Capt.  Ki'ppcl,  Captains  Irhy  and  Mangles,  the  Rev.  Messrs.  W.  Jowett,  Connor, 
Hartley,  and  Arandell,  Messrs.  liuckiughnm  and  Came,  and  of  Dr.  Rohert  Richardson,  who  explored  various  parts  of  the  East,  in 
company  u>ilh  the  Rl.  Hon.  the  Enrl  of  Bvluiore,  in  the  years  1816 — 1818.  Those  7taines  of  persons  and  places  only  are  omitted  which 
occur  but  seldom  in  the  Bible,  and  of  which  nothing  more  is  known  than  appears  in  the  passages  where  they  occur. 


AB 

Aaron,  the  son  of  Amram  and  Jochebed,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi 
(Exod.  vi.  20.),  was  born  three  years  before  his  brother  Moses. 
The  Scripture  is  sih'nt  respecting  every  thing  which  preceded  his 
call  to  be  the  spokesman  or  interpreter  of  Moses  before  Pharaoh, 
king  of  Egypt.  From  this  time  (the  eighty-third  year  of  his 
age),  Aaron  was  the  associate  of  Moses  in  all  the  transactions  of 
the  Israehtes,  until  his  death  on  Mount  Hor,  b.  c.  1452,  in  the 
hundred  and  twenty-third  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  fortieth 
yeiu  afler  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  (Num. 
xxxiii.  38,  39.)  Aaron  was  the  first  high-priest  of  the  Jews; 
and  was  succeeded  in  the  pontifical  olFicc  and  dignity  by  his  son 
Eleazar.  (Deut.  x.  (i.)  For  an  account  of  Aaron's  conduct  in 
the  allkir  of  the  golden  calf,  see  p.  136.  of  this  volume. 

An,  the  eleventh  month  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews,  and  the 
fifth  month  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  the  festivals  and 
fasts  observed  by  the  Jews  in  this  month,  see  p.  76, 

Abaduov  (Heb.),  or  Apolltox  (Gr.),  that  is,  the  Destroyer  : 
the  name  of  the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit.   (Rev.  ix.  11.) 

Abana  and  Phaupah,  two  rivers  of  Damascus,  mentioned  in 
2  Kin^s  V.  12.  The  valley  of  Damascus,  which  lay  between 
Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus,  was  watered  by  five  rivers,  of  which 
these  were  the  two  principal.  Both  descended  from  Mount  Her- 
mon.  The  Pharpar  flowed  by  the  walls  of  Damascus:  the 
Abana  flowed  through  the  city,  and  divided  it  into  two  parts. 
These  rivers  are  not  now  to  be  distinguished. 

Vol.— U  3E 


AB 

•    Abahim,  mountains  of,  notice  of,  31. 

Aedox,  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel ;  he  succeeded  Elon,  and 
governed  the  Israelites  eight  years.  He  had  forty  sons  and  thirty 
grandsons,  who  rode  on  seventy  asses.  He  was  buried  in  Pira- 
thon,  in  the  land  of  Ephraim.   (Judg.  xii.  1.3 — 15.) 

Abdox,  the  name  of  a  Levitical  city,  situated  in  the  canton 
allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Asher,  and  given  to  the  Levites  of  the 
family  of  Gershon. 

Abedsebo,  a  Chaldee  name,  given  by  the  king  of  Babylon's 
officer  to  Azariah,  one  of  Daniel's  companions.  He  was  thrown 
into  a  fiery  furnace,  with  Shadrach  and  Meshach,  for  refusing  to 
adore  the  statue  erected  by  the  command  of  Nebuchadnezzar ; 
but  both  he  and  his  companions  were  miraculously  preserved. 
(Dan.  iii.) 

Abel,  the  second  son  of  Adam,  and  the  ftrst  shepherd  :  he 
was  murdered  by  his  elder  brother  Cain,  through  envy  ;  because 
his  sacrifice,  offered  in  faith,  was  accepted  by  God,  being  (it  is 
supposed)  consumed  by  celestial  fire,  while  the  offering  of  Cain 
was  rejected.   (Gen.  iv.  2 — 8.     Heb.  xi.  4.) 

Abel,  the  name  of  several  cities  in  Palestine ;  viz. 

1.  Abel-beth-maachar,  or  Abel-maix,  a  city  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  canton  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  Hither  fled 
Shcba  the  son  of  Bichri,  when  pursued  by  the  forces  of  king 
David  ;  and  the  inhabitants,  in  order  that  they  might  escape  the 
horrors  of  a  siege,  cut  off  Sheba's  bead,  which  thev  threw  over 

401 


402 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


AB 


the  wall  to  Joab  (2  Sam.  xx.  14 — '22.)  About  eighty  years 
after,  it  was  taken  and  ravaged  by  Benhadad  king  of  Syria.  (1 
Kings  XV.  20.)  About  two  hundred  years  after  this  event,  it 
was  captured  and  sacked  by  Tiglath-pileser,  who  carried  the 
inhabitants  captive  into  Assyria.  (2  Kings  xv.  29.)  This  place 
was  subsequently  rebuilt ;  and,  according  to  Josephus,  became, 
under  the  name  of  Abii-a,  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Abi- 
lene.     ' , . 

2.  Abel-kehamim,  the  place  or  plain  of  the  vineyards  (Judg. 
xi.  33.),  a  village  of  the  Ammonites,  where  they  were  discom- 
fited by  Jephthah.  According  to  Eusebius,  it  abounded  in  his 
time  with  vineyards,  and  was  six  Romeui  miles  from  Rabbath 
Ammon. 

3.  Abel-mehoiah  was  the  native  country  of  Elisha.  (1  Kings 
xix.  16.)  It  could  not  be  far  from  Scythopolis.  (iv.  12.)  Euse- 
bius places  it  in  the  great  plain,  sixteen  miles  from  Scythopolis, 
south.  Not  far  from  hence,  Gideon  obtained  a  victory  over  the 
Midianites.   (Judg.  vii.  22.) 

4.  Abel-mishaim  (the  mourning  of  the  Egyptians)  was  for- 
merly called  the  floor  of  Atad.  (Gen.  1.  11.)  Jerome  and  some 
others  after  him  believe  this  to  be  the  place  afterwards  called 
Bethagla,  at  some  distance  from  Jericho  and  Jordan,  west. 

5.  Abel-shittim  was  a  town  in  the  plains  of  Moab,  beyond 
Jordan,  opposite  Jericho.  According  to  Josephus,  Abel-Shittim, 
or  Abela,  as  he  calls  it,  was  sixty  furlongs  from  Jordan.  Euse- 
bius says,  it  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount  Peor.  Moses 
encamped  at  Abel-Shittim  before  the  Hebrew  army  passed  the 
Jordan,  under  Joshua.  (Num.  xxxiii.  49.  xxv.  1.)  Here  the 
Israelites  fell  into  idolatry,  and  worshipped  Baal-Peor,  seduced 
by  Balak;  and  here  God  severely  punished  them  by  the  hands  of 
the  Levites.  (Num.  xxv.  1,  2,  &c.)  This  city  is  often  called 
Shittim  only.  (Antiq.  lib.  iv.  cap.  7.  and  v.  1.,  and  de  Bello,  lib. 
V.  cap.  3.) 

Abez,  a  town  in  the  canton  of  the  tribe- of  Issachar.  Josh, 
xix.  20. 

Abiah. — 1.  The  second  son  of  Samuel,  who  intrusted  to  him 
and  his  brother  Joel  the  administration  of  justice,  which  they 
executed  so  ill,  that  the  elders  of  Israel  came  to  the  prophet  and 
demanded  of  him  a  king.  (1  Sam.  viii.  2 — 5.) — 2.  A  priest  of 
the  posterity  of  Aaron,  and  the  founder  of  a  sacerdotal  family. 
When  all  the  priests  were  divided  into  twenty-four  classes,  the 
eighth  class  was  denominated  from  him  the  class  of  Abia.  (1 
Chron.  xxiv.  10.)  To  this  class  belonged  Zechariah,  the  father 
of  John  the  Baptist.   (Luke  i.  5.) 

Abiathah,  the  son  of  Abimelech,  the  tenth  high-priest  of  the 
Jews.  Escaping  from  the  massacre  of  the  priests  at  Nob,  he 
joined  the  party  of  David,  and  continued  in  the  pontificate  until 
the  reign  of  Solomon  :  by  whom  he  was  deprived  of  his  office, 
for  having  embraced  the  faction  of  Adonijah. 

Abib,  the  name  of  the  seventh  month  of  the  Jewish  civil 
year,  and  the  first  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  It  was  also  called 
Nisan.  For  an  account  of  the  fasts  or  festivals  occurring  in  this 
month,  see  p.  76. 

Abigail. — 1.  The  wife  of  Nabal,  of  Carmel ;  by  her  prudence 
and  address,  she  averted  the  wrath  of  David  against  her  husband, 
who  had  churlishly  refused  him  succours  during  his  distress  in 
consequence  of  the  persecutions  of  Saul.  On  the  death  of  Nabal, 
she  became  the  wife  of  David.  (1  Sam.  xxv.) — 2.  The  sister  of 
David.   (1  Chron.  ii.  16,  17.) 

Abihtj,  the  son  of  Aaron  and  Elisheba,  who  was  consumed, 
together  with  his  brother  Nadab,  by  a  flash  of  fire  sent  from  God, 
for  offering  incense  with  strange  fire,  instead  of  taking  it  from 
the  altar  of  burnt-offering.  (Lev.  x.  1,  2.)  This  severity  of  pun- 
ishment was  necessary  towards  the  first  transgressors  of  the 
divine  law,  in  order  to  deter  others  from  the  same  offence,  and  to 
increase  the  reverential  awe  of  the  Divine  Majesty.  It  would 
seem  that  Nadab  and  Abihu  were  betrayed  into  this  act  of  pre- 
sumption by  intemperance  at  the  feast  upon  the  feast-offerings  : 
for,  immediately  after,  and  in  consequence  of  their  fate,  Moses 
prohibited  the  priests  from  drinking  wine  and  strong  drink,  when 
they  approached  the  sanctuary.     (Mant  and  D'Oyly,  on  Lev.  x.) 

Abijah,  the  son  of  Jeroboam  I.  king  of  Israel,  a  young  prince 
of  promising  hopes,  who  is  supposed  to  have  shown  himself 
averse  from  his  father's  idolatry,  and  died  early.  ( 1  Kings  xiv.) 

Abijah,  or  Abijam,  the  son  and  successor  of  Rehoboam  king 
of  Judah.  He  reigned  thirty-three  years ;  a  wicked  prince,  who 
imitated  the  impiety  and  misconduct  of  his  father. 

Abijah,  the  name  of  the  wife  of  Ahaz,  and  the  mother  of 
Hezekiah  king  of  Judah. 


AC 

Abila.     See  Abel-betu-maachah. 

Abilene,  region  of,  18. 

Abimael,  the  name  of  a  descendant  of  Joktan.  (Gen,  x,  28. 
1  Chron.  i.  22.)  In  these  passages  he  and  his  brethren  probably 
represent  different  Arabian  tribes ;  though  no  name  has  yet  been 
discovered  in  the  Arabian  writers  which  clearly  corresponds  to 
Abimael. 

Abimelech,  a  common  appellative  of  the  Philistine  kings,  aa 
Pharaoh  was  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs.  Two  of  this  name  are 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  viz.  1.  Abimelech  kiiip;  of  Gerar, 
the  contemporary  of  Abraham.  Struck  with  the  beauty  of  Sarah, 
he  took  her  from  the  patriarch,  who  had  passed  her  as  his  sister, 
but  restored  her  in  consequence  of  a  divine  command.  (Gen. 
XX.) — 2.  Abimelech  II.  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  the  preceding, 
with  whom  Isaac  entered  into  an  alliance.   (Gen.  xxvi.) 

Abimelech,  the  son  of  Gideon  by  a  concubine.  After  his 
father's  death  he  took  possession  of  the  government ;  procured 
himself  to  be  acknowledged  king ;  and  afterwards  put  to  death 
all  his  brethren,  except  Jotham,  who  escaped  his  fury.  He  was 
himself  subsequently  wounded  at  Thebez  by  a  woman,  who 
hurled  a  piece  of  a  mill-stone  upon  his  head ;  and  indignant  at 
the  idea  of  perishing  by  the  hand  of  a  woman,  he  commanded 
his  armour-bearer  to  pierce  him  with  his  sword.   (Judg.  viii.) 

Abinadab. — 1.  A  Levite  of  Kirjath-jearim,  who  received  the 
ark  after  it  had  been  sent  back  by  the  Philistines.  It  continued 
in  his  house  until  David  sent  to  conduct  it  thence  to  Jerusalem. 
(1  Sam.  vii.  2.  2  Kings  vi.  3,  4.) — 2.  One  of  Saul's  sons  who 
perished  with  him  at  the  battle  of  Gilboa. — 3.  The  brother  of 
David  and  the  son  of  Jesse.   (1  Chron.  ii.  13.) 

Abiham. — 1.  One  of  those  who  conspired  with  Korah  and 
Dathan  against  Moses,  and  who  perished  in  the  same  manner. 
(Num.  xvi.) — 2.  The  eldest  son  of  Hiel  the  BetheUte,  who 
expired  as  his  father  was  laying  the  foundation  of  Jericho,  which 
he  had  undertaken  to  rebuild  (1  Kings  xvi.  34.),  as  Joshua  more 
than  530  years  before  had  prophetically  announced  would  be  the 
case.  (Josh  vi.) 

Abishag,  the  name  of  a  beautiful  virgin  who  was  sent  for  to 
cherish  David  in  his  old  age.  Interpreters  are  not  agreed  whether 
she  became  the  consort  of  David  or  was  only  his  concubine. 
After  David's  death,  she  was  demanded  in  marriage  by  Adonijah : 
but  his  request  was  rejected  by  Solomon ;  who,  considering  that, 
if  it  were  granted,  Adonijah  would  affect  the  regal  power,  caused 
him  to  be  put  to  death.  (\  Kings  i.  3,  4.  ii.  1.3 — 25.) 

Abner,  the  son  of  Ner,  uncle  to  king  Saul,  and  general  of 
his  forces.  After  the  death  of  his  sovereign,  he  preserved  the 
crown  for  his  son  Ishbosheth  :  but,  afterwards  quarrelling  with 
him,  Abner  joined  David.  He  was,  subsequently,  slain  by  Joab, 
in  revenge  for  the  death  of  his  brother  Asahel  who  was  slain  in 
open  battle.  David  honoured  Abner  with  public  obsequies.  (3 
Sam.  iii.) 

Abraham,  the  patriarch  and  founder  of  the  Israelitish  nation, 
celebrated  in  the  Scriptures  for  his  probity,  and  for  his  unshaken 
confidence  in  the  promises  of  God.  He  was  the  son  of  Terah, 
and  was  bom  at  Ur,  a  city  of  Chaldaea.  Called  by  God  out  of 
his  own  country,  by  faith  he  went  forth  into  an  unknown  coun- 
try, where  he  dwelt  with  his  posterity,  resting  on  the  general 
promise  of  God  for  a  better  inheritance.  Having, married  Sarah, 
he  became  the  father  of  Isaac,  whom  by  faith  he  offered  on  an 
altar,  though  in  him  he  expected  a  completion  of  all  the  promises 
which  God  had  made  to  him  :  but,  as  at  first  he  had  miraculously 
received  a  son,  he  concluded  that  God  could  with  equal  ease,  after 
death,  raise  him  again  to  hfe.  (Heb.  xi.  8—10.  17 — 19.)  The 
patriarch's  first  name  was  Abram,  which  signifies  the  father  of 
elevation,  or  an  elevated  father ;  but  on  a  renewal  of  the  divine 
covenant  with  him  and  of  the  promises  made  to  him  by  God,  it 
was  changed  to  Abraham,  the  import  of  which  is,  the  father  of 
a  great  fnultitude.  (Gen.  xvii.)  He  died  at  the  age  of  175 
years,  and  was  interred,  with  Sarah  his  wife,  in  the  fietd  and  cave 
at  Machpelah.   (xxv.) 

Absalom,  the  son  of  king  David  by  Maahah.  He  rebelled 
against  his  father,  and  was  slain  by  Joab,  about  1020  years  b.  c. 
(2  Sam.  xiii. — xviii.) 

Abstinence,  vows  of,  130. 
AccHo.     See  Ptolemais. 

AcELBAMA,  a  place  without  the  south  wall  of  Jerusalem, 
beyond  the  pool  of  Siloam.  It  was  called  the  Potter's  Field 
(Matt,  xxvii.  7.  10.),  b«?cause  they  dug  thence  the  earth  of  which 
they  made  their  pots  :  and  the  Fuller's  Field,  because  they  dried 
their  cloth  there ;  but  being  afterwards  bought  with  that  money 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


403 


AD 

by  which  the  high-priest  and  rulers  of  the  Jews  purchased  the 
blood  of  the  holy  Jesus,  it  was  by  the  j)rovidcncc  of  God  so 
ordering  it,  called  Accldamu,  that  is,  the  lield  of  blood.  (Acts  i. 
19.  Matt,  xxvii.  7,  H.)  The  place,  which  in  modern  times  has 
been  shown  to  travellers  as  Aceldama,  is  described  by  Bishop 
Pococke  as  an  oblong  square  cavern  about  twenty-six  paces  long, 
twenty  broad,  and  apparently  about  twenty  feet  deep.  It  is 
enclosed  on  every  side,  either  with  the  rock  or  by  a  wall,  and 
covered  over.  Tlicre  are  six  holes  in  the  top,  by  which  a  person 
may  look  down  into  it ;  and  through  these  holes  the  dead  bodies 
are  thrown  in.  Several  sepulchral  grottoes  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
vicinity  of  this  spot. 

AciiAiA,  in  the  largest  sense,  comprehends  Greece  properly  so 
called.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  K[)irus,  on  the  east  by  the 
.(Egean  Sea,  on  the  north  by  Macedonia,  on  the  south  by  Pelo- 
ponnesus. This  seems  to  be  the  region  intended  when  Haint 
Paul,  according  to  the  Roman  acccj)tation,  mentions  all  the 
regions  of  Jlcliaia,  and  directs  his  second  Epistle  to  all  the  saints 
in  Achaia.  (2  Cor.  xi.  10.)  Thus,  what  is  Achaia,  in  Acts  xix. 
21.  is  Hellas,  that  is,  Greece.  (Acts  xx.  2.)  Achaia,  strictly  so 
called,  is  the  northern  region  of  Peloponnesus,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  on  the  south  by  Arcadia,  on  the 
east  by  Sicyonia,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Ionian  Sea.  Of  this 
region  Co  hi  nth  was  the  capital. 

AciiAN,  the  son  of  Charmi,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  who,  con- 
trary to  the  express  command  of  God,  had  appropriated  some 
valuable  articles  out  of  the  spoils  of  Jericho :  for  which  he, 
together  with  all  his  family,  was  stoned,  and  all  his  effects  were 
consumed  with  fire.  (Josh.  vii.  22.) 

AciiisH,  a  king  of  Gath,  in  whose  court  David  took  refuge 
from  Saul;  but,  his  life  being  endangered,  he  feigned  madness 
before  the  king.  When  War  broke  out  between  Saul  and  the 
Philistines,  David  marched  with  his  army  :  but  the  lords  of  the 
Philistines,  being  apprehensive  lest  he  should  turn  against  them 
in  battle,  desired  Achish  to  dismiss  him,  which  accordingly  he 
did,  with  commendations  for  his  fidelity.   (1  Sam.  xxi. — jlxLx.) 

ACHMETHA.       See  ECBATANA. 

AcHOH,  a  valley  in  the  territory  of  Jericho,  and  in  the  canton 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  where  Achan  was  stoned.  (Josh, 
vii.  24.) 

AcitsAii,  the  daughter  of  Caleb,  who  promised  her  in  marriage 
to  him  who  should  conquer  Kirjath-sepher  from  the  Philistines. 
Othniel  took  the  i>lace,  and  married  Achsah.  (Josh.  xv.  16,  17.) 

AcKsiiAPii,  a  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Ashcr.  The  king 
of  Ackshaph  was  conquered  by  Joshua,  (xii.  20.)  Some  writers 
are  of  opinion,  that  Ackshaph  is  the  same  as  Ecdippa,  on  the 
Mediterranean,  between  Tyre  and  Ptolemais;  others,  that  Ecdippa 
is  described  in  Josh.  xix.  20.  under  the  name  of  Achzib.  The 
Arabs  call  a  place,  three  hours  north  from  Ptolemais,  Zib,  which 
is  the  place  where  formerly  stood  Ecdippa.  It  is  probable  that 
Ackshaph  and  Achzib  are  but  diiferent  names  for  the  same  town. 
Mr.  Buckingham,  who  visited  this  place  in  January,  1810,  found 
it  a  small  town  situated  on  a  hill  near  the  sea,  and  having  a  few 
palm  trees  rearing  themselves  above  its  dwellings. 

Acquittal,  in  criminal  cases,  forms  of,  56. 

Actions,  civil  and  criminal,  how  determined  among  the  Jews. 
See  pp.  5.5 — 57. 

Adada,  a  city  in  the  southern  p«rt  of  the  canton  belonging  to 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  not  far  from  the  boundaries  of  Idumsea  or 
Edom.  (Josh.  xv.  27.) 

A 11AM,  the  first  man,  and  the  father  of  the  human  race,  was 
created  out  of  the  dust  of  the  earth,  by  God  himself,  who  ani- 
mated him  with  a  reasonable  soul,  and  formed  him  after  his  moral 
image,  in  righteousness  and  true  holiness.  Having  transgressed 
the  single  command  imposed  on  him  by  God,  in  token  of  his 
dependence  upon  Him  as  lord  paramount  of  the  creation,  Adam 
forfeited  the  state  of  happiness  in  which  he  had  been  created, 
and  entailed  a  curse  on  himself  and  his  posterity,  had  not  God 
made  a  promise  of  a  future  Saviour.  (Gen.  i.  ii.  iii.)  He  died, 
aged  930  years. 

Adama,  or  AnxAH,  one  of  the  five  cities  destroyed  by  fire 
from  heaven,  on  account  of  the  profligate  wickedness  of  their 
inhabitants,  and  afterwards  overwhelmed  by  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  (Gen.  xix.  24.)  It  was  the  most  easterly  of  those 
which  were  swallowed  up  ;  and  there  is  some  probability,  either 
that  it  was  not  entirely  sunk  under  the  waters,  or  that  the  subse- 
quent inhabitants  of  the  country  built  a  city  of  the  same  name 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  ;  for  Isaiah,  according  to 
the  LXX.  says,  God  -will  destroy  the  Moabites,  the  city  nf  Ar 


AD 


atid   the   remnant    of  Adama.  (Isa.    xv.  ult.)     'Af«  to  a-Triffjiit 

tAwj£,K:U  'Afl/»X,   KJtl  TO   KXTUh'j  ITTiV   '  ASjfJl'X.. 

Adah,  the  twelfth  month  of  the  ecclesiastical  Jewish  year,  and 
the  sixth  of  the  civil  year.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals,  &c. 
during  this  month,  see  pp.  75,  76. 

Adoni-Bkzkk  (the  Lord  of  Bezek)  was  the  first  Canaanitish 
king  con<juered  by  the  Israelites  after  the  death  of  Joshua.  He 
was  taken  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  died,  after  his  toes  and  thumbs 
had  l)cen  cut  off,  which  he  owned  to  be  a  just  retribution  of  divine 
providence,  in  retaliation  of  what  he  had  himself  infiicted  upon 
others.   (Judg.  i.  7.) 

A  DON  UAH,  the  fourth  son  of  king  David  by  Haggith.  He 
aspired  to  the  kingdom  before  his  fatln^r's  death,  but  was  disap- 
pointed of  his  hojjes  by  the  command  of  David,  who  ordered 
Solomon  to  be  proclaimed  king.  He  afterwards  desired  Abishag, 
the  Shunemite,  to  wife;  this  request  was  not  only  rejected,  but 
he  was  ordered  to  be  put  to  death,  as  one  guilty  of  treason. 
(I  Kings  ii.  13—2.5.) 

Adom-Zedkr  (i.  e.  Lord  of  Zedek)  was  king  of  Zedek,  or 
Jerusalem,  and  one  of  the  five  Canaanitish  kings  shut  up  in  the 
cave  of  Makkedah,  whither  they  fled  after  their  defeat  by  Joshua; 
by  whose  command  they  were  taken  out  and  put  to  death,  and 
their  bodies  hung  on  five  trees.   (Josh,  x.) 

Adoption,  ceremony  of,  and  its  eficcts.   164,  165. 

Ado^aim,  a  town  in  the  .southern  part  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
which  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam.   (2  Chron.  xi.  9.  11.) 

AnonA.n,  the  chief  treasurer  of  Rehoboam,  who  was  sent  by 
that  prince,  in  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  to  the  rebellious 
tribes,  to  endeavour  to  reduce  them  to  their  allegiance ;  and  pe- 
rished, the  victim  of  an  infuriated  populace.  (1  Kings  xii.  13.) 
It  is  uncertain  whether  this  Adoram  was  the  same  as  Adoniram, 
who  had  filled  the  same  office  under  Solomon.  (1  Kings  iv.  6.) 
He  might  be  his  son,  and  one  of  the  young  men  who  gave  evil 
counsels  to  Rehoboam.  However  this  may  be,  it  was  the  height 
of  imprudence  to  send  him  to  the  revolted  tribes  who  had  com- 
plained of  the  burden  of  taxes:  and  hence  some  expositors 
have  imagined,  that  Rehoboam  sacrificed  his  chief  treasurer  in 
the  vain  hope  that  his  death  would  calm  the  effervescence  of 
popular  fury. 

AnnAMMEiF.cH,  and  SnAHEzr.n,  sons  of  Sennacherib,  were 
probably  the  children  of  slaves  who  had  no  right  to  the  Assyrian 
throne,  and  who  assassinated  their  father  on  his  return  from  his 
unsuccessful  expedition  against  Hezekiah,  at  Nineveh,  while 
worshipping  in  the  temple  of  Nisroch  his  god:  after  which  they 
fled  into  Armenia. 

Adrammelecii,  an  idol  (probably  the  sun),  worshipped  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Sepharvaim,  who  caused  their  children  to  pass 
through  the  fire  to  it. 

Adramyttium,  a  maritime  town  of  Mysia  in  Asia  Minor, 
over-against  the  island  of  Lesbos,  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Ida.  (Acts  xxvii.  1,  2.)     It  was  a  colony  of  the  Athenians. 

Adkia  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii.  27.,  where,  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served, that  when  Saint  Paul  says,  that  they  were  tossed  in  Adria, 
he  does  not  say  in  the  Adriatic  Gulf,  which  ends  with  the  Illy- 
rian  Sea,  but  in  the  Adriatic  Sea,  which,  according  to  Hesychius, 
is  the  same  with  the  Ionian  Sea;  and  therefore  to  the  question, 
How  Saint  Paul's  ship,  which  was  near  to  Malta,  and  so,  either 
in  the  Lybian  or  Sicilian  Sea,  could  be  in  the  Adriatic  ?  It  is 
well  answered.  That  not  only  the  Ionian,  but  even  the  Sicilian 
Sea,  and  part  of  that  which  washes  Crete,  was  called  the  Adri- 
atic. Thus,  Ptolemy  says,  that  Sicily  was  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  Adriatic;  and  that  Crete  was  compassed  on  the  west 
by  the  Adriatic  Sea ;  and  Strabo  says,  that  the  Ionian  Gulf  is  a 
part  of  that  which,  in  his  time,  was  called  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
{Whitby.) 

AnniEL,  the  son  of  Barzillai,  married  Merab,  the  daughter  of 
Saul  (who  had  first  been  promised  to  David,  1  Sam.  xviii.  19.), 
by  whom  he  had  five  sons,  who  were  given  up  to  the  Gibeonites, 
to  be  put  to  death  in  revenge  of  Saul's  cruelty  to  them.  In 
2  Sam.  xxi.  8.  they  are  called  the  sons  of  Michal ;  she  having 
adopted  them,  or  else  the  name  of  Michal  is  by  mistake  put  for 
Merab. 

ADULr,A:>r,  a  city  in  the  south  part  of  the  canton  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  towards  the  Dead  Sea.  (Josh.  xv.  35.)  The  king  of 
this  place  was  killed  by  Joshua,  (xii.  15.)  In  a  cave  in  its  vi- 
cinity David  was  concealed.  (1  Sam.  xxii.  1.)  Rehoboam  rebuilt 
and  fortified  this  place.  (2  Chron.  xi.  7.)  In  the  fourth  century 
it  was  a  considerable  town,  but  it  has  long  since  been  reduced 
to  ruins. 


404 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


AH 


ADUtTERT,  trial  of  a  woman  suspected  of,  56. 
AnuMMiM,  a  town  and  mountain  belonging  to  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin.  (Josh.  xv.  9.  xviii.  17.) 

.^.voN,  or  Enon,  signifies  the  place  of  spnngs,  where  John 
baptized.  (John  iii.  23.)  It  is  uncertain  where  it  was  situated, 
whether  in  Galilee,  Judaea,  or  Samaria. 

.^Ehas,  or  Eras  (Jewish),  account  of,  77. 
Agabus,  a  prophet,  who  foretold  a  famine  which  took  place 
in  the  land  of  Judtea,  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
A.  D.  44.  (Acts  xi.  28.)  This  famine  is  mentioned  by  Suetonius 
and  other  profane  writers.  Agabus  also  foretold  the  imprison- 
ment of  Paul  by  the  Jews,  and  his  being  sent  bound  to  the  Gen- 
tiles ;  all  which  literally  came  to  pass. 

Agag  was  probably  a  common  appellative  for  the  kings  of  the 
Amalekites.  One,  of  this  name,  was  conquered  and  taken  pri- 
soner ;  and,  though  condemned  according  to  the  law  of  the 
interdict,  he  was  spared  by  Saul.  He  was  put  to  death  at  Gilgal 
by  order  of  Samuel.  The  fate  of  Agag  has  called  forth  the 
verbose  pity  of  infidels ;  who,  while  they  have  affected  to  deplore 
his  fate,  have  forgotten  only  one  thing,  viz.  that  he  had  been  a 
cruel  and  sanguinary  tyrant;  and  that  Samuel  reproached  him 
for  his  cruelty  befoie  he  commanded  him  to  be  put  to  death. 
(1  Sam.  XV.) 
Aged  Persoks,  laws  concerning,  82. 

Agriculture  of  the  Jews,  176 — 178.  Agricultural  allu- 
sions, 180, 

Agrippa  (Herod),  7    co 
Agrippa  (Junior),  > 

Agur,  a  wise  man  to  whom  the  thirtieth  chapter  of  the  book 
of  Proverbs  is  ascribed,  otherwise  unknown.  As  the  appellative 
Agura,  in  Syriac,  signifies  one  who  applies  himself  to  the  study 
of  wisdom,  Gesenius  thinks  it  possible,  that  the  name  may  be 
significant  and  allegorical. 

Ahab,  a  king  of  Israel,  who  reigned  22  years,  and  surpassed 
all  his  predecessors  in  impiety.  He  was  entirely  under  the  influ- 
ence of  his  idolatrous  wife  Jezebel.  He  died,  b.  c.  897,  of  the 
wounds  which  he  had  received  in  battle  with  the  Syrians,  ac; 
cording  to  the  prediction  of  Micaiah  the  son  of  Imlah.  (1  Kings 
xvi. — xxii.) 

Ahad,  or  AcHAD,  a  Syrian  idol,  notice  of,  137. 
Ahasuerus,  or  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  king  of  Persia, 
who  married  Esther.     See  p.  226,  note. 

Ahava,  a  river  of  Babylonia,  or  of  Assyria,  where  Ezra  as- 
sembled those  captives  whom  he  afterwards  brought  into  Judsea. 
(Ezra  viii.  15.)  It  is  supposed  to  be  that  which  ran  along  the 
regions  of  Adiabene,  where  a  river  Diava,  or  Adiava,  is  men- 
tioned, on  which  Ptolemy  places  the  city  Abane  or  Aavane. 
This  is  probably  the  country  called  Ava  (2  Kings  xvii.  24.  xviii. 
34.  xix.  13.),  whence  the  kings  of  Assyria  translated  the  people 
called  Avites  into  Palestine ;  and  where,  likewise,  in  their  room 
they  settled  some  of  the  captive  Israelites.  Ezra  intending  to 
collect  as  many  Israelites  as.  he  could,  to  return  with  him  to 
Judaea,  halted  in  the  country  of  Ava,  or  Ahava,  whence  he  sent 
agents  into  the  Caspian  mountains,  to  invite  such  Jews  as  were 
willing  to  join  him.  (Ezra  viii,  17.) 

Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  son  of  Jotham,  who  died,  b.  c.  726 ; 
for  his  iniquities  he  was  denied  a  place  in  the  sepulchres  of  the 
kings  his  predecessors.  (2  Chron.  xxviii.) 

Ahaziah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel :  he 
was  as  distinguished  for  his  horrid  impiety  as  his  father  was. 
He  reigned  only  one  year  after  his  father's  death.  (I  Kings 
xxii.  52.)  .    • 

Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Jehoram, 
by  Athaliah ;  he  reigned  one  year,  and  received  his  mortal  wound 
by  command  of  Jehu,  and  died  at  Megiddo.  (2  Kings  viii. 
3  Chron.  xxiii.) 

Ahijah,  a  prophet  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  I.,  who  dwelt  at 
Shiloh,  and  foretold  the  death  of  his -son  Abijah. 

Ahimelech,  a  priest  of  Nob,  to  whom  David  went,  and  whom 
Saul  commanded  to  be  put  to  death  with  other  priests  for  assist- 
ing him. — Also  a  priest,  in  the  reign  of  David,  the  son  of  Abia- 
thar ;  who  is  likewise  called  Abimelech. 

Ahithophel,  an  eminent  counsellor  in  the  reign  of  David,  so 
distinguished  for  his  prudence  and  wisdom,  that  his  advice  equally 
obtained  the  confidence  of  the  people  and  the  monarch.  He 
joined  the  conspiracy  of  the  rebel  Absalom  against  David  :  but, 
finding  his  profligate  but  crafty  counsel  disregarded,  he  went  to 
his  house  at  Gillo,  hanged  himself,  and  was  buried  in  the  sepul- 
chre of  his  fathers.  It  has  been  asked.  What  motive  could  in- 
duce a  privy  counsellor  of  David,  who  was  held  in  such  high 


AL 

consideration,  to  enter  into  Absalom's  conspiracy  ?  The  pride 
of  overturning  a  throne,  of  which  he  was  the  support,  and  the 
hope  of  reigning  himself  under  the  name  of  Absalom,  will,  per- 
haps, account  for  the  conspiracy,  but  not  for  the  incest  which  he 
advised  Absalom  to  commit.  Ahithophel  was  the  father  of  Eliam 
the  father  of  Bathsheba  (2  Sam.  xxxiii.  34.  xi.  3.  1  Chron.  iii. 
5.)  :  and  there  is  every  reason  to  think,  that  he  wished  to  revenge 
his  grand-daughter ;  particularly  when  we  consider  the  infamous 
advice  which  he  gave,  his  eagerness  for  pursuing  David,  and  the 
desire  he  expressed  to  smite  the  king  himself.  (2  Sam.  xvi.  21. 
xvii.  1,  2.)  His  suicide  was  as  deliberate  as  his  hatred  :  he  was 
one  of  those  men  who  are  as  usefdl  friends  as  they  are  danger-  . 
ous  enemies,  equally  able  in  good  and  evil,  who  employ  their 
talents  in  the  service  of  their  passions,  do  nothing  by  halves,  and 
are  models  of  guilt  or  of  virtue, 

Aholah  and  Aholibah,  two  fictitious  names,  employed  by 
the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxiii.  4.)  to  denote  the  two  kingdoms  of 
Judah  and  Samaria.  Aholah  and  Aholibah  are  represented  as 
two  sisters  of  Egyptian  extraction  ;  the  former,  standing  for 
Jerusalem,  the  latter  for  Samaria.  Both  prostituted  themselves 
to  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  in  imitating  their  abominations 
and  idolatries ;  for  which  reason  the  Lord  abandoned  them  to 
those  very  people,  for  whom  they  had  evinced  so  improper  an 
attachment,  being  carried  into  captivity,  and  reduced  to  the  seve- 
rest servitude  by  them. 

Ar,  or  Hax,  a  city  of  ancient  Canaan,  near  Bethel,  which  was 
taken  by  military  stratagem,  by  the  Israelites  under  Joshua. 
(Josh,  vii.) 

Ajalon,  a  city  in  the  canton  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  assigned  to 
the  Levites  of  Kohath's  family.  It  was  situated  between  Tim- 
nath  and  Beth-Shemesh,  and  is  probably  the  city  alluded  to  in 
Josh.  X.  12,  There  were  three  other  cities  of  this  name ;  one 
in  the  canton  of  Benjamin,  another  in  that  of  Ephraim,  not  fau* 
from  Schechem ;  and  the  third  in  the  canton  of  Zebulon ;  the 
situation  of  which  is  not  known. 

A jalon,  valley  of,  notice  of,  31, 

Alexander. — 1.  A  man  whose  father  Simon  was  compelled 
to  bear  the  cross  of  Jesus  Christ.  (Mark  xv,  21.) — 2.  Another, 
who  had  been  high-priest,  and  who  was  present  at  the  interroga- 
tion of  the  apostles  Peter  and  John,  concerning  the  healing  of 
the  man  who  had  been  lame  from  his  birth.  (Acts  iv.  6.)  Some 
have  imagined,  that  he  was  the  brother  of  Philo,  the  celebrated 
Jewish  writer,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Caligula. — 3.  A 
Jew  of  Ephesus.  At  the  time  of  the  sedition  raised  in  that  city 
by  Demetrius  against  Paul,  the  populace  in  their  blind  fury  seem 
to  have  confounded  the  Christians  with  the  Jews :  and  the  latter 
being  desirous  that  the  mob  should  direct  their  vengeance  against 
the  believers  in  Jesus  Christ,  commissioned  Alexander  to  ha- 
rangue the  Ephesians  and  to  plead  their  cause,  but  in  vain.  The 
Ephesians,  as  soon  as  they  knew  that  he  was  a  Jew,  refused  to 
listen  to  him.  Beza  and  Bolten  have  conjectured  that  this  wais  the 
Alexander  I  ^a}jciu(  (the  worker  in  metals,  or  smith),  who  did 
the  apostle  "  much  evil."  (1  Tim.  iv.  14.)  As  every  male  Jew 
was  obliged  to  learn  some  trade,  this  is  not  improbable.  Coque- 
rel,  however,  thinks  that  he  was  one  of  those  venal  orators, 
whose  eloquence  was  always  at  the  cqpimand  of  any  that  would 
employ  them. — 4.  A  brazier  or  smith,  ivho  made,  shipwreck  con- 
cerning the  faith  (1  Tim.  i.  19,  20.),  and  whom  Saint  Paul 
delivered  unto  Satan ;  that  is,  expelled  him  from  the  commu- 
nion of  the  Christian  church,  to  be  no  longer  considered  as  a 
Christian,  but  as  a  subject  of  Satan's  kingdom. 

Alexandria,  a  celebrated  city  of  Egypt,  built  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  a.m.  3673,  b.  c.  331,  and  situated  between  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  and  the  Lake  Moeris.  Alexandria  at  present 
exhibits  no  vestiges  of  its  former  magnificence,  except  the  ruins 
that  surround  it,  and  which  are  of  very  remote  antiquity.  Under 
the  Arabian  dynasty,  its  splendour  gradually  declined  with  its 
commerce.  From  the  neglect  of  the  canals,  which  anciently 
diffused  fertility  through  the  surrounding  country,  and  the  en- 
croachments of  the  sand,  the  city  is  now  insulated  in  a  desert, 
and  exhibits  no  vestiges  of  those  delightful  gardens  and  cultivated 
fields,  which  subsisted  even  to  the  time  of  the  Arabian  conquest. 
The  commerce  of  ancient  Alexandria  was  very  extensive,  espe- 
cially in  corn  (Egypt  being  considered  the  granary  of  Rome), 
which  was  exported  in  vessels  of  considerable  burden ;  so  that 
the  centurion  could  easily  meet  with  a  ship  of  Alexandria,  laden 
with  corn,  sailing  into.  Italy.  (Acts  xxvii.  6.)  Alexandria  was 
the  native  place  of  Apollos.     (Acts  xviii.  24.) 

Alph^eus,  the  father  of  James  the  Less  (Matt.  x.  3.  Mark  iii,  18. 
I  Luke  vi,  15.  Acts  i.  13.),  and  the  husband  of  Mary,  the  sister  of 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
AM  AM 


405 


the  mother  of  Jesus.  He  is  the  same  person  who  in  called  Clco- 
phas  in  John  xix.  25.;  but  not  the  same  who  in  Mark  ii.  14.  is 
said  to  be  the  father  of  licvi  or  Matthew. 

Almodai),   a    people    or  tribe    in  Yemen,  who  sprang  from 
Joktari.      (Gen.  x.  20.) 

Am  An,  a  city  belon^inK  to  the  tribe  of  Asher.  (Josh.  xxix.  26.) 
Amalkk,  the  son  of  Eiipliaz  by  'J'imnah  his  conrnbinc,  and 
grandson  of  Esau.  ((icn.  xxxvi.  12.)  He  was  the  father  of  tiie 
A.MALKKiTKS,  thc  first  atid  most  powerful  of  the  nations  in  the 
vicinity  of  Canaan.  'J'liey  dwelt  in  Arabia  Petrata,  liviiiff  like 
the  present  A  raits  in  hamlets,  caves,  or  tents.  Tiiey  were  always 
the  enemies  of  the  Israelites,  whom  they  attacked  in  th(!  desert, 
but  were  repulsed.  Afterwards  they  joined  with  tiie  Midianites 
and  Moabites  in  a  desigp  to  oppress  thc  Israelites ;  who  were 
delivered  by  Ehud  from  E^lon  king  of  the  Moabites  (Judg.  iii.), 
and  by  (Jideon  from  the  Midianites  and  .\mulekifes,  (viii.) 
Balaam  predicted  that  they  should  f)erislifor  ever.  (Num.  xxiv. 
29.)  In  fact,  ])crpetual  wars  against  their  neighbours,  and  espe- 
cially the  Jews,  insensibly  ruined  tlicin.  Haul  niade  a  terrible 
slaughter  of  them,  and  was  not  permitted  to  save  .'^gag  their 
king,  who  was  hewn  in  pieces  by  the  prophet  iSamuel  :  David 
exterminated  those  who  had  escaped  thc  former  massacre.  After 
this  terrible  execution,  we  meet  no  more  with  the  name  of 
Amalek  but  in  the  history  of  Esther ;  in  whose  time  Haman,  an 
Amalekite,  to  revenge  an  allVont  he  imagined  himself  to  have 
received  from  the  .lew  Mordecai,  conceived  the  design  of  causing 
to  be  cut  olV,  in  a  single  night,  not  only  all  the  Jews  dispersed  in 
the  states  of  Ahasuerus  king  of  Bal)ylon,  but  even  those  who  had 
been  leftinJudea  to  mourn  over  the  ruins  of  their  country.  Tiiis 
dreadful  design  recoiled  on  Haman,  who  was  exterminated  with 
all  his  family  ;  and  the  Jews  received  permission  to  pursue  and 
put  to  death  their  enemies  wherever  they  could  tind  them.  They 
made  a  great  slaughter  of  them ;  and  since  this  event,  nothing 
more  has  been  certainly  known  concerning  the  Amalekitcs. 

Ama>i,  a  city  in  thc  southern  part  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
(Josh.  XV.  26.) 

A.MAN  A,  a  mountain  mentioned  in  Sol.  Song  iv.  8.  which,  some 
have  imagined,  was  in  Cilicia,  whither  the  goveniment  of  Solo- 
mon extended  :  but  it  was,  most  probably,  a  part  of  Mount  Li- 
banus,  as  Shenir  and  Hermon,  which  are  mentioned  in  the  same 
passage,  were  parts  of  the  same  mountainous  range. 

Amasa,  a  nephew  of  David,  whom  Absalom  appointed  general 
of  his  army.  (2  Sam.  xvii.  2.5.)  After  the  defeat  of  that  prince, 
David  pardoned  Amasa,  and  olVered  him  the  command  in  chief 
of  his  forces  in  the  room  of  Joab,  by  whom  he  was  treacherously 
murdered.   (2Sam.  xx.) 

AxAztAK,  the  eighth  king  of  Judah,  who  succeeded  Joash 
B.C.  839.  The  commencement  of  his  reign  was  auspicious:  but, 
after  he  had  subdued  the  Edomites  (2  Kings  xiv.),  he  carried  off 
their  idol  gods,  and  acknowledged  them  for  his  own,  by  adoration 
and  offering  incense.  He  then  proclaimed  war  against  Joash 
king  of  Israel,  who  defeated  his  forces  and  took  him  prisoner. 
He  reigned  ingloriously  fifteen  years  after  this  event;  and  at 
length,  hated  by  his  subjects,  and  abandoned  by  the  Almighty, 
he  was  assassinated  by  conspirators  at  Lachish,  whither  he 
had  lied. 

AiiMox.     Sec  No-Ammon,  infra. 

Ammonitks,  a  people  descended  from  Ammon,  son  of  Lot; 
called  sometimes  Ammanites..  They  destroyed  the  giants  Zam- 
zummim,  and  seized  their  country.  (Deut.  ii.  19,  20,  21.)  God 
forbad  Moses  and  Israel  from  attacking  the  Ammonites,  because 
he  did  not  intend  to  give  their  land  to  the  Hebrews.  Neverthe- 
less, as,  previously  to  the  Israelites  entering  Canaan,  the  Amor- 
ites  had  conquered  great  part  of  the  countries  belonging  to  the 
Ammonites  and  Moabites,  Moses  retook  this  from  the  Amoritcs, 
and  divided  it  between  the  tribes  of  Gad  and  Reuben.  Long 
after  this,  in  the  time  of  Jephthah  (Judg.  xi.  13.),  the  Am- 
monites declared  war  against  Israel,  pretending  that  Israel  de- 
tained the  country  which  had  been  theirs  before  the  Amorites 
possessed  it.  Jephthah  replied,  that  this  territory  being  acquired 
by  Israel  in  a  just  war  from  the  Amorites,  who  had  long  enjoyed 
it  by  right  of  conquest,  he  was  under  no  obligation  to  restore  it. 
The  Ammonites  being  dissatisfied  with  this  reply,  Jephthah  gave 
them  battle  and  defeated  them. 

The  Ammonites  and  Moabites  generally  united  in  attacking 
Israel.  After  the  death  of  Othniel,  the  Ammonites  and  Amalek- 
itcs joined  with  Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  to  oppress  them.  Some 
years  after,  about  a.  m.  2799,  the  Ammonites  greatly  oppressed 
the  Israelites  beyond  Jordan;  but,  in  2817,  God  raised  up  Jeph- 


thah to  deliver  them.  In  the  beginning  of  Saul's  reign,  a.  m. 
2909,  B.  c.  1195,  Nahash,  king  of  the  Ammonites,  having 
attacked  Jabesh-Gilead,  reduced  it  to  a  capitulation.  (1  Sam.  xi. 
1.)  Nahash  ollercd  no  other  conditions,  than  their  submitting 
to  have  every  man  his  right  eye  plucked  out,  as  a  reproach  ujion 
Israel  ;  but  Saul  coming  sea.sonal)ly  to  the  succour  of  Jabesh, 
flelivered  the  city  and  people  from  the  intended  barbarity  of 
Nahash,  David,  having  been  a  friend  of  the  king  of  Ammon, 
after  his  death  sent  compliments  of  condolence  to  Hanun  his  son 
and  Hucces.sor  ;  who,  regarding  these  and)assadors  as  s))ies, 
treated  them  in  a  very  allronting  manner.  David  avenged  the 
all'ront,  subdued  the  Ammonites,  the  Moabites,  and  the  .S\  rians, 
their  allies.  Ammon  and  Moab  continued  under  the  government 
of  David  and  Solomon,  and  after  the  separation  of  the  ten  tribes, 
were  subject  to  thc  kings  of  I.srael  till  the  death  of  Ahab. 
(2  Kings  i.  1.  a.  .m.  3107,  ii.  e.  S97.)  Jehoram,  son  of  Abab, 
and  successor  of  Aha/.iah,  defeated  the  Moaliiles,  a.  v.  3109. 
(2  Kings  iii.  4,  5,  6.  &c.)  But  it  does  not  appear,  that  this 
victory  reduced  them  to  his  obedience.  At  the  same  time  the 
Ammonites,  Moabites,  and  other  jjeojtle,  made  an  irrujition  into 
Judah,  but  were  repulsed  and  routed  by  Jehoshaphat.  (2  Cliron. 
XX.  1,  2.  et  set}.) 

Thc  [)rophet  Isaiah  (xv.  xvi.)  threatens  the  Moabites  with  a 
mi.sfortune  which  was  to  happen  three  years  after  his  prediction ; 
this  probably  had  reference  to  the  war  of  .Shalmane.<rr  against 
them,  about  a.  m.  3277,  ii.  c.  727. — .After  the  tribes  of  Reuben, 
Gad,  and  the  half-tribes  of  Manasscdi  were  carried  captive  by 
Tiglath-pile.ser,  a,  m.  32(j4,  h.  c.  740,  the  Ammonites  and 
Moabites  took  pos.session  of  the  cities  belonging  to  these  tribes, 
for  which  Jeremiah  reproaches  them.  (Jer.  xlix.  1.)  The  am- 
ba.ssadors  of  thc  Ammonites  were  some  of  those  to  whom  that 
|)rophet  presented  the  cup  of  thc  Lord's  fury,  and  whom  he 
directed  to  make  bonds  and  yokes  for  them.sclves,  exhorting  them 
to  submit  to  Nebuchadnezzar;  and  threatening  them,  if  they  did 
not,  with  captivity  and  slavery.  (Jer.  xxvii.  2,  3,  4.)  The 
prophet  Ezekiel  (xxv.  4.  10.)  denounces  their  entire  destruction, 
and  tells  them,  that  God  would  give  them  up  to  the  people  of  the 
East,  who  should  set  their  palaces  in  their  country,  so  that  the 
Ammonites  should  be  no  mure  mentioned  among  nations ;  and 
this  as  a  punrshmcnt  for  in.sulting  the  Lsraelites  on  their  calami- 
ties, and  thc  destruction  of  their  temple  by  the  Chaldeans.  These 
calamities  happened  to  them  in  the  fifth  year  after  the  taking  of 
Jerusalem,  when  Nebuchadnezzar  made  war  against  all  the 
people  around  Juda;a,  a.  m.  3420  or  3421,  n.  c.  583. 

It  is  probable  that  Cyrus  gave  to  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites 
thc  liberty  of  returning  into  their  own  country,  whence  they  had 
been  removed  by  Nebuchadnezzar;  for  we  see  them,  in  the  lands 
of  their  former  settlement,  exposed  to  those  revolutions  which 
included  the  people  of  Syria  and  Palestine ;  and  subject  some- 
times to  the  kings  of  Egypt,  and  sometimes  to  the  kings  of  Syria. 
Antiochus  the  Great  took  Rabboth  or  Philadelphia,  their  capital, 
demolished  the  walls,  and  put  a  garrison  into  it,  a.  m.  3806. 
During  the  persecutions  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  Ammonites 
manifested  their  hatred  to  the  Jews,  and  exercised  great  cruelties 
against  such  of  them  as  lived  in  their  parts.  (1  Mac<-.  v.  6 — 45.) 
Justin  Martyr  says  (Dialog,  cum  Triphone,  p.  272.),  that  in  his 
time — thc  second  century — there  were  still  many  Ammonites 
remaining;  but  Origcn  (Comm.  on  Job)  assures  us,  that  in  his 
days,  they  were  only  known  under  the  general  name  of  Arabians. 
Thus  was  the  prediction  of  Ezekiel  accomplished.  See  a  minute 
account  of  the  fulfilment  of  prophecies  concerning  the  Ammonites 
and  their  country,  in  Mr.  Keith's  Evidence  of  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion from  Prophecy,  pp.  152 — 160. — Notic*  of  the  idols  wor- 
shipped by  the  Ammonites,  p.  137.  of  this  volume. 

Amxon,  the  son  of  David  and  Ahinoam.  Having  conceived  a 
criminal  passion  for  his  sister  Tamar,  he  violated  her:  and  two 
years  after,  when  he  was  intoxicated  at  a  feast  made  by  Absalom 
the  uterine  brother  of  Tamar,  the  servants  of  the  latter  assas- 
sinated him.    (2  Sam.  xiii.) 

Amo>-,  the  fourteenth  king  of  Judah,  succeeded  Manaseeh, 
whose  impieties  he  imitated  :  he  was  assa.^sinated  by  his  owa 
servants  after  a  reign  of  two  years,  and  in  the  24th  year  of  his 
age,  B.C.  640. 

A-MORiTEs,  a  people  descended  from  Amori  or  Amorrhaeus, 
the  fourth  son  of  Canaan.  They  first  peopled  the  mountains 
west  of  the  Dead  Sea.  They  likewise  had  establishments  east 
of  that  sea,  between  the  brooks  Jabbok  and  Amon,  whence  they 
forced  the  Ammonites  and  .Moabites.  (Josh.  v.  1.  N^um.  xiii.  29. 
xxi.  29.)     Moses  wrested  this  country  from  their  kings,  Sihon 


406 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


AN 


and  Og,  A.  M.  2553,  b.  c.  1451.  The  prophet  Amos  (ii.  9.) 
speaks  of  their  gigantic  stature  and  valour.  He  compares  their 
height  to  the  cedar;  their  strength  to  the  oak.  The  name  Amor- 
ite,  is  often  taken  in  Scripture  for  Canaanitcs  in  general.  The 
lands  which  the  Amorites  possessed  on  this  side  Jordan,  were 
given  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  ;  and  those  which  they  had  possessed 
beyond  the  Jordan,  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad. 

Amos,  or  Asioz. — 1.  The  father  of  the  prophet  Isaiah;  who, 
according  to  ancient  traditions,  was  the  son  of  Joash  and  the 
brother  of  Amaziah  king  of  Judah. — 2.  The  third  of  the  Minor 
Prophets,  for  an  account  of  wliom,  and  an  anal3'sis  of  his  pre- 
dictions, see  Vol.  II.  pp.  259,  260. 

Amphipolis,  a  city  between  Macedon  and  Thrace,  but  depen- 
dent on  Macedon,  mentioned  in  Acts  xvii.  1.  Paul  and  Silas, 
being  delivered  out  of  prison,  left  Philippi,  went  to  Thessalonica, 
and  passed  through  Amphipolis.  This  city  had  the  name  like- 
wise of  Chrysopolis. 

Amraphkl,  king  of  Shinar,  an  ally  of  Chedorlaomer,  plun- 
dered the  Pentapolis  and  took  Lot  prisoner,  who  was  rescued  by 
Abraham  and  his  associates.   (Gen.  xiv.) 

Amusements  of  the  Jews,  189,  190. 

Anab,  a  city  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  canton,  belong- 
ing to  the  tribe  of  Judah.   (Judg.  xv.  50.) 

Anakim,  the  descendants  of  Anak,  a  gigantic  tribe  who  dwelt 
in  the  land  of  Canaan ;  on  comparison  of  whom  the  unbelieving 
Hebrew  spies,  that  were  sent  to  explore  the  country,  reported, that 
they  were  but  as  grasshoppers.  (Num.  xiii.  33.)  Their  capital, 
Kirjath-Arba  or  Hebron,  was  taken,  and  they  were  destroyed  by 
Caleb,  with  the  assistance  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  (Josh.  xv.  14. 
Judg.  i.  20.) 

Anammelech,  one  of  the  deities  in  honour  of  whom  the  Se- 
pharvaites  caused  their  children  to  pass  through  the  fire.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  signified  the  moon. 

Ananiah,  a  city  of  Palestine,  where  the  Benjamites  dwelt 
after  the  captivity.   (Neh.  xi.  32.) 

Ananias,  the  name  of  several  persons  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, of  whom  the  following  were  the  most  remarkable  : — 

1.  The  son  of  Nebedseus,  who  was  high-priest  a.  d.  47.  He 
was  sent  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome  by  Quadratus,  governor  of  Syria, 
and  Jonathan  was  appointed  in  his  place ;  but  being  discharged 
by  Claudius,  in  consequence  of  the  protection  of  Agrippa,  he 
returned  to  Jerusalem;  where,  as  Jonathan  had  been  murdered 
through  the  treachery  of  Felix  the  successor  of  Quadratus,  Ana- 
nias appears  to  have  performed  the  functions  of  the  high-priest, 
as  sagan  or  substitute,  until  Ismael  the  son  of  Phabseus  was  ap- 
pointed to  that  office  by  Agrippa.  (Compare  Vol.  I.  p.  50.) 
Before  this  Ananias.  Saint  Paul  was  brought ;  and  the  apostle's 
prediction  that  God  ivoulcl  smite  him  (Acts  xxiii.  3.)  was  sub- 
sequently accomplished,  when  he  was  murdered  in  the  royal 
palace  by  a  body  of  mutineers,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  his 
own  son. 

2.  A  Jew  of  Jerusalem,  .the  husband  of  Sapphira,  who  at- 
tempted to  join  the  Christians,  but  died  instantly  on  being  con- 
victed of  falsehood  by  Peter.   (Acts  v.  1.  3.  5.) 

3.  A  Christian  of  Damascus,  who  restored  the  sight  of  Paul, 
after  his  vision.  (Acts  ix.  10 — 17.  xxii.  1,2.) 

Anathoth,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  memorable  as 
being  the  birth-place  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  (Josh.  xxi.  18. 
Jer.  i.  1.)  According  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  it  was  situated 
about  three  miles  to  the  north  of  Jerusalem,  though  Josephus 
states  it  to  be  twenty  furlongs.  This  city,  which  was  assigned 
as  a  residence  to  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Kohath,  and  also 
as  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge,  has  long  since  been  destroyed. 

Andkew,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  He  was  a  native  of 
Bethsaida  in  Galilee,  and  was  at  first  a  follower  of  John  the 
Baptist,  but  afterwards  became  a  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ.  Ac- 
cording to  ecclesiastical  tradition,  after  the  ascension  of  Jesus 
Christ,  he  preached  the  Gospel  to  -the  Scythians,  and  was  cru- 
cified at  Patrae  in  Achaia.  Epiphanius  mentions  the  Acts  of 
Andrew,  a  spurious  book,  which  was  used  by  the  Encratites, 
Apostolics,  and  Origenians. 

Andronicus,  a  Jewish  Christian,  a  kinsman  and  fellow-pri- 
soner of  St.  Paul,  who  says  that  he  was  of  note  or  in  reputation 
among  the  apostles ;  by  which  expression  we  are  not  to  under- 
stand that  he  was  one  of  the  number  of  apostles,  but  that  he 
was  one  of  those  early  converts  who  were  highly  esteemed  by  the 
apostles,  before  the  dispersion  occasioned  by  the  death  of  Stephen. 

Aner,  one  of  the  Levitical  cities,  situated  in  the  canton  of  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh.  (1  Chron.  xvi.  70.)  Also  the  brother  of 
Mamre,  a  confederate  of  the  patriarch  Abraham. 


AN 

Anim,  a  city  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  canton  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  50.) 

Animals,  reared  by  the  Jews,  175,  176.  Certain  animals, 
why  prohibited  to  be  eaten  by  them,  171,  172. 

Anna,  a  prophetess,  the  daughter  of  Phanuel,  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher.  This  pious  widow  constantly  attended  the  morning  and 
evening  service  at  the  temple  ;  and,  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty- 
four  years,  when  the  venerable  Simeon  was  uttering  his  hymn 
of  thanksgiving  at  the  presentation  of  Christ  in  the  temple,  she 
coming  into  the  temple  began  to  praise  God  and  to  speak  of  the 
Messiah  to  all  those  who  were  waiting  for  the  redemption  of 
Israel.  (Luke  ii.  36 — 38.) 

Annas,  or  according  to  Josephus,  Ananus,  was  a  high-priest 
of  the  Jews.  He  obtained  the  pontificate  under  Quirinus,  pro- 
consul of  Syria,  but  was  deprived  of  it,  during  the  reign  of  Ti- 
berius, by  Valerius  Gratus  governor  of  Judaea.  The  dignity  was 
transferred,  first  to  Ismael  the  son  of  Phabseus,  and  shortly  after 
to  Eleazar.  He  held  the  office  one  year,  and  was  then  succeeded 
by  Simon  ;  who,  after  another  year,  was  followed  by  Joseph  or 
('aiaphas,  the  son-in-law  of  Annas,  a.  d.  26.  As  Caiaphas  con- 
tinued in  office  until  a.  n.  35,  Annas  appears  to  have  acted  as  his 
substitute  or  sagan,  and  enjoyed  great  influence  jointly  with  him. 
(Luke  iii.  2.  John  xviii.  13.  24.  Acts  iv.  6.) 

Antil-Libanus  (Mount),  account  of,  30. 

Antioch,  the  metropolis  of  Syria,  was  erected,  according  to 
some  writers,  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes;  according  to  others,  by 
Seleucus  Nicanor,  the  first  king  of  Syria  after  Alexander  the 
Great,  in  memory  of  his  father  Antiochus,  and  was  the  royal 
seat  of  the  kings  of  Syria,  or  the  place  where  their  palace  was. 
For  power  and  dignity  it  was  little  inferior  to  Seleucia  or  Alex- 
andria ;  and  the  inhabitants  were  celebrated  for  their  luxury, 
effeminacy,  and  licentiousness.  Josephus  says,  that  it  was  the 
third  great  city  of  all  that  belonged  to  the  Roman  provinces ;  it 
was  called  Antiochia  apud  Dap/mem,  or  Antioch  near  Daphne, 
i.  e.  the  village  where  her  temple  was,  to  distinguish  it  from 
fourteen  other  cities  of  the  same  name.  It  was  celebrated  among 
the  Jews,  for  i\iej%is  civitatis,  which  Seleucus  Nicanor  had  given 
to  them  in  that  city,  with  the  Grecians  and  Macedonians ;  and 
for  the  wars  of  the  Maccabseans  with  those  kings.  Among 
Christians  it  is  memorable  for  being  the  place  where  they  first 
received  that  name  by  divine  appointment,  and  where  both  St. 
Luke  and  Theophilus  were  born  and  inhabited.  Modern  Antioch 
and  its  vicinity  were  completely  destroyed  by  a  tremendous  earth- 
quake in  the  autumnal  months  of  the  year  1822. 

Antioch,  of  Pisidia,  a  city  mentioned  in  Acts  xiii.  14.  Here 
Paul  and  Barnabas  preached ;  but  the  Jews,  who  were  angry  at 
seeing  that  some  of  the  Gentiles  received  the  Gospel,  raised  a 
sedition  against  Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  obliged  them  to  leave 
the  city. 

Antiochus,  a  common  name  of  the  kings  of  Syria,  after  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  the  actions  of  many  of  whom  are 
foretold  by  the  prophets,  and  related  in  the  books  of  the  Macca- 
bees. 

1.  Antiochus  Soter,  or  Saviour,  son  of  Seleucus  Nicanor, 
began  to  reign  b.  c.  276.  He  conferred  many  immunities  upon 
the  Jews  of  Asia.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

2.  Antiochus  Theos,  or  the  God,  b.  c.  257,;  whose  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt,  is 
foretold  by  Daniel,  (xi.  6.) 

3.  Antiochus  the  Great,  son  of  Seleucus  Callinicus,  began 
to  reign  b.  c.  219.  In  consequence  of  the  Jews  submitting  to 
him,  he  permitted  them  throughout  his  dominions  to  live  accord- 
ing to  their  own  laws. 

4.  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  or  the  Illustrious,  son  of  Anti- 
ochus the  Great,  was  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  persecutors  of 
the  Jewish  nation  that  ever  lived.  He  is  the  subject  of  Daniel's 
predictions.  (Dan.  xi.  21 — 29.)  Though  his  Syrian  flatterers 
gave  him  the  appellation  of  Epiphanes,  the  epithet  of  vile,  or 
despicable,  given  him  by  the  prophet  (ver.  21.),  agrees  better  with 
his  true  character ;  for  he  disgraced  himself  by  such  profligate 
conduct  that  the  historian  Polybius,  his  contemporary,  and  others 
after  him,  instead  of  Epiphanes,  more  correctly  called  him  Epi- 
manes,  or  the  madman.  This  Antiochus  designed  nothing  less 
than  the  utter  extirpation  of  Judaism:  he  commanded  the  .statue 
of  Jupiter  Olympius  to  be  placed  upon  the  altar  of  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem,  and  a  sow  to  be  offered  in  sacrifice.  These  profana- 
tions, and  his  other  oppressions,  aroused  the  family  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, who  bravely  resisted  the  forces  of  Antiochus:  who,  filled 
with  indignation,  was  hastening  into  Judaea,  to  make  Jerusalem 
(as  he  menaced)  a  grave  for  all  the  Jews  •  but  divine  vengeanco 


EIOGKAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


407 


A  P 

puri^ued  him ;  and  Antiochus,  falling  from  his  chariot,  bruised 
ht.s  limbH,  and  died  in  the  most  excruciating  torturei>,  k.  c.  160. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

6.  A.NTioriius  Ein'AToii,  who  reigned  only  two  years. 

0.  A.vTiofKi-s  TiiKos,  son  of  Alexander  Lialas,  was  treache- 
rously put  to  death  by  Tryphon  his  minister,  u.  c.  139. 

7.  Antiochus  Pius,  Soteu,  or  Sidktks  (that  is,  the  fisher 
or  hunter),  reigned  ten  years,  n.  c.  137  to  127;  in  which  last 
year  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  Parthians. 

Antii'as,  afail/ifiil  martyr,  mentioned  in  Rev.  ii.  13.  is  said 
to  have  been  put  to  death  in  a  tumult  at  Pergamos  by  the  priests 
of  ^sculapius,  who  had  a  celebrated  temple  in  that  city. 

Antipas  (Herod).     See  pp.. 52,  53. 

Antu'atuis,  a  small  town  which  was  situated  in  the  road 
from  Jerusalem  to  Cmsarea.  It  was  formerly  called  Capharsalma : 
but  being  rebuilt  and  beautified  by  Herod  the  Great,  it  was  by 
him  named  Antipairis,  in  honour  of  his  father  Antipater.  Hi- 
ther St.  Paul  was  brought  after  his  apprehension  at  Jerusalem. 
(Acts  xxiii.  31.) 

Anton  I  A,  (Tower  of),  20. 

Ai'iiAUsiTKs,  and  AriiAHSAciiTHiTES,  were  two  tribes  or  na- 
tions in  subjection  to  the  king  of  Assyria,  by  whom  colonies  of 
them  were  sent  to  inhabit  the  country  of  Samaria  in  place  of 
the  Israelites,  who  had  been  removed  beyond  the  river  Euphrates. 
They  greatly  opposed  the  building  of  Jerusalem.  (Ezra  v.  6. 
iv.  9.)  Some  have  supposed  the  Apharsites  to  be  the  Parrhasii 
in  the  east  of  Media ;  others,  the  Persians ;  and  the  Apharsach- 
thites  have  been  compared  with  Parasitaceni,  Parcetaceni,  a 
people  of  Media. 

ApHEK. — There  are  several  cities  of  this  name  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  as, 

1.  Aphkk,  in  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Here  the  Philistines  en- 
camped, when  the  ark  was  brought  from  Shiloh,  which  was 
taken  in  battle  by  the  Philistines.  ( 1  Sam.  iv.)  Probably  this  is 
the  Aphekah,  mentioned  in  Josh.  xv.  53. 

2.  Aphek,  in  the  valley  of  Jezrcel.  Here  the  Philistines 
encamped,  while  Saul  and  his  army  lay  near  Jezreel,  on  the 
mountains  of  Gilboa.   (1  Sam.  xxix.  1,  &c.) 

3.  Apiikk,  a  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Asher,  near  the 
country  of  the  Sidonians.  (Josh.  xix.  30.  xiii.  4.)  Perhaps  this 
was  the 

4.  Aphek,  a  city  of  Syria,  one  of  the  principal  in  Ben-Hadad's 
kingdom,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  the  battle  was  fought  between 
Ahab  and  Ben-Hadad,  when  the  Syrians  were  beaten  (1  Kings 
XX.  26,  &c.),  and  as  they  retreated  with  precipitation  into  the 
city,  the  city  wall  fell  upon  them,  and  crushed  27,000.  Probably, 
in  this  city  Aphek,  or  Aphaca,  situated  in  Libanus,  on  the  river 
Adonis,  stood  the  famous  temple  of  Venus,  the  Aphacite.  This 
city  lay  between  Heliopolis  and  Biblos. 

Apollonia,  a  city  of  Macedonia  Prima,  situated  between  Am- 
phipolis  and  Thessalonica,  about  a  day's  journey  from  the  former 
place.  St.  Paul  passed  through  this  city  on  his  way  to  Thessa- 
lonica. (Acts  xvii.  1.) 

Apollos,  a  Jewish  Christian,  bom  at  Alexandria,  and  distin- 
guished for  his  eloquence  and  success  in  propagating  the  Gospel. 
His  history  and  character  are  given  in  Acts  xviii.  24^ — 28.  xix.  1. 
He  preached  at  Corinth  with  such  eloquence,  tlui;  the  Corin- 
thians, divitli'd  in  their  alTections,  boasted  that  they  were  the 
disciples  of  Paul,  or  of  Cephas,  or  of  Apollos.  From  these  vain 
disputes  St.  Paul,  certain  of  the  humility  of  his  friend,  took  occa- 
sion to  write  those  admirable  passages,  in  which  he  requires  the 
Corinthian  Christians  to  forget  both  Paul  and  Apollos,  and  to 
refer  every  thing  to  Christ.  (1  Cor.  i.  12.  iii.  4.  iv.  6.)  It  is 
uncertain  whether  the  apostle  alludes  in  2  Cor.  iii.  1.  to  the 
letters  of  recommendation  which  Apollos  took  with  him  on  his 
departure  from  Ephesus  for  Corinth:  but  it  is  clear,  that  the 
success  of  the  latter  in  Achaia,  and  the  admiration  felt  by  the 
Corinthians  for  his  eloquence,  excited  no  envious  emotions  in 
the  mind  of  St.  Paul,  since  he  earnestly  pressed  him  to  return  to 
Corinth  (I  Cor.  xvi.  12.),  and  subsequently  recommended  him 
in  a  very  particular  manner  to  the  friendly  attentions  of  Titus. 
(Tit.  iii.  13.) 

Apparel,  royal,  notice  of,  44, 

Apphia,  a  Christian  woman,  whom  the  ancient  fathers  sup- 
posed to  he  the  wife  of  Philemon :  a  conjecture  which  is  rendered 
not  improbable  by  the  circumstance  that  in  the  inscription  of  his 
epistle  to  Philemon  in  favour  of  Oncsimus,  St.  Paul  mentions 
Apphia  before  Archippus.  (Philem.  2.) 

Appii  Forum,  a  small  town  on  the  celebrated  Appian  Way, 
cpnslructed  by  the  Roman  censor  Appius  Claudius,  and  which 


A  R 


led  from  Rome  to  Capua,  and  thence  to  Brundusium.  St.  Paul 
passed  through  this  place  on  his  first  journey  to  Rome ;  whence, 
according  to  Antiuiinus's  Itinerary,  it  was  distant  43  Roman 
miles,  or  about  40  English  miles. 

Apple  tiiebs  of  Palestine,  notice  of,  36. 

AauiLA,  a  native  of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor,  was  a  Jew  by 
birth,  and  a  tent-maker  by  occupation ;  who,  with  his  wife  Pris- 
cilla,  was  converted  by  St.  Paul  to  the  Christian  faith.  When 
the  Jews  were  banished  from  Rome  by  the  emjieror  Claudius 
(the  Christian  and  Jewish  religions  being  confounded  by  the 
Romans),  Aquila  and  his  wife  retired  to  Corinth,  and  afterwards 
became  the  companions  of  St.  Paul  in  his  labours,  by  whom  they 
are  mentioned  with  much  commendation.  (Acts  xviii.  2.  18.  26. 
Rom.  xvi.  3.  1  Cor.  xvi.  19.  2Tim.  iv.  19.)  The  most  cordial 
friendship  ap[)ears  to  have  subsisted  between  them  :  Aquila  and 
Priscilla  had  even  saved  Paul's  life  at  the  risk  of  their  own  ;  which 
instance  of  devotedness  to  the  apostle  has  been  referred  to  the 
accusation  preferred  against  the  apostle  before  Gallio  at  Corinth, 
or  to  the  tumult  excited  by  Demetrius  at  Ephesus.  (Acts  xviii. 
12.  xix.  24.) 

Ar,  or  Ariel,  of  Moah.     See  Rabratii-Moab. 

Arabia,  the  name  of  a  large  region,  including  the  peninsula, 
which  lies  between  Syria,  Palestine,  the  Arabian  and  Persian 
Gulfs,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  or  Sea  of  Arabia.  Its  inhabitants 
are  supposed  to  be  principally  descended  from  Ishmael,  and  in 
the  earlier  books  of  Scripture  are  termed  Qnp  <J3  (bsm  KeneM) 
or  children  of  the  east  (Judg.  vi.  3.  1  Kings  v.  10.  Isa.  xi.  14. 
Jer.  xlix.28.)  ;  and  in  the  later  books  D>3nj7  (arobim),  or  Ara- 
bians. (2  Chron.  xxii.  1.  Neh.  ii.  19.)  The  Greek  geographers 
divided  this  country  into  three  parts,  Arabia  ^^ixt/ntti  or  Felix, 
TXffrfxeSh;  or  Petraja,  and  2x»ht/c  or  E^»^cc,  Descrta :  but  these 
divisions  were  not  anciently  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
East,  nor  are  they  recognised  in  any  part  of  the  Old  or  New 
Testament. 

1.  Arabia  Felix  lies  between  the  ocean  on  the  south-east, 
and  the  Arabian  and  Persian  gulfs.  It  is  a  fertile  region,  espe- 
cially in  the  interior,  producing  various  species  of  odoriferous 
shrubs  and  fragrant  gums,  as  frankincense,  myrrh,  cassia,  &c 
The  queen  of  Sheba  is  supposed  to  have  reigned  over  part  of  this 
region. 

2.  Arabia  Petr;ea  received  its  name  from  the  city  Petra: 
it  lies  on  the  south  and  south-east  of  Palestine,  extending  to 
Egypt,  and  including  the  peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  mountains  and  sandy  plains. 

3.  Arabia  Deserta  lies  between  the  other  two,  and  extends 
northward  along  the  confines  of  Palestine,  Syria,  Babylonia,  and 
Mesopotamia  ;  including  the  vast  deserts  which  lie  between  these 
limits,  and  which  are  inhabited  only  by  wandering  tribes  of 
savage  Arabs.  For  a  description  of  the  horrors  of  a  journey 
across  the  great  desert  of  Arabia,  see  pp.  34,  35. 

The  Scriptures  frequently  mention  the  Arabians  (meaning 
those  adjoining  Juda;a)  as  a  powerful  people,  who  valued  them- 
selves on  their  wisdom.  Their  riches  consisted  principally  in 
flocks  and  cattle ;  they  paid  king  Jehoshaphat  an  annual  tribute 
of  7700  sheep,  and  as  many  goats.  (2  Chron.  xvii.  11.)  The 
kings  of  Arabia  furnished  Solomon  with  a  great  quantity  of  gold 
and  silver.  (2  Chron.  ix.  14.)  They  loved  war,  but  made  it 
rather  like  thieves  and  plunderers,  than  like  soldiers.  They 
lived  at  liberty  in  the  field,  or  the  desert,  concerned  themselves 
little  about  cultivating  the  earth,  and  were  not  very  obedient  to 
established  governments.  This  is  the  idea  which  the  Scripture 
gives  of  them  (Isa.  xiii.  20.),  and  the  same  is  their  character  at 
this  day.  Since  the  promulgation  of  the  Gospel,  many  Arabians 
have  embraced  Christianity ;  though  by  far  the  greater  part  con- 
tinue to  profess  the  fiiith  of  Mohammed. 

Arab,  a  Canaanitish  royal  city  in  the  southern  part  of  Pales- 
tine. Its  king  having  opposed  the  passage  of  the  Israelites,  they 
afterwards  took  it  with  its  dependencies.  (Num.xxi.  1 — 3.)  In 
later  times,  Arad  was  rebuilt ;  and  is  placed  by  Eusehius  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  desert  of  Kades,  at  the  distance  of  20  Roman  miles 
from  Hebron. 

Aram,  fifth  son  of  Shem,  was  father  of  the  people  of  Syria, 
who,  from  him,  are  called  Aramteans.  The  region,  which  in  the 
Old  Testament  is  denominated  Aram,  is  a  vast  tract  extending 
from  Mount  Taurus  south  as  far  as  Damascus,  and  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  in  an  eastern  direction  beyond  the  Tigris  into 
Assyria.  Different  parts  of  this  region  are  called  by  different 
names ;  as — ^iram  JWihardim,  or  Syria  of  the  Two  Rivers, 
that  is,  Mesopotamia  ;  Aram  of  Damascus  ;  Jiram  of  Soba  ; 
Aram  Bethrehob  ;  and  Aram  of  Maacha  ,-  because  the  cities 


408 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


A  R 


of  Damascus,  Soba,  Bethrehob,  and  Maacha,  were  in  Syria ;  or 
at  least,  because  Syria  contained  the  provinces  of  Soba,  Maacha, 
Rehob,  &c.  Homer  and  Hesiod  call  Aramaeans  those  whom 
the  more  modern  Greeks  call  Syrians.  The  prophet  Amos 
(ix.  7.)  seems  to  say,  that  the  first  Aramseans  dwelt  in  the 
country  of  Kir,  in  Iberia,  where  the  river  Cyrus  runs ;  and  that 
God  brought  them  from  thence,  as  he  did  the  Hebrews  out  of 
Egypt ;  but  at  what  time  this  happened  is  not  known.  Moses 
always  calls  the  Syrians,  and  inhabitants  of  Mesopotamia,  Aram- 
ites.  The  Aramaeans  often  warred  against  the  Hebrews ;  David 
subdued  them,  and  obliged  them  to  pay  him  tribute.  Solomon 
preserved  the  same  authority;  but,  after  the  separation  of  the  ten 
tribes,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  Syrians  were  generally  subject 
to  the  kings  of  Israel ;  unless,  perhaps,  under  Jeroboam  II.,  who 
restored  the  kingdom  of  Israel  to  its  ancient  boundaries.  (2  Kings 
xiv.  25.) 

AiiAiiAT,  a  celebrated  mountain  in  trie  Greater  Armenia,  on 
which  Noah's  ark  rested  after  tlie  deluge.  (Gen.  viii.  4.)  It  is  of 
stupendous  height,  and  inaccessible  to  the  summit,  which  is 
covered  with  perpetually  frozen  snow  ;  and  the  magnitude  of  the 
peak  is  annually  increasing  in  consequence  of  the  continual 
accession  of  ice.  Jlgridugh  is  the  name  given  to  this  sublime 
mountain  by  the  Turks  ;  the  Armenians  call  it  JMacis  ;  and  the 
Persians  in  the  neighbourhood,  Kiihi  J\'uach,  '  the  mountain  of 
Noah ;'  but  all  unite  in  reverencing  it  as  the  haven  of  the  great 
ship,  which  preserved  the  father  of  mankind  from  the  waters  of 
the  deluge.  (Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Persia,  vol.  i.  pp.  183, 
184.     Stuart's  Hebrew  Chrestomathy,  p.  150.) 

Abba.     See  Hebron. 

Archelaus,  the  son  and  successor  of  Herod  the  Great  in 
the  government  of  part  of  his  dominions.  See  an  account  of 
him  in  p.  51. 

AncHippus,  a  Christian,  who  was  either  a  teacher  or  a  deacon 
of  the  church  at  Colossae.  (Col.  iv.  17.) 

Af);)(^i<ruvctya>yo;,  or  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  powers  and  functions 
of,  104. 

Areopagus,  tribunal  of,  60,  61. 

Ahetas,  the  third  of  the  name,  a  king  of  Arabia,  was  the 
father-in-law  of  Herod  Antipas,  against  whom  he  declared  war  in 
revenge  for  repudiating  his  daughter.  Antipas  called  the  Romans 
to  his  assistance  ;  but  some  unaccountable  delay  in  the  marching 
of  their  forces,  and  the  death  of  the  emperor  Tiberius,  put  an  end 
to  the  expedition,  and  saved  Aretas.  It  is  supposed  that  he 
availed  himself  of  this  favourable  opportunity  to  make  an  incur- 
sion into  Syria,  and  obtain  possession  of  Damascus,  where  he  ap- 
pointed an  ethnarch,  whose  jurisdiction  probably  extended  only 
over  the  Jews  who  dwelt  there.  Some  learned  men  have  sup- 
posed this  name  to  have  been  of  Greek  origin,  and  to  be  derived 
from  vpnn,  excellence  or  pre-eminence,  but  Dr.  Pococke  is  of 
opinion,  that  it  is  an  Arabic  name  (from  al-hareth)  which  was 
common  to  many  of  the  Arabian  kings. 

Abgob,  the  capital  city  of.  a  region  of  the  same  name,  which 
was  situated  beyond  the  Jordan,  in  Bashan,  the  most  fruitful 
country  on  the  other  side  of  that  river :  it  belonged  to  the  half- 
tribe  of  Manasseh. 

Arimathea,  a  small  town  to  which  Joseph  belonged  who 
begged  the  body  of  Jesus  from  Pilate.  (Matt,  xxvii.  57.)  It  was 
about  thirty-six  or  thirty-seven  miles  distant  from  Jerusalem,  and 
is  now  called  Ramla.  At  present  it  is  a  wretched  dilapidated 
place,  but  exhibits  the  marks  of  having  once  been  an  extensive 
and  flourishing  town.  (Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  14.)  Its 
environs  are  said  to  be  very  beautiful. 

Akistarchus,  a  native  of  Thessalonica,  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
who  embraced  Christianity,  and  accompanied  St.  Paul  in  several 
of  his  journeys.  He  was  seized  in  the  tumult  at  Ephesus,  and 
was  afterwards  carried  with  the  apostle  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome, 
where  he  shared  his  imprisonment.  (Acts  xix.  29.  xx.  4.  xxvii. 
2.  Col.  iv.  20.  Phikm.  24.) 

AiuTUMF.Tic  of  the  Jews,  186. 

Auk.     See  Noah. 

Armageddon,  the  name  of  a  place  mentioned  in  Rev.  xvi.  16., 
the  position  and  nature  of  which  are  unknown.  According  to 
sonic  expositors,  it  is  compounded  of  two  words,  signifying  the 
mountain  of  Mageddo  or  Megiddo  ;  a  place  situated  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Carmel,  and  celebrated  in  the  history  of  God's  people 
for  two  memorable  slaughters,  first  of  the  Canaanites  (Judg.  v. 
19.),  and  afterwards  of  the  Israelites.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29.) 
Others,  however,  conjecture  that  the  name  Armageddon  means  a 
dry  barren,  mountainous,  and  desert  country,  such  as  the  Jews 


AS 

deemed  to  be  the  abode  of  unclean  spirits.     This  meaning  of  the 
word  accords  with  what  is  said  in  Rev.  xvi.  12 — 14. 

Armies  of  the  Hebrews,  levies,  divisions,  officers,  and  disci 
pline  of,  83 — 87.,  and  of  the  Romans,  93,  94. 

Arms  of  the  Hebrews,  87.  Defensive  arms,  87,  88.  Offen 
sive  arms,  88.  ■  Allusions  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  armour  in 
the  New  Testament,  93. 

Arnon,  a  brook  and  valley  of  the  same  name,  forming  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  country  of  Moab.  (Num.  xxi,  13. 
Deut.  iii.  8.  12.  16.  iv.  28.)  According  to  the  observations  of  the 
traveller  Seetzen,  its  present  name  is  Mujeb. 

Aroer. — 1.  The  proper  name  of  a  city  of  the  Gadites,  on  the 
river  Arnon.  (Num.  xxxii.  34.  Deut.  ii.  36.  iii.  12.  Josh.  xii.  2. 
xiii.  25.)  The  cities  of,  or  about  Aroer,  mentioned  in  Isa.  xvii. 
2.,  Prof.  Gesenius  is  of  opinion,  may  mean  the  cities  beyond 
Jordan  generally. — 2.  The  name  of  a  place  in  the  canton  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah.   (1  Sam.  xxx.  28.) 

Arpai),  a  city  and  country  in  Syria,  near  Hamath,  with  which 
it  is  often  joined,  and  which  for  a  time  had  its  own  kings.  (2 
Kings  xviii.  34.  xix.  13.  Isa.  x.  9.  Jer.  xlix.  23.) 

Ahphaxad,  the  son  of  Shem,  who  is  mentioned  in  the  gene- 
alogy of  Mary,  was  born  two  years  after  the  deluge.  (Gen.  x. 
22 — 24.  xi.  12,  13.)  The  names  of  his  brethren  are  most  of 
them  the  names  of  countries.  If  this  be  the  case  with  Arphaxad, 
the  most  probable  supposition  is  that  of  Josephus,  viz.  that  it 
denotes  Chaldaca. 

Arrows  used  by  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88.  Divination  by 
arrows,  143. 

Artaxebxes  (NnirtynmN  artachschaschtha),  a  title  of 
several  Persian  kings.  Professor  Gesenius  derives  it  from  the 
ancient  Persian  word  Artahshetr,  which  is  found  upon  the 
inscriptions  of  Nachschi  Roustam.  The  latter  part  of  this  word 
is  the  Zendish  Khshethro  (also  sherao),  a  king.  But  the  syl- 
lable art  (which  is  found  in  several  Persian  names,  as  Artabanus, 
Artaphernes,  Artabasus),  appears  to  have  signified  to  be  great  or 
mighty.  At  least  the  Greeks  gave  it  this  interpretation.  This 
signification  is  now  lost  in  the  Persian.  From  the  original 
Artahshetr,  the  modern  Persians  formed  Ardeshir  (a  name 
borne  by  three  kings  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides)  ;  the 
Armenians,  Artashir  ;  the  Greeks,  Artaxerxes ;  and  the  He- 
brews, Artachschaschtha.  Two  Persian  sovereigns  who  bore 
this  name,  are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament ;  viz. 

1.  Artaxerxes,  who  at  the  instigation  of  the  enemies  of  the 
Jews  issued  an  edict,  prohibiting  them  from  rebuilding  Jerusalem. 
(Ezra  iv.  7 — 22.)  This  Artaxerxes  is  generally  considered  to 
be  the  pseudo-Smerdis,  one  of  the  Persian  Magi,  who  assumed 
that  name,  and  pretending  to  be  Smerdis  the  son  of  Cyrus 
and  the  brother  of  Cambyses,  occupied  the  throne  between  the 
reigns  of  Cambyses  and  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes. 

2.  Artaxerxes,  who  issued  a  decree  extremely  favourable  to 
the  Jews,  which  was  carried  by  Ezra  to  Jerusalem.  (Ezra  vii.  1. 
viii.  1.)  This  sovereign  is  the  Artaxerxes  suriiamed  Longimanus, 
or  the  Long-handed,  from  a  trifling  deformity.  Nehemiah  was 
his  cup-bearer,  and  was  permitted  by  him  to  return  to  Jerusalem, 
with  a  commission  to  rebuild  its  walls,  and  to  be  the  governor  of 
Judaea.  »• 

"AfTijuK.     See  Diana. 

Arts,  origin  of,  180.  State  of  them  from  the  deluge,  until 
after  the  captivity,  181.  Account  of  some  of  the  arts  practised 
by  the  Jews,  183,  184. 

Arukoth,  or  Araboth,  a  city  or  country  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  (1  Kings  iv.  10.)     Its  true  situation  is  unknown. 

Arvad,  or  Aradus,  a  small  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Eleutherus,  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  opposite  to  Tyre.  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  8.)  The  Arvadite  is  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  18.  The 
Arvadites  were  employed  as  mariners  by  the  Tyrians. 

Asa,  , king  of  Judah,  succeeded  his  father  Aliijam,  b..  c.  951. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  success  in  war,  and  his  zeal  for  the 
worship  of  the  true  God.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  the 
prophet  Hanani  having  reproved  him  for  his  distrust  in  God  in 
forming  an  alliance  with  Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria,  he  was  so 
exasperated  that  he  put  the  prophet  in  chains,  and  at  the  same 
time  gave  order  for  the  execution  of  many  of  his  friends.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  died  of  a  severe  fit  of  the  gout,  b.  c.  886. 

Asaph,  Heman,  and  Jeduthun,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  were 
constituted  by  David,  chiefs  of  the  sacred  singers,  of  whom  their 
families  formed  a  part.  (1  Chron.  xxi.  1.)  They  are  all  three 
termed  prophets  or  seers  (1  Chron.  xxv.  5.  2  Chron.  xxix.  30. 
XXXV.  15.),  which  appellation  is  supposed  to  refer  rather  to  their 


biographical,  historical,  and  geographical  index. 

'as  as 


409 


genius  as  sacred  poets  and  musicians,  than  to  their  possessing  the 
spirit  of  prophecy.  Psalms  1.  Ixxiii. — Ixxxjii.  were  composed  by 
Asaph. 

AsKVATH,  the  daughter  of  Potipherah,  and  wife  of  Joseph, 
was  tlu'  mother  of  Ephraim  and  Manassch.  (Gen.  xli.  45.  and 
xlvi.  20.)  Tlie  etymology,  Gcscnius  observes,  is  Egyptian  (but 
obscure),  and  this  circumstance  furnishes  an  additional  jiresump- 
tion  in  favour  of  the  authenticity  of  the  writings  of  Moses;  for, 
according  to  ('oqucrcl,  the  name  of  a  woman  absolutely  analagous 
to  this  has  been  discovered  on  Egyptian  monuments,  which  is 
composed  of  the  monosyllable  Jls  and  JVeith,  the  name  of  the 
Egyptian  Minerva. 

Asiinoi).     See  Azotus,  p.  411.  infra. 

AsiiKK,  the  son  of  .lacob  and  Ziipah,  gave  his  name  to  one  of 
the  tribes  of  Israel.  (Gen.  xxx.  l.'J.  1  Chron.  ii.  2.)  For  the 
limits  of  the  canton  assigned  to  this  tribe,  see  p.  17.  But  they 
never  expelled  the  nations  of  the  country,  nor  did  they  obtain 
entire  possession  of  the  district  allotted  to  them.  Their  soil  pro- 
duced abundance  of  tho  comforts  and  luxuries  of  life,  and  was 
rich  in  mines.  The  tribe  of  Ashcr  tamely  submitted  to  the 
tyranny  of  Jabin  king  of  Canaan,  but  assisted  Gideon  in  his 
pursuit  of  the  Midianites.  On  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  the  light- 
ing men  of  this  tribe  were  41,500  ;  in  the  wilderness  they 
amounted  to  53,400. 

AsiiKKNAz,  the  eldest  son  of  Gomer  (Gen.  x.  3.  Jer.  Ii.  7.), 
and  the  father  or  head  of  a  nation.  That  a  people  in  northern 
Asia  is  intended  is  evident  from  its  being  placed  next  to  Gomer 
(Cymmeria),  in  the  first  instance,  and  next  to  Ararat  (Armenia), 
in  the  second.  The  Jews  understand  by  it,  Germany,  and  use 
the  word  in  that  signification.  Bochart  was  of  opinion  that  the 
rt'^'/o  ^hcuniii  in  Phrygia  and  Bithynia  was  peopled  by  the 
descendants  of  Ashkenaz. 

Asm- EN  A  z,  master  of  the  eunuchs,  or  rather  one  of  the  chief 
chamberlains  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  was  commanded  to  select 
certain  Jewish  captives  to  be  instructed  in  the  literature  and 
sciences  of  the  Chaldajans.  In  this  number  he  included  Daniel 
and  his  three  companions,  whose  names  he  changed  into  Chal- 
da-an  appellations.  Their  refusal  to  partake  of  the  provisions 
sent  from  the  monarch's  table  filled  Ashpenaz  with  apprehension ; 
he  had,  however,  the  generosity  not  to  use  constraint  towards 
them.  At  that  time,  as  in  our  days,  the  Asiatic  despots  frequently 
punished  with  death  the  least  infraction  of  their  wills.  In  acced- 
ing to  the  request  of  Daniel,  Ashpenaz  had  every  thing  to 
a])prehend ;  and  the  grateful  prophet  specially  records  that 
God  had  disposed  him  to  treat  him  witli  kindness.  (Dan.  i.  3 
-Ifi.) 

AsTAiioTri,  a  Phoenician  or  Syrian  idol,  notice  of,  138. 

Asiirn,  the  son  of  Shem  (Gen.  iii.  11.),  who  gave  his  name  to 
Assyria. 

Asia,  one  of  the  largest  divisions  of  the  Old  World,  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is 
always  taken  for  Asia  Minor,  as  it  includes  the  proconsular  Asia, 
which  comprised  the  four  regions  of  Phrygia,  Mysia,  Caria,  and 
Lydia.  In  this  proconsular  Asia  were  the  seven  churches  of 
Ephesus,  Laodicaia,  Pergamos,  Philadelphia,  Sardis,  Smyrna,  and 
Tliyatira. 

Asi  Aliens,  officers  appointed  to  preside  over  the  worship  of  the 
gods,  and  the  sacred  games  in  Asia  Minor.  Seep.  140.  In  our 
version  of  Acts  xix.  31.  they  are  termed  the  chief  of  Asia. 

AsKKLoN,  a  city  in  the  territory  of  the  Philistines,  situated 
between  .A.zoth  and  Gaza  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  or 
Great  Sea,  about  520  furlongs  from  Jerusalem.  After  the  death 
of  Joshua,  the  tribe  of  Judah  took  Askelon,  which  subsequently 
became  one  of  the  five  governments  belonging  to  the  Philistines. 
(Judg.  i.  18.)  This  place  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. During  the  crusades  it  was  a  station  of  considerable 
importance,  but  is  now  a  very  inconsiderable  place. 

AsMoN.nANS,  an  appellation  given  to  the  Maccabees,  the 
descendants  of  Mattathias,  surnamed  Asmon.     See  p.  50. 

.^sN-Ai'i'Kn,  the  proper  name  of  an  Assyrian  king  or  general. 
(Ezra  iv.  10.)  On  account  of  the  statement  in  vcr.  2.  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  only  a  dillerent  name  of  Esarhaddon. 

AspiiAH,  a  lake  mentioned  in  1  Mace.  ix.  33.  which  Calmet 
supposes  to  be  the  Lacus  Asphaltites,  or  Dkau  Sea.  For  an 
accouwt  of  which  see  pp.  27,  2^1. 

Ass,  a  well  known  quadruped,  which  was  declared  to  be  un- 
clean, and  consequently  not  fit  to  be  eaten  by  the  Israelites. 
(Lev.  xi.  26.)  Asses  were  reared  by  them  for  draught,  175. 
For  a  refutation  of  the  calumny  against  the  Jews,  of  worship- 

VoL.  n.  3  F 


ping  an  ass,  see   p.  137.     And  on  the  subject  of  Balaam's  ass 
speaking,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  421. 

AssKMBLT  at  Ejihesus,  powers  of,  61. 

Assos,  a  maritime  city  of  Mysia,  according  to  some  geogra- 
phers, but  of  Troas,  according  to  others.  It  is  mentioned  in  Acts 
XX.  13,  14. 

AssyuiA,  a  country  of  Asia,  the  boundaries  of  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  assign.  It  a[)pears  to  have  been  situated  between  the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  enclosed  between  those  two  rivers, 
from  the  part  where  they  begin  to  approach  each  other  on  leav- 
ing Mesopotamia  to  that  where  they  join,  not  far  from  their 
mouth,  in  the  Gulf  of  Persia. 

It  must  naturally  excite  surprise,  that  so  small  a  country  should 
have  been  able  to  send  forth  armies  of  a  million  or  twelve  hun- 
dred thousand  men;  a  number  which  dismays  the  imagination, 
especially  when  we  consider  how  many  attendants  they  must 
have  had,  exclusive  of  fighting  men.  But  this  kind  of  enigma 
is  explained  by  the  manner  in  which  these  vast  armies  were 
formed.  From  the  centre  of  a  not  very  extensive  domain,  a  war- 
like band  frequently  issued,  which  poured  upon  the  neighbouring 
country,  carrying  away  the  inhabitants,  who,  having  no  other 
resource,  incorporated  themselves  with  the  conquerors.  United, 
and  allured  by  the  hope  of  plunder,  they  proceeded  onwards, 
ravaging  other  lands,  and  increasing  their  army  with  the  despoil- 
ed inhabitants,  who  in  like  manner  joined  them.  Thus  were 
formed  those  wandering  hordes  which,  under  the  name  of  Assy- 
rians, subdued  Mesopotamia,  penetrated  to  Armenia,  Media,  and 
Persia,  inundated  Syria  like  a  torrent,  and  carried  devastation 
through  Chalda;a,  become  the  country  of  the  Jews.  As  their 
conquests  extended,  the  centre  of  their  power  became  surrounded 
with  deserts,  and  itself  a  desert.  It  is  in  vain  that  we  seek  the 
vestiges  of  the  most  famous  cities,  Nineveh  for  instance,  which, 
from  the  descriptions  that  have  reached  us,  have  been  justly  enu- 
merated among  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It  is  in  vain,  likewise, 
that  we  inquire,  what  were  the  manners,  religion,  commerce,  and 
usages  of  the  Assyrians.  They  must  have  been  those  of  all  tho 
various  nations  who  united  to  form  them  ;  that  is  to  say,  they 
were  conquerors  and  barbarians,  who  allowed  the  greatest  liberty 
in  their  police  and  their  ceremonies,  provided  none  of  their  people 
adopted  laws  or  practices  which  might  obstruct  the  success  of 
their  warlike  expeditions. 

It  may  be  supposed  that  a  people  in  this  unsettled  state  had 
neither  the  time  nor  the  means  to  write  annals  which  may  serve 
as  a  basis  for  chronology,  or  furnish  any  certain  dates.  The 
memory  of  the  principal  facts  could  only  be  preserved  by  tradi- 
tion, and  it  has  been  transmitted  to  us  with  not  a  few  variations 
by  the  Greeks.  At  the  same  time  that  it  is  allowed,  that  we  owe 
to  the  latter  almost  all  the  historical  knowledge  we  possess  rela- 
tive to  the  ancient  nations  of  Asia,  it  must  be  admitted,  that  they 
have  greatly  disfigured  it  by  accommodating  to  their  own  lan- 
guage and  pronunciation  the  names  of  persons  and  divinities, 
and  assimilating  events  to  their  own  traditions  in  such  a  manner, 
that  when  we  imagine  we  are  in  possession  of  authentic  facts, 
we  frequently  discover  them  to  be  only  Grecian  fables.  This 
observation  may  serve  to  point  out  the  degree  of  confidence 
which  ought  to  be  reposed  in  the  histories  of  these  ancient 
times. 

Sketch  of  the  History  o/Asstiiia  illustrative  of  the  Prophetic 
IVri  tings. 

The  empire  of  Assyria  was  founded  by  Ninus,  the  son  of 
Belus ;  and,  according  to  Herodotus,  it  continued  five  hundred 
and  twenty  years.  (Herod,  lib.  i.  c.  95.)  Ninus  reigned  one 
hundred  and  twenty-two  years,  according  to  some  historians 
(Jul.  .\frican.  and  Eusebius  in  Chron.),  though  others  make  his 
reign  to  have  lasted  only  seventeen  years.  (Diod.  Sicul.  lib.  ii.  c. 
i. — iv.)  He  enlarged  and  embellished  the  ancient  city  of  Nine- 
veh, which  had  been  built  by  Nimrod,  many  ages  before  his  time. 
(Gen.  X.  9,  10.)  The  commencement  of  his  reign  is  fixed  by 
Archbishop  Usher  to  the  year  of  the  world  2737,  b.  c.  1267, 
during  the  period  when  Deborah  and  Barak  judged  the  Israel- 
ites. 

Ninus  was  succeeded  by  his  queen  Semiramis,  who  reigned 
forty-two  years.  She  enlarged  the  Assyrian  empire,  which  she 
left  in  a  flourishing  state  to  her  son  Ninyas,  a.  m.  2831,  a.  c. 
1173.  The  Scriptures  are  totally  silent  concerning  the  subse- 
quent history  of  that  celebr.ited  monarchy,  and  the  successors  ot 
Ninyas,  until  the  time  of  the  proithet  Jonah,  who  flourished  a.  >r. 
3180,  B.  c.  824 ;  and  even  then  they  do  not  state  the  name  of 
the  monarch  who  filled  the  Assyrian  throne.     It  is  evident,  how- 


410 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


AS 


ever,  that  Nineveh  was  at  that  time  a  city  of  immense  extent, 
whose  inhabitants,  Uke  those  of  other  great  cities  abounding  in 
wealth  and  luxury,  were  extremely  corrupt  in  their  morals.  But, 
at  the  preaching  of  Jonah,  both  sovereign  and  subjects  repented 
and  abandoned  their  evil  ways,  and  thus  for  a  time  delayed  the 
execution  of  the  divine  judgments.  About  fifty  years  after  the 
time  of  Jonah,  the  Scriptures  mention  a  king  of  Assyria,  named 
PuL,  who  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  the  days  of  Mena- 
hem  (2  Kings  xv.  19.  1  Chron.  v.  26.),  who  gave  him  a  thou- 
sand talents  of  silver  to  engage  him  to  lend  him  his  assistance, 
and  secure  him  on  his  throne.  Pul  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  father  of  Sardanapalus,  the  last  king  of  the  Assyrians, 
in  whose  reign  the  crimes  of  the  Ninevites  having  risen  to 
their  utmost  height,  God  raised  up  enemies  to  chastise  them. 
Arbaces  the  Median,  indignant  at  the  effeminate  and  luxurious 
life  which  Sardanapalus  led  in  his  palace,  conspired  with  Belesis, 
governor  of  Babylon,  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  so  worthless  a 
sovereign.  After  various  engagements,  they  compelled  him  to 
retreat  to  Nineveh,  where  he  expected  that  he  should  be  able  to 
defend  himself  a  long  time,  because  the  city  was  strongly  fortified, 
s^nd  the  besiegers  had  not  machines  to  batter  the  walls.  But  in 
the  third  year  of  the  siege,  the  river  Tigris,  being  swollen  with 
continual  rains,  overflowed  part  of  the  city,  agreeably  to  the  pre- 
dictions of  Nahum  (particularly  i.  8 — 10.),  and  broke  down  the 
wall  for  twenty  furlongs.  Sardanapalus,  that  he  might  not  fall 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  burnt  himself  in  his  palace,  with 
his  women  and  all  his  immense  treasures.  (Usher's  Annals,  p. 
48.  A.  M.  3254.  Athenseus,  hb.  xii.  c.  12.)  Arbaces  and  Belesis 
then  divided  the  dominions  of  Sardanapalus :  the  former  had 
Media,  which  he  restored  to  its  liberty  ;  the  latter  had  Babylon, 
where  he  reigned  fourteen  years :  Nineveh  they  left  to  Ninus 
the  younger,  who  was  heir  to  the  ancient  kings  of  Assyria,  and 
maintained  the  secorid  Assyrian  monarchy  with  considerable 
splendour ;  so  that  out  of  the  ruins  of  this  vast  empire  there 
were  formed  three  considerable  kingdoms,  viz.  that  of  Nineveh, 
that  of  Babylon,  and  that  of  the  Medes.  We  shall  briefly  con- 
sider each  of  them,  separately,  according  to  the  share  they  had 
in  the  affairs  of  the  Jews. 

Belesis,  called  Baladajt,  by  Isaiah  (xxxix.  1.  2  Kings  xx.  12.), 
is  the  Nabonassar  of  profane  historians.  He  founded  the  Baby- 
lonian empire,  of  which  he  made  Babylon  the  metropolis.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Merodach-Baladan,  who  cultivated 
Hezekiah's  friendship,  as  appears  from  the  embassy  which  he 
sent  to  the  latter,  to  congratulate  him  on  his  recovery  from  sick- 
ness (2  Kings  XX.  12.),  a.  m.  3291,  e.  c.  713.  After  this  time 
the  sacred  historians  are  silent  concerning  the  kings  of  Babylon, 
until  the  lime  of  Esar-haddon,  who  is  noticed  in  the  next  column. 
The  younger  Ninus,  who  was  left  king  of  Assyria  and  Nine- 
veh, is  the  TinLATH-i'iLESER  of  thc  Scriptures  (2  Kings  x v.  29. 
xvi.  7.  10.  2  Chron.  xxviii.  20.),  a.  m.  3257,  b.  c.  747.  His 
empire  appears  to  have  been  the  most  celebrated  in  the  East;  as 
Ahaz  king  of  Judah  sent  to  request  his  assistance  against  Rezin 
king  of  Damascus,  and  Pekah  king  of  Israel.  Accordingly,  Tig- 
lath-pileser  advanced  with  a  numerous  army,  defeated  Rezin,  cap- 
tured Damascus,  and  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  erected  there  by 
the  Syrians,  agreeably  to  the  predictions  of,  Isaiah  (viii.  4.)  and 
Amos.  (i.  5.)  He  also  entered  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  conquered 
Pekah,  and  carried  away  part  of  the  ten  tribes  beyond  the  river 
Euphrates.  But  A.haz  soon  had  cause  to  regret  this  unhallowed 
alliance :  for  Tiglath-pileser  exacted  from  him  such  immense 
sums  of  money,  that  he  was  obhged  not  only  to  exhaust  his  own 
treasures,  but  also  to  take  all  the  gold  and  silver  out  of  the  temple. 
(2  Chron.  xxviii.  20,  21.  24.)  Ahaz  became  tributary  to  the 
Assyrian  monarch,  whose  successors  found  abundance  of  pretexts 
for  entering  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  which  they  ultimately  ruined 
and  subverted. 

Shalmanesf.r,  the  successor  of  Tiglath-pileser,  came  into 
Syria,  a.  m.  3280,  b.  c.  724,  and  desolated  the  country  of  the 
Moabitcs,  agreeably  to  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  (xvi.  1.),  delivered 
three  years  before.  He  then  attacked  Samaria,  and  completed 
the  misfortunes  of  the  Israelites  who  remained,  by  carrying  them 
into  captivity  beyond  the  Euphrates.  Thus  terminated  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  a.  m.  3283,  b.  c.  721.  (2  Kings  xvii.  3.  xviii.  9 — 
11.)  Hezekiah,  by  the  special  protection  of  God,  escaped  the 
fury  of  Shalmaneser,  to  whom,  however,  he  became  tributary, 
and  the  Assyrian  returned  in  triumph  to  Nineveh. 

Shortly  after  these  events,  most  of  the  maritime  cities  that 
were  subject  to  the  Tyrians  revolted  against  them,  and  submitted 
to   the   Assyrians.     Shalmaneser  advanced  to  their  assistance. 


AN 

These  cities  furnished  him  with  a  fleet  ot  sixty  or  seventy  ves- 
sels, manned  by  eight  hundred  Phoenician  rowers.  They  were 
attacked  by  the  Tyrians  with  twelve  vessels  only  ;  who  dispersed 
their  fleet,  and  took  five  hundred  prisoners.  Thc  Assyrian  mon- 
arch did  not  venture  to  lay  siege  to  Tyre  ;  but  he  left  bodies  of 
troops  in  its  vicinity  to  guard  the  river  and  a(|ueducts  whence  the 
Tyrians  obtained  their  supplies  of  water.  His  precaiuions  were 
frustrated  by  the  besieged,  who  dug  wells  within  their  city.  It 
was  about  this  time  that  Isaiah  denounced  against  them  those 
judgments  which  are  recorded  in  the  twenty-third  chapter  of  his 
prophecies.  And  Hezekiah  seems  to  have  availed  himself  of  the 
troubled  state  of  Phoenicia  and  the  whole  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, in  order  to  attack  the  Philistines.  (2  Kings  xviii.  7,  8.) 
Sennacheiiib  ascended  the  throne  of  Assyria  a,  m.  3287. 
B.  c.  717,  and  was  immediately  involved  in  war,  both  in  Asia  and 
in  Egypt.  While  he  was  thus  engaged,  Hezekiah  shook  off  the 
yoke  of  the  Assyrians,  and  refused  to  pay  the  tribute  exacted 
from  him  by  Shalmaneser.  It  appears  from  some  passages  of 
Scripture  that  Hezekiah  had  concluded  treaties  of  mutual  alliance 
and  defence  with  the  kings  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  against  the 
Assyrian  monarch.  (Isa.  xx.  1.  et  seq.  2  Kings  xviii.  24.  xix. 
9.)  Upon  Hezekiah's  refusal  of  the  tribute,  Sennacherib  invaded 
Judah  with  a  mighty  army,  and  captured  the  principal  cities 
of  that  country.  It  is  probable  that  he  took  Damascus  in  his 
progress.  The  pious  monarch,  grieved  to  see  his  kingdom  pil- 
laged, implored  peace  of  Sennacherib  on  any  terms  he  would 
prescribe  :  and  gave  him  three  hundred  talents  of  silver  and 
thirty  talents  of  gold  to  withdraw.  But  the  Assyrian,  regardless 
alike  of  the  sanction  of  oaths  and  of  treaties,  continued  the  war, 
and  prosecuted  his  conquests  more  vigorously  than  ever.  Nothing 
was  able  to  withstand  his  power  ;  and  of  all  the  strong  places  of 
Judah,  none  remained  uncaptured  but  Jerusalem,  which  was 
reduced  to  the  very  last  extremity.  Isaiah,  however,  encouraged 
Hezekiah  by  promises  of  divine  interposition  and  deliverance, 
and  announced  that  the  enemy  would  soon  be  obliged  to  return 
into  his  own  country.  (2  Kings  xix.  20 — 34.)  Accordingly, 
after  Sennacherib  had  defeated  the  allied  forces  of  the  king  of 
Egypt  and  of  Tirhakah  king  of  Ethiopia,  who  had  advanced 
against  him  to  assist  Hezekiah,  he  returned  into  Judah  with  im- 
mense spoil,  and  renewed  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  :  but  an  angel 
of  Jehovah  slew  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  of  his 
troops.  (2  Kings  xix.  35.)  Sennacherib  returned  to  Nineveh, 
where  two  of  his  sons,  weary  of  his  tyranny  and  savage  temper, 
slew  him  while  he  was  worshipping  in  the  temple  of  Nisroch  his 
god,  and  immediately  fled  into  the  mountains  of  Armenia.  (2 
Kings  xix.  37.  Tobit  i.  21.) 

It  was  during  the  first  year  of  this  war  that  Hezekiah  fell  sick, 
and  was  cured  in  a  miraculous  manner,  and  that  the  shadow  of 
the  sun  went  back  ten  degrees  on  the  dial  of  the  palace,  to  prove 
the  truth  of  Isaiah's  prediction  of  his  recovery.  (2  Kings  xviii. 
xix.  XX.  Isa.  xxxviii.  xxxix.) 

A.  M.  3294,  B.  c.  710.  On  the  death  of  Sennacherib,  Esati- 
HADBON,  another  of  his  sons  reigned  in  his  stead.  He  is  called 
Sargon  by  Isaiah,  (xx.  1.)  He  reigned  twenty-nine  years, 
during  which  he  waged  war  with  the  Philistines,  from  whom  his 
general.  Tartan,  took  Ashdod.  He«also  attacked  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia  (Isa.  xx.),  and  Idumseaor  Edom  (Isa.^xxxiv.),  in  order 
to  avenge  the  injuries  they  had  committed  against  his  father  Sen- 
nacherib ;  and  at  length  he  took  Jerusalem,  and  carried  Manas- 
seh  king  of  Judah  to  Babylon.  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.)  This  last 
war,  however,  happened  long  after  those  above  related.  Esar- 
haddon  restored  the  glory  of  Assyria ;  and  in  addition  to  his 
other  victories,  to  the  sceptre  of  Nineveh  he  united  that  of  Baby- 
lon, having  availed  himself  of  the  intestine  troubles  and  commo- 
tions occasioned  by  the  extinction  of  the  royal  family,  to  make 
himself  master  of  that  city,  and  annex  it  to  his  former  dominions. 
Manasseh,  having  been  restored  to  the  divine  favour  after  a  deep 
and  sincere  repentance,  obtained  his  liberty,  and  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem, after  a  short  captivity  at  Babylon.  (Usher's  Annals, 
A.  M.  3327.) 

Saosduchin  or  Nebuchadnezzar  I.  succeeded  Esar-haddbn, 
and  reigned  twenty  years,  according  to  Ptolemy.  Having  con- 
quered Arphaxad  king  of  the  Medes  (the  Dcioces  of  Herodotus, 
lib.  i.  cc.  101,  102.),  he  resolved  to  subjugate  all  the  neighbour- 
ing territories.  He  therefore  despatched  Holofernes  into  Syria 
and  Palestine  with  an  immense  army  ;  but  that  general  was  slain, 
and  his  army  totally  discomfited,  before  Bethulia,  in  the  manner 
related  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith. 

A.  M.  3356,  B.C.  648,  Saracus,  otherwise  called  Chinaldon  or 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
A  Z  B  A 


411 


Chyna-Laclanus,  succeeded  Saosduchin  in  the  Assyrian  throne. 
Having  rondcri'd  liimsclf  olmoxious  to  his  sulyocts  l)y  his  eflcmi- 
nacy,  iitui  tlic  little  euro  he  look  of  his  doiiiinioiiK,  IS'abojiola.ssar, 
satrap  of  Babylon,  and  (.'yaxares  the  son  of  Astyaf!;es  king  of 
Media,  lea.?iicd  togclher  against  him.  He  was  Iw-sicged  in 
Nineveh,  whieh  was  taken  by  his  enemies,  wiio  j)artitioned  his 
dominions  iit'twcen  them  ;  Naliopolassar  lieeoiniiig  inaslcr  of 
Ninevidi  and  Babylon,  and  (^'yaxares  having  Media  and  the 
adjarent  provinces.  (I'sher's  Annals,  a.  m.  .3378.  Cahnet,  I'rt'cis 
de  I'Histoirc  IVofane  de  I'Orient,  §  I.  Dissert,  lorn.  ii.  jjp.  329 — 
333.) 

AssTiiiAN   Idols,  worshipped  by  the  Israelites,  138. 

AsTAiiTK,  a  Phu-nician  or  Syrian  idol,  notice  of,  13S. 

AsriioNoMY  and  Asriioi.ixjv  of  the  .lews,  l>^f!,  187. 

Atiiai.i  All,  daughter  of  ()nn-i  king  of  Samaria,  and  wife  of 
Jehoram  king  of  Judah.  Jehu  having  slain  her  son  Ahaziah,  she 
seized  the  kingdom,  and  destroyed  all  the  sons  of  Jehoram  (whom 
he  had  by  other  wives)  exee|)t  Jehoash,  who  was  providentially 
saved  by  Jehoslieba,  and  who  afti'rwards  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
Athaiiah  was  shiin,  after  an  usur|)ation  of  six  years.   (2  Kings  xi.) 

Atiikns,  a  celebrated  city  of  (Jreece,  sometimes  a  very  power- 
ful commonwealth,  distinguished  by  the  military  talents,  but  still 
more  by  the  learning,  eloiiuence,  and  politeness  of  its  inhabitants. 
Saint  Paul  coming  hither,  a.  it.  32,  found  them  plunged  in  idol- 
atry, occupied  in  imiuiring  and  reiwrling  news,  curious  to  know 
every  thing,  and  divided  in  opinion  concerning  religion  and  hap- 
piness. (Acts  xvii.)  From  an  altar  erected  to  the  "  Unknown 
God"  (for  the  origin  of  which  see  Vol.  I.  p.  90),  the  great  apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,  taking  opjjortunities  here  to  preach  Jesus  Christ, 
was  carried  before  the  judges  of  the  tribunal,  called  the  Areopagus; 
where  he  gave  an  illustrious  testimony  to  truth,  and  a  remarkable 
instance  of  powerful  reasoning.  (See  an  account  of  the  Auko- 
paous  in  pp.  GO,  61.) 

Some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ancient  art  at  Athens  now 
adorn  the  British  Museum.  The  reader,  who  is  desirous  of  a 
full  account  of  the  modern  state  of  Athens,  and  of  its  various 
monuments  of  former  times,  is  referred  to  the  Travels  of  Dr. 
Clarke,  to  the  Classical  Tour  of  Mr.  Dodweli,  and  to  Mr.  Stuart's 
Antiquities  of  Athens. 

Aton  K.-rtENT,  fast  of,  127. 

Attalia,  a  maritime  city  of  Pamphylia,  and  the  chief 
residence  of  the  prefect.  It  derived  its  name  from  king  At- 
talus,  its  founder.  Hither  Saint  Paul  went  from  Perga  in 
Pamphylia.  (Acts  xiv.  25.)  It  still  subsists  under  the  name  of 
Sattalia. 

Augustus  (Octavius)  the  first,  or,  according  to  some  writers, 
the  second  emperor  of  Rome.  He  commanded  the  enrolment  to 
be  made  which  is  mentioned  in  Luke  ii.  1. — The  forty-second 
year  of  his  reign  is  that  in  which  Jesus  Christ  was  born.  The 
title  of  Augustus,  which  he  received  from  the  flattery  of  the 
senate,  became  the  personal  appellation  of  his  successors ;  and 
St.  Luke  has  employed  the  corresponding  Greek  word,  to  desig- 
nate Nero.  (Acts  xxv.  21.25.) 
^  AvEN.     Sec  Ox,  infra. 

AvEjf  (Plain  of),  a  beautiful  valley  in  the  part  of  Syria  near 
to  Damascus:  according  to  Gesenius,  it  is  now  called  Un,  and 
is  proverbially  coiisidered  as  a  delightful  valley.  As  the  original 
word  (Bikath-.\ven,  which  is  retained  in  the  marginal  rendering 
of  Amos  i.  5.)  signifies  the  plain  of  vanity,  it  is  conjectured  to 
have  been  a  place  remarkable  for  idolatry.  Bethel  being  called 
Beth-Aven  in  Hos.  v.  8.  for  that  reason. 

AviMs,  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country  afterwards  pos- 
sessed by  the  Caphtorim  or  Philistines.  (Deut.  ii.  23.) 

AviTEs  or  AviM,  the  inhabitants  of  Avch  or  Ava,  a  city 
whence  colonies  were  sent  into  Samaria.  (2  Kings  xvii.  24.  31.) 
Ava  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated  in  the  north-west  of 
Chalda-a. 

Azahiah. — 1.  The  name  of  a  king  of  Judah,  also  called 
UzziAii  (which  see  infra): — 2.  The  name  of  several  high- 
priests  among  the  Jews  : — and,  3.  The  name  of  a  prophet  in  the 
time  of  Asa.  (2  Chron.  xv.  1,  2.) 

AzEK  AH,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem, 
and  east  of  Bethlehem.   (Josh.  xv.  35.) 

Azo;rrs.  or  Asiinon,  a  city  of  Judtea,  is  situated  between  Gaza 
and  Jamnia,  or  Jafnia,  on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  pleasant  plain.  Here  the  ark  of  Jehovah  triumphed 
over  the  Philistine  idol  Dagon  (1  Sam.  v.  2.),  and  Philip  the 
Evangelist  was  found,  after  he  had  baptized  the  Ethiopian 
eunuch.  (AcU  viii.  40.)  It  is  at  present  an  inconsiderable  place, 
and  in  its  vicinity  are  numerous  reliques  of  antiquity.' 


Baal,  a  Phoenician  idol,  notice  of,  138. 

Baalhekitii,'^ 

BAAi./,Ki;rii,   C  Phoenician  idols,  notice  of,  138. 

Baal'/.i;i'iiii.n,  J 

BAALi'tou,  a  Canaanitish  idol,  notice  of,  137,  138. 

Baasiia,  the  son  of  Ahijah,  and  commander  in  chief  to  Jero- 
boam I. :  he  treacherously  killed  his  sovereign  Nadab,  and  after- 
wards usurped  his  kingdom,  ii.  c.  953 — 930. 

Bahvlon,  the  metropolis  of  Chahh-ca,  began  to  be  built  at  the 
same  time  as  the  tower  of  Bahkl,  and  both  were  left  unfinished 
at  the  confusion  of  tongues.  (Gen.  xi.  4 — 8.)  It  was  celebratet' 
for  the  magnificence  of  its  buildings,  especially  after  its  enlarge- 
ment and  imjirovement  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  when  it  became  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It  is  said  to  have  covered  an  area 
of  480  stadia,  or  nearly  GO  miles  in  circumference;  and  the  wall 
by  which  it  was  surrounded  was  50  cubits  in  thickness,  and  200 
in  height.  The  river  Euj)hrates  divided  the  city  into  two  parts, 
which  were  connected  by  means  of  a  noble  bridge,  about  a  fur- 
long in  length  and  sixty  feet  wide.  (Dr.  Hales  has  given  a 
coj)ious  and  accurate  account  of  ancient  Babylon  in  his  Analysis 
of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  pp.  453 — 450.) 

The  banks  of  the  waters  of  Babylon  were  planted  with  willows, 
which  arc  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Thus,  Isaiah  (xv.  7.), 
describing  in  prophetic  language  the  captivity  of  the  Moabites  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  says,  that  they  shall  be  carried  away  to  the 
valley  of  luilloxvs.  The  territory  surrounding  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Babylon,  is  at  present  composed  chiefly  of  plains,  whoFO 
soil  is  rich  ;  and  the  river  banks  are  still  hoary  with  reeds,  and 
covered  with  the  grey  osier  willows,  on  which  the  captives  of 
Israel  suspended  their  harps  (Psal.  cxxxvii.  1 — 4.),  and  refused 
to  be  comforted,  while  their  conquerors  tauntingly  commanded 
them  to  sing  the  songs  of  Sion.  (Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in 
Georgia,  «fec.  vol.  ii.  p.  297.)  The  most  terrible  denunciations 
were  uttered  against  Babylon  by  the  Hebrew  prophets  (compare 
Vol.  I.  p.  126.)  the  Uteral  fulfilment  of  whose  predictions  has 
been  shown  by  various  modern  travellers  who  have  described 
the  present  state  of  its  ruins.  (See  particularly  Mr.  Rich's  Two 
Memoirs  on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon,  the  accuracy  of  whose  state- 
ments is  confirmed  by  Mr.  Buckingham,  in  the  interesting  de- 
scription contained  in  his  Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  ii.  pp.  258 
— 394. :  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Georgia,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  308 
— 332.  337 — 400. ;  and  the  Hon.  Capt.  Keppel's  Narrative  of 
Travels  from  India,  vol.  i.  pp.  171 — 188.,  who  also  attests  the 
accuracy  of  Mr.  Rich,  and  has  adopted  his  measurements.)  7'he 
prophet  Isaiah,  describing  the  calamities  that  were  to  be  inflicted 
on  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  calls  this  city  the  desert  of  the  sea.  Jere- 
miah, to  the  same  purport,  says  (Ii.  36.  42.),  I -will  dry  tip  the 
sea  of  Babylon  and  make  her  springs  dry. — The  sea  is  come 
up  upon  her.  She  is  covered  with  the  multitude  of  the  wavet 
thereof.  Megasthenes  (in  Eusebius  De  Prsep.  Evang.  lib.ix.  c.41.) 
states,  that  Babylon  was  built  in  a  place  which  had  before  so 
greatly  abounded  with  water,  that  it  was  called  the  sea. 

Babylon  was  very  advantageously  situated,  both  in  respect  to 
commerce  and  as  a  naval  power.  It  was  open  to  the  Persiaa 
Gulf  by  the  Euphrates,  which  was  navigable  by  large  vessels ; 
and  being  joined  to  the  Tigris  above  Babylon,  by  the  canal 
called  J\'aharm(ilca,  or  the  Royal  River,  supplied  the  city  with 
the  produce  of  the  whole  country  to  the  north  of  it,  as  far  as  the 
Euxine  and  Caspian  Seas.  Semiramis  was  the  foundress  of  this 
part  also  of  the  Babylonian  greatness.  She  improved  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Euphrates,  and  is  said  to  have  had  a  tleet  of  three 
thousand  galleys.  We  are  not  to  wonder  that,  in  later  times,  we 
hear  little  of  the  commerce  and  naval  power  of  Babylon:  for, 
after  the  capture  of  the  city  by  Cyrus,  the  Euphrates  was  not 
only  rendered  less  fit  for  navigation  by  being  diverted  from  its 
course,  and  left  to  spread  over  the  country ;  but  the  Persian 
monarchs,  residing  in  their  own  country,  in  order  to  prevent  any 
invasion  by  sea  on  that  part  of  their  empire,  purposely  obstructed 
the  navigation  of  both  rivers  by  making  cataracts  in  them ;  that 
is,  by  raising  dams  across  the  channel,  and  making  artificial  falls 
in  them,  so  that  no  vessel  of  any  size  or  force  could  possibly  come 
up.  Alexander  began  to  restore  the  navigation  of  the  rivers  by 
demoUshing  the  cataracts  upon  the  Tig^s,  as  far  up  as  Seleucia, 
but  he  did  not  live  to  complete  his  great  designs ;  those  upon  the 
Euphrates  still  continued.  Ammianus  Marcellinus  mentions 
them  as  subsisting  in  his  time.  The  prophet  Isaiah  (xliii.  14., 
Bishop  Lowth's  translation)  speaks  of  the  Chaldxans  exulting' 
in  their  ships  ;  which,  Bp.  L.  remarks,  he  might  justly  do,  in  his 
time,  though  afterwards  they  had  no  foundation  for  any  such 
boast     (Bp.  Lowth,  on  Isa.  xliii.  14.) 


412 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


B  A 


Babylon  rapidly  declined  during  the  Persian  dynasty :  Darius 
Hystapes  broke  down  the  walls  and  took  away  the  gates,  which 
Cyrus  had  spared.  Alexander  the  Great  designed  to  rebuild  the 
temple  of  Belus,  which  hud  gone  to  decay,  and  actually  employed 
ten  thousand  labourers  for  two  months  in  removing  the  rubbish ; 
but  the  attempt  was  rendered  abortive  by  his  premature  death, 
in  the  flower  of  his  age,  and  pride  of  conquest.  Scleucus  Nicator, 
his  successor  in  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  dismantled  and  spoiled 
Babylon,  to  build  Seleucia  in  its  neighbourhood,  to  which  he 
transplanted  the  inhabitants;  and  in  Strabo's  time,  about  the 
Christian  ajra,  "the  grealerpart  of  Babylon  was  become  a  desert," 
which  the  Parthian  kings  converted  into  a  park,  where  they  took 
the  recreation  of  hunting,  in  Jerome's  time,  a.  d.  340.  Its  ruins 
are  now  the  haunts  of  lions  and  other  beasts  of  prey.  Thus 
gradually  have  been  fulfilled  the  predictions  of  Scripture  : — "  Ba- 
bylon, the  beauty  of  kingdoms,  the  glory  of  the  pride  of  the 
Chaldeans,  shall  become  as  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  which  God 
overthrew.  It  shall  never  be  re-established,  neither  shall  it  be 
inhabited  from  generation  to  generation.  The  Arab  shall  not 
pitch  his  tent  there,  nor  shall  the  shepherd  make  his  fold  there : 
the  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  shall  he  there,  and  howling  monsters 
shall  fill  their  houses : — for  her  time  is  near  to  come,  and  her 
days  shall  not  be  prolonged."   (Isaiah  xiii.  19 — 22.) 

The  remains  of  ancient  Babylon,  as  described  by  recent  tra- 
vellers, are  so  vast,  that  the  whole  could  never  be  suspected  of 
having  been  the  work  of  human  hands,  were  it  not  for  the  layers 
of  bricks  which  are  found  therein.  They  are  fire-baked,  and  ce- 
mented with  zepht,  or  bitumen  ;  between  each  layer  are  found 
oziers.  Here  are  found  those  large  and  thick  bricks  imprinted 
with  unknown  characters,  specimens  of  which  are  preserved  in 
the  British  Museum,  in  the  Museum  of  the  East  India  Company, 
and  in  other  depositories  of  antiquities.  The  composition  of 
these  bricks  corresponds  exactly  with  the  account  given  by  the 
sacred  historian  of  the  builders  of  Babel.  Let  us  make  brick 
(said  they),  and  burn  them  thoroughly.  And  they  had  brick 
for  stone,  and  slime  had  they  for  mortar,  (Gen.  xi.  3.) 

The  name  of  Babylon  was  mystically  given  to  Rome  by  the 
apostle  Peter,  as  we  have  shown  at  length  in  the  critical  preface 
to  his  first  epistle,  in  Vol.  II.  pp.  361,  362.     The 

Babylonian  Kingdom 
was  founded  by  the  celebrated  hunter  and  hero  Nimrod,  after  the 
dispersion  which  followed  the  unsuccessful  attempt  to  build  the 
tower  of  Babel.  "  It  extended  from  Babylon  in  Mesopotamia 
towards  the  north,  over  Calneh  (Ctesiphon),  as  far  as  Accad 
(Nisibis)  and  Erech  (Edessa),  including  the  whole  land  of  Shi- 
nar.  But,  however  powerful  for  those  times,  we  cannot  suppose 
it  to  have  been  either  populous  or  well  organized.  Even  the 
four  cities,  which  are  mentioned  as  the  strongholds  of  this  king- 
dom, were  nothing  more  than  small  villages  slightly  fortified.  As 
this  was  the  first  attempt  to  establish  an  extensive  domain,  it 
must  have  been  universally  disagreeable  to  the  men  of  that  period. 
Consequently,  it  was  of  short  duration;  and  Nimrod's  Babylon 
must  not  be  regarded  as  the  germ  of  that  universal  monarchy 
which  took  its  rise  in  a  later  age,  and  among  a  different  people." 
(Jahn's  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  vol.  i.  p.  6.) 
Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Babylonian  or  Chaldiean  Em- 
riHE,  to  illustrate  the  Predictions  of  the  Prophets. 

A.  M.  3398,  B.  c.  606.  Nabopolassar  having  associated  his  son 
Nkbuchadnezzah  with  him  in  the  empire,  sent  him  to  reduce 
the  provinces  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  which  had  revolted  from 
him.  In  his  way  thither,  the  young  prince  defeated  the  army 
of  Pharaoh  Necho  king  of  Egypt,  and  recaptured  Carchemish. 
(Jer.  xlvi.  2.)  Having  penetrated  into  Judtea,  he  besieged  Jeru- 
salem, and  took  it,  and  caused  Jehoiakim,  the  son  of  Josiah,  king 
of  Judah,  to  be  put  in  chains,  intending  to  have  him  carried  to 
Babylon ;  but,  being  moved  with  his  repentance  and  aflliction, 
he  restored  him  to  his  throne.  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  6.)  Great  num- 
bers of  the  Jews,  and  among  the  rest,  some  children  of  the  royal 
family,  were  carried  captive  to  Bal)ylon,  whither  all  the  royal 
treasures,  and  part  of  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple,  were  like- 
wise transported.  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  7.  Dan.  i.  1 — 7.)  Thus  was 
accomplished  the  judgment  which  God  had  denounced  to  Heze- 
kiah  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  (xxxix.  5 — 7.)  From  this  celebrated 
period,  which  was  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim  king  of  Judah, 
we  are  to  date  the  seventy  years'  captivity  of  the  Jews  at  Baby- 
lon, so  often  foretold  by  Jeremiah.  Among  the  members  of  the 
royal  family  thus  taken  captives  was  the  prophet  Daniel;  Ezekiel 
followed  some  time  afterwards. 

A.  M.  3399,  B.C.  605.  Nabopolassar  died,  and  Nebuchadnezzar 
began  to  reign  alone ;  and  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  empire  he 


B  A 

had  the  memoralde  vision  related  and  interpreted  by  the  profihet 
Daniel,  (ii.)  At  this  time  Jehoiakim  revolted  from  the  king  of 
Babylon,  whose  generals  marched  against  him,  and  ravaged  his 
country.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  1,  2.)  Jehoiakim  "  slept  with  his  fathers," 
neither  regretted  nor  lamented  by  his  subjects,  agreeably  to  the 
prediction  of  Jeremiah  (xxii.  18,  19.)  ;  though  the  precise  man- 
ner of  its  fulfilment  is  not  recorded  by  the  sacred  historian.  Je- 
hoiachin  or  Jeconiah,  also  called  Coniah  (Jer.  xxii.  24.),  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  and  iniquity  of  his  father ;  and  in  the  eighth 
year  of  his  reign  Jerusalem  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the 
generals  of  Nebuchadnezzar ;  and  Jehoiachin,  together  with  part 
of  the  nobility,  and  the  princes  of  the  people,  were  carried  into 
captivity,  to  Babylon.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  6 — 16.) — Mattaniah,  also 
called  Zedekiah,  who  was  the  uncle  of  Jehoiachin,  was  elevated 
to  the  throne,  and  left  at  Jerusalem,  a.  bi.  3405,  b.  c.  599. 
(2  Kings  xxiv.  17.) 

Nebuchadnezzar  did  not  continue  long  at  Babylon.  Having 
received  intelligence  that  Zedekiah  had  made  an  alliance  with 
Pharaoh  Hophra  king  of  Egypt,  and  had  violated  his  oath  of 
fidelity,  Nebuchadnezzar  marched  against  him,  defeated  his  forces, 
and  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  agreeably  to  the  prediction  of  Jere- 
miah, (xliv.  30.)  The  arrival  of  the  Egyptian  monarch,  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  army,  gave  the  besieged  a  gleam  of  hope, 
but  their  joy  was  of  short  duration.  The  Egyptians  were  de- 
feated, and  the  conqueror  returned  to  Jerusalem,  which  he  took 
by  storm,  after  a  siege  of  two  years,  a.  m.  3416,  b.  c.  588.  Ze- 
dekiah was  arrested  in  his  flight,  and  conducted  to  Riblath, 
where  Nebuchadnezzar  was.  After  seeing  his  two  children  put 
to  death  before  his  face,  the  Jewish  king  was  deprived  of  both 
his  eyes,  loaded  with  chains,  and  carried  to  Babylon,  where  he 
died.  Jerusalem  was  destroyed,  the  temple  pillaged  and  burnt, 
and  the  chief  of  the  people  that  yet  survived  were  carried  into 
captivity  beyond  the  Euphrates.  Only  a  wretched  remnant  of 
the  common  people  was  left  in  Judaea,  under  the  government  of 
Gedaliah  the  son  of  Ahikam  (Jer.  xl.  5.)  ;  who  being  afterwards 
put  to  death  by  Ishmael  the  son  of  Nethaniah,  part  of  the  people 
withdrew  into  Egypt  with  Jeremiah  (xli.  xlii.),  and  the  rest  were, 
a  few  years  afterwards,  transported  to  Babylon  by  Nebuzaradan. 
(Jer.  hi.  30:) 

A.  M.  3419,  n.  c.  585.  Three  years  after  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem, Nebuchadnezzar  commenced  the  siege  of  Tyre  ;  he  closely 
invested  it  for  twelve  years,  and  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  the 
siege  he  took  that  city.  During  this  interval  he  waged  war  with 
the  Sidonians,  Ammonites,  Moabites,  and  Edomites,  or  Idumeans, 
in  conformity  with  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  and  Oba- 
diah.  (Jer.  xliii.  xliv.  xlvi.  Ezek.  xxvi. — xxviii.  Obad.  through- 
out.) Having  captured  Tyre,  Nebuchadnezzar  entered  Egypt, 
and  laid  waste  the  whole  country.  (Ezek.  xxix. — xxxi.)  Pha- 
raoh Hophra  (the  Apries  of  profane  historians)  was  put  to  death 
by  his  enemies  (Jer.  xhv.  30.  Ezek.  xxxii.)  ;  and  Amasis,  his 
rival  for  the  throne,  was  left  to  govern  that  country  in  his  stead. 
Nebuchadnezzar  carried  a  great  number  of  captives  from  Egypt 
to  Babylon. 

After  his  return  from  these  successful  expeditions,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar employed  himself  in  embellishing  Babylon  ;  but,  to  hum- 
ble his  pride,  God  sent  him  the  mamorable  admonitory  dream, 
recorded  by  the  prophet  Daniel  (iv.  1 — 27.) ;  and  twelve  months 
afterwards  he  was  bereft  of  his  senses,  precisely  in  the  manner 
that  had  been  foretold.  (28 — 33.)  At  length  he  recovered  his 
understanding  (34 — 37.),  and  shortly  after  died,  in  the  forty- 
third  year  of  his  reign,  a.  m.  3442,  b.  c.  563.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Evil-Mehodach,  who  reigned  only  two  years.  He  liberated 
Jehoachin  king  of  Judah,  who  had  been  detained  in  captivity 
nearly  thirty-seven  years.  (Jer.  lii.  31.)  Evil-Merodach  becom- 
ing odious  to  his  subjects  in  consequence  of  his  debaucheries 
and  iniquities,  his  own  relations  conspired  against  him,  and  put 
him  to  death.  Neriglissar,  one  of  the  conspirators,  reigned  in 
his  stead ;  and  after  a  short  reign  of  four  years,  being  slain  in 
battle,  he  was  succeeded  by  Laborosoarchod,  a  wicked  and  inglo- 
rious prince,  whom  his  subjects  put  to  death  for  his  crimes.  To 
him  succeeded  Belshazzah,  called  by  Berosus,  Nebonidus,' and 
by  Heroditus,  Labynitus.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  son 
of  Evil-Merodach,  and  consequently  the  grandson  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, to  whom,  according  to  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah,  all  the 
nations  of  the  east  were  to  be  subject,  as  also  to  his  son  and 
grandson.  (Calmct,  Precis  de  I'Histoire  Prophane  de  I'Orient, 
§  II.     Dissertations,- tom.  ii.  pp.  333—335.) 

Babylonian  Idols,  notice  of,  139. 

Baithylia,  or  consecrated  stones,  notice  of,  138. 

Balaam,  the  son  of  Beor,  dwelt  at  Pethor  in  Mesopotamia, 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


413 


B  A 

not  far  from  the  river  Euphrates.  He  was  sent  for  by  Balak 
king  of  Moah  to  curse  the  Israelites;  but  inKtead  of  curses,  lie 
proiiDuiicod  only  bk-ssint^s.  (.Num.  xxii. — xxiv.)  It  is  a  ques- 
tion  liiucti  debated  aiiion;^  eomiiielitators,  whether  Balaam  was 
a  true  prophet  of  the  Jjord,  or  only  a  magician  and  diviner  or 
fortune-teller:  and  the  arguments  on  each  side  arc  so  strong,  as 
to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  he  was  both — a  (Jhaldxan  jiriest, 
magician,  and  astrologer  by  profession,  a  prophet  by  accident. 
He  dwelt  in  a  country,  which,  from  time  immemorial,  was  cele- 
brate<l  for  the  observation  of  the  stars  ;  and  the  astronomy  of 
onti'iuity  was  never,  )icrha|)s,  free  from  astrology.  His  fame,  in 
every  thing  which  at  that  time  formed  the  science  of  Chaldu;a, 
iJllfd  Asia:  the  honours  and  |)reHents  which  he  received,  show 
the  hi'4;h  estimation  in  which  be  was  held.  It  is  a  circumstance, 
niorcover,  worthy  of  remark,  that  his  religion  was  not  a  pure 
idolatry.  He  knew  and  served  the  Loiid  :  the  knowledge  and 
worship  of  the  true  God  did  not  simultaneously  disa|)[)ear  among 
tlie  nations;  as  is  evident  from  the  circumstances  recorded  of 
Melchisedek,  Jetbro,  and,  perhaps,  Abimelccb.  The  history  of 
Balaam  presents  the  last  trace  of  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God, 
which  is  found  out  of  Canaan.  If  the  rites  celebrated  by  him 
were  not  devoid  of  superstition  ;  if  it  be  dillicult  to  put  a  favoura- 
ble construction  upon  the  enchantments  which  .Moses  seems  to 
attribute  to  him,  it  only  follows  that  Balaam,  like  jjaban,  blended 
error  and  truth.  The  mixed  religion,  thus  professed  by  him, 
furnishes  a  key  to  his  mysterious  history.  Sacerdotal  maledic- 
tions were  at  that  time  regarded  as  inevitable  scourges,  and  the 
people  of  Moab  and  Midian  thought  that  they  should  find  in 
Moab  an  adversary,  who  was  capable  of  opposing  Moses;  and  it 
was  only  opposing  a  prophet  to  a  prophet,  a  priest  to  a  priest. 
In  the  judgment  of  these  nations,  Moses  was  a  formidable  magi- 
cian ;  and,  as  Pharaoh  had  done  forty  years  before,  they  sought 
out,  on  their  part,  a  magician,  to  defend  them  :  they  wished  to 
curse  the  Israelites  in  the  very  name  of  .lehovah,  whom  they 
sujiposcd  to  be  a  more  powerful  deity  than  their  own  god.  These 
circumstances  will  enable  us  without  dilliculty  to  coticeive  how 
Balaam  received  the  gift  of  prophecy.  The  terms  employed  by 
the  sacred  historian  are  so  express,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  he, 
occasionally,  at  Ica-^t,  was  inspired.  Besides,  his  predictions  are 
extant ;  nor  does  it  avail  to  say,  that  Balaam  was  a  wicked  man. 
The  gift  of  prophecy  did  not  always  sanctify  the  heart.  (See 
Matt.  vii.  22.)  If,  then,  we  refer  to  the  circumstances  of  that 
memorable  day,  we  shall  find  in  that  dispensation  reasons  worthy 
of  the  divine  wisdom.  The  Hebrews  had  arrived  on  the  borders 
of  Canaan,  which  country  they  were  on  the  point  of  entering ; 
they  knew  that  Moses  would  not  enter  it ;  and  in  order  to  en- 
courage the  people  to  etlect  the  conquest  of  the  protnised  land, 
even  without  Moses,  God  caused  one  who  was  hostile  to  them 
to  utter  predictions  of  their  victory.  How  encouraging  must 
tliis  circumstance  have  been  to  the  Hebrews,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  would  prove  to  them  (who  were  about  to  come  into  con- 
tinual contact  with  the  Canaanites)  how  vain  and  useless  against 
them  would  be  the  superstitions  of  those  idolatrous  nations.  The 
three  hills  on  which  Balaam  olfered  sacrifices  in  the  [)resence  of 
the  Israclitish  camp,  remind  us  of  one  of  the  prejudices  of 
ancient  times.  The  ancients  believed  that  a  change  of  aspect 
induced  a  change  of  condition.     On  this  subject  compare  p.  90. 

Balabax,  or  MEuoHACii-BALAnAN,  the  Belesis  and  Nabonas- 
sar  of  profane  historians,  and  the  founder  of  the  Babylonian 
empire.  Originally  only  governor  of  Babylon,  he  entered  into 
a  conspiracy  with  Arbaces,  governor  of  Media,  against  Sardana- 
palus,  king  of  Assyria ;  on  whose  death  he  had  Babylon  for  his 
share  of  the  dominions  of  Sardanapalus,  as  already  related  in 
p.  192.  of  this  Index. 

Balak,  king  of  Moab,  is  known  only  by  the  circumstance  of 
his  having  invited  Balaam  to  his  assistance  against  the  Israelites. 
See  Balaam. 

Balm  of  Gilf.ad,  36. 

Banisiimkxt,  a  Jewish  punishment,  notice  of,  66. 

Baptism  of  Proselytes,  109.  Analogy  between  Circumcision 
and  Baptism.     See  p.  110.  and  note. 

Barabbas,  the  name  of  a  seditious  robber,  whose  release  the 
Jews  demanded  of  Pilate.  (John  xviii.  40.) 

BAnAcniAS,the  father  of  Zacharias,  mentioned  in  Matt,  xxiii. 
35.,  is  supposed  to  have  been  Jehoiada  the  high-priest ;  it  being 
not  uncommon  among  the  Jews  to  have  two  names. 

Barak,  the  son  of  Abinoam,  who,  in  conjunction  with  Debo- 
rah, delivered  the  Israelites  from  the  oppression  of  the  Canaan- 
ites.  (Judg.  iv.  V.  Heb.  xi.  32.) 

B.iBBARiAir,  one  who  belongs  to  a  different  nation,  and  uses 


B  E 

a  difl'erent  language.    In  this  sense  the  word  was  used  by  the 
Greeks,  Komans,  and  Jevi-s.     Under  the  terms  "Greeks"  and 
"Barbarians"  Saint  Paul  comjjrebends  all  mankind. 
Baki:ai.\s  and  Salks,  how  made  and  ratified,  81. 

Bau-ji;suh,  a  Jewish  magician  in  the  island  of  Crete;  who, 
o()posing  I'aul  and  Barnabas,  and  endeavouring  to  prevent  Ser- 
gius  Paulus  from  end)racing  Christianity,  was  by  St.  Paul  stru<k 
blind.  (Acts  xiii.  0.)  On  the  nature  of  this  blindness,  see  p.  197. 
The  same  miracle,  which  punished  the  impostor,  converted  the 
proconsul.  St.  Luke  calls  him  Elymas,  an  Arabic  name  signi- 
lying  sorcerer.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  the  procon- 
sul's council,  who  was  apprehensive  of  losing  his  credit,  if  the 
lioinan  became  a  Christian. 

Bar-jonam,  a  patronymic  appellation  of  the  apostle  Peter. 
(.Matt.  xvi.  17.) 

BAii.NAHAs,a  surname  of  Joses,  a  Ijcvite  by  descent,  and  bom 
of  ])arents  who  lived  in  the  Isle  of  Cyprus.  Having  embraced 
Christianity,  be  became  St.  Paul's  principal  associate  in  his 
labours  lor  j)ro])agating  the  Gospel.  He  is  suj)posed  to  have 
received  the  name  of  Barnabas,  which  signifies  a  son  of  cutnola- 
tiun,  after  his  conversion  to  the  faith  of  Jesus  Christ.  (Acts  iv. 
36.  ix.  27.  xi.  22.  25.  30.  xii.  25.  xiii.  1,  2.) 

Baktholomkw,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  Nathaniel,  who  was  one  of  Christ's  first  disciples. 
According  to  ecclesiastical  tradition,  after  preaching  the  Go.spel 
in  Persia  and  Arabia,  he  sufl'ered  martyrdom  at  Albanojtolis. 

Bauti.m.ei's,  or  the  son  ofTimsus,  a  blind  beggar  of  Jericho, 
to  whom  Jesus  Christ  miraculously  imparted  the  gift  of  sight. 
(Mark  x.  46.) 

Baru<  II,  the  son  of  Neriah,  descended  from  an  illustrious 
family  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  was  the  scribe  or  secretary  and 
faithful  friend  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  whom  he  accompanied 
into  Egypt.  (Jer.  xxxvi.)  For  an  analysis  of  the  apocryphal 
book  of  Baruch,  see  p.  291,  292. 

Bash  ax,  or  Bataxjea,  district  of,  18.  Forest  of  Bashan. 
See  p.  36. 

Baskkts  of  the  Jews,  155. 

Bath,  much  used  in  the  East,  170. 

Bath-Kol,  or  voice  from  heaven.     See  p.  256. 

Bathshkha,  or  Batiisiiva,  the  daughter  of  Eliarn  or  Ammiel, 
and  the  wife  of  Uriah  the  Hittite.  After  his  murder  she  became 
the  wife  of  David,  who  had  previously  committed  adultery  with 
her.     She  subsequently  was  the  mother  of  Solomon. 

Battle,  order  of,  89. 

Bkahd,  reverence  of,  in  the  East,  157.  The  corners  of,  why 
forbidden  to  be  marred,  142. 

Bkatixk  to  Dkath,  punishment  of,  68. 

Beatitudes,  Mount  of,  notice  of,  30. 

Bkautiful  Gate  of  the  Temple,  99. 

Beelzeuur,  or  Belzebub.     See  p.  138. 

Beehoth,  a  city  belonging  to  the  Gibeonites,  which  was  after- 
wards given  up  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  (Josh.  ix.  7.  2  Sam. 
iv.  2.)  According  to  Eusebius,  it  was  seven  Roman  miles  dis- 
tant from  Jerusalem,  on  the  road  to  Nicopolis. 

Beersheba  (the  well  of  an  oath,  or  the  well  of  seven),  be- 
cause here  Abraham  made  an  alliance  with  Abimelech,  king  of 
Gerar,  and  gave  him  seven  ewe-lambs,  in  token  of  that  covenant 
to  which  they  had  sworn.  (Gen.  xx.  31.)  Beersheba  was  given 
by  Joshua  to  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  afterwards  it  was  transferred 
to  Simeon.  (Josh.  xv.  28.)  It  was  twenty  miles  from  Hebron, 
south  ;  here  was  a  Roman  garrison,  in  Euscbius's  and  Jerome's 
time.  The  limits  of  the  Holy  Land  (as  we  have  already  remark* 
ed)  are  often  expressed  in  Scripture,  by  the  terms — "  From  Dan 
to  Beersheba"  (2  Sam  xvii.  II,  &c.),  Dan  being  the  northern, 
Beersheba  the  southern  extremity  of  the  land. 

Beggars,  treatment  of,  83. 

BEiiEADiNr,,  punishment  of,  68. 

Bel,  a  Babylonish  idol,  139. 

Belshazzar,  the  last  monarch  of  Babylon,  grandson  of  Ne- 
buchadnezzar, who  was  slain  while  carousing  with  his  officers ; 
the  city  being  taken,  and  the  empire  translated  to  Cyaxares, 
whom  the  Scriptures  call  Darius  the  Mede. 

Belt,  or  Girdle  (Military),  Notice  of,  88. 

Bexhadat)  I.  king  of  Syria,  who,  gained  by  the  presents  of 
Asa  king  of  Judah,  broke  off  his  alliance  with  Baasha  king  of 
Israel,  and  assisted  him  against  the  latter.  (1  Kings  xv.  18.)  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

Bexhadad  II.,  who  made  war  against  Ahab  king  of  Israel, 
and  was  defeated.  He  also  made  war  against  Jehoram  the  son  of 
Ahab ;  but  by  means  of  the  prophet  Elisha  was  obliged  to  return 


414 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


BE 


into  his  country  again,  as  related  in  2  Kings  vi.  Shortly  after 
he  besieged  Samaria,  which  city  he  reduced  to  the  utmost  distress 
(2  Kings  vii.)  ;  but,  his  army  being  seized  witli  a  panic,  they 
deserted  the  besieged  city,  and  returned  home.  In  the  following 
year,  Benhadad  was  murdered  by  Ha.;ael,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Syria.  (2  Kings  viii.) 

Benjamix,  the  youngest  son  of  Jacob  and  Rachel,  one  of 
the  twelve  patriarchs.  From  him  was  descended  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  ;  for  the  situation,  &c.  of  the  canton  allotted  to  wliich, 
see  p.  17. 

Bkrachaii,  Valley  of,  31. 

Beuea,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  where  Paul  preached  the  Gospel 
with  great  success.  The  historian  Luke  gives  an  honourable 
character  to  the  Bereans,  in  Acts  xviii.  10. 

Bkiimct,,  notice  of,  52. 

Besoh,  BnooK,  26. 

Betuabara,  the  place  of  the  ford  or  passage,  -viz.  of  the  Jor- 
dan. It  is  mentioned  in  John  i.  28.,  where  the  best  manuscripts, 
the  Vulgate,  Saxon,  and  both  the  Syriac  versions,  as  well  as  the 
Greek  paraphrase  of  Nonnus,  read  BitBu.viaL.  The  reading  HhQj.- 
^■j.f.x  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  mere  conjecture  of  Origen ; 
who,  in  travelling  through  that  region,  found  no  such  place  as 
BuBiiviu,  but  saw  a  town  called  B/)6a/3  'p-J.,  and  therefore  changed 
the  common  reading.   (Campbell  and  Blomficld  on  John  i.  20.) 

BETUAJfT. 

1.  A  town  in  Judiea,  where  Lazarus  dwelt,  and  where  he  was 
raised  from  the  dead,  was  fifteen  furlongs  east  from  Jerusalem, 
on  the  way  to  Jericho  (John  xi.  8.),  and  was  situated  on  the 
retired  and  shady  side  of  Mount  Ohvet.  It  is  now  a  miserable 
little  village,  consisting  of  a  cluster  of  mud  hovels.  Somewhere 
on  this  side  of  that  mountainous  tract,  which  reached  within 
eight  furlongs  of  Jerusalem,  from  which  it  was  only  a  Sabbath- 
day's  journey,  Mr.  Jowett,  with  great  probability,  places  the 
scene  of  the  Ascension:  "for  it  is  said  (Luke  xxiv.  50,  51.), 
that  Jesus  Christ  led  his  disciples  out  as  far  as  to  Bethany,  and 
then  was  parted  from  them  and  carried  up  into  heaven.  The 
previous  conversation,  as  related  in  the  beginning  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  (i.  6 — 9.),  would  probably  occupy  some  time  while 
walking  toward  Bethany;  for  we  must  not  judge  of  the  length 
of  our  Lord's  discourses  by  the  brevity  with  which  the  evange- 
lists record  them.  Here  the  last  sparks  of  earthly  ambition  were 
extinguished  in  the  bosoms  of  the  apostles  ;  and  they  were  pre- 
pared to  expect  that  purer  fire  which  was  ere  long  to  burst  forth 
upon  the  day  of  Pentecost.  Here  their  Head  was  taken  from 
them  ;  and  two  or  three  ministering  spirits  of  his  train,  becoming 
visible  to  their  eyes,  interrupted  their  mute  astonishment,  and 
dismissed  them  to  their  proper  stations."  At  present  the  culti- 
vation around  Bethany  is  much  neglected ;  though  it  is  a  plea- 
sant, romantic  spot,  abounding  in  trees  and  long  grass.  Various 
supposed  sites  of  the  houses  of  Lazarus,  of  Martha,  of  Simon 
the  leper,  and  of  Mary  Magdalene,  are  pointed  out  to  credulous 
and  ignorant  Christians.  ( Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria, 
pp.  256 — 258.     Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  371.) 

2.  A  village  on  the  eastern  side  of  Jordan,  where  John  bap- 
tized. (John  i.  28  )  Its  exact  position  is  not  known.  See 
Bethabara. 

Beth-aven,  a  city  not  far  from  Ai,  the  same  as  Bethel, 
where  Jeroboam  I.  set  up  his  golden  calves  :  whence  the  prophet 
Hosea  (iv.  15.)  in  derision  calls  it  Beth-Aven,  that  is,  the  House 
of  Vanity,  or  of  Idols  ;  instead  of  Bethel,  or  the  House  of  God, 
which  name  had  been  given  to  it  by  the  patriarch  Jacob  after  his 
memorable  vision,  related  in  Gen.  xxvii. 

Bethesda,  pool  of,  20. 

Bethlehem,  now  called  Beit-Lahhm,  was  a  celebrated  city, 
about  six  miles  south-west  from  Jerusalem :  it  was  formerly 
called  Ephrath  or  Ephrata.  (Gen.  xxxv.  19.  xlviii.  7.  Mic.  v.  2.) 
It  was  a  city  in  the  time  of  Boaz  (Ruth  iii.  11.  iv.  1.),  and  was 
fortified  by  Rehoboam.  (2  Chron.  xi.lj.)  In  Malt.  ii.  1.  5.  it  is 
called  Bethlehem  of  Judsea,  to  distinguish  it  from  another  town 
of  the  same  name  situated  in  Lower  Galilee,  and  mentioned  in 
Josh.  xix.  15.  In  Luke  ii.  4.  it  is  called  the  city  of  David,  be- 
cause David  was  born  and  educated  there.  (Compare  John  vii. 
42.  and  1  Sam.  xvi.  1.  18.)  This  city,  though  not  considerable 
for  its  extent  or  riches,  is  of  great  dignity  as  the  appointed  birth- 
place of  the  Messiah  (Matt.  ii.  6.  Luke  ii.  6 — 15.)  :  it  is  plea- 
santly situated  on  the  brow  of  an  eminence,  in  a  very  fertile  soil, 
which  only  wants  cultivation  to  render  it  what  the  name  Bethle- 
hem imports — a  house  of  bread.  Between  the  clefts  of  the 
rock,  when  the  soil  is  cultivated,  vines,  figs,  and  olives,  appear 
to  grow  in  great  laxuriance.    Bethlehem  is  said  to  be  nearly  as 


BE 

large  as  Nazareth,  and  to  contain  from  a  thousand  to  fifteen 
hundred  inhabitants,  who  are  almost  wholly  Christiuns,  and  arc 
a  bold,  fierce  race  of  men,  of  whom  both  Turks  and  Arabs  stand 
in  awe.  On  the  north-eastern  side  of  it  is  a  deep  valley,  where 
tradition  says  that  the  angels  appeared  to  the  shepherds  of  Judaea, 
with  the  glad  tidings  of  our  Saviour's  nativity  (Luke  ii.  8 — 14.)  : 
and  in  this  valley  Dr.  Clarke  halted  at  the  identical  fountain  for 
whose  delicious  water  David  longed.  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  15 — 18.) 
Of  the  various  pretended  holy  places  which  are  here  shown  to 
Christians,  the  cave  of  the  nativity  is  the  only  spot  verified  by 
tradition  from  the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity.  Between  one 
and  two  miles  from  this  place,  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem,  stood 
the  site  of  Rachel's  tomb  (Gen.  xxxv.  19,  20.  1  Sam.  x.  2.), 
which  is  now  covered  by  a  small  square  Mohammedan  building, 
surmounted  by  a  dome,  and  resembling  in  its  exterior  the  tombs 
of  saints  and  sheiks  in  Arabia  and  Egypt.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Bethlehem  are  the  pools  of  Solomon,  which  are  described  in  p. 
29.  supra.  (Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  408 — 420.  See  also 
Hasselquist's  Travels,  p.  144.;  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Pales- 
tine, pp.218 — 222.;  Game's  Letters  from  the  East,  p.  277.; 
Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  49.)  On  the  age  of  the  children 
massacred  at  Bethlehem,  see  Vol.  II.  p.  77.  Historical  evidence 
of  that  fact,  I.  p.  419. 

Bethphage,  a  tract  of  land  and  also  a  small  village  at  the  foot 
of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  between  Bethany  and  Jerusalem.  It 
derived  its  name  from  the  abundance  of  figs  which  grew  there. 
This  tract  seems  to  have  run  along  so  near  to  Jerusalem  that  the 
utmost  street  within  the  walls  was  called  by  that  name.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Matt.  xxi.  1.  and  the  parallel  passages  in  the  other 
evangelists. 

Bethsaida,  a  city  beyond  Jordan,  on  the  coast  of  the  sea  of 
Tiberias,  near  the  place  where  the  river  enters  that  sea.  It  was 
originally  a  village,  and  was  enlarged  into  a  city  and  beautified 
by  Philip  the  Tetrarch,  who  called  it  Jclia  in  honour  of  the  em- 
peror's daughter.  It  was  one  of  the  cities  against  which  Christ 
denounced  a  woe  (Matt.  xi.  21.)  for  her  impenitence  and  infi- 
delity, after  the  mighty  works  he  had  done  in  her.  It  also  was 
the  residence  of  the  apostles  Philip,  Andrew,  and  Peter.  (John 
i.  44.)  At  pi«sent  Bethsaida  exists  in  little  more  than  the  name. 
(Jowett's  Christ.  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  178.) 

Beth-shan  or  Beth-shean,  a  city  belonging  to  the  half-tribe 
of  Manasseh,  not  far  from  the  western  banks  of  the  Jordan. 
(1  Sam.  xxxi.  10.)  After  the  defeat  of  the  Israelites,  and  the 
death  of  Saul  and  his  sons,  the  Philistines  fastened  the  body  of 
Saul  to  the  walls  of  this  place,  whence  the  men  of  Jabesh-Gilead 
took  it  down  and  carried  it  away.  In  the  fourth  century  it  was 
a  considerable  town,  and  bore,  as  it  had  done  for  several  ages, 
the  name  of  Scythopolis. 

Bethshemesh. 

1.  A  Levitical  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  whither  the  ark  was 
brought  after  it  had  been  sent  back  by  the  Philistines.  Some  of 
the  inhabitants,  having  looked  into  it  with  vain  curiosity,  fell 
down  dead,  to  the  number  of  seventy.     (1  Sam.  vi.  19.) 

2.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar.     (Josh,  xix.) 

3.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.     (Josh.  xix.  38.  Judg.  i.  33.) 
Bethuel,  the  son  of  Nahor  and  Milf  ha,  and  nephew  of  Abra- 
ham, was  the  father  of  Rebekah.     (Gen.  xxii.)   , 

Bethulia,  a  small  city,  not  far  from  the  mountain  known  by 
the  name  of  the  J\fountain  of  the  Beatitudes.  It  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  the  city  set  on  a  hill,  mentioned  in  Matt.  v.  14. 
It  stands  on  a  very  eminent  and  conspicuous  mountain,  and  is 
seen  far  and  near :  it  is  at  present  called  Safet,  and  is  a  very 
strong  position,  and  might  well  defy  the  power  of  Holofernes 
and  his  army.  It  answers  exactly  to  the  description  given  in 
the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith.  (Carne's  Letters,  p.  367.)  Safet 
is  said  to  be  peopled  by  about  four  hundred  Jewish  families. 
The  prospect  from  this  place  is  very  extensive.  "  The  view," 
says  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett,  "  to  the  south  and  on  either  side,  com- 
prehending about  one-third  of  the  circle,  presents  the  most  sur- 
prising assemblage  of  mountains  which  can  be  conceived.  It  is, 
if  such  an  expression  may  be  allowed,  one  vast  plain  of  hills.  To 
a  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles  toward  Nazareth,  and  nearly 
the  same  toward  Mount  Tabor  and  Mount  Hermon,  the  far- 
spreading  country  beneath  is  covered  with  ranges  of  mountains ; 
which,  having  passed  over  them,  we  know  to  be  ascents  and  de- 
scents far  from  inconsiderable  ;  but  which,  from  the  eminence  of 
Safet,  appear  only  as,  bold  undulations  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  To  the  left  are  the  inhospitable  and  unvisited  mountains 
eastward  of  the  river  Jordan.  In  the  centre  of  the  distant  sce.ie 
appears  the  beautiful  lake  of  Tiberias,  fully  seen  from  one  ex- 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


415 


C  ^ 

tremity  to  the  other ;  and  in  the  background,  stretching  beyond 
the  utmost  power  of  vision,  arc  the  mountains  of  Gilcad.  On  a 
clear  day  tlie  view  in  that  direction  must  lie  more  than  forty 
miles."      (Jowett's  Researches  in  Syria,  \>.  l.St.) 

liKTiioTiiiMi  in  marriage,  ceremony  of,  100,  161. 

Hi  urn  of  children,  and  privileges  of  the  first-born,  1G3. 

HiriivNiA,  a  region  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Euxinc  sea,  on  the  south  by  Phrygia,  on  the  west  by  the 
Propontis,  and  on  the  east  by  Galatia.  Saint  Peter  addressed 
his  first  Epistle  (among  others)  to  the  Hebriiw  (Jhristians  who 
were  scattered  throughout  liithynia.     (1  Pet.  i.  1.) 

Ulasi'iikmy,  |iunishment  of,  (i'i, 

Blkssixj,  valley  of,  notice  of,  31. 

13r,i.MivKss  of  Ely  mas,  observations  on,  197.  Jewish  Law 
concerning  blind  jiersons,  82,  83. 

Ulood-Avknokii,  otHce  of,  67. 

liLooiiv-OFKKiiiNos,  account  of,  117 — 119. 

Bdcm.M,  valley  of,  notice  of,  32. 

Hooks,  ancient,  form  of.     Sec  p.  183. 

BoiTLKs,  form  of,  l.-j.-j.  179. 

BouMiAiiiKS  of  the  Holy  Land,  li,  15. 

Bows  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88. 

BiiAZKN  Altah  and  Lavku,  96. 

BiiAZKN  Skui'e.vt,  worship  of,  136,  137. 

BiiKAi),  how  prepared.     See  p.  171. 

Breast-i'late  of  the  high-priest,  114.;  and  of  the  Jewish 
soldiers,  87. 

BiiicKs,  ancient,  form  of,  151.  and  note. 

BiiiToxs  (ancient),  writing  of,  182.  note. 

Biiuisiso  in  a  mortar,  punishment  of,  68. 

BuL,  a  Chaldajan  name  of  the  eighth  month  of  the  Jewish 
civil  year. 

BuiiiAL,  rites  of,  199 — 201.  Not  always  permitted  to  capi- 
tal prisoners  by  the  Romans,  72. 

B I- 11  XING  to  death,  punishment  of,  68. 

BiiixiNo  of  the  dead,  198,  199. 

Buunt-Offeuinus,  account  of,  118. 


Cesar,  originally  the  surname  of  the  Julian  family.  After 
being  dignified  in  the  person  of  JuHus  Ctesar,  it  became  the 
usual  appellation  of  those  of  his  family  who  ascended  the  impe- 
rial throne.  The  last  of  these  was  Nero  ;  but  the  name  was 
still  retained  by  his  successors,  as  a  sort  of  title  belonging  to  the 
imperial  dignity.  In  the  New  Testament  the  reigning  emperor 
is  called  Cajsar,  without  any  other  distinguishing  appellation. 
The  persons  mentioned  or  alluded  to  by  this  title  are  Augustus 
(Luke  ii.  1.),  Tiberius  (Luke  iii.  1.  xx.  22.  24,  25.),  Claudius 
(.\ets  xi.  8.),  and  Nero  (Acts  xxv.  8.  Phil.  iv.  22.) 

C.esauea  of  Palestine,  so  called  as  being  the  metropolis 
of  Palestine  and  the  residence  of  the  Roman  proconsul,  was 
formerly  named  the  Tower  of  Strato  ;  but,  its  harbour  being 
extremely  incommodious,  Herod  the  Great  erected  a  spacious 
mole,  and  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified  the  city,  which  he  de- 
nominated Caisarea,  in  honour  of  the  emperor  Augustus,  his 
great  jiatron,  to  whom  he  dedicated  it  in  the  twenty-eighth  year 
of  his  reign,  with  games  and  other  ceremonies,  in  a  most  solemn 
manner,  and  with  a  profusion  of  expense.  It  is  very  fre<|ucnlly 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament ;  and  is  sometimes  called,  by 
way  of  eminence,  C,T;sarea.  Here  Peter  converted  Cornelius  and 
his  kinsmen,  the  first-fruits  of  the  Gentiles  (Acts  x.)  ;  here  lived 
Philip  the  Evangelist  (.\cts  xxi.  8.)  ;  and  here  St.  Paul  so  ad- 
mirably defended  himself  against  the  Jews  and  their  orator  Ter- 
tuUus.  (Acts  xxiv.)  CiBsarca  now  retains  nothing  of  its  former 
splendour  :  at  present  the  whole  of  the  surrounding  country,  on 
the  land  side,  is  a  sandy  desert :  the  waves  wash  the  ruins  of 
the  moles,  the  towers,  and  the  port,  which  anciently  were  both 
its  ornament  and  its  defence,  towards  the  sea.  Not  a  creature 
(except  jackals  and  beasts  of  prey)  resides  within  many  miles  of 
this  silent  desolation :  and  its  ruins,  which  are  very  considerable, 
have  long  been  resorted  to  as  a  quarry  whenever  building  mate- 
rials were  required  at  Acre.  (Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp. 
44H — 448.  Mr.  Buckingham  has  a  long  and  interesting  descrip- 
tion of  the  ancient  history  and  present  state  of  Ca^sarea.  See 
his  Travels,  pp.  126—138.) 

Ci;sakea  Piiilippi  (formerly  called  Paneas)  was  situated 
near  the  springs  of  the  river  Jordan.  It  was  first  called  Laish  or 
Lechem  (Judg.  xviii.  7.),  and  after  it  was  subdued  by  the  Dan- 
iu>s  (y.  29.)  it  received  the  appellation  of  Dan.  Cajsarca  was 
a  day's  journey  from  Sidou  ;  a  day  and  a  hail"  from  Damascus. 


C  A 


Philip  the  Tetrarch  built  it,  or,  at  least,  embellished  and  enlarged 
it,  and  named  it  Cajsarca,  in  honour  of  Tiberius  ;  afterwards,  in 
compliment  to  Nero,  it  was  called  Neronius.  The  woman  who 
was  troubled  with  an  issue  of  blood,  and  healed  by  our  Saviour 
(Matt.  ix.  20.  Luke  viii.  43.),  is  said  to  have  been  of  Ca;sarea 
Philippi.  The  present  town  of  Paneas  is  small ;  and  the  ground 
it  stands  on  is  of  a  triangular  form.  From  this  compressed  situa- 
tion the  ancient  city  could  not  have  been  of  great  extent.  (Irby's 
and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  289.) 

Caiaimias,  also  called  Joseph,  was  liigh-pricst  of  the  Jews  at 
the  time  Jesus  was  crucified,  and  was  a  jirincipal  agent  in  that 
transaction.  (Matt.  xxvi.  3.  57.  Luke  iii.  2.  John  xi.  49.  xviii. 
13,  14.  24.  28.  Acts  iv.  6.)     He  was  of  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees. 

Cain,  the  eldest  son  of  Adam  and  Eve.  He  %va8  the  first 
husbandman,  and  also  the  first  homicide.  (Gen.  iv.)  He  slew 
Abel,  because  his  own  works  were  evil,  and  his  brother's  right- 
eous.    (1  John  iii.  12.) 

Cainan  is  mentioned  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ  by  St. 
Luke  (iii.  35,  36.)  as  the  son  of  Aqihaxad,  and  father  of  Salah ; 
while  in  the  genealogies  preserved  in  Gen.  x.  24.  xi.  12.  and  1 
Chron.  i.  24.  the  son  of  Arphaxad  is  denominated  Salah,  and  no 
mention  is  made  of  this  Cainan.  Various  suppositions  have 
been  ofl'ercd  to  reconcile  the  seeming  contradiction.  The  sim- 
plest solution  is  always  the  most  certain.  St.  Luke  wrote  for 
those  Christians  who  read  the  Septuagint  Greek  version  more 
than  the  original  Hebrew  ;  and,  consequently,  he  preferred  their 
version,  wliich  adds  the  name  of  Cainan  to  the  genealogy  of 
Shem. 

Calasiities,  with  which  Palestine  was  visited,  38 — 40. 

Caleb,  a  celebrated  Jewish  warrior,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah; 
who,  as  a  reward  for  his  fidelity,  when  sent,  together  with 
Joshua,  to  explore  the  country  of  Canaan,  was  permitted  to 
enter  the  promised  land,  where  he  obtained  possessions.  (Josh, 
xiv.  6 — 13.)  A  district  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  was 
called  after  his  name.     (1  Sam.  xxx.  14.) 

Caleniiau,  Jewish,  75,  76. 

Calf,  golden,  worshipped  by  the  Israelites,  136.  Account  of 
the  golden  calves  of  Jeroboam  I.,  136. 

Calvarv,  notice  of,  19. 

Camels,  notice  of,  175. 

Camps  of  the  Hebrews,  form  of,  86,  87. 

Cana,  a  small  town  of  Galilee,  situated  on  a  gentle  eminence 
to  the  west  of  Capernaum.  This  circumstance  distinctly  proves 
how  accurately  the  writings  of  the  evangelists  correspond  with 
the  geography  and  present  appearance  of  the  country.  The 
ruler  of  Capernaum,  whose  child  was  dangerously  ill,  besought 
Jesus  to  come  doivn  and  heal  his  son.  (John  iv.  47 — 51.) 
About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  small  and  poor  village  (for 
such  it  now  is)  on  the  road  from  Nazareth,  there  is  a  well  of 
delicious  water  close  to  the  road,  whence  all  the  water  is  taken 
for  the  supply  of  the  inhabitants.  At  this  well,  which  is  sup- 
phed  by  springs  from  the  mountains  about  two  miles  distant,  it 
is  usual  for  pilgrims  to  halt,  as  being  the  source  of  the  water, 
which  our  Saviour,  by  his  first  public  miracle,  converted  into 
wine.  (John  ii.  11.)  In  consequence  of  this  miracle,  both  the 
Christian  and  Turkish  inhabitants  of  Cana  cherish  the  singular 
notion  that,  by  drinking  copiously  of  the  water  of  this  spring, 
intoxication  is  produced.  This  place  is  called  Cana  of  Galilee, 
to  distinguish  it  from  Cana  of  Kanah  (Josh.  xix.  28.),  which 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Asher,  and  was  situated  in  the  vicinity 
of  Sidon.  Here  are  shown  the  ruins  of  a  church,  which  is  said 
to  have  been  erected  by  the  empress  Helena,  over  the  spot  where 
the  marriage-feast  was  held.  (Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp. 
18.5—188.) 

Canaan,  the  son  of  Ham  and  the  progenitor  of  the  Canaan- 
ites.  For  an  account  of  the  land  called  after  him,  see  pp.  1 3. 
15,  How  divided  by  Joshua  among  the  twelve  tribes,  16,  17. 
Populousness  of  Canaan,  38.  Idols  worshipped  by  the  Ca- 
naanites,  137,  138.  Their  extirpation  considered.  Vol.  I.  pp. 
409,410. 

Caxdace,  a  queen  of  Ethiopia  mentioned  in  Acts  viii.  27. 
This  name  was  common  to  the  Ethiopian  (jucens  in  the  time  of 
Christ ;  and,  according  to  Euscbius,  Ethiopia  continued  to  be 
governed  by  women,  even  to  his  time, — the  fourth  century, 
(Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  ii.  c.  1.) 

Caniilestick,  golden,  in  the  Temple,  at  Jerusalem,  100. 

Capernaum,  a  town  of  Galilee,  situated  on  the  coast  of  the 
lake  of  Gennesareth,  on  the  borders  of  the  tract  occupied  by  the 
tribes  of  Zebulon  and  Ncphthalim.  This  place  is  celebrated  for'the 
munij  mi^htij  ■works  and  discourses  performed  by  our  Saviour, 


416 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


C  H 


which  brought  a  heavy  wo  upon  the  inhabitants  for  their  infi- 
dehty.  (Matt.  xi.  23.)  In  the  vicinity  of  this  town  or  city  our 
Lord  dehvered  his  admirable  sermon ;  and  near  it  also  was  the 
custom-house,  at  which  Matthew  the  pubhcan  was  sitting  when 
Jesus  called  him  to  the  apostlcship.  (Matt.  ix.  1.  9.)  Here  the 
Jews  had  a  synagogue  (Mark  i.  23.  Luke  iv.  33.),  as  the  Chris- 
tians afterwards  had  a  church.  Mr.  Buckingham  in  1817  found 
various  remains  of  some  ancient  settlement  in  its  vicinity  ;  but 
in  1823  scarcely  a  relique  remained  to  attest  its  former  existence. 
Recent  travellers  describe  the  appearance  of  the  Lake  of  Genne- 
sareth  from  Capernaum  as  singularly  grand  and  impressive. 
This  place  is  now  called  Tal-hhewn  or  Tal-hheivm,  as  it  is  dif- 
ferently pronounced.  (Buckingham's  Travels  in  Palestine,  pp. 
469,  470.     Jowett's  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  168.) 

CiPHTon  (Jer.  xlvii.  4.  Amos  ix.  7.)  and  Caphtohim  (Gen. 
X.  14.  Deut.  ii.  23.),  the  name  of  a  country  and  people  whence 
the  Philistines  are  said  to  have  originated.  According  to  the 
passages  above  referred  to,  the  Caphtorim  came  originally  from 
Egypt  and  settled  in  Caphtor,  which  word  most  of  the  ancient 
versions  have  rendered  Cappadocia ;  but  some  have  supposed  it 
to  be  Cyprus,  or  Crete ;  which  last  both  Calmet  and  Gesenius 
consider  to  be  the  place  most  probably  intended.  From  Caphtor, 
a  colony  migrated  and  settled  in  the  southern  part  of  Canaan. 

Capital  Punishments  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  66 — 69. 

Cappadocia,  a  kingdom  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Ar- 
menia, on  the  west  by  Paphlagonia  and  Galatia,  on  the  north  by 
the  Euxine  Sea,  and  on  the  south  by  that  part  of  Mount  Taurus 
which  looks  towards  Cilicia.  It  was  famed  for  mules  and  horses, 
of  which  it  gave  yearly  to  the  Persians,  horses  1500,  mules 
2000.  The  Cappadocians  are  said  to  have  been  a  nation  so 
servile,  that  when  the  Romans  offered  them  their  freedom  to 
live  by  their  own  laws,  they  said  they  could  not  endure  liberty. 
This  country  is  mentioned  in  Acts  ii.  9.  and  also  by  the  apostle 
Peter,  who  addresses  his  first  Epistle  to  the  Hebrew  Christians 
who  were  dispersed  through  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Bi- 
thynia,  and  Asia  Minor. 

Captain  of  the  Lord's  Host,  authority  of,  and  influence,  85. 

Captives,  cruel  treatment  of.     See  pp.  90,  91. 

Captivity  (Babylonish),  state  of  the  Hebrews  during,  49,  50. 

Caravans,  mode  of  travelling  by,  122,  note  7.  173. 

Carchkmish,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Euphrates  belonging  to 
the  Assyrians,  commanding  the  pass  into  the  northern  part  of 
Mesopotamia,  from  Syria.  Nccho  king  of  Egypt  took  it,  and 
left  a  strong  garrison  in  it ;  which  was  taken  and  cut  in  pieces, 
in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiachin  king  of  Judah,  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar king  of  Babylon.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  20.  2  Kings  xxiii. 
29.)  Isaiah  speaks  of  Carchemish,  and  seems  to  say,  that 
Tiglath-pileser  conquered  it ;  perhaps  from  the  Egyptians.  Pro- 
fane authors  say  nothing  of  this  town,  or  of  these  wars :  it  is 
probable  that  Carchemish  is  the  same  as  Cercusium,  or  Circe- 
sium,  or  Circeium,  situated  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  conjunc- 
tion of  the  Chaboras  (the  inodern  Chebour)  and  the  Euphrates. 

Carmel,  Mount,  account  of,  30. 

Carving,  art  of,  among  the  Jews,  183. 

Casiphia  (Ezra  viii.  17.),  the  name  of  a  country;  perhaps 
Caspia,  the  country  on  the  Caspian  Sea.  ■ 

Casluhim  (Gen.  X.  14.  1  Chron.  i.  12.),  a  people,  spoken  of 
as  a  colony  of  the  Egyptians ;  according  to  Bochart  (Phaleg. 
iv.  31.),  the  Colchians,  whom  the  Greek  writers  constantly 
represent  as  of  Egyptian  origin. 

Cattle  reared  in  Palestine,  notice  of,  37.  174 — 176. 

Caverns  in  Palestine,  account  of,  32,  33.  150. 

Cedars  of  Lebanon,  account  of,  29,  30.  36. 

Cedron,  or  Kedron,  Brook,  notice  of,  26. 

Cenciirea,  a  haven  on  the  east  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  to 
which  city  it  was  considered  as  a  kind  of  subsidiary  port.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Acts  xviii.  18. 

Cephas,  a  name  given  by  Christ  to  Simon:  it  means  the 
same  as  ^srp-jc,  that  is,  a  stone.     (John  i.  43.) 

Chains  of  the  Jewish  women,  158. 

Chaldtba,  a  country  of  Asia,  lying  near  the  junction  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  the  capital  of  which  was  Babylon, 
whence  it  was  also  denominated  Babylonia.  In  ancient  times 
it  was  known  by  the  names  Shinar,  Shinaar,  &c. — For  a  sketch 
of  the  profane  history  of  the  Chaldaean  or  Babylonian  em- 
pire, illustrative  of  the  prophetic  writings,  see  p.  412.  of  this 
Index. 

Chariots,  military,  notice  of,  85,  86. 

CuLBAK  a  river  of  Mesopotamia,  which  rises  in  Mount  Ca- 


C  L 

sius,  and   empties   itself  into  the  Euphrates   near  Circesium. 
(2  Kings  xvii.  6.  xviii.  11,    1  Chron.  v,  26.) 

Chkmosii,  a  Moabitish  idol,  notice  of,  138. 

Cherkm,  or  irremissible  Vow,  account  of,  130. 

Cherethites  and  Pelelliitcs,  who  they  were,  47.  85,  87. 

Cheruuim.     See  p.  96. 

Children,  birth  and  education  of,  163,  164.  Adoption  of, 
164,  165. 

Chinnereth,  sea  of,  26. 

Chios  (Acts  xx.  15.)  is  an  island  of  the  .iEgean  Sea,  between 
Lesbos  and  Samos,  celebrated  in  ancient  and  in  modem  times, 
for  its  wine,  figs,  marble,  and  white  earth. 

Chisleu,  or  Casleu,  the  third  month  of  the  Jewish  civil 
year ;  and  the  ninth  month  of  the  ecclesiastical  year.  For  the 
feasts  and  fasts  in  this  month,  see  p.  75, 

Chittim. —  The  land  of  Chittim,  and  the  isles  of  Chittim, 
denote,  in  general,  the  maritime  countries  and  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean,  Greece,  Italy,  Crete,  Cyprus,  Corsica,  &c.  Thus, 
Balaam  foretold  "  that  ships  should  come  from  the  coast  of 
Chittim,  and  should  afflict  Asshur  (the  Assyrians),  and  afflict 
Eber"  (the  Hebrews,  or  Jews)  ;  representing  the  Grecian  and 
Roman  invasions.  And  Daniel  foretold  that  "  the  ships  of  Chit- 
tim should  come  against  the  king  of  the  north  (Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria)  ;  and  that  he  should  therefore  be 
grieved,  and  return"  from  the  south,  or  Egypt,  which  he  had 
invaded,  when  commanded  to  desist  by  the  Roman  ambassa- 
dors. (Dan.  xi.  30.  Livy,  xlv,  10 — 12.)  Perseus,  king  of 
Macedon,  is  called  "king  of  Chittim."     (1  Mace.  viii.  5.) 

Chiun  (Amos  v.  26.),  the  idol  Saturn. 

Chorazin,  a  small  town  situated  on  the  western  coast  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  at  no  great  distance  from  Capernaum.  It  was 
one  of  those  places  where  very  many  of  our  Saviour's  miracles 
were  performed,  whose  inhabitants  he  upbraided  for  their  infi- 
delity.    (Matt.  xi.  21.    Luke  x.  13.) 

Christ  (Xp/^-TC/c),  a  Greek  word  signifying  anointed,  and  cor- 
responding to  the  Hebrew  word  Messiah,  which  see.  In  the 
New  Testament,  this  appellation  is  given  to  Jesus,  the  anointed 
one,  that  king  of  the  race  of  David,  promised  by  God,  and  long 
expected,  the  Messiah. 

Christians,  those  who  profess  to  believe  and  practise  the 
religion  of  Jesus  Christ.  This  appellation  was  first  given  by 
divine  appointment  to  the  believers  at  Antioch.  (Acts  xi.  26.) 
See  Vol.  I.  p.  350. 

Church  (Jewish),  nccount  of,  and  of  its  various  members, 
108—1 11.;    and  of  its  ministers,  1 1 1—116. 

Chushan-biskathaim,  a  king  of  Mesopotamia,  who  op- 
pressed the  Israelites  for  eight  years.  This  monarch  must  have 
subdued  several  of  the  surrounding  nations  within  thirty  or 
forty  years  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  since  his  conquests  ex- 
tended westward  as  far  as  Canaan.  The  Israelites  were  delivered 
from  his  yoke  by  Othniel.     (Judg.  iii.  8 — 10.) 

Chuza,  or  Chusa,  the  steward  or  agent  of  Herod-Antipas, 
whose  wife  was  one  of  the  pious  women  who  ministered  to 
Jesus  Christ.  (Luke  viii.  3.)  Some  critics,  however,  suppose 
that  he  was  the  treasurer  or  overseer  of  Herod's  revenue. 

Cilicia,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor^  between  Pamphylia  on  the 
west,  and  Pieria  on  the  east.  Mount  Taurus  jon  the  north,  and 
the  Cilician  Sea  on  the  south,  celebrated  on  the  account  of  Cicero, 
proconsul  there,  but  more  on  the  account  of  St.  Paul's  birth  at 
Tarsus,  a  city  of  Cilicia.   (Acts  xxii.  3.) 

Cinnereth,  or  Cinneroth,  a  city  in  the  canton  of  the  tribe 
of  Nephtali :  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  which  was  afterwards 
called  Tiberias;  as  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth,  which  in  Hebrew 
is  called  the  Sea  of  Ciimereth,  is  unquestionably  the  Lake  or 
Sea  of  Tiberius  .-  for  an  account  of  which  see  pp.  26,  27. 

Circumcision,  how  and  when  performed.     See  p,  110. 

Cisleu.     See  Chisleu, 

Cisterns  in  Palestine,  notice  of,  29, 

Cities,  Jewish,  155.  How  besieged,  90.  Treatment  of,  when 
captured,  ibid.     Gates  of,  seats  of  justice,  54, 

Cities  of  Reeure,  16.  i 

Citizens  of  Rome,  privileges  and  treatment  of,  when  prison- 
ers.    See  pp.  57 — 59. 

Classes  of  the  Jewish  priests,  112. 

Clauda,  an  island  near  Crete,  situated  near  the  southern  and 
western  sea.     It  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii.  16. 

CLAunius,  ' 

1,  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero  Germanicus,  the  fifth  emperor  or- 
CtEsar  of  Rome,     He  was  the  son  of  Nero  Drusus,  and  obtained  - 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
CO  C  Y 


417 


the  imperial  dignity  principally  through  the  exertion  of  Herod 
Agri|)[)a.  (Joacphus,  Ant.  Jud.  1.  xix.  c.  4.  §  I.  Bell.  Jud.  1.  ii. 
c.  I  1.  §  2.)  In  the  fourth  yi-ar  of  his  reign  occurred  the  famine 
l)redictccl  by  Ai;al)us.  (Acts  xi.  28.  and  Kuin  el  in  loe).  In  tiie 
iirst  part  of  his  reign  he  was  favourable  to  the  Jews  (Jos.  Ant. 
Jud.  1.  XX.  c.  1.  §  2.)  ;  i)Ut  in  his  ninth  year  he  banished,  by 
edict,  all  those  who  had  taken  up  their  residence  at  Rome.  (Acts 
xviii.  2.  Suetonius  in  Claud,  c.  2.').)  He  died,  a.  i).  54,  after  a 
weak  and  in;;l()ri()us  reign  of  M  years,  of  poison  administered 
l)y  bis  wife  Agri|)piria,  who  wished  to  raise  her  son  Nero  to  the 
throne.      (Robinson,  voce  KAat/Zcyf.) 

2.  (-laudius  Lysias,  a  Roman  tribune,  who  preserved  Paul 
from  a  conspiracy  of  the  Jews.  (Acts  xxiii.  2.3 — 3.'5.  xxiv. 
1-9.) 

Clkopas,  one  of  the  two  disciples  who  went  to  Emmaus. 
(TiUkc  xxiv.  18,  (fee.)  The  name  is  of  Greek  extraction,  being 
contracted  from  Cleopatros,  like  Antipas  from  Antipatros.  He  is 
sometimes  confounded  with 

Cloi'as,  the  husband  of  Mary,  also  called  Alpheus.  (John  xix. 
25.)  By  comparing  this  passage  with  Luke  xxiv.  10.,  it  appears 
that  the  wife  of  Clopas  is  the  same  as  the  mother  of  James  the 
Less  (compare  Matt,  xxvii.  56.  with  Mark  xv.  40.)  ;  but  in 
Matt.  X.  3.  and  Mark  iii.  18.  James  is  said  to  be  the  son  of 
Alpheus. 

Climate  of  the  Holy  Land,  23. 

Clothks,  leprosy  of,  134.     See  Dress. 

CNinrs  (Acts  xxvii.  7.)  was  a  city  and  promontory  of  Caria, 
memorable  for  the  worship  of  Venus. 

CocK-ciiowiNG,  a  division  of  time,  73. 

CoKLo-SvniA.     See  Sykia,  9.  infra. 

Cohorts  (Roman),  notice  of,  92. 

CoLi)  Season  of  Palestine,  24. 

CoLoss.K  (or  Colassffi)  was  a  city  of  Phrygia  Pacatiana  in 
Asia  Minor,  situated  near  the  conflux  of  the  Lycus  and  the 
Meander.  It  was  formerly  a  large  and  populous  place,  but  in  the 
time  of  Saint  Paul  had  lost  much  of  its  ancient  greatness,  and 
stood  nearly  equidistant  from  Laodicca  and  Hierapolis.  Accord- 
ing to  Eusebius,  all  these  cities  were  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  the  tenth  year  of  the  emperor  Nero,  about  a  year  after  the 
writing  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Colossians.  A  few  ruins 
identify  its  site,  which  is  at  present  called  Khdna  or  Khonas  by 
the  Turks  of  Asia  Minor.  (See  a  description  of  Colosss  and  its 
vicinity,  in  Mr.  Arundell's  Visit  to  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia, 
pp.  92—101.) 

CoMMKiuE  of  the  Midianites,  Phoenicians,  and  Egyptians,  187. 
Of  the  Hebrews,  particularly  under  Solomon  and  his  successors, 
187,  188.     Of  Babylon,  411. 

Compensation,  in  what  cases  allowed,  65. 

CoNcuiiiNEs,  condition  of,  160. 

Co  NTH  ACTS  for  disposing  of  property,  how  made,  81.  Con- 
tracts of  marriage,  1  00. 

Covvehsatiov  of  the  Orientals,  169,  170. 

Coos,  an  island  in  the  ^■Egean  or  Icarian  Sea,  near  Myndos 
and  Cnidus,  which  had  a  city  of  the  same  name,  from  which 
Hippocrates  the  celebrated  physician,  and  Apelles  the  famous 
painter,  were  called  Coi.  Here  was  a  large  temple  of  ^-Escula- 
pius,  and  another  of  Juno.  It  abounded  in  rich  wines,  and  here 
were  made  those  Coa?  vestes,  which  were  transparent,  and  are 
so  often  noticed  by  the  clasisic  poets.  It  is  mentioned  in  Acts 
xxi.  1. 

CoRBAX,  nature  of,  explained,  119. 

Com  NTH,  the  metropolis  of  Achaia  Proper,  and  the  ornament 
of  Greece,  was  situated  on  an  isthmus  between  the  -Egcan  and 
Ionian  Seas.  From  the  convenience  of  its  situation  for  com- 
merce, it  abounded  in  riches,  and  was  furnished  with  all  the 
iUTommodations,  elegances,  and  superfluities  of  life.  In  the 
AchjT'an  war,  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  under  the  consul 
Monnnius,  about  146  years  before  the  Christian  a'ra,  and  was 
rebiiilt  about  one  hundred  years  afterwards  by  Julius  Ca!sar,  who 
]ilanted  a  Roman  colony  here,  and  made  this  city  the  residence 
of  the  proconsul  of  Achaia.  Favoured  by  its  situation  between 
two  seas,  the  new  city  soon  regained  its  ancient  splendour:  com- 
merce produced  an  influx  of  riches,  and  the  luxury  and  voluptu- 
ousness which  followed  in  consequence  corrupted  the  manners 
ot  its  nihabitants,  who  became  infamous  to  a  proverb.  In  the 
vicinity  of  this  city  were  celebrated  the  Isthmian  games,  to  which 
Saint  Paul  alludes  in  different  parts  of  his  Epistles.  Corinth 
also  possessed  numerous  schools,  in  which  philosophy  and  rhe- 
toric were  taught  by  able  masters,  and  strangers  resorted  thither 
.  from  till  quarters  to  be  instructed  in  the  sciences.     The  number 

Vol.  II.  3  G 


of  sophists  in  particular  was  very  great.  The  knowledge  of 
these  circumstances  affords  a  key  to  St.  Paul's  exhortations 
against  fornication,  lasciviousness,  and  covetousncss  (1  Cor.  vi. 
9,  10.),  and  also  his  defence  of  the  Christian  doctrine  against 
the  sophists,  to  whom  the  fathers  attribute  all  the  strifes  and  con- 
tentions that  sprang  up  in  this  church.  In  consequence  of  the 
war  between  the  Greeks  and  Turks,  Corinth  has  been  reduced  to 
a  miserable  heap  of  ruined  hovels,  aflbrding  very  insufficient 
shelter  to  some  wretched  outcasts  of  the  province  of  Roumelia. 
(Missionary  Register,  1828,  p.  388.) 

CoiiN,  culture  and  harvesting  of,  1 77.  How  threshed  out,  178 ; 
and  ground,  ibid. 

CoiiNELiLs,  a  devout  Roman  centurion,  who  was  converted 
to  Christianity  by  the  apostle  Peter. 

CoiiPoiiAL  injuries,  how  punished  among  the  Jews,  63,  64. 

CoHiirpTioN  (Mount  of),  19.  Of  the  Jews  at  the  time  of 
Christ's  birth,  148 — 1.50. 

Council  (Great)  of  the  Jews.     See  p.  55. 

Coup-DE-SoLEiL  in  Palestine,  effects  of,  24,  25. 

Courts  of  Juoicature  (^Jewish),  and  proceedings  before 
them,  54 — 57.     {Roman'),  proceedings  in,  57 — 59. 

Courts  of  Kings,  allusions  to,  45,  46.  Principal  officers  o^ 
46,  47. 

Courts  of  the  Temple,  99,  100. 

Covenants,  how  made,  80,  81.     Covenant  of  salt,  81. 

Crete,  an  island  in  the  .Mediterranean  Sea.  A  Christian 
church  was  planted  here,  probably  by  St.  Paul,  who  committed  it 
to  the  charge  of  Titus.  (Acts  xxvii.  7.  12,  13.  21.  Tit.  i.  5.) 
Its  inhabitants  were  celebrated  archers,  but  infamous  for  their 
falsehood,  debaucheries,  and  piracies.  The  Cretans  of  the  present 
day  arc  precisely  what  they  were  in  the  days  of  St.  Paul, — 
always  liars,  evil  beasts,  slow  bellies.  They  are  notoriously, 
whether  Turks  or  Greeks,  the  worst  characters  in  the  Levant. 
(Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece  and  the  Levant,  p.  108.)  See 
the  testimonies  of  profane  writers  to  the  immoral  character  of  the 
Cretans,  in  Vol.  I.  p.  81. 

Criminal  Law  of  the  Jews,  principles  of  the,  61 — 64. 

Criminals,  Jewish  mode  of  treating,  and  punishing.  See  pp. 
55 — 57.  59.     The  Roman  mode  of  punishing  them,  59,  60. 

Crispus,  the  chief  of  a  synagogue  at  Corinth,  who  embraced 
the  Christian  faith,  and  was  baptized  by  St.  Paul.  (Acts  xviii. 
8.   1  Cor.  i.  14.) 

Cross,  form  of,  69.     Reproach  of,  explained,  ibid. 

Crucifixion,  mode  of,  69.  Prevalence  of,  among  ancient 
nations,  ibid.  Lingering  nature  of  this  punishment,  ibid.  The 
circumstances  of  our  Saviour's  crucifixion  considered  and  illus- 
trated, 70 — 72.  Solution  of  supposed  difficulties  as  to  the  hour 
when  he  was  crucified.     Vol.  I.  pp.  403,  404. 

Cup,  Divination  by,  142, 

Cutting  asunder,  punishment  of,  68. 

CusH,  or  Ethiopia,  usually  rendered  Ethiopia  in  our  English 
Bible,  has  a  very  extensive  signification.  It  comprehends  all  the 
southern  and  eastern  borders  of  Egypt,  In  some  parts  of  the 
prophecies  of  Ezekiel,  it  plainly  denotes  African  Ethiopia,  or 
Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  and  in  many  other  passages.  (Isa.  xviii.  1. 
XX.  3.  Ezck.  XXX.  5,  &c.)  But  in  others  it  must  signify  Asiatic 
Ethiopia,  or  Arabia,  as  in  the  description  of  the  garden  of  Eden. 
(Gen.  ii.  13.)  The  wife  of  Moses  was  contemptuously  styled  a 
"  Cushite,"  or  Ethiopian  of  Arabia.  (Num.  xii.  1.)  And  where 
"  Persia,  Ethiopia,  and  Libya,"  are  recited  in  order,  the  second 
must  denote  Arabia.  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  5.)  Herodotus,  in  hia 
curious  catalogue  of  the  various  nations  composing  the  army  of 
Xerxes,  distinguishes  the  long-haired  Eastern  or  Asiatic  Ethio- 
pians from  the  woolly-headed  Western  or  African  ;  both  being 
descendants  of  Cush,  a  roving  and  enterprising  race,  who  gradu- 
ally extended  their  settlements  from  Chusistan,  "the  land  of 
Cush,"  or  Susiana,  on  the  coasts  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  through 
Arabia,  to  the  Red  Sea ;  and  thence  crossed  over  to  Africa,  and 
occupied  its  eastern  coast,  and  gradually  penetrated  into  the  inte- 
rior of  Abyssinia.  (Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i. 
p.  379.) 

Cyprus,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  situated  between 
Cilicia  and  Syria,  and  anciently  celebrated  for  the  profligacy  of 
its  inhabitants,  whose  principal  deity  was  the  impure  goddess 
Venus.  Here  Paul  and  Barnabas  landed,  a.  d.  44.  and  success- 
fully preached  the  Gospel.  (Acts  xiii.  4.  et  seq.  xxi.  3.)  Cyprus 
proved  to  have  been  a  proconsulate,  Vol.  I.  p.  90. 

Cymbal,  a  musical  instrument,  notice  of,  184. 

CvRENE,  the  principal  city  of  the  province  of  Libya  in  Africa, 
which  was  thence  sometimes  denominated  Cyrenaica,  and  which 


418 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


DA 


by  the  evangelist  Luke  is  called  Libya  about  Cyrene.  (Acts  ii. 
10.)  Simon,  whom  the  Jews  compelled  to  bear  our  Saviour's 
cross  (Matt,  xxvii.  32.  Luke  xxiii.  26.),  was  a  native  of  this 
place.  At  Cyrene  resided  many  Jews,  who  had  a  synagogue  at 
Jerusalem.  Among  the  Christians  A-ho  were  scattered  abroad, 
in  consequence  of  the  persecution  that  arose  about  Stephen, 
Luke  enumerates  those  of  Cyrene.    (Acts  xi.  20.) 

Ctrenius,  m  Latin  Quirinus.  (Luke  ii.  2.)  Publius  Sulpi- 
cius  Quirinus  was  sent  from  Rome  as  governor  of  Syria,  with 
wliich  province  Judsa  was  connected  after  the  banishment  of 
Archelaus  to  Vienne  in  Gaul,  in  order  to  take  a  census  of  the 
whole  province.  For  the  various  opinions  of  commentators  con- 
cerning that  census,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  419,  420. 

Crnus,  king  of  Persia,  the  son  of  Cambyses  a  Persian  satrap 
or  grandee,  and  Mandane,  was  the  liberator  of  the  Jews  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  The  prophet  Isaiah  (xliv.  28.)  mentioned 
him  by  name  two  hundred  years  before  he  was  born.  See 
Pjersia,  infra. 


Dagox,  a  Phoenician  idol,  notice  of,  138. 

Daljvianctha.     See  Magdala. 

Dalmatia,  a  province  of  Europe  on  the  east  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  and  forming  part  of  the  ancient  Illyricum.  In  this  province, 
Titus  preached  the  Gospel.   (2  Tim.  iv.  10.) 

Damascus,  a  most  ancient  city,  where  Eliezer  the  servant  of 
Abraham  dwelt,  was  built,  according  to  Josephus  (Antiq.  1.  i.  c.  7. 
§  15.),  by  Uz,  the  son  of  Aram,  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  23.,  and 
situated  in  the  valley  between  Libanus  and  Antilibanus,  watered 
by  the  rivers  Abana  and  Pharpar.  (2  Kings  v.  12.)  It  was 
made  tributary  to  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  6.)  ;  afterwards  it  was  the 
capital  city  of  the  kings  of  Syria.  (Isa.  vii.  8.)  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  antiquity,  and  for  being  still  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
magnificent  cities  of  the  Levant,  but  most  of  all  for  being  the 
place  of  the  miraculous  conversion  of  St.  Paul.  It  is  situated  in 
a  beautiful  plain.  The  street,  still  called  Straight,  where  St. 
Paul  dwelt,  is  entered  from  the  road  by  Jerusalem  ;  it  is  as 
straight  as  an  arrow,  a  mile  in  length,  broad  and  well  paved. 
(Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  pp.  281,  282.  Carne's  Letters, 
p.  37.5.)  The  region  around  this  city  is  in  the  Old  Testament 
called  Syria  of  Damascus. 

Dan. 

1.  The  son  of  Jacob  and  Bilhah,  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the 
tribes  of  Israel.  For  the  limits  of  the  district  assigned  to  this 
tiibe,  see  p.  1 7. 

2.  The  name  of  a  city  in  the  northern  extremity  of  Judsea, 
in  the  tribe  of  Nephtah ;  it  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Libanus,  not  far  from  the  source  of  the  river  Jordan.  Here  Jero- 
lioam  I.  set  up  one  of  the  golden  calves.  In  Rev.  vii.  6.  the  name 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan  is  omitted,  either  through  the  mistake  of  the 
transcribers,  who  mistook  AAN  for  MAN,  and  so  wrote  Ma- 
nasseh  ;  or  because  the  tribe'had  become  extinct;  or,  by  its  early 
apostasy,  had  become  the  common  receptacle  of  idols  and  cor- 
rupter of  the  rest.  (See  Judg.  xviii.)  Dr.  Robinson  thinks  that 
the  first  opinion  is  the  most  probable,  because  the  tribe  of  Joseph 
is  afterwards  mentioned,  which  included  Manasseh  and  Ephraim. 
There  appears  to  have  been  an  ancient  tradition  in  the  church, 
that,  when  Antichrist  should  come,  he  should  be  a  Jew,  and  of 
the  tribe  of  Dan.  (Woodhouse  on  Rev.  vii.  6.) 

Dancing  of  the  Jews,  184. 

Daniel,  a  distinguished  Jewish  prophet,  who  lived  and  wrote 
at  Babylon  during  the  captivity.  For  a  further  account  of 
Daniel  and  his  predictions,  see  pp.  277 — 282. 

Darius,  the  common  name  of  several  Persian  kings,  three  of 
whom  are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament;  viz. 

1.  Darius  the  JHede,  or  Cyaxares.  (Dan.  vi.  1.) 

2.  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  whom  Archbishop  Usher  sup- 
poses to  be  the  Ahasuerus  that  married  Esther. 

3.  Darius  Codomannus,  who  is  mentioned  in  Neh.  xii.  22. 
See  Persia,  infra. 

Darts,  fiery,  explained,  93,  note  1. 

Dathan,  one  of  those  who,  with  Korah,  Abiram,  and  On,  con- 
spired against  Moses ;  and,  with  his  accomplices,  was  swallowed 
up  in  the  earth.    (Num.  xvi.) 

Daughters,  education  of,  164.     Portions  of,  ibid. 

David,  the  second  king  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Jesse,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  and  the  town  of  Bethlehem.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  Jewish  dynasty  ;  and  from  him,  in  the  fulness  of  the  time 
appointed  by  God,  descended  the  Messiah,  of  whom  he  is  con- 
sidered as  an  illustrious  type.     In  what  sense  David  was  "  the 


DI 

man  after  God's  own  heart,"  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  4  H ,  4 1 2. ;  and  for  the 
Psalms  ascribed  to  him,  see  Vol.  II.  pp.  239,  240,  241. 

David,  city  of,  19. 

Dat,  how  reckoned  by  the  Jews  and  Romans,  72. 

Day  of  atonement,  how  solemnized,  127. 

Dead,  law  of  Moses  concerning,  198.  Preparation  of,  foi 
interment,  198,  199.  Funeral  rites  of,  199 — 202.  Duration  of 
mourning  for  the  dead,  202. 

Dead  Sea,  description  of,  27,  28. 

Deaf  persons,  law  concerning,  82. 

Deatu,  Jewish  notions  of,  197,  198. 

Debohah. 

1.  The  name  of  Sarah's  nurse,  who  attended  her  into  Canaan, 
and  continued  to  reside  in  the  family  of  Isaac,  until  her  death 
in  the  vicinity  of  Bethel,  where  she  was  interred  with  much 
lamentation,  under  an  oak,  from  that  circumstance  termed  AUon 
Bachuth,  or  the  Oak  of  Weeping.  (Gen.  xxiv.  57.  xxxv.  8.) 

2.  A  prophetess,  the  wife  of  Lapidoth,  and  the  fourth  judge  of 
Israel.  She  was  the  only  woman  who  ever  filled  that  high  office. 
(Judg.  iv..v.) 

Debtors,  laws  concerning,  63. 

Decapitation,  punishment  of,  68. 

Decapolis,  district  of,  IS. 

Dedication,  Feast  of,  128.     Vow  of  Dedication,  141. 

Degkees,  Academical,  conferred  in  Jewish  seminaries,  185, 
note  3. 

Demas,  for  some  time,  was  a  companion  of  St.  Paul,  in  propa- 
gating the  Gospel ;  but  he  afterwards  deserted  him  when  a  pri- 
soner at  Rome,  and  returned  to  Thessalonica,  which  was  at  that 
time  a  very  flourishing  commercial  city.  (Col.  iv.  14.  Philem.  24. 
2  Tim.  iv.  10.) 

Demetrius. 

1.  A  silversmith  at  Ephesus,  whose  chief  business  consisted  in 
making  little  models  of  the  temple  in  that  city,  with  the  image  of 
Diana  included  in  them.  He  excited  a  tumult  against  St.  Paul. 
(Acts  xix.) 

2.  A  Christian,  and  it  should  seem  a  Christian  teacher,  who 
is  mentioned  with  much  commendation  in  3  John,  12. 

Demoniacal  possessions,  reality  of,  197. 

Dehbe,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  near  Isauria,  not  far  from  the 
Cilician  range  of  Mount  Taurus.  It  was  the  country  of  Timothy, 
and  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xiv.  6.  Various  ruins  of  this  place  are 
said  still  to  exist,  but  they  have  not  been  described  by  any 
modern  traveller.  (Col.  Leake's  Tour  in  Asia  Minor,  pp.  100, 
101.) 

Deserts  in  Palestine,  account  of,  33,  34.  Horrors  of  the 
Great  Arabian  Desert  described,  34,  35. 

"Devout  Men,"  who  they  were,  110. 

Dews,  heavy,  in  Palestine,  25. 

Diana  (a^ts^m/c),  a  heathen  goddess,  the  fabled  daughter  of 
Jupiter  and  Latona,  and  the  twin  sister  of  Apollo.  She  presided 
over  forests  and  hunting,  and  also  over  child-birth ;  and  was 
especially  worshipped  at  Ephesus,  where  a  temple  was  erected 
in  her  honour,  which,  for  its  extent  and  magnificence,  was 
anciehtly  reputed  to  be  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  (Acts 
xix.  24.  27,  28.  34,  35.) 

Dichotomy,  a  Jewish  punishment,  68. 

Dinah  was  the  daughter  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  at  the  time  the 
patriarch  dwelt  not  far  from  the  country  occupied  by  the  Hivites. 
Prompted  by  curiosity,  she  tueyit  out  to  see  the  daughters  of  the 
land,  most  probably  to  a  festival,  when  she  was  ravished  by 
Shechem,  a  prince  of  the  Hivites.  It  is  not  known  what  became 
of  her,  after  the  extermination  of  the  Shechemites  (Gen.  xxxiv.)  ; 
but  it  appears  from  Gen.  xlvi.  15.  that  she  was  living  in  the 
patriarch's  family,  and  accompanied  him  into  Egypt. 

DioNYsius,  a  member  of  the  tribunal  of  the  Areopagus  at 
Athens,  who  was  induced  by  the  preaching  of  St.  Paul  to  embrace 
the  Christian  religion.  (Acts  xvii.  34.) 

Dioscuni,  or  the  Twins  (Aios-xcfficf),  Castor  and  Pollux,  the 
fabled  sons  of  Jupiter  and  Leda,  were  supposed  to  have  some 
peculiar  power  over  storms :  hence  they  became  the  patron  , dei- 
ties of  seamen.     (Acts  xxviii.  1 1 .) 

DiOTREPHES,  a  professing  Christian,  who  (it  appears)  did  noi 
receive  with  hospitality  those  whom  the  apostle  John  sent  to  him, 
or  permit  others  to  do  so.  (3  John  9.) 

Diseases  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  and  their  treatment, 
■see  pp.  195—197.     ,  . 

Divination,  by  the  cup,  142.  By  inspecting  the  liver  of  - 
victims,  143.  By  arrows,  ibid.  By  the  staff,  ibid.  How  pu-  - 
iiishcd  among  the  Jews,  62. 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
EG  EG 


419 


DivniicEs,  Jewish  account  of,  162,  103. 

I)<iiiANiM,  the,  youni^cst  son  of  Javan.  (Gen.  x.  4.)  The 
country  |)(^()j)l('<l  liy  his  descendants  cannot  he  exactly  ascertained, 
'i'he  ^Sun^aritan  text  and  fSe|)tiiagint  version  of  (Jen.  x.  4.  read 
Jili'iilaniiii,  whicii  some  inler|iret  of  th(!  island  of  lihodes  ;  but 
Bocharl  nJ'ers  it  to  tiie  river  Kliodanus,  or  Rhone. 

DoE(;,  an  [dniiucan  proselyte  who  was  (Saul's  chief  herdsman  : 
he  put  to  death  the  priests  at  Noh,  whom  tSaul  imaprined  to  be  in 
conspiracy  with  David,  and  to  supply  him  with  provision.s. 
(1  Sam.  xxii.y— 1».) 

Doll,  or  Doha,  the  cajiita!  of  Nephet-Dora,  a  district  in  Ca- 
naan which  was  comiuered  hy  Joshua,  (Jud^.  xii.  2:3.)  It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  situated  on  the  coast,  not  far  from  Mount 
Carmel. 

DoiicAs,  a  charitable  and  pious  Cliristian  widow  of  Joppa, 
whom  Peter  restored  to  life.  (Acts  ix.  36 — 41.)  Like  the  Syriac 
name  Tabilha,  it  sifrnifics,  a  gazelle. 

DuKss,  of  the  I'riests,  113.  Of  the  Hii^h-priest,  113,  114. 
Of  the  Jews,  description  of,  155 — 159.  Allusions  to  theatrical 
dresses,  159. 

DitiNK,  medicated,  given  to  Christ,  nature  of,  71. 

Dhink-Okkkuings,  account  of,  119. 

Diiowjjiso,  a  Jewish  punishment,  68. 

Drusilla,  notice  of,  52. 

DuiiA,  a  plain  in  the  Babylonian  empire,  mentioned  in  Dan. 
iii.  According  to  the  historian  Polybius,  with  whom  Professor 
Gesenius  agrees,  it  was  situated  in  Mesopotamia,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Chaboras. 

Dwellings  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  150 — 155. 


EATi-nixfis  of  the  Jewish  women,  158. 

Eautii,  frequently  denotes  the  land  of  Judaja,  13. 

EAUTHarAKF.s,frequentin Palestine,  38. 

EiiAL,  the  northern  peak  of  Mount  Ephraim,  a  naked,  unfruit- 
ful rock  near  Shechem,  and  over  against  Mount  GKiiiznr. 
These  two  mountams  are  separated  hy  a  narrow  valley.  From 
Ebal  the  curses  were  pronounced.    (Deut.  xi.  29.    Josh.  viii.  30.) 

EcKATANA,  the  Achmetha  of  Ezra  (vi.  2.),  was  the  principal 
city  of  Media,  on  the  site  of  which  stands  the  modern  Hamadan. 
It  was  remarkable  for  the  coolness  of  its  temperature  :  on  which 
account  it  was  chosen  to  be  the  summer  residence  of  Cyrus  and 
the  succeeding  kings  of  Persia.  It  was  built  and  fortified  by 
Dioces,  king  of  the  Medes.  The  tombs  of  Esther  and  Mordccai 
are  said  to  be  still  preserved  here ;  and  a  colony  of  Jews,  who 
have  been  resident  at  Hamadan  from  time  immemorial,  protect 
their  remains.  (Alcock's  [unpublished]  Travels  in  Russia,  Persia, 
and  Greece,  in  1 828-29,  p.  80.     London,  1831.  8yo.) 

Eden. 

1.  The  name  of  the  country  in  which  the  Garden  of  our  first 
parents  was  placed.  (Gen.  ii.  8.  15.  iii.  23,  24.  iv.  16.)  It  has 
been  variously  supposed  to  have  lieen  situated  in  Syria,  in  Baby- 
lonia, near  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates,  and  in  Armenia,  whence 
issue  the  heads  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  two  of  the  paradi- 
saical rivers  well  ascertained  ;  and  two  others,  whose  springs  are 
in  the  neighbourhood,  agree  in  many  respects  with  the  third  and 
fourth  rivers  mentioned  by  Moses.  The  last  opinion  has  been 
chiefly  adopted. 

2.  A  pleasant  valley  near  Damascus.     (Amos  i.  5.) 

3.  A  country  of  Mesopotamia  or  Assyria,  under  the  power  of 
the  Assyrians.  (2  Kings  xix.  12.  Isa.  xxxvii.  12.)  In  Ezek.  xxvii. 
23.  it  is  joined  with  Asshur.  Prof.  Gesenius  conjectures  that  it 
may  be  Maedon  in  Diarbekir,  towards  the  Tigris. 

Edomites,  country  of.     See  p.  15.,  and  Iduma;a,  p.  18. 

EnucATioN  of  children  among  the  Jews,  163,  164. 

Eglox,  a  king  of  the  Moabites,  who  oppressed  the  Israelites 
for  eighteen  years.  (Judg.  iii.  12.)  At  length  Ehud,  a  Benja- 
mite,  was  raised  up  to  deliver  them  from  their  oppression,  who 
slew  him  in  the  manner  related  in  Judg.  iii.  15 — 26, 

Eon'T  (in  Hebrew  called  Mizraim,  after  Mizraim  the  son  of 
Ham),  a  country  of  Africa,  the  length  of  which  was  very  dispro- 
portionate to  its  breadth  :  its  extent  from  the  mouths  of  the  i^^ile 
to  Syene,  the  border  of  Nubia,  under  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  was 
aboHt  500  miles  ;  but  it  was  little  wider  than  the  valley  through 
which  the  Nile  ran  in  Upper  Egypt,  until  it  reached  the  Lower 
Egypt,  at  some  distance  above  the  head  or  vertex  of  the  Delta, 
where  the  valley  expanded  itself.  The  Upper  Egypt  or  Thebaid 
seems  to  be  called  Pathros  in  Scripture,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Lower,  properly  called  Caphtor,  or  Egypt.  (Compare  Isa. 
xL  11,  with  Ezek.  xxix.  14, ;  and  Jer,  xliv.  1.  with  Ezek.  xxx. 


li — 16.  Deut.  ii.  23.  .Ter.  xlvii.  4.)  This  country  seems  to  hove 
attained  an  earlier  and  a  higher  degree  of  civihzation  and  refine- 
ment than  any  other  in  the  world.  Even  in  Abraham's  days  wc 
find  it  the  seat  of  a  royal  government,  and  a  j)rincely  court, 
abounding  with  provisions,  while  the  nciglihouring  countries, 
and  even  the  fertile  regions  of  Palestine,  wr.-re  exposed  to  fre- 
<|uent  famines.  (Gen.  xii.  10.)  In  his  grandson  Jacob's  lime 
there  was  a  settled  caravan  trade  carried  on  through  Palestine 
from  Arabia  and  the  East,  for  spicery,  balm,  and  myrrh,  and  pro- 
bably also  for  slaves.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25.)  Its  superior  fertilitv, 
indeed,  was  occasioned  hy  the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile, 
the  rising  of  which  has  furnished  the  jirophet  Jeremiah  (xlvi. 
7,  8.)  with  a  fine  image,'  and  by  the  irrigation  of  their  lands 
(Deut.  xi.  10.);  and  wherever  this  is  still  practised  the  land 
now  literally  brings  forth  by  handfuls,  as  it  did  in  the  time  of  the 
patriarch  Joseph.  (Gen.  xii.  47.)  In  every  age  of  the  world 
Egy[)t  has  been  celebrated  for  those  stupendous  monuments  of 
ancient  art — the  pyramids ;  several  of  which  have  been  success- 
fully explored  by  the  enteqirising  traveller,  M.  Belzoni.  The 
countless  multitude  of  date  trees,  which  form  even  forests  about 
some  of  the  villages,  furnish  a  great  source  of  subsistence  to  the 
people.  To  cut  these  down  (as  it  is  said  the  French  were  pro- 
ceeding to  do,  and  would  have  done,  but  that  the  people  surren- 
dered at  the  prospect  of  this  utter  ruin)  would  be  to  cut  off"  the 
support  of  the  present  and  the  hopes  of  a  future  generation. 
Nothing  could  be  more  terrible  than  this  denunciation  of  Jere- 
miah (xlvi.  22,  23.)  against  Egypt  : — Tln-y  shut/  march  -with 
an  army,  and  come  against  her  -with  axes  us  heivers  of -wood : 
they  shall  cut  doivn  her  forest,  saith  the  Jjord,  thmigh  it  cannot 
be  searched ;  because  they  are  more  than  the  g-rasshoppera, 
and  are  innumerable.  (Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  the 
Mediterranean,  pp.  167.  170.)  On  the  prophecies  concerning 
Egypt,  and  their  fulfilment,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  12.5. 

The  Egyptians  boasted  of  being  the  most  ancient  people  in 
the  world ;  the  inventors  of  arts  and  sciences :  they  communi- 
cated to  the  Greeks  the  names  of  the  gods,  and  their  theology  : 
they  exceeded  in  superstition  and  idolatry,  worshijjping  stirs, 
men,  animals,  and  even  plants.  Moses  informs  us  that  the  He- 
brews sacrificed  beasts  whose  slaughter  was  considered  by  the 
Egyptians  as  an  abomination  (Exod.  viii.  26.),  likewise  that 
they  would  not  eat  with  the  Hebrews,  because  they  abhorred  all 
shepherds.  Concerning  the  motives  of  this  aversion  opinions 
are  divided.  Some  believe  it  to  he  founded  on  the  invasion  of 
Egypt  by  the  shepherd  kings  from  Arabia,  who  reigned  here  a 
long  time,  according  to  Manetho.  Others  think  that  the  Egyp- 
tians, after  their  king  Sesostris,  being  accustomed  to  a  soft  and 
idle  life,  detested  shepherds,  whose  profession  was  more  active 
and  laborious.  Others,  that  the  Egyptians  were  so  averse  to 
shepherds  because  of  their  killing  and  eating  sheep,  kids,  and 
goats,  which  were  objects  of  their  worship. 

The  antiquity  of  the  Egyptian  empire  is  indisputable,  though 
its  origin  is  involved  in  impenetrable  obscurity.  The  common 
name  of  the  Egyptian  kings  was  Pharaoh,  which  signified  sove- 
reign power,  though  each  had  another  name  peculiar  to  himself. 
History  has  preserved  the  names  of  several  kings  of  Egypt,  and 
a  succession  of  their  dynasties :  but  the  inclination  of  these  his- 
torians to  magnify  the  great  antiquity  of  their  nation  has  injured 
their  credibility.  It  is  certain  that  the  Egj^ptian  dynasties  were 
not  all  successive,  but  many  of  them  were  collateral  :  and  the 
greatest  part  of  the  kings,  who  are  placed  one  after  the  other, 

<  At  Molubis,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  Mr.  Jowett  observed  a  cattle- 
fair.  Several  buffaloes  were  swimming  from  the  opposite  side  across  the 
water.  Their  unwieldy  body  sinks  deep  into  the  water,  so  that  only  a  part 
of  the  neck  is  level  with  the  surface  :  while  their  uplifted  head  just  raises 
the  snorting  nostrils  above  the  water.  Often  a  little  Arab  boy  takes  his 
passage  across  the  Nile  upon  the  back  of  this  animal ;  scttin?  his  feet  on 
the  shoulders,  holding  fast  by  the  horns,  and  thus  keeping  his  balance. 
As  the  butfaloes  rose  out  of  the  water  on  the  bank  I  was  struck  with  their 
large  bony  size,  compared  with  the  little  that  had  appeared  of  them  while 
in  Ihe  water.  Their  emerging  brought  to  mind  the  passage,  Gen.  xii.  1,  2. 
—Behold  he  stood  hy  the  river  .  and  behold,  there  came  up  out  of  the  river 
seven  ictllfavoitred  k-ine  OTid  fat  Jleshed  ;  and  they  fed  in  a  meadow.  It 
was  the  very  scene,  and  the  very  country.  (.lowctt's  Christian  Researches 
in  the  Mediterranean,  p.  166.)  Mr.  J.,  speaking  of  the  boat  in  which  he 
crossed  the  river  Nile,  savs  that  it  "was  ballasted  with  earth  taken  from 
the  river-banks— very  stiff  and  rich  soil,  without  stones.  With  this  same 
mud  the  sides  of  the  boat  were  pla.stered,  at  those  parts  in  the  fore-half  of 
the  vessel  where  moveable  planks  were  placed  in  order  to  raise  the  gun- 
nel higher:  the  mud  filled  up  the  crevices,  and  prevented  the  water  from 
gushing  in,  as  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  This  mud  was  so  rich  and 
slimy,  and  when  dry  so  firm  and  impervious,  that,  together  with  (he  strong 
reed  that  grows  on  the  banks,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  how  the  mother  of 
Moses  constructed  a  little  ark  which  would  Hoat  :  she  then  placed  it  among 
the  tlags,  in  order  that  the  stream  might  not  carry  it  down,  Exod.  iii.  3.'" 
(Ibid.  p.  167.) 


420 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPICAL  INDEX. 


E  G 


were  contemporary,  one  reigning  in  one  part  of  Egypt,  another 
in  anotlier. 

Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Egyptian  Empire,  as  coimected 
ivilli  that  of  the  Israelites. 

No  intercourse  subsisted  between  the  IsracHtes  and  Egyp- 
tians from  the  departure  of  the  former  out  of  Egypt  until  the 
reign  of  Solomon,  who  having  married  a  daughter  of  Pharaoh 
(1  Kings  iii.  I.  vii.  8.),  and  established  a  considerable  trade  be- 
tween Egypt  and  Palestine,  the  two  kingdoms  became  intimately 
connected.  By  way  of  dowry  to  his  daughter,  the  king  of  Egypt 
gave  Solomon  several  cities  which  he  had  taken  from  the  Philis- 
tines. (1  Kings  ix.  16.)  Afterwards,  however,  this  intimacy 
declined,  as  Pharaoh  afforded  shelter,  even  during  the  life  of 
Solomon,  to  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat  (1  Kings  xi.  26.  40.), 
and  to  Hadad  the  son  of  the  king  of  Edom  or  Idumjea.  (Ibid. 
1 8,  1 9.)  The  connection  was  totally  broken  off  in  the  reign  of 
Rehoboam,  the  son  and  successor  of  Solomon  :  Shishak  king  of 
Egypt  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  despoiled  the  temple 
of  its  treasures,     (xiv.  25,  26.) 

Towards  the  end  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  the 
sovereigns  of  those  countries,  linding  themselves  too  weak  to 
resist  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  monarchs  who  pressed  them 
closely,  had  frequent  recourse  to  the  kings  of  Egypt  for  succour. 
But  these  applications  were  always  fatal  to  them.  The  vain 
confidence  of  the  people  of  God  in  these  heathen  princes  is  a  fre- 
quent subject  of  reproof  in  the  writings  of  the  prophets.  (Isa. 
XXX.  2.  xxxvi.  6.  Ezek.  xxix.  6,  7.  Hosea,  passim,  particularly 
chapters  vii.  viii.  and  ix.)  Hezeldah  derived  no  advantage  from 
his  alliance  with  the  king  of  Egypt  (2  Kings  xviii.  21.) ;  neither 
was  Hoshea  king  of  Israel  benefited  by  his  alliance  with  So, 
king  of  the  same  country.  (Hosea  vii.  11.  viii.  13.  ix.  3.  xii.  9. 
Jer.  ii.  18.  2  Kings  xvii.  4.)  Josiah  king  of  Judah  was  slain  in 
the  vain  attempt  to  oppose  the  passage  of  Pharaoh-Necho  through 
his  territories,  when  marching  against  the  Assyrians.  (2  Kings 
xxiii.  29.)  Pharaoh  pushed  on  beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  took 
Carchemish,  which  place  he  garrisoned ;  and  on  his  return 
through  Judsea  he  deposed  Jehoahaz,  whom  the  people  had  raised 
to  the  throne,  and  placed  EUakim  or  Jehoiakim  in  his  stead,  on 
whom  he  imposed  a  tribute. 

The  governor  of  Syria  and  Phosnicia,  who  held  these  pro- 
vinces in  behalf  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  having  put  them  under 
the  dominion  of  the  king  of  Egypt,  Nabopolassar,  king  of  Assy- 
ria, sent  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar  against  him ;  who  first  reiook 
Carchemish,  and  afterwards  reduced  the  whole  of  the  country 
between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile  to  his  father's  sceptre.  (Jer. 
xlvi.    Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  x.  c.  6.) 

A.M.  3334,  n.c.  670.  Psammetichus  succeeded  his  father 
Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  and  reigned  six  years.  (Hero- 
dotus, lib.  ii.  c.  159 — 161.)  After  his  death  Apries  (the  Pha- 
raoh-Hophra  of  the  Scriptures)  ascended  the  throne.  He  made 
an  alliance  with  Zedekiah  king  of  Judah,  and  with  the  king  of 
Etliiopia,  against  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  latter  marched  against 
them,  and  besieged  Jerusalem.  The  king  of  Egypt  came  to  the 
assistance  of  Zedekiah,  but  was  repulsed,  and  obliged  to  retire 
into  his  own  country,  whither  he  was  pursued  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, who,  after  taking  the  cities  of  Jerusalem  and  Tyre,  conquered 
and  ravaged  Egypt,  whence  he  carried  away  great  numbers  of 
captives,  agreeably  to  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah  (xliii.  xliv. 
xlvi.)  and  Ezekiel.  (xxix. — xxxi.)  Apries  was  put  to  death,  and 
Amasis,  his  enemy  and  rival  for  the  Egyptian  sceptre,  was  ele- 
vated to  the  throne,  a.  m.  3435,  b.  c.  569. 

Egypt  continued  subject  to  Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  succes- 
sors until  the  time  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  This  power  rebelled 
towards  the  close  of  his  reign.  Cambyses,  his  son  and  successor, 
conducted  an  immense  army  into  Egypt.  That  country  was 
again  subdued,  and  suffered  every  excess  which  the  cruel  victor 
could  possibly  inflict  upon  it,  a.m.  3479,  b.c.  525.  In  the  reign 
of  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  the  Egyptians  once  more  shook 
off  the  Persian  yoke,  but  were  reduced  to  a  more  oppressive 
bondage  than  before  by  his  son  and  successor  Xerxes.  In  those 
two  invasions  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  (xxix.)  and  Jeremiah 
(xliii.  11 — 13.)  were  most  signally  fulfilled. 

A.  M.  3544,  B.  0.  460.  During  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
manus,  the  Egyptians  once  more  took  up  arms,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Greeks,  their  allies,  protracted  the  war  for  six 
years.  Again  reduced  to  the  Persian  yoke,  they  continued  de- 
pendent on  the  Persian  monarchs,  though  governed  by  their 
kings,  until  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  surnamed  Ochus,  who,  in 
order  to  punish  them  for  a  fourth  revolt,  totally  destroyed  the 


E  L 

kingdom  of  Egypt,  and  made  it  a  province  of  the  Persian  empire, 
a.  m.  3654,  B.  c.  350.  (Calmet,  Hist.  Profane  de  I'Orient,  §  V, 
Dissert,  torn.  ii.  pp.  341 — 343.) 

Ehud,  the  second  judge  of  the  Israelites,  whom  he  delivered 
from  the  oppression  of  Eglon,  lung  of  Moab.  (Judg.  iii.  15 — 
26.) 

Ekron,  a  city  and  government  of  the  Philistines,  allotted  to 
Judah  by  Joshua  (xv.  45.)  ;  but  afterwards  given  to  Dan.  (Josh, 
xix.  43.)  It  was  near  the  Mediterranean,  between  Ashdod  and 
Jamnia,  Ekron  was  a  powerful  city ;  and  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  Jews  ever  peaceably  possessed  it :  the  Ekronites  were 
the  first  who  proposed  to  send  back  the  ark,  to  be  delivered  from 
those  calamities  which  it  brought  on  their  country.  (1  Sam.  v.  10.) 
Beelzebub  was  adored  at  Ekron.  (2  Kings  i.  2.) 

Ela,  the  fourth  king  of  Israel,  succeeded  his  father  Baasha, 
and  reigned  two  years  at  Tirza,  where  he  was  assassinated  by 
Zimri,  at  an  entertainment  given  to  him  by  one  of  his  officers. 
(1  Kings  xvi.  6—10.) 

Elah,  Valley  of,  notice  of.  32, 

Elam,  the  eldest  son  of  Shem,  who  settled  in  a  country  in  the 
south  of  Media,  called  after  him  Elam.  Strictly,  Elam  denotes 
Eltmats,  a  district  of  Persia,  near  the  bottom  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  between  Media  and  Babylonia,  and  forming  part  of  the 
region  of  Susiana:  but  in  a  wider  sense  it  is  used  generally  for 
Media  itself,  as  in  Dan.  viii.  2.  Gen.  x.  22.  xiv.  1.  Isa.  xi.  11. 
xxii.  6.  Jer.  xlix.  34 — 39.  Ezek.  xxxii.  34.  In  most  of  these 
passages,  Elam  is  represented  as  a  contentious  people,  causing 
disturbance  to  the  neighbouring  nations.  Strabo  says  as  much 
concerning  the  inhabitants  of  Elymais.  In  Jer.  xxv.  25.  and 
Acts  ii.  9.  the  inhabitants  of  this  country  are  mentioned  in  con- 
junction with  the  Medes. 

Elath,  Eloth,  or  Ailath,  a  town  and  port  of  Idumaea,  situ- 
ated on  the  Red  Sea.  On  the  conquest  of  Edom  by  David,  he 
took  possession  of  this  place,  and  there  established  a  trade  to  all 
parts  of  the  then  known  world.  Solomon  built  ships  here,  and 
sent  them  to  Ophir.  (2  Sam.  viii.  14.  2  Chron.  viii.  17,  18.) 
Elath  continued  in  possession  of  the  Israelites  about  150  years, 
until,  in  the  reign  of  Joram,  it  was  recovered  by  the  Edomites 
(2  Kings  viii.  20.),  from  whom  it  was  retaken  by  Azariah. 
(2  Kings  xiv.  22.)  Under  his  grandson  Ahaz  it  was  recaptured 
by  the  Edomites  (xvi.  6.)  ;  from  whom,  after  many  changes  undei 
the  Ptolemies,  it  finally  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans. 
It  was  anciently  a  great  emporium  for  the  Tyrians. 

El-Bethel  (Gen.  xxxv.  7.),  and  El-Elohe-Israel  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  20.),  the  name  of  two  altars  erected  by  Jacob  after  his 
return  to  Canaan.  The  first  signifies,  that  God  was  still  the  God 
of  Bethel  to  him  in  performing  the  promises  there  made :  the 
second  implies,  that  the  mighty  God  was  still  the  object  of  wor- 
ship to  him  and  his  offspring. 

Eld  AD  and  Med  ad  were  two  of  the  seventy  elders  appointed 
by  Moses ;  who  received  the  temporary  gift  of  prophesying,  or 
of  forming  divine  hymns,  and  singing  them  to  God.  (Num. 
xi.  26.) 

Elders  of  the  Israelites.  See  p.  42.  Elders  of  the  gate, 
p.  54. 

Eleazar.  * 

1.  The  third  son  of  Aaron,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  ponti- 
ficate. Having  been  born  in  the  desert,  he  entered  the  land  of 
Canaan,  in  the  division  of  which  he  assisted  Joshua.  After 
executing  the  office  of  high-priest  about  23  years,  he  died  and 
was  buried  in  the  mountains  of  Ephraim. 

2.  The  son  of  Abinadab  :  he  was  sanctified  or  set  apart  to 
keep  the  ark  of  God,  which  was  deposited  in  his  father's  house, 
after  it  had  been  sent  back  to  the  Israelites,  by  the  Phihstines. 
(1  Sam.  viii.  1.) 

3.  The  son  of  Dodo,  the  second  of  David's  mighty  men,  who 
distinguished  himself  by  his  brave  achievements.  He  was  one 
of  the  three  warriors  who  forced  their  way  through  the  Philis- 
tine forces,  to  procure  water  for  David  from  the  well  of  Bethle- 
hem, at  the  imminent  hazard  of  their  lives;  (1  Chron.  xi.  17 
-19.) 

Elect  Ladt,  more  correctly,  the  Lady  Electa,  a  pious  Chris- 
tian matron,  commended  by  St.  John  in  his  second  Epistle.  Cora- 
pare  p.  376. 

Elephantiasis,  the  disease  of  Job,  196. 

Elhanan. 

1 .  Another  son  of  Dodo,  and  ohe  of  David's  warriors.  ( 1  Chroii. 
xi.26.) 

2.  The  son  of  Jair,  or  Jaare-oregim,  another  warrior,  who 
slew  the  giant  Lahmi,  the  brother  of  Goliath.  (2  Sam.  xxL  19.) 


BIOGRArHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  A^'D   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


421 


E  L 


Elt. 


1.  The  seventh  high-priest  of  the  Isriiplites,  whom  he  judged 
forty  years :  he  was  descernicul  from  Ilhainar.  It  is  not  known 
why  tlie  pontilii-al  dignity  was  transferred  to  iiiin  from  the  family 
of  Ele.a/.ar.  Jle  was  severely  rejiroved  for  liis  false  indulgenees 
to  his  ))ri)|]igale  sons,  Iloplmi  and  J'liineiias:  he  died  suddenly 
on  hearing  lidings  of  the  eajiture  of  the  ark,  and  the  total  dis- 
comfiture of  the  Israelites  by  the  I'liilistines.   ( I  !Sani.  ii.  iii.) 

2.  The  name  of  a  man,  wlio  was  the  father  of  Joseph,  the 
hushand  of  Mary.   (Luke  iii.  23.) 

1'^  I.I  A  KIM. 

1.  A  governor  of  the  royal  household,  under  Ilezckiah  ;  hy 
whom  he  was  deputed,  with  others,  to  receive  tllJ  proposals  of 
l{al)-iliakeh,  on  the  ])arl  of  Scnnaeheril).  IL;  succeeded  .Slu'hna 
in  this  olhee,  agreealily  to  the  prediction  of  Isaiah  ;  who  highly 
eulogi/.ed  liis  character,  and,  under  images  borrowed  from  the 
genius  of  oriental  poetry,  promised  that  he  should  enjoy  un- 
bounded conlidencc  and  authority. 

2.  A  king  of  Judah,  the  son  of  Josiali,  whose  name  was  after- 
wards changed  by  Pharaoh-JVecho  king  of  Egypt  into  Jeiioiakim 
(which  8cc). 

Eli  AS.     See  Elijah. 

Eliashiii,  grandson  of  Josliua,  the  high-priest,  rebuilt  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  lie  was  allied,  by  marriage,  to  Tobiah 
the  Anmionite,  to  whom  he  gave  spacious  apartments  in  the 
second  temple,  to  the  scandal  of  his  religion,  and  the  great 
damage  of  the  country.   (Neli.  xii.  10.  iii.  1.  xiii.  4 — 9.) 

Elikzkh. 

1.  The  chief  of  Abrahnm's  servants,  and  eminent  for  the  con- 
fidence reposed  in  him  by  the  patriarch,  as  well  as  for  the  piety 
and  i)rudence  with  which  he  executed  the  commission  of  pro- 
curing a  wife  for  Isaac.  ((Jen.  xxiv.)  Before  the  birth  of  Isaac. 
it  should  seem  that  Abraham  had  designed  to  make  him  his  heir. 
(Gen.  XV.  2.) 

2.  The  son  of  Dodabah,  a  prophet,  who  foretold  to  Jehosha- 
phat,  that  the  trade-lleet,  which  he  had  fitted  out  in  conjunction 
with  the  unworthy  Ahaziah,  sliould  be  wrecked,  and  prevented 
from  sailing  to  Tarshish.   (2  (,'hron.  xx.  .37.) 

Eliiiu,  one  of  the  interlocutors  in  the  book  of  Job,  was  "the 
son  of  Barachel  the  Buzite,  of  the  kindred  of  Ram,"  or  Aram. 
(Job  xxxii.  2.  Gen.  xxii.  21.)  He  was  of  the  family  of  the 
patriarch  Abraham,  and  was  descended  from  Buz  the  son  of  Na- 
hor  and  Milcah :  it  is  most  probable  that  that  branch  of  the 
patriarchal  family  settled  in  Iduma;a. 

Elijah,  or  Elias,  after  Moses,  vi^as  the  most  celebrated  pro- 
phet of  the  Old  Testament,  surnamed  the  Tislibite,  from  Thisbe 
the  place  of  his  birth.  He  was  a  strenuous  vindicator  of  the 
worship  of  the  true  God,  in  opposition  to  the  idolatrous  kings 
under  whom  he  lived.  (IKingsxvii. — xix.)  He  was  miracu- 
lously translated  to  heaven  (2  Kings  ii.  1 — 11.)  ;  and  many  ages 
after  a  still  more  distinguished  honour  awaited  him.  Elijah  and 
Moses  are  the  only  men  whose  history  does  not  terminate  with 
their  departure  out  of  this  world.  Elijah  appeared,  together  with 
Moses,  on  Mount  Tabor,  at  the  time  of  Christ's  transfiguration, 
and  conversed  with  him  respecting  the  great  work  of  redemption, 
which  he  was  about  to  accomplish.  (Matt.  xvii.  1 — 3.  and  the 
parallel  passages  in  Mark  and  Luke.)  For  an  illustration  of 
the  conduct  of  Elijah  towards  the  prophets  of  Baal,  see  p.  141. 

Elim,  the  seventh  encampment  of  the  Hebrews,  in  the  north 
skirt  of  the  desert,  where  they  found  twelve  fountains  and  seventy 
palm  trees.  When  this  place  was  visited  by  Dr.  Shaw,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  he  found  here  nine  wells  or 
fountains,  and  2000  palm  trees.   (Exod.  xv.  27.) 

Elipiiaz,  surnamed  the  Temanite,  one  of  the  friends  of  Job, 
was  most  probably  descended  from  Eliphaz  the  son  of  Esau,  to 
whom  the  city  or  district  of  Teman  was  allotted.  (Dr.  Good, 
on  Job  ii.  11.) 

Elisha,  the  successor  of  Elijah  in  the  prophetic  office:  he 
wrought  numerous  miracles  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  which  are 
related  in  2  Kings  ii. — xiii.  See  Vol.  I.  p.  412.  where  the  de- 
struction of  forty-two  young  persons  by  this  prophet  is  vindicated 
from  the  cavils  of  skeptics. 

Elishah,  Isles  of  Elishah,  a  Grecian  province  whence  purple 
was  brought  to  Tyre.  (Gen.  x.  4.  Ezek.  xxvii.  7.)  According 
to  Prof.  Gesenius,  the  name  is  most  probably  akin  to  Elis,  which 
Ln  a  wider  sense  is  used  for  the  whole  Peloponnesus.  According 
to  otliers,  it  is  Hellas,  or  Greece.  This  country  most  probably 
derived  its  name  from  Elishah  the  son  of  Javan,  whose  descend- 
ants peopled  part  of  Greece. 


E  P 


Elkosii,  the  liirth-place  of  the  propliet  Nahnm  (i.  1.):  it  is 
cither  AlkuHh  in  Assyria,  where,  Gesenius  thinks,  he  might  have 
been  born  of  Israelitish  parents  ;  or,  according  to  Jerome,  Elcese, 
a  village  in  Galilee. 

EnL,  the  sixth  month  of  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical  year,  and 
the  twelfth  month  of  the  civil  year.  The  etymology  of  this 
word  is  obscure.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals  in  this  month, 
see  p.  7G. 

Elymais.     SccElam. 

Elvmas.     See  Bak-Jksus,  p.  5.57. 

EMiiALMiJtf;,  Egvfitian  and  Jewish  processes  of.     See  p.  198. 

E.mi.ms,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  t\w  land  of  Canaan,  to  the 
east  and  north-east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  They  were  a  numerous, 
warlike,  and  gigantic  race,  probalily  descended  from  Ham.  They 
were  defeated  by  (Jhedorlaomer  in  Shaveh  Kiriathaim,  c/  the 
Plain  of  Kiriathaim.   ((Jen.  xiv.  .5.) 

Emmai's,  a  small  village  of  Ju(hea,  distant  sixty  furlongs  from 
Jerusalem.  It  is  memorable  for  the  very  interesting  conversation 
between  Jesus  Christ  and  two  of  his  disciples  in  the  evening  of 
tlu!  day  of  his  resurrection.  (Luke  xxiv.)  " 'i'he  mean  and  tri- 
fling village,  all  that  now  exists,  of  Emmaus,  stands  on  an  emi- 
nence, in  the  midst  of  hills.  The  people,  who  live  here,  are  poor 
and  wretched  ;  they  are  chiefly  Christians."  (Carne's  Recollec- 
tions of  the  East,  p.  21.3.) 

EvcAMPMKXTs  of  the  Jews,  86,  87. 

E\-i)ou,  a  city  belonging  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Jordan  :  according  to  Eusebius,  it  was  four 
Roman  miles  to  the  south  of  Mount  Tabor.  Here  dwelt  the 
sorceress,  who  was  consulted  by  Saul  a  short  time  before  the 
fatal  battle  of  Gilboa. 

Ev-ki;laim,  or  the  fountain  of  calves,  a  place  situated  on  the 
northern  point  of  the  Dead  Sea.     (Ezek.  xlvii.  10.) 

Ex-CKDnA,  mountains  of,  30. 

Ex-GEi)i,  or  the  fountain  of  the  kid,  anciently  called  Haza- 
zon  Tamar,  was  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judali,  not  fiir  from  the 
southern  point  of  the  Dead  Sea.  lu  surrounding  district 
abounded  with  palm  trees  and  vines.  (Josh.  xv.  62.  2  Chron. 
XX.  2.  Song  of  Sol.  i.  14.)  In  the  vicinity  of  this  place  was 
the  cave  of  En-gedi ;  for  a  notice  of  wliich,  see  p.  32. 

E\(;uAvi>-G,  art  of,  among  the  Jews,  183. 

En-misphat,  or  the  fountain  of  judgment,  the  same  as  the 
waters  of  Meribah,  or  contention,  the  name  of  a  fountain  in  the 
desert  of  Sin,  otherwise  called  Kadesh. 

E\-Kor,r.L,  or  the  fountain  of  the  spy,  a  fountain  on  the  south- 
east of  Jerusalem :  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  fountain 
of  Si  LOAM ;  for  a  notice  of  which,  see  p.  28. 

Enoch. 

1.  The  son  of  Cain,  in  honour  of  whom  the  first  city  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  was  called  Enoch  by  his  father,  who  erected 
it.  (Gen.  iv.  17.)  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated  on  the 
east  of  Eden. 

2.  The  father  of  Methuselah,  memorable  for  his  piety.  Having 
lived  365  years,  he  was  translated,  and  did  not  see  death.  (Gen. 
v.  18.  24.  Heb.  xi.  5.)  The  memory  of  which  event  is  confirmed 
by  heathen  traditions.  Vol.  I.  p.  71.  According  to  the  modern 
Jews,  and  the  Arabians  (who  call  him  Idris  the  learned),  he 
was  the  inventor  of  letters,  arithmetic,  and  astronomy ;  probably 
from  the  etymology  of  the  name,  which  signifies  initiated  or  ini- 
tiating. For  a  notice  of  the  apocryphal  prophecy  of  Enoch,  see 
Vol.  I.  p.  318. 

Eyox,  a  place  or  fountain,  not  far  from  Salim,  where  John 
baptized  many  persons.  According  to  Eusebius,  it  was  eight 
Roman  miles  from  Scythopolis,  and  fifty-three  north-east  of  Je- 
rusalem. 

Ejtos,  the  son  of  Seth  and  grandson  of  Adam,  was  bom  a.  wr. 
235,  and  died  at  the  age  of  905  years :  consequently  he  was 
contemporary  with  Adam  695  years,  and  84  years  with  Noah. 
After  the  birth  of  Enos,  divine  worship,  which  till  that  time  had 
been  confined  to  private  families,  became  public.  The  descend- 
ants of  Seth  separated  themselves  from  the  descendants  of  Cain, 
and  invoked  the  name  of  God,  probably  on  fixed  days,  and  in 
assemblies  where  every  one  was  admitted.  (Gen.  v.  6.  1  Chron. 
i.  1.   Gen.  iv.  26.) 

Entertaisments  of  the  Jews.     See  pp.  172,  173. 

Ep-enetcs,  the  first  person  in  proconsular  Asia  who  em- 
braced the  Christian  faith.  (Rom.  xvi.  5.)  In  which  passage, 
many  motlern  versions,  and  among  them  our  authorized  version, 
read  Achaia,  which  is  a  mistake  in  the  copy  whence  they  were 
made:  for  the  Alexandrian  and  Vatican  manuscripts,  the  Co- 


422 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
EP  E  U 


dices  Ephrem,  Claromonlanus,  Augiensis,  and  Boernerianus, 
and  the  readings  in  the  Codex  Vindobonensis  Lambecianus  34. 
(No.  37.  of  Griesbach's  notation),  together  with  the  Memphitic, 
Armenian,  Ethiopic,  and  Vulgate  versions,  besides  many  Latin 
fathers, — all  read  'Acrwc  instead  of  ' h-xj^i^  ;  which  lection  Gries- 
bach  considers  as  certainly  equal,  if  not  preferable,  to  the  re- 
ceived reading.  That  it  is  preferable  to  that  reading  is  clear 
from  1  Cor.  xvi.  15.,  where  the  family  of  Stephanas  is  said  to 
be  "  the  frst-fruits  of  Achaia." 

Epapuuas,  the  coadjutor  of  St.  Paul  in  his  labours,  was  re- 
puted to  be  the  first  bishop  of  the  church  at  Colossae,  to  which 
he  was  affectionately  attached.  (Col.  i.  17.  iv.  12.  Philem.  23.) 
He  was  with  St.  Paul  during  his  first  imprisonment ;  and  has 
sometimes,  but  without  proof,  been  confounded  with 

Epaphkoditus,  whom  that  apostle  styles  a  fellow-labourer 
and  fellow-soldier,  as  having  participated  in  his  labours  and 
dangers.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  minister  of  the  Philip- 
pian  church,  by  which  he  was  sent  to  carry  pecuniary  aid  to  St. 
Paul,  who  speaks  of  him  in  terms  of  great  respect.  (Phil.  iv. 
18.  ii.  25—30.) 

Ephesdammim,  a  place  between  Shochoh  and  Azekah  on  the 
west  of  the  valley  of  Elah.  Here  the  army  of  the  Philistines 
was  encamped,  when  Gohath  insulted  the  hosts  of  Israel :  and 
here  also  they  were  found  after  David's  coronation,  and  suffered 
a  great  slaughter. 

Ephesus  was  the  metropolis  of  proconsular  Asia.  (On  the 
powers  of  the  "assembly"  held  in  this  city,  see  pp.  135,  136.) 
This  celebrated  city,  the  remains  of  which  give  a  high  idea  of 
its  former  beauty,  extent,  and  magnificence,  was  situated  in  that 
part  of  Asia  which  was  anciently  called  Ionia  (but  now  Natolia), 
about  five  miles  from  the  >Egean  Sea,  on  the  sides  and  at  the 
foot  of  a  range  of  mountains  overlooking  a  tine  plain  that  was 
watered  and  fertilized  by  the  river  Cayster.  Ephesus  was  par- 
ticularly celebrated  for  the  temple  of  Diana,  a  most  magnificent 
and  stately  edifice,  which  had  been  erected  at  the  common 
expense  of  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  Proper,  and  was  reputed  one 
of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world ;  but  the  very  site  of  this 
stupendous  and  celebrated  edifice  is  now  undetermined.  Widely 
scattered  and  noble  ruins  attest  the  splendour  of  the  theatre 
mentioned  in  Acts  xix.  31.;  the  elevated  situation  of  which,  on 
Mount  Prion,  accounts  for  the  ease  with  which  an  immense 
multitude  was  collected,  the  loud  shouts  of  whose  voices,  rever- 
berated from  the  neighbouring  Mount  Corissus,  would  not  a 
little  augment  the  uproar  which  was  occasioned  by  the  populace 
rushing  into  the  theatre.  In  the  time  of  Saint  Paul,  this  city 
abounded  with  orators  and  philosophers ;  and  its  inhabitants,  in 
their  Gentile  state,  were  celebrated  for  their  idolatry  and  skill  in 
magic,  as  well  as  for  their  luxury  and  lasciviousness.  The  pre- 
sent state  of  Ephesus  affords  a  striking  illustration  of  the  ac- 
complishment of  prophecy.  Ephesus  is  the  first  of  the  apoca- 
lyptic churches  addressed  by  the  evangelist  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ.  "  His  charge  against  her  is  a  declension  in  religious 
fervour  (Rev.  ii.  4.),  and  his  threat  in  consequence  (Rev.  ii.  5.), 
a  total  extinction  of  her  ecclesiastical  brightness.  After  a  pro- 
tracted struggle  with  the  sword  of  Rome,  and  the  sophisms  of 
the  Gnostics,  Ephesus  at  last  gave  way.  The  incipient  indif- 
ference, censured  by  the  warning  voice  of  the  prophet,  increased 
to  a  total  forgetful  ness ;  till,  at  length,  the  threatenings  of  the 
Apocalypse  were  fulfilled,  and  Ephesus  sunk  with  the  general 
overthrow  of  the  Greek  empire  in  the  fourteenth  century." 
(Emerson's  Letters  from  the  ^-Egean,  vol.  i.  pp.  212,  213.) 
Ephesus  is  now  under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  and  is  in  a 
state  of  almost  total  ruin.  The  plough  has  passed  over  the  city  ; 
and  in  March,  1826,  when  visited  by  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Hartley 
and  Arundell,  green  corn  was  growing,  in  all  directions,  amidst 
the  forsaken  ruins :  and  one  solitary  individual  only  was  found 
who  bore  the  name  of  Christ,  instead  of  its  once  flourishing 
church.  Where  once  assembled  thousands  exclaimed,  "  Great 
is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians,"  now  the  eagle  yells  and  the  jackal 
moans.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans,  Ephesus  was  the  metropolis 
of  Asia  Minor.  (Hartley's  Journal,  in  Missionary  Register, 
1827,  pp.  290—292,  Arundell's  Visit  to  the  Seven  Churches, 
pp.  27—56.) 

Ephod  of  Gideon,  137;  and  of  the  High-priests,  113,  114. 

EpHRAIiyi. 

1.  The  youngest  son  of  Joseph  by  Asenath,  was  adopted  and 
blessed  by  Jacob ;  who  laid  his  right  hand  on  Ephraim,  and  his 
left  on  the  head  of  Manasseh,  to  intimate  that  the  youngest  son 
should  be  greater  than  the  eldest,  and  his  posterity  more  nume- 


rous. He  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the  tribes  of  Israel ;  for  the 
limits  allotted  to  which,  see  p.  17.  The  Ephraimites  were  un- 
able to  utter  the  sound  sh,  to  which  they  gave  the  sound  of  s. 
(Judg.  xii.  6.)  It  is  a  singular  circumstance,  that  the  modern 
Greeks  have  not  the  sound  of  sh  in  their  language.  Hence 
they  are  liable  to  be  detected  like  the  Ephraimites.  (Hartley's 
Researches  in  Greece,  p.  232.) 

2.  A  considerable  city  of  Juda;a,  eight  Roman  miles  north  of 
Jerusalem,  according  to  Eusebius,  and  near  a  desert  of  the  same 
name ;  to  which  Jesus  Christ  retired  after  he  had  raised  Lazarus 
from  the  dead.     (John  xi.  54.) 

3.  Ephraim,  Forest  of,  36. 

4.  Ephraim,  Mountains  of,  30. 
Ephratah. 

1.  Another  name  for  the  town  of  Bethlehem.    (Mic.  v.  2.) 

2.  The  lot  of  Ephraim.     (Psal.  cxxxii.  6.) 

Epicureans,  the  followers  of  Epicurus,  a  celebrated  Athe- 
nian philosopher :  they  acknowledged  no  gods,  except  in  name 
only,  and  absolutely  denied  that  they  exercised  any  providence 
over  the  world.  For  an  illustration  of  Saint  Paul's  masterly 
address  to  them  at  Athens,  see  p.  326,  327. 

Epistlks,  Ancient,  form  of,  183. 

Epochas  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  77. 

Erastus,  treasurer  of  the  city  of  Corinth,  who  embraced 
Christianity  and  became  the  fellow-labourer  of  Saint  Paul. 

EsAR-HADi)ON,  the  son  and  successor  of  Sennacherib  king  of 
Assyria;  for  a  notice  of  whose  reign,  see  Assyria,  p.  410. 
col.  2. 

Esau,  or  EnoM,  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac,  and  the  twin  brother 
of  Jacob.  He  delighted  much  in  hunting ;  while  Jacob,  being 
of  a  more  domestic  turn,  became  the  favourite  of  his  mother 
Rebekah,  by  whose  counsel  and  direction  he  surreptitiously  ob- 
tained his  father's  blessing  in  preference  to  Esau ;  who  found  no 
place  or  scope  for  a  change  of  purpose  in  his  father,  though  he 
sought  it  carefully  with  tears.  (Gen.  xxvii.  1 — 34.  Hcb.  xii. 
17.)  On  Jacob's  return  into  Canaan  from  Mesopotamia,  whither 
he  had  fled  to  avoid  his  brother's  resentment,  Esau  received  him 
with  great  Jiindness ;  and  on  Isaac's  death  he  returned  to  Mount 
Seir.  Concerning  the  remainder  of  his  life  or  the  manner  of 
his  death  the  Scriptures  are  silent.  In  the  historical  and  pro- 
phetical books,  Esau  and  Edom  respectively  denote  Idunifea  and 
the  Idumaean  tribes.  In  Rom.  ix.  13.  where  St.  Paul  cites  Mai. 
i.  2,  3.,  the  apostle  is  evidently  treating  only  of  the  posterities 
of  Jacob  and  Esau. 

EsDRAELON,  Plain  of,  account  of,  33. 

EsHcoi,  Valley  of,  a  fertile  vale  in  the  land  of  Canaan  and 
in  the  southern  part  of  Judah.  Here  the  Hebrew  spies,  while 
exploring  the  country,  cut  a  very  large  cluster  of  grapes,  which 
was  carried  back  by  two  men,  as  a  specimen  of  the  delicious 
fruit  produced  by  the  country. 

Espousals,  Jewish,  form  of,  160,  161. 

EssENES,  sect  of,  account  of,  146, 

Esther,  or  Hadassah,  the  great  niece  of  Mordecai,  by  whom 
she  was  adopted.  On  the  divorce  of  Vashti,  she  became  the 
queen  consort  of  Ahasuerus  :  her  history  is  related  in  the  book 
of  Esther ;  for  an  analysis  of  which,  see  pp.  225,  226. 

Etabf, 

1.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  between  Bethlehem  and  Te- 
koah,     (2  Chron,  xi,  6.) 

2.  A  rock,  to  which  Samson  retired  after  he  had  burned  the 
harvest  of  the  Philistines.  (Judg.  xv.  8.)  From  a  celebrated 
spring  near  this  place,  Pilate  (and  probably  Solomon  before 
him)  brought  water  by  an  aqueduct  into  Jerusalem. 

Etham,  the  third  station  of  the  Israelites  after  their  departure 
fi-om  Egypt.  (Num.  xxiii.  6,  Exod.  xiii.  20.)  It  is  now  called 
Etti.  , 

Ethau,  the  Ezrahite,  was  one  of  the  philosophers,  to  whom 
Solomon  was  compared  for  wisdom  in  1  Kings  iv.  31,  and  1  Chron. 
ii.  6.     The  89th  psalm  is  ascribed  to  him. 

Ethanim,  the  ancient  name  of  the  first  month  of  the  Jewish 
civil  year.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals,  &c.  in  this  month,  see 
p.  75, 

Ethics  cultivated  by  the  Jews,  186, 

Ethiopia.  See  Cush,  p.  417.  col.  2.  On  the  prophecy  con- 
cerning Ethiopia,  and  its  fulfilment,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  125. 

Eunice,  the  mother  of  Timothy,  and  the  wife  of  a  Greek  pro- 
selyte. She  was  eaily  converted  to  the  Christian  faith.  St.  Paul 
has  pronounced  a  high  eulogium  on  her  piety.  (Acts  xvi.  1.- 
2  Tim.  i.  5.) 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


423 


FA 

EUNCCH. 

1.  One  who  has  been  emasculated.  Such  persons  anciently 
Were  (as  in  the  East  they  still  are)  employed  to  guard  the 
harems  of  oriental  kings  and  nobles.     See  p.  47. 

2.  Since,  in  the  East,  eunuchs  often  rose  to  stations  of  great 
power  and  trust,  the  word  at  length  came  to  signify  a  minister 
of  a  court,  without  necessarily  including  the  idea  of  emascula- 
tion. Such  was  the  ofhccr  of  Cuiidace,  queen  of  Ethiopia,  whose 
conversion  is  related  in  Acts  viii.  27 — .'i'J. 

EuoinAS  and  Sijtticiik  were  Christian  women  atPhilippi,  and 
probably  deaconesses  of  the  church  in  that  city.  From  I'hil.  iv. 
2.  it  is  evident  that  a  difference  of  opinion  subsisted  between 
them  :  most  probably,  it  was  respecting  the  necessity  of  retaining 
the  Mosaic  ceremonies  under  the  Gosjiel  dispensation  and  worship. 

EupiiUATKs,  a  large  and  celebrated  river  of  Western  Asia:  it 
rises  in  Armenia  Major  near  Mount  Aba,  and,  after  flowing  by 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  the  site  of  Babylon,  it  empties  itself 
into  the  Persian  Gulf.  In  Gen.  xv.  18.  it  is  called  "  the  great  river," 
which  distinctive  appellation  it  deserves  in  contrast  with  rivers 
generally,  though  not  with  the  Nile.  (Buckingham's  Travels  in 
Mesopotamia,  vol.  i.  p.  54.)  Like  the  Nile,  at  certain  seasons  of 
the  year,  the  Euphrates  inundates  the  flat  countries  on  its  banks, 
and  renders  them  extremely  fertile. 

EuiiocLYuoN,  a  tempestuous  wind  common  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  well  known  to  modern  mariners  by  the  name  of  a 
J,ev(mler.  It  is  not  confined  to  any  one  single  point,  but  blows 
in  all  directions  from  the  north-east,  round  by  the  north,  to  the 
south-cast.  The  great  wind,  or  mighty  tempest,  or  vehement 
east  wind,  described  by  the  prophet  Jonah  (i.  4.  iv.  8.),  appears 
to  have  been  one  of  these  Levanters.  Of  this  description  was  the 
violent  or  tempestuous  wind  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii.  14.  (Shaw's 
Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  127,  128.) 

EvK,  the  wife  of  Adam,  and  the  common  mother  of  the  hu- 
man race.  (Gen.  ii.  iii.)  The  character  of  Eve  is  only  known  to 
us  by  her  sin ;  in  the  commission  of  which  we  may  observe  the 
two  fundamental  passions,  of  which  all  the  others  are  modifica- 
tions ;  viz.  pride — ye  shall  be  as  gods  ;  and  sensuality — the  tree 
■was  trood  for  food,  and  its  fruit  was /i/easa/ii  to  the  eyes.  (Gen. 
iii.  5,^6.) 

EviL->tF,noi)ACH,  the  son  and  successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
king  of  Babylon.  He  delivered  Jchoiakim  king  of  Judah  out  of 
prison,  uj'on  whom  he  conferred  many  favours.  (2  Kings  xxv. 
27.  Jer.  Iii.  31.)  According  to  Archbishop  Usher,  he  reigned 
only  one  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Belshazzar. 

EuTicHL-s,  circumstances  of  the  death  of,  explained,  153,  154. 

Excommunication,  punishment  of,  and  its  eil'ects,  66.  106. 

ExKcuTioN  of  sentences,  how  and  by  whom  performed,  57. 

Exi'iATtoN,  day  of,  how  solemnized,  127. 

Exposition  of  Scripture,  part  of  the  synagogue  worship,  106. 

ExiHisruK  to  wild  beasts,  a  capital  punishment,  68.  St.  Paul 
not  thus  actually  exposed,  191. 

E  V  Ks,  putting  out,  a  Jewish  punishment,  66.  Painting  of  the 
eyes  descrilied,  158. 

EzKKiEL,  the  son  of  Buzi,  of  the  house  of  Aaron  (Ezek.  i.  I.) 
was  carried  captive  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  with  Jehoia- 
kim  king  of  Judah.  He  is  the  third  of  the  greater  prophets.  See 
a  further  account-  of  Ezekiel,  and  an  analysis  of  his  predictions  in 
pp.  283—287. 

EzioN-oEBER,  a  port  in  Icjiumsea,  on  the  Elanitic  gulf,  whence 
Solomon  sent  ships  to  Ophir.  (1  Kinrjs  ix.  26.)  In  later  times 
it  was  called  Berenice.  Dr.  Shaw  supposes  it  to  be  the  same 
port  which  is  now  called  by  the  Arabs  Meenah-el-Dsahab,  or  the 
port  of  gold.    (Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  118,  119.) 

Ezra  or  Esiiuas,  the  son  (or,  according  to  Coquerel  and 
others,  the  grandson  or  great-grandson)  of  Seraiah,  was  a  priest 
and  scribe  or  doctor  of  the  law  ;  who,  returning  from  capiivity, 
with  a  full  commission  from  Artaxcrxes,  to  .settle  the  church  and 
state  of  the  Jews,  zealously  exerted  himself  in  rectifying  all  the 
disorders  which  had  crept  into  their  aflairs  during  their  captivity. 
See  a  further  account  of  Ezra,  and  an  analysis  of  the  historical 
book  which  bears  his  name,  in  pp.  224,  225. 


Fatu  Havens,  a  place  so  called  on  the  coast  of  Crete,  most 
probably  because  it  had  good  anchorage.  (Acts  xxvii.  8.)  In 
the  fourth  century,  according  to  Jerome,  it  was  a  large  town. 

Families,  Heads  of,  41,  42. 

Famines  in  the  Holy  Land,  40. 

Fasts  of  the  Jews,  public  and  private,  how  solemnized,  132. 
Fast  of  tlie  atonement,  127. 


G  A 


Fathers,  Jewish,  power  of,  over  their  families,  164. 

Feasts  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  121 — 129.  Benefits  resulting 
from  thcin,  123.  Notice  of  their  funeral  feasts,  202.  See  Dedi- 
cation, Exi'iATiON,  Jubilee,  New  Moov,  Passoveh,  Pente- 
cost,  I'uuiM,  Sabdatu,   Sabbatical   Year,  Tabernacles, 

TllUMI'ETS. 

Feet,  washing  of,  169,  170.     Female  ornaments  of,  158. 

Felix,  procurator  of  Juda;a,  account  of,  53.  and  327. 

Fertility  of  I'alestine,  account  of,  3.5 — 38. 

Festcs,  procurator  of  J uda;a,  notice  of,  53. 

Fig  tree.s  of  Palestine,  36,  37. 

Fines,  various,  imposed  by  the  Jews,  65. 

FiiiST-BoRN,  privileges  of,  1G.3. 

FiusT-FRuiTs,  presentation  of,  119,  120. 

Flohus,  procurator  of  Judiea,  notice  of,  53. 

Fooii  and  entertainments  of  the  Jews,  171 — 173.  Particular 
kinds  of  food,  why  allowed  or  prohibited  to  them,  171,  172. 

Foot-race,  allusions  to,  explained,  192 — 194. 

Forest  of  Cedars,  36;  of  Ephraim's,  ibid;  of  Hareth,  ibid ; 
of  Oaks,  ibid. 

Fortifications  of  the  Jews,  88,  89. 

Fountains  in  the  Holy  Land,  account  of,  28,  29. 

Freedom  of  Rome,  how  acquired,  and  its  privileges,  58,  59. 

Funeral  Rites  of  the  Jews,  199,  200. 

FcBNiTCiiE  of  oriental  houses,  154,  155. 


Gaai,  the  son  of  Ebed,  who  raised  a  revolt  in  Shechcra 
against  Abimelech  the  son  of  Gideon  ;  but,  being  defeated  by  the 
latter,  he  was  compelled  to  flee.  (Judg.  ix.  26 — 41.)  It  is  not 
known  who  he  was  or  what  afterwards  became  of  him. 

Gaasii,  a  hill  in  the  inheritance  of  Ephraim,  on  the  north  side 
of  which  stood  Timnath-Serah,  memorable  as  being  the  place 
where  Joshua  was  buried.  (Josh.  xxiv.  30.)  At  the  foot  of  this 
hill,  probably,  were  the  brooks  (or  valleys)  of  Gaash  mentioned  in 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  30. 

Gabbatua.     See  p.  21. 

Gad. 

1.  Gad,  or  Good  Fortune,  a  Syrian  idol,  notice  of,  137. 

2.  Seventh  son  of  Jacob,  bom  of  Zilpah :  he  gave  his  name 
to  one  of  the  twelve  tribes ;  for  the  limits  of  whose  allotment, 
see  p.  16. 

3.  A  prophet,  the  friend  of  David,  whom  he  faithfully  followed 
during  his  persecutions  by  Saul.  After  David's  establishment  on 
the  throne  of  Israel,  Gad  was  commissioned  to  propose  to  him 
one  of  three  scourges,  which  was  to  punish  the  sinful  numbering 
of  the  people ;  and  afterwards  directed  him  to  build  an  altar  in 
the  threshing-floor  of  Oman  orAraunah.  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5.  2  Sam. 
xxiv.)  Gad  also  wrote  a  history  of  David's  reign,  whence,  per- 
haps, was  taken  the  narrative  of  that  census  ;  and  he  transmitted 
to  that  monarch  the  divine  commands  concerning  the  establish- 
ment of  public  worship.   (2  Chron.  xxix.  25.) 

Gadara  was,  according  to  Josephus  (Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  24.), 
the  metropolis  of  Persea,  or  the  region  beyond  Jordan :  it  was 
one  of  the  cities  of  the  district  of  Decapolis,  and  consequently 
under  heathen  jurisdiction,  on  which  account,  perhaps,  it  was 
destroyed  by  the  Jews,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Pompey,  in  favour  of 
Demetrius  Gadarensis,  his  manumitted  servant,  according  to  Jo- 
sephus. The  inhabitants  of  this  city  being  rich,  sent  legates  to 
Vespasian  when  he  advanced  against  Judaea,  and  gave  up  this 
strong  city  to  him  ;  both  the  city  and  the  villages  belonging  to  it 
lay  within  the  region  of  the  Gergesenes,  whence  Christ  going 
into  the  country  of  the  Gadarencs,  (Mark  v.  1.),  is  said  to  go  into 
the  region  of  the  Gergesenes  (Matt.  viii.  28.)  The  remains  of 
the  warm  baths  for  which  this  place  was  anciently  celebrated,  and 
also  of  the  tombs  (among  which  the  Gadarene  demoniac  abode) 
are  still  to  be  seen.  Gadara  is  now  called  Oomkais,  or  Omkcis. 
The  modern  inhabitants  of  this  place  are  as  inhospitable  as  they 
were  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ.  (Quarterly  Kev.  vol.  xxvi.  p.  389. 
Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  pp.  297,  298.  Madden's  Travels 
in  Turkey,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  31 1.) 

Gaics. 

1.  A  Macedonian,  and  fellow-traveller  of  Saint  Paul,  who  was 
seized  by  the  populace  at  Ephesus.  (Acts  xix.  29.) 

2.  A  native  of  Derbe,  who  accompanied  Paul  in  his  last  journey 
to  Jerusalem.  (Acts  xx.4.)  To  him  St.  John  is  supposed  to  have 
addressed  his  third  epistle. 

3.  An  mhabitant  of  Corinth,  with  whom  Paul  lodged,  and  in 
whose  house  the  Christians  were  accustomed  to  meet.  (Rom.  xvi 
23.   1  Cor.  i.  14.) 


424 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


G  A 


Gal  ATI  A,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  west  by 
Phrygia,  on  the  east  by  the  river  Halys,  on  the  north  by  Paphla- 
gonia,  and  on  the  south  by  Lycaonia.  This  country  derived  its 
name  from  the  Gauls,  two  tribes  of  wliom  (the  Trocmi  and  Tohs- 
toboii)  with  a  tribe  of  the  Celts,  or  according  to  Prof  Hug,  Ger- 
mans (the  Teclosages),  linding  their  own  country  too  small  to 
support  its  redundant  population,  migrated  thither  after  the  sack- 
ing of  Rome  by  Brennus;  and  mingling  with  the  former  inhabit- 
ants, and  adopting  the  Greek  language,  the  whole  were  called 
Gallo-Graeci.  During  the  reign  of  Augustus  (a.  u.c.  529,  b.  c.  26.), 
Galatiawas  reduced  into  a  Roman  province,  and  was  thenceforth 
governed  by  the  Roman  laws,  under  the  administration  of  a  pro- 
praetor. The  Galatians  seem  to  have  preserved  their  native 
religion,  to  which  they  superadded  the  worship  of  the  great 
mother  of  the  gods.  Their  principal  cities  were  Ancyra,  Tavium, 
and  Pessinus ;  the  latter  of  which  carried  on  some  commerce. 
Callimachus  (Hymn,  in  Delum.  v.  184.)  and  Hilary  (Hymn. 
Hieron.  pref  in.  ep.  ad  Galat.),  who  was  himself  a  Gaul,  repre- 
sent them  as  a  very  foolish  people  ;  whence  St.  Paul  says,  (iii.  1.) 
O  FOOLISH  Galatians,  who  hath  bewitched  you  1  This  church  was 
so  dangerously  perverted,  and  almost  overturned,  by  the  Judaizers 
there,  that  the  apostle,  in  his  epistle  to  them,  does  not  call  them 
saints.  See  an  analysis  of  his  epistle  to  the  Galatians  in  Vol.  [I. 
pp.  337,  338.  Galatia  was  also  the  seat  of  colonies  from  various 
nations,  among  whom  were  many  Jews ;  and  from  all  of  these 
St.  Paul  appears  to  have  made  many  converts  to  Christianity. 
(Gal.  i.  2.  1  Cor.  xvi.  1.  2  Tim.  4.  10.  1  Pet.i.  1.)  According 
to  Josephus  (Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvi.  c.  6.),  the  Jews  here  enjoyed  con- 
siderable privileges.  Robinson,  voce  Taxnttx  ;  Hug's  Introd.  vol. 
ii.  pp.  363 — 365.) 

Galilee,  Upper  and  Lower,  17,  18.  The  Galilaeans  were 
accounted  brave  and  industrious,  though  the  other  Jews  affected 
to  consider  them  as  not  only  stupid  and  unpolished,  but  also  se- 
ditious, and  therefore  proper  objects  of  contempt.  (John  i.  47. 
viii.  52.)  They  were  easily  distinguished  from  the  Jews  of  Jeru- 
salem by  a  pecculiar  dialect ;  for  a  notice  of  which,  see  p.  1 7.  and 
note  2. 

Galil JEANS,  sect  of,  principles  of,  148. 
Galilee  of  the  Nations,  18. 
Galilee,  Sea  of,  account  of,  26,  27. 

Gallio,  a  proconsul  of  Achaia,  was  the  elder  brother  of  the 
philosopher  Seneca,  and  was  called  Marcus  Annseus  Novatus ; 
but  took  the  name  of  Gallio,  after  being  adopted  into  the  family 
of  Lucius  Junius  Gallio.  Before  his  tribunal  Saint  Paul  was 
dragged  at  Corinth.  His  conduct  on  that  occasion  exhibits  him 
in  the  character  of  a  mild  and  amiable  man  ;  and  St.  Luke's 
account  is  confirmed  by  profane  writers.     See  Vol.  I.  p.  79. 

Gamaliel,  a  Pharisee  and  an  eminent  doctor  of  the  law,  under 
whom  St.  Paul  was  educated.  (Acts  v.  24.  xxii.  3.)  He  possessed 
great  influence  among  the  Jews,  and  is  said  by  some  to  have  pre- 
sided over  the  sanhedrin  during  the  reigns  of  Tiberius,  Caligula, 
and  Claudius. 

Games,  Olympic,  allusions  to,  explained,   191 — 194.     Gym- 
nastic games  in  imitation  of  them  among  the  Jews,  190. 
Gardens  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  180. 
Garments  of  the  priests,  113.     Of  the  high-priests,  113,114. 
Rending  of,   a   sign  of   mourning,    159.     Great  wardrobes   of, 
ibid. 

Gates  of  cities,  155. ;  were  seats  of  justice,  54.  Gates  of 
Jerusalem,  19,20. 

Gath,  a  city  of  the  Philistines,  one  of  their  five  principalities 
( I  Sam.  vi.  17.),  famous  for  having  given  birth  to  Goliath.  David 
conquered  it  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign  over  all  Israel  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  4.)  :  it  continued  subject  to  his  successors  till  the  declension 
of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  Rehoboam  rebuilt  or  fortified  it. 
(2  Chron.  xi.  8.)  Uzziah  reconquered  it,  as  did  Hezekiah.  Jose- 
phus makes  it  part  of  the  tribe  of  Dan;  but  Joshua  takes  no 
notice  of  it.  Calmet  thinks,  that  Mithcah,  mentioned  by  Moses 
(Num.  xxxiii.  29.),  is  the  Methcg  in  2  Sam.  viii.  1.  In  our  au- 
thorized version  it  is  rendered,  David  took  Metheg-Ammah,  that 
is,  Aletheg-  the  Mother,  which,  in  1  Chron.  xviii.  1.,  is  explained 
by — He  took  Gath  and  her  daughters  (or  towns)  ;  Gath  being 
the  mother,  and  Metheg  thes  daughter.  But  it  may  be  that  the 
district  of  Gath  and  its  dependencies  was  called  in  David's  time 
Metheg-Ammah ;  but  this  being  unusual,  or  becoming  obsolete, 
the  author  of  the  Chronicles  explains  it  to  be  Gath  and  its  vil- 
lages. According  to  this  idea,  Gath  of  the  Philistines,  the  birth- 
place of  giants  (2  Sam.  xxi.  20.  22.),  must  lie  far  in  Arabia 
PetriEa,  towards  Egypt,  which  is  confirmed  by  the  author  of  the 


G  A 

first  book  of  Chronicles,  who  says,  that  the  sons  of  Ephraim 
being  in  Egypt,  attacked  the  city  of  Gath,  and  were  there  slain. 
(1  Chron.  vu.  21.) 

Jerome  says,  there  was  a  large  town  called  Gath,  in  the  way 
from  Eleutheropolis  to  Gaza;  and  Eusebius  speaks  of  another 
Gath,  five  miles  from  Eleutheropolis,  toward  Lydda  (conse- 
quently difl'erent  from  that  which  Jerome  speaks  of)  ;  also  an- 
other Gath,  or  Gattiia,  between  Jamnia  and  Antipatris.  Jerome 
likewise,  speaking  of  Gath-0{)her,  the  place  of  the  prophet 
Jonah's  birth,  says,  it  was  called  Gath-Opher,  or  Gath,  in  the 
district  of  Opher,  to  distinguish  it  from  others  of  the  same 
name. 

Gath  was  the  most  southern  city  of  the  Philistines,  as  Ekron 
was  the  most  northern ;  so  that  Ekron  and  Gath  are  placed  as 
the  boundaries  of  their  land.  (1  Sam.  vii.  14.  xvii.  52.)  Gath 
lay  near  Marcshah  (2  Chron.  xi.  8.  Micah  i.  14.  Heb.),  which 
nearly  agrees  with  Jerome,  who  places  Gath  on  the  road  from 
Eleutheropolis  to  Gaza.  Gath  was  a  place  of  strength,  in  the 
time  of  the  prophets  Amos  and  Micah,  independent  of  the  kings 
of  Judah  (Amos  vi.  2.  Micah  i.  10.  14.)  ;  but  was  taken  by 
Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  while  Amos  was  living;  and  afterwards 
by  Hezekiah,  in  Micah's  time.  Gethaim  (2  Sam.  iv.  3.  Neh.  xi. 
33.)  is  Gath.     David  had  a  company  of  Gittite  guards. 

Gaulonitis,  District  of,  18. 

Gaza,  a  very  celebrated  city  of  the  Jews,  distant  about  60 
miles  south-west  from  Jerusalem :  it  was  one  of  the  five  cities 
of  the  Philistines,  which  fell  by  lot  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  47.),  and  which  oflered  their  golden  emerods  to  the  God  of 
Israel  for  a  trespass-otlering.  (1  Sam.  vi.  17.)  Its  gates  were 
carried  away  by  Samson  (Judg.  xvi.  2.),  and  hither  he  was  con- 
ducted when  taken  by  the  Philistines  (v.  21.),  three  thousand  ot 
whom,  both  men  and  women,  were  assembled  on  the  roof  of  the 
temple  of  their  god  Dagon  (27.),  and  perished  when  Samson 
pulled  it  down.  (30.)  "  If  any  one  should  question  the  possi- 
bility of  3000  people  being  upon  the  roof  of  the  temple  in  ques- 
tion, he  may  be  referred  to  the  accounts  of  the  temples  at  Thebes 
in  Upper  Egypt,  which  have  been  given  by  all  recent  travellers; 
accounts,  which,  while  they  come  to  us  authenticated  in  such  a 
manner  as»to  admit  of  no  doubt  in  regard  to  their  verity  and 
correctness,  at  the  same  time  present  things  apparently  incredible, 
and  contrary  to  all  the  philosophizing  of  most  speculative  and 
theoretical  historians.  The  ruins  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome, 
so  fiir  as  vastness  and  extent  are  concerned,  dwindle  into  insigni- 
ficance when  compared  with  the  astonishing  remains  of  early 
architecture  at  Thebes.  What  is  most  confounding  of  all  to  that 
philosophizing,  in  which  historians  of  a  skeptical  cast  are  prone 
to  indulge,  is,  that  these  mighty  ruins  are,  beyond  all  doubt,  the 
relics  of  architecture  designed  and  executed  in  ages,  when  (as 
some  popular  writers  admonish  us  to  believe)  men  were  not  yet 
weaned  from  contending  with  the  beasts  of  the  forest  for  their 
lairs  and  for  their  acorns,  nor  but  very  little  elevated  above  them. 
The  ruins  at  Thebes  present  evidences  of  control  over  physical, 
mechanical  power ;  of  skill  in  architecture  on  a  scale  of  surpris- 
ing magnitude ;  and  of  art  in  mixing  and  laying  on  colours,  that 
are  fresh  as  if  painted  but  yesterday,  after  having  been,  laid  on 
for  more  than  thirty  centuries ;  wJiich  confound  and  put  to 
shame  all  that  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  the  experience  of  three 
thousand  years,  have  since  been  able  to  accomplish.  So  much 
for  the  rudeness,  and  barbarity,  and  ignorance  of  the  primiti-ve 
ages.  The  Philistines,  the  near  neighbours  of  the  Egyptians, 
and  their  hearty  coadjutors  in  polytheism,  might  well  have,  and 
doubtless  had,  large  temples  as  well  as  they  ;  large  enough  to 
afford  room  for  three  thousand,  and  some  of  them  not  improba- 
bly for  many  more,  to  stand  upon  the  roof.  As  to  the  strength 
of  Samson,  in  tearing  away  pillars  on  which  such  enormous 
weight  rested  ; — those,  who  disbelieve  any  thing  which  is  mira- 
culous,'will  of  course  regard  the  whole  as  a  niythos  (or  fable); 
those,  who  admit  the  reality  of  miracles,  will  doubtless  be  ready 
to  believe,  that  there  was  some  supernatural  aid  alTorded  him  in 
the  case  under  consideration.  A  heavy  blow  was  inflicted  upon 
polytheism  by  the  event  in  question,  and  on  its  votaries,  Who 
were  the  enemies  of  God's  chosen  people."  (Stuart's  Hebr. 
Chrestomathy,  pp.  189,  190.) 

After  destroying  Tyre,  Alexander  the  Great  besieged  Gaza, 
which  was  at  that  time  held  by  a  Persian  garrison,  and  took  it 
after  a  siege  of  two  months.  He  aj)pears  to  have  left  the  city 
standing;  but  afterwards,  i!.r.  96,  Alexander  Jannffius,  reigning 
prince  of  the  Jews,  took  it  after  a  siege  of  a  year  and  destroyed 
it.  Thus  was  Gaza  tnade  desolate  agreeably  to  the  prediction  of 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
GE  GI 


425 


Zephaniah.  (ii.  4.)  Subsequently  Gabinius  rebuilt  this  city, 
whicli  Augustus  bestowed  on  Herod  the  Great,  after  whose  death 
it  was  annt'xed  to  Syria.  (Schleusni!r  and  Robinson,  voce  ru^u..) 
'J'lie  city  of  (Jaza  is  mentioned  in  Acts  viii.  20.  with  tlie  paren- 
thetical remark, — that  ai/T«  ianv  ifn/wA — it  [or  tlu;  same]  is  (lenert  : 
which  has  greatly  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  commentators,  some 
of  whom  refer  uinii  to  o/nf ,  and  translate  it  by  nrifrequeiited ; 
while  others  referring  it  to  the  city,  explain  it  by  de/irivecl  of 
fuvtificntiuns  :  others  again  su])pose  the  ancient  city  to  have 
remained  desolate,  and  that  which  (lourished  in  the  days  of  St. 
Luke  to  have  occupied  a  somewhat  dilierent  site  nearer  to  the 
sea ;  and  others  consider  these  words  to  be  a  mere  gloss  which 
lias  found  its  way  into  the  text.  A  passage,  however,  in  Jose- 
j)hus,  which  has  escaped  the  researches  of  most  of  the  learned 
men,  clears  up  the  diliiculty,  and  shows  the  minute  fidelity  of 
the  sacred  historian.  A  short  time  before  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
in  consequence  of  a  massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Ca!sarea,  the  whole 
nation  became  greatly  enraged,  and  in  revenge  laid  waste  many 
villages  and  cities ;  and  among  these  were  Anthedon  and  Gaza, 
which  they  utterly  demolished.  Gaza  therefore  was  actually 
ipii/u'^c,  a  desert,  at  the  time  St.  Luke  wrote.  (Joscphus,  Bell. 
Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  18.  §  1.  Hug's  Introd.  vol.  i.  p.  25.)  The  neigh- 
bourhood of  modern  Gaza  is  described  by  Captains  Irby  and 
Mangles  as  being  richly  wooded  with  olives,  sycamores,  mulber- 
ries, cedars,  fir  trees,  &c.  &c.  The  country  is  enclosed  by  hedges 
of  prickly  pears,  the  hills  gently  rising  to  the  view  beyond  each 
other,  and  the  whole  has  a  beautiful  appearance.  Excepting  the 
perishable  materials,  with  which  the  houses  are  constructed,  stone 
being  substituted  for  mud,  the  town  partakes  of  the  wretched 
appearance  of  those  in  Egypt.  (Travels,  p.  178.) 

Gkbal,  Mount,  31. 

Gkdaliah,  the  son  of  Ahikam,  was  left  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  Palestine,  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  to  govern  the 
remainder  of  the  people  who  continued  there.  He  was  treache- 
rously slain  by  Ishmael  the  son  of  Nethaniah.  (2  Kings  xxv. 
22—2.5.) 

Gehazi,  the  servant  of  the  prophet  Elisha,  who,  contrary  to 
his  master's  intention,  fraudulently  obtained  presents  of  Naaman, 
the  Syrian  general,  and  was  smitten  with  leprosy  for  his  wicked- 
ness (2  Kings  V.  20 — 27.)  ;  a  judgment  which  ought  to  warn  us 
not  only  of  the  curse  which  cleaves  to  ill-gotten  wealth,  but 
above  all,  of  the  just  vengeance  of  God,  which  pursues  all  who, 
for  purposes  of  worldly  gain,  bring  a  scandal  and  reproach  upon 
their  religion. 

Gehixnom,  or  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  32. 

Genealogies  of  the  Hebrews,  79. ;  of  the  Herodian  family,  51. 

Gennesaheth,  a  region  50  furlongs  in  length,  and  20  in 
breadth ;  a  very  pleasant  and  fruitful  place,  abounding  in  the 
gardens  of  great  men,  whence  it  had  its  name  from  Gen  and 
Sar,  as  being  the  garden  of  princes ;  it  lay  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Lake  of  Gcnncsareth,  and  gave  that  name  to  it.  (Luke  v.  1.) 

Gennesaheth,  Sea  of,  26,  27. 

Gentiles,  court  of,  in  the  temple,  99. 

Geoouaphy,  not  unknown  to  the  Jews  as  a  science,  187. 
Sketch  of  the  historical  and  physical  geography  of  Palestine, 
13—40. 

(lEiioESA,  a  town  near  Gadara,  so  called,  either  from  the  Gir- 
pashites,  the  posterity  of  Canaan  (for  neither  did  Zebulon  nor 
Naphtali  drive  out  all  the  Canaanites,  Judg.  i.  30.  33.),  or  from 
Gergishta,  signifying  clay,  the  soil  being  clay  ;  it  gave  name  to 
a  region  so  called,  which  comprehended  in  it  Gadara,  Hippo, 
and  Magdala.     See  Gadaha,  p.  423. 

Geiiizim  (Mount),  a  peak  of  Mount  Ephraim,  over-against 
Mount  Ebal ;  between  the  two  the  city  Shechem  was  situated. 
(Deut.  xi.  29.  xxvii.  11,  12.)  In  subsequent  times  this  moun- 
tain became  the  seat  of  the  religious  worship  of  the  Samaritans, 
who  erected  a  temple  there  ;  for  a  notice  of  which,  see  p.  101. 

Geushom  and  Eliezer,  the  sons  of  Moses  and  Zipporah, 
were  only  simple  Lcvites,  while  their  relations,  the  sons  of 
Aaron,  enjoyed  the  highest  honours  of  the  pontificate. 

Geiisuon,  a  son  of  Levi,  who  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the 
three  great  branches  of  the  Levites.  The  office  of  the  Gershon- 
ites  was,  to  carry  the  veils  and  curtains  of  the  tabernacle,  on  the 
west^n  side  of  which  they  encamped. 

Geshur.  a  country  in  Syria,  the  daughter  of  whose  king 
David  married,  and  by  her  had  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xv.  8.),  who, 
aRer  the  murder  of  his  brother  Amnon,  retired  to  the  king  of 
Geshur  his  grandfather.     (13.) 

Gkssius  FioRcs,  the  procurator  of  JudiEB,  notice  of,  53. 
Vol.  II.  3  H 


Gethsemawe,  a  garden  beyond  Kedron,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Olivet,  so  called  from  the  wine-presses  in  it:  it  is  memorable  in 
the  evangelical  history,  as  being  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's 
agony.  It  is  described  by  recent  travellers,  as  being  a  small 
plat  of  ground,  with  a  low  hedge  or  enclosure  of  stones;  no 
verdure  growing  on  it,  save  six  or  eight  venerable-looking  olives, 
which  have  stood  there  for  many  centuries:  they  are  highly 
venerated  by  the  Christians  here,  who  consider  any  attempt  to 
cut  or  injure  them  as  amounting  to  an  act  of  profanation.  (Mis- 
sionary Register  for  1824,  p.  504.  Jowett's  Researches  in  Syria, 
p.  .'303.  Game's  Letters,  p.  290.  Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  L 
p.  212.  third  edition.) 

Gii:eaii,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  not  far  from  Jerusa- 
lem :  it  is  frc(]uently  called  Gibeah  of  Saul,  from  being  the 
birth-place  of  the  first  Hebrew  monarch. 

Gideon,  the  capital  city  of  the  Gibeonites,  who  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  oaths  of  Joshua,  and  of  the  elders  of  Israel,  on 
an  artful  representation  which  they  made  of  their  belonging  to  a 
very  remote  country.  (Josh,  ix.)  Joshua  and  the  elders  had 
not  the  precaution  to  consult  God  on  this  afl'air,  and  inconsider- 
ately made  a  league  with  these  people :  they  soon  discovered 
their  mistake,  and  without  revoking  their  promise  of  giving 
them  their  lives,  they  condemned  them  to  carry  wood  and  water 
to  the  tabernacle,  and  other  servile  work,  as  a  mark  of  their  pu- 
sillanimity and  duplicity,  as  slaves  and  captives ;  in  which  state 
of  servitude  they  remained,  till  the  entire  dispersion  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  a.  m.  2553,  b.  c.  1451.  Three  days  after  the 
Gibeonites  had  surrendered  to  the  Hebrews,  the  kings  of  the 
Canaanites  being  informed  of  it,  came  and  besieged  the  city  of 
Gibeon.  (Josh.  x.  3,  &c.)  The  Gibeonites  came  to  Joshua, 
and  desired  speedy  help.  Joshua  attacked  the  five  kings  early 
in  the  morning,  put  them  to  flight,  and  pursued  them  to  Beth- 
oron. 

The  Gibeonites  were  descended  from  the  Hivites,  the  old  in- 
habitants of  that  country,  and  possessed  four  cities ;  Cephirah, 
Beeroth,  Kirjath-jearim,  and  Gibeon,  the  capital,  afterwards 
given  to  Benjamin,  excepting  Kirjath-jearim,  which  fell  to  Judah. 
The  Gibeonites  continued  subject  to  those  burdens  which  Joshua 
had  imposed  on  them,  and  were  very  faithful  to  the  Israelites. 
Nevertheless  Saul,  through  what  mistaken  zeal  we  cannot  tell, 
destroyed  a  very  great  number  of  them  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1,  2,  3, 
&c.)  ;  but  God,  as  a  punishment  of  his  cruelty,  in  the  reign  of 
David,  sent  a  great  famine,  which  lasted  three  years  (a.  m. 
2983,  B.  c.  1017)  ;  and  the  prophets  told  David  that  this  ca- 
lamity would  continue  so  long  as  that  cruelty  remained  unre- 
venged,  which  Saul  had  exercised  against  the  Gibeonites.  David 
asked  the  Gibeonites,  what  satisfaction  they  desired?  They 
answered,  "  Seven  of  Saul's  sorts  ive  -will  put  to  death,  to 
avenge  the  blood  of  our  brethren."  The  Gibeonites  hung  them 
up  before  the  Lord.  This  happened  early  in  the  spring,  when, 
in  Palestine,  they  begin  barley-harvest.  From  this  time  there  is 
no  mention  of  the  Gibeonites,  as  composing  a  sort  of  separate 
people.  But  it  is  probable  that  they  were  included  among  the 
Nethinim,  or  Given,  who  were  public  slaves,  appointed  for  the 
service  of  the  temple.  (1  Chron.  ix.  2.)  Afterwards,  those  of 
the  Canaanites,  who  were  subdued,  and  had  their  lives  spared, 
were  added  to  the  Gibeonites.  We  see  (Ezra  viii.  20.  ii.  58. 
1  Kings  ix.  20,  21.)  that  David,  Solomon,  and  the  princes  of 
Judah,  gave  many  of  them  to  the  Lord ;  these  Nethinim  being 
carried  into  captivity  with  Judah  and  the  Levites,  many  of 
them  returned  with  Ezra,  Zerubbabel,  and  Nehemiah,  and  con- 
tinued as  before,  in  the  service  of  the  temple,  under  the  priests 
and  Levites.  Gibeon  was  seated  on  an  eminence,  as  is  evidenced 
by  its  name.  It  was  forty  furlongs  from  Jerusalem  (according 
to  Josephus)  north.  It  is  called  Gabaa.  (2  Sam.  v.  25.  com- 
pared with  1  Chron.  xiv.  16.)  There  is  mention  of  the  foun- 
tain and  pool  of  Gibeon.     (2  Sam.  ii.  13.) 

We  neither  know  when,  nor  by  whom,  nor  upon  what  occa- 
sion, the  tabernacle  and  altar  of  burnt  sacrifices  made  by  Moses, 
in  the  wilderness,  were  removed  to  Gibeon;  but  this  we  cer- 
tainly know,  that  toward  the  end  of  David's  reign,  and  in  the 
beginning  of  Solomon's,  they  were  there.  (1  Chron.  xxi.  29, 
30.)  David,  seeing  the  angel  of  the  Lord  at  Araunah's  thresh- 
ing-floor, was  so  terrified,  that  he  had  not  time  or  strength  to  go 
so  far  as  Gibeon,  there  to  offer  sacrifice,  but  Solomon  being 
seated  on  the  throne,  went  to  sacrifice  at  Gibeon,  because  this 
was  the  most  considerable  of  all  the  high  places,  where  sacrifices 
were  then  tolerated,  the  temple  being  not  yet  built.  (1  Kings 
ill.  4.) 


426 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


G  O 


GiDKos,  the  fifth  juJge  of  the  Israelites,  whom  he  delivered 
from  the  oi)prcssion  of  the  Midianites.  (Judg.  vii.  viii.)  He 
was  the  son  of  Joash,  of  the  tribe  of  Manassch ;  and,  having 
destroyed  the  worship  of  Baal,  was  surnamed  Jehubbaal. 
(Judg.  vi.  25—33.) 

GiDKOx,  Epiiod  of,  137. 

GlHON. 

1.  One  of  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise ;  which  Bishop  Patrick 
and  Dr.  Wells  suppose  to  be  the  easterly  channel  of  the  two, 
into  which  the  Euphrates  is  divided  after  its  junction  with  the 
Tigris.  Others,  however,  (and  among  them,  Gescnius,)  suppose 
it  to  be  the  Oxus  or  Araxes.  Josephus  considers  it  to  be  the 
Nile,  (Ant.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.  1.  §  3.),  which  now  is  said  to  be 
called  Guyon  by  the  Abyssinians. 

2.  A  fountain  or  watercourse  near  Jerusalem,  where  Solomon 
was  anointed  King  by  Zadok  the  priest  and  Nathan  the 
prophet.  (1  Kings  i.  32 — 40.)  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  same 
which  was  afterwards  called  Siloam  ;  for  a  notice  of  which,  see 
p.  28. 

GiLBOA,  Mountains  of,  notice  of,  30. 

GiLEAT),  Mountains  of,  notice  of,  31.     Balm  of,  36. 

Gilo  At,,  a  celebrated  place  on  the  east  of  Jericho,  and  on  this 
side  Jordan,  where  the  Israelites  encamped  for  some  time  after 
their  passage  over  that  river.  A  city  was  afterwards  built  there, 
which  became  memorable  for  many  events.  It  was  a  seat  of 
justice  (or,  as  we  should  now  term  it,  an  assize-town) :  Samuel, 
when  travelling  in  circuit  through  the  land,  went  yearly  to 
Gilgal.  (1  Sam.  vii.  16.)  Here  Saul  was  crowned  king  of  the 
Hebrews.  In  subsequent  times  it  was  the  seat  of  idolatry. 
(Hos.  iv.  15.    Amos  v.  5.) 

Girdles,  notice  of,  156.     Military  girdle,  88. 

GiHGAsniTES,  an  ancient  people  of  Canaan,  whose  habitation 
was  beyond  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  where  we  find  some  vestiges  of 
their  name  in  the  city  of  Gekgesa  or  Gergasa,  upon  the  sea 
of  Tiberias. 

God,  crimes  against,  how  punished  by  the  Jews,  61,  62. 

Go£L,  or  blood-avenger,  office  of,  67. 

Gog  and  Magog,  the  accurate  chronologer,  Dr.  Hales,  thinks, 
are  the  general  names  of  the  northern  nations  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  or  the  districts  north  of  Caucasus,  or  Mount  Taurus,  colo- 
nized by  Gog,  or  Magog,  another  of  the  sons  of  Japhet  (Gen. 
X.  2.),  called,  by  the  Arabian  geographers,  Jajuie  and  Majuje. 
(Rennel.  Herod,  p.  112.)  Gog  rather  denotes  the  people,  Magog 
the  land.  Thus  Balaam  foretold  that  Christ  would  be  "  a  king 
higher  than  Agag,"  or  rather  "  Gog,"  according  to  the  more 
correct  reading  of  the  Samaritan  Hebrew  text,  and  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version  of  Num.  xxiv.  7. :  and  Ezekiel,  foretelling  a 
future  invasion  of  the  land  of  Israel  by  these  northern  nations, 
Meshech,  Tubal,  and  Togarmah,  styles  "  Gog  their  chief 
prince,"  and  describes  their  host  precisely  as  Scythian  or  Tar- 
tarian ;  "  coming  out  of  the  north,  all  of  them  riding  on  horses ;" 
"  bows  and  arrows"  their  weapons ;  "  covering  the  land,  like  a 
cloud,  and  coming  like  a  storm,"  in  the  "  latter  days."  (Ezek. 
xxxviii.  1 — 17.)  He  also  describes  their  immense  slaughter,  in 
the  valley  of  the  passengers  on  the  east  of  the  sea,  thence  called 
the  valley  of  Hamon  Gog,  "  the  multitude  of  Gog."  (Ezek. 
xxxix.  1 — 22.)  This  prophecy  seems  also  to  be  revived  in  the 
Apocalypse,  where  the  hosts  of  Gog  and  Magog  are  represented 
as  coming  to  invade  "  the  beloved  city,"  and  perishing  with 
immense  slaughter  Ukewise  in  Armageddon,  "  the  Mount  of 
Mageddo,"  or  Megiddo.  (Rev.  xvi.  14 — 16.  xx.  7 — 10.)  Dr. 
Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  p.  463.  (first  edition). 

Golden  Calf,  worship  of,  136.  Golden  calves  of  Jeroboam, 
ibid. 

Golgotha,  notice  of,  19. 

Goliath,  a  Philistine  giant,  a  native  of  Gath,  well  known  for 
his  combat  with  David.     (1  Sam.  xvii.) 

GoMER,  the  son  of  Japhet  (Gen.  x.  2,  3.  Ezek.  xxxviii.  6.), 
whose  posterity  peopled  Galatia,  according  to  Josephus  ;  Phrygia, 
according  to  Bochart ;  but,  according  to  Calmet  and  Gesenius, 
they  were  the  Cimmerians  or  Cimbri,  a  Uttle  known  and  barba- 
rous northern  nation. 

Gomorrah,  one  of  the  four  cities  in  the  vale  of  Siddim, 
which  were  sunk  in  the  Dead  Sea.     (Gen.  x.  19.  xiii.  10.) 

Goshen  (Land  of),  was  the  most  fertile  pasture  ground  in 
the  whole  of  Lower  Egypt :  thence  called  Goshen,  from  Gush, 
in  Arabic,  signifying  "  a  heart,"  or  whatsoever  is  choice  or 
precious.  There  was  also  a  Goshen  in  the  territory  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  so  called  for  the  same  reason.  (Josh.  x.  41.)  Hence 
Joseph  recommended  it  to  his  family  as  "  the  best  of  the  land" 


H  A 

(Gen.  xlvii.  11.),  and  "the  fat  of  the  land."  (Gen.  xlv.  18.) 
The  land  of  Goshen  lay  along  the  most  easterly  branch  of  the 
Nile,  and  on  the  east  side  of  it ;  for  it  is  evident,  that  at  the 
time  of  the  Exodus,  the  Israelites  did  not  cross  the  Nile.  In 
ancient  times,  it  was  considerably  more  extensive,  both  in  length 
and  breadth,  in  consequence  of  the  general  failure  of  the  eastern 
branches  of  the  Nile  ;  the  main  body  of  the  river  verging  more 
and  more  to  the  west  continually,  and  deepening  the  channels 
on  that  side.  (Dr.  Hales's  Chronology,  vol.  i.  p.  374.  Madden's 
Travels  in  Turkey,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  182.) 

Government  of  the  Jews,  under  the  patriarchs.  See  p.  40, 
41.  Under  Moses  and  the  judges,  41,  42.  Under  the  kings,' 
42 — 48,  During  the  Babylonian  captivity,  49,  50.  Under  the 
Asmonaean  and  Herodian  princes,  50 — 52.  Under  the  Roman 
procurators,  52,  53. 

GozAN,  a  city  or  country  in  northern  Mesopotamia.  (2  Kings 
xvii.  6.  xviii.  11.  xix.  12.  Lsa.  xxxvii.  2.)  By  the  geographer 
Ptolemy  it  is  called  Ganzcmitis,  now  Kaiisehan. 

Grain,  threshing  of,  178. 

Great  Plain,  account  of,  33. 

Great  Sea,  28. 

Greaves  (Military),  use  of,  88. 

Greece,  in  the  Scriptures,  often  comprehends  all  the  countries 
inhabited  by  the  descendants  of  Javan,  as  well  in  Greece  as  in 
Ionia  and  Asia  Minor.  Since  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
the  name  of  Greeks  is  taken  in  a  more  uncertain  and  enlarged 
sense,  because,  the  Greeks  being  masters  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  of 
the  countries  beyond  the  Euphrates,  &c.  the  Jews  called  all 
those  Gentiles  Greeks.  In  the  Maccabees,  the  Gospels,  and 
Paul's  writings,  a  Greek  commonly  signifies — a  Gentile.  In  the 
Old  Testament  Greece  and  Greeks  are  named  Javan.  Isaiah 
says  (Ixvi.  19.),  that  the  Lot  d  shall  send  his  ambassadors  to  Ja- 
van, to  the  isles  afar  off.  Ezekiel  tells  us  (xxvii.  13.  19.)  that 
Javan,  Tubal,  and  Meshech  came  to  the  fairs  at  Tyre.  Daniel 
(xi.  2.),  speaking  of  Darius,  says  "  that  he  shall  stir  up  all 
against  the  realm  of  Javan."  Alexander  the  Great  is  described 
by  the  name  of  King  of  Javan.     (Dan.  viii.  21.  x.  20.) 

Grinding  of  corn,  178. 

Guard,  nrilitary,  of  the  Temple,  101. 

Guests,  reception  of,  169,  170. 

Gymnastic  exercises  of  the  Jews,  190. 


Habakkuk,  the  eighth  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  who 
foretold  the  captivity  and  restoration  of  the  Jews.  For  an  analy- 
sis of  his  predictions,  see  Vol.  IV.  p.  277. 

Hadrach  (Land  of).  This  land,  which  is  mentioned  in 
Zech.  ix.  1.,  occurs  in  no  other  part  of  the  Old  Testament.  But 
a  Syrian  king,  who  is  called  Rehob  in  2  Sam.  viii.  3.,  is  by  Jo- 
sephus named  hfj-oi  or  Afa;^(5c,  which  Dr.  Blayney  thinks  was 
his  proper  and  real  name ;  that  of  Rehob,  or  the  charioteer,  having 
been  added  characteristically  on  account  of  the  number  of  his 
chariots.  (2  Sam.  viii.  4.)  This  prince  reigned  over  that  part 
of  Syria  which  was  called  Zobah ;  so  that,  if  by  the  land  of  Ha- 
drach or  Arach  be  meant  the  kingdom  of  Zobah,  the  three  capi- 
tal kingdoms  of  Syria — Zobah,  Dantascus,  and  Hamath,  will 
then  be  cited  for  the  whole.     (Blayney  on  Zech?iriah,  p.  37.) 

Hagar,  an  Egyptian  woman,  handmaid  of  Sarah,  and  mother 
of  Ishmael.  (Gen.  xvi.  1.  xxv.  12.)  In  Gal.  iv.  24,  25.  St.  Paul 
applies  this  name  by  allegorical  interpretation  to  the  inferior  con- 
dition of  the  Jews  under  the  law,  as  compared  with  that  of  Chris- 
tians under  the  Gospel. 

Hagarites  or  Hagarenes,  the  descendants  of  Ishmael.  (1 
Chron.  v.  10.)  They  constituted  a  tribe  of  Arabians,  who  are 
supposed  to  have  settled  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Sinai. 

Haggat,  the  tenth  of  the  minor  prophets:  he  exhorted  the 
Jews  to  febuild  the  temple.  For  an  analysis  of  his  picdictions, 
see  p.  287. 

Hat.     See  Ai,  p.  404.  of  this  Index. 

Hair,  Jewish  mode  of  dressing,  156,  157.  Plucking  off,  a 
punishment,  66.     Forbidden  to  be  cut  in  certain  forms,  142. 

Ham. 

1.  The  youngest  son  of  Noah,  from  whom,  according  to  Gen. 
X.  6 — 20.,  most  of  the  southern  nations  were  descended.  Ac- 
cording to  Gesenius  the  name  literally  denotes  warm  or  south- 
ern. 

'2.  Land  of  Ham,  a'poetical  name  for  Egypt,  probably  (says 
Gesenius)  of  Egyptian  derivation,  but  to  the  Hebrew  presenting 
the  same  signification  as  above.  (Psal.  Ixxviii.  51.  cv.  23.  27. 
cvi.  22.) 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


427 


H  E 

Haman,  a  Persian  nobleman,  celebrated  as  the  persecutor  of 
the  Jews  :  he  was  an  ATiiulckite  by  nation,  and  descended  from 
the  posterity  of  A^ag.     (Estii.  iii. — ix.) 

Hamath,  on  the  iidrlhcni  boundary  of  C'anaan,  a  colony  of 
PJKriiiciiins,  and  the  ri'sidi-iice  of  a  king  who  was  in  frieiiiiship 
with  Uavid.  (Num.  xiii.  21.  Judg.  iii.  ',i.  2  Saui.  viii.  9.)  In 
Amos  vi.  2.  it  is  calleJ  llamath  the  Great,  and  in  2  Chron.  vjii. 
3.  Hamath-Zobah.  In  (jon.  x.  8.  the  inhabitants  are  called  Ha- 
matiiiles. 

Havankkl,  a  prophet  in  the  reign  of  Asa  king  of  Jndah,  by 
whom  lie  was  imprisoned  for  his  lidelily  in  reproving  the  mo- 
narch for  forming  an  alliance  with  Lienhadud  king  of  Syria. 
(2  Chron.  xvi.  7—10.) 

Hamimili.s  of  the  .lews,  l.'Sd. 

Hannah,  the  wife  of  Elkanah,  and  the  mother  of  the  prophet 
Samuel,  whom  she  consecrated  to  the  service  of  God.  (I  Sam. 
i.  ii.) 

Hanun,  the  son  of  Nahash,  king  of  the  Amorites.  By  the 
advice  of  evil-counsellors  he  maltreated,  contrary  to  the  law  of 
nations,  the  ambassadors  whom  Davitl  had  sent  to  congratulate 
him  on  his  accession.  (See  p.  l.'J7.)  This  transaction  led  to  a 
war,  which  terminated  fatally  for  Hanun,  whose  army  was  utterly 
discomfited,  his  capital  taken,  and  his  subjects  destroyed.  (2  Sam. 
X.  xi.  1.  xii.  26 — 30.)  Hanun  is  supposed  to  have  perished 
during  the  war. 

Haimitouoth,  or  sections  of  the  prophets  read  in  the  syna- 
gogues, 104.     Table  of  them,  105. 

Hah  AN. 

1.  The  eldest  son  of  Tcrah,  and  brother  of  Abraham  and 
Nahor,  the  father  of  Lot,  Milcah,  and  Iscah,  He  is  said  by 
Moses  to  have  died  before  his  father  (Gen.  xi.  28.),  a  circum- 
stance which  to  us  may  appear  too  minute  to  be  recorded  ;  but 
in  those  days,  when  life  was  longer,  and  subject  to  fewer  dis- 
eases than  at  present,  the  death  of  a  son  before  his  fiither  was  an 
event  of  sullicient  importance  to  be  distinctly  noticed.  With 
the  exception  of  Abel,  Haran  is  the  first  man  mentioned  in  the 
sacred  history,  whose  father  beheld  him  depart  this  life. 

2.  Hauan  or  CiiAHAN,  a  city  in  the  northern  part  of  Meso- 
potamia, where  Abraham  sojourned  for  a  time  in  his  passage  to 
the  land  of  Canaan.  It  was  probably  tlie  same  city,  which  the 
Greeks  afterwards  called  Kupp-jj  and  the  Romans  CarrsB,  and  which 
became  celebrated  for  the  defeat  and  death  of  Crassus. 

Hahkm  (Royal),  notice  of,  47. 

Haiiktii,  Forest  of,  36. 

Hauoshkth  of  the  Gentiles,  a  city  near  Lake  Merom,  which 
probably  derived  its  name  from  the  number  of  Gentiles  who  re- 
sided in  its  vicinity.  Here  Sisera  dwelt,  whose  troops  were  dis- 
comfited and  pursued  by  the  Israelites  to  its  very  gates. 

Haiip,  form  of,  184. 

Hahvksts  of  Palestine,  account  of,  23.  177,  178. 

Havii.ah. 

1.  Two  districts  in  Yemen,  the  one  inhabited  by  the  descend- 
ants of  Havilah,  the  son  of  Cush,  and  grandson  of  Ham  (Gen. 
X.  7.),  the  other  by  descendants  of  Sheni.  (ver.  29.) 

2.  A  gold  country  (Gen.  ii.  11.),  perhaps  a  general  name  for 
Arabia  (and  India),  which  accords  best  with  the  opinion  of  those 
who  imagine  the  Pison  to  be  the  Ganges. 

Hauhan,  a  district  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  Canaan,  which 
derived  its  name  from  the  town  or  city  of  Hauran.  (Ezek.  xlvi. 
18.)  It  is  the  same  vi-ith  the  Auranitis  of  Josephus  and  the 
rmi.'EA  of  St.  Luke.  (iii.  1.) — For  its  limits,  &c.  see  p.  18. 

Hazaf.l,  a  general  officer  of  Benhadad  king  of  Syria,  whom 
he  treacherously  murdered  and  usurped  his  kingdom.  During  a 
reign  of  more  than  forty  years  he  was  the  vigilant  and  successful 
enemy  of  the  Hebrew  princes,  whose  territories  he  laid  waste, 
and  at  length  he  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  whence  he  consented  to 
withdraw,  only  on  condition  of  the  treasures  of  the  temple  and 
of  the  palace  being  delivered  up  to  him. 

Hkai>,  covering  for,  156. 

Heaiis  of  tribes  or  families,  41,  42. 

Heathen  Nations,  account  of  their  deities  worshipped  by, 
139.     Allusion  to  their  idolatrous  rites  explained,  139 — 142. 

Herer. 

1.  -The  son  of  Salah  (Gen.  xi.  14.),  from  whom  some  critics 
and  commentators  have  supposed  that  his  descendants  the  He- 
brews derived  their  name. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Hobab,  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses,  and 
husband  of  Jael,  who  killed  Sisera. 

Hebrews  of  the  Hebhews,  who  they  were,  108. 


HI 


llKiinoN,  anciently  called  Auha,  and  KinjATii-AiiRA,  a  city 
of  Judaja,  was  situated  on  an  eminence,  twenty  miles  southward 
of  Jerusalem,  and  twenty  miles  north  from  Beershcba.  Abraham, 
Sarah,  and  Isaac,  were  buried  near  Hebron,  in  the  cave  of  Mach- 
pclaii.  ((Jen.  xxiii.  7,  8,  9.)  Near  this  place  was  tiie  oak  or 
turpentine  tree,  under  which  Al)raham  received  tiiree  angels. 
(Gen.  xviii.  1.)  Hebron  was  allotted  to  Judah.  The  Lord  as- 
signed it  to  Caleb  for  inheritance.  (Josh.  xiv.  13.)  Joshua  first 
took  Hebron,  and  killed  its  king  (Josh.  x.  3.  23.  37.),  but  after- 
wards Caleb  again  conquered  it,  assistr'd  by  the  troops  of  his 
tribe,  and  the  valour  of  f)thnirl.  It  was  afipointcd  for  a  dwel- 
ling of  the  |)riests,  and  a  city  of  refuge.  David,  after  the  death 
of  Saul,  settled  the  seat  of  bis  kingdo:n  here.  At  Hebron,  Ab- 
salom began  his  rebellion.  During  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  the 
Edomites,  having  invaded  the  south  of  Judah,  took  Hebron  ; 
wherefore  in  Josephus  it  is  sometimes  made  a  part  of  Edoiii. 
Here  Zachariah  and  Elisabeth  resided,  and  John  the  Baptist  was 
born.  It  is  described,  in  1823,  as  being  a  large  town,  with  a 
Turkish  mos(|ue  erected  over  the  supposed  burial-place  of  the 
patriarchs.     (Game's  Letters,  p.  280.) 

Helioi'olitan  Temple,  notice  of,  101. 

Hellenistic  Jews,  who  they  were,  110. 

Helmet  of  the  Jews,  87. 

Heumogenes,  the  name  of  a  man  who  at  first  was  St.  Paul's 
companion,  but  afterwards  deserted  him.  (2  Tim.  i.  15.) 

Her M ON,  Mount.     See  p.  30. 

Hkikim  the  Great,  account  of,  50,  51.  Massacre  of  the  infants 
at  Bethlehem  by  his  order,  51._;  I.  419. 

Hekoii  Agrippa,  I.  and  II.,  account  of,  52. 

Heuoi)  Antipas,  account  of,  52.  Why  he  was  at  war  with 
Aretas  king  of  Arabia,  I.  50. 

HEHoniAN  family,  genealogy  of,  51. 

HEKoniANs,  sect  of,  account  of,  148. 

HEiioniAS,  the  grand-daughter  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  sister 
of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  She  was  first  married  to  her  uncle  Philip 
(Herod)  ;  but  afterwards  abandoned  him,  and  connected  herself 
with  his  brother  Herod  Antipas,  whom  she  persuaded  to  put  John 
the  Baptist  to  death,  because  he  had  boldly  denounced  their 
incestuous  union.  (Matt.  xiv.  3.  6.  Mark  vi.  17,  19.  22.  Luke 
iii.  19.) 

Heshbox,  the  capital  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Sihon,  situated 
about  20  miles  eastward  of  the  river  Jordan  :  it  was  given  to  the 
tribe  of  Reuben.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  place  which  is 
now  called  Hhubhzan.  Numerous  ruins  attest  its  ancient  .splen- 
dour. This  town  is  situated  on  so  commanding  a  position,  that 
the  view  from  it  extends  at  least  30  miles  in  every  direction  ;  and, 
to  the  southward,  where  the  prospect  is  most  extensive,  the  eye 
ranges,  probably,  a  distance  of  60  miles  in  a  direct  line.  (Buck- 
ingham's Travels  among  the  Arab  Tribes,  p.  106.) 

Hezekiah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Ahaz  king  of  Judah:  he 
was  a  wise  and  pious  prince,  who  extirpated  idolatry,  and  restored 
the  worship  of  the  true  God  throughout  his  dominions.  For  a 
notice  of  the  disease  with  which  he  was  afflicted,  see  p.  196. 

Hiddekel,  one  of  the  four  rivers  which  watered  Paradise. 
(Gen.  ii.  14.)  It  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the 
Tigris. 

Hiel,  of  Bethel,  rebuilt  Jericho,  notwithsfcinding  the  maledic- 
tion denounced  in  Josh.  vi.  26. ;  the  effects  of  which  he  felt  in 
his  own  family  ;  his  eldest  son  dying  when  the  foundations  of 
the  walls  were  laid,  and  his  youngest  son  when  the  gates  were 
set  up.  (1  Kings  xvi.  34.) 

HiEHAPOLis,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  in  the  vicinity  of  Colossse  and 
Laodicea  (Col.  iv.  13.),  celebrated  for  its  mineral  waters,  which 
now  flow  disregarded  by  the  Turcomans.  "  Once  there  existed 
on  the  self-same  spot  a  life-giving  stream  :  but  Epaphras  and  his 
successors,  who  said  to  the  then  countless  multitudes  of  Hiera- 
polis, — '  Whosoever  will,  may  come  and  take  of  the  water  of  life 
freely,'  have  ages  ago  been  silent  in  the  grave."  (Arundell's 
Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  p.  83.)  The  ruins  of  Hierapolis  are 
still  considerable :  they  are  described  by  Mr.  A.  (Ibid.  pp.  79 — 82.) 
This  place  is  now  called  Pambouk  Kalesi. 

HiEHOGLTPuic  stoxes,  forbidden  to  be  worshipped  by  the 
Israelites,  139. 

High  places,  account  of,  101 — 103.  140. 

HiGH-pRiESTS,  functions,  dress,  and  privileges  of,  113,  114. 
Their  succession,  115. 

Hixn^om,  a  person  who  is  known  only  from  the  circumstance 
of  his  having  given  his  name  to  a  Valley,  situated  at  a  very 
short  distance  from  Jerusalem ;  for  a  notice  of  which,  see  p.  33. 


428 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
HO  IS 


HiHAM  I.  king  of  Tyre,  the  ally  or  tributary  of  David,  to 
whom  he  sent  arnbassadors  to  congratulate  him  on  his  accession 
to  the  throne.  The  dominions  of  Hiram  are  supposed  to  have 
extended  over  the  western  part  of  the  chain  of  Mount  Lebanon. 
When  David  was  building  a  palace,  Hiram  sent  him  cedar  tim- 
ber and  able  artificers.   (2  Sam.  v.  1 1.  1  Chron.  xiv.  1.) 

Hi  RAM  II.,  the  son  and  successor  of  the  preceding,  who  con- 
gratulated Solomon  on  succeeding  his  father  on  the  throne  of 
Israel.  He  also  furnished  Solomon  with  timber,  stone,  and  arti- 
ficers for  his  magnificent  buildings,  especially  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem. He  is  known  under  the  same  name  by  profane  histo- 
rians. 

Hiram  or  Huram,  a  celebrated  artificer,  was  the  son  of  a 
widow,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  a  Tyrian.  He  was 
cent  by  Hiram  II.  to  Solomon,  for  whom  he  executed  the  princi- 
pal work  in  the  interior  of  the  temple,  as  well  as  several  of  the 
sacred  utensils.   (1  Kings  vii.  1.  3.  2  Chron.  ii.  14.  iv.  1 1.) 

Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  13 — 22. 

Historical  Writing,  cultivated  by  the  Jews,  185,  186. 

HiTTiTES,  the  descendants  of  Heth,  the  second  son  of  Canaan. 
They  dwelt  in  the  south  part  of  the  promised  land,  near  Hebron. 

HiviTEs,  a  tribe  of  the  Canaanites.  They  seem  to  have  been 
the  same  with  the  Avim,  whom  the  Philistines  expelled.  Driven 
from  the  south-west  of  Canaan,  part  of  them  appear  to  have  set- 
tled about  Avim,  Gibeon,  and  Shechem,  whose  inhabitants  are 
called  Hivites  in  Josh.  ix.  11.  19.  xvii.  23.  Gen.  xxxiv.  2.;  and 
another  part  seem  to  have  settled  near  Mount  Hermon.  (Josh, 
xi.  3.) 

HoBAB,  the  son  of  Jethro,  and  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses,  at 
whose  earnest  request  he  accompanied  the  Israelites  as  a  guide 
through  the  wilderness.  His  family  dwelt  among  them  during 
the  time  of  the  first  judges. 

Holocausts,  account  of,  118, 

Holt  Land,  the  country  of  the  Jews,  why  so  called,  13. 
Sketch  of  its  historical  geography,  13 — 22.  Physical  geography 
and  productions,  23 — 37.  Testimonies  of  ancient  and  modern 
geographers  to  its  fertility,  37,  38.  Calamities,  38 — 40.  Its 
present  degraded  state  accounted  for,  38.  Its  government  in  the 
patriarchal  times,  40.  Under  Moses,  41 — 42.  Under  Joshua 
and  the  Judges,  42.  Under  the  Kings,  42 — 47.  Reason  why 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  subsisted  longer  than  that  of  Israel,  42. 
Its  condition  under  the  Asmonsean  princes  and  sovereigns  of  the 
Herodian  family,  and  under  the  Roman  procurators,  50 — 53. 

Holy  of  Holies,  account  of,  96.  100. 

Homicide,  proceedings  in  case  of,  63. 

JIoNET  of  Palestine,  36. 

HopuRAu.     See  Puaraoh-Hophrah. 

Hor. 

1.  A  mountain  on  the  confines  of  Edom  where  Aaron  died 
(Num.  XX.  22 — 28.),  whose  pretended  tomb  is  still  shown  to 
travellers;  but,  from  its  appearance,  it  should  seem  to  have  been 
rebuilt  at  no  very  distant  period.  The  view  from  this  mountain 
is  extensive.     (Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  pp.  433 — 438.) 

2.  A  mountain  in  Lebanon.  (Num.  xxxiv.  7,  8.) 

HoREB,  a  mountain  in  Arabia  Petrtea,  so  near  Mount  Sinai 
that  Horeb  and  Sinai  seem  to  be  two  hills  of  the  same  mountain. 
Sinai  lies  east,  Horeb  west:  so  that  when  the  sun  rises,  the  latter 
is  covered  with  the  shadow  of  Sinai.  There  are  springs  and 
fruit-trees  on  Horeb,  but  only  rain-water  on  Sinai.  At  Horeb 
God  appeared  to  Moses  in  the  burning  bush.  (Exod.  iii.  1,  2,  3.) 
At  the  foot  of  this  mountain  Moses  struck  the  rock,  and  drew 
water  from  it.  (Exod.  xvii.  6.)  Elijah  retired  here  to  avoid  the 
persecution  of  Jezebel  (1  Kings  xix.  8.)  ;  and  the  cave  or  grotto, 
in  which  the  prophet  found  shelter,  is  yet  pointed  out  by  tradition, 
the  truth  of  which  is  confirmed  by  the  appearance  of  the  sur- 
rounding scenery.  This  cave  "  is  as  desolate  a  place  of  refuge 
as  the  fancy  can  conceive : — no  brook  or  pool  is  nigh,  to  quench 
the  burning  thirst ;  not  a  shrub  grows  on  the  soil,  but  sad  and 
useless  precipices  are  on  every  side.  Every  part  of  the  way  was 
strewed  with  broken  fragments  of  rocks."  (Game's  Recollections 
vi  the  East,  p.  345.)  It  is  frequently  said  in  the  Old  Testament, 
that  God  gave  the  law  at  Horeb,  though  other  places  expressly 
)iame  Sinai ;  because  Horeb  and  Sinai  in  some  sort  form  but  one 
mountain.  From  its  lofty  summit  nothing  is  to  be  seen  on  every 
side,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  but  ranges  of  naked  mountains 
succeeding  each  other,  like  waves  of  the  sea.  This  mountain  is 
now  called  St.  Catherine's.  (Game's  Letters  from  the  East, 
pp.  197,  198.) 

HoaiTEs,  a  people  who  dwelt  in  Mount  Seir  (Gen.  xiv.  6.), 


whence  they  were  subsequently  expelled  by  the  Edomites.  (Dent, 
ii.  12.  22.) 

Horses,  notice  of,  175. 

Horticulture  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  179,  180. 

HOSEA. 

1.  The  earlier  name  of  Joshua,  the  servant  and  successor  of 
Moses.   (Num.  xiii.  8.  16.) 

2.  The  last  king  of  Israel,  who,  having  conspired  against 
Pekah,  slew  him  and  usurped  his  throne.  In  his  reign  Shalma- 
neser  king  of  Assyria  invaded  Israel,  took  Samaria,  which  he 
reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  removed  the  Israelites  beyond 
the  river  Euphrates. 

3.  The  first  of  the  minor  prophets.  For  an  analysis  of  whose 
predictions,  see  pp.  200 — 262. 

HospiTALiTr  of  the  Jews,  173.  Notice  of  Tesserse  Hospi- 
tales,  173,  174. 

Hot  Season  in  Palestine,  24,  25. 

Hours  of  the  Jews  and  Romans,  72,  73. 

Houses  of  the  Jews  and  their  furniture,  151 — 154.  Leprosy 
of  houses,  134, 

Huldah,  a  prophetess,  the  wife  of  Shallum,  who  was  consulted 
by  Josiah  concerning  the  book  of  the  law,  which  was  found  in  the 
treasury  of  the  temple.   (2  Kings  xxii.  14.) 

HuR,  whom  some  have  supposed  to  be  the  husband  of  Miriam, 
and  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses,  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the 
most  intimate  friends  of  the  latter.  During  the  battle  between 
the  Hebrews  and  the  Amalekites,  he  upheld  the  weary  arms  of 
Moses,  and  when  he  was  absent  he  shared  with  Aaron  the 
authority  over  the  Israelites.  (Exod.  xvii.  10.  xxiv.  14.) 

Husbandry  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  174 — 178. 

HcsHAi,  the  friend  of  David  ;  who,  during  the  rebellion  of 
Absalom,  remained  with  that  prince,  and  was  of  eminent  service 
to  David  by  infatuating  the  counsels  of  Absalom.  (2  Sam.  xvi.) 

Htmen^us  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  citizen  of  Ephesus ; 
who  being  converted  by  St.  Paul,  afterwards  fell  into  the  heresy 
of  those  who  denied  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  or,  rather,  who 
maintained  that  the  term  was  to  be  understood  figuratively  in 
reference  to  conversion,  as  being  a  resurrection  from  their  former 
death  in  trespasses  and  sins ;  and  that  no  other  resurrection  wa3 
to  be  expected.   (Valpy  on  2  Tim.  ii.  17.) 

Hyssop,  notice  of,  35.  note  7. 


Ibzan,  the  eighth  judge  of  Israel,  governed  seven  years.  His 
prosperity  is  indicated  by  the  circumstance  of  his  having  thirty 
sons,  and  as  many  daughters  ;  and  his  riches,  by  all  of  them 
being  married.  (Judg.  xii.  8.) 

IcoNiuM,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  the  chief  of  the  fourteen  belong- 
ing to  that  tetrarchy.  Here  was  a  synagogue  of  Jews  and  prose- 
lytes, to  whom  Paul  and  Barnabas  preaching,  and  confirming 
their  doctrine  by  miracles,  converted  many  to  the  Christian  faith 
(Acts  xiv.  1,  2,  3.) ;  and  here  the  unbelieving  Jews  and  Gentiles 
made  an  assault  upon  them,  to  use  them  despitefully,  and  to 
stone  them.  (ver.  5.)     It  is  now  called  Konieh. 

Idolatry,  origin  and  progress  of,  135.  History  of  it  among 
the  Israelites,  135, 136.  Different  kinds  of,  and  its  punishment,  61. 
Idols  worshipped  by  them,  136 — 139.  Idols  of  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  139.  Allusions  in  Scrip- 
ture to  the  idolatrous  rites  of  the  heathen  explained,  139,  140. 

luuMiEA,  or  Edom,  country  of,  18. 

Illyricum,  a  province  lying  to  the  north  and  north-west  of 
Macedonia,  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  or  Gulf 
of  Venice.  It  was  divided  into  two  parts,  Liburnia  to  the  north 
(now  called  Croatia),  which  is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  and  Dalmatia  to  the  south,  which  region  still  retains  the 
same  name.  Hither,  St.  Paul  informs  Timothy,  Titus  went 
(2  Tim.'iv.  10.)  ;  and  in  Rom.  xv.  19.  he  says  that  he  preached 
the  Gospel  from  Jerusalem  round  about  unto  Illyricum. 

Imprisonment,  Jewish  modes  of,  65,  66. 

'i/jLcLTia,  or  Upper  Garments,  described,  156. 

Impurities,  legal,  purifications  of,  134. 

Inauguration  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,  ceremonial 
of,  44. 

Incense,  offering  of,  119. 

Injuries  (corporal),  punishment  of,  63,  64. 

Intercalary  Month,  notice  of,  74. 

Interment,  rites  df,  198 — 200. 

Irrigation  practised  by  the  Jews,  176,  177. 

Isaac,  the  son  of  Abraham  by  Sarah,  and  one  of  the  palri- 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


429 


J  A 

archs  of  the  Israclitish  nation.  He  married  Rcbekah,  and  was 
the  fath(^r  of  Esau  and  Jacoii,  by  whom  he  was  honourably 
int4'rr<'(l  in  tlic  cave  of  Machpelah,  about  ten  years  before  Jacob 
went  into  l'>gypt. 

IsAi.tii,  a  (■cicbrated  Ilt-brow  prophet,  distinguished  for  the 
streni^th  and  subbniily  of  liis  conceptions  anti  language.  For  a 
further  account  of  Isaiah,  and  an  analysis  of  his  pri'dii'tions,  see 
pp.  262 — 21)9.  In  Acts  viii,  28.  :J0.  Esaias  or  Isaiah  its  nietony- 
liiically  put  for  the  book  or  ])rophecy  of  Isaiaii. 

IsiiitosiiK'ni,  or  Isjiiiaai.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Saul.  He 
rcii;ncd  only  two  years;  bis  whole  jiarty  being  thrown  into  con- 
fusion on  the  death  of  Abner,  and  himself  bcinj;  assassinated  by 
two  captains  of  his  own  troops.  (2  Sam.  ii.  1  Cliron.  viii.  33.  ix. 
39.) 

Is(  AHiOT.     Sec  Jri)AS,  p.  432,  infra. 

IsjiMAKL,  the  son  of  Abraham  and  Ilagar.  On  the  birth  of 
Isaac,  Hagar  and  iier  son  were  expelled  from  the  house  of  Abra- 
ham, at  the  desire  of  iSarati,  and  dwelt  in  the  wildcTncss  of  Paran, 
to  the  south  of  I'alesline.  Of  Ei^yjitian  oriy;in  by  his  mother, 
Isbmael  married  an  Egyptian  woman,  l)y  whom  he  had  two 
daughters,  one  of  whom  Esau  married,  and  twelve  sons,  who 
gave  their  names  to  as  many  tribes  of  Arabians,  conformably  to 
the  predictions  concerning  Islimael.  ((•'en.  xvii.  20.  xxv.  9.  xxviii. 
9.  xxxvi.  .5.)  For  a  notice  of  these  |)redictions  and  their  fulfil- 
ment, see  Vol.  I.  p.  122.     Ishmael  died,  aged  137  years. 

IsLKs  OK  THE  Gkntilks  ((icn.  X.  .5,),  probably  mean  many  of 
the  maritime  countries  washed  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The 
Hebrews  also  used  the  word  isles  to  signify  all  those  countries 
which  were  divided  from  them  by  the  sea.  (Isa.  xi.  10, 1 1.  xl.  15. 
Jer.  ii.  10.) 

IsiiAKL,  (that  is,  a  princi;  of  God,  or  a  mighty  prince,)  the 
name  given  by  the  angel  to  the  patriarch  Jacob  at  Peniel.  (Gen. 
xxxii.  24.)  By  Israel,  in  the  Scriptures,  is  sometimes  meant  the 
person  of  Jacob,  and  sometimes  his  whole  progeny,  including 
both  the  kingdom  ofJudah  and  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  or  the 
ten  tribes  as  distinct  from  Judah. 

IsKAKL,  Land  of,  13.    Kingdom  of,  17.  48.     Mountains  of,  31. 

IsHAELiTKs,  thc  descendants  of  Israel.  At  first  they  were 
called  Hebrews,  from  the  patriarch  Abraham,  surnamed  the  JIc- 
druw,  from  his  having  passed  over  the  Euphrates  into  the  land 
of  (^anaan.  After  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  they  were  generally 
called  Israelites ;  and  on  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  capti- 
vity, they  were  denominated  Jews,  from  the  tribe  of  Judah,  the 
most  considerable  of  the  twelve  tribes.  Their  political  state  from 
the  time  of  Moses  to  the  subversion  of  their  kingdom  by  the 
Assyrians,  40 — 50.  Idols  worshipped  by  them,  136 — 139.  Court 
of  the  Israelites,  99. 

IssACHAK,  the  fifth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  and  the  head  of 
one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  For  the  limits  of  the  canton 
allotted  to  which,  see  p.  17. 

Italt,  an  extensive  and  fertile  region  of  Europe,  bounded  on 
thc  north  by  the  Alps,  on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic  Sea  or  the 
Gulf  of  Venice,  and  on  the  west  and  south  by  the  Ligustine  and 
Tyrrhene  Seas,  which  names  were  formerly  applied  to  parts  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Romk  was  its  capital,  and  the  seat  of 
almost  universal  empire  in  the  time  of  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament.     (Acts  xviii.  2.  xxvii.  1.  6.  Heb.  xiii.  24.) 

Ituh.ka,  region  of,  18. 


Jabbok,  Brook,  notice  of,  26. 

Jarksii,  a  city  in  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  beyond  Jordan, 
generally  called  Jabesh-Gilead,  because  it  lay  in  Gilead,  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  so  named.  According  to  Eusebius  it  was 
eix  miles  from  Fella  towards  Gerasa ;  consequently  it  must  have 
been  east  of  the  sea  of  Tiberias.  Jabesh-Gilead  was  sacked  by 
the  Israelites,  because  its  inhabitants  refused  to  join  in  the  war 
against  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  (Judg.  xxi.  8.)  Nahash,  king  of 
the  Ammonites,  laying  siege  to  Jabesh,  proposed  hard  conditions 
to  the  inhabitants,  from  which  Saul  delivered  them,  a.  m.  2909, 
B.  c.  1094.  They  ever  after  showed  great  gratitude  to  Saul 
and  his  family :  they  carried  off  his  and  his  sons'  bodies,  which 
the  Philistines  had  hung  upon  the  walls  of  Bethshan,  and 
buried  them  honourably  in  a  wood  near  their  city.  ( 1  Sam.  xxxi. 
11—13.) 

Jabin  I.  king  of  Hazor,  one  of  the  most  powerful  Canaanitish 
chieftains,  ruled  over  the  northern  part  of  the  land  of  promise. 
After  the  ruin  of  the  confederation  formed  against  the  Israelites 
by  .\donizedek,  Jabin  assembled  his  tributaries  near  the  waters 
of  Merom,  and  svimmoned  all  their  forces  to  arms.   This  coalitioa 


JE 


was  destroyed,  as  well  as  the  preceding;  and  Jabin  himself 
perished  at  thc  destruction  of  his  capital,  Hazor.  (Josh.  xi. 
1—12.) 

J  a  II  I. V  II.  king  of  Hazor,  was  probably  descended  from  the 
preceding  sovereign.  During  one  or  other  of  the  servitudes  of 
Israel  under  Cushan  or  Eglon,  the  kingdom  of  Hazor,  which 
Joshua  had  destroyed,  ajipears  to  iiave  been  re-established  ;  and 
Jabin  must  have  j)os.sessed  a  powerful  dominion,  since  he  is  said 
to  have  brought  into  the  field  900  chariots  armed  with  scythes. 
This  Jal)in  opiiressed  the  Israelites  for  twenty  years.  After  the 
death  of  his  general  .Sisera,  who  had  been  conquered  by  Barak, 
the  war  was  prolonged  for  some  time,  but  it  was  finally  termi- 
nated by  the  ruin  of  Jabin.   (Judg.  iv.) 

Jacob,  the  second  son  of  Isaac  and  Rcbekah,  and  thc  father  of 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  Having  surreptitiously  obtained  his 
father's  blessing  (Gen.  xxvii.),  to  avoid  his  brother's  resentment, 
Rebekah  sent  him  away  alone  into  Mesopotamia,  to  Laban  her 
Iirothcr,  whose  daughters,  Leah  and  Rachel,  he  married.  After 
serving  Laban  many  years,  he  returned  into  the  larul  of  Cana;iii; 
having  during  his  journey  had  an  amicable  interview  with  his 
l)rothcr  Esau.  He  afterwards  dwelt  at  Shechem,  in  a  field  whi(  h 
he  had  purchased  of  the  Hivites ;  but  being  ajiprehensive  of  the 
resentment  of  the  people,  for  the  slaughter  of  the  Shechemites  by 
Simeon  and  Levi  on  account  of  the  violation  of  their  sister  Dinah 
by  Shechem,  Jacob  removed  to  Bethel,  where  he  offered  sacrifice, 
and  God  renewed  his  promises.  Many  years  after  this  he  went 
down  to  Egypt  to  his  son  Joseph,  where  he  resided  seventeen 
years,  and  died  in  a  good  old  age,  after  giving  his  propiietic 
blessing  to  his  sons.  Jacob  is,  in  Scripture,  frequently  put  meto- 
nymically  for  his  posterity,  that  is,  for  the  Israelitish  nation. 

Jacob's  Well,  notice  of,  28. 

Jakl,  the  wife  of  Heber  the  Kcnite.  She  killed  Sisera,  general 
of  the  Canaanitish  army,  whom  she  had  received  into  her  tent, 
by  driving  a  nail  into  his  temples :  concerning  this  transaction, 
see  Vol.  I.  p.  411. 

Jaiii,  a  Gileadite,  who  judged  the  Israelites  for  twenty-two 
years.  He  had  thirty  sons  who  governed  thirty  towns,  which 
also  bore  the  name  of  the  towns  of  Jair. 

Jaiuis,  a  ruler  or  presiding  officer  of  a  synagogue,  whose 
daughter  Jesus  Christ  restored  to  life  by  a  miracle  :  the  circum- 
stances of  which  are  considered  in  Vol.  I.  p.  105, 

James. 

1.  James,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  the  brother  of  the  apostle 
John:  he  was  put  to  death  by  Herod  Agrijipa,  about  a.  ii.  44. 
(Matt.  iv.  21.  X.  2.  Mark  iii.  17.'  Luke  vi.  14.  Acts  i.  13.  xii.  2.) 

2.  James,  surnamed  the  Less.  (Mark  xv.  40.)  He  was  the 
son  of  Ai-piiv-Eus,  and  wrote  the  epistle  which  bears  his  name. 
For  an  analysis  of  which,  and  a  further  account  of  James,  see 
pp.  359,  360. 

Jaxnes  and  Jambues,  two  of  the  principal  Egyptian  magi- 
cians ;  who  withstood  Moses  and  Aaron  by  attempting  to  imitate 
the  miracles  which  they  actually  performed.  (Exod.  vii.  11,  12. 
viii.  7.  18,  19.)  As  these  names  are  not  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  apostle  probably  derived  them  from  tradition  (2  Tim. 
iii.  8.),  as  they  are  often  mentioned  in  the  rabbinical  books. 

Jatiiet,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  was  a  witness  of  the  deluge, 
and  one  of  those  who  were  saved  in  the  ark.  His  descendants 
first  settled  in  the  isles  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  on  the 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  Europe,  whence  they  spread  into  the 
north  and  west. 

Jariiah,  the  Egyptian  slave  of  an  Israelite  named  Sheshan,  who 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and  consequently  gave  him 
his  liberty.  It  is  not  improbable  that  Jarhah  was  a  proselyte  to 
the  religion  of  Israel.  ( 1  Chron.  ii.  34.) 

Javelins  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88. 

Jazeh,  a  city  beyond  the  Jordan,  given  to  the  tribe  of  Gad  :  it 
afterwards  became  one  of  the  Levitical  cities.  (Josh.  xxi.  30.  xiii. 
25.)  The  Sea  of  Jazer,  (mentioned  in  Jer.  xlviii.  32.),  Dr. 
Blaney  is  of  opinion  is  the  Dead  Sea,  Jazer  being  in  the  north 
border  of  Moab. 

Jebus,  the  son  of  Canaan,  and  father  of  thc  Jebfsites  (Gen. 
ii.  16.),  who  dwelt  in  and  around  Jerusalem  in  the  mountains, 
where  they  continued  until  the  time  of  David,  when  Joab  took 
the  place.  (2  Sam.  v.  xxiv.) 

Jedcthun,  a  Levite,  one  of  David's  choristers.  (1  Chron.  ix. 
16.  xvi.  38.  41,42.  xxv.  1.)  His  sons  were  employed  as  musi- 
cians. (2  Chron.  xixv,  15.  Neh.  xi.  17.) 

Jehoahaz. 

1.  Jehoahaz,  or  Shallum,  the  second  son  ofJosiah  king  of 
Judah,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne.    He  reigned  only 


430 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


JE 


three  months,  beuig  taken  captive  and  carried  into  Egypt  by 
Pharaoh-Necho.   (2  Kings  xxiii.) 

2.  Jeiioahaz,  the  son  and  successor  of  Jehu  king  of  Israel.  He 
followed  the  evil  example  of  Jeroboam  I.  during  a  reign  of  17 
years.  His  dominions  were  ravaged  first  by  Hazacl,  and  after- 
wards by  Bcn-hadad,  kings  of  Syria :  but,  Jehoahaz  humbling 
himself  before  God,  he  and  his  people  were  delivered  by  his  son 
Joash. 

Jehoash.     See  Jo  ash. 

Jehoiakim  or  Eliakim,  son  and  successor  of  Jehoahaz,  king 
of  Judah.  After  a  wicked  and  inglorious  reign  of  II  years, 
Jerusalem  was  taken,  and  Jehoiakim  carried  as  a  prisoner  to 
Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  34 — 37.  1  Chron.  iii. 
15.)     He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

Jehoiachin,  who  was  also  called  Coniah  and  Jechoniah. 
(I  Chron.  iii.  16.  Jer.  xxii.  24.  xxiv.  1.)  After  a  reign  of  three 
months  he  was  carried  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  together 
with  a  multitude  of  his  people,  and  all  the  spoils  of  the  city  and 
temple.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  8.  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9.)  Through  the  kind- 
ness of  Evil-merodach,  the  son  and  successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
he  was  restored  to  his  personal  liberty,  and  was  supported  at 
Babylon  by  the  king's  bounty.   (2  Kings  xxv.  27.  Jer.  Iii.  31.) 

Jeiioida,  the  successor  of  Azariah  in  the  pontificate;  who  with 
his  wife  Jehosheba,  preserved  his  nephew  Joash  from  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  royal  family  by  Athaliah,  and  placed  him  on  the 
throne  of  Judah.  He  reached  the  advanced  age  of  130  years, 
and  was  honoured  with  a  burial  among  the  kings,  in  consideration 
of  his  piety  and  disinterested  patriotism.  (2  Kings  xi.  4,  &c.  xii. 
1,  2.  2  Chron.  xxii.  10—12.  xxiii.  xxiv.  1 — 3.  15,  16.) 

Jehoiarib,  the  head  of  the  first  of  the  twenty-four  classes  of 
priests  established  by  David  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  7.),  from  whom  the 
family  of  the  Maccabees  were  descended.  (2  Mac.  ii.  1.) 

Jehoram. 

1.  Jehoram,  the  son  of  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah,  with  whom 
for  a  shoit  time  he  was  associated  on  the  throne,  and  then  suc- 
ceeded him  as  sole  monarch,  b.  c.  889.  He  married  Athaliah  the 
daughter  of  Ahab,  who  seduced  him  into  idolatry.  He  began  his 
reign  by  murdering  his  brothers,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ahaziah, 
after  a  wicked  reign  of  eight  years.  (2  Chron.  xxi.)  On  the 
nature  of  his  disease,  see  p  196. 

2.  Jehoram  or  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Ahab,  whose  impieties  he  followed.  He  was  slain  in  the 
twelfth  year  of  his  reign  by  Jehu,  b.  c.  884. 

Jehoshaphat,  the  son  and  successor  of  Asa  king  of  Judah  : 
he  was  a  pious  prince ;  and  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign  he 
sent  some  of  the  chief  officers  of  his  court,  together  with  certain 
Levites  and  priests,  throughout  his  dominions,  to  instruct  the 
people  in  the  book  of  the  law  and  their  consequent  duties.  After 
a  reign  of  twenty-five  years,  he  died  in  peace,  b.  c.  889.  (2  Chron. 
xvii. — XX.  1 — 34.) 
I    Jehoshaphat,  Valley  of,  account  of,  32. 

Jehovah,  the  incommunicable  name  of  the  self-existent  Being, 
for  which  the  Jews  substituted  Adonai,  in  conformity  with  an 
ancient  superstition.  In  our  authorized  translation,  this  word  is 
rendered  "  the  Lord,"  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  Lord,  sig- 
nifying a  governor.  Concerning  the  pronunciation  of  Jehovah, 
see  Gesenius's  Hebrew  Lexicon,  voce  mn^- — Land  of  Jeho- 
vah, 13. 

Jehu. 

1.  A  prophet,  the  son  of  Hanani,  who  was  sent  to  denounce 
the  divine  judgments  against  Baasha  king  of  Israel.  (1  Kings 
xvi.  7.) 

2.  The  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  grandson  of  Nimshi,  who 
conspired  against  Jehoram,  king  of  Israel,  b.  c.  884,  and  reigned 
28  years. 

Jemima,  Kezia,  and  Keren-happuch,  the  three  daughters  of 
Job,  bom  after  his  restoration  to- prosperity.  They  obtained  a 
portion  of  their  father's  inheritance, — a  privilege  which  in  those 
days  could  be  conferred  only  by  very  rich  parents. 

Jephthah,  the  ninth  judge  of  Israel,  succeeded  Jair  in  the 
government  of  the  people,  whom  he  dehvered  from  the  Ammon- 
ites. Concerning  his  vow,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  411,  His  administra- 
tion lasted  six  years. 

Jeremiah,  the  second  of  the  four  greater  prophets,  was  the 
son  of  Hilkiah,  of  the  sacerdotal  race,  and  a  native  of  Anathoth. 
He  was  distinguished  for  an  ardent  love  of  his  country,  for  the 
pathetic  tenderness  with  which  he  deplored  her  fate,  and  for  the 
ungrateful  treatment  which  he  received  from  his  countrymen. 
The  time  and  manner  of  his  death  are  unknown.    For  a  further 


J  E 

account  of  Jeremiah,  and  an  analysis  of  his  Prophecies  and 
Lamentations,  see  i>p.  272 — 276. 

Jericho,  a  celebrated  city  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  of  which 
frequent  mention  is  made  in  the  New  Testament.  It  was  the 
first  city  taken  from  the  Canaanites  by  Joshua,  who  razed  it  to 
the  ground,  and  denounced  a  severe  curse  on  the  person  who 
should  rebuild  it.  (Josh.  vi.  20.  26.  Heb.  xi.  30.)  This  curse 
was  literally  fulfilled,  in  the  days  of  Ahab,  upon  Hid  the  Bcthel- 
ite,  by  whom  the  city  was  rebuilt.  (1  Kings  xvi.  34.)  After  this 
event  it  was  ennobled  by  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  which  were 
established  there  (2  Kings  ii.  5.) :  and  near  it  was  a  large  but 
unwholesome  spring,  the  waters  of  which  rendered  the  soil  un- 
fruitful, until  they  were  cured  by  the  prophet  Elisha  (2  Kings 
ii.  21.)  ;  and  from  that  time  they  have  become  exceedingly  whole- 
some and  fertilizing.  In  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  Jericho  yielded 
only  to  Jerusalem  for  its  size  and  the  magnificence  of  its  build- 
ings :  it  was  situated  in  a  bottom,  in  that  vast  plain  which  was 
named  the  great  plai7i  (which  marks  the  propriety  of  the  ex- 
pression going'  down  from  Jerusalem,  Luke  x.  30.)  ;  and  is  150 
furlongs;  about  nineteen  miles  distant  from  the  capital  of  Judtea. 
The  country  around  Jericho  was  the  most  fertile  part  of  Pales- 
tine, abounding  in  roses  and  palm  trees  (whence  in  Deut.  xxxiv.  3. 
it  is  called  the  city  of  palm  trees),  and  yielding  also  great  quan- 
tities of  the  opObalsamum  or  balm  of  Gilead,  so  highly  esteemed 
in  oriental  courts  even  to  the  present  day ;  and  which  being  an 
article  of  commerce  accounts  for  the  mention  of  publicans  and 
of  a  chief  publican  in  that  region.  (Luke  xix.  2.)  Jericho  was 
one  of  the  cities  appropriated  for  the  residence  of  the  j)riests  and 
Levites,  1 2,000  of  whom  dwelt  there  ;  and  as  the  way  thither 
from  Jerusalem  was  rocky  and  desert,  it  was,  as  it  still  is,  greatly 
infested  with  thieves.  A  country  more  favourable  for  the  attacks 
of  banditti,  and  caves  better  adapted  for  concealment,  than  those 
presented  on  this  road,  can  scarcely  be  imagined.'  This  circum- 
stance marks  the  admirable  propriety  with  which  our  Lord  made 
it  the  scene  of  his  beautiful  parable  of  the  good  Stimnrita7i, 
(Luke  X.  30 — 37.)  Jericho  is,  at  present,  a  wretched  village, 
consisting  of  about  thirty  miserable  huts,  (compared  with  which 
the  worst  Irish  cabin  is  a  palace),  so  low,  that  at  night,  one  might 
almost  ride  over  them,  without  being  aware  of  the  fact.  The 
once  celebrated  "  City  of  Palms"  cannot  now  boast  of  one  of 
those  beautiful  trees  in  its  vicinity.  The  plain  that  surrounded 
it  (through  which  the  Jordan  flows)  is  watered  by  a  beautiful 
fountain  :  it  has  ever  been  venerated  as  the  same  which  the  pro- 
phet Elisha  healed  (2  Kings  ii.  19 — 22.),  the  w««ec  of  which 
was  naught  (or  bitter)  aiid  the  ground  barren.  (Game's  Let- 
ters, pp.  322,  323.     Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  83.) 

Jeroboam  I.,  son  of  Nebat,  and  the  first  king  of  Israel.  He 
was  a  wicked  prince,  who  from  political  motives  established  idola- 

»  "The  vsfhole  of  this  road,"  says  Mr.  Buckingham,  "  from  Jerusalem  to 
the  Jordan,  is  held  to  be  the  most  dangerous  about  Palestine,  and,  indeed, 
in  this  portion  of  it,  the  very  aspect  of  the  scenery  is  sufficient,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  tempt  to  robbery  and  murder,  and,  on  the  other,  to  occasion  a 
dread  of  it  in  those  who  pass  that  way.  It  was  partly  to  prevent  any  acci- 
dent happening  to  us  in  this  early  stage  of  our  journey,  and  partly,  per- 
haps; to  calm  owe  fears  on  that  score,  that  a  messenger  had  been  despatched 
by  our  guides  to  an  encampment  of  their  tribe  near,  desiring  them  to  send 
an  escort  to  meet  us  at  this  place.  We^ffere  met  here  accordingly,  by  a 
band  of  about  twenty  persons  on  foot,  all  armed  with  matchlocks,  and  pre- 
senting the  most  ferocious  and  robber-like  appearance  that  could  be 
imagined.  The  effect  of  this  was  heightened  by  the  shouts  which  they 
sent  forth  from  hill  to  hill,  and  which  were  re-echoed  through  all  the  val- 
leys, while  the  bold  projecting  crags  of  rock,  the  dark  shadows  in  which 
every  thing  lay  buried  below,  the  towering  height  of  the  clilTs  above,  and 
the  forbidding  desolation  which  every  where  reigned  around,  presented  a 
picture  that  was  quite  in  harmony  throughout  all  its  parts.  It  made  us 
feel  most  forcibly  the  propriety  of  its  being  chosen  as  the  scene  of  the 
deliglitful  tale  of  compassion  which  we  had  before  so  often  admired  for 
its  doctrine,  independently  of  its  local  beauty.  (See  Luke  x.  30 — 34.)  One 
must  be  amid  these  wild  and  gloomy  solitudes,  surrounded  by  an  armed 
band,  and  feel  the  impatience  of  the  traveller  who  rushes  on  to  catch  a 
new  view  at  every  pass  and  turn  ;  one  must  be  alarmed  at  the  very  tramp 
of  the 'horses'  hoofs  rebounding  through  the  caverned  rocks,  and  at  the 
savage  shouts  of  the  footmen,  scarcely  less  loud  than  the  echoing  thunder 
produced  by  the  discharge  of  their  pieces  in  the  valleys ;  one  must  witness 
all  this  upon  the  spot,  before  the  full  force  and  beauty  of  the  admirable 
story  of  the  Good  Samaritan  can  be  perceived.  Here,  pillage,  wounds,  and 
death  would  be  accompanied  with  double  terror,  from  the  frightful  aspect 
of  every  thing  around.  Here,  the  unfeeling  act  of  passing  by  a  fellow- 
creature  in  distress,  as  the  Priest  and  Levite  are  said  to  have  done,  strikes 
one  with  horror,  as  an  act  almost  more  than  inhuman.  And  here,  too,  the 
compassion  of  the  Good  Samaritan  is  doubly  virtuous,  from  the  purity  of 
the  motive  which  must  have  led  to  it,  in  a  sjjot  where  no  eyes  were  fixed 
on  him  to  draw  forth  the  performance  of  any  duty,  and  from  the  bravery 
which  was  necessary  to  admit  of  a  man's  exposing  himself,  by  such  delay, 
to  the  risk  of  a  similar  fate  to  that  from  whicli  he  was  endeavouring  to 
rescue  his  fellow-crealure." — (But;kingham's  Travels  in  Palestine,  pp.^^, 
293.  See  a  good  illustration  of  the  nature  of  the  road  to  Jericho,  and  of  the 
banditti  who  infest  it,  in  Sir  F.  Henniker's  Notes  during  a  Visit  to  Egypt,. 
Nubia,  &c.  pp.  289—291.  London,  1823,  8vo.) 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


431 


JO 

try  (sec  p.  136.),  and  changed  the  order  of  the  Hebrew  calendar. 
He  is  never  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  in  terms  of 
detestation.     He  died  after  a  reign  of  22"  years. 

Jkuohoam  II.,  the  thirteenth  king  of  Israel,  succeeded  his 
father  Jehoahash.  He  reigned  41  years;  and  is  recorded  to  have 
done  evil  in  the  sight  of  God,  following  the  example  of  Jero- 
boam I. 

Jkhihiiaal.     See  Gideon. 

Jkhl'salkm  (city),  situation  of,  and  the  name  by  which  it  was 
called,  18,  19.  Fortifications  and  walls,  19,  20.  Its  state  before 
the  war  of  the  Jews  witb  the  Romans,  20.  Remarkable  build- 
ings, 21.  Temitle,  9S — 101.  Successive  captures  of  this  city, 
21.      Its  ])rcsciil  state  and  jiopulation,  22. 

Ji;srs,  tiiat  is,  the  Saviour,  the  name  of  the  Messiah,  the  Son 
of  God,  and  tile  Divine  Author  of  the  Christian  religion,  who 
is  constituted  by  God  the  Lord  of  all  things.  He  is  called  Jesus, 
because  he  came  to  save  his  people  from  their  sins.  (Matt.  i.  21. 
Eph.  i.  21,  22.  Heb.  i.  2.)  The  history  of  his  life,  miracles, 
doctrine,  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension,  is  related  in  the  four 
Gospels.  In  2  Cor.  i.  19.  Jesus  is,  mctonymically,  put  for  the 
Gospel  or  religion  of  Jesus. 

Jktiiuo,  or  Raguel,  a  priest  of  Midian,  and  the  father-in-law 
of  Moses,  to  whom  he  gave  the  wise  counsel,  of  instituting  infe- 
rior judges  (from  him  sometimes  termed  Jethronian  prefects'), 
to  hear  and  determine  minor  causes ;  while  questions  of  moment 
were  brought  before  the  Hebrew  legislator  himself.     See  p.  42. 

Jf.ws. — After  the  captivity,  most  of  those  who  returned  and 
rebuilt  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  and  restored  the  rites  of  the 
Mosaic  worship,  having  sprung  from  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  the 
term  J  Kws  became  a  general  appellation  for  all  the  inhabitants 
of  Palestine,  and  afterwards  for  those  descended  from  them. 
(Dan.  iii.  8.  Esth.  iii.  10.  2  Mace.  ix.  17.)  For  the  political 
state  of  the  Jews,  from  the  patriarchal  times  to  their  final  disper- 
sion, see  pp.  40 — 53.  Their  courts  of  judicature,  legal  proceed- 
ings, criminal  law  and  punishments,  .'54 — 57.  The  whole  nation 
why  accounted  holy,  108.  Account  of  the  Jewish  church  and 
its  members,  108 — 111.  All  male  Jews  required  to  be  at  Jeru- 
salem, at  the  three  great  annual  festivals,  122.  Whither  they 
travelled  in  caravans,  ibid.  note.  Corruptions  of  religion  among 
them,  and  their  idolatry,  135 — 143.  Their  extreme  corruption 
during  the  time  of  Christ,  148 — 150.  Their  mode  of  computing 
time,  72 — 77.  Their  private  life,  manners,  customs,  occupations, 
arts,  and  sciences,  150 — 187. 

Jeivs  of  the  dispersion,  who  they  were,  109. 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  term  "  Jew"  is  employed, 

(1.)  With  reference  both  to  nation  and  religion.  (Matt,  xxviii. 
15.  Mark  vii.  3.) 

(2.)  With  reference  to  religion  only.  (Rom.  ii.  28,  29.  Rev. 
ii.  9.  iii.  9.) 

(3.)  With  reference  to  nation  only.  (Acts  xix.  34.  xxi.  39. 
xxii.  3.     Gal.  ii.  13.) 

jKZF.nKt. 

1.  The  daughter  of  Ethbaal  or  Ithobalus  king  of  the  Zido- 
nians,  and  wife  of  Ahab  king  of  Israel.  She  was  infamous  for 
her  idolatries,  and  for  her  cruel  persecutions  of  the  worshippers 
of  the  true  God,  particularly  the  prophets.  She  at  length  pe- 
rished miserably,  according  to  a  prediction  of  the  prophet  Elijah. 
(1  Kings  xvi.  31.    xviii.  4.  13.    xxi.  23.     2  Kings  ix.  30—37.) 

2.  In  Rev.  ii.  20.  Jezebel  is'  put  as  a  generic  term  for  an  idol- 
atrous and  infamous  woman,  the  emblem  of  corrupt  teachers. 
Compare  p.  462. 

Jkzkkkl,  a  celebrated  city,  situated  in  a  valley  of  that  name, 
in  the  canton  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  on  the  west  of  the 
river  Jordan,  and  on  the  confines  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar. 
(Josh.  xix.  18.)  Here  Ahab  had  a  palace ;  and  here  the  retri- 
butive justice  of  God  overtook  Jezebel.     (2  Kings  ix.  30 — 37.) 

Jkzkkkl,  Plain  of,  account  of,  33. 

JoAH. 

1.  JoAB,  the  son  of  Seraiah  and  the  grandson  of  Kenaz  (1 
Chron.  iv.  13,  14.),  nephew  of  Othniel  the  first  judge  of  the 
Hebrews,  was  the  founder  of  a  colony  of  artizans,  or  "  crafts- 
men," at  Ono,  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  not  far  from  the  river 
Jordan.  The  valley,  where  he  settled,  obtained  the  name  of 
the  Vali<>y  of  Craftsmen,  an  appellation  which  shows  that  the 
arts  practised  by  them  were  of  the  first  utility;  and  Nche- 
miah  gave  it  the  same  appellation,  (xi.  35.)  The  establishment 
of  Joab,  towards  the  time  of  the  first  judge,  from  whom  he  was 
descended,  proves  that  the  Hebrews  had  not  forgotten  the  arts 
which  they  had  acquired  in  Egypt,  and  shows  in  what  estima- 
tion trades  were  held.     The  people,  who  had  erected  the  taber- 


J  O 


nacle  in  the  wilderness,  we  may  readily  conceive,  would,  in  no 
long  time,  form  establishments  of  this  kind,  after  they  were 
settled  in  Canaan. 

2.  Jo  A II,  the  son  of  Zeruiah,  and  nephew  of  David.  With 
his  brothers  Abishai  and  Asahel,  he  commanded  his  uncle's 
troops  against  Abner.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  generals  and 
most  valiant  men  in  David's  army,  but  was  of  an  imperious  and 
revengefid  disposition.  •  Having  consjiired  to  raise  Adonijah  to 
the  throne  of  his  father  David,  Joab  was  put  to  death  by  com- 
mand of  Solomon. 

JoAWA,  the  wife  of  Chuza,  steward  of  Herod  Antipas.  She 
is  enumerated  among  those  women,  who  having  been  healed  by 
Jesus,  followed  him  out  of  Galilee,  and  assisted  in  supporting 
him.     (Luke  viii.  3.   xxiv.  10.) 

JoAsii,  the  eighth  king  of  Judah,  was  the  son  of  Ahaziah. 
On  the  massacre  of  his  family  by  Athaliah,  he  was  preserved  by 
Jehoiada  the  high-priest  and  his  wife  Jehoshebah,  and  secreted 
for  six  years  in  one  of  the  apartments  of  the  temple,  where  he 
was  brought  up.  At  the  age  of  seven  years,  the  courageous 
fidelity  of  the  high-priest  placed  him  on  the  throne  of  his  an- 
cestors. During  the  life  of  Jehoiada,  he  ruled  well ;  but  on  the 
death  of  that  wise  and  pious  counsellor,  he  listened  to  the  ad- 
vice of  some  of  his  courtiers ;  fell  into  gross  idolatry  ;  and  at 
length  put  to  death  the  son  of  his  benefactor.  From  this  time, 
his  reign  became  disastrous  ;  his  kingdom  was  invaded  by  the 
Syrians  under  Hazael ;  his  armies  were  totally  discomfited  by 
very  inferior  forces ;  and  he  could  only  save  his  capital,  by  de- 
livering to  the  Syrians  the  treasures  which  had  been  consecrated 
by  his  predecessors,  and  those  which  he  had  himself  offered  in 
the  temple.  A  lingering  illness  seized  him  :  the  blood  of  Zecha- 
riah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada,  found  avengers ;  and  after  reigning 
40  years,  Joash  was  assassinated  by  three  of  his  servants. 
(2  Kings  xii.    2  Chron.  xxiv.) 

Joash  or  Jeiioash,  king  of  Israel,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Jehoahaz.  Possessed  of  more  talents  than  virtues,  by  his  fortu- 
nate wars  he  prepared  the  splendid  reign  of  his  son  Jeroboam 
II. ;  and  wanted  nothing  but  piety.  He  reigned  sixteen  years, 
during  which  he  "  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and  departed 
not  from  all  the  sins  of  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat,  who  made 
Israel  to  sin."     (2  Kings  xii.  10 — 12.  xiv.) 

Job,  an  inhabitant  of  the  land  of  Uz  or  Idumsea,  whose  piety 
and  afflictions  are  celebrated  in  the  poetical  book  which  bears 
his  name  ;  for  an  account  of  which,  and  of  the  patriarch  himself, 
see  pp.  227 — 237.  For  a  notice  of  the  disease  with  which  he 
was  afflicted,  see  p.  196. 

Joel,  the  son  of  Pethucl,  and  the  second  of  the  minor  pro- 
phets. His  history  is  entirely  unknown.  See  an  analysis  of  his 
predictions,  in  p.  270. 

JoHX. 

1.  John  the  Baptist,  the  son  of  Zccharias  and  Elisabeth,  was 
the  kinsman  and  precursor  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  distinguished 
for  the  simplicity  and  integrity  of  his  life.  Notice  of  his  dress, 
see  p.  395.  He  was  beheaded  by  order  of  Herod  Antipas,  whom 
he  had  reproved  for  lus  incestuous  marriage.  (Matt.  iii.  1.  xiv. 
2—4.  8.  10.) 

2.  John  tlie  Apostle  and  Evangelist,  was  the  son  of  Zebedee 
and  Salome,  brother  of  James  the  elder,  and  originally  a  fisher- 
man. He  seems  to  have  been  of  a  mild  and  allcctionate  dispo- 
sition, and  peculiarly  dear  to  his  Lord.  His  name  is  prefixed  to 
the  fourth  Gospel,  to  three  Epistles,  and  to  the  Apocalvpse ;  for 
an  analysis  of  which,  see  pp.  313 — 318.  364 — 377,  378- 383. 

3.  John,  surnamed  Mauk,  the  companion  of  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas in  their  journeys. 

4.  John,  one  of  the  chief  men  among  the  Jews,  a  member 
of  the  Sanhedrin,  and  perhaps  related  to  the  high-priest.  (Acts 
iv.  6.) 

JoKTAN,  the  eldest  son  of  Eber,  from  whom  many  Arabian 
tribes  were  descended.     (Gen.  x.  25 — 30.) 

JOKTIIKEL. 

1.  A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Judah.     (Josh.  xv.  38.) 

2.  The  name  which  Amaziah  king  of  Judah  gave  to  Selah, 
an  Arabian  city  which  he  took.     (2  Kings  xiv.  7.) 

Jonah. 

1.  Jonah,  the  son  of  Amittai,  and  the  fifth  of  the  minor 
prophets,  who  was  swallowed  by  a  large  fish,  and  continued 
three  days  and  three  nights  in  the  stomach  of  the  monster. 
See  an  analysis  of  his  prophecy  in  p.  259. 

2.  Jonah  or  Jonas,  the  father  of  the  apostle  Simon  Peter. 
He  was  a  fisherman.     (John  i.  42.    xxi.  1.5 — 17.) 

Jonathan,  the  son  of  Saul,  and  the  faithfully  attached  friend 


432 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


J  O 


of  David  in  all  his  persecutions.  Jonathan  displayed  signal 
valour  in  the  wars  with  the  Philistines.  He  perished  in  battle 
with  his  father  on  Mount  Gilboa;  and  his  death  is  pathetically 
lamented  by  David  in  a  funeral  elegy  which  he  composed  in 
honour  of  both.     (2  Sam.  i.) 

JoppA,  a  sea-port  of  Palestine,  on  the  Mediterranean,  called 
also  Japha,  and  now  universally  Jaffa,  owes  all  the  circumstances 
of  its  celebrity,  as  the  principal  port  of  Judaea,  to  its  situation 
with  regard  to  Jerusalem.  It  is  situated  on  the  side  of  a  low 
hill,  over  the  sea.  "  As  a  station  for  vessels,  its  harbour  is  one 
of  the  worst  in  the  Mediterranean  :  ships  generally  anchor  about 
a  mile  from  the  town,  to  avoid  the  shoals  and  rocks  of  the  place. 
In  ancient  times  it  was  the  only  place  resorted  to  as  a  sea-port 
in  all  Juda;a.  Hither  Solomon  ordered  the  materials  for  the 
temple  to  be  brought  from  Mount  Libanus,  previous  to  their 
conveyance  by  land  to  Jerusalem."  (Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv. 
p.  442.  JoUiffe's  Letters  from  Palestine,  p.  198.  Irby's  and 
Mangles'  Travels,  pp.  186 — 188.)  It  is  a  place  of  very  great 
antiquity ;  and  it  appears  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (ix.  x. 
xi.)  that  the  Gospel  was  received  here  soon  after  Christ's  ascen- 
sion. Here  also  St.  Peter  restored  Dorcas  to  Ufe  (Acts  ix.  40.), 
and  from  this  place  it  was  that  the  prophet  Jonah,  many  centu- 
ries before,  had  embarked  for  Nineveh.  (Jonah  i.  3.)  The 
house  of  the  British  vice-consul  (signor  Damiani),  in  1831, 
stood  on  the  reputed  site  of  the  house  which  had  been  Simon 
the  Tanner's,  the  host  of  the  apostle  Peter ;  and  a  portion  of  an 
ancient  wall  therein  was  pointed  out,  as  a  genuine  relic  of  the 
original  mansion.  (Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  6.  London, 
1833.) 

JoRAM.     See  Jehoram,  2.  p.  430. 

Jordan,  River,  account  of,  pp.  25,  26.  Region  round  about, 
p.  33.     Thickets  of,  p.  36, 

JOSKPH. 

1.  Joseph,  the  eleventh  son  of  Jacob,  born  of  Rachel.  Hated 
by  his  brethren,  he  was  sold  by  them  as  a  slave  to  some  Mi- 
dianitish  merchants,  by  whom  he  was  carried  into  Egypt,  and 
again  sold  to  Potiphar.  He  subsequently  became  governor  over 
all  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  sent  for  his  father  and  brethren  to 
Egypt,  where  he  provided  for  them.  On  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites,  pursuant  to  his  command,  the  remains  of  Joseph, 
which  had  been  embalmed  according  to  the  Egyptian  process, 
were  carried  into  Canaan  (Heb.  xi.  22.),  and,  it  should  seem 
from  Josh.  xxiv.  31.,  after  the  conquest  by  Joshua,  were  interred 
in  Jacob's  field  near  Shechem.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  1.)  Joseph  is 
sometimes,  metonymically,  put  for  his  descendants,  that  is,  the 
half-tribe  of  Ephraim. 

2.  The  husband  of  Mary,  and  the  reputed  father  of  Jesus. 
(Matt.  i.  16.  18—20.  24.  ii.  13.  19.  Luke  i.  27.  ii.  4.  16.  33. 
43.  iii.  23.  iv.  22.     John  i.  46.  vi.  42.) 

3.  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  a  member  of  the  Jewish  Sanhedrin, 
and  privately  a  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ.  After  his  death,  Joseph 
requested  his  body  of  Pilate,  and  honourably  entombed  it  in  his 
own  new  sepulchre.  (Matt,  xxvii,  57 — 60.  Mark  xv.  43 — 45. 
Luke  xxiii.  50.     John  xix.  38.) 

4.  One  of  the  seventy  disciples  of  Jesus,  also  called  Barsabas 
and  Justus.  He  was  nominated  as  one  of  the  two  candidates 
for  the  apostleship  in  place  of  the  traitor  Judas.    (Acts  i.  23.) 

JOSES. 

1.  A  brother  of  James  the  Less,  and  a  kinsman  of  Jesus. 
(Matt.  xiii.  55.  xxvii.  56.  Mark  vi.  3.  xv.  40.  47.)  He  is  the 
only  one  of  the  sons  of  Cleopas  and  Mary  who  did  not  become 
an  apostle  ;  which  circumstance  has  been  accounted  for  by  Co- 
qucrel,  who  supposes  that  Joscs  was  one  of  those  brethren  or 
kinsmen  of  Jesus  Christ  who  distinguished  himself  by  his  want 
of  faith  in  him  (compare  John  vii.  5.),  and  therefore  was  deemed 
unfit  for  the  apostleship.  .As  it  appears  from  Acts  i.  14.  that 
the  brethren  of  Jesus  were  present  at  the  meetings  of  his  dis- 
ciples, which  were  held  between  the  ascension  and  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  it  is  not  improbable  that  Joses  was  converted  after  the 
resurrection. 

2.  JosEs,  surnamed  Barnabas,  the  companion  of  St.  Paul. 
(Acts  iv.  36.) 

Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  called  Jesus 
by  the  Greeks.  He  was  the  minister  or  servant,  and  the  suc- 
cessor of  Moses ;  an  office  which  he  deserved  to  fill  on  many 
accounts  :  for  not  only  had  Moses  discovered  in  him  distinguished 
talents,  but  God  himself  had  destined  Joshua  to  be  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  his  people,  in  which  capacity  Moses  presented 
liim  to  them  a  short  time  before  his  death.  Joshua  had  dis- 
played both  knowledge  and  courage  during  the  life  of  Moses, 


J  U 

whom  he  accompanied  to  Mount  Sinai  at  the  giving  of  the  law. 
In  the  battle  with  the  Amalekitcs,  he  had  bravely  commanded 
the  Israelites,  and  had  been  blessed  with  victory.  He  had  been 
one  of  the  twelve  spies,  whom  Moses  had  sent  to  explore  the 
land  of  Canaan ;  and  as  Caleb  and  he  were  the  only  persons 
out  of  that  number  who  had  encouraged  the  people  when  intimi- 
dated by  the  report  of  the  other  spies,  so  they  were  the  only  Is- 
raelites who  were  more  than  twenty  years  of  age  that  survived 
their  forty  years'  wandering  in  the  desert,  and  participated  in  the 
conquest  of  Canaan.  Joshua  died  at  the  age  of  110  years,  after 
he  had  for  seventeen  years  governed  the  Israelites.  His  earlier 
name  was  Hoshea,  which  Moses  changed  to  Joshua,  or,  as  it  is 
pronounced  in  Hebrew,  Jehoshuah,  the  import  of  which  is  the 
Salvation  of  God.  Joshua  has  been  considered  as  a  type  of  our 
Saviour.  As  the  Hebrew  general  vanquished  the  impious  Ca- 
naanites  by  the  aid  of  God,  and  introduced  His  people  into  the 
rest  of  the  promised  land,  so  Jesus  (whose  name  in  Greek  is 
the  same  as  Jehoshuah)  will  one  day  subdue  and  exterminate 
the  enemies  of  his  name  and  disciples,  and  will  introduce  his 
people  into  that  place  of  rest,  in  which  they  will  enjoy  perfect 
and  eternal  happiness.  For  an  analysis  of  the  book  of  Joshua, 
see  pp.  214 — 216;  and  for  an  account  of  the  division  of  the 
Holy  Land  by  him,  see  pp.  16,  17,  of  this  volume  ;  and  for  his 
government  of  the  Israelites,  see  p.  42.  Observations  on  the 
pile  of  stones  raised  by  Joshua  at  Gilgal,  I.  100,  101. 

JosiAH,  the  son  of  Amnon  and  Jedidah,  succeeded  his  father 
on  the  throne  of  Judah,  at  the  early  age  of  eight  years,  and  during 
a  reign  of  thirty-one  years  he  endeavoured,  with  much  success?, 
to  restore  the  worship  of  God  to  its  original  purity.  Being  a 
tributary  or  ally  of  the  Assyrians,  he  refu.sed  a  passage  through 
his  dominions  to  Pharaoh-Necho  king  of  Egypt,  who  was  march- 
ing into  Assyria.  The  two  armies  met  at  Megiddo,  where  Josiah, 
entering  into  the  battle  in  disguise,  was  mortally  wounded  by  an 
arrow  :  he  died  at  Jerusalem,  deeply  regretted  by  all  ins  subjects. 
Jeremiah  composed  Lamentations  in  his  honour,  (2  Kings  xxii. 
xxiii.  2  Chron.  xxxiv.) 

JoTHAM,  the  eleventh  king  of  Judah,  exercised  the  regal 
authority  during  the  leprosy  which  terminated  the  life  of  his 
father  Uzziah,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne.  He  is  recorded 
to  have  done  that  which  was  right  in  the  sight  of  God,  and  to 
have  imitated  his  father's  piety.  "  He  became  mighty,  because 
he  prepared  his  xoays  before  the  Lord  his  God."  He  dis- 
comfited the  Ammonites,  and  for  three  years  received  of  them  a 
rich  tribute  in  silver,  barley,  and  corn,  which  his  father  had  im- 
posed ;  but  which  that  people  had  refused  to  pay.  Magnificent 
erections  distinguished  his  reign.  The  principal  gate  of  the 
temple  was  enlarged  and  embellished  ;  the  hill  of  Ophel  received 
new  fortifications  ;  and  various  buildings,  both  for  habitation  and 
defence,  were  erected  in  the  mountains  of  Judah.  After  a  reign 
of  sixteen  years  he  died,  much  regretted  by  his  people,  and  was 
interred  in  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings,  e.  c.  742, 

Jural,  the  son  of  Lamech  and  Adah  :  he  was  the  father  of 
all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and  oi'ffan.  (Gen.  iv,  21.)  In  other 
terms,  he  was  the  inventor  of  musical  instruments.  By  compar- 
ing his  discoveries  with  those  of  Jabal,  the  institutor  of  the 
nomadic  life,  and  of  Tubal-Cain,  th^instructor  of  every  artificer 
in  brass  and  iron,  we  may  perceive  how  soofi  the  agreeable  fol- 
lowed the  useful  arts. 

Jubilee,  Feast  of,  how  celebrated,  128,  129. 

Judah. 

1.  Judah,  the  fourth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  gave  his  name  to 
the  most  numerous  of  the  tribes  of  Israel ;  for  the  limits  of  the 
canton  assigned  to  which,  see  p.  17.  At  the  time  of  the  revolu- 
tion under  Rehoboam  and  Jeroboam,  this  tribe  also  gave  its  name 
to  that  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  which  continued  faithful  to 
the  house  of  David, 

2.  Desert  of  Judah,  account  of,  34, 

3.  KiNfiDOM  of  Judah,  17,  Causes  of  its  duration  for  a 
longer  time  than  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  49. 

4.  Land  of  Judah,  notice  of,  14. 

5.  Mountains  of  Judah,  notice  of,  31. 
JuD.nA,  Country  of,  18. 

Judas. 

1.  Judas,  surnamed /scar/o^  (Heb.  ;:"!<  ni>i;i,  Ish  KanioTH), 
that  is,  a  man  of  Karioth  or  Carioth,  one  of  the  apostles  of  Jesus 
Christ.  He  seems  to  have  possessed  the  full  confidence  of  his 
fellow-apostles,  by  whom  he  was  intrusted  with  all  the  presents 
which  were  made  to  them,  and  with  all  their  means  of  subsist-, 
encc  :  and,  when  the  twelve  were  sent  out  to  preach  and  to  work 
miracles,  .ludas  appears  to  have  been  among  them,  and  to  liave 


BIOGRAPHICAL    HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


433 


KA 

received  the  same  powers.  He  was  accustomca,  however,  even 
at  this  time,  to  appro|)riate  part  of  the  common  stoclt  to  his  own 
use  (John  xii.  •).),  and  at  lengtli  sealed  his  infamy  by  betraying 
his  liord  for  money  to  th(!  Jews.  Judas  pcrislied  miserably,  being 
driven  by  remorse  to  hang  himself;  but  the  cord  broke,  and  he 
fell  (probably  from  some  elevated  place)  with  such  violence  as  to 
rii|)ture  the  abdomen,  and  dash  out  liis  intestines  upon  the  ground. 
(Matt,  xxvii.  .').   Acts  i.  IH.) 

2.  JiDAs,  a  (-Ibristian  teacher,  also  called  Jiarsnbag, who  was 
sent  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioeh  with  I'aul  and  IJarnabas.  Judas 
and  JSilas  are  termed  prophets  as  well  as  Agabus  :  which  title  is 
given  lliein  in  a  two-fold  sense,  as  zealous  preachers  of  the  Gos- 
pel, and  as  ministers  of  God,  who  were  divinely  inspired,  accord- 
ing to  the  exigencies  of  the  church,  to  predict  future  events. 
(Acts  XV.  22.  27.  32.) 

3.  Ji'iiAs,  surnamed  the  Galilean  in  Acts  v,  37.  and  also  by 
Josephus  (.Vnt.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  1.  §  6.  xx.  c.  .5.  §  2.  Bell.  Jud.  I. 
ii.  c.  8.  ^  1.),  who  further  calls  him  a  Gaulonite  (Ant.  Jud.  1.  xviii. 
c.  !.§!.),  was  born  at  Gamala,  a  city  of  Lower  Gaulonitis,  near 
tlic  south-eastern  shore  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias.  In  company 
with  one  Sadok  or  Sadducus,  he  attempted  to  excite  a  sedition 
among  the  Jews,  but  was  destroyed  by  Quitinus,  at  that  time 
governor  of  Syria  and  Judaea. 

4.  JunAs  or  Judk,  one  of  the  apostles,  also  called  Lebbeus  and 
Thaddcus,  the  son  of  Alphasus  and  Mary,  own  brother  of  James 
the  Less  and  cousin  of  our  Lord.  He  was  author  of  the  epistle 
which  bears  his  name ;  for  an  analysis  of  wliich,  as  well  as  a 
further  account  of  Jude,  see  pp.  377,  378. 

5.  JiTDAS  MAccAEyiJus,  SOU  of  Mattathias,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  the  oflice  of  captain  of  the  Jews,  during  the  persecution  of 
Antiochus  Epiphancs.  (1  Mace.  iii.  1.)  After  performing  many 
heroic  and  glorious  actions,  he  at  length  fell  nobly  in  the  field  of 
battle,  in  an  engagement  with  the  Syrian  army  under  the  com- 
m;uid  of  Bacchides,  the  general  of  Demetrius,  the  successor  of 
Antiochus.  (1  Mace.  ix.  18.) 

JiDOKs  of  the  Israelites,  powers  and  functions  of,  42.  Judges 
appointed  by  Moses,  powers  of,  ibid. 

JiiiicATUiiE  {Jewish),  courts  of,  and  proceedings  therein, 
5d— .57. 

JunicATuaE  (Roman),  account  of,  57 — 60. 

JiTLiA,  a  female  Christian  at  Rome,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  wife  of  Philologus.  (llom.  xvi.  15.)  It  is  not  improba- 
ble that  she  was  a  freed-woman  of  the  family  of  the  Ca;sars. 

JvLiis,  a  centurion  of  the  Augustan  cohort,  who  conducted 
Paul  to  Rome,  and  treated  the  apostle  with  great  courtesy  and 
humanity,  (.^cts  xxvii.) 

JuNiAs  or  JuNiA,  a  Jewish  Christian,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  wife  of  Andronicus.   (Rom.  xvi,  7.) 

JriMTKii,  the  supreme  god  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 
He  had  a  temple  in  the  suburbs  of  Listra,  (which  see). 

JuiusnuTioN  of  Moses,  41,42.;  of  Joshua  and  the  judges, 
42. ;  of  the  kings,  42 — 46. 

Justice,  seat  of,  54. 

Justice. 

1.  The  surname  of  Joseph-Barsabas,  who  was  one  of  those 
nominated  to  be  an  apostle.  (Acts  i.  23.)    See  Baiisabas. 

2.  A  Christian  at  Corinth,  who  hospitably  received  Saint  Paul. 
(Acts  xviii.  7.) 

3.  Justus,  also  called  Jesus,  appears  to  have  been  known  to 
the  Jews  by  the  former  name,  and  to  the  Romans  by  the  latter. 
He  was  a  Jew  by  descent,  and  the  friend  and  coadjutor  of  Saint 
Paul.   (Col.  iv.  U.) 

Jyaii,  the  eighth  month  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews;  and  the 
second  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals, 
&c.  occuring  in  this  month,  see  p.  76. 


Kahf.sh,  KAnr.sH-BAnrfEA,  or  Ejt-Mishpat,  a  city  celebrated 
for  several  events.  Here  Miriam,  the  sister  of  Moses,  died 
(Num.  xx.  1.),  and  the  Israelites  murmured  against  God.  (xxvii. 
14.)  It  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  situated  about  25  miles  to  the  south  of  Hebron. 
But  Dr.  Wells  is  of  opinion  that  the  Kadesh  in  the  wilderness 
of  Zi,n  was  a  dillercnt  place  from  Kadcsh-Barnca  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Paran.  (Compare  Num.  xiii.  26.  and  Deut.  i.  19.)  Dr. 
Lightfoot,  however,  considers  them  as  one  and  the  same  place. 
In  the  fourth  century,  the  pretended  sepulchre  of  Miriam  was 
shown. 

Kahmottites,  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  who 
dwelt  beyond  the  Jordan,  to  the  east  of  Phoenicia,' about  Mount 

Vol.  II.  3  I 


K 


Lebanon.  (Gen.  xv.  19.)  They  derived  their  name  from  their 
eastern  situation. 

Kanah,  Brook,  26. 

Kauioth  or  Kehiotii,  a  town  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
(Josh.  XV.  25.)  Also,  a  town  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min. (Josh,  xviii.  28.)  Of  one  or  other  of  these  places,  the 
traitor  Judas  was  a  native.     See  Judas,  1. 

Kkiiaii,  a  tribe  of  Arabian  nomades,  descended  from  Kedar, 
the  son  of  Ishmael.  (Gen.  xxv.  13.)  The  habits  of  the  Turco- 
mans, a  nomadic  tribe  who  infest  the  inland  portions  of  Asia 
Minor,  are  precisely  those  of  the  wandering  hordes  of  Kedar,  as 
described  in  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament ;  and  their  black 
tents  would  fully  suit  the  simile  of  Solomon  (Song  i.  5).,  while 
their  pastoral  traffic  is  in  every  respect  that  adverted  to  in  Ezekiel 
(xxvii.  21.),  in  his  denunciations  of  destruction  against  Tyre. 
(Emerson's  Letters  from  the  .^gean,  vol.  i.  p.  192.) 

Kkduo.v,  Kidkox,  or  Ckdhon,  Brook,  account  of,  26. 

Kenites,  a  Canaanitish  people,  who,  according  to  1  Sam.  xv. 
6.,  compared  with  Num.  xxiv.  20,  21.,  dwelt  among  the  Amale- 
kites.  According  to  Judg.  i.  16.  iv.  11.,  they  ajipear  to  have 
been  descended  from  Hobab  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses. 

Kenizzites,  an  ancient  Canaanitish  people,  who  may  have 
been  descended  from  Kenaz,  a  grandson  of  Esau.  Their  place 
of  residence  cannot  now  be  determined.  (Gen.  xv,  19.  Num. 
xxxii.  12.) 

Ketuhah,  the  second  wife  of  Abraham,  who  married  her  after 
the  death  of  Sarah ;  she  bore  him  six  sons.  (Gen.  xxv.) 

Kings,  person  of,  sacred,  44,  Their  powers,  functions,  and 
revenues,  43 — 46. 

KixaiioMs  of  Israel  and  Judah,  17,  Latent  causes  of  the 
schism  between,  48.  Causes  of  the  longer  duration  of  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  49. 

Km  (or  Cyrus),  a  river  to  the  banks  or  vicinity  of  which 
Tiglath-Pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  sent  the  principal  inhabitants  of 
Syria,  whom  he  had  taken  captive.  (2  Kings  xvi.  9.)  At  present 
it  is  called  Kur  by  the  Russians,  and  Kier  by  the  Persians  :  it 
unites  its  waters  to  the  Aras  or  Araxes,  and  empties  itself  into 
the  Caspian  Sea,  under  the  30th  degree  of  north  latitude.  A 
people  of  foreign  aspect,  called  Usbecks,(lv/e\l  there  to  this  time, 
who  (Prof.  Jahn  thinks)  may  be  the  descendants  of  these  cap- 
tives. (Hist,  of  Heb.  Commonwealth,  vol.  i,  p,  140.) 

Kiii-iiERES.     See  Rabbath-Ammox, 

KiHjATii  or  KinioTH  (mnp),  a  Hebrew  word  denoting  a  city. 
There  was  a  place  of  this  name  in  the  canton  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin. (Josh,  xviii,  28.) 

The  following  proper  names  of  cities  are  compounded  of  it ; 
viz. 

1.  KinjATH-AiM,  or  the  Double  City. 

(1.)  The  proper  name  of  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Reuben. 
(Num.  xxxii.  37.  Josh.  xiii.  19.)  It  wa.s  afterwards  pos- 
sessed by  the  Moabites.       (Jer.  xlviii.  1.  3.  Ezek.  xxv.  9.) 

(2.)  A  city  in  the  canton  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  (1  Chron. 
vi.  61.) 

2.  Kirjath-Arba,  or  the  City  of  Arba :  an  ancient  name 
of  Hebrox,  which  see  in  p.  427. 

3.  KiujATH-HuzoTH,  or  the  City  of  Streets,  a  royal  city  of 
Balak  king  of  Moab.     (Num.  xxii.  39.) 

4.  Kirjath-Jearim,  or  the  City  of  Forests,  in  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  on  the  western  boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  Here 
the  ark  was  lodged  for  many  years  in  the  house  of  Aminadab, 
until  David  removed  it  to  Jerusalem.  Urijah  the  prophet  was  a 
native  of  this  place.  (Josh,  ix.  17,  xviii.  5.  Judg.  xviii.  12.  1 
Sam.  vi.  21.  1  Chron.  xiii.  6.) 

5.  Kirjatu-Sannah,  or  the  City  of  the  Law,  was  a  city  in 
the  tribe  of  Judah.     (Josh.  xv.  49.) 

6.  Kirjath-Sepher,  or  the  City  of  Writing,  otherwise  called 
Debir  ;  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  which  was  captured  firom 
the  Canaanites  by  Othniel.  (Josh,  xv,  15,  16.  Judg.  i.  10 — 13.) 
Concerning  the  import  of  its  name  there  is  a  diflercnce  of  opin- 
ion ;  some  supposing  it  to  have  been  a  seat  of  learning,  while 
others,  from  Debir  signifying  an  oracle,  imagine  that  it  was  a 
seminary  for  the  education  of  priests. 

KisH,  the  son  of  Abdiel,  who  was  also  called  Ner,  and  the 
father  of  Saul,  of  an  obscure  family  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
was  both  a  shepherd  and  a  warrior,  conformably  to  the  custom 
of  those  ancient  times.  The  Scripture  eulogizes  his  valour. 
He  sent  his  son  in  pursuit  of  some  lost  asses,  and  he  returned  to 
his  father  the  first  king  of  Israel.  (1  Chron.  viii.  30.  ix.  39.  1 
Sam.  xiv.  51.  ix.  1.  and  x.  2.) 

KisHox,  Brook,  notice  of,  26. 


434 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


LE 


KsEAPixG-TROUGHS  of  the  Israelites,  154. 

KoHATH,  the  son  of  Levi.  (Gen.  xlvi.  II.)  He  was  the  head 
of  the  Kohathites,  who  were  appointed  to  carry  the  ark  and 
sacred  vessels  of  the  tabernacle,  during  the  marches  of  the  Israel- 
ites.    (Num.  iv.  I — 15.) 

KoHAH,  the  son  of  Izhar,  and  grandson  of  Levi,  who  conspired 
against  Moses,  (Exod.  vi.  21.  Num.  xvi.)  From  him  were 
descended  the  sons  of  Korah,  a  Levitical  family  of  singers,  whom 
David  appointed  to  guard  the  doors  of  the  temple.  (1  Chron. 
ix.  19.)  Eleven  psalms  are  inscribed  "for  the  sons  of  Korah;" 
on  the  probable  import  of  which  title,  see  p.  239. 

KoiiBAN,  nature  of,  119. 


Labajt,  the  son  of  Bethuel,  grandson  of  Nahor,  brother  to 
Rebekah,  and  father  of  Rachel  and  Leah.  (Gen.  xxviii.) — Also 
the  name  of  a  place  beyond  the  Jordan,  in  the  plains  of  Moab ; 
it  is  otherwise  unknown.     (Deut.  i.  1.) 

Lakks  in  the  Holy  Land,  account  of,  26 — 28. 
Lamb,  Paschal,  ceremonies  of  olfeiing,  &c.  See  pp.  123 — 126. 
Laimextatioxs  for  the  dead,  account  of,  199,  200. 
Land-Suuveting,  not  unknown  to  the  Jews,  187. 
Laodicea,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  about  forty-two  miles  to  the 
south  of  Ephcsus,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Colossse  and  Hierapolis. 
Its  earlier  name  was  Diospolis  or  Csesarea,  but  after  being  en- 
larged by  Antiochus  II.  it  was  called  Laodicea  in  honour  of  his 
wife  Laodice.  This  city  was  often  damaged  by  earthquakes, 
and  restored  either  by  the  opulence  of  its  inhabitants,  or  by  the 
munificence  of  the  Roman  emperors.  From  the  researches  of 
modern  travellers  it  appears  to  have  been  seated  on  a  volcanic 
bill,  of  moderate  height,  but  of  considerable  extent.  Its  ruins 
attest  that  it  was  large,  opulent,  ard  splendid ;  and  there  are  stdl 
to  be  seen  the  remains  of  an  amphitheatre,  an  aqueduct,  and 
many  other  buildi'igs.  In  the  primitive  times  of  Christianity,  as 
appears  from  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  in  which 
the  Laodiceans  are  frequently  mentioned,  this  place  possessed  a 
flourishing  church.  But  the  doom  of  Laodicea  seems  to  have 
been  more  severe  and  terrible  than  that  of  the  other  six  apoca- 
lyptic churches  :  and  its  present  condition  is  in  striking  con- 
formity with  the  rebukes  and  threatenings  of  God.  Not  a  single 
Christian  resides  at  Laodicea !  It  is  even  more  solitary  than 
Ephesus  :  the  latter  has  a  prospect  of  a  rolling  sea,  or  a  whiten- 
ing sail,  to  enliven  its  decay  ;  the  former  sits  in  widowed  loneli- 
ness. Its  temples  are  desolate ;  the  stately  edifices  of  ancient 
Laodicea  are  now  peopled  with  wolves  and  jackals.  The  prayers 
of  the  mosque  are  the  only  prayers  heard  near  the  still  splendid 
ruins  of  the  city,  on  which  the  prophetic  denunciation  seems  to 
have  been  fully  executed,  in  its  utter  rejection  as  a  church.  "  Its 
crime  was  pride  ;  its  punishment  desolation.  The  threatening 
is  accomplished :  it  now  stands  rejected  of  God  and  deserted  by 
men  ;  its  glory  a  ruin  ;  its  name  a  reproach."  (Hartley's  Visit 
to  the  Apocalyptic  Churches,  in  1826.  Mission.  Register,  July, 
1827,  p.  296.  Arundell's  Visit  to  the  Seven  Churches,  pp.  84 — 
90.     Emerson's  Letters  from  the  ^Egean,  vol.  i.  pp.  180.  219.) 

Las;T3a,  a  maritime  city  of  Crete  (Acts  xxvii.  8.),  which  is 
not  mentioned  by  any  of  the  ancient  geographers.  Its  exact 
site  cannot  now  be  ascertained. 

Law  and  the  Prophets,  tables  of  the  sections  of,  as  read  in 
the  Jewish  synagogues,  105.  The  Mosaic  law  perverted  by  the 
Pharisees,  144,  145. 

Laws,  how  promulgated,  47,  48. 
Lawyers  (Jewish),  account  of,  146. 
Lazabus. 

1.  The  brother  of  Martha  and  Mary,  whom  Jesus  loved,  and 
miraculously  raised  him  from  the  dead.  For  an  examination  of 
the  circumstances  of  this  miracle,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  105,  106. 

2.  The  name  of  a  person  introduced  by  Jesus  into  a  very 
instructive  narrative  or  parable,  to  represent  the  poor  and  dis- 
tressed in  this  world.     (Luke  xvi.  19 — 25.) 

Leah,  the  daughter  of  Laban,  and  the  wife  of  Jacob,  on  whom 
her  father  imposed  her  in  lieu  of  Kachel.     (Gen.  xxix.) 

Lebanon  (Mount),  account  of,  29,  30. 

Lebb.-rus,  a  proper  name  of  the  apostle  Jude,  who  was  also 
called  Thaddeus.     (Matt.  x.  3.) 

Legal  PnocEEBiNGs  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  55 — 57. 

Legions  (Roman),  notice  of,  92. 

Leprosy  (Disease  of).  Symptoms  and  treatment  of,  195,  196 
Purification  of  lepers,  1 34.     Leprosy  of  clothes  and  houses,  ibid. 

Letters  or  Epistles,  form  of,  183. 


L  Y 

Lett. 

1.  The  third  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah.  (Gen.  xxix.  34.)  He 
is  known  only  as  having  participated  in  the  revenge  of  Simeon 
against  the  Shechemites,  for  the  violation  of  Dinah  (xxxiv.  25.), 
and  for  having  given  his  name  to  the  tribe  that  was  set  apart  for 
the  priesthood  and  worship  of  God.  For  the  functions,  &c.  of 
the  Levites,  see  pp.  Ill,  112. 

2.  One  of  the  twelve  apostles,  also  called  Matthew.  See 
p.  436.  infra. 

Levies,  Military,  how  raised,  84. 
Libertines,  account  of,  103.  109.  I.  80. 
Libya,  among  the  Greeks,  was  used  as  another  name  for 
Africa,  as  it  imports  a  part  of  it.  It  was  divided  into  Libya  Inte- 
rior and  Exterior  :  but  the  Libya  mentioned  by  Saint  Luke 
(Acts  ii.  10.)  is  that  by  Ptolemy  called  Libya  Cyrenaica  :  and 
by  Phny  Pentapolitana  Regio,  from  its  five  chief  cities,  viz.  Be- 
renice, ArsinOe,  Ptolemais,  Apollonia,  and  Cyrene.  It  is  noted 
in  the  Old  Testament  for  its  chariots  and  horses  used  in  fight. 
(2  Chron.  xvi.  8.)  But  it  is  mentioned  by  Saint  Luke,  on  ac- 
count of  the  Jews,  who,  living  in  such  vast  numbers  in  Alexan- 
dria that  50,000  of  them  were  slain  at  one  time,  may  well  be 
thought  to  have  had  some  colonies  and  proselytes  in  this  neigh- 
bouring country, 

Life-Guards  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  47. 

Linus,  a  disciple  whose  salutation  Saint  Paul  addresses  to 
Timothy.  (2  Tim.  iv.  21.)  He  is  commonly  supposed  to  have 
been  the  first  bishop  of  Rome. 

Literature  of  the  Jews,  184 — 187. 
Liver,  divination  by  the  inspection  of,  143. 
Locusts,  natural  history  of,   and   of  their  devastations,  39. 
Were  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  ibid. 

Lois,  a  Christian  matron,  and  the  grandmother  of  Timothy, 
of  whose  faith  the  apostle  speaks  with  great  commendation. 
(2  Tim.  i.  5.) 

Lord's  Prayer,  collected  out  of  Jewish  Euchologies,  132. 
Lord's  Supper,  points  of  resemblance  between,  and  the  Pass- 
over, 123 — 126.      It  is  a  perpetual  memorial  of  the   vicarious 
atonement  of  Jesus  Christ,  I.  61. 

Lot,  the  son  of  Haran  and  nephew  of  Abraham ;  after  sepa- 
rating from  whom,  on  account  of  the  increase  of  their  cattle,  he 
chose  the  city  of  Sodom  for  his  abode.  On  its  destruction  Lot 
and  his  two  daughters  escaped  with  their  lives  ;  but  his  wife, 
looking  back,  perished,  (Gen,  xix,  Luke  xvii.  28,)  The  Mo- 
abites  and  Ammonites  descended  from  Lot, 

Lots,  when  used  judicially,  122,  Notice  of  the  Feast  of  Lots, 
320,  321. 

LuBiM,  the  Libyans,     (2  Chron,  xii.  3.  xvi,  8,  Nah,  iii,  9,) 

Lucius,  a  Cyrenian,  one  of  the  prophets  or  teachers  of  the 

Christian  church  at  Antioch.   ( Acts  iii.  1.  Rom,  xvi,  21,)  By  some 

he  has  been  erroneously  confounded  with  the  evangelist  Luke. 

LuD,  the  fourth  son  of  Shem,  whose  descendants  peopled  the 

province  of  Lyuia,     (Gen.  x,  22,) 

LuDiM,  a  people  of  Africa,  frequently  mentioned. in  Scripture; 
probably  the  Ethiopians  or  Abyssinians. 

Luke  {Aoukjh,  contracted  from  the  Latin  Luccmns),  vi&s  a 
Gentile  proselyte  who  had  embraced  Christianity.  He  was  the 
friend  and  companion  of  St.  Paul  in  most  of  Ms  journeys,  and 
wrote  the  Gospel  that  bears  his  name,  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles ;  for  analyses  of  which,  see  pp,  307 — 313,318 — 321. 
Lycanthbopy,  the  malady  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  196,  197, 
Lycaonia  (Acts  xiv,  6,),  a  province  in  Asia  Minor,  accounted 
the  southern  part  of  Cappadocia,  having  Isauria  on  the  west, 
Armenia  Minor  on  the  east,  and  Cilicia  on  the  south.  Its  chief 
cities  are  all  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  viz,  Iconium,  Lystra, 
and  Derbe.  T/iey  spake  (ver.  11.)  I'/t  the  Lycaoniun  tovg-iie, 
which  is  generally  understood  to  have  been  a  corrupt  Greek,  in- 
termingled with  many  Syriae  words  :  but  Jablonski  supposes  it 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  Assyrian  tongue.  Why  they 
were  disposed  to  worship  Paul  and  Barnabas,  140.  Paul's  ad- 
dress to  them  illustrated,  326.  , 

Lydda,  which  in  later  times  was  called  Diospolis,  and  is  now 
known  by  the  name  of  Loudd,  was  a  large  village,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Joscphus,  little  inferior  to  a  city  for  its  size.  This  place 
is  celebrated  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  for  the  miraculous  cure 
of  Eneas  by  the  apostle  Peter  (Acts  ix,  32,  34.):  it  was  situated 
at  no  great  distance  from  Joppa  (ix,  3S.),  on  the  way  from  the 
latter  place  to  Jerusalem.  The  soil  of  the  surrounding  country 
is  said  to  be  very  rich, 

Lydia,  a  woman  of  Thyatira,  who  traded  in  purple  cloths, 
for  which  that  place  was  celebrated.     She  was  a  Jewish  prose 


BIOGUAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  L\DEX. 


435 


MA 

lylc,  of  a  sinri^re  and  pious  character,  and  prompt  in  acknow- 
ledging and  professing  the  truth.  She  was  converted  to  the 
Cliristiuti  faith  in  coiisecjiicnce  of  tiie  preuchiiig  of  Saint  rani. 
(AcLs  xvi.  14.  40.)  Co(|ui'rol  and  otiiors  supi>o>c  tiiat  I>ydia,  in 
this  place,  is  merely  a  patninyniie  ajipellatioii,  that  is,  a  Lydian 
woman  ; — most  pri)l>ahly  from  the  circumstance  of  Tliyatira  being 
situated  on  the  confines  of  Lydia,  a  province  on  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor. 

Lvsi'KA,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  ciiiefly  celehrated  for  the  miracu- 
lous cure  there  wrought  u|>on  the  hime  man,  wiiich  made  the 
Lycaonians  think  tiie  gods  were  come  down  to  tiiem  in  tlie  like- 
ness of  men  (Acts  xiv.  10,  11.),  and  also  for  the  circumcision  of 
Timothy,  (xvi.  l.) 

Maacah  or  Maachaii.  See  Aukl-Betii-Maachah,  pp.  401, 
402. 

Maccaiiees,  government  of,  50.     Origin  of  their  name,  50. 

ItOtf. 

Mackdoma,  0  province  of  Greece,  formerly  called  ^Emathia; 
and  from  the  kings  of  Macedon,  Macedonia.  It  was  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  mountains  of  Ha;nius,  on  the  south  by  Epi- 
rus  and  Achaia,  on  the  east  liy  the  .Egcan,  on  the  west  by  the 
Ionian  and  Adriatic  Seas;  and  it  is  celebrated  in  all  histories  for 
being  the  third  kingdom,  v^hich,  under  Alexander  the  Great,  ob- 
tained tlie  empire  of  the  world,  and  had  under  it  150  nations. 
To  this  country,  whose  metn)polis  was  then  Thessalonica,  Saint 
Paul  was  called  by  a  vision  (Acts  xvi.  'J.);  and  the  churches, 
by  him  planted  in  it,  are  celehrated  for  their  great  charity,  and 
ready  contribution  to  the  distressed  Jews  in  Juda;a  (2  ('or.  viii. 
ix.),  wlien  they  themselves  lay  under  the  extrcmest  poverty. 

Mach.i'.kvs,  a  city  and  fortress  east  of  the  Jordan,  between 
six  and  nine  miles  from  that  river,  and  not  far  from  its  mouth. 
Here  John  the  Baptist  was  imprisoned,  and  subsequently  put  to 
death  by  order  of  Herod  Anfipas.  (Matt.  ix.  2.  xiv.  3 — 12.)  This 
place  is  not  mentioned  by  name  in  the  New  Testament. 

Machpi;laii,  the  name  of  the  cave  purchased  by  Abraham  of 
Ephron  the  Hittite,  for  a  burial  place  for  his  wife  Sarah.  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  8.)  This  cave  has  been  covered  by  the  Turks,  "  by  a 
large  and  ancient  mosque;  and  all  around  the  soil  is  held  invio- 
lable. The  cave  is  in  the  middle  of  the  interior  of  the  edifice ; 
its  dark  and  deep  entrance  only  is  visible,  and  it  is  rarely  entered. 
The  cave  is  said  by  the  Turks  to  be  deep  and  very  spa- 
cious, cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  that  the  resting-places  of  the 
patriarchs  still  exist,  and  are  plainly  to  be  discerned."  (Game's 
Recollections  of  the  East,  pp.  158,  159.) 

Magdala,  a  city  and  territory  on  the  western  side  of  the  lake 
of  Gennesaret,  not  far  from  Capernaum  and  Gamala ;  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  contained  within  its  precincts  Dalmanutha ;  hence, 
while  Matthew  says  (xv.  39),  Christ  came  into  tlie  coasts  of 
Magdala,  Su  Mark  says  more  particularly  (viii.  10.),  that  he 
came  into  the  parts  of  Dalmanutha. 

Mac; I,  an  appellation  given  among  the  Persians  to  priests, 
wise  men,  philosophers,  and  others  who  devoted  themselves  to 
the  study  of  the  moral  and  physical  sciences,  and  who  particu- 
larly cultivated  astrology  and  medicine.  They  enjoyed  the  highest 
consideration.  The  -wise  men  from  the  east,  who  came  to  wor- 
ship the  infant  Messiah,  were  philosophers  of  this  description; 
according  to  some,  they  came  from  Persia,  or,  in  the  opinion  of 
others,  from  Arabia,  as  the  precious  gums  which  they  offered 
were  the  productions  of  Arabia. 
Magic,  prevalence  of,    143. 

Magistrates,  persons  of,  sacred,  44.  Crimes  against  them, 
how  punished  among  the  Jews,  62.  Magistrates  under  the  Jewish 
monarchy,  47. 

Magog.     See  Goo,  p.  426. 

Mahanaim,  a  city  beyond  the  Jordan  in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  near 
tlie  tribe  of  Manassch ;  it  was  assigned  to  the  Levites.  (Josh, 
xiii.  26.  30.  xxi.  3S.)  Here  two  hosts  or  camps  of  angels  met 
Jacob  (Gen.  xxxii.  2.),  whence  the  name  is  derived. 

Malachi,  the  last  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  For  an  ac- 
count of  him,  and  an  analysis  of  his  predictions,  see  pp.  288,  289. 
Malchus,  a  servant  of  Caiaphas  the  high-priest,  whose  name 
St.  John  has  very  naturally  preserved,  since  he  was  acquainted 
with  Caiaphas.  Malchus  was  one  of  the  company  that  was  com- 
manded to  seize  Christ  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane :  Peter  cut 
off  his  right  ear,  which  was  instantly  restored  and  the  wound 
healed  by  the  omnipotent  touch  of  Jesus,  who  thus  conferred 
upon  him  a  signal  benefit  at  a  most  critical  time.  The  miracu- 
lous healing  of  Malchus  presents  a  union  of  justice,  power,  and 


MA 


goodness ;  and  could  not  fail  to  convince  the  apostles  of  the 
truth  of  our  Lord's  declaration,  that  no  man  could  take  his  life 
from  him,  and  that  he  could  lay  it  down  and  resunie  it  again. 
(John  X.  17.)  It  has  indeed  bccu  a.^kcd,  how  such  a  mirucle 
made  so  little  impression  upon  the  comi)any  which  Judas  con- 
ducted. 'I'he  rc|)ly  is  easy.  'l"he  whole  transaction  tuok  place 
in  an  instant.  Peter  struck  Malchus  with  a  sword.  Jesus  btuoil 
htill,  with  one  hand  stopped  the  apostle,  and  with  the  other 
healed  the  servant;  while  those  who  were  present,  in  the  middle 
of  the  night  and  by  the  pale  light  of  torches,  scarcely  had  time 
to  perceive  what  was  passing. 

Malice,  crimes  of  how  punished,  64. 

Malta.     See  Melita,  p.  436.  infra. 

Mam  HE,  Valley  of,  notice  of,  31. 

Manaem,  the  name  of  a  person  who  was  educated  with  Herod 
Agrij)pa  I.  (Acts  xiii.  1.)  Perhaps  he  was  the  son  of  that  Ma- 
naein  (Motvx»/uc{)  mentioned  by  Josephus,  who  predicted  the 
future  greatness  of  Herod.   (Ant.  Jud.  1.  xv.  c.  10.  §  5.) 

Manasseh. 

1.  The  eldest  son  of  Joseph  ;  who,  being  adopted  by  his  grand 
father,  inherited  equally  with  the  sons  of  Jacob.  (Gen.  xlviii.) 
For  the  limits  of  the  territory  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
see  pp.  16,  17. 

2.  Manasseh,  the  fourteenth  king  of  Judah,  succeeded  his 
father  Hezekiah,  at  the  early  age  of  twelve  years.  In  the  early 
part  of  his  reign,  most  probably  misled  by  the  profligate  counsels 
of  those  who  detested  the  reformation  introduced  by  the  pious 
Hezekiah,  Manasseh  was  a  most  wicked  and  idolatrous  prince ; 
and  for  his  various  crimes  was  carried  captive  into  Babylon,  about 
the  twenty-second  year  of  his  reign.  But,  upon  his  fjenitent 
confession  of  his  sins,  he  was  delivered  out  of  captivity  and  re- 
stored to  his  country  (it  has  been  conjectured  after  al)Out  a  year's 
absence),  perhaps  in  consequence  of  some  revolution  in  the  As- 
syrian empire.  The  remainder  of  his  life  and  reign  was  as  ex- 
emplary as  its  conunencemcnt  had  been  inauspicious  and  profli- 
gate. The  worship  of  God  was  restored ;  the  fortifications  of 
Jerusalem  were  repaired  and  strengthened  ;  and  military  officers 
were  placed  in  all  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah.  (2  Cbron.  xxxiii.) 

Man-slauohteh,  punishment  of,  63. 

Man-stealixg,  punishment  of,  63. 

Manuhes  of  the  Jews,  notice  of,  176,  177. 

Maiiah,  a  place  in  the  desert  of  Arabia,  so  called  firom  the  bit- 
terness of  its  waters.  When  the  Israelites  came  out  of  Egypt, 
on  their  arrival  in  the  wilderness  of  Etham,  they  found  the  water 
so  bitter  that  neither  themselves  nor  their  cattle  could  drink  it: 
on  which  account  they  gave  the  name  of  Marah  or  bitterness  to 
this  encampment.  (Exod.  xv.  23.  Num.  xxxiii.  8.)  Most  tra- 
vellers attest  that  there  are  several  bitter  fountains  not  far  from 
the  Red  Sea ;  and  Dr.  Shaw  fixes  these  waters  at  Corondel,  a 
place  where  there  is  still  a  small  rill,  which,  unless  it  be  diluted 
by  dews  and  rain,  still  continues  to  be  brackish.  (Travels,  vol.  L 
p.  104.)  A  later  traveller,  who  visited  this  region  a  century  after 
Dr.  S.,  describing  these  waters,  says,  that  "  the  Pool  of  Marah 
is  of  a  circular  form,  about  sixty  feet  round :  it  gushes  forth  from 
a  rock  at  the  foot  of  a  barren  mountain,  and  one  or  two  palm 
trees  spread  their  shade  over  it.  This  pool,  the  only  one  found 
for  a  great  distance  around,  in  spite  of  its  clear  and  tempting 
appearance,  is  brackish  and  bitter  to  the  taste,  offering  one  of  the 
greatest  disappointments  to  the  weary  traveller,  whose  thirst 
indeed  may  be  quenched,  though  the  hope  of  a  sweet  and  deli- 
cious draught  is  baffled."  (Carne's  Recollections  of  the  East, 
p.  348.) 

Mares  I!  A,  a  fenced  city  in  the  plain  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
(Josh.  XV.  44.)  Jerome  and  Eusebius  call  it  Morasthi.  The 
prophet  Micah  was  a  native  of  this  city,  near  which  was  fought 
the  memorable  battle  between  Zerah  king  of  Cush  or  Ethiopia, 
and  Asa  king  of  Judah,  who  obtained  a  most  signal  victory»- 
(2Chron.  xiv.  8— 10.) 

Mark,  or  John-Mark,  the  author  of  the  second  Gospel,  was 
the  nephew  of  Barnabas,  and  also  the  companion  of  Paul  and 
Barnabas  in  their  journey  through  Greece  (Acts  xiii.  5.  Col.  ir. 
11.),  and  afterwards  of  Barnabas  alone.  (Acts  xv.  37.  39.)  He 
afterwards  accompanied  Peter.  (1  Pet.  v.  13.)  As  he  was  the 
son  of  that  Mary,  at  whose  house  in  Jerusalem  the  apostles  were 
accustomed  to  meet,  it  has  been  conjectured,  with  great  proba- 
bility, that  he  was  particularly  instructed  in  the  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel  by  Peter,  who  therefore  terms  him  his  son.  (1  Tim.  v.  13. 
compared  with  I  Tim.  i.  2.  and  2  Tim.  i.  2.)  For  a  further  ac- 
count of  Mark  and  of  his  Gospel,  see  pp.  304 — 307. 

Markets,  where  held,  155. 


436 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
ME  ME 


How  dis- 


"Marhiasf-s  of  the  Jews,  ceremonies  of,  160 — 162. 
solved,  162,  163. 

Martha,  the  sister  of  that  Lazarus  who  was  raised  from  the 
dead  by  Jesus  Christ.  (Luke  x.  38.  40,  41.  John  xi.  1,  &c. 
vii.  2.) 

Mart,  the  name  of  several  women  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament;  viz.  . 

1.  The  Virgin-mother  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ : 
she  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  of  the  royal  house  of  David, 
as  also  was  her  husband  Joseph.  After  the  crucifixion  of  Christ, 
who  had  commended  her  to  the  fihai  care  of  John,  she  found  an 
asylum  in  the  house  of  the  beloved  apostle ;  and  when  the  dis- 
ciples and  apostles  were  met  together  in  an  upper  room,  she 
united  with  them  in  prayer.  (John  xix.  25.  27.  Acts  i.  15.) 
The  time,  place,  and  circumstances  of  her  death  are  uncertain. 

2.  A  woman  of  Magdala  is  supposed  to  be  the  same,  out  of 
whom  Christ  expelled  seven  demons.  (Luke  vii.  36,  37.)  She 
was  one  of  those  who  followed  him  and  contributed  to  his  main- 
tenance. 

3.  One  of  the   sisters  of  Lazarus.    (Luke  x.  39 — 42.    John 

xi.  1,  &c.) 

4.  The  mother  of  James  the  Less  and  of  Joses :  she  was 
sister  to  the  mother  of  Jesus,  and  was  the  wife  of  Alpheus  or 
Clopas.  (Matt,  xxvii.  56.  61.  xxviii.  I.  Mark  xv.  40.47.  xvi.  1. 
John  xix.  25.) 

5.  The  mother  of  the  evangelist  Mark,  at  whose  house  the 
Christians  in  Jerusalem  were  wont  to  convene.  (Acts  xi.  12.) 

6.  Mary,  an  unknown  disciple  resident  at  Rome,  to  whom  St. 
Paul  sent  his  salutation,  with  this  eulogy — she  bestoived  much 
labour  on  vs.  (Rom.  xvi.  6.),  or,  on  you,  according  to  the  Alex- 
andrian and  other  MSS.,  and  the  Syriac,  Ethiopic,  Coptic,  and 
Arabic  versions.  It  is,  therefore,  uncertain,  whether  the  apostle 
here  speaks  of  services  actually  rendered  to  himself,  or  to  the 
believers  at  Rome. 

Matthew,  also  called  Levi,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  was  a  col- 
lector of  the  imposts  when  our  Saviour  called  him  to  follow  him 
and  be  an  apostle.  He  wrote  the  first  Gospel ;  for  an  account  of 
which,  see  pp.  295—304. 

Matthias,  one  of  the  disciples  who  was  chosen  by  lot  to  fill 
up  the  vacancy  occasioned  by  the  death  of  the  traitorous  apostle 
Judas  Iscariot.  (Acts  i.  23.  26.)  Of  his  subsequent  labours 
and  history,  nothing  certain  is  known. 

Measuiies  of  the  Jews  and  other  nations  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  tables  of,  394. 

Meat-Offerings,  notice  of,  119. 
Mechanic  Arts  of  the  Jews,  187. 

Medeba,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  situated  in  a  plain  of 
the  same  name.  (Num.  xxi.  30.  Josh.  xiii.  9.  16.)  According 
to  Eusebius,  it  was  not  far  from  Heshbon.  Here  Joab  gained  a 
memorable  victory  over  the  Ammonites  and  Syrians.  (1  Chron. 
xix.  7 — 14.)  According  to  Isa.  xv.  2.  it  afterwards  belonged  to 
Moab. 

Media  (Acts  ii.  9.)  was  a  vast  region  of  Asia,  having  on  the 
north  the  Caspian  Sea,  on  the  west  Armenia  and  Assyria,  on 
the  south  Persia,  on  the  east  Hyrcania  and  Parthia.  It  had  its 
name  from  Madai  the  son  of  Japhet,  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  2. 
In  the  Babylonian  captivity,  the  Jews  were  carried  captive  into 
Assyria,  and  placed  in  the  cities  of  the  Medes.  (2  Kings  xvii. 
6.  and  xviii.  11.)  Hence  we  find  many  of  them  and  their  prose- 
lytes at  Jerusalem,  when  the  Holy  Ghost  fell  on  the  apostles. 
The  Medes  or  Medians  were  subject  to  the  Assyrian  monarchs 
until  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus.  Arbaces  conspired  against  him, 
compelled  him  to  burn  himself  in  Nineveh,  and  restored  the 
Medes  to  liberty,  a.  m.  3257,  b.  c.  747.  He  is  considered  as  the 
founder  of  the  Median  monarchy,  to  which  Justin  assigns  a  du- 
ration of  three  hundred  and  fifty  years,  but  Herodotus  only  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years.  (Justhi.  Hist.  lib.  i.  c.  6.  ed.  Bipont. 
Herod,  lib.  i.  cc.  95—107.  ed.  Oxon.  1809.)  The  last-mentioned 
historian  has  recorded  the  names  of  only  four  Median  sovereigns, 
viz.  Dejoces,  Phraortes,  Cyaxares,  and  Astyages.  Diodorus  Si- 
culus  (lib.  ii.  c.  32.  edit.  Bipont.)  enumerates  ten  kings ;  Euse- 
bius and  Syncellus,  eight.  Herodotus,  however,  acknowledges 
that  the  Medes  had  enjoyed  their  liberty  for  some  time  before 
they  elected  Dejoces  to  be  their  king,  a.  m.  3294,  e.  c.  710.  He 
caused  the  city  of  Ecbatana  to  be  built,  and  is  said  to  have 
reigned  fifty-three  years.  Phraortes  his  successor  subjugated  the 
Persians  to  the  Median  empire,  and  reigned  twenty-two  years, 
A.  M.  3347 — 3369,  b.  c.  657 — 635.  Phraortes  was  succeeded 
by  Cyaxares,  who  took  Nineveh,  and  considerably  enlarged  the 
Median  empire,  a.  m.  3369—3409,  b.  c.  626—595.     His  son 


and  successor  Astyages  reigned  thirty-five  years,  a.  m.  3409— 
3444,  B.  c.  595 — 560.  No  particulars  of  his  reign,  however, 
are  recorded  by  profane  historians,  excejiting  his  repulsing  an 
invasion  of  his  territories  made  by  the  Babylonian  under  Evil- 
merodah,  the  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  On  the  death  of  Asty- 
ages, the  crown  devolved  on  his  son  Cyaxares  II.,  whom  the 
Scriptures  call  Darius  the  Mede,  a.  m.  3444,  b.  c.  560.  Media 
is  now  called  Irak  Adjami,  and  forms  (as  it  also  anciently  did 
form)  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Persia. 

Medicine,  state  of,  among  the  Jews,  194 — 197, 
Mediterranean  Sea,  28.  Plain  of,  33. 
Megiddo,  a  fortified  town  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  in  the 
territory  of  Issachar:  it  was  formerly  a  royal  city  of  the  Ca- 
naanites.  The  H'uter  of  Megiddo  (Judg.  v.  19.)  is  conjectured 
by  Prof.  Gesenius  to  be  the  river  Kishon.  Compare  Judg.  v.  21. 
and  iv.  13. 

Melchisedek,  king  of  Salem  (which  was  afterwards  called 
Jerusalem),  a  contemporary  of  Abraham,  whom  he  met  with 
refreshments  on  his  return  from  the  pursuit  of  Cherdorlaomer 
and  his  allies.  (Gen.  xiv.)  After  the  manner  of  the  patriarchal 
ages,  he  appears,  as  the  head  of  his  tribe  or  family,  to  have  dis- 
charged the  functions  of  priest,  and  to  have  offered  sacrifices  to 
the  true  God.  By  paying  him  tithes  Abraham  acknowledged 
him  to  be  a  priest  of  the  Most  High  God.  In  Heb.  vii.  St.  Paul 
exhibits  the  resemblance  between  Melchisedek  as  the  type  and 
Jesus  Christ  the  antitype. 

Melcom,  an  Ammonitish  idol.  See  p.  137. 
Melita,  or  Malta,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on 
which  St.  Paul  and  his  companions  were  wrecked.  (Acts 
xxviii.  1.)  Mr.  Bryant,  Dr.  Hales,  and  some  other  eminent 
critics  and  commentators,  have  endeavoured  to  show  that  this 
island  was  in  the  Adriatic  Sea,  on  the  coast  of  Illyricum, — the 
same  which  is  now  called  Meleda.  That  Malta  is  the  island 
intended  by  St.  Luke  will  be  evident  from  the  following  con- 
siderations:— The  apostle  left  the  island  in  a  ship  of  Alexandria, 
which  had  wintered  there,  on  her  voyage  to  Italy ;  and  after 
touching  at  Syracuse  and  Rhegium,  landed  at  Puteoli,  thus  sail- 
ing in  a  di^rect  course.  The  other  Melita  would  be  far  out  of 
the  usual  track  from  Alexandria  to  Italy ;  and,  in  sailing  from  it 
to  Rhegium,  Syracuse  also  would  be  out  of  the  direct  course. 
The  fact,  that  the  vessel  was  tossed  all  night  before  the  ship- 
wreck in  the  Adriatic  Sea,  does  not  militate  against  the  proba- 
bility of  its  afterwards  being  driven  upon  Malta ;  because  the 
name  Adria  (see  page  403.)  was  applied  to  the  whole  Ionian 
Sea,  which  lay  between  Sicily  and  Greece.  (Robinson's  Lexi- 
con, voce  MfX/T».) 

Memohials  of  events,  account  of,  79,  80. 
Memphis.     See  Noph,  p.  440.  infra. 

Menahem,  the  sixteenth  king  of  Israel :  he  murdered  the 
usurper  Shallum,  and  in  his  turn  usurped  the  throne.  He  was 
a  wicked  and  cruel  prince,  who  followed  the  impious  example 
of  Jeroboam  I.     He  died  after  reigning  about  ten  years. 

Meni,  or  the  Moon;  a  Syrian  idol,  worshipped  in  Palestine 
during  the  time  of  the  prophet  Isaiah.     See  p.  137. 

Mephieosuetu,  a  son  of  Jonathan,  whom  David  took  under 
his  protection,  when  he  was  peaceably  seated  pn  his  throne. 

Mercuht,  in  heathen  mythology,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Maia.  He  was  the  fabled  patron  of  eloquence  (on  which  account 
the  people  of  Lystra  supposed  Paul  to  be  Mercury  in  disguise, 
Acts  xiv.  12.),  the  god  of  travellers,  shepherds,  &c.  &c.,  and  the 
conductor  of  the  souls  of  the  dead  into  the  infernal  regions. 

Mekibah,  the  name  of  a  spring  in  the  desert  of  Sin,  where 
the  Israelites  contended  against  God.  (Num.  xx.  13.  24.)  See 
Rephidim. 

Merodach,  the  name  of  an  idol  of  the  Babylonians.     Lowth 
and  other  commentators  (on  Jer.  i.  2.)  suppose  him  to  have  been 
an  ancient  monarch  of  Babylon,  whom  his  subjects  deified  and 
worshipped.     See  Baladan,  p.  413. 
Mehom,  waters  or  lake  of,  notice  of,  27. 

Mesopotamia,  a  region  of  country,  situated  between  the  rivers 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  extending  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Mount 
Taurus.  The  Hebrews  call  it  Aram  Naharaim,  or  Aram  of  the 
two  rivers,  because  it  was  first  peopled  by  Aram,  father  of  the 
Syrians,  and  is  situated  between  two  rivers.  This  country  is 
celebrated  in  Scripture  as  the  first  dwelling  of  men  after  the 
deluge;  and  because  it  gave  birth  to  Phaleg,  Heber,  Terah, 
Abraham,  Nahor,  Sarah,  Rebekah,  Rachel,  Leah,  and  to  the~ 
sons  of  Jacob.  Babylon  was  in  the  ancient  Mesopotamia,  till' 
by  vast  labour  and  industry  the  two  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
were  reunited  in  one  channeL     The  plains  of  Shinar  were  in 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
MI  MO 


437 


this  country.  It  was  often  called  Mesopotamia  Syria;,  because 
it  was  inhul>ite(l  by  the  AruniaBans,  or  Syrians;  and  somctinies 
jHuiliin-aram  (Gen.  xxviii.  2.),  or  the  plain.s  of  Aram:  or  .SVJf- 
aru m,  thv  liclds  of  Aram;  to  distinguish  tliciii  from  the  barren 
and  uncultivated  mountains  of  the  same  country.  Uaiaam,  son 
of  Beor,  was  of  Mcsoiiotamia.  (Ueut.  xxiii.  4.)  Chuishan- 
rishathaini,  kinp;  of  Mesopotamia,  subdued  tlie  Hebrews.  (Judg. 
iii.  8.)  Some  .lews  or  proselytes  from  Mi'so|)otamia  were  at 
Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  (Acts  ii.  9.)  For  an  inte- 
resting description  of  the  modern  slate  of  this  country,  sec  Mr. 
Buckingham's  Travels  in  Mesopotamia.  London,  1827,  2  vols. 
8vo. 

Mkssiaii,  (Heb.  n'2'D,  that  is,  anointed,)  the  same  as  Ciinisr 
ill  Cireek,  the  name  given  to  Jesus  our  Saviour,  by  way  of  ex- 
cellence; he  being  anointed  by  his  Father,  to  execute  for  us  the 
odices  of  I'rophet,  Priest,  and  King,  for  all  which  oHices  persons 
were  anointed  with  oil,  as  being  symbolical  of  the  graces  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  which  quuliiied  them  for  their  respective  duties. 
Jesus,  indeed,  was  not  anointed  with  material  oil,  such  as  was 
Used  under  the  law,  but  with  the  Jloly  Gliost  and  ivith  powt-r. 
(Acts  X.  38.)  For  a  view  of  the  predictions  respecting  the 
Messiah,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  126—129.  4.53— 4.'J8.  As  a  Prophet, 
whose  office  was  to  teach  and  reprove,  Jesus  has  perfectly  in- 
structed us  in  the  will  of  God,  and  has  shown  himself  to  be  the 
teacher  of  the  most  sublime  religion  ever  promulgated  to  man- 
kind :  and  he  wrought  numerous  illustrious  miracles  in  proof  of 
his  divine  mission.  As  a  Priest,  (whose  ofl'ice  it  was  to  offer 
sacrifices  for  the  expiation  of  the  sins  of  the  people,  to  bless 
them,  and  pray  for  them,)  Jesus,  who  was  both  priest  and 
victim,  olfered  himself  a  sacrilice  to  God,  in  order  to  cxi)iate  our 
sins;  for  in  him  we  have  redemption  through  his  blood,  even 
the  forgiveness  of  sins,  according  to  the  riches  of  his  grace. 
(Eph.  i.  3.)  He  has  blessed  us,  in  turning  every  one  of  us  from 
our  sins :  and  he  ever  livcth  to  intercede  for  us  with  God  as  our 
Mediator:  for,  if  any  man  sin,  we  have  an  advocate  with  the 
Father,  Jesus  Christ  the  righteous.  (Rom.  viii.  34.  1  Tim.  ii.  5. 
I  John  ii.  1.)  As  a  Kiiiif, — not  like  the  earthly  sovereign  whom 
the  Jews  expected  to  deliver  them  from  the  yoke  of  the  Romans, 
which  they  detested,  and  who  (they  believed)  would  make  them 
the  most  powerful  people  upon  earth, — Jesus  reigns  over  souls 
illuminated  by  the  light  of  his  doctrine,  and  over  hearts  called 
to  holiness.  To  his  people,  whom  he  hath  purchased  to  himself 
out  of  all  the  nations  of  the  world,  he  gives  for  their  government 
laws  which  are  calculated  to  make  them  permanently  happy 
both  here  and  hereafter ;  he  defends  them  against  their  spiritual 
enemies,  and  he  will  judge  them  at  the  last  day.  His  mediatorial 
kingdom  commenced  after  his  resurrection,  when  he  entered  into 
his  glory  (Luke  xxiv.  26.)  :  but  it  will  not  be  eternal,  l^he 
authority  which  he  exercises  as  Mediator  and  Judge,  is  only  a 
temporary  dispensation  referring  to  the  actual  state  of  the  church, 
and  which  will  cease  when  he  shall  have  fulfilled  his  ofhce,  that 
is,  after  the  last  judgment.  This  Saint  Paul  teaches  in  a  very 
striking  and  precise  manner,  which  deserves  the  greatest  atten- 
tion.    See  1  Cor.  xv.  24,  25.  28. 

Metempstchosis,  doctrine  of,  believed  by  the  Pharisees,  144. 

MicAii,  the  sixth  of  the  minor  prophets,  was  contemporary 
with  Isaiah,  Joel,  Hosea,  and  Amos.  See  an  analysis  of  his 
predictions  in  pp.  270,  271. 

MiciiMASH,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  about  nine  miles 
from  Jerusalem,  to  the  east  of  Beth-Aven.  Contiguous  to  this 
place  was  a  ledge  of  sharp  rocks,  two  of  which,  named  Bozez 
and  Seneh,  faced  Michmash  and  Gibeah ;  the  one  north,  the 
other  south.  One  of  these  was  ascended  by  Jonathan  and  his 
armour-bearer,  who  routed  the  garrison  of  the  Philistines  that 
defended  the  pass  of  Michmash.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  .5.  23.  xiv. 
4 — 13.)  In  the  vicinity  of  this  place  were  caves,  thickets,  rocks, 
and  pits,  in  which  the  Israelites  concealed  themselves  from  their 
enemies.  ( 1  Sam.  xiii.  6.)  Rocks  and  pits  answer  to  the  pre- 
sent apjiearance  of  the  place  to  which  tradition  has  given  the 
name  of  Michmash ;  but  no  thickets  or  bushes  are  to  be  seen. 
A  succession  of  low  and  barren  hills  leads  up  to  the  higher  one 
of  Michmash,  which  commands  a  fine  and  extensive  view. 
There  are  also  several  caves  on  the  spot.  (Game's  Letters,  pp. 
330,  331.)  At  present,  this  place  is  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  Beer,  signifying  a  well ;  most  probably  from  its  containing  a 
very  delicious  spring  of  water.  (Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p. 
364.     Third  edition.) 

MiDiAjf,  the  land  into  which  Moses  fled  from  the  Egyptians. 
(AcU  vii.  29.)  Here  Jethro  lived  (Exod.  xviii.  1.),  and  the 
people  were  descended  from  Madian  the  son  of  Abraham  by  Ke- 


turah  (Gen.  xxv.  2.),  whence  we  have  reason  to  believe  they  still 
retained  the  worship  of  the  true  God.     It  was  in  Arabia  Petra^a. 

MiniAMTEs,  commerce  of,  187.     Account  of  this  people,  15. 

-Mm; not,,  a  frontier  town  of  Lower  Egypt,  towards  the  Red 
Si-a,  between  which  and  that  sea  the  Israelites  encamped.  (Exod. 
xiv.  I.)  It  is  there  rendered  by  the  Septuagint  Magdolus  ;  and 
there  also  Herodotus  represents  Nekus,  or  Pharaoh-Necho,  as 
gaining  a  great  victory  over  the  Jews,  when  Josiah  was  killed,  mis- 
taking Magdolus  for  Megiddo.  Jeremiah  represents  it  as  belong- 
ing to  Egypt  Proj)er  (xlvi.  14.),  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
'I'ahpanes,  or  Daphnaj. 

Mii.ETis,  a  sea-port  of  Asia  Minor,  and  a  city  of  Ionia,  where 
Saint  Paul  delivered  to  the  elders  of  the  church  of  Ephesus  that 
alfecting  discourse  which  is  recorded  in  Acts  xx.  17 — 35.  In 
this  city  were  born  Thales,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men,  Anaxi- 
mandcr  his  disciple,  Timotheus  the  celebrated  musician,  and 
Anaximenes  the  philosopher.  There  was  another  Miletus  in 
Crete,  where  St.  Paul  left  Trophimus  sick.  (2  Tim.  iv.  20.) 

MiLiTAiiv  Discipline  of  the  Jews,  83 — 91.  And  of  the 
Romans,  93,  94.  Military  Sports,  190.  A  military  order  estab- 
lished by  David,  92. 

Mills,  oriental,  notice  of,  154. 

Mines  of  Palestine,  37. 

Mi  HAG  E,  eflects  of,  34,  35.  and  notes. 

Mi  11  no KS  of  the  Jews,  notice  of,  158.  and  7iote. 

MiTYLENE  was  a  large  and  beautiful  city  of  the  island  of 
Lesbos,  where  Pittacus,  one  of  the  wise  men,  Alcaus  the  poet, 
Diojiliancs  the  orator,  and  Thcophanes  the  historian,  were  born. 
The  whole  island  was  also  called  by  that  name  ;  as  also  Penta- 
poiis,  from  the  five  cities  in  it,  viz.  Issa  or  Antissa,  Pyrrha,  Eres- 
sos,  Arisba,  Mitylcne.  If  it  had  that  name  in  St.  Luke's  time, 
we  may  understand  either  the  island  or  the  city,  when  he  says 
(Acts  XX.  14.),  JVe  came  to  Miiylene. 

MiZAn,  a  small  hill  not  far  from  Zoar,  once  a  place  of  resort 
for  David  ;  and  where  it  appears  from  Psal.  xiii.  6.  that  he 
experienced  some  peculiar  manifestations  of  the  divine  goodness. 

MizpEii,  a  high  place  affording  an  exten.sive  prospect.  (Isa.  xxi. 
8.)  Several  places  in  Palestine  bore  this  name,  most  ])robably 
from  being  situated  on  elevated  grounds  or  hills ;  of  which  the 
following  were  the  principal : — 

1.  MizPEH,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judnh,  to  the  south  of  Jeru- 
salem (whence  it  was  distant  about  eighteen  or  twenty  miles), 
and  to  the  north  of  Hebron.  (Josh.  xv.  33.) 

2.  MizpEii,  a  place  in  Gilead  beyond  the  Jordan.  (Judg.  x.  17. 
xi.  34.)  In  Judg.  xi.  29.  it  is  called  JMizpeh  of  Gilead,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  other  towns  or  places  of  the  same  name. 

3.  MizPEH,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  where  assemblies 
of  the  Israelites  were  often  convened  :  here  Samuel  dwelt,  and 
here  Saul  was  anointed  king.  (Judg.  xxi.  1.  1  Sam.  vii.  5 — 7.  x. 
1.  17.)  King  Asa  strengthened  it  for  a  frontier  fortification 
again.st  the  kingdom  of  Israel  ( 1  Kings  xv.  22.  2  Chron.  xvi.  6.) : 
and  afterwards  the  governor  Gadaliah  had  his  residence  here. 
(Jer.  xl.  6.  compared  with  Neh.  iii.  7.  19.) 

4.  tnUi.vY.n,  avalley  in  the  region  of  jiloimt  Libanus,  which 
was  inhabited  by  the  Hivites.  (Josh.  xi.  3.  8.) 

MiziiAiM  (Gen.  x.  6.),  a  son  of  Ham,  whose  descendants  are 
supposed  to  have  peopled  Egypt,  which  country  derived  its  He- 
brew name  from  him.  Josephus  makes  the  name  to  be  of  Coptic 
origin  (Antiq.  1.  i.  c.  6.  §  2.)  :  but  Gesenius  observes  that  nothing 
resembling  it  is  found  in  the  present  remains  of  the  Coptic  lan- 
guage, in  which  this  country  bears  the  name  of  Xx/ua. 

MoABiTEs,  a  people  descended  from  Moab,  the  incestuous  off- 
spring of  Lot.  Their  habitation  was  beyond  Jordan  and  the 
Dead  Sea,  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Amon.  Their  capital  city 
was  situated  on  that  river,  and  was  called  Ar,  or  Rabbath-Moab, 
that  is,  the  capital  of  Moab,  or  Kirheres,  that  is,  a  city  with  brick 
walls.  This  country  was  originally  possessed  by  a  race  of  giants, 
called  Emim.  (Deut.  ii.  11,  12.)  The  Moabites  conquered  them, 
and  afterwards  the  Amorites  took  a  part  from  the  Moabites. 
Moses  conquered  that  part  which  belonged  to  the  Amorites  a'^ 
gave  it  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  The  Moabites  were  spared 
Moses,  for  God  had  restricted  him  (Deut.  ii.  9.) :  but  th« 
always  was  a  great  antipathy  between  the  Moabites  and  Isra  • 
ites,  which  occasioned  many  wars  between  them.  Balaam 
seduced  the  Hebrews  to  idolatry  and  uncleanness,  by  means  of 
the  daughters  of  Moab  (Num.  xxv.  1,  2.)  :  and  Balak,  king  of 
this  people,  endeavoured  to  prevail  on  Balaam  to  curse  Israel. 
God  ordained  that  the  Moabites  should  not  enter  into  the  congre- 
gation of  his  people,  even  to  the  tenth  generation  (Deut.  xxiii,  3.), 
because  they  bad  the  inhumanity  to  refuse  the  Israelites  a  pas- 


438 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


M  O 


sage  through  their  country,  and  would  not  supply  them  with 
bread  and  water  in  their  necessity. 

Eglcn,  king  of  the  Moaliitcs,  was  one  of  the  first  that  oppressed 
Israel,  after  the  death  of  Joshua.  Ehud  killed  Eglon,  and  Israel 
expelled  the  Moabites.  (Judg.  iii.  12,  &c.)  a.  m.  2U79,  ii.  c.  1325. 
Hanun,  king  of  the  Ammonites,  having  insulted  David's  ambas- 
sadors, David  made  war  against  him,  and  subdued  Moab  and 
Ammon ;  under  which  subjection  they  continued,  till  the  separa- 
tion of  the  ten  tribes.  The  Ammonites  and  Moabites  continued 
in  subjection  to  the  kings  of  Israel  to  the  death  of  Ahab.  Very 
shortly  after  the  death  of  Ahab,  the  Moabites  began  to  revolt. 
(2  Kings  iii.  4,  ^.)  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  refused  the  tribute  of 
a  hundred  thousand  lambs,  and  as  many  rams,  which  till  then 
had  been  customarily  paid,  either  yearly  or  at  the  beginning  of 
every  reign, — which  of  these  two  is  not  clearly  expressed  in 
Scripture.  The  reign  of  Ahaziah  was  too  short  to  make  war 
■with  them ;  but  Jehoram,  son  of  Ahab,  and  brother  to  Ahaziah, 
having  ascended  the  throne,  thought  of  reducing  them  to  obedi- 
ence. He  invited  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah  ;  who,  with  the 
king  of  Edom,  then  his  vassal,  entered  Moab,  where  they  were 
in  danger  of  perishing  with  thirst,  but  were  miraculously  relieved. 
(2  Kings  iii.  16.,  &c.)  It  is  not  easy  to  perceive  what  were  the 
circumstances  of  the  Moabites  from  this  lime  ;  but  Isaiah,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  king  Hezekiah,  threatens  them  with  a 
calamity,  which  was  to  happen  three  years  after  his  prediction, 
and  which  probably  referred  to  the  war  that  Shalmaneser,  king 
of  Assyria,  made  with  the  ten  tribes,  and  the  other  people  beyond 
Jordan.  Amos  (i.  13,  &c.)  also  foretold  great  miseries  to  them, 
which,  probably,  they  suffered  under  Uzziah  and  Jotham,  kings 
of  Judah ;  or  under  Shalmaneser  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  7,  8.  xxvii.  5.)  : 
or,  lastly,  during  the  war  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  five  years  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem :  we  believe  this  prince  carried  them 
captive  beyond  the  Euphrates,  as  the  prophets  had  threatened, 
(Jer.  ix.  26.  xii.  14,  15.  xxv.  11,  12.  xlviii.  74.  xlix.  3.  6.),  and 
that  Cyrus  sent  them  home  again,  as  he  did  the  rest  of  the  cap- 
tives. After  their  return  from  captivity,  they  multiplied  and  for- 
tified themselves  as  the  Jews  did,  and  other  neighbouring  people ; 
still  in  subjection  to  the  kings  of  Persia,  afterwards  conquered 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  in  obedience  to  the  kings  of  Syria 
and  Egypt  successively,  and  finally  to  the  Romans.  There  is  a 
probability,  also,  that  in  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  republic, 
they  obej-ed  the  Asmonrean  kings  and  aft;erwards  Herod  the 
Great.  (Calmet,  Hist,  des  Peuples  Voisins  des  Juifs,  &c.  Art.  IV. 
Dissert,  tom.  ii.  pp.  410 — 413.)  For  an  account  (by  recent 
travellers)  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  predictions  concerning  Moab, 
see  Keith's  Evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  Christian  Religion  from 
Prophecy,  pp.  158—172. 

Moloch  or  Molech,  an  idol  of  the  Ammonites,  worshipped 
by  the  Israelites.     See  p.  137. 

Monauchs.     See  Kings. 

MojfKT  (Jewish  and  Roman),  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures, 
tables  of,  394.     Antiquity  of  money,  189. 

MoNET-cHANfiERs,  noticc  of,  78. 

Montenegrins,  funeral  rites  of,  200,  note. 

Months  of  the  Hebrews,  see  pp.  73 — 76.  Intercalary  months, 
p.  74. 

Monuments,  and  Monumental  Inscriptions,  account  of,  200 
—202. 

MoHDECAi,  son  of  Jair,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  was  de- 
scended from  one  of  the  captives,  who  were  carried  into  Baby- 
lon, and  resided  at  Shushan.  He  was  the  foster-father  of  Esther, 
through  whose  influence  with  Ahasuerus,  on  the  fall  of  Haman, 
be  became  vizier,  or  prime  minister  to  the  Persian  monarch. 
Prof.  Gesenius  thinks  that  this  name,  like  that  of  Esther,  is  pro- 
bably of  Persian  origin. 

MoniAH,  Mount,  19. 

MosEs,  the  son  of  Amram  and  jQchebed,  and  great-grandson 
of  Levi,  was  born  in  Egypt,  a.  m.  2433.  Providentially  delivered 
from  the  general  destruction  of  all  the  Hebrew  male  children, 
commanded  by  Pharaoh,  and  adopted  by  the  daughter  of  the 
Egyptian  king,  Moses  was  instructed  in  all  the  literature  and 
sciences  of  Egypt.  In  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  he  was  ap- 
pointed the  leader  and  legislator  of  the  Hebrews,  whom  he  de- 
livered from  their  bondage.  An  account  of  his  jurisdiction,  as 
the  viceroy  of  Jehovah,  is  given  in  pp.  41,  42.  After  conducting 
the  Hebrews  through  their  wanderings  in  the  desert  during  40 
years,  he  died  on  the  confines  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  aged  120 
years,  "when  his  eye  was  not  dim,  nor  his  natural  force  abated." 
For  an  analysis  of  the  Pentateuch,  or  fiive  books  of  Moses,  see 
pp.  203 — 212,    In  Exod.  ii.  10.  there  is  given  a  Hebrew  deriva- 


N  A 

tion  of  the  name  Moses,  viz.  draiun  out,  because  the  ark  in  which 
his  mother  had  deposited  him  was  draiun  out  of  the  river  Nile  : 
but  his  education  among  the  Egyptians,  Gesenius  observes,  would 
lead  us  to  regard  it  as  of  Egyptian  origin  ;  and  so  it  is  inter- 
preted by  Josephus.  (Ant.  Jud.  1.  ii.  c.  9.  §  6.) 

Mountain's  of  the  Holy  Land,  29 — 31.  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  19. 

Mourning  for  the  dead,  duration  of,  and  how  exprcs.sed,  199, 
200.  202.     Rending  of  garments,  a  sign  of  mourning,  159. 

Mulks,  notice  of,  175. 

Murder,  laws  concerning,  63. 

Music  and  Musical  Instruments  of  the  Jews,  183,  1S4, 

Myra  was  one  of  the  six  great  cities  of  Lycia,  situated  near 
the  sea;  whence  St.  Luke  says  (Acts  xxvii.  5.),  that,  4(;7//(^ 
over  the  sea  of  Cilicia  and  PumpltijUa  they  came  to  JMijriii  in 
Lycia.  It  still  preserves  its  ancient  name  ;  and  there  are  many 
remains  of  its  former  greatness. 

Mysia  (Acts  xvi.  7,  8.),  a  country  of  Asia,  was  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Bithynia,  on  the  east  by  Phrygia  Minor,  on  the 
west  by  Trolis,  on  the  south  by  the  river  Hcrmus ;  there,  per- 
haps, St.  Paul  attempted  not  to  stay,  because,  as  Cicero  notes,  in 
his  oration  for  Flaccus  (cc.  51,52.)  they  were  a  people  despica- 
ble and  base  to  a  proverb. 


Naaman,  general  of  the  forces  of  Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria, 
Being  afflicted  by  a  leprosy,  he  was  healed  by  washing  seven 
times  in  the  river  Jordan,  according  to  the  command  of  the 
prophet  Elisha.   (2  Kings  v.) 

NABATHiEANS.     See  Nebaioth,  p.  439. 

Nadab. 

1.  the  son  of  Aaron  and  the  brother  of  Abihu  :  who,  offering 
incense  with  strange  or  common  fire,  instead  of  that  which  had 
miraculously  been  kindled  upon  the  altar  of  burnt-offering,  was 
consumed  together  with  his  brother.   (Lev.  x.  12.) 

2.  The  son  of  Jeroboam  I.  king  of  Israel,  a  wicked  prince,  who 
followed  the  evil  example  of  his  father.  After  reigning  two 
years,  he  was  assassinated  by  Baasha.  (2  Kings  xv.  25 — 27.) 

Nahash,  a  king  of  the  Ammonites,  who  laid  siege  to  Jabesh- 
Gilead,  shortly  after  the  election  of  Saul  to  be  king  of  Israel.  He 
refused  to  the  besieged  any  terms  of  accommodation,  but  on  the 
ignominious  condition  of  every  one  losing  his  right  eye,  thereby 
for  ever  incapacitating  him  from  using  the  bow.  This  barbarous 
capitulation  was  rejected ;  the  besieged  obtained  a  truce  of  seven 
days,  on  condition  of  surrendering  if  they  did  not  receive  suc- 
cour :  but  Saul  arrived,  and  Nahash,  after  seeing  his  army 
totally  discomfited,  made  a  shameful  retreat.  (1  Sam.  xi.) 
Subsequently  Nahash  rendered  some  services  to  David,  most 
probably  by  giving  him  an  asylum :  we  may  easily  conceive,  that 
the  enemy  of  Saul  would  he  the  friend  of  David.  (2  Sam.  x.  2. 
1  Chron.  xix.  2.) 

Nahum,  a  native  of  Elkosh,  the  seventh  of  the  minor  prophets, 
is  known  only  by  his  prophetic  denunciations  against  the  Assy- 
rian empire,  and  particularly  Nineveh  ;  for  an  account  of  which, 
see  p.  271. 

Nain,  a  small  city  or  town  of  Galilee,  not  far  from  Capernaum, 
at  the  gates  of  which  Jesus  Christ  raised  to  life  a  widow's  only 
son  (Lukevii.  11 — 15.);  for  an  examination  of  which  miracle, 
see  Vol.  I.  pp.  101,  102,  105.  Nain  derived  its  name  from  its 
pleasant  situation :  it  is  now  a  decayed  village,  containing  be- 
tween one  and  two  hundred  inhabitants.  From  its  situation  on 
the  declivity  of  a  mountain  "  the  scene  of  that  miracle  must  have 
been  rendered  more  striking  as  the  funeral  procession  passed 
slowly  out  of  the  gate  down  the  steep,  on  the  bold  breast  of  which 
the  remains  of  the  place  now  stand."  (Game's  Recollections  of 
the  East,  p.  55.) 

Nak^d,  the  Jewish  notion  of  being,  explained,  156. 

Names,  various,  of  the  Holy  Land,  13,  14.;  of  Jerusalem,  18, 
19,     When  given  to  the  Jewish  children,  111. 

Naphtali,  or  Nephthalim,  the  name  of  the  sixth  son  of 
Jacob,  born  of  Bilhah.  For  the  limits  of  the  canton  allotted  to 
this  tribe,  see  p.  17. 

Narcissus,  a  freedman  and  favourite  of  the  emperor  Claudius, 
who  possessed  great  influence  at  court.  (Sueton.  in  Claud,  c.  28. 
Tacit.  Annal.  1.  xii.  c.  57.)  In  his  family  or  among  his  clients 
were  some  Christians  whom  St.  Paul  salutes  in  Rom.  xvi.  11.  It 
does  not  appear  that  Narcissus  embraced  the  Christian  faith, 
though  the  Greeks  have  made  him  bishop  of  Athens  and  a  martyr, 
and  have  even  placed  him  in  the  number  of  the  70  disciples. 

Nathan,  an  illustrious  prophet  in  the  reign  of  David,  whom 


BIOGRAPHICAL    HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
N  E  I  NI 


439 


he  convinced  and  reproved  by  a  beautiful  and  pathetic  parable 
of  the  heinousness  of  his  guilt  in  the  affiiir  of  Ualhsht-ba  and 
Uriah.  (2  Sum.  xii.)  lit-  is  sii|)j)osc(l  to  ii-.ivc  bcoti  the  pri'ceptor 
of  iSoJoinoii,  at  whose  court  iiis  sons  held  liistiiiguislu'd  ollicos, 
and  of  whose  reign,  as  well  as  that  of  David,  Nathan  wrote 
memoirs  which  have  long  since  iierished.  ( I  Kings  iv.  .5.  1  Chron. 
xxix.  21).  2  Chron.  ix.  2'J.)  In  the  book  of  Zechariah  (xii.  12.) 
the  house  of  Nathan  represents  the  descendants  or  family  of  the 
prophets. 

NATiiANAEL,orNATHA»iEL,  oncof  the  disciples  of  Christ,  who 
is  supposed  to  i)e  the  same  person  as  the  apostle  Bautholomew. 
(John  i.  46—50.  xxi.  2.) 

NaZAIIKITK,  vow  of.  ?«  lOrt 

AT  ,    r     C  *cc  p.  130. 

Nazakitks,  account  ol.    3         ' 

Nazauetii,  a  small  city  of  Lower  Galilee,  celebrated  as  having 
been  the  place  where  our  Saviour  was  educated,  where  he 
preached,  and  whence  he  was  called  a  Nazarene.  In  the  tinic 
of  Christ  it  did  not  possess  the  best  of  characters.  (.lohn  i.  4(i.) 
Nazareth,  which  is  at  present  called  Nassara,  stands  on  the  side 
of  a  barren  rocky  emiisence,  or  hill,  facing  the  south-east,  which 
is  environed  by  mountains.  It  was  from  this  hill  which  overlooks 
the  town,  the  inhabitants  would  have  precipitated  him  headlong. 
(Luke  iv.  29.)  When  visited  by  Dr.  Clarke,  in  1801,  he  found 
it  much  reduced.  The  town  was  in  the  most  wretched  state  of 
indigence  and  misery  ;  the  soil  around  might  bid  defiance  to 
agriculture ;  and  to  the  prospect  of  starvation  were  added  the 
horrors  of  the  plague !  In  1827,  the  population  amounted  to  about 
2000  persons,  principally  Christians.  Here  are  numerous  re- 
puted holy  places  to  which  pilgrims  are  conducted.  The  vig- 
nette in  p.  401.  represents  the  grotto  at  Nazareth,  wliich  is  said  to 
have  been  the  house  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  (Game's  Letters,  pp. 
251,  252.  Madden's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  294.)  The  Rev.  Mr. 
Jowett  has  given  a  very  interesting  description  of  the  site  of 
Nazareth,  together  with  some  observations,  to  account  for  the  bad 
character  which  it  bore  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ.  (See  liis 
Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  pp.  165 — 169.) 

Nkai'olis.     See  Siiecke.m. 

Nebaioth,  the  son  of  Ishmael,  from  whom  the  Nabath.'ean 
tribe  of  Arabs  is  supposed  to  have  been  descended.  (Gen.  xxv.  13. 
xxviii.  9.  Isa.  Ix.  7.)  During  the  several  wars  maintained  by 
the  Jews  against  the  Syrians,  under  the  Maccabsean  princes,  the 
Nabathseans  were  the  only  neighbouring  people  who  showed 
them  any  friendship.  (1  Mace.  v.  24 — 27.) 

Nebo. 

1.  A  mountain  beyond  the  river  Jordan,  where  Moses  died. 
(Deut.  xxxii.  49.)     It  is  now  completely  barren. 

2.  A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  (Num.  xxxii.  38.) 
It  being  in  the  vicinity  of  the  country  of  Moab,  the  Moabites 
became  masters  of  it ;  and  it  was  in  their  possession  in  the  time 
of  Jeremiah,  (xlviii.  1.)  The  site  of  this  ancient  city  can  no 
longer  be  traced.     J\'fbo  is  sfjoileil.    (Jer.  xlviii.  1.) 

3.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Ezra  ii.  29.  x.43.),  which,  in 
Neh.  vii.  33.,  is,  by  way  of  distinction,  called  the  other  Nebo. 

4.  A  Babylonish  idol  (Isa.  xlvi.  1.),  which  Calmet  supposes  to 
be  the  same  as  Bel  or  Baal,  see  p.  1 39. 

Nebuchaiinezzau,  king  of  Babylon,  who  destroyed  Jerusalem, 
and.  carried  the  Jews  into  captivity.  (Sec  p.  412.  col.  2.)  Like 
other  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  names,  this  word  is  best  explained 
from  the  Persian.  According  to  Gesenius,  after  Lorsbach,  it  is 
the  same  as  A'ebu-g-odan-sar,  that  is,  Nebo  the  chief  of  the  gods. 
Concerning  the  nature  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  malady,  see  pp.  196, 
197. 

Necho.     See  PHAnAOH-NEcno. 

Neueu,  or  Common  Vow,  account  of,  130. 

Nkiiemiau  the  son  of  Hachaliah,  was  born  at  Babylon  during 
the  captivity,  but  his  family  and  tribe  are  not  known.  Raised  to 
the  distinguished  office  of  cupbearer  to  Artaxerxcs  Longimanus, 
whose  favour  he  enjoyed,  Nchemiah  forgot  not  his  desolated 
country.  Having  obtained  a  royal  commission,  he  went  to 
Jerusalem  for  a  limited  time,  to  repair  its  walls  and  gates,  and  to 
regulate  many  abuses  which  had  crept  into  the  administration  of 
public  alVairs.  He  subsequently  returned  to  Babylon ;  whence, 
by  permission  of  Arlaxerxes,  he  proceeded  a  second  time  to 
Jerusal«ii,  where  he  died  b.c.420;  having  governed  the  Jews 
about  30  years.  For  an  account  of  the  book  which  bears  his 
name,  see  p.  226. 

Neucal,  an  idol  of  the  Cuthites  (2  Kings  xvii.  30.),  which 
some  suj)pose  to  be  the  planet  Mars ;  and  others,  to  be  the  sun. 

Netiiin-ims,  office  of,  112, 

New  Moon,  feast  of,  122. 


Nibhaz,  an  idol  of  the  Avites  (2  Kings  xvii.  31.),  which,  some 
Hebrew  interpreters  think,  had  the  shape  of  a  dog ;  but  other 
expositors  sup()ose  it  to  have  been  the  sun.  The  former  opitiion 
is  the  most  proliable,  as  vestiges  of  the  ancient  wors-hip  of  an  idol 
in  the  form  of  a  dog  have  been  discovered  in  Syria  in  modern 
times.     (Ikenii,  Dissert,  pp.  149.  ctseq.  1749.  4to.) 

NicANoii,  one  of  the  seven  jirimitivc  deacons  chosen  by  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  and  ordained  by  the  apostles.  (Acts  vi.  5.) 

NicoiiEMUs,  a  Pharisee  and  member  of  the  Jewish  sanhedrin, 
who  cauiC  by  night  to  Jesus,  probably  as  a  serious  thoDgh  timid 
inquirer.  (John  iii.  1.  4.  9.)  He  afterwards  took  the  part  of  Jesus 
het'ore  the  sanhedrin  (vii.  50.)  ;  and  at  last  joined  with  Joseph  of 
Ariniathea  to  give  his  body  an  honourable  burial,  (xix.  39.) 

Nicholas,  a  proscljte  of  Anlioch,  who  was  chosen  one  of  the 
seven  deacons  of  the  primitive  church.  (Acts  vi.  5.)  Many 
persons  have  suj)posed  him  to  be  the  head  of  the 

Nicoi.aita.ns,  a  sect  mentioned  in  Rev.  ii.  G.  15.,  who  held  that 
the  divine  nature  of  Christ  descended  upon  him  at  his  bn[)tisin, 
and  redescended  at  his  crucifixion,  and  who  abandoned  them- 
selves to  gross  impurity  and  profligacy  of  life.  Another  Nicholas 
has  also  been  supposed  to  be  the  founder  of  this  sect.  A  better 
opinion,  however,  seems  to  be,  that  the  appellation  here  is  not  a 
proper  name,  but  symbolical ;  and  that  it  refers  to  the  same 
persons  who  are  mentioned  in  Rev.  ii.  14.  as  holding  the  doctrine 
of  Balaam :  since  the  Greek  name  K«',>,aic  corresponds  to  the 
Hebrew  op'jj,  which  is  formed  from  y'72,  that  is  ytK.ia,  to  conquer, 

and  cp,  that  is  Xswf,  the  people.     The  allusion  according  to  Mr. 

Robinson,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  this  article,  is  to  false 
and  seducing  teachers  like  Balaam,  and  perhaps  refers  more  par- 
ticularly to  such  as  opposed  the  decree  of  the  apostles.  The 
Nicolaitans  are  conjectured  to  have  been  alluded  to  in  2  Pet.  ii. 
and  in  Jude  7 — 19. 

Nicoi'OLis,  a  city  of  Epirus,  upon  the  Ambracian  Gulf  men- 
tioned by  St.  Paul  in  Tit.  iii.  12.  Others,  however,  suppose  it  to 
be  Nicopolis  of  Thrace,  on  the  confines  of  Macedonia,  near  the 
river  Nessus. 

Night,  Jewish  and  Roman  divisions  of,  73. 

Nile,  a  celebrated  river  of  Egypt,  which  formed  one  of  the 
boundaries  of  the  Holy  Land.  See  p.  14.  In  Gen.  xii.  1.  Exod.i. 
22.  ii.  5.  iv.  9.  vii.  18.  and  viii.  3.  9.  11.,  it  is  termed  the  River 
without  any  addition.  On  the  turning  of  the  waters  of  the  Nile 
into  blood,  see  p.  206. 

NiMRoi),  the  son  of  Cush,  and  founder  of  the  kingdom  of 
Babtlox.  (Gen.  x.  8.  10.)  In  consequence  of  the  protection 
which  he  afforded  to  the  people  against  wild  beasts,  he  may  by 
their  own  consent  have  become  their  leader  and  chief;  or,  turn- 
ing his  weapons  of  hunting  against  men,  he  may  have  compelled 
them  to  submit  to  his  dominion.  His  name  (which  signifies  a 
rebel)  seems  to  favour  the  latter  supposition.  (Jahn's  Hcbr.  Com- 
monwealth, vol.  i.  p.  5.)  In  Mic.  v.  6.  Babylon  is  called  the  Land 
of  J\'i)nrod. 

NixEVEU,  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  could  boast  of 
the  remotest  antiquity.  It  was  founded  by  Nimrod,  or  (as  the 
text  of  Gen.  x.  11.  may  be  rendered)  by  Ashur  the  son  of  Shem: 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  it  was  called  Ninus.  According  to 
some  writers  it  stood  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris  above 
Bab3'lon,  while  others  represent  it  as  being  erected  on  the  west- 
ern bank  :  it  may  very  probably  have  occupied  both.  This  city 
was  very  splendid,  and  of  great  extent  ;  according  to  Diodorus 
Siculus  it  was  480  stadia  or  48  English  miles  (others  estimate  it 
60  miles)  in  circumference  :  in  the  time  of  Jonah  it  was  "  an 
exceeding  great  city  of  three  days'  journey,"  containing  "  more 
than  six-score  thousand  persons  that  could  not  discern  between 
their  right  hand  and  their  left."  (Jon.  iii.  3.  iv.  11.)  Its  de- 
struction within  forty  days,  which  that  prophet  had  denounced, 
was  averted  by  the  general  repentance  and  humiliation  of  the 
inhabitants  (iii.  4 — 10.),  and  was  suspended  for  nearly  two  hun- 
dred years,  until  "  their  iniquity  came  to  the  full ;"  and  then  the 
prophecy  (see  Vol.  I.  pp.  125,  126.)  was  literally  accomplished,  in 
the  third  year  of  the  siege  of  the  city,  by  the  combined  Medes  and 
Babylonians  ;  the  king,  Sardanapalus,  being  encouraged  to  hold 
out  in  consequence  of  an  ancient  prophecy  that  Nineveh  should 
never  be  taken  by  assault  till  the  river  became  its  enemy  ;  when 
a  mighty  inundation  of  the  river,  swollen  by  continual  rains, 
came  up  against  a  part  of  the  city,  and  threw  down  twenty  stadia 
of  the  wall  in  length  ;  upon  which  the  king,  conceiving  that  the 
oracle  was  accomplished,  burnt  himself,  his  concubines,  eunuchs, 
and  trcaiiurcs ;  and  the  enemy,  entering  by  the  breach,  sacked 


440 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


ON 


and  rased  the  city  about  b.c.  606.  (For  a  copious  description 
of  ancient  Nineveh,  see  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology, 
vol.  i.  pp.  448 — 450.)  Of  this  once  celebrated  city  there  are 
literally  no  remains.  Four  mounds,  the  largest  running  north 
and  south,  and  the  most  southerly  called  after  the  prophet  Jonah, 
whose  tomb  it  is  supposed  to  contain,  exhibit  all  that  can  now 
be  traced  of  the  melro[)olis  of  Asia.  (See  a  description  of  them 
in  Mr.  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  ii.  49 — 51. 
60.) 

NisRocH,  a  Babylonish  idol,  notice  of,  139. 

No,  No-Amo>',  or  No-Amux,  the  Thebes  of  ancient  geogra- 
phers, was  the  metropolis  of  Upper  Egypt.  It  is  mentioned  in 
Jer.  xlvi.  25.  Ezek.  xxx.  14 — 16.  and  Nahum  iii.  8.  In  the 
Septuagint  version  of  Ezeldel  No  is  rendered  A/ia-;r5A/c,  the  city 
of  Jupiter;  in  Nahum  No  Amon  is  rendered  Ms/i/c  Ajufxav.  The 
latter  appears  to  be  an  etymological  explanation  of  the  word  after 
the  Coptic.  In  that  language  JV07/ signihes  a  cord,  or  meusnr- 
tjtj  line,  hence  a  portion  measured  out  ;  and  N o- Amon  portio, 
itossessio  Ainonis,  that  is,  the  seat  of  the  god  Amon,  or  the  place 
where  he  was  principally  worshipped.  (Jablonskii  Opuscula, 
torn.  i.  pp.  163—168.     Gibbs's  Hebr.  Lex.  p.  406.) 

Noah,  the  son  of  Lamech,  and  the  father  of  the  post-diluvian 
world,  was  born  a.m.  1056.  Being  the  only  righteous  man  of 
his  time,  he  was  preserved  together  with  his  family  in  the  ark 
during  the  deluge.  (For  a  refutation  of  skeptical  objections  to 
which,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  75,  76.)  Noah  lived  350  years  after  that 
catastrophe,  dying  at  the  age  of  950  years,  a.  m.  2006.  He  left 
three  sons  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japheth,  by  whom  the  whole  earth 
was  overspread  or  peopled.  (Gen.  ix.  18,  19.  x.  33.)  The  seven 
precepts  of  Noah,  see  p.  109.  note  2. 

NoPH,  or  Mkmphis,  a  very  celebrated  city,  the  same  as  Thebes 
and  the  capital  of  Egypt,  until  the  Ptolemies  removed  the  seat  of 
government  to  Alexandria.  By  the  modern  Copts  it  is  called 
MEN't,  MENOfl),  and  NOT*  :  whence  we  may  explain  both  the 
Hebrew  forms  t^j  (noph)  and  c\-a  (MEmpa),  and  also  the  Greek 
name  MSjM<))/c.  Plutarch  (de  Isid.  et  Osirid.  p.  639  ed.  Stephani) 
interprets  the  name  'offxov  ayjbm,  from  the  Coptic  meh,  full,  and 
noupin,  good  ;  or  t-jl^ov  Oa-ifiSi;,  from  the  Coptic  mhau,  a  grave, 
and  onphi,  inpyiTm,  a  benefactor,  as  Osiris  is  called.  (Jablonskii, 
Opusc.  torn.  i.  pp.  137.  150.  179.  torn.  ii.  p.  131.  Gibbs's  Hebr. 
Lex.  p.  381.)  The  prophets  often  mention  this  city  ;  and  pre- 
dict the  calamities  which  it  was  to  suffer  from  the  kings  of  Chal- 
daea  and  Persia,  &c.  (See  Isa.  xix.  13.  Jer.  xliv.  1.  Hos.  ix.  6. 
Ezek.  xxx.  13.  16.)  Its  ruins  are  very  splendid.  Jeremiah  had 
foretold,  ages  before,  that  Noph  should  "  be  waste  and  desolate, 
without  an  inliabitant"  (xlvi.  19.),  and  not  a  family  or  cottage  is 
said  to  remain. 

Nosk-Jewels  of  the  Jewish  women,  notice  of,  158. 

Nuptial  Ckiiemonies  of  the  Jews,  161,  162. 

NuKTUHE  of  children,  163,  164. 


Oaks,  forest  of,  36. 

Oaths  of  the  Hebrews,  how  taken,  81,  82. 

Obadiah,  the  fourth  of  the  minor  prophets  :  he  probably  was 
contemporary  with  Jeremiah.     See  pp.  281,  282. 

Oblations,  different  kinds  of,  119.  Ordinary,  iJu/.  Volun- 
tary, ibid.     Prescribed,  120,  121. 

Officers  (military)  of  the  Jews,  85.  And  of  the  Romans, 
92,  93. 

Officers  of  the  Palace,  notice  of,  47. 

Officers  of  the  Synagogue,  104. 

Olives,  Mount  of,  19.     Culture  of  Olives,  36.  179,  180. 

Olympic  Games,  allusions  to,  in  the  New  Testament,  191 — 
194.  Qualifications  and  previous  discipline  of  the  candidates, 
192.  Foot-race,  z7</</.  Rewards  to  the  victors,  j6«V/.  Games  in 
imitation  of  them  instituted  among  the  Jews,  190. 

Omui,  general  of  the  army  of  Elah,  king  of  Israel,  who  was  as- 
sassinated by  Zimri  at  the  siege  of  Gibbethon,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Omri.  (1  Kings  xvi.)  He  was  a  wicked  prince,  whose 
crimes  surpassed  those  of  his  predecessors :  he  died  at  Samaria, 
B.  c.  914,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  his  son  Ahab, 

On. 

1.  A  pleasant  valley  in  Syria  of  Damascus?,  now  called  Uii, 
and  used  proverbially  for  a  pleasant  vale. 

2,  On,  Aun,  or  Heliopolis,  a  city  of  Egypt.  The  father-in- 
law  of  Joseph  was  high-priest  of  On  (Gen.  xli.  45.)  ;  there  ren- 
dered Heliopolis,  by  the  Septuagint  version,  and  noticed  also  by 
Herodotus ;  who  says  that  "  the  Heliopolitans  were  reckoned 
the  wisest  of  the  Egyptians."     This  was  the  city  of  Moses,  ac- 


PA 

cording  to  Berosus  :  and  well  accounts  for  his  scriptural  charac- 
ter, that  "  he  was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians." 
(Acts  vii.  22.)  Heliopolis  was  the  Greek  transhition  of  Bcth- 
shemesh,  "the  house  or. city  of  the  Sun,"  as  it  was  called  by 
Jeremiah,  "  Belh-shemesh,  in  the  land  of  Egj-pt"  (xliii.  13.),  to 
distinguish  it  from  another  Belh-shemesh,  in  tbe  land  of  Canaan. 
It  was  called  Both  Aven,  "  the  house  of  vanity,"  or  idolatry,  by 
the  Jews.     (Ezek.  xxx.  17.) 

OxEsiMCs,  a  Phrygian  by  birth,  and  the  slave  of  Philemon, 
from  whom  he  fled  ;  but  being  converted  to  Christianity  through 
the  preaching  of  St.  Paul,  he  was  the  occasion  of  the  ajiosile'a 
writing  the  admirable  Epistle  to  Philemon.  (Col.  iv.  9.  Philem; 
10.) 

Ophir,  a  country  whither  Solomon  sent  a  fleet,  aided  by  the 
subjects  of  Hiram  king  of  Tyre,  and  from  which  they  brought 
back  gold  (1  Kings  ix.  27,  28.  2  Chron.  viii.  17,  18.),  and  also 
abnuff  trees  and  precious  stones.  (I  Kings  x.  11.)  Not  fewer 
than  liften  or  sixteen  countries  have  been  assigned,  by  various 
commentators  and  critics,  as  the  site  of  Ophir,  but  the  most  pro- 
bable is  that  of  M.  Huet,  bishop  of  Avranches,  who  is  of  opinion 
that  it  was  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  by  the  Arabians  termed 
Zanguebar ;  that  the  name  of  Ophir  was  more  particularly  given 
to  the  small  country  of  Sofala  on  the  same  coast ;  and  that  Solo- 
mon's fleet  went  out  from  the  Red  Sea,  and  from  the  port  of 
Ezion-geber  entered  the  Mediterranean  by  a  canal  of  communi- 
cation ;  and  doubling  Cape  Guardafui,  coasted  along  Africa  to 
Sofala,  where  was  found  in  abundance  whatever  was  brought  to 
the  Hebrew  monarch  by  this  voyage.  The  opinion  of  Huet  is 
adopted  by  Mr.  Bruce,  who  has  confirmed  it  by  various  additional 
considerations. 

Oratories  of  the  Jews  described,  102,  103. 

Oratort  cultivated  by  the  Jews,  186. 

Othniel,  the  son  of  Kenaz  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  a  rela- 
tion of  Caleb,  who  gave  him  his  daughter  Achsah  in  marriage, 
on  his  taking  Debir,  otherwise  called  Kiriath-sepher,  from  the 
Canaanites.  (Josh.  xv.  16 — 19.)  After  the  Israelites  had  been 
oppressed  for  eight  years  by  Chushan-rishathcum,  king  of  Meso- 
potamia, Othniel  was  excited  to  levy  an  army  against  him.  He 
overcame  the  Mesopotamians,  and  delivered  his  countrymen,  who 
acknowledged  him  as  regent  or  judge.  During  the  forty  j'ears 
of  his  administration  the  Israelites  remained  faithful  to  their  God 
and  king,  and  consequently  prospered.     (Judg.  iii.  8 — 11.) 

Ovens  of  the  Jews,  15-4. 


Painting,  art  of,  among  the  Jews,  183.  Painting  of  the  eje- 
lids  practised  by  the  Jewish  women,  158. 

Palace,  oHicers  of,  47. 

Palestini:,  boundaries  of,  14.  22.     See  Holt  IiAnr. 

Palm  tree,  notice  of,  36. 

Palmyra.     See  Tadmor. 

Palsy,  variety  of  diseases  so  termed,  197. 

Pamphylia,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  having  to  the  south 
the  Pamphylian  Sea,  mentioned  Acts  xxvii.  5.,  Cilicia  to  the 
east,  and  Pisidia  to  the  north  (whence  we  find  Saint  Paul  pass- 
ing through  Pisidia  to  Pamphylia,  Acts  xiv.  24.),  and  from  Pam- 
phylia  to  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  14.),  and  Lycia' to  the  west.  The 
cities  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  as  belonging  to  it  are  Perga 
and  Attalia.  (Acts  xiii.  13.)  Here  numerous  Jews  dwelt,  and 
hence  those  of  Pamphylia  are  mentioned  among  those  who  ap- 
peared at  Jerusalem  at  the  day  of  Pentecost.     (Acts  ii.  10.) 

Paphos,  the  metropolis  of  the  island  of  Cyprus  (Acts  xiii.  4. 
6.),  and  the  residence  of  the  pro-consul.  It  was  memorable  for 
the  impure  wor.ship  paid  to  Venus,  the  tutelar  deity  of  the  island. 
Here  Saint  Paul  struck  blind  Elymas  the  sorcerer,  and  converted 
Sergij.is  the  pro-consul.  The  Jews  dwelt  here  in  great  numbers, 
(ver.  6.)  Twenty-five  or  thirty  miserable  huts  are  all  that  remain 
of  this  once  most  distinguished  city  of  Cyprus.     See  Ctpiilts. 

Paraoise,  a  word  of  Persian  original,  signifying  a  park,  gar- 
den, or  inclosure,  full  of  all  the  valuable  productions  of  the  earth. 
The  word  passed  into  the  Hebrew  form  d"i*\d  (p«uiies),  which 
occurs  in  Sul.  Song  iv.  13.  Neh.  ii.  8.  Eccles.  ii.  5.;  and  in 
those  passages  it  is  rendered  rir^/j-'ifs  3-ic  in  the  Septuagint  version, 
and  denotes  a  garden  of  trees  of  various  kinds,  a  pleasure  park, 
a  delightful  grove.  In  the  New  Testament  paradise  is  applied 
to  the  state  of  faithful  souls  between  death  and  the  resurrection ; 
where,  like  Adam  in  Eden,  they  are  admitted  to  immediate  com- 
munion with  God  in  Christ,  or  to  a  participation  of  the  tree  oC 
life,  which  is  in  the  midst  of  the  paradise  of  God.  (Luke  xxiii. 
43.  Rev.  ii.  7.)     Of  tliis  blessed  state  St.  Paul  had  a  foretaste. 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


441 


PE 

See  2  Cor.  xii.  2.  4.,  where  he  states  that  he  was  caught  up  to 
the  third  heaven  ;  and,  again,  that  he  was  caught  up  to  paradise. 
He  was  cau-^ht  up  to  the  third  heaven  tliat  he  might  contemplate 
that  scene  of  supreme  felicity,  which  awaits  the  just  after  tlie  re- 
surrection ;  and  he  was  caught  up  to  paradise  that  his  mind 
might  be  contented  with  a  view  of  their  nearer  consolations. 
(  Valpy's  (j!r.  Test,  on  Luke  xxiii.  43.) 

J'ahan,  Desert  of,  notice  of,  Xi,  34. 

PAitAscmoTii,  or  ancient  divisions  of  the  Pentateuch,  read  in 
the  Synagogues,  104.     Table  of  them,  105. 

Pahchmknt,  notice  of,  182. 

Pauknts,  crimes  against,  how  punished.     See  p.  62. 

Pakthians  are  mentioned  in  Acts  ii.  9.  in  conjunction  with 
the  Medes.  The  empire  of  Parthia  subsisted  four  hundred  years, 
and  disputed  for  the  dominion  of  the  East  with  the  Romans. 
The  I'ariinans  were  celebrated  for  their  veneration  of  their  kings, 
and  for  iheir  way  of  fighting  by  tligiit,  and  shooting  their  arrows 
backwards.  They  dwelt  between  Media  and  Mesopotamia  ;  in 
all  which  trans-Eujjhratensian  places,  except  some  parts  of  Baby- 
lon, and  of  some  other  small  prefectures,  the  Jews  abounded,  and 
some  of  them  were  at  Jerusalem  when  the  Holy  Ghost  fell  on 
the  apostles. 

Passover,  feast  of,  how  celebrated,  123 — 125.  Its  spiritual 
imj)ort,  125,  126.  A  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, I.  66. 

Pataua  (Acts  xxi.  1.),  a  sea-port  town  of  Syria,  anciently  of 
considerable  note.  Extensive  ruins  mark  its  former  magnificence 
and  extent.  Its  port  is  now  entirely  choked  up  by  encroaching 
sands.  (Col.  Leake's  Tour  in  Asia  Minor,  pp.  182,  183.) 

Pathhos,  a  city  and  district  of  Egypt,  mentioned  by  the  pro- 
phets Jeremiah  (xliv.  i.  15.),  and  Ezekicl  (xxix.  14.  and  xxx. 
14.)  The  inhabitants  of  this  country  are  called  Pathrusim  in 
Gen.  X.  14, 

Patmos,  an  island  in  the  .iEgean  Sea,  whither  the  apostle  and 
evamjelist  John  was  banished,  a.  d.  94,  and  where  he  had  the 
revelations  which  he  has  recorded  in  the  Apocalypse. 

i'ATiii AiicHAL  government,  nature  of,  40. 

Patl,  who  was  also  called  Saul,  the  distinguished  apostle  of 
the  Gentiles.  A  Pharisee  by  profession,  and  a  Roman  citizen  by 
birth,  he  was  at  first  a  furious  persecutor  of  the  Christians ;  but 
after  his  miraculous  conversion,  he  became  a  zealous  and  faithful 
preacher  of  ths  faith  which  he  had  before  laboured  to  destroy. 
See  a  copious  account  of  the  hfe  and  apostolic  labours  of  Saint 
Paul  in  pp.  321—329. 

Pax  of  Jewish  soldiers,  87. 

PKACK-OFFEniN(;s,  noticc  of,  118, 

Pkivaiiiaii,  the  seventeenth  king  of  Israel,  succeeded  his  father 
Menahem,  and  followed  the  example  of  his  predecessors  in  main- 
taining the  idolatrous  institutions  of  Jereboam  I.  After  reigning 
about  two  years,  he  was  assassinated  at  Samaria  by 

Pkkaii,  an  olhcer  of  his  guards,  who  held  the  throne  about 
twenty  years.  He  also  "  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  ;  he 
de|)arled  not  from  the  sins  of  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Ncbat,  who 
made  Israel  to  sin."  (2  Kings  xv.  27,  28.)  Towards  the  close 
of  his  reign,  his  dominions  were  overrun  by  Tiglath-pileser  king 
of  Assyria,  who  carried  his  subjects  into  cajitivity ;  and  Pekah 
hi4nself  was  assassinated  by  Hoshea.  (2  Kings  xv.  29,  30.) 

Pklkthitks,  notice  of,  40.  87. 

Pkxtkcost,  feast  of,  how  celebrated,  126.  A  proof  of  the 
credibility  of  the  Old  Testament,  I.  66. 

Peoii,  or  Baal-pkor,  notice  of,  137,  138. 

Pkh.ka,  district  of,  18. 

Pkufime  boxes  of  the  Hebrew  women,  158. 

Peikja,  a  city  of  Pamphylia  (Acts  xiii.  13.),  memorable 
among  the  heathens  for  a  temple  of  Diana  built  there ;  and  among 
the  Christians  for  the  departure  thence  of  John-Mark  from  Bar- 
nabas and  Paul,  to  Jerusalem,  which  occasioned  the  rupture 
between  them  for  a  season.  (Acts  xv.  37.  40.) 

Peiioamos  or  PEur.A>irs  was  the  ancient  metropolis  of  Mysia, 
and  the  residence  of  the  Attalian  kings ;  it  still  preserves  many 
vestiges  of  its  ancient  magnificence.  Against  the  church  at  Per- 
gamos,  was  adduced  the  charge  of  instability  (Rev.  ii.  14,  15.)  ; 
but  to  its  wavering  faith  was  promised  the  all-powerful  protection 
ot  GoU.  "  The  errors  of  Balaam  and  the  Nicolaitanes  have 
been  purged  away.  Pergamos  has  been  preserved  from  the  de- 
stroyer; and  three  thousand  Christians"  (out  of  a  population  of 
about  15,000  inhabiuints)  "now  cherish  the  rites  of  their  re- 
ligion in  the  same  spot  where  it  was  planted  by  the  hands  of  St. 
Paul."  (Emerson's  Letters  from  the  .Egean,  vol.  i.  p.  210.)  Of 
these  Christians,  about  200  belonged  to  the  Armenian  commu- 

VoL.  II.  3  K 


PE 


nion  ;  the  remainder  are  members  of  the  Greek  Church.  They 
have  each  one  church,  but  the  other  churches  of  Pergamos  have 
been  converted  into  mosques,  and  are  profaned  with  the  blasj)he- 
mies  of  the  pseudo-prophet  Mohammed.  'I'here  are  also  about 
100  Jews,  who  have  a  synagogue.  Pergamos,  or  Bergamo,  as  it 
is  now  called,  lies  about  sixty-four  miles  north  of  fSn)yrna.  Its 
present  state  is  described  by  Mr.  Arundell,  in  his  visit  to  the  Seven 
Asiatic  Churches,  pp.  281 — 290. 

Peuizzitks,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  mingled  with 
the  Canaanites.  It  is  very  probable  that  they  were  Canaanites, 
who  had  no  fixed  habitations,  and  lived  sometimes  in  one  coun- 
try, sometimes  in  another,  and  were  thence  called  Perizzites, 
which  term  signifies  scattered  or  dispersed.  The  Perizzites  did 
not  inhabit  any  certain  portion  of  the  land  of  Canaan.  In  several 
places  of  Scripture  the  Canaanites  and  Perizzites  are  mentioned 
as  the  chief  people  of  the  country.  Thus,  we  read  that,  in  the 
time  of  Abraham  and  Lot,  the  Canaanite  and  Pcrizzite  were 
in  the  land.  {iien.  xiii.  7.)  Solomon  subdued  the  remains  of 
the  Canaanites  and  Perizzites,  which  the  children  of  Israel  had 
not  rooted  out,  and  made  them  tributary.  (1  Kings  ix.  20,  21. 
2  Chron.  viii.  7.)  There  is  mention  of  the  Perizzites  by  Ezra, 
after  the  return  from  Babylon  ;  and  several  Israelites  had  married 
wives  of  that  nation.   (Ezra  ix.  1.) 

Perjurt,  punishment  of,  among  the  Jews,  62. 

Peusia,  a  country  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  west  by  Media  and 
Susiana ;  on  the  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf;  on  the  north  by  the 
great  desert  that  lay  between  it  and  Parthia  Proper ;  and  on  the 
ea.st  by  another  still  greater,  that  lay  between  it  and  the  river 
Indus.  Until  the  time  of  Cyrus,  and  his  succession  to  the  Me- 
dian empire,  it  was  an  inconsiderable  country,  always  subject  to 
the  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  or  Medes.  Its  capital  city  was  Per- 
sepolis,  now  Chelminar :  lat.  30  degrees.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  which,  to  the  south-east,  was  Passagardse,  where  was  the  tomb 
of  Cyrus. 

The  ruins  of  Persepolis  are  remarkable,  among  other  things, 
for  the  figures,  or  symbols,  to  be  seen  on  the  walls  and  pillars  of 
the  temple.  Sir  John  Chardin  observed  there  rams'  heads  with 
horns,  one  higher,  and  the  other  lower,  exactly  corresponding  to 
Daniel's  vision  of  the  Medo-Persian  empire  :  the  lower  horn 
denoting  the  Medes,  the  higher,  which  came  up  last,  the  Persians. 
(Dan.  viii.  3.)  A  winged  lion,  with  a  crown  on  his  head  ; 
alluding,  perhaps,  to  the  symbolical  representation  of  the  Assyrian 
empire,  by  "  a  Hon,  with  eagle's  wings ;"  denoting  their  ferocious 
strength  and  cruelty,  and  the  rapidity  of  their  conquest.  (Dan. 
vii.  4.) 

Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Persian  Empire,  illustrative  of 
the  Prophetic  JVritinga. 

Cyiius,  who  is  deservedly  called  the  Great,  both  on  account  of 
his  extensive  conquests,  and  also  for  his  liberation  of  the  captive 
Hebrews,  was  the  son  of  Cambyses,  a  Persian  grandee,  and  .Man- 
dane  the  daughter  of  Astyages  king  of  the  Medians.  He  was 
born  A.  M.  3405,  ii.  c.  599.  one  year  after  his  imcle  Cyaxares  the 
brother  of  Mandane.  Weary  of  obeying  the  Medians,  Cyrus 
engaged  the  Persians  to  revolt  from  them.  He  attacked  and 
defeated  Astyages  his  maternal  grandfather,  whose  life  he  spared, 
and  g^ve  hiin  the  government  of  Hyrcania,  satisfied  with  having 
liberated  the  Persians,  and  compelled  the  Medes  to  pay  him 
tribute.  Not  long  after,  the  latter  rebelled  against  him ;  and 
involved  Cyrus  in  a  protracted  war.  Having  again  reduced  the 
Medes,  Cyrus  directed  his  arms  against  the  Babylonians,  whose 
ally  CrcESUs  king  of  Lydia,  having  come  to  their  assistance,  was 
defeated  and  obliged  to  retire  into  his  own  country.  Cyrus  con- 
tinued to  prosecute  the  war  against  the  Babylonians,  and  having 
settled  every  thing  in  that  country,  he  followed  Crcesus  into 
Lydia,  whom  he  totally  discomfited,  and  overran  his  territories. 
Thus  far  we  have  followed  the  narrative  of  Justin  (lib.  i.  c.  7.)  : 
Herodotus  relates  events  nearly  in  the  same  order  (lib.  i.  c.  178.), 
but  places  the  Babylonian  war  after  the  war  with  Crcesus,  and  the 
entire  reduction  of  Lydia.  He  says  that  Labynitus  (the  Bel- 
shazzar  of  Scripture)  was  at  that  time  the  king  of  Babylon,  and 
that  Cyrus,  having  subdued  his  other  enemies,  at  length  attacked 
and  defeated  the  Babylonians,  who  withdrew  into  their  city, 
which  was  both  strongly  fortified  and  amply  stored  with  pro- 
visions. Cyrus  finding  that  the  siege  would  be  protracted, 
diverted  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  by  causing  great  ditches  to 
be  dug  on  both  sides  of  the  city,  above  and  below,  that  its  waters 
might  flow  into  them  ;  the  river  being  thus  rendered  passable,  his 
soldiers  entered  the  city  through  its  channel.  Babylon  was  taken, 
and  the  impious  Belshazzar  was  put  to  death.  (Dcji.  v.  30.)  So 
extensive  was  that  city,  that  the  inhabitants  of  each  extremity 


443 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL.  AND    GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
P  H  PH 


were  ignorant  of  its  capture,  though  the  enemy  was  in  its  very 
centre  ;  and  as  a  great  festival  had  been  celebrated  on  that  day, 
the  whole  city  was  absorbed  in  pleasure  and  amusements  Cyrus 
constituted  his  uncle  Cyaxares  (or  Darius  the  Mode)  king  of  the 
Chaldffians.  (Dan.  v.  31.)  Cyrus  Immediately  restored  the  cap- 
tive Jews  to  liberty  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  22,  Ezra  i.  1.),  and  com- 
manded pecuniary  assistance  to  be  given  to  those  who  stood  in 
need  of  it.  He  died  a.  m.  3475,  b.  c.  529,  in  the  seventieth  year 
of  his  age,  though  historians  aife  by  no  means  agreed  concerning 
the  manner  of  his  death. 

Cambyses,  the  successor  of  Cyrus,  was  one  of  the  most  cruel 
princes  recorded  in  history.  As  soon  as  he  was  seated  on  the 
throne,  he  invaded  and  conquered  Egypt,  and  reigned  there  three 
years.  At  the  same  time  he  detached  part  of  his  army  against 
the  Ethiopians,  and  commanded  his  generals  to  pillage  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Amnion.  Both  these  expeditions  were  unfortunate. 
The  army  which  had  been  sent  against  the  latter  perished  in  the 
sands  of  the  deserts  ;  and  that  which  he  led  against  the  former,  for 
want  of  provisions,  was  compelled  to  return  with  great  loss.  Mor- 
tified at  his  disappointments,  Cambyses  now  gave  full  vent  to  the 
cruelty  of  his  disposition.  He  killed  his  sister  Merije,  who  was  also 
his  wife ;  he  commanded  his  brother  Smerdis  to  be  put  to  death,  and 
killed  many  of  his  principal  oflicers ;  he  treated  the  gods  of  the 
Egyptians  with  the  utmost  contempt,  and  committed  every  possi- 
ble outrage  against  them.  Hearing  at  length  that  his  throne  was 
filled  by  an  usurper,  who  pretended  to  be  his  brother  Smerdis, 
and  reigned  at  Babylon,  he  set  out  on  his  return  to  his  dominions, 
but  died  at  Ecbatana,  a  town  in  Syria,  situated  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Carmel. 

A-.  M,  3482,  B.  c.  522.  After  the  death  of  Cambyses,  the  Per- 
sian throne  was  usurped  by  seven  Magi,  who  governed  for  some 
time,  making  the  people  believe  that  their  sovereign  was  Smerdis 
the  brother  of  Cambyses.  The  Samaritans,  who  were  always 
jealous  of  the  prosperity  of  the  Jews,  obtained  an  edict  from  the 
pseudo-Smerdis  (called  Artaxerxes  in  the  Scriptures),  prohibi- 
ting them  from  rebuilding  the  temple  and  fortifications  of  Jerusa- 
lem. (Ezra  iv.  7.  16.)  This  interruption  continued  until  the 
second  year  of  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes. 

A.M.  3483,  B.C.  521.  The  imposition  of  the  Magi  being  at 
Length  discovered,  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes  was  acknow- 
ledged king.  Having  been  informed  of  the  permission  which 
Cyrus  had  granted  to  the  Jews  to  rebuild  their  temple,  he  allowed 
them  to  resume  the  work  (Ezra  iv.  24.  vi.  1.),  which  they  had 
commenced  by  the  exhortations  and  encouragement  of  the  pro- 
phets Haggai  (i.  1.)  and  Zechariah  (i.  1.  Ezra  v.  1.)  This 
Darius  is  the  Ahasucrus  who  married  Esther  and  granted  va- 
rious privileges  to  the  Jews.  (See  the  book  of  Esther,  through- 
out.) 

A.  M.  3519,  B.C.  485.  Xerxes  succeeded  Darius  in  the  Persian 
throne ;  but  as  no  particulars  are  recorded  of  him  as  connected 
with  the  Jews,  we  pass  on  to  the  reign  of  his  successor  Artax- 
erxes, who  greatly  favoured  them,  first  sending  Ezra  into  Judaea 
(Ezra  vii.  viii.),  and  afterwards  Nehcmiah,  to  rebuild  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem.  (Neh.  ii.  iii.)  The  Persian  monarchy  subsisted 
for  many  centuries  after  this  event ;  but,  as  its  history  is  not  con- 
nected with  that  of  the  Jews,  it  would  be  foreign  to  the  plan  of 
this  abstract  to  give  the  succession  of  its  sovereigns.  (Calmet, 
Histoire  Prophane  de  I'Orient,  §  IV.  Dissert,  tom.  ii.  pp.  336 
—341.) 

Persox,  crimes  against,  how  punished,  63,  64. 

Pestilence  or  Plague,  38. 

Pestilential  Blast  or  Wind,  40. 

Peter,  one  of  the  apostles,  formerly  called  Simon:  he  was  of 
Bethsaida,  and  was  the  son  of  Jonas,  a  fisherman,  which  occu- 
pation he  also  followed.  When  he  was  called  to  the  apostleship 
by  our  Saviour,  he  received  the  name  of  Urrfio;,  which  signifies 
a  stone  (John  i.  43.),  probably  in  reference  to  the  boldness  and 
firmness  of  his  character,  and  his  zeal  and  activity  in  promoting 
his  Master's  cause.  See  a  further  account  of  Peter  and  an  ana- 
lysis of  the  two  epistles  which  bear  his  name,  in  pp.  362 — 364. 

Pharaoh,  a  common  appellation  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Egypt, 
who  after  the  age  of  Alexander  were  in  like  manner  termed 
Ptolemy,  Jablonski  states,  that  Pnouuo,  in  the  common  Egyp- 
tian dialect,  and  Phaiiko,  in  the  very  ancient  dialect,  spoken  in 
the  Thebaid,  respectively  dentite  a  king:  (Opuscala,  tom.  i.  p. 
376.)  Mr.  Weston  derives  this  name  from  PIOVRO,  which 
signifies  my  king,  and  which  the  Greeks  rendered  <5>^paa.  (Sun- 
day Lessons  on  Gen.  xii.  15.)  The  following  are  the  principal 
sovereigns  of  this  name,  who  are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment : — 


1.  Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt,  and  contemporary  with  Abraham. 
His  officers  having  eulogized  the  beauty  of  Sarah,  the  patriarch's 
wife,  Pharaoh  sent  for  her  to  his  harem,  and  conferred  many 
presents  on  her  Husband,  whom  he  imagined  to  be  her  brother. 
Pharaoh  and  his  family  being  "  plagued  with  great  plagues"  by 
the  Almighty,  he  discovered  his  error,  and  restored  Sarah  to 
Abraham,,  whom  he  sent  out  of  Egypt.  (Gen.  xii.  10 — 20.) 

2.  Pharaoh,  the  contemporary  of  Joseyjh  ;  who,  having  in- 
terpreted his  prophetic  dreams,  was  rewarded  with  distinguished 
honours,  and  raised  to  the  oIKce  of  "  ruler  throughout  all  the 
land  of  Egypt."  (Gen.  xii.)  Pharaoh  participated  in  Joseph's 
joy,  at  his  reconciliation  with  his  brethren,  and  with  noble  gene- 
rosity permitted  him  to  invite  his  family  into  Egypt.  On  the 
arrival  of  Jacob  and  his  sons,  he  gave  them  a  hospitable  recep- 
tion, notwithstanding  shepherds  were  held  in  abomination  by  the 
Egyptians,  and  assigned  them  a  residence  in  the  land  of  Goshen, 
And  on  Jacob's  decease,  he  permitted  Joseph  to  make  a  journey 
into  Canaan,  to  bury  him.  (Gen.  xlv.  16.  xlvii.  1.  1.4.)  This 
Pharaoh  is  the  sovereign  alluded  to  by  Stephen  in  Acts  viL 
10.  13. 

3.  Pharaoh,  a  king  of  Egypt,  gave  one  of  bis  daughters  iia 
marriage  to  Mcred,  a  descendant  of  Judah.  (I  Chron.  iv.  18.) 
This  remarkable  alliance  must  have  taken  place  while  the  He- 
brews were  the  guests  and  not  the  slaves  of  the  Egyptians;  and 
this  prince  must  certainly  have  been  one  of  the  first  successors 
of  the  master  of  Joseph. 

4.  Pharoah,  king  of  Eg:ypt,  the  contemporary  of  Moses, 
reigned  at  the  period  when  Jacob's  descendants  had  already  be- 
come a  great  people.  The  genealogical  lists  of  that  period,  which 
are  extant,  in  harmony  with  the  sacred  historians,  show  how 
rapidly  the  race  of  Israel  had  multiplied.  (1  Chron.  iv.  1 — 27.) 
This  prince  adopted  the  false  policy  of  oppressing  the  Hebrews 
in  the  manner  related  in  Exod.  ii.,  little  thinking  that  his  own 
daughter  would  save  from  the  waters  of  the  Nile  the  future 
avenger  and  deliverer  of  the  Israelites.  The  recent  discoveries^ 
which  have  thrown  new  light  on  Egyptian  antiquities,  and  which 
harmonize  more  and  more  with  the  sacred  history,  enable  us  to 
recognise  the  Pharaohs,  who  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible  subse- 
quent to  the  time  of  Moses.  The  king,  during  whose  reign 
Moses  was  born,  can  only  be  Rameses  or  Ramses  IV.  surnamed 
Mei-Amoun,  the  last  sovereign  but  one  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty. 
The  first  oppression  of  the  Israelites  (Exod.  i.  11.  14.)  most  pro- 
bably commenced  under  Thoutmosis  III.  a  predecessor  of  this 
prince.  But  the  succeeding  narrative  of  the  proscription  of  ail 
the  male  Hebrew  children,  and  the  birth  of  Moses,  relates  only 
to  this  Ramses-Mei-Amoun.     (Compare  Vol.  I.  p.  88.) 

5.  Pharaoh,  the  contemporary  of  Moses,  had  reigned  about 
eighteen  years,  when  Moses  was  commanded  to  return  into 
Egypt,  Ramses-Mei-Amoun  and  his  personal  enemies  being  dead. 
(Exod.  iv.  19.)  His  history  is  contained  in  Exod.  vi. — xii. :  he 
perished  with  his  army  in  the  Red  Sea.  (xiv.  5 — 31.)  This 
Pharoah  is  Amenophis  or  Ramses  V.  the  last  king  of  the  eigh- 
teenth dynasty,  and  the  father  of  Ramses  VI.  or  Sesostris. 

6.  Pharaoh,  the  contemporary  of  David,  received  at  his  court, 
and  honourably  entertained  Hadad,  prince  of  Idumsea  (to  whom 
he  gave  his  wife's  sister  in  marriage  J,  after  the  conquest  of  that 
country  by  the  Hebrews.  (1  Kings  xi.  17 — \^.)  He  was  one 
of  the  last  kings  of  the  twenty-first  or  Tanite  dynasty,  and  most 
probably  was  a  different  person  from  the  Pharaoh  who  is  next  to 
be  noticed,  because  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  the  protector 
of  Hadad  could  be  the  father-in-law  of  Solomon. 

7.  Pharaoh,  the  contemporary  of  Solomon,  gave  the  Hebrew 
king  his  daughter  in  marriage,  with  the  city  of  Gczer  as  a  por- 
tion. (1  Kings  ix.  16.)  This  prince,  the  last  sovereign  of  the 
twenty -first  or  Tanite  dynasty,  was  probably  dethroned  and  put 
to  death  by  Shishak,  who  was  contemporary  with  Rchoboam. 
M.  Coqucrel  (to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  this  account  of  the 
Pharaohs)  thinks  that  Eccl.  iv.  14.  may  allude  to  this  event. 

8.  Pharaoh-Necho,  the  contemporary  of  Josiah  king  of  Judah, 
took  up  arms  against  the  new  empire  of  the  Chaldseans,  which 
was  rapidly  advancing  and  threatening  Asia.  He  resolved  to 
carry  the  war  across  the  Euphrates  into  the  very  centre  of  the 
Chaldaean  empire ;  but  being  opposed  in  his  passage  by  Josiah, 
an  ally  of  the  Chaldsean  monarch,  to  whom  he  in  vain  offered 
terms  of  peace,  he  totally  discomfited  the  forces  of  the  Jewish 
king  near  Megiddo.  He  then  marched  to  Jerusalem,  which  city 
he  entered  by  force  or  by  capitulation ;  and,  deposing  Jehoahaz 
who  had  just  succeeded  his  father  upon  the  throne,  he  gave  the 
crown  of  Judah  to  his  elder  brother  Jehoiakim,  and  levied  a  heavy 
military  contribution  on  the  kingdom  of  Judah.     Encouraged  by 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  L\DEX. 


443 


PH 

those  successes,  Necho  proceeded  on  his  Asiatic  expedition,  taking 
witli  him  Jt'hoahaz,  wlioiii  he  U;ft  prisorior  at  Ril)lah.  He  made 
himself  master  of  Carclieinish  on  tho  Euphrates;  wliore,  after 
three  years'  warfare  with  various  success,  he  was  di-feated  It) 
Ncbuchdchiezzar,  and  forced  to  return  into  Ei4ypt  with  the  wreck 
of  his  army.  On  his  r<!turn,  Ije  look  the  cuptive  Jehoaiuiz  with 
him.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  2'J— 34.  xxiv.  7.  2  Chron.  xxxv,  20 — 24. 
xxxvi.  1 — f.)  The  Scripture  account  of  the  war  carried  on  hy 
Pharaoli-Necho  against  the  Jcnv.s  and  Hal)ylonians  is  confirmed 
by  an  ancient  monuini-nt  discovered  in  Egyjtl  l)y  the  lat(!  enter- 
prising travelli'r  Helzoni.  (Wee  Vol.  I.  pji.  H'J,  00.)  Ph.iraoh- 
Necho,  the  son  of  Psaninietichus,  and  the  sixth  king  of  the 
twenty-sixtli  dynasty,  that  of  the  Sa  tes,  is  celebrated  in  profane 
history,  for  his  project  of  digging  a  canal,  to  join  the  Nile  to  the 
Red  Sea,  and  hy  the  voyage  of  discovery  which  his  vessels,  man- 
ned hy  Phu-niciari  sailors,  made  round  Africa. 

9.  PiiAKAoii-HoiMiuA,  the  Apries  or  Vaphrcs  of  profane  his- 
torians, was  the  son  of  Psammis,  and  grandson  of  Pharaoh- 
Necho.  He  was  the  eighth  king  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty, 
and  contemporary  with  '/edckiah  king  of  Judah,  with  wiioni  he 
formed  an  alliance  against  .\'»  huchadnezzar.  During  the  last 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  Ilophra  took  arms,  and  advanced  to  succour 
his  ally.  This  diversion  was  useful  for  a  short  time ;  hut,  agreea- 
bly to  the  jtredictions  of  .Jeremiah,  the  Egyptians  notwithstand- 
ing their  brilliant  promises,  withdrew  without  fighting,  or  at  least 
without  making  any  resistance.  After  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, when,  deaf  to  the  counsels  of  Jeremiah,  Azariah  and  Jo- 
hanan  took  refuge  in  Egypt,  the  proj)het  predicted  to  them  tiie 
deplorable  end  of  Hophra.  (Ezek.  xvii.  1.5.  Jer.  xxxvii.  .5.  xliii. 
9.  xliv.  30.  xlvi.  20.)  The  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxix.)  reproaches 
Pharaoh  with  his  base  conduct  towards  the  king  of  Judah,  and 
foretells  that  Egypt  should  be  reduced  to  a  desert,  and  that  the 
sword  should  cut  olf  both  man  and  beast.  This  prediction  was 
afterwards  accomplished,  first  in  the  person  of  Pharaoh-Hophra, 
who  was  deprived  of  his  kingdom  by  Amasis  who  usurped  his 
throne,  and  subsequently  by  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the 
Persians. 

PiiAiiisEKs,  tenets  of  the  sect  of,  144,  145. 

PitAiirAK,  river.     See  Abaxa,  p.  401. 

Philadelphia,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  derived  its  name  from 
its  founder,  Attains  Philadelphus,  and  is  situated  about  twenty- 
seven  mdes  to  the  south-east  of  Sardis.  Not  long  before  the 
date  of  the  Apocalyptic  Epistle,  this  city  had  suftered  so  much 
from  earthquakes,  that  it  had  been  in  a  great  measure  deserted  by 
its  inhabitants;  which  may  in  some  degree  account  for  the  po- 
verty of  this  church  as  described  in  this  epistle.  And  its  poverty 
may  also  in  some  degree  account  for  its  virtue,  which  is  so  highly 
commended.  "  Philadelphia  appears  to  have  resisted  the  attacks 
of  the  Turks  in  1312  with  more  success  than  the  other  cities. 
At  a  distance  from  the  sea,  forgotten  by  the  emperor,  encom- 
passed on  all  sides  by  the  Turks,  her  valiant  citizens  defended 
their  religion  and  freedom  above  fourscore  years,  and  at  length 
capitulated  with  the  proudest  of  the  Ottomans  (Bajazct)  in  1390. 
Among  the  Greek  colonies  and  churches  of  Asia,  Philadelphia 
is  still  erect — a  column  in  a  scene  of  ruins !"  (Gibbon's  Decline 
and  Fall,  vol.  xL  p.  438.  8vo.  edit.)  Whatever  may  be  lost  of 
the  spirit  of  Christianity,  there  is  still  the  form  of  a  Christian 
church  in  this  city,  which  is  now  called  .illah-Shehr,  or  the  city 
of  God.  It  contains  about  lOOO  Christians,  chiefly  Greeks,  most 
of  whom  speak  only  the  Turkish  language.  They  have  twenty- 
five  places  of  public  worship,  five  of  which  are  large  and  regular 
churches,  with  a  resident  bishop  and  inferior  clergy.  The  re- 
mains of  antiquity  here  are  not  numerous.  (Hartley's  Visit  to 
the  Apocalyptic  Churches,  in  Missionary  Register,  July,  1827, 
pp.324 — 326.     Arundell's  Visit,  pp.  167—174.) 

Philemon,  an  opulent  Christian  at  Colossse;  whose  slave 
Onesimus  having  fled  from  him  to  Rome,  where  he  was  converted 
by  Saint  Paul,  the  apostle  sent  him  back  to  his  master  with  the 
admirable  letter,  which  now  forms  the  epistle  to  Philemon :  for 
an  analysis  of  which,  see  pp.  347 — 349. 
■    Philip. 

.  1.  The  son  of  Herod,  misnamed  the  Great,  by  his  wife  Cleo- 
patra ;  who,  in  the  division  of  his  father's  kingdom,  was  made 
tetrarch"'of  Batanaja,  Trachonitis,  and  Itursea.  (Luke  iii.  1.) 
He  enlarged  and  embellished  the  city  of  Paneas,  to  which  he 
gave  his  own  name,  and  called  it  Casarea,  in  honour  of  the 
emperor  Tiberius. 

2.  .\nother  son  of  the  same  Herod  by  Mariamne,  daughter 
of  Simon  the  high-priest.  He  was  the  husband  of.  Herodias, 
who  was  taken  firom  him  by  his  brother  Herod  Antipas.    Having 


PH 


been  disinherited  by  his  father,  he  lived  a  private  life.  (Matt 
xiv.  3.  Mark  vi.  7.  Luke  iii.  19.)  As  Josephus  calls  this  prince 
Herod,  and  the  evangelist  Philip,  it  is  not  improbable,  that,  after 
the  custom  of  the  Herodian  family,  he  bore  hotU  those  names. 

3.  (Jne  of  the  apostles  of  Jesus  Christ,  a  native  of  Ltethsaida. 
(.Matt.  X.  3.  Mark  iii.  18.  Luke  vi.  14.  John  i.  41 — 47.  49. 
vi.  5.  xii.  21,  22.  xiv.  8,  9.)  He  was  with  the  rest  of  the 
apostles  and  disciples  who  assend)led  for  prayer  in  an  upper 
room  at  Jerusalem,  after  the  ascension.  (Acts  i.  13,  14.)  Of 
the  subsc(iuent  history  of  this  ajiostle,  nothing  certain  is  known. 
He  is  said  to  have  preached  the  Gospel  in  Scythia  and  Phrygia, 
and  was  interred  at  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia  Pacatiana,  wlierc  he 
sullered  martyrdom. 

4.  One  of  the  seven  deacons  of  the  church  at  JeriiFalenv 
(Acts  vi.  5.)  He  jtreached  the  Gospel  at  Samaria,  where  he 
performed  many  miracles,  and  converted  many  to  the  faith  of 
Christ.  Afterwards  he  received  a  divine  command  to  go  towards 
the  south,  to  the  road  leading  from  Gaza  to  Jerusalem  :  here  be 
met  an  eunuch  of  Candacc  queen  of  Ethiopia,  whom  he  like- 
wise converted  to  the  Christian  faith.  (Acts  viii.  .5 — 3H.)  After 
baptizing  the  einiuch,  Philip  stopped  some  time  at  Azotus;  and 
"  passing  through,  he  preached  in  all  the  cities  until  he  came  to 
Ca;sarea,"  where  he  appears  to  have  fixed  his  residence.  He  had 
four  daughters  ;  who,  like  Agabus,  according  to  circumstances, 
received  the  gift  of  prophecy.     (Acts  viii.  40.    xxi.  8,  9.) 

Philippi  was  a  city  of  Macc<lonia  Prima,  or  the  first  of  the 
four  parts  into  which  that  province  was  divided.  (See  Vol.  I. 
p.  90.)  It  was  of  moderate  extent,  and  situated  on  the  con- 
lines  of  Thrace.  It  was  formerly  called  CreniJes  from  its  nu- 
merous .springs,  and  afterwards  Datus  from  the  coal  mines  in  its 
vicinity.  The  name  of  Philippi  is  received  from  Philip  the 
father  of  Alexander,  who  fortified  it,  and  made  it  a  frontier  town 
against  the  Thracians.  Julius  Ca;sar  planted  a  colony  here, 
which  was  afterwards  enlarged  by  Augustus,  and  hence  its  in- 
habitants were  considered  as  freemen  of  Rome.  Christianity 
was  first  planted  at  Philippi,  by  Saint  Paul,  a.  d.  50,  the  particu- 
lars of  which  are  related  in  Acts  xvi.  9 — 40. 

Philistines,  Land  of,  15.  Account  of,  ibid.  Nature  of  the 
disease  inflicted  upon  them,  196. 

Philologis,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  whom  St.  Paul  salutes  in 
his  epistle  to  the  Romans,  (xvi.  6.)  M.  Coquerel  is  of  opinion 
that  he  was  probably  a  slave  who  had  been  restored  to  liberty^ 
and  who  received  the  name  of  Philologus,  in  consequence  of 
his  having  been  instructed  in  literature  and  the  sciences. 

Phineas,  the  son  of  Eleazar,  and  grandson  of  Aaron,  was  the 
third  high-priest  of  the  Jews.  He  is  greatly  commended  for  his 
zeal  for  the  glory  of  God  in  the  afl'air  of  Zimri  and  Cosbi  (Num. 
XXV.  7.)  :  for  which  God  promised  that  the  priesthood  should  be 
given  to  his  posterity  by  a  perpetual  covenant ;  this  condition 
being  included  (as  interpreters  observe),  that  his  children  should 
continue  faithful  and  obedient.  The  time  of  his  death  is  not 
known. 

PiicEBE,  a  deaconess  in  the  church  at  Cenchrea,  whom  Saint 
Paul  strongly  recommends  to  the  Christians  at  Rome  in  his 
epistle  (xvi.  1,  2.),  for  her  hospitality  to  himself.  The  deacon- 
esses in  the  primitive  church  were  sometimes  married  women, 
but  most  frequently  widows  advanced  in  years,  and  who  had 
been  the  wife  of  one  man ;  that  is,  one  who  had  not  parted  with 
one  husband  and  married  another,  a  practice  which  at  that  time 
was  usual  both  among  the  Jews  and  heathens.  (1  Tim.  vi.  9, 
10.)  Their  functions  consisted  in  taking  care  of  the  sick  and 
poor  of  their  own  sex,  visiting  the  prisoners  and  martyrs,  in- 
structing catechumens,  assisting  at  the  baptism  of  women,  and 
various  other  inferior  offices.  Phojbe  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  bearer  of  St.  Paul's  epistle  to  the  Romans. 

PucExiCE,  or  Ph(enicia,  a  province  of  Syria,  which  extended 
from  the  Gulf  of  Issus,  where  it  bounded  Cilicia  on  the  north, 
along  the  coast  southwards,  to  the  termination  of  the  ridges  of 
Libanus  and  Antilibanus,  near  Tyre,  where  it  met  the  border 
of  Palestine.  In  breadth  it  only  comprehended  the  narrow  tract 
between  the  continuation  of  Mount  Libanus  and  the  sea.  The 
country  was  exceedingly  fertile ;  and  as  a  commercial  nation,  the 
PhcEnicians  are  the  most  celebrated  people  of  antiquity.  They 
planted  many  colonies,  and,  among  others,  Carthage.  The 
principal  cities  of  Phoenicia  were  Ptolemais,  Sidox,  and  Ttr^ 
of  which  a  notice  is  given  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this  index. 
Idols  worshipped  by  them,  138. 

Phoexiciarchs,  notice  of,  140. 

Phrygia  is  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  divided  into  the  GreatCT 
and  Lesser.     The  former  had  Bithynia  on  the  north,  Galatia  on 


444 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


PO 


the  east,  Pamphylia  and  Lycia  on  the  south,  Lydia  and  Mysia 
on  the  west.  Its  chief  cities  mentioned  in  Scripture  (Col.  ii.  1.) 
are  Laodicea  and  Hicrapohs;  and  of  this  St.  Luke  seems  to 
speak  in  Acts  ii.  10.  because  he  joins  it  with  Pamphyha  below 
it.  In  Acts  xvi.  6.  he  means  Phrygia  Minor.  The  inhabitants 
are  said  to  have  been  a  servile  people,  kept  in  their  duty  best  by 
stripes,  and  made  wise  only  by  sullerings.  In  all  these  parts  of 
Asia  Minor,  even  to  Bythinia  and  the  Euxine  Sea,  the  Jews 
anciently  were  very  numerous. 

Phut,  or  Put,  the  name  of  an  African  people.  According  to 
Josephus  (Ant.  Jud.  1.  i.  c.  7.)  they  were  the  inhabitants  of 
Mauritania,  where  there  is  a  river  called  Phut.  (Plin.  Nat.  Hist. 
1.  V.  c.  1.)  According  to  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  versions 
they  were  the  Libyans.  (Jer.  xlvi,  9.  Ezek.  xxvii.  10.  xxxviii. 
5.  Nah.  iii.  9.)  They  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  descend- 
ants of  Phut,  the  third  son  of  Ham.     (Gen.  x.  6.) 

Phtlacteriks  described,  156. 

Physics,  or  Medicine,  state  of,  194 — 197. 

Physics,  or  natural  philosophy  of  the  Jews,  186, 

PiHAiiinoTH  or  HiROTH,  without  the  prefix,  a  place  on  the 
Red  Sea,  where  the  Israelites  made  their  second  encampment. 
(Exod.  xiv.  2.  9.  Num.  xiii.  7.)  As  the  Israelites  were  properly 
delivered  at  this  place  from  their  captivity,  and  fear  of  the 
Egyptians  (Exod.  xiv.  5.),  Dr.  Shaw  thinks  that  it  derived  its 
name  from  that  circumstance.     (Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  98.) 

Pilate,  Pontius,  notice  of,  53. 

PisGAH,  Mount,  31. 

PisiDiA  (Acts  xiv.  24.),  a  country  in  Asia  Minor,  having 
Pamphylia  on  the  south,  Galatia  on  the  north,  Isauria  on  the 
east,  and  Phrygia  on  the  west.  Its  chief  city  was  Antioch  in 
Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  14.),  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  Antioch 
in  Syria. 

Pisosr,  one  of  the  four  great  rivers  which  watered  the  garden 
of  Eden.  (Gen.  ii.  11,  12.)  The  author  of  the  apocryphal  book 
of  Ecclesiasticus,  speaking  of  a  wise  man,  says,  that  "  he  fiUeth 
all  things  with  his  wisdom,"  or  spreads  it  on  every  side,  "  as 
Phison  and  Tigris"  spread  their  waters  "  in  the  time  of  the  new 
fruits,"  that  is,  when  they  are  swollen  by  the  melting  of  the 
winter  snows.  Calmet,  Reland,  and  others,  suppose  it  to  be  the 
Phasis,  a  celebrated  river  of  Colchis  ;  Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
after  Josephus,  make  it  to  be  the  Ganges,  which  passing  into 
India  falls  into  the  ocean. 

PiTHOM,  one  of  the  cities  built  by  the  Israelites  for  Pharaoh. 
(Exod.  i,  11.)  Sir  John  Marsham  imagines  it  to  be  Pelusium  ; 
but  it  is  most  probably  the  ttcitcm^cc  of  Herodotus.  (Hist.  1.  ii. 
c.  158.),  by  the  Arabians  in  later  times  called  Fijum  or  Faijum 
(pronounced  Fuionm),  which  is  also  applied  to  the  province. 

Plague,  not  unknown  in  Palestine,  38. 

Plains  of  the  Holy  Land,  account  of,  33. 

Pleading,  form  of,  among  the  Jews,  in  civil  and  criminal 
cases,  55,  56. 

Ploughing,  Jewish  mode  of,  177. 

Poetry,  cultivated  by  the  Hebrews,  186, 

Politeness,  Jewish  forms  of,  168,  169. 

Political  Divisions  of  the  Holy  Land,  15 — 18,  Political 
State  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews  from  the  patriarchal  times  to  the 
destruction  of  their  polity  by  the  Romans,  40 — 48, 

Polygamy,  why  tolerated  among  the  Jews,  160,  Abolished 
by  Christianity,  ibid. 

Pomegranate  trees  of  Palestine,  36, 

PoNTus,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  having  the  Euxine  Sea 
on  the  north,  Cappadocia  on  the  south,  Paphlagonia  and  Galatia 
on  the  east,  and  the  Lesser  Armenia  on  the  west.  It  is  supposed 
that  Saint  Peter  preached  in  Pontus,  because  he  addresses  his 
first  Epistle  to  the  believing  Hebrews,  who  were  scattered 
throughout  this  and  the  neighbouring  provinces. 

Pools  of  Solomon,  29,  Pool  of  Bethesda,  21.  And  of  Si- 
loam,  ibid. 

Poor,  Jewish  laws  concerning,  83, 

Population  of  the  Holy  Land,  38.     Of  Jerusalem,  22, 

PoHCH  of  Solomon,  99, 

Possessions,  demoniacal,  reality  of,  197, 

Potiphar,  the  captain  of  Pharaoh's  body  guard,  who  pur- 
chased Joseph  of  some  Midianitish  merchants,  and  made  him 
superintendent  of  his  house.  Afterwards,  however,  listening  to 
the  false  charges  of  his  wife,  who  accused  Joseph  of  attempting 
to  seduce  her,  he  threw  Joseph  into  prison,  where  he  was  rigo- 
rously confined.  It  should  seem  that  this  rigour  was  not  of  very 
long  continuance ;  and  that  he  restored  Joseph  to  all  his  confi- 
dence, and  intrusted  him  with  the  management  of  the  prison. 


PU 

(Gen,  xxxvii.  36.  xxxix.  19 — 23.)  Potiphar  is  an  Egj-ptian 
proper  name,  which  has  been  explained  by  the  Coptic  HinT 
*PPO  father,  that  is,  prime  minister  of  Piuniuo,  or  Pharaoh. 
Some  expositors  have  made  a  distinction  between  the  master  of 
Joseph  and  the  keeper  of  the  prison  into  which  he  was  thrown. 
Others,  however,  have  conjectured,  with  more  probability,  that 
Potiphar,  after  having  punished  Joseph  in  a  transport  of  wrath 
and  jealousy,  acknowledged  his  innocence ;  but  that,  in  order  to 
avoid  disgracing  his  wife,  instead  of  restoring  Joseph  to  his 
former  office,  he  confided  to  him  the  command  of  the  state- 
prison, 

Potipherah,  governor,  or,  more  correctly,  priest  of  On,  is; 
known  only  from  the  circumstance  of  his  having  given  his 
daughter  in  marriage  to  Joseph,  (Gen,  xli.  45.  xlvi.  20.) 
Jablonski  supposed  it  to  be  the  same  as  the  Coptic  nHONT- 
<tPH,  priest  of  the  sun;  and  the  recent  discoveries  among  the 
Egyptian  monuments  have  shown  that  his  conjecture  was  not 
altogether  without  foundation.  Pe-theph-he  signifies  that  which 
belongs  to  Re  or  the  Sun  :  this  name  was  peculiarly  suitable  for 
a  priest  of  On  or  Heliopolis,  the  city  of  the  sun.  Undesigned 
coincidences  like  these  strongly  corroborate  the  antiquity  and 
authenticity  of  the  Mosaic  narrative. 

Potter's  Field,     See  Aceldama, 

Prayers  of  the  Jews,  various  appellations  of,  131,  Public 
prayers,  ibid.  Private  prayers,  ibid.  How  offered  in  the  syna- 
gogues, 104.  Attitudes  in  prayer,  131,  132.  Forms  of  prayer 
in  use  among  the  Jews,  132.  The  nineteen  prayers  now  used 
by  them,  106,  107, 

Preaching,  a  part  of  the  synagogue  service,  106, 

Precipitation,  a  Jewish  punishment,  68, 

Preparation  of  the  Passover,  123,     Of  the  Sabbath,  122. 

Presents  offered  to  superiors,  169, 

Priests,  privileges  and  functions  of,  112, 113, 

Princes  of  tribes  and  families,  41, 

Phaisca  or  Priscilla,  the  wife  of  Aquila,  a  converted  Jew  of 
Pontus.     See  AauiLA,  p,  407, 

Prisoners  (Roman),  treatment  of,  58 — 60,  Oriental  mode 
of  treating  prisoners,  66.  Probable  origin  of  one  being  released 
at  the  Passover,  123,     Eyes  of,  put  out,  66, 

Prisons  (Jewish),  notice  of,  65,  66, 

Privileges  of  the  first-born,  163. 

Proceedings,  judicial,  forms  of,  55 — 60. 

Procurators  (Roman),  powers  of,  52,  53,  State  of  the 
Jews  under  them,  53, 

Productions  of  the  Holy  Land,  35 — 37. 

Promise,  land  of,  13, 

Promulgation  of  laws,  47,  48, 

Property,  crimes  against,  how  punished,  62,  63,  Disposal 
of  property,  164, 

Prophets,  notice  of,  47,  116.  Punishment  of  false  prophets, 
62,  Schools  of  the  prophets,  184,  185.  (See  further  the  General 
Index  of  Matters,  No,  III,  infra,  article  Prophets.)  "  The  Pro- 
phets" an  ancient  division  of  the  Old  Testament,  p,  213.  of  this 
volume.  Table  of  the  sections  of  the  prophets,  as  read  in  the 
Jewish  Synagogue,  105, 

Proselytes,  account  of,  109.       * 

Proseuch;e  or  oratories  of  the  Jews,  102,  M)3, 

Psaltery,  a  musical  instrument,  184. 

Ptolemais,  anciently  called  Accho  (Judg.  i.  31.),  and  now 
known  by  the  name  of  Acre,  is  a  port  and  town  situated  on  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the  confines  of  Lower  and 
Upper  Galilee,  Here  Saint  Paul  rested  for  one  day  on  his  journey 
from  Ephesus  to  Jerusalem.  (Acts  xxi.  7.)  As  this  port  must 
always  have  been  of  great  importance  in  time  of  war,  the  town 
has,  consequently,  undergone  great  changes.  During  the  croisades 
this  city  suffered  exceedingly  both  from  infidels  and  Christians, 
between  whom  it  was  the  scene  of  many  sanguinary  conflicts:  at 
length  it  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  late  Djezzar  Pacha,  under 
whose  government  and  that  of  his  successor  it  has  revived,  and 
is  now  one  of  the  most  considerable  towns  on  the  coast.  Acre 
has  a  beautiful  appearance,  when  beheld  from  a  short  distdnce. 
This  place  is  celebrated  for  the  repulse  there  given  to  Napoleon 
Buonaparte,  by  the  Turks  under  the  command  of  Sir  Sydney 
Smith,  who,  after  a  long  and  memorable  siege,  compelled  the 
French  to  retire  with  great  loss,  and  ultimately  to  abandon  Syria, 

Publicans,  or  collectors  of  the  revenue,  account  of,  78,  79. 
Why  odious  to  the  Jews,  79, 

PuBLius,  an  opulent  governor  of  Malta,  at  the  time  of  St. 
Paul's  shipwreck,  who  miraculously  healed  his  father  of  a  dan- 
gerous malady.     The  bay  in  which  the  vessel  was  wrecked  was 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


445 


RA 

contiguous  to  his  estate ;  and  he  most  probably  entertained  the 
apoiillc  (luring  his  three  niorillis'  residt^nce  on  that  island.  (Acts 
Xxiii.  7,  H.)  An  uncicnt  inscription  found  at  Malta  designates  its 
governor  by  the  same  appellation — lll'iiiOX  or  c/iirf  man — 
which  8t.  Luke  gives  to  Publius.  (Bloonilield  and  Kuiiioei  on 
Acts  xxviii.  7,  8.) 
PuL,  or  Pnui,. 

1.  Th(^  proper  name  of  a  people  remote  from  Palestine.  (Isa. 
Ixvi.  I'J.)  Thi!  Latin  Vulgate  renders  it  Africa;  aeeoriling  to 
Bochart,  it  was  I'hila;,  an  island  of  the  IViile  in  Upper  Egypt. 
Vitringa  supposes  it  to  be  a  place  in  the  extremity  of  Egypt;  it 
being  the  prophet's  object,  in  the  passage  just  cited,  to  designate 
the  most  remote  jiarts. 

2.  The  name  of  the  first  king  of  Assyria,  who  is  mentioned  in 
the  Scrij)tures.  He  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Israel  shortly  after 
Menahem  had  usurped  the  throne,  who  gave  a  thousand  talents 
of  silver  to  support  him  in  his  kingdom.   (2  Kings  xv.  19, '20.) 

PrNisiniKNTs  (Hei)revv),  design  of,  04.  Inferior  punishments, 
64 — CO.     Capital  punishments,  (iO — OS). 

Punishments  (lionian),  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  account  of, 
69—72. 

PuHiFicATioNs  of  the  Hebrews,  account  of,  133.  Purifica- 
tion.s  of  the  leprosy,  in  persons,  garments,  and  hous-es,  133,  134. 
Purifications  in  case  of  minor  impurities,  134. 

PruiM,  or  feast  of  Jjots,  account  of,  128. 

PuTKOM,  a  maritnne  town  of  Campania,  in  Italy,  between 
Bai.-B  and  Naples,  founded  by  a  colony  from  Cumae.  It  was 
originally  called  Dica;archia,  and  afterwards  Puteoli,  from  the 
great  number  of  wells  (f>utei)  which  were  in  the  neighbourhood. 
It  is  now  called  Puzzoli  or  Puzzuolo.  Hero  Saint  Paul  abode 
seven  days,  by  the  favour  of  the  centurion,  on  his  tirst  journey  to 
Rome.  (Acts  xxviii.  13.)  It  appears  from  Acts  xxviii.  11.  that 
Puteoli  was  the  destination  of  this  ves.sci  from  Alexandria;  and 
we  learn  from  the  independent  testimony  of  the  Jewish  historian, 
.losephus,  corroborated  by  the  geographer  Strabo,  that  this  was 
the  port  of  Italy  to  which  shi|)s  from  Egypt  and  the  Levant  com- 
monly sailed.  (Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  7.  §  4.  c.  8.  §  2.  Strabo, 
Geogr.  1.  xvii.  p.  793.  ed  Casaub.) 


QuATiTus,  a  Christian  resident  at  Corinth,  whose  salutations 
Saint  Paid  transmitted  to  Rome.  He  was  jjrobably  a  Roman, 
whom  commercial  alVairs  had  led  into  Greece.   (Rom.  xvi.  23.) 

(•iricKSANii  {XupTtc).  Two  syrtes  or  sand  banks,  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa,  were  particularly  celebrated  among  the 
ancients;  one  of  which,  called  the  Syriis  major,  lay  between 
Cyrene  and  Leptis,  and  is  most  probably  THN  lujtriv,  the 
Quicksand,  alluded  to  in  Acts  xxvii,  17.;  since  a  vessel  bound 
westward,  after  passing  Crete,  might  easily  be  driven  into  it  by 
a  strong  north-easterly  wind.  The  other  {Syrtis  minor')  lay 
near  Carthage.  (Kuiniiel  on  Acts  xxvii.  17.  Robinson's  Lexi- 
con, voce  ii/fT/c.) 

Qi'iHiNus  or  Crnr.vius  (Kuw/oc,  in  Latin  Quirinus),  that  is, 
Publius  Sulpicius  Quirinus,  a  Roman  senator  ;  who,  after  the 
banishment  of  Archelaus  to  Vicnne  in  Gaul,  and  the  annexation 
of  Juda,>a  to  the  province  of  Syria,  vviis  sent  from  Rome,  as 
governor  of  Syria,  to  take  a  census  of  the  whole  province  with 
a  view  to  taxation.  (Compare  Acts  v.  37.)  This  census  he  com- 
pleted, A.  I).  8.  This  enrolment  is  alluded  to  in  Luke  ii.  2. ;  for 
an  elucidation  of  which,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  419,420. 


Rabhatii. 

1.  Rabbath.  Rabbath-Ammox,  or  Rabbath  of  the  children 
of  Amnion,  afterwards  called  Philadeli)hia,  the  capital  of  the 
Ammonite.'!,  was  situated  beyond  .Jordan.  It  was  a  place  of 
considerable  note  in  the  time  of  Moses.  When  Da\id  declared 
war  against  the  Ammonites,  his  general  Joab  laid  siege  to  Rab- 
bath-Ammon,  where  the  brave  llriah  lost  his  life,  by  a  secret 
order  given  by  this  prince,  that  Uriah  should  be  forsaken  in  a 
place  of  danger.  And  when  the  city  was  reduced  to  the  last 
extremity,  David  himself  went  thither,  that  he  might  have  the 
honour  of  taking  it.  From  this  time  it  became  subject  to  the 
kings  ol'.Tudah.  Afterwards  the  kings  of  Israel  became  masters 
of  it,  with  all  the  rest  of  the  tribes  beyond  Jordan.  But  towards 
the  conclusion  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  Tiglath-pileser  having 
taken  away  a  great  part  of  the  Israelites  from  that  country,  the 
Ammonites  were  guilty  of  many  cruelties  against  those  who 
remained,  in  consequence  of  which  the  prophets  Jeremiah  and 
Ezekiel  pronounced  very  severe  prophecies  against  Rabbath,  the 


R  A 


capital  city  of  the  Ammonites,  and  against  the  rest  of  the  country, 
which  probably  had  their  comjjletion  five  years  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem.  Antiochus  thc!  (ireek  took  the  city  of  Hab- 
lialli-.Vnimon  aliout  a.  m.  3786.  Some  time  before  this,  Ptolemy 
i'hiladel|ihus  had  given  it  the  name  of  Piiilaiikli'hia.  Which 
see  in  this  index. 

2.  Rahbatii-moab,  or  Rabbath  of  the  children  of  Moab,  the 
capital  of  the  Moabites,  otherwise  An,  or  Aiukl  of  Moab,  and 
KiiitiKiiKs,  or  the  city  with  brick  walls.  (Jcr.  xlviii.  31.  36.) 
Tliis  city  was  situated  on  the  river  Ar:  it  underwent  many  revo- 
lutions, and  the  prophets  denounced  heavy  judgments  against  it. 

Rauhi,  or  Raiimo.vi,  import  of,  18.5. 

1{a  BiioMANcv,  or  divination  by  the  stafl',  143. 

Rabsiiakkii,  an  olFicer  of  Sennacherib  king  of  Assyria,  who 
was  sent  with  Rabsaris  and  Tartan  to  summon  Hezckiah  to  sur- 
render to  his  master.   (2  Kings  xviii.  17.) 

Raca,  a  Syriac  word  of  contempt,  meaning  a  worthless  person. 
(Matt.  V.  22.)  'J'hosfc  who  applied  this  term  to  another  were  ob- 
noxious to  punishment  by  the  Council  of  twenty-three.  See 
!>.  ^h.  supra. 

Raciikl,  the  youngest  daughter  of  I^aban,  and  the  wife  of 
Jacob.  She  was  the  mother  of  Joseph  and  Benjamin.  In  Jer. 
xxxi.  1.5.  the  prophet  introduces  Rachel  as  bewailing  the  exile  of 
her  posterity,  that  is,  Ephraim ;  by  quoting  which  language  the 
evangelist  Matthew  (ii.  18.)  in  a  similar  manner  introduces  her  as 
bemoaning  the  fate  of  the  children  who  were  massacred  at  Beth- 
lehem. (Compare  Vol.  i.  p.  317.)  The  tomb  of  Rachel  is  still 
shown  to  travellers,  near  the  ruins  of  the  village  of  Rainah.  "  It 
is  one  of  the  few  places  where  the  observer  is  persuaded  that 

tradition  has  not  erred The  spot  is  as  wild  and  solitar}' as 

can  well  be  conceived  ;  no  palms  or  cypresses  give  their  shelter 
from  the  blast ;  not  a  single  tree  spreads  its  shade  where  the 
beautiful  mother  [wife]  of  Israel  rests."  (Carne's  Recollections 
of  the  Ea.st,  p.  157.)  Mr.  Maundrell  is  of  o])inion  that  this  may 
be  the  true  place  of  Rachel's  interment  :  but  the  present  sepul- 
chral monument  can  be  none  of  that  w  hich  Jacob  erected  ;  for 
it  appears  to  be  plainly  a  modern  and  Turkish  structure.  The 
graves  of  the  Moslems  lie  thickly  strewn  around  this  tomb. 

Ra.'iab. 

1.  A  woman  of  Jericho,  who  received  into  her  house,  and 
afterwards  concealed,  the  two  spies,  whom  Joshua  had  sent  to 
explore  that  city  and  its  contiguous  territory.  On  the  capture  of 
Jericho,  Rahab,  with  her  parents,  brethren,  and  all  that  she  had, 
under  the  conduct  of  the  two  spies,  qiiittcd  her  house  in  safety. 
She  subsequently  married  Salmon,  one  of  the  chief  men  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  and  became  the  mother  of  Boaz.  (Josh.  ii.  vi.  17. 
22,23.  Ruth  iv.  21.  Matt.  i.  5.)  Much  discus.sion  has  taken 
place  respecting  Rahab,  whether  she  were  a  harlot  or  one  who 
kept  a  house  of  entertainment  for  strangers.  The  same  word  in 
the  Hebrew  language  denotes  persons  of  both  professions:  for 
the  same  reason,  the  appellation  of  harlot  is  given  to  Rahab  in 
the  Septuagint  version,  from  which  the  apostles  Paul  (Heb.  xi. 
31.)  and  James  (ii.  25.)  make  use  of  the  same  expression  :  but 
the  Chaldee  paraphrast  calls  her  by  a  word  which  signifies  a 
woman  who  keeps  a  public  house,  without  any  mark  of  infamy. 
Since  those  apostles  cite  her  as  an  eminent  example  of  faith  in 
God,  and  have  ranked  her  with  Abraham,  we  shall  be  justified 
in  putting  the  most  charitable  construction  upon  the  appellation 
given  to  her. 

2.  A  poetical  name  of  Egypt.  (Isa.  xxx.  7.  Ii.  9.  Psal.  Ixxxvii. 
4.  Ixxxix.  11.)  The  Hebrew  word  signifies  proud;  and  the 
name  seems  to  have  been  given  to  Egypt  from  the  pride  and  in- 
.solence  of  its  princes  and  inhabitants. 

Rains,  early  and  latter,  importance  of,  in  Palestine,  24. 

Rama,  Ramah,  or  Ra.mathaim,  was  a  small  town  or  village 
in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  about  thirty  miles  north  of  Jerusalem  : 
it  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  As  it  stood  in 
a  pass  between  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  Baasha  king 
of  Israel  seized  it,  and  began  lo  fortify  it,  to  prevent  his  subjects 
from  passing  that  way  into  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  (1  Kings  t". 
17.  21.)  Here  Nebuzaradan,  the  Chaldsean  general,  disposed 
his  Jewish  prisoners  after  their  capital  was  taken,  which  oo  - 
sioned  a  great  lamentation  among  the  daughters  of  Rachel.  (J 
xl.  1 — 3.  xxxi.  15.)  Oriental  geographers  speak  of  this  place 
as  having  formerly  been  the  metropolis  of  Palestine;  and  Mr. 
Buckingham  informs  us  that  every  appearance  of  its  ruins  even 
now  confirms  the  opinion  of  its  having  been  once  a  considerable 
city.  "  Its  situation,  as  lying  immediately  in  the  high  road  from 
Jafia  to  Jerusalem,  made  it  necessarily  a  place  of  great  resort; 
and,  from  the  firuitfulness  of  the  country  around  it,  it  must  have 


446 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


RE 


been  equally  important  as  a  military  station  or  a  depot  for  sup- 
plies, and  as  a  magazine  for  the  collection  of  such  articles  of 
commerce  as  were  exported  from  the  coast.  In  its  present  state 
the  town  of  Hamah  is  about  the  size  of  J  alia,  in  the  extent  actu- 
ally occupied.  The  dwellings  of  th.i  last,  however,  are  crowded 
together  around  the  sides  of  a  hill,  while  those  of  Ramah  are 
scattered  widely  over  the  face  of  the  level  plain  on  which  it 
stands.  The  style  of  building  here  is  that  of  high  square  houses, 
with  flattened  domes  covering  them :  and  some  of  the  old  ter- 
raced roofs  arc  fenced  around  with  raised  wails,  in  which  are 
seen  pyramids  of  hollow  earthenware  pipes,  as  if  to  give  air  and 
light,  without  destroying  the  strength  of  the  wall  itself  The 
inhabitants  are  estimated  at  little  more  than  five  thousand  per- 
sons, of  whom  about  one  third  are  Christians  of  the  Greek  and 
Catholic  communion,  and  the  remaining  two-thirds  Mohamme- 
dans, chiefly  Arabs ;  the  men  of  power  and  the  military  being 
Turks,  and  no  Jews  residing  there.  The  principal  occupation 
of  the  people  is  husbandry,  for  which  the  surrounding  country 
is  highly  favourable ;  and  the  staple  commodities  produced  by 
them  are  corn,  olives,  oil,  and  cotton,  with  some  soap  and  coarse 
cloth  made  in  the  town.  There  are  still  remains  of  some  noble 
subterranean  cisterns  at  Ramah,  not  inferior  either  in  extent  or 
execution  to  many  of  those  at  Alexandria :  they  were  intended 
for  the  same  purpose,  namely,  to  serve  in  time  of  war  as  reser- 
voirs of  water."     (Buckingham's  Travels  in  Palestine,  p.  1C8.) 

Ramoth,  a  famous  city  in  the  mountains  of  Gilead,  often 
called  Ramoth-gilead,  sometimes  Ramoth,  and  sometimes  Ramoth- 
niizpeh,  or  the  Watch-tower,  (Josh.  xiii.  26.)  This  city  be- 
longed to  the  tribe  of  Gad.  It  was  assigned  to  the  Levites,  and 
was  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  beyond  Jordan.  (Deut.  iv.  43. 
Josh.  XX.  8.  xxi.  38.)  It  became  celebrated  during  the  reigns  of 
the  later  kings  of  Israel,  and  was  the  occasion  of  several  wars 
between  these  princes  and  the  kings  of  Damascus,  who  had  con- 
quered it,  and  from  whom  the  kings  of  Israel  endeavoured  to 
regain  it.  (1  Kings  xxii.  3—36.  2  Kings  viii.  28,  29.  2  Chron. 
xxii.  .5.)  Jehoram,  king  of  Judah,  was  dangerously  wounded  at 
the  siege  of  this  place  ;  and  Jehu,  the  son  of  Nimshi,  was  here 
anointed  king  of  Israel  by  a  young  prophet  sent  by  Elisha.  (2 
Kings  ix.  1 — 10.)  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  was  killed  in  battle 
with  the  Syrians  before  this  place.  (2  Chron.  xviii.  3,  4,  5.  et 
seq.)     It  is  now  called  Ramza. 

Reauing,  oriental  mode  of,  183. 

Reaping,  notice  of,  177. 

Rebels'  Beating,  what,  67. 

Reception  of  visiters,  169,  170. 

Rechabites,  account  of,  116. 

Recorder,  otiice  of,  47. 

Recreations  of  the  Jews,  189,  190. 

Red  Sea,  that  branch  of  the  southern  sea  which  interposes 
itself  between  Egypt  on  the  west,  Arabia  Felix  and  some  part 
of  Arabia  Petraea  on  the  east,  while  its  northern  extremities 
touch  on  the  coast  of  Edom".  Edom,  it  is  well  known,  in  the 
Hebrew  tongue  signifies  Red,  and  was  the  name  given  to  Esau 
for  selling  his  birthright  for  a  mess  of  pottage.  Both  the 
country  which  was  possessed  by  his  posterity  (Gen.  xxv.  30. 
xxxvi.  31 — 40.),  and  the  sea  which  was  contiguous  to  it,  were 
called  after  his  name  ;  but  the  Greeks,  not  understanding  the 
reason  of  the  appellation,  translated  it  into  their  tongue,  and 
called  it  Qnx-xcra-x  Efiudpct,  whence  the  Latins  termed  it  JMare 
Itubrum,  and  we  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  also  called  Yam  Snph, 
"  the  weedy  sea,"  in  several  passages  (Num.  xxxiii.  10.  Psal.  cvi. 
9.,  &c.)  which  are  improperly  rendered  "  the  Red  Sea."  Some 
learned  authors  have  supposed  that  it  was  so  named  from  the 
quantity  of  weeds  in  it.  But  Mr.  Bruce,  who  had  seen  and  .ex- 
amined the  whole  extent  of  it,  states  that  he  never  saw  a  weed 
of  any  sort  in  it ;  and  remarks  that  a  narrow  gulf,  under  the 
immediate  influence  of  monsoons  blpw-ing  from  contrary  points 
six  months  each  year,  would  have  too  much  agitation  to  produce 
such  vegetables,  seldom  found  but  in  stagnant  water,  and  sel- 
domer,  if  ever,  found  in  salt  water.  He  is  of  opinion  that  the 
sea  derives  its  name  from  the  large  trees,  or  plants,  of  white  coral, 
perfectly  in  imitation  of  plants  on  land.  One  of  these,  which  he 
saw,  from  a  root  nearly  central,  threw  out  ramifications  measur- 
ing twenty-six  feet  in  diameter  every  way.  (Travels,  vol.  ii.  p. 
138.)  This  seems  to  be  the  most  probable  solution  that  has 
been  hitherto  proposed  of  the  name.  The  tides  in  this  sea  are 
but  moderate.  At  Suez,  the  difference  between  high  and  low 
water  did  not  exceed  from  three  to  four  feet,  according  to  Nie- 
buhr's  observations  on  the  tides  in  that  gulf,  during  the  years 
1762  and  1763.     (Voyage  en  Arabic,  p.  363.) 


RE 

Every  one  knows  the  celebrated  mi  acle  of  the  passage  over 
the  Red  Sea,  when  God  opened  this  sea,  dried  it  up,  and  made 
the  Israelites  pass  through  it,  dry  shod,  to  the  number  of  600,000, 
without  reckoning  old  men,  women,  or  children.  The  rabbins, 
and  many  of  the  ancient  fathers,  relying  on  Psal.  cxxxvi.  13. 
(to  him  which  divided  the  Red  Sea  into  parts),  have  maintained 
that  the  Red  Sea  was  so  divided  as  to  make  twelve  jjassages ; 
that  each  of  the  twelve  tribes  passed  through  a  dillerent  passage. 
But  other  authors  have  advanced  that,  Moses  having  lived  long 
near  the  Red  Sea,  in  the  country  of  Midian,  had  observed  that 
it  kept  its  regular  ebbing  and  flowing  like  the  ocean  ;  so  that, 
taking  the  advantage  of  the  time  of  the  ebb,  he  led  the  Hebrews- 
over;  but  the  Egyptians  not  knowing  the  nature  of  the  sea,  and 
rashly  entering  it  just  before  the  return  of  the  tide,  were-  all 
swallowed  up  and  drowned,  as  Moses  relates.  Thus  the  priests 
of  Mem])his  explained  it,  and  their  opinion  has  been  adopted  by 
a  great  number  of  moderns,  particularly  by  the  learned  critic  and 
philologer,  John  David  Michaelis,  who  in  the  queries  which  he 
sent  to  the  Danish  traveller  M.  Niebuhr,  while  in  Egypt,  proposed 
to  him  to  inquire  upon  the  spot,  "  Whether  there  were  not  some 
ridges  of  rocks  where  the  water  was  shallow,  so  that  an  army,  at 
particular  times,  may  pass  over  1  Secondly,  Whether  the  Etesian 
winds,  which  blow  strongly  all  summer  from  the  north-west,  could 
not  blow  so  violently  against  the  sea  as  to  keep  it  back  on  a  heap  ; 
so  that  the  Israelites  might  have  passed  without  a  miracle  V  and 
a  copy  of  these  queries  was  left  also  for  Mr.  Bruce,  to  join  his 
inquiries  likewise,  his  observations  on  which  are  excellent.  "  I 
must  confess,"  says  he,  "  however  learned  the  gentlemen  were 
who  proposed  these  doubts,  I  did  not  think  they  merited  any  at- 
tention to  solve  them.  This  passage  is  told  us  by  Scripture  to 
be  a  miraculous  one  ;  and,  if  so,  we  have  nothing  to  do  with 
natural  causes.  If  we  do  not  believe  Moses,  we  need  not  believe 
the  transaction  at  all,  seeing  that  it  is  from  his  authority  alone 
we  derive  it.  If  we  believe  in  God,  that  he  made  the  sea,  we 
must  believe  he  could  divide  it  when  he  sees  proper  reason  ;  and 
of  that  he  must  be  the  only  judge.  It  is  no  greater  miracle  to 
divide  the  Red  Sea  than  to  divide  the  river  Jordan.  If  the  Ete- 
sian winds,  blowing  from  the  north-west  in  summer,  could  keep 
up  the  sea  as  a  wall  on  the  right,  or  to  the  south,  of  fifty  feet 
high,  still  the  difficulty  would  remain  of  building  the  wall  on  the 
left  hand  or  to  the  north.  Besides,  water  standing  in  that  posi- 
tion for  a  day  must  have  lost  the  nature  of  fluid.  Whence 
came  that  cohesion  of  particles  which  hindered  that  wall  to  es- 
cape at  the  sides  1  This  is  as  great  a  miracle  as  that  of  Moses. 
If  the  Etesian  winds  had  done  this  once,  they  must  have  repeated 
it  many  a  time  before  and  since,  from  the  same  causes.  Yet 
Diodorus  Siculus  (lib.  iii.  p.  122.)  says  the  Troglodytes,  the  in- 
digenous inhabitants  of  that  very  spot,  had  a  tradition  from  father 
to  son,  from  their  very  earliest  ages,  that  once  this  division  of 
the  sea  did  happen  there ;  and  that,  after  leaving  its  bottom  some 
time  dry,  the  sea  again  came  back,  and  covered  it  with  great 
fury.'  The  words  of  this  author  are  of  the  most  remarkable 
kind :  we  cannot  think  this  heathen  is  writing  in  favour  of  reve- 
lation :  he  knew  not  Moses,  nor  says  a  word  about  Pharaoh  and 
his  host ;  but  records  the  miracle  of  the  division  of  the  sea  in 
words  nearly  as  strong  as  those  of  Moses,  from  the  mouths  of 
unbiassed,  undesigning  pagans.  Were  all  theSe  difficulties  sur- 
mounted, what  could  we  do  with  the  pillar  of  fire  ?  The  answer 
is.  We  should  not  believe  it.  Why,  then,  believe  the  passage  at 
ain  We  have  no  authority  for  the  one  but  what  is  for  the  other: 
it  is  altogether  contrary  to  the  ordinary  nature  of  things ;  and, 
if  not  a  miracle,  it  must  be  a  fable."     (Vol.  ii.  pp.  135 — 137.) 

Still,  such  skeptical  queries  have  their  use  ;  they  lead  to  a 
stricter  investigation  of  facts,  and  thereby  tend  strongly  to  con- 
firm the  veracity  of  the  history  they  meant  to  impeach.  Thus  it 
appears,  from  the  accurate  observations  of  Niebuhr  and  Bruce, 
that  there  is  no  ledge  of  rocks  running  across  the  gulf  any  where 
to  afford  a  shallow  passage.  And  the  second  query,  about  the 
Etesian  or  northerly  wind,  is  refuted  by  the  express  mention  of 
a  strong  easterly  wind  blowing  across,  and  scooping  out  a  dry 
passage,  not  that  it  was  necessary  for  Omnipotence  to  employ  it 
there  as  an  instrument,  any  more  than  at  Jordan  ;  but  it  siems 
to  be  introduced  in  the  sacred  history  by  vcay  of  anticipation,  to 
exclude  the  natural  agency  that  might  in  after  times  be  employed 
for  solving  miracles ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  monsoon  in 
the  Red  Sea  blows  the  summer  half  of  the  year  from  the  north, 
the  winter  half  from  the  south,  neither  of  which  could  produce 

«  Diodorus  attributes  this  to  an  "extraordinary  high  tide."  The  fact, 
however,  that  "the  ground  vpas  bare  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  gulf"  is 
admitted  by  this  curious  tradition. 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  L\DEX. 
RE 


447 


the  miracle  in  question.  Wisliing  to  diminish,  though  not  to 
deny  the  miracle,  Niclnihr  adopts  the  opinion  of  those  who  con- 
tend for  a  liighcr  pas.'^age,  near  iSuez.  "  For,"  nays  he,  "  tlie 
miracle  would  i)e  less  if  they  crossed  the  sea  there,  than  near 
Bedea.  But  whosoever  should  su|)|)Ose  that  the  multitude  of 
the  Israelites  could  he  ahle  to  cross  it  here,  without  a  prodigy, 
would  deceive  himself;  for  even  in  our  days  no  caravan  passes 
that  way  to  go  from  Cairo  to  Mount  Sinai,  although  it  would 
shorten  the  journey  consideralily.  'i"he  passage  would  have  heen 
naturally  more  diflicult  for  the  Israelites  some  thousands  of  years 
b«ick,  when  the  gulf  was  prohahly  larger,  deeper,  and  more  ex- 
tended towards  the  north  ;  for  in  all  appearance  the  water  has 
retired,  and  the  ground  near  this  end  has  heen  raised  l)y  the  sands 
of  the  neighhouring  desert."  (p.  .3.54.)  But  it  sulliciently  ap- 
pears, even  from  Niehuhr's  own  statement,  that  the  passage  of 
the  Israelites  could  not  have  taken  |)lace  near  Suez  :  for,  I.  He 
evidently  confounded  the  town  of  Kolsum,  the  ruins  of  which  he 
places  near  Suez,  and  where  he  supposed  the  passage  to  lie  made 
with  the  hay  of  Kolsum,  which  hcgan  ahout  forty-live  miles  lower 
down  ;  as  Mr.  Bryant  has  satisfactorily  proved  from  the  astrono- 
mical observations  of  Ptolemy  and  Ulug  Beigh,  made  at  Heroum, 
the  ancient  head  of  the  gulf.  (See  his  treatise  on  the  Plagues 
of  Egypt,  pp.  371,  :372.) 

2.  Instead  of  crossing  the  sea  at  or  near  Ethan,  their  second 
station,  the  Israelites  "  turned"  southwards  along  the  western 
shore;  and  their  third  station  at  Pihahiroth,  or  Bedea,  was  at 
least  a  full  day's  journey  helow  Ethan,  as  Mr.  Bryant  has  satis- 
factorily proved  from  Scrijiture.  (Exod.  xiv.  2.)  And  it  was 
this  unexpected  change  in  the  direction  of  their  march,  which 
intimated  an  intention  in  the  Israelites  to  quit  Egypt;  and  the 
apparently  disadvantageous  situation  in  which  they  were  then 
placed,  "  entangled  in  the  land,  and  shut  in  by  the  wilderness," 
with  a  deep  sea  in  front,  the  mountains  of  Attaka  on  the  sides, 
and  the  enemy  in  their  rear,  that  tempted  the  Egyptians  to  pur- 
sue them  through  the  valley  of  Bedea,  hy  the  direct  road  from 
Cairo  ;  who  "overtook  them  encamping  by  the  sea,  beside  Piha- 
hiroth, opposite  to  Baalzephon."   (Exod.  xiv.  2 — 9.) 

Niebuhr  wonders  how  the  Israelites  could  suffer  themselves  to 
be  brought  into  such  a  disadvantageous  situation,  or  be  led  blind- 
fold by  Moses  to  their  apparent  destruction  :  "  one  need  only 
travel  with  a  caravan,"  says  he  "  which  meets  with  the  least 
obstacle,  viz.  a  small  torrent,  to  be  convinced  that  the  Orientals 
do  not  let  themselves  he  led,  like  fools,  by  their  Caravan  Baschi," 
or  leader  of  the  caravan,  (p.  350.)  But  the  Israelites  went  out 
of  Egypt  with  "  a  high  hand,"  though  led  by  Moses,  yet  under 
the  visible  guidance  and  protection  of  "the  Lord  God  of  the 
Hebrews,"  who  went  before  them  by  day  in  a  pillar  of  a  cloud, 
and  by  night  in  a  pillar  of  fire ;  and  who,  for  their  encourage- 
ment to  enter  the  passage  of  the  sea  miraculously  prepared  for 
them,  removed  the  cloud  which  went  before  the  camp  of  Israel 
hitherto,  and  placed  it  behind  them.  (Exod.  xiv.  8 — 20.)  "  And 
it  came  between  the  camp  of  the  Egyptians  and  the  camp  of 
Israel ;  and  it  was  a  cloud  and  darkness  to  the  one,  but  gave 
light  hy  night  to  the  other ;  so  that  the  one  came  not  near  the 
other  all  the  night."  (Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol. 
i.  pp.  388 — 391.)  The  preceding  elaborate  view  of  this  subject 
furnishes  a  most  clear  and  satisfactory  answer  to  the  cavils  of 
modern  infidels. 

Various  ancient  traditions  among  the  heathen  historians  attest 
the  reality  of  the  miraculous  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  by  the  Is- 
raelites:  to  which  we  may  add  that  it  is  manifest  from  the  text 
of  Moses  and  other  sacred  authors,  who  have  mentioned  this 
miraculous  passage,  that  no  other  account  is  supportable  but  that 
which  supposes  the  Hebrews  to  cross  over  the  sea  from  shore  to 
shore,  in  a  vast  space  of  dry  ground  which  was  left  void  by  the 
waters  at  their  retiring.  (Exod.  xiv.  16,  17,  &c.)  To  omit  the 
numerous  allusions  in  the  book  of  Psalms,  Isaiah  says  (Ixiii.  11, 
&c.)  that  the  Lord  divided  the  waves  before  his  people,  that  he 
conducted  them  through  the  bottom  of  the  abyss,  as  a  horse  is 
led  through  the  midst  of  a  field.  Habakkuk  says  (iii.  15.),  that 
the  Lord  made  himself  a  road  to  drive  his  chariot  and  horses 
across  the  sea,  across  the  mud  of  great  waters.  Lastly,  in  the 
apochryphal  book  of  Wisdom  we  rend  (xix.  7,  8.  x.  17,  18.),  that 
the  dr^  land  appeared  all  on  a  sudden  in  a  place  where  water 
was  before  ;  that  a  free  passage  was  opened  in  a  moment  through 
the  midst  of  the  Red  Sea ;  and  that  a  green  field  was  seen  in  the 
midst  of  the  abyss. 

Rkhtjk,  cities  of,  16. 

Rk.gal  Govehnmest  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews,  4? — 46.  Its 
duration.  49. 


RH 


Rkhios  round  ahout  Jordan,  notice  of,  33. 

Rkmoiiuam,  the  son  and  successor  of  Solomon.  In  his  reign 
the  kingdom  of  David  was  divided,  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin retaining  their  allegiance  to  Rehoboam,  while  the  other 
ten  tribes  became  subject  to  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Aebat.  Reho- 
boam died  after  reigning  17  years,  and  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  of  Judah  hy  his  son  Aisijaii  or  Aiujam,  h.c.954. 

RKLMiio.N,  corruptions  of,  among  the  Jews,  135 — 143.  Par- 
ticularly in  the  time  of  Christ,  148 — 150, 

Rk.mi'iiav,  a  Coptic  name  of  Saturn,  who  was  also  worship- 
ped under  the  name  of  Moloch,  (Acts  vii.  43.  Compare 
p.  137.) 

Rkmiixg  of  garments,  a  sign  of  mourning,  159. 

Rkj'iiaim  or  RAenAi.v,the  sons  of  Ra|)ha  (2  Sam.  xxi.  16.  18, 
Heb.  anil  marginal  rendering),  a  Canaanitish  race  of  giants  that 
dwelt  beyond  the  Jordan  (Gen.  xiv.  5.  xv.  20.  Josh.  xvii.  15.), 
from  whom  the  gigantic  Og  king  of  Bashan  was  descended. 
(Di!Ut.  iii.  II.)  In  a  wider  sense,  this  word  seems  to  have  in- 
eluded  all  the  giant  tribes  of  Canaan.  (Deut.  ii.  11.  20.)  In 
sul)se(|uent  times,  the  sons  of  Rapha  appear  to  have  been  men 
of  extraordinary  strength  among  the  Philistines.  (2  Sam.  xxi, 
16.  18.  marg.  rend.)  The  Vallet  of  the  Rkihaim  (for  an 
account  of  which  see  pp.  31,  32.)  derives  its  name  from  this 
tribe. 

REPHiniM,  a  station  or  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
desert  (Exod.  xvii.  1.),  where  the  Israelites  were  miraculously 
supplied  with  water  out  of  the  rock  of  Mkhiiiah.  It  is  an  in- 
suhited  rock,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Sinai,  about  six  yards  square, 
according  to  Dr.  Shaw,  but  Mr.  Carne  says  that  it  is  about  five 
yards  long,  five  in  height,  and  four  yards  wide.  This  rock, 
which  is  of  granite,  is  in  Deut.  viii.  15.  rightly  called  a  r-ock  of 
JJint,  in  consequence  of  its  hardness :  it  lies,  tottering,  as  it 
were,  and  loose,  near  the  middle  of  the  valley,  end  seems  for- 
merly to  have  been  a  part  or  cliff  of  Mount  Sinai.  The  ivatera 
which  gushed  out,  and  the  stream  which  fou-cd  -withal  (Psal.  vii, 
8.  21.),  have  hollowed  across  one  corner  of  this  rock  a  channel 
about  two  inches  deep,  and  twenty  inches  wide.  There  are  also 
four  or  five  fissures,  one  above  the  other,  on  the  face  of  the  rock, 
each  of  them  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  and  a  few  inches 
deep,  "  the  lively  and  demonstrative  evidence  of  their  having 
been  formerly  so  many  fountains."  A  remarkable  circumstance 
is,  that  they  run  along  the  breadth  of  the  rock,  and  are  not  sent 
downwards :  they  are  more  than  a  foot  asunder.  Neither  art 
nor  chance  could  be  concerned,  says  Dr.  Shaw,  in  the  contri- 
vance :  inasmuch  as  every  circumstance  points  out  to  us  a  mira- 
cle ;  and,  in  the  same  manner  with  the  rent  in  the  rock  of  Cal- 
vary at  Jerusalem,  never  fails  to  produce  the  greatest  seriousness 
and  devotion  in  all  who  see  it.  (Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp,  109, 
110.  Game's  Letters,  pp.  IHS,  199.) 

Restitution,  in  what  cases  enjoined,  65. 

Retaliation  among  the  Jews,  64,  65. 

Reuben,  the  eldest  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  gave  his  name  to 
one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel ;  for  the  canton  assigned  to 
which,  see  p.  16. 

Revenues  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,  46.  Of  the  Le- 
vites,  112.     And  of  the  priests,  113. 

REVEnENCE  of  the  Jews  for  their  temple,  ICO,  101.  Of  infe- 
riors to  superiors,  169. 

Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  an  able  prince  who  knew  how  to  avail 
himself  of  the  divisions  of  his  neighbours,  in  order  to  aggrandize 
himself.  He  formed  an  alliance  with  Pekah  king  of  Israel  against 
Ahaz  king  of  Judah.  whose  dominions  he  invaded;  and,  after 
obtaining  considerable  advantages^  he  took  a  great  number  of 
prisoners,  whom  he  sent  to  Damascus,  and  then  proceeded  to  lay 
siege  to  Jerusalem,  in  which  he  failed,  (2  Kings  xv.  37.  xvi.  .5. 
2  Chron.  xxxviii.  5.)  This  check,  which  had  been  foretold  by 
Isaiah  (vii.  1 — 8.),  frustrated  the  project  formed  by  the  allied 
princes  for  overthrowing  the  dynasty  of  David.  Rezin  was  more 
successful  in  Idumsea,  where  he  made  himself  master  of  the  port 
of  Elalh  on  the  Red  Sea ;  an  important  conquest  which  gave 
him  the  command  of  the  neighbouring  country  and  sea  (2  Kings 
xvi.  6.)  His  successes  were  of  short  duration  ;  in  the  following 
year,  agreeably  to  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  (viii.  4.  ix.  10.),  Da- 
mascus was  taken  by  i'iglath-pileser  king  of  Assyria,  who  car- 
ried its  inhabitants  into  bondage,  and  put  to  death  Rezin,  with 
whom  the  kingdom  of  Syria  terminated. 

RiiK(;iuM,  a  maritime  city,  netir  the  south-western  extremity 
of  Italy,  opposite  to  Messina  in  Sicily.  Here  St.  Paul  stayed  one 
day,  on  his  first  voyage  to  Rome.  (Acts  xxviii,  13,)  It  is  now 
called  Rheggio. 


448 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


S  A 


Rhoties,  an  island  and  city  in  the  Levant,  which  is  said  to 
have  derived  its  name  from  the  abundance  of  roses  which  grew 
there.  When  St.  Paul  went  to  Jerusalem,  a.  d.  58,  he  went  from 
Miletus  to  Coos,  from  Coos  to  Rhodes,  and  thence  to  Patara  in 
Lycia.  (Acts  xxi.  1.) 

RriiLAH,  a  city  of  Syria,  in  the  country  of  Hamath,  which, 
according  to  Jerome,  was  tlie  same  with  what  was  afterwards 
called  AsTiocH  in  Syria.  It  was  very  pleasantly  situated;  and 
here  Pharaoh-Nccho  stopped,  on  his  return  from  the  battle  of 
Megiddo.   (2  Kings  xxiii.  33.) 

RiMMON  signifies  a  pomegranate  tree. 

1.  An  idol  of  the  Syrians,  supposed  to  be  the  Jupiter  of  the 
ancients,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  the  sun.   (2  Kings  v.  8.) 

2.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  on  the  southern  boundary  of 
Palestine.  (Josh.  xv.  32.  xix.  7.  Zech.  xiv.  10.) 

3.  A  rock  not  far  from  Gibeah,  whither  the  children  of  Benja- 
min retreated  after  their  defeat.  (Judg.  xx.  45. 47.  xxi.  13.)  Hi- 
ther also  Saul  and  his  men  went.   (1  Sam.  xiv.  2.) 

4.  Rimmox-methoah  (a  round  pomegranate'),  a  city  in  the 
tribe  of  Zebulon  (Josh.  xix.  13),  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  same 
as  RiMMONO,  which  is  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  vi.  62. 

5.  RiMMON-PAREZ  (s/)/i< /jojue^rano^e),  the  sixteenth  encamp- 
ment of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  (Num.  xxxiii.  19.) 

Rings  worn  by  the  Jews,  157,  1.58. 

RiVEUs  of  the  Holy  Land,  25,  26. 

RoREi.  or  Ejf-ROGEL,  fountain  of,  28. 

Rome,  the  metropolis  of  the  world  during  the  period  comprised 
in  the  New  Testament  history.  According  to  the  chronology  of 
Archbisliop  Usher,  this  city  was  founded  by  Remus  and  Romu- 
lus, A.M.  3966  of  the  Julian  period,  in  a.m.  3256,  b.c.  748, 
towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah.  This 
city  is  so  well  known,  that  it  is  needless  to  give  any  account  of 
it  here.  The  later  sacred  authors  of  the  Old  Testament  have 
not  mentioned  it ;  but  it  frequently  occurs  in  the  books  of  the 
Maccabees  and  in  the  New  Testament.  Saint  Peter  (1  Ep.  v. 
13.)  has  denoted  it  by  the  figurative  name  of  Babylon.  Tlie 
church  that  is  at  Bnhylon,  elected  together  with  you,  saluteth 
you.  Saint  John,  in  his  Revelation  (xiv.  8.  xvi.  19.  xvii.  5.  xviii. 
2.  10.  21.),  points  it  out  by  the  same  name,  and  describes  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  can  only  agree  to  Rome:  1.  By  its  command 
over  all  nations ;  2.  By  its  cruelty  towards  the  saints ;  and,  3. 
By  its  situation  upon  seven  hills.  (Rev.  xvii.  9.)  St.  Paul  came 
twice  to  Rome  :  first,  a.  d.  61,  when  he  appealed  to  Cassar;  and, 
secondly,  a.  p.  65,  a  year  before  his  martyrdom,  which  happened 
in  A.  1).  66.  Account  of  the  judicature  of  the  Romans,  57 — 59. 
Roman  tribunals,  60.  Powers  of  the  Roman  procurators,  52. 
Roman  mode  of  computing  time,  72,  73.  Discipline  and  military 
triumphs,  93 — 95.  Tribute  reluctantly  paid  to  the  Romans  by 
the  Jews,  60. 

Roofs  of  houses,  153. 

Rudder-bands,  nature  of,  188. 

Rural  and  Domestic  Economy  of  the  Jews,  174 — 180. 

Ruth,  a  Moabitish  woman,  who  returned  with  her  mother-in- 
law  Naomi  to  the  land  of  Israel,  and  became  the  wife  of  Boaz. 
(Matt.  i.  5.)     See  an  analysis  of  the  Bopk  of  Ruth,  p.  218. 


Sabbath  of  the  Jews,  how  observed,  121,  122. 

Sabbatical  Year,  account  of,  128. 

Sabtechaii,  a  people  or  country  of  the  Cushites ;  most  pro- 
bably Sabatha  or  Sabota,  a  considerable  city  of  Arabia  Felix, 
according  to  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist.  1.  vi.  c.  28.  §  32.),  the  principal 
city  of  the  Atrauiites,  a  tribe  of  Sabaans,  on  the  Red  Sea. 

Sackhut,  an  ancient  musical  instrument,  used  in  Chaldsea, 
supposed  to  consist  of  four  strings,  and  to  emit  a  shrill  sound. 

Sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  points  of  resemblance  be- 
tween and  the  Jewish  Passover,  125. 

Sacred  Obligations  and  Duties  of  the  Jews,  129 — 134. 

Sacred  Persons,  among  them,  account  of,  108 — 116. 

Sacred  Places,  account  of,  95 — 107. 

Sacred  Things,  account  of,  116 — 120. 

Sacred  Times  and  Seasons,  account  of,  121 — 129. 

Sacrifices  of  the  Jews,  divine  origin  of,  117.  Selection  of, 
and  how  oflered,  117,  118.  Dillerent  kinds  of,  118 — 120. 
Their  fitness  and  propriety,  120,  121.  Unbloody  sacrifices,  119. 
Allusions  to  the  sacrifices  of  the  heathens  explained,  139 — 142. 

Sadducees,  sect  of,  tenets  of,  145,  146. 
Sagan,  or  substitute  of  the  high  priest,  1 13. 
Salamis,  the  chief  city  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  the 
Gospel  was  early  preached.  (Acts  xiii.  5.)     It  was  situated  on 


SA 

the  south-east  side  of  the  island,    and  was  afterwards  called 
Constantia. 
Salem. 

1.  A  name  of  the  city  qf  Jerusalem.   (Psal.  Ixxvi.  2.) 

2.  Or  Salim,  a  place  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  where  John 
baptized.   (John  iii.  23.)     Its  situation  cannot  now  be  ascertained. 

Salmone,  a  maritime  city  and  promontory,  which  forms  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  island  of  Crete.   (Acts  xxvii.  7.) 

Salome,  the  wife  of  Zebedee,  and  the  mother  of  the  apostles 
James  and  John.     She  was  one  of  those  who  attended  Jesus 
Christ  on  his  journeys,  and  ministered  to  him.   (Mark  xv.  40. 
xvi.  1.  Matt.  XX.  20.  xxvii.  56.) 
Salt,  covenant  of,  81. 
Salt  Sea,  account  of,  27,  28. 
Salt,  Vale  of,  notice  of,  31. 
Salutations,  forms  of,  168,  169. 
Sam  or  Samiel,  wind,  notice  of,  40. 

Samaria,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  is  very 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament :  it  was  situated  on 
a  hill  which  derived  its  name  from  Semer  or  Shemer,  of  whom 
it  was  purchased  by  Omri  king  of  Israel,  b.  c.  921,  who  made 
it  the  seat  of  his  government,  and  called  it  Samaria  (Heb.  Shorn- 
eron),  from  its  former  owner.  By  his  successors  it  was  greatly 
improved  and  fortified  ;  and,  after  resisting  the  repeated  attacks 
of  the  kings  of  Assyria,  it  was  destroyed  by  Shalmaneser,  b.  c. 
717,  who  reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  stones.  (Micah  i.  6.  2  Kings 
xvii.  6.)  Samaria  seems  to  have  arisen  again  from  its  ruins 
during  the  reign  of  Alexander,  b.  c.  549,  after  whose  death  it 
was  subject  to  the  Egyptian  and  Syrian  kings,  until  it  was 
besieged,  taken,  and  rased  to  the  ground  by,  the  high-priest  Hyr- 
canus,  B.  c.  129  or  130.  It  was  afterwards  wholly  reliuilt,  and 
considerably  enlarged  by  Herod,  surnamed  the  Great,  who  gave 
it  the  name  of  Sebaste,  and  erected  a  temple  there  in  honour  of 
the  emperor  Augustus  (Sebastos)  Ca3sar.  The  situation  is  ex- 
tremely beautiful  and  strong  by  nature.  It  stands  on  a  fine, 
large,  insulated  hill,  surrounded  by  a  broad  deep  valley  ;  whi<  h 
is  environed  by  four  hills,  one  on  each  side,  that  are  cultivated 
with  terraces  up  to  the  top,  sown  with  grain,  and  (as  the  valley 
also  is)  plaiited  with  fig  and  olive  trees.  The  hill  of  Samaiia 
likewise  rises  in  terraces  to  a  height  equal  to  any  of  the  adjoining 
mountains.  The  population  of  Samaria,  in  1819,  was  computed 
by  Mr.  Rae  Wilson  at  nearly  10,000  souls,  composed  of  Turks, 
Arabs,  and  Greeks,  and  a  few  Jews  of  the  Samaritan  sect. 
(Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  377.  Third  edition.)  For  a  notice  of  the 
idols  worshipped  in  Samaria  during  the  captivity,  see  p.  139. 
And  for  an  account  of  the  tenets,  &c.  of  the  Samaritans,  see 
pp.  147,  148. 

Samaria,  Mountains  of,  p.  29.  Region  of,  18. 
Samos,  an  island  of  the  Archipelago  on  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  Romans  wrote  to  the  governor  of  Samos  in  favour 
of  the  Jews,  in  the  time  of  Simon  Maccabseus,  a.  m.  3685, 
B.  c.  139.  (1  Mace.  xv.  23.)  St.  Paul  went  ashore  on  the  same 
island,  as  he  was  going  to  Jerusalem,  a.  d.  58.  (Acts  xx.  15.) 

Samothracia,  an  island  of  the  ^gean  Sea.  St.  Paul  depart- 
ing from  Troas  for  Macedonia,  arrived  first  at  Samothracia,  and 
then  landed  in  Macedonia.  (Acts*xvi.  11.)  It  was  anciently 
called  Dardana  and  liCucania,  and  afterwards  Samos ;  and  in. 
order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  Samos,  the  epithet  Thracian 
was  added,  which  passed  into  the  name  Samothrace. 

Samson  or  Sampson,  the  thirteenth  judge  of  Israel,  the  son  of 
Manoah,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  Before  his  birth  he  was  conse- 
crated to  be  a  Nazarite,  and  was  chosen  to  deliver  the  Israelites 
from  the  yoke  of  the  Philistines.  He  was  celebrated  for  his  vast 
physical  strength,  and  for  the  bravery  and  success  with  which  he 
defended  his  country  against  its  enemies.  (Judg.  xiii. — xvi.) 
He  jijdged  the  Israelites  twenty  years. 

Samuel,  a  celebrated  Hebrew  prophet,  the  son  of  Elkanah 
and  Hannah,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  Having  been  consecrated  to 
God  from  his  birth,  he  received  divine  communications  even  in 
his  childhood  :  he  was  the  fifteenth  and  la!=;l  judge  of  the  I,srael- 
ites.  By  divine  direction,  he  converted  the  Hebrew  common- 
wealth into  a  kingdom  ;  and  anointed  Saul  as  the  first  king,  and 
afterwards  David.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  insti- 
tutor  of  schools  for  the  education  of  the  sons  of  the  prophets. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight  yeais,  about  two  years  before 
the  death  of  Saul.  ^For  an  analysis  of  the  two  books  of  Samuel, 
see  pp.  218 — 220. ;  and  on  the  appearance  of  Samuel  to  Saul  at 
Endor,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  95. 

Sanctuary  of  the  temple  described,  100 
Sandals  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  157. 


I 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


449 


SE 

Sanukdbix,  or  great  council  of  the  Hebrews,  powers  and 
functions  of,  54,  55. 

8apimiiua,  the  wife  of  Ananias,  who,  together  with  him,  was 
struck  with  instant  deiith,  for  attempting  to  deceive  God  the  Holy 
Spirit.   (Acts  V.  1.  3.  9,  10.) 

Saiiaii,  the  wife  of  Ai)raham,  and  the  mother  of  Isaac,  whom 
she  bore  at  an  age  when  she  could  little  expect  such  a  blessing. 
(Gen.  xxi.)  She  died  at  the  advanced  age  of  127  years,  at  Kir- 
jalh-arba,  afterwards  called  Hebron.  (Gen.  xxiii.  1.  'J.) 

Sakius,  the  inetroiiolis  of  the  region  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
was  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tinolus,  which  commands  an 
extensive  view  over  the  surrounding  country.  It  was  celebrated 
for  the  great  oiiulence  and  for  the  volui)tuous  and  debauched 
manners  of  its  inlial)itants.  Considerable  ruins  still  attest  the 
ancient  splendour  of  this  once  celebrated  capital  of  Cra-sus  and 
the  Lydian  kings,  which  is  now  reduced  to  a  wretched  village 
called  Sart,  consisting  of  a  few  nmd  huts  occupied  by  Turkish 
herdsmen.  "  A  great  portion  of  the  ground  once  occupied  by  the 
imperial  city  is  now  a  smooth  grassy  plain,  browsed  over  by  the 
sheep  of  the  peasants,  or  trodden  by  the  camels  of  the  caravan  ; 
and  all  that  remains  to  point  out  the  site  of  its  glory  are  a  few 
disjointed  pillars,  and  the  crumbling  rock  of  the  Acropolis."  No 
Christians  reside  on  the  spot :  two  Greek  servants  of  a  Turkish 
miller,  in  1826,  were  the  only  representatives  of  the  church  at 
Sardis,  the  present  state  of  which  atfords  a  most  striking  illus- 
tration of  the  accomplishment  of  the  prophetic  denunciations 
against  the  church  in  that  city.  (Emerson's  Letters  from  the 
.iEgean,  vol.  i.  pp.  201.  216 — 218;  Hartley's  Visit,  Miss.  Regis- 
ter, 1827,  p.  326.;  Arundcll's  Visit,  pp.  176—182.) 

Saukpta,  or  Zahkphatu  (Luke  iv.  26.),  was  a  city  in  the 
territory  of  Sidon,  between  that  city  and  Tyre.  It  was  the  place 
where  the  widow  dwelt  to  whom  the  prophet  Elijah  was  sent, 
and  was  preserved  by  her  cruise  of  oil  and  barrel  of  meal  that 
wasted  not.  (1  Kings  xvii,  9.)  It  is  now  a  small  village  called 
Zarfa. 

Sahoox  (Isa.  XX.  1.),  a  king  of  Assyria,  whom  some  critics 
and  expositors  have  supposed  to  have  been  the  predecessor  of 
Sennacherib ;  while  others  have  conceived  him  to  have  been 
Sennacherib  himself. 

Saiio.n  or  SiiAHox,  atown  adjoining  to  Lydda,  which  gave  name 
to  the  spacious  and  fruitful  valley  between  Ctesarea  and  Joppa. 
Peter's  miraculous  healing  of  the  paralytic  Eneas  at  Lydda  was 
the  means  of  bringing  the  inhabitants  of  Saron  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  Gospel.  (Acts  ix.  35.) 

Saul. 

1.  The  son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  the  first 
king  of  Israel.  In  conse(pience  of  his  disregarding  the  divine 
commands,  he  was  rejected  by  God,  and  David  the  son  of  Jesse 
anointed  to  be  sovereign  in  his  stead.  Saul,  after  persecuting 
David  for  many  years,  was  slain,  together  with  his  two  sons,  on 
Mount  Gilboa,  fighting  against  the  Phihstines.  (2  Sam.  i.)  On 
the  nature  of  bis  malady,  see  p.  196. 

2.  The  Jewish  name  of  the  apo.stle  Paul. 
ScAPK-uoAT,  typical  reference  of,  127. 
ScKPTHf:  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  44. 

ScEVA,  a  Jew,  one  of  the  chief  priests,  whose  seven  sons  went 
from  city  to  city,  as  many  Jev^'s  did,  to  exorcise  those  who  were 
possessed  by  demons.  At  Ephesus  pretending  to  invoke  the 
name  of  Jesus  over  the  possessed,  they  were  so  severely  treated 
by  these  spirits  for  their  presumption,  that  they  were  forced  to  flee 
out  of  the  house  naked  and  wounded.  (Acts  xix.  14 — 17.) 

Schools  of  the  Jews,  particularly  of  the  prophets,  184,  185. 
Military  schools,  87. 

Sciences  cultivated  by  the  Jews,  account  of,  184 — 187. 

ScoupioNS  of  the  desert,  .34.  note  2. 

ScoiRRiNG,  punishment  of,  how  inflicted  among  the  Jews,  64, 
and  among  the  Romans,  ibid.  Could  not  be  inflicted  on  a  Roman 
citizen,  58,  59. 

ScniiiEs,  account  of,  in  the  time  of  Moses,  42;  and  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  146.     Royal  scribes,  47. 

ScHiPTUREs,  reading  of,  in  the  Synagogues,  104,  105. 

Seals  or  Signets  of  the  Jews,  157,  158. 

Seas  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  See  pp.  26 — 28 ;  and  Red 
Sea,  p.'>446. 

Seasons  of  Palestine,  2.3 — 25. 

Sects  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  144 — 146. 

Seed-time,  notice  of,  23. 

Seiii. 

1.  Mountains  of  Seir,  a  ridge  to  the  south  of  the  .Dead  Sea, 
inclining  towards  Elath  and  Ezion-geber  upon  the  Red  Sea. 

Vol.  II.  3  L 


SH 


2.  A  mountain  upon  the  frontiers  of  the  tribes  of  Judah  and 
Dan. 

SKinATH,  the  place  where  Ehud  stopped  after  the  death  of 
Eglon  king  of  Moab.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  near  Bethel. 
(Judg.  iii.  26.) 

Selaii,  the  capital  of  the  Edomites,  which  Amaziah  captured, 
and  changed  its  name  into  Joktheel.  It  is  supposed  to  have  de- 
rived its  name  (which  signifies  a  rock)  from  its  rocky  situation, 
and  to  have  been  the  city  afterwards  called  Petra  in  Arabia. 
(2  Kings  xiv.  7.) 

Seleicwa,  a  lortified  city  of  Syria,  situated  on  the  sea-coast, 
a  little  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Orontes :  it  derived  its 
name  from  Sclcucus  Nicator,  and  was  sometimes  called  Seleucia 
ud  mare,  to  distinguish  it  from  seven  or  eight  other  cities  in 
Syria  of  the  same  name.     (Acts  xiii.  4.) 

Seleucid/J',,  area  of,  77,  and  note  4. 

Self-inteiidiction,  vows  of,  130. 

Senate  of  Seventy  in  the  wilderness,  notice  of,  42. 

Sennachehiii,  a  king  of  Assyria,  who  invaded  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  See  Assyuia,  p.  410.  col.  2. 

Sentences  (Judicial),  how  performed  among  the  Jews,  57. 

SEPiiAnAD,  a  country  or  place  where  some  of  the  Jewish  cap- 
tives dwelt.  In  the  Latin  Vulgate,  it  is  rendered  Bosphonis  ,- 
in  the  Syriac  and  Chaldce  versions,  and  by  modern  Hebrew 
commentators,  it  is  rendered  iSpaiji.  Both  these  explanations, 
says  Gesenius,  are  undoubtedly  false ;  but  nothing  more  certain 
can  be  substituted  in  their  place. 

Sepiiaiivim,  a  city  under  the  government  of  the  Assyrians, 
probably  situated  in  Mesopotamia ;  whence  colonists  were  sent 
into  the  country  of  Samaria.     (2  Kings  xvii.  24.) 

Sepulchhes  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  200,  201. 

Sepultuhe,  rights  of,  199,  200. 

Serar,  nature  of,  35,  and  note  3. 

Sergius  Paulvs,  the  Roman  proconsul  or  governor  of  Cy- 
prus, who  was  led  by  the  preaching  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to 
embrace  the  Christian  faith.     (Acts  xiii.  7.) 

Serpent,  Brazen,  worshipped  by  the  Jews,  136,  137. 

Servants,  dillerent  kinds  of,  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures, 
168.     How  hired  and  paid  in  Juda;a,  167. 

Seth,  the  son  of  Adam  and  Eve,  and  father  of  Enos,  was 
bom  after  the  death  of  Abel.  He  lived  912  years.  His  posterity, 
who  were  distinguished  from  the  descendants  of  Cain  by  the  ap- 
pellation of  the  sons  of  God,  preserved  the  patriarchal  religion 
in  its  purity  until  the  time  of  the  deluge,  after  which  it  was 
transmitttHi  by  the  race  of  Sheni.  (1  Chron.  i.  1.  Luke  iii.  1. 
Gon.  iv.  25.    v.  3.    vi.  2.) 

SiiAiiow  OF  Death,  Valley  of,  notice  of,  .34.  note  3. 

Shalmaneser  or  Salmaneser  king  of  Assyria.  See  As- 
syria, 410.  col.  1. 

Sharon,  Vale  of,  notice  of,  32. 

Shayeu,  Valley  of,  notice  of,  31. 

Shechem.     See  Sichem,  infra. 

SuEEP-HusHANDnr  of  the  Jews,  175,  176. 

Shem  or  Sem,  the  second  son  of  Noah.  (Gen.  v.  32.)  Ac- 
cording to  the  genealogical  table  in  Gen.  x.  the  nations  in  south- 
western Asia,  as  the  Persians,  Assyrians,  Syrians,  Hebrews,  and 
part  of  the  Arabians,  were  descended  from  him. 

Shemer,  the  name  of  the  possessor  of  the  mountain  on  which 
the  city  of  Samaria  was  erected  by  Omri  king  of  Israel,  to 
whom  he  sold  that  territory  for  two  talents  of  silver.  From  the 
circumstance  of  that  city  being  called  after  his  name,  as  well  as 
from  the  very  small  sum  given  by  way  of  purchase  money,  it 
has  been  conjectured  that  Shemer  made  it  one  of  the  conditions 
of  sale  that  his  name  should  be  given  to  the  new  city.  As  the 
law  of  Moses  prohibited  the  irredeemable  cession  of  estates,  and 
as  Shemer's  name  is  mentioned  without  any  notice  of  his  gene- 
alogy, it  is  not  improbable  that  he  was  descended  from  the  Ca- 
naanites,  whom  the  Israelites  had  not  been  able  to  expel. 

Shemoneh  Esrar,  or  Jewish  Prayers,  107, 108. 

Shenib,  Mount,  30. 

Shepherds,  duties  of,  176. 

Sheshach,  another  name  for  Babylon.  (Jer.  xxv.  26.  li.  41.) 
Tliis  is  evident  firom  the  connection  ;  but  the  derivation  of  the 
word  is  obscure.  Calmet  supposed  Sheshach  to  be  a  pagan  idol, 
worshipped  at  Babylon ;  and  that  Jeremiah  gave  to  that  city  the 
name  of  its  tutelar  deity. 

Shields  of  the  Hebrews,  and  of  tlio  Romans,  87,  88. 

Shilou,  a  celebrated  city  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  where  the 
people  assembled  (Josh.  xnii.  1.)  to  set  up  the  tabernacle  of  the 
congregation,  which  continued  there  until  the  time  of  Eli. 


450 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


SI 


(1  Sam.  iv.  .3.)    It  was  situated  on  a  high  mountain  to  the  north 
of  Bethel. 

SiuNAii,  the  territory  of  Babylon.  (Gen.  x.  10.  xi.  2.  xiv.  1. 
Isa.  xi.  11.  Dan.  i.  2.  Zech.  v.  11.)  The  boundaries  of  this 
country  are  defined  in  Gen.  x.  10.,  and  depend  on  tlie  interpre- 
tation given  to  the  names  of  cities  mentioned  in  that  verse. 

Ships,  of  the  ancients,  notice  of,  188,  189. 

Shishak,  a  king  of  Egypt  who  was  contemporary  with  Solo- 
mon and  Kehoboam.  He  hrst  gave  an  asylum  to  the  malcon- 
tent Jeroboam  (1  Kings  xi.  40.);  and  afterwards,  as  soon  as  he 
saw  that  Rehoboam's  power  was  weakened  by  the  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  he  invaded  Judxa  and  advanced  against  Jerusalem 
with  an  immense  army,  composed  of  Egyptians,  Ethiopians, 
Lybians,  and  Sulddm  or  Troglodytes.  But,  satisfied  with  the 
submission  of  the  Jewish  monarch  and  with  the  spoils  of  his 
capital,  including  the  treasures  of  the  temple,  he  left  him  his 
throne,  and  drew  ofl'  his  forces.  (1  Kings  xiv.  25,  26.  2  Chron. 
xii.  2 — y.)  Shishak  is  the  Sesonchis  of  profane  historians,  and 
the  head  of  the  Bubastite  or  twenty-second  dynasty  of  the 
Egyptian  kings.  His  name  has  been  discovered  on  the  recently 
explained  Egyptian  monuments  (compare  Vol.  I,  p.  88,  89.)  ; 
and  he  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  Ethiopian,  who,  supported 
by  the  military  caste,  dethroned  the  Pharaoli  who  was  Solomon's 
father-in-law. 

SiioKs,  or  Sandals  of  the  Hebrews,  157. 

Snow  BREAD,  table  of,  notice  of,  100.  119. 

SniufEM,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar.  (Josh.  xix.  18. 
2  Sam.  xxviii.  4.)  Here  the  prophet  Elisha  was  hospitably  en- 
tertained by  a  benevolent  woman  ;  whose  son  dying,  he  miracu- 
lously restored  him  to  life.  (2  Kings  iv.)  According  to  Euse- 
bius,  there  was  a  place  called  Siile?ii  (by  a  commutation  of  /  and 
n)  five  Roman  miles  south  of  Mount  Tabor. 

Shuk,  Wilderness  of,  notice  of,  33. 

Shushan,  the  capital  of  Susiana,  a  province  of  Elam  or  Persia, 
which  Daniel  terms  the  palace  (viii.  2.),  because  the  Chaldasan 
monarchs  had  here  a  royal  palace.  After  Cyrus,  the  kings  of 
Persia  were  accustomed  to  pass  the  winter  there,  and  the  sum- 
mer at  Ecbatana.  The  winter  was  very  moderate  at  Shushan, 
but  the  heat  of  the  summer  was  so  great,  that  the  very  lizards 
and  serpents,  if  surprised  by  it  in  the  streets,  are  said  to  have 
been  burned  up  by  the  solar  rays.  This  city  stands  on  the  river 
EJIai,  or  Choaspes.  In  this  city,  and  on  this  river,  Daniel  had 
the  vision  of  the  ram  with  two  horns,  and  the  goat  with  one 
horn,  &c.  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Belshazzar  (Dan. 
viii.  1 — 3,  &c.),  A.  M.  3447,  b.  c.  557.  In  this  city  of  Shushan, 
the  transactions  took  place  which  are  related  in  the  book  of 
Esther,  Here  Ahasuerus,  or  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  gene- 
rally resided  and  reigned.  (Esth.  i.  1,2.  5,  &c.)  He  rebuilt, 
enlarged,  and  adorned  it.  Nehemiah  was  also  at  Shushan,  when 
he  obtained  from  king  Artaxerxes  permission  to  return  into 
Judaea,  and  to  repair  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  (Neh.  i.  1.)  Ben- 
jamin of  Tudela,  and  Abulfaragius,  place  the  tomb  of  Daniel  at 
Chuzestan,  which  is  the  ancient  city  of  Shushan,  and  a  tomb  is 
still  shown  to  travellers,  as  the  tomb  of  the  prophet.  Dr.  Light- 
foot  says,  that  the  outward  gate  of  the  eastern  wall  of  the  temple 
was  called  the  gate  of  Shushan  ;  and  that  upon  this  gate  was 
carved  the  figure  (more  probably  the  arms  or  insignia)  of  Shu- 
shan, in  acknowledgment  of  the  decree  there  granted  by  Darius 
son  of  Hystaspes,  which  permitted  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple. 
'l"he  site  of  this  once  noble  metropolis  of  the  ancient  sovereigns 
of  Persia  is  now  a  mere  wilderness ;  no  human  being  residing 
there  excepting  one  poor  dcrvise,  who  keeps  watch  over  the  sup- 
posed tomb  of  the  prophet  Daniel.  See  an  account  of  the  ruins 
and  tlic  present  state  of  Shushan,  in  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels 
in  Georgia,  Persia,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  411 — 418. 

SicAiiii,  or  assassins  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  no- 
tice of,  148. 

SicHKM,  SrciiAR  or  Shf.ciikm,  a  city  of  Samaria,  about  forty 
miles  distant  from  Jerusalem,  which  became  the  metropoHs  of 
the  Samaritan.s  after  the  destruction  of  Samaria  by  Hyrcanus. 
In  tlie  vicinity  of  this  place  is  Jacob's  well  (John  iv.  6),  memo- 
rable far  our  Saviour's  conversation  with  the  Samaritan  woman. 
It  stands  in  a  delightful  situation,  and  is  at  present  called  Napo- 
lose.  The  remains  of  the  sect  of  the  Samaritans,  now  reduced 
to  about  forty  persons,  chiefly  reside  here.  Contiguous  to  this 
place  lies  a  valley,  which  opens  into  a  plain  watered  by  a  fruit- 
ful stream,  that  rises  near  the  town.  This  is  universally  allowed 
to  be  the  jjarcel  of  a  fiidil  mentioned  by  Saint  John  (iv.  5.) 
which  Jiicoh  bought  at  tlie  hand  of  the  children  of  Humor. 
(Gen.  x.>Lxiii.  19.)     Dr.  Clarke  (Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  260 — 280. 


MA 

8vo.)  has  given  a  minute  and  very  inttiuoung  account  oi  the 
antiquities  of  Shechem.  See  also  Mr.  JoUifle's  Letters  from 
Palestine,  pp.  44 — 48. 

Sick,  healing  of,  why  deemed  unlawful  by  the  Jews,  on  the 
Sabbath-day,  121.     Treatment  of,  194,  195. 

SiDDiM,  Vale  of,  notice  of,  31. 

SiDOJT,  or  Zinojv,  a  celebrated  city  of  Palestine,  reputed  to 
have  been  founded  by  Sidon  the  eldest  son  of  Canaan,  from 
whom,  according  to  Josephus,  it  derives  its  name;  but  other 
authorities  derive  the  name  Sidon  from  the  Hebrew  or  Syrian 
word  m^X  (Ts/nen),  which  signifies  fishing.  If  the  primitive 
founder  was  a  fisherman,  the  two  accounts  may  be  easily  recon-' 
ciled.  Joshua  (xi.  8.)  calls  it  Sidon  the  Great,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence ;  whence  some  have  taken  occasion  to  say,  that  in  his 
time  there  were  two  Sidons,  a  greater  and  a  lesser :  but  no  ge- 
ographer has  mentioned  any  other  Sidon  than  Sidon  the  Great. 
Joshua  assigned  Sidon  to  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  28.), 
but  this  tribe  could  never  get  possession  of  it.  (Judg.  i.  31.) 
It  is  situated  on  the  Mediterranean,  one  day's  journey  from 
Paneas,  or  from  the  fountains  of  Jordan,  in  a  fine  level  tract 
of  land,  the  remarkably  simple  air  of  which  suits  with  that 
touching  portion  of  the  Gospel,  which  records  the  interview  of 
Jesus  Christ  on  this  very  spot, — the  coasts  of  Ti/re  and  Sidon, — 
with  the  Syro-Phoenician  woman.  (Matt.  xv.  21 — 28,  Mark 
vii.  24 — 30.)  Abulfeda  places  it  sixty-six  miles  from  Damascus. 
This  city  has  been  always  famous  for  its  great  trade  and  navir 
gation.  Its  inhabitants  were  the  first  remarkable  merchants  in 
the  world,  and  were  very  early  celebrated  on  account  of  their 
luxury ;  foi,  in  the  days  of  the  judges  of  Israel,  the  inhabitants 
of  Laish  are  said  to  have  dwelt  careless  and  secure  after  the 
manner  of  the  Zidonians.  (Judg.  xviii.  7.)  The  men  of  Sidon 
being  great  shipwrights,  were  particularly  eminent  above  all 
other  nations,  for  hewing  and  polishing  timber,  there  being  no7ie 
■who -were  skilled  hoiv  to  hetv  timber  like  the  Sidonians.  (1  Kings 
V.  6.)  This  place  is  now  called  Seide  or  Saide:  its  port  is 
small,  and  nearly  filled  up  with  the  accumulation  of  mud.  (Irby's 
and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  201.)  The  city,  as  it  exists  at  present, 
rises  immediately  from  the  strand ;  and,  when  seen  from  a  slight 
distance,  presents  a  rather  imposing  appearance.  The  interior, 
however,  is  most  wretched  and  gloomy.  "  About  half-way  be- 
tween Saide  (or  Sidon)  and  Sour  (or  Tyre)  are  very  extensive 
ruins  of  towns  which  once  connected  these  two  cities;  but  of 
these  ruins  there  is  now  scarcely  one  stone  left  upon  another. 
They  consist  chiefly  of  lines  which  show,  rased  even  with  the 
soil,  the  foundation  of  houses — many  stones  irregularly  scattered 
— a  few  cisterns  with  half-defaced  sculpture  on  them ;  and,  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  path,  there  are  at  one  spot  several 
low  columns  either  mutilated  or  considerably  sunk  in  the  earth. 
These  relies  show,  what  it  needed  indeed  no  such  evidence  to 
prove,  that  in  peaceable  and  flourishing  times,  on  this  road  be- 
tween two  such  considerable  cities  as  Tyre  and  Sidon,  there 
must  have  been  many  smaller  towns  for  business,  pleasure,  and 
agriculture,  delightfully  situated  by  the  seaside ;  but  peaceful  se- 
curity has  long  been  a  blessing  unknown  to  these  regions ;  and 
we  may  apply  to  them  the  language  of  Judges  v.  7. — The  villages 
ceased;  they  ceased  in  Israel."  (JdVvett's  Christ.  Researches  in 
Syria,  pp.  129,  130. 

Sieges,  how  conducted,  89. 

Signets,  notice  of,  157. 

SiHojf,  a  king  of  the  Amorites,  who  refused  a  passage  througii 
his  territories  to  the  Hebrews ;  and,  coming  to  attack  them,  was 
himself  slain.  (Nimi.  xxi.  21.) 

SiHOR,  River,  26. 

Silas  or  Silvands  (the  former  name  being  a  contraction  of 
the  latter),  an  eminent  Christian  teacher,  who  was  Saint  Paul's 
companion  in  his  journeys  through  Asia  Minor  and  Greece. 

SiLOAM,  Fountain  or  Pool  of,  21.  28.  Just  over  against  this 
pool,  near  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  through  which  its  waters 
flow  with  an  almost  imperceptible  current,  and  on  the  slope  of  a 
lofty  mountain  on  the  opposite  side,  is  a  villiige  called  Siloa^:  it 
has  a  miserable  aspect,  many  of  the  habitations  being  no  better 
than  excavations  from  the  rock,  and  the  rest  very  meanly  built 
houses  and  dilapidated  stone  hnts ;  though  it  once  could  boast 
the  palace  of  Pharaoh's  daughter  and  Solomon's  queen.  The 
population  is  said  not  to  exceed  two  hundred  persons.  (Jowett's 
Researches  in  Syria,, p.  262.     Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  45.) 

SiMEOir,  the  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah:  he  was  the  head  of  one  , 
of  the  twelve  tribes ;  for  the  limits  of  whose  allotment,  se&  . 
p.  17. 

Simon  or  Simeon,  the  name  of  several  persons  mentioned  ia 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


451 


SO 

Iho  New  Testament;  of  whom  tlic  following  arc  the  most  rc- 
markulile  ;-^ 

1.  Simon,  surnamed  Peter,  who  was  also  called  Simon  Bar- 
Joiia.     See  Pktkii,  j).  '14'2. 

2.  Si. MOV,  surnamed  llie  Canaimite  (|)crhai)s  lieeause  he  was 
a  native  of  (Jaiia  in  Galilee),  and  also  Zrliites  or  the  Zealous, 
proltaMy  because  he  had  been  of  the  Zkai.ots.  (See  p.  148,  for 
a  notice  of  their  [trinciples.)  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
brother  of  .lames  the  i^ess  and  Jude:  the  particulars  of  his  life 
are  unknown. 

:}.  tSiMo.v,  surnamed  the  Cureuftiu,  from  (^yrene  in  Libya 
(where  many  Jews  were  settled),  who  whs  com])ell('d  to  assist  in 
bearinfi;  the  cross  of  Jesus.  (Matt,  xxvii.  ;J2.)  Why  he  was  so 
compelled,  see  p.  70.  sujira. 

4.  SiMox,  surnamed  Jitiv-Jesua,  a  sorcerer.  (Acts  viiL  9.  13.) 
Sec  liAR-JKsis,  p.  413.  col.  2. 

Simoom  Wind,  pestilential  clfects  of,  40. 

Six. 

1.  A  strong  city  in  Egypt  (Ezek.  xxx.  1.5,  16.),  according  to 
Jerome,  Pelusium  :  it  was  situated  on  the  eastern  boundary  of 
Egypt,  and  was  defended  by  the  swam[)s  which  lay  around  it. 

2.  Desert  of  Sin,  a  part  of  Arabia  D<!serta,  towards  Egypt, 
hetwcen  Eliin  and  Mount  Sinai.  (Exod.  xvi.  1.  xvii.  1.  Num. 
xxxiii.  12.) 

SiN-oFFERiNo,  noticc  of,  118.    Account  of,  65. 

SlNAT, 

1.  Dksert  or  SixAi,  34. 

2.  Mount  Sixai,  a  mountain  in  Arabia  Petraja,  where  the 
law  was  given.  It  had  two  summits  ;  the  one  lower,  called  Ho- 
reb,  or  the  Mount  of  God  (Exod.  iii.  1.),  when  he  appeared  to 
Moses  in  a  flame  of  fire  in  a  bush.  (Sec  Hokeii,  p.  428.,  col.  1.) 
This  Horeb  is  therefore  called  Sinai  by  Saint  Stephen.  (Acts 
vii.  30.)  Mount  Sinai  is  an  enormous  mass  of  granite  rocks, 
with  a  Greek  convent  at  the  bottom,  called  the  Convent  of  St. 
Catharine.  It  is  the  highest  of  a  chain  of  mountains  called  by 
the  Arabians  Djebbel  Moosa  (or  the  mountains  of  Moses),  and 
which  requires  a  journey  of  several  days  to  go  entirely  round  it. 
This  chain  is  partly  composed  of  sand-stone  :  it  contains  several 
fertile  valleys,  in  which  arc  gardens  producing  grapes,  pears, 
dates,  and  other  excellent  fruits.  These  are  taken  to  Cairo, 
where  they  are  sold  at  a  high  price  ;  but  the  general  aspect  of  the 
peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai  is  that  of  a  frightful  sterility.  (Malte- 
Brun's  System  of  Geography,  vol.  ii.  p.  200.) 

SixiM,  a  land  very  distant  from  Palestine.  From  the  context 
of  Isa.  xlix.  12.  it  appears  to  have  been  situated  towards  the 
south  or  east.  Some  expositors  have  supposed  it  to  be  Pelusium 
or  Syene;  but  these  arc  only  cities,  and  not  sufficiently  remote. 
It  were  better  (says  Gescnius)  to  understand  it  of  an  eastern 
country,  perhaps  China ;  of  the  name  of  which  the  Hebrews 
may  have  heard,  as  well  as  of  Scythia  and  India. 
Siox  or  Siniox,  a  name  of  Mount  Hkhmox,  30. 
SivAN  or  SiuvAx,  the  third  month  of  the  ecclesiastical  year 
of  the  Jews ;  and  the  ninth  of  their  civil  year.  For  a  notice  of 
the  festivals,  &c.  in  this  month,  see  p.  76. 

Slaves,  how  acquired,  16.5.  Their  condition  and  treatment 
among  the  Hebrews,  165,  166;  and  heathens,  166,  167.  Expla- 
nation of  customs  relating  to  them,  mentioned  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, 167.     Dilferent  kinds  of,  167,  168. 

Slaying  with  the  sword,  a  Jewish  punishment,  67. 
Slixgs  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88. 

Smtuxa,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  was  situated  between  forty  and 
forty-five  miles  to  the  north  of  Ephesus,  of  which  city  it  was 
originally  a  colony.  It  is  now  celebrated  chiefly  for  the  number, 
wealth,  and  connncrce  of  the  inhabitants.  Of  its  population, 
which  is  estimated  at  about  75,000  inhabitants,  45,000  are  Turks ; 
15,000  Greeks;  8000  Armenians ;  8000  Jews;  and  less  than 
1000  Europeans.  (Hartley's  Visit,  p.  289.)  The  angel  of  the 
church  of  Smyrna,  addressed  in  the  second  apocalyptic  epistle, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  Poly  carp,  the  disciple  of  Saint  John, 
by  whom  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Smyrna.  As  he  afterwards 
sufTered  much,  being  burnt  alive  at  Smyrna,  a.  n.  166,  the  exhor- 
tation in  Rev.  ii.  10.  would  be  peculiarly  calculated  to  support 
and  encourage  him. 

So,"'an  Egyptian  king,  contemporary  with  Hoshea,  with  whom 
he  formed  an  alliance.  (2  Kings  xvii.  4.)  He  appears,  however, 
to  have  been  too  weak  to  succour  Hoshea  against  the  Assyrians, 
one  of  whose  kings,  named  Sargon,  obtained  signal  advantages 
over  him.  (Isa.  xx.  1.)  According  to  Jablonski,  So  means  a 
chief  prince  or  prince  of  the  dwelling.  For  a  long  time  the 
Pharaoh,  who  is  named  So,  in  the  Scriptures,  was  taken  for  the 


ST 


Sabacho  of  profane  history,  the  head  of  the  twenty-fifth  or  Elhi- 
o])ian  dynasty,  who  invaded  Egypt,  caused  its  monarch  Boc- 
cliaris  to  be  thrown  into  the  flames,  and  usurped  the  throne. 
More  recent  and  correct  researches  h.ive  shown  that  So  is  the 
Sevechus  of  profane  history.  (Coqucrel,  Biog.  Sacr.  lorn,  iv, 
p.  223.) 

SoDoM,  the  chief  of  the  Pentapolitan  cities,  or  five  cities  of  the 
|)lain,  gave  the  name  to  the  whole  laixl.  It  was  burnt,  with  three 
other  cities,  by  lire  from  heaven,  for  the  unnatural  lusts  of  their 
inhabitants,  the  truth  of  which  is  attested  by  numerous  healhun 
writers.     See  j)p.  27,  28.  svpva. 

SoLiiiKits  (.lewish)  levies  of,  how  made,  84.  Mosaic  statutes 
concerning  them,  84,  85.  How  commanded,  85,  86.  'i'heir 
encampments,  86,  87.  Their  pay  and  training,  87.  Arms  oi, 
87,  88. 

SoLnir.ns  (Roman),  allusions  to  the  officers,  armour,  and  dis- 
cipline of,  92 — 94.  Their  treatment  of  Jesus  Christ,  70.  'i'hey 
watched  at  the  execution  of  criminals,  72. 

SoLoMOx,  the  son  of  David  and  Bathshcba,  and  the  third  king 
of  Israel,  renowned  for  his  wis<lom  and  riches,  and  for  the  mag- 
nificent temple  which  he  cau.sed  to  be  erected  at  Jerusalem. 
The  commencement  of  his  reign  was  characterized  by  jnety  and 
justice;  but  afterwards  he  abandoned  himself,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  his  heathen  wive.s,  to  gross  and  shameful  idolatry.  Tem- 
ple of,  98.  Extent  of  his  dominions,  17.  His  commerce,  187, 
188.  He  died  m.  c.  975,  after  a  reign  of  forty  years.  For  analy- 
H'ia  of  the  books  of  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles,  which 
were  composed  by  him,  see  pp.  24.5 — 253. 

SoLOMox's  Pouch,  notice  of,  99. 

Soxs,  education  of,  164.     Parental  authority  over  them,  Ihid. 

SosTHEXEs,  a  chief  ruler  of  a  synagogue  at  Corinth.  (Acts 
xviii.  17.)  Concerning  the  interpretation  of  which  passage  the 
learned  diflJer  greatly.  Some  suppose  him  to  have  been  at  this 
time  an  enemy  to  the  apostle  Paul,  and  his  accuser,  though  suli- 
sequently  a  convert  to  the  Christian  faith  ;  and  that  he  was 
beaten  by  the  unbelieving  Greeks,  in  consequence  of  the  opinion 
given  by  the  judge,  and  because  he  had  troubled  the  proconsul 
with  so  impertinent  an  afliiir.  Others  are  of  opinion,  that,  at 
this  time,  he  favoured  Christianity,  and  sulTcred  on  that  account, 
the  Greeks  beating  him  at  the  instigation  of  the  unbelieving 
Jews.  However  this  may  have  been,  Sosthenes  afterwards  joined 
with  Saint  Paul  in  sending  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 
(Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  p.  417.) 

SowiNO  of  corn,  Jewish  mode  of,  177. 

Spaix,  an  extensive  region  of  Europe,  which  anciently  com- 
prehended the  country  forming  the  modern  kingdoms  of  Spain 
and  Portugal.  In  the  time  of  St.  Paul  it  was  subject  to  the  Ro- 
mans. (Rom.  XV.  24.  28.) 

Spears  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88. 

Spoil,  how  distributed  by  the  Jews,  91,  92. 

Staff,  divination  by,  143. 

Stephaxds,  one  of  the  principal  Christians  at  Corinth,  whom 
St.  Paul  baptized  with  all  his  family.  This  was  the  first  family 
in  Achaia  that  embraced  the  Gospel :  its  members  zealously  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  service  of  the  Christians,  and  their  affijc- 
tionate  hospitality  is  recommended  by  the  apostle,  as  an  example 
to  the  Corinthians.  (1  Cor.  i.  16.  xvi.  15,  16.) 

Stepiiex,  the  first  martyr  for  the  faith  of  Christ:  he  was 
one  of  the  seven  primitive  deacons  of  the  Christian  church- 
After  havincr  wrought  many  miracles,  and  ably  defended  the 
doctrines  of  Christ,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  Jews.  (Acts  vL 
vii.)  On  the  stoning  of  Stephen,  see  p.  53.  note  4. 

Stocks,  punishment  of,  65. 

Stoics,  a  sect  of  philosophers  who  derived  their  name  from 
the  Itox  or  portico  where  their  founder  Zeno  delivered  his  lec- 
tures. Their  philosophy  required  an  absolute  control  over  all 
the  passions,  and  taught  that  man  alone,  even  in  his  present  state 
of  existence,  might  attain  to  perfection  and  felicity.  They  en- 
couraged suicide,  and  disbelieved  in  a  future  state  of  rewards  and 
punishments, — a  doctrine  which  they  deemed  unnecessary  as  an 
incitement  to  virtue. 

Stoxe,  white,  import  of,  56. 

Stones,  consecrated,  notice  of,  138.  Hieroglyphic  stones 
prohibited  to  the  Israehtes,  Ihid. 

Stoxing  to  death,  a  Jewish  punishment,  67,  68. 

Strangers,  laws  concerning  the  treatment  of,  82. 

Straw,  used  in  making  bricks,  151. 

Streets  (Oriental),  arrangement  of,  155. 

Studies  of  the  Jews,  185 — 187. 

ScBOBDiiTATioN,  military,  illustration  of,  93. 


453 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
8  Y  T  A 


Sdccoth. 

1.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Gad.  (Josh.  xiii.  27.  .Tndg.  viii.  5. 
1  Kings  vii.  46.)  Hithi-r  "  Jacob  journeyed,  and  built  him  a 
house,  and  made  booths  for  his  cattle  :  therefore  the  name  of  the 
place  is  called  Succoth,"  that  is,  bootus.   (Gen.  xxxiii.  17.) 

2.  The  first  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  their  march  out 
of  Egypt.  (Num.  xxxiii.  5.  Exod.  xii.  37.  xiii.  20.)  Dr.  Shaw 
is  of  opuiion  that  no  fixed  situation  can  be  assigned  for  this  place 
(it  signifying  only  a  place  of  tents),  being  probably  nothing  more 
than  some  considerable  Dou-war  (or  encampment)  of  the  Ish- 
maelitcs  or  Arabs,  such  as  may  be  still  met  with,  at  the  distance 
of  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  from  Cairo,  on  the  road  towards  the 
Red  Sea.  The  rendezvous  of  the  caravan  which  conducted  Dr. 
S.  to  Suez  was  at  one  of  these  Dou-wars ;  at  the  same  time  he 
saw  another  about  six  miles  olf,  in  the  very  same  direction  which 
tlie  Israelites  may  be  supposed  to  have  taken  in  their  marches 
from  Goshen  to  the  Red  Sea.   (Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  93.) 

SuccoTH-BENOTH  (or  bootlis  of  the  daughters),  an  object  of 
idolatrous  worship  among  the  Babylonians.  According  to  the 
most  common  opinion  they  were  small  tents  or  booths,  in  which 
the  Babylonish  maidens  exposed  themselves  to  prostitution,  in 
honour  of  a  Babylonish  goddess  called  Mylitta.  Herodotus  (Hist. 
L  i.  c.  199.)  gives  a  particular  account  of  these  abominable  prac- 
tices ;  which,  there  is  reason  to  conclude  from  1  Kings  xvii.  30., 
the  Babylonians  introduced  into  Judsea. 

SuKKiMs,  an  African  people  mentioned  in  2  Chron.  xiii.  3.  in 
conjunction  with  Libyans  and  Ethiopians.  In  the  Septuagint 
and  Vulgate  versions,  they  are  termed  Troglodytes,  probably  from 
their  dwelling  in  caves.     Such  a  people  dwelt  near  the  Red  Sea. 

Summer  of  Palestine,  notice  of,  24, 

SupERions,  reverence  to,  how  shown,  169. 

ScnvEviNG  of  land,  known  to  the  Jews,  187. 

SusAJfCHiTES,  the  inhabitants  of  Susa  or  Shushan.  (Ezraiv.  9.) 

Swearing,  or  oaths  of  the  Jews.     See  pp.  81,  82. 

SwoiiDs  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88. 

Sycamore  trees  of  Palestine,  37, 

SrcHAR.     See  Sichem,  p.  450. 

Si  EXE,  a  city  on  the  southern  frontiers  of  Egypt,  bordering 
on  Ethiopia.  (Ezek.  xxix.  10.  xxx.  6.) 

SrNAGOGDEs,  Origin  and  form  of,  103,  104.  Officers  of,  104. 
Account  of  the  synagogue  worship,  104 — 106.  Its  ecclesiastical 
power,  106.  Nineteen  Jewish  prayers  read  in  the  synagogue, 
106,  107. 

Syracuse,  a  large  and  celebrated  city  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Sicily,  furnished  with  a  capacious  and  excellent  harbour.  Saint 
Paul  abode  here  three  days  on  his  first  journey  to  Rome.  (Acts 
xxviii,  12.) 

Sykia,  properly  so  called,  was  a  country  of  Asia,  compre- 
hended between  the  Euphrates  on  the  east,  the  Mediterranean  on 
the  west,  Cilicia  on  the  north,  Phosnicia,  Judtea,  and  Arabia 
Deserta,  on  the  south.  It  was  divided  into  various  provinces  or 
cantons,  which  derived  their  names  from  their  situation,  with 
respect  to  particular  rivers  or  cities.     Thus, 

1.  Syria  of  the  two  rivers,  or  Mesopotamia  of  Syria,  or 
Aram  Naharaim  (Hebrew),  was  comprehended  between  the 
two  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

2.  Syria  of  Damascus,  that  of  which  Damascus  was  the 
capital,  extended  eastward  along  Mount  Libanus.  Its  limits 
varied  according  as  the  princes  that  reigned  at  Damascus  were 
more  or  less  powerful. 

3.  Syria  or  Zobah,  or  Soba,  or  Sobal,  as  it  is  called  by  the 
Septuagint,  was  probably  Coele-Syria,  or  Syria  the  hollow.  Its 
capital  was  Zobah,  a  city  unknown,  unless  it  be  Hoba  or  Hobal, 
north  of  Damascus.   (Gen.  xiv.  15.) 

4.  Syria  of  Maaciiar,  or  of  Bethmaacah,  was  also  towards 
Libanus.  (2  Sam.  x.  6.  8.  2  Kings  xv.  29.)  It  extended  beyond 
Jordan,  and  was  given  to  Manasseh.  .(Deut.  iii.  14.) 

5.  Syria  of  Rohob  or  Rehob,  was  that  part  of  Syria  of 
which  Rehob  was  the  capital.  But  Rohob  was  near  the  northern 
frontier  of  the  land  of  promise  (Num.  xiii.  21.),  on  the  way  or 
pass  that  leads  to  Emath  or  Hamath.  It  was  given  to  the  tribe 
of  Asher,  and  is  contiguous  to  Aphek,  which  was  in  Libanus. 
(Josh.  xix.  28.  30,  and  xxi.  31.)  Laish,  otherwise  called  Dan, 
situate  at  the  fountains  of  Jordan,  was  in  the  country  of  Rohob. 
(Judg.  i.  31.)  Hadadazer,  king  of  Syria  of  Zobah,  was  son  of 
Rehob  or  Rohob,  or  perhaps  a  native  of  the  city  of  this  name. 
(2  Sam.  viii.  3.  12.)  The  Ammonites  called  to  their  assistance, 
against  David,  the  Syrians  of  Rehob,  of  Zoba,  of  Maachah,  and 
of  Ishtob.  (2  Sam.  x.  6.  8.) 


6.  Syria  of  Toe,  or  of  Ishtob,  or  of  the  land  of  Tob,  or  of 
the  Tubicni,  as  they  are  called  in  the  Maccabees,  was  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Libanus,  the  northern  extremity  of  Palestine. 
(Judg.  xi.  3.  5.  1  Mace.  v.  13.  2  Mace.  xii.  17.)  When  Jeph- 
thah  was  banished  by  his  brethren  from  Gilead,  he  withdrew  into 
the  land  of  Tob. 

7.  Syria  of  Emath,  or  Hamath,  that  of  which  the  city  Ha- 
math, on  the  Orontes,  was  the  capital. 

8.  Syria,  without  any  other  appellation,  stands  for  the  King- 
dom OF  Syria,  of  which  Antioch  became  the  capital  after  the 
reign  of  the  Seleucidae. 

9.  Cojlo-Syria,  or  Ccele-Syria,  or  the  Lower  Syria,  occurs  ■ 
in  several  places  of  the  Maccabees.  ( 1  Mace.  x.  69.  2  Mace.  iii. 
5.  8.  iv.  4.  viii.  8.)  The  word  Coele-Syria,  in  the  Greek,  signi- 
fies Syria  Cava,  or  Syria  the  Hollow,  or  deep.  It  may  be  con- 
sidered, says  Strabo,  either  in  a  proper  and  restrained  sense,  as 
comprehending  only  the  tract  of  land  between  Libanus  and  Anti- 
libanus  :  or  in  a  larger  signification,  and  then  it  will  comprehend 
all  the  country  in  obedience  to  the  kings  of  Syria,  from  Seleucia 
or  Arabia  and  Egypt. 

Syria  at  first  was  governed  by  its  own  kings,  each  of  whom 
reigned  in  his  own  city  and  territories.  David  subdued  them 
about  A.  M.  2960,  b.  c.  1044  (2  Sam.  viii.  6.),  on  occasion  of  his 
war  against  the  Ammonites,  to  whom  the  Syrians  gave  assistance. 
(2  Sam.  X.  6.  8.  13.  18,  19.)  They  continued  in  subjection  till 
after  the  reign  of  Solomon,  when  they  shook  ofl"  the  yoke,  and . 
could  not  be  reduced  again  till  the  time  of  Jeroboam  II.  king  of 
Israel,  a.  m.  3179,  b.  c.  820.  Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah, 
king  of  Israel,  having  declared  war  against  Ahab,  king  of  Judah, 
this  prince  found  himself  under  the  necessity  of  calling  to  his 
assistance  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  who  put  Rezin  to 
death,  took  Damascus,  and  transported  the  Syrians  out  of  their 
country  beyond  the  Euphrates.  From  that  time  Syria  continued 
in  subjection  to  the  kings  of  Assyria.  Afterwards  it  came  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Chaldaeans  ;  then  under  that  of  the  Persians; 
lastly,  it  was  reduced  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  was  subject  to 
all  the  revolutions  that  happened  to  the  great  empires  of  the  East. 

Syrian  Idols,  notice  of,  137,  138. 

SYKO-PnoE'iyiciA  is  Phoenicia  properly  so  called,  of  which 
Sidon,  or  Zidon,  was  the  capital ;  which  having  by  right  of  con- 
quest been  united  to  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  added  its  old  name 
Phoenicia  to  that  of  Syria.  The  Canaanitish  woman  is  called  a 
Syropha3nician  (Mark  vii.  26.),  because  she  was  of  Phoenicia, 
which  was  then  considered  as  making  part  of  Syria.  St.  Mat- 
thew calls  her  a  Canaanitish  women  (Matt.  xv.  22.  24.),  because 
this  country  was  really  peopled  by  the  Canaanites,  Sidon  being 
the  eldest  son  of  Canaan.  (Gen.  x.  15.)  The  Syro-Phcenicians 
were  so  called  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Phoenicians  of  Africa, 
who  were  called  Liby-Phcenicians.  Both  were  of  the  same 
Canaanitish  stock  or  original. 

Tabeiiah  (or  burning-^,  an  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in 
the  wilderness.  (Num.  xi.  3.  Deut.  ix.  22.)  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  circumstance  that  fire  went  forth  from  the  tabernacle, 
and  burnt  a  considerable  part  of  their  pamp,  as  a  punishment  for 
their  murmurings.  * 

Tabernacles,  feast  of,  how  celebrated,  126,' 127,  A  proof 
of  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testament,  I.  66. 

Tabernacles,  various,  in  use  among  the  Israelites,  96.  Form 
and  construction  of  the  tabernacle  of  Moses,  96,  97.  Its  migra- 
tions, 97. 

Tabitha,  the  Aramaean  name  of  a  female  Christian,  otherwise 
called  Dorcas,  whom  St.  Peter  miraculously  restored  to  life.  (Acta 
ix.  36.  40.) 

Table,  ancient  mode  of  reclining  at,  explained,  154. 

Tablets,  for  writing,  form  of,  182. 

Tabor,  or  Thabor,  Mount,  account  of,  30,  31, 

Tabret,  notice  of,  183. 

Tactics,  military,  of  the  Jews,  89,  90. 

Tadmor,  a  city  of  Syria,  erected  by  king  Solomon.  It  \ya3 
situated  in  the  wilderness  of  Syria,  on  the  borders  of  Arabia 
Deserta,  whence  it  is  called  Tadmor  in  the  Wilderness,  in 
1  Kings  ix.  18.  Josephus  places  it  at  two  days'  journey  from 
the  Upper  Syria,  one  day's  journey  from  the  Euphrates,  and  six 
days'  journey  from  Babylon.  He  says  that  there  is  no  water  in 
the  wilderness  but  in  this  place.  (Ant.  Jud.  lib.  viii.  c.  6.  §  1.) 
If  we  may  form  any  conjecture  of  this  city  by  the  ruins  of  it, 
which  later  travellers  have  described,  it  must  have  been  one  of 
the  first  and  most  magnificent  in  the  East ;  and  it  is  somewhat 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND    GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
TE  TH 


453 


8iirj)risinQ;  that  history  should  give  ns  so  little  account,  when  or 
I)y  whom  it  was  reducwl  to  tlie  inchincliojy  <-oii<lition  in  which  it 
now  appciirs.  'I'lie  reason  wliy  Solomon  erected  Tadmor  in  so 
desolate  a  place,  was,  jjfolialily,  tlie  connnodiousness  of  its  situa- 
tion to  cut  oir  all  commerce  between  the  fSyrians  and  jMcsojiota- 
niians,  and  to  prevent  tlicni  from  consjiiring  against  him  as  they 
had  done  against  his  father  David.  'I'his  city  jireserved  its  name 
of  Tadmor  to  the  time  of  Alexander.  It  then  received  the  name 
of  Pai.myua,  which  it  preserved  for  several  ages.  About  the 
middle  of  the  third  century,  it  became  celebrated  as  the  seat  of 
the  empire  of  Odenatus  and  Zenobia.  When  the  Saracens  be- 
came masters  of  the  East,  they  restored  its  ancient  name  of  'i'ad- 
nior,  which  has  continued  to  the  presi-nt  time.  Its  situation 
between  two  powerful  empires,  that  of  the  Parthians  on  the  cast, 
and  tliat  of  the  Romans  to  the  west,  often  exposed  it  to  danger 
from  ibeir  contests.  In  time  of  peace,  however,  it  soon  recovered 
itself,  by  its  trade  with  both  euipires  :  for  the  caravans  of  Persia 
and  of  the  Indies,  which  now  unload  at  Alej)po,  then  used  to 
slop  at  Palmyra  :  thence  they  carried  the  merchandise  of  the  East, 
which  came  to  them  by  land,  to  the  j)orls  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  returned  the  merchandise  of  the  West  after  the  same  manner. 

TaIII'ANKS. 

1.  'I'aiiai'avks,  or  Tahpanhes  (.Ter.  ii.  Ifi.),  a  city  of  Egypt, 
which  anciently  was  a  royal  city,  of  considerable  note  :  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  as  ])aphn:e  Pelusiaca;.  Jeremiah,  and  the 
Israelites  with  him,  retired  to  this  place  :  and  here  it  was  revealed 
to  the  prophet,  that  Nebuchadnezzar  should  take  this  city,  and 
set  up  his  throne  in  the  very  place  where  Jeremiah  had  hidden 
stones.    (Jer.  xliii.  7 — 11.) 

2.  A  queen  of  Egypt,  the  wife  of  that  Pharaoh  who  was  con- 
temporary with  David,  and  gave  her  sister  in  marriage  to  Hadad 
the  Edoniile.  Tahpanhes  educated  her  sister's  son  among  the 
royal  family  of  Egypt,  perhaps  from  the  mingled  motives  of  alfec- 
tion  and  of  politics. 

Tamni^z,  or  TuA.MMUZ. 

1  The  tenth  month  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jew.s,  and  the 
fourth  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals, 
&c.  in  this  month,  see  p.  76. 

2.  An  Egyptian  and  Syrian  idol,  worshipped  by  the  Israelites, 
notice  of,  138. 

TA>fis.  See  ZoAX,  p.  456.  infra. 

Tahks,  notice  of,  177. 

Takshish,  or  TAnTKssrs,  a  city  and  country  in  Spain,  the 
most  celebrated  emporium  in  the  West,  to  which  the  Hebrews 
traded;  the  ships  of  Turs/iis/i  (Isa.  xxiii.  l.'l.lx.  9.)  denote  large 
merchant  ships  bound  on  long  voyages  (perhaps  distinguished 
by  their  construction  from  the  common  Phccnician  ships),  even 
though  they  were  sent  to  other  countries  instead  of  Tarshish. 
(Gibb's  Hebrew  Lexicon,  pp.  713,  714.,  where  the  proofs  are 
-adduced  at  length.) 

Tahsis,  the  metropolis  of  Cilicia  (Acts  xxi.  39.),  was  cele- 
brated for  being  the  place  whither  Jonah  designed  to  flee,  and 
where  St.  Paul  was  born.  It  was  a  very  rich  and  populous  city, 
and  had  an  academy,  furnished  with  men  so  eminent,  that  they 
are  said  to  have  excelled  in  all  arts  of  polite  learning  and  philo- 
sophy ;  even  the  academies  of  Alexandria,  and  Athens,  and 
Rome  itself,  were  indebted  to  it  for  their  best  professors.  It  is  now 
called  Tersoos  ;  has  no  good  buildings ;  and  is  but  ill  supplied  with 
the  necessaries  of  life.   (Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  503.) 

Taxks  paid  by  the  Jews.     See  pp.  78,  79. 

Tkaciikus,  Jewish,  appellations  of,  185.  Academical  degrees 
conferred  on  them,  ibid,  note.     Manner  of  teaching,  ibid. 

Tkkoaii,  a  village  south-cast  of  Jerusalem,  not  far  from  which 
the  CJrent  Desert  commenced :  it  was  the  biith-place  of  the 
prophet  Amos.  (i.  1.) 

Tkmi'le  at  Jerusalem,  plan  of,  98.  Account  of  the  first 
temple  erected  by  Solomon,  ibid. ;  and  of  the  second  temple 
erected  after  the  captivity,  98 — 100.  Reverence  of  the  Jews  for 
it,  100,  101.  Account  of  the  temple-guard,  101,,  and  of  the 
ministers  of  the  temple,  111 — 114.  The  temple-worship  de- 
scribed, 121,  122.  Annual  payments  made  for  its  support,  78. 
Feast  of  the  dedication  of  the  temple,  128. 

Temples  at  Heliopolis  and  Gerizim,  101. 

TENTifs,  when  and  of  what  things  paid,  120. 

Tents  of  the  Hebrews,  account  of,  150,  151. 

Teuaphim,  notice  of,  137. 

Terraces  (Oriental),  notice  of,  153. 

Tertius,  a  Christian  whom  St.  Paul  employed  as  his  amanu- 
ensis in  writing  his  epistle  to  the  Romans.  (Rom.  xvi.  22.) 

Teetuhus,  a  Roman  orator  or  advocate,  whom  the  Jews 


employed  to  bring  forward  their  accusation  against  St.  Paul, 
before  the  Roman  procurator  at  Ca;sarea ;  probably  because  they 
were  themselves  unacquainted  with  the  modes  of  proceeding  in 
the  Roman  courts.     (Acts  xxiv.  1,2.) 

Tkssku.k  HospiTALKS,  uoticc  of,  173,  174. 
Tktkaiicii,  office  of,  52,  note  1. 
TuADOEi's.     See  Jude. 
Thammuk.     See  Tammuz. 

TiiKATRKH  and  'J'heatrical  performances,  allusions  to,  ex- 
plained.    See  j)p.  190,  191. 

TiiKHKTii,  or  Tkhktii,  the  fourth  month  of  the  civil  year  of 
the  Jews,  and  the  tenth  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  a  notice 
of  the  festivals,  &c.  in  this  month,  see  p.  75. 

TiiKiiK/,,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  at  the  siege  of  which 
Abimelech  was  killed.  (Judg.  ix.  50 — 55.)  Eusebius  says,  that 
in  the  fourth  century  there  was  a  village  called  Thebez,  thirteen 
Koman  miles  from  Shechem. 

TuKKT,  punishment  of,  among  the  Jews,  62,  63. 
TiiEocuAC  V  of  the  Hebrews,  nature  of,  41.    It  subsisted  under 
the  kings,  43. 

'I'liKOi'iiiLus,  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  Luke  inscribed 
his  Gosj)el  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  (Luke  i.  3.  Actsi.  1.) 
He  was  most  probably  some  Gentile  of  rank,  who  had  abjured 
paganism  and  embraced  the  Christian  faith. 

TuKssALoNicA,  a  large  and  populous  city  and  sea-port  of 
Macedonia,  the  capital  of  one  of  the  four  districts  into  which  the 
Romans  divided  that  country  after  its  conquest  by  Paulus  ^mi- 
lius.  It  was  situated  on  the  Therm.Tan  Bay,  and  was  anciently 
called  Therniffi ;  but,  being  rebuilt  by  Philip  the  father  of  Alex- 
ander, after  his  victory  over  the  Thessalians,  it  then  received  the 
name  of  Thessalonica.  At  the  time  of  writing  the  Epistle  to  the 
Thessalonians,  Thessalonica  was  the  residence  of  the  proconsul 
who  governed  the  province  of  Macedonia,  and  of  the  quaistor  who 
had  the  charge  of  the  imperial  revenues.  Besides  being  the  seat 
of  government,  this  port  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce, 
which  caused  a  great  influx  of  strangers  from  all  quarters ;  so 
that  Thessalonica  was  remarkable  for  the  number,  wealth,  and 
learning  its  inhabitants.  The  Jews  were  extremely  numerous 
here.  The  modern  name  of  this  place  is  Salonichi :  it  is  the 
chief  port  of  modern  Greece,  and  has  a  population  of  sixty  thou- 
sand persons,  twelve  thousand  of  whom  are  Jews.  According  to 
Dr.  Clarke,  who  has  given  a  very  interesting  account  of  the 
antiquities,  present  state,  and  commerce  of  Thessalonica,  this 
place  is  the  same  now  it  was  then  ;  a  set  of  turbulent  Jews  con- 
stituted a  very  principal  part  of  its  population  :  and  when  St. 
Paul  came  hither  from  Philippi,  where  the  Gospel  was  first 
preached,  to  communicate  the  "  glad  tidings"  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians, the  Jews  were  sufficient  in  number  to  "  set  all  the  city 
in  an  uproar." 

Theudas,  a  seditious  person,  who  excited  popular  tumults 
among  the  Jews,  probably  during  the  interregnum  which  fol- 
lowed the  death  of  Herod  the  Great,  while  Archelaus  was  at 
Rome;  at  which  time  Judaea  was  agitated  with  frequent  sedi 
tions.    (Acts  v.  36.)     Compare  Vol.  I,  p.  420. 

TmsME,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  to  the  south  of 
Kadesh,  the  chief  city  belonging  to  that  tribe.  The  prophet 
Elijah  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  this  city,  though  he 
might  afterwards  have  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Gilead.  (1  Kings  xvii.  1.) 
Thomas,  called  Didymus,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles :  of  the 
circumstances  of  whose  life  very  little  is  known. 

Thorss,  of  which  Christ's  crown  was  made,  36,  7iote  2. 
Three  Taverxs,  a  small  place  or  village  on  the  Appian 
Way  to  Rome,  where  travellers  stopped  for  refreshment  Ac- 
cording to  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus,  it  was  thirty-three  Roman 
(rather  less  than  thirty-three  English)  miles  from  Rome.  (Acts 
xxviii.  15.)  Some  critics  and  commentators,  however,  suppose 
that  they  were  retail  shops  for  the  sale  of  provisions  to  travellers. 
Threshing,  and  Threshing-floors,  account  of,  178. 
Thtatira,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  was  a  considerable  city  in 
the  road  from  Pergamos  to  Sard  is,  and  about  forty-eight  miles 
eastward  of  the  former.  It  is  called  by  the  Turks  Akhisar,  and 
is  imbosomed  in  cypresses  and  poplars ;  it  is  now,  as  anciently 
it  was,  celebrated  for  dyeing.  In  1826,  the  population  was  esti- 
mated at  300  Greek  houses,  30  Armenian,  and  1000  Turkish. 
(Hartley's  Visit,  Miss.  Reg.  pp.  326,  327,  Arundell's  Visit,  pp. 
189—191.) 

Tiberias  (John  vi.  1 — 23.  xxi.  1.),  still  called  by  the  natives 
Tabaria  or  Tabbareeah,  was  anciently  one  of  the  principal  cities 
of  Galilee :  it  was  built  by  Herod  the  Great,  and  so  called  in 
honour  of  the  emperor,  Tiberius.    The  privileges  conferred  upon 


454 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


TI 


its  inhabitants  by  Herod  caused  it  in  a  short  time  to  become  a 
place  of  considerable  note :  it  was  situated  in  a  plain  near  the 
Lake  of  Gennesareth,  which  is  thence  termed  the  Lake  or  Sea 
of  Tiberias.  (See  it  described  in  pp.  26,  27.)  After  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  this  city  became  eminent  for  its  Academy, 
over  which  a  succession  of  Jewish  doctors  presided  until  the 
fourth  century.  On  every  side  ruins  of  walls,  columns,  and 
foundations,  indicate  its  ancient  splendour.  The  modern  popu- 
lation of  Tiberias  is  from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  :  it  is 
principally  inhabited  by  Jews,  who  are  said  to  be  the  descendants 
of  families  resident  there  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour.  Dr.  Clarke 
conjectures  that  they  are  a  remnant  of  refugees  who  fled  hither 
after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans.  Tiberias  is  about 
ninety  miles  distant  from  Jerusalem :  the  modern  town,  which 
is  very  small,  and  is  walled  round,  with  towers  at  equal  distances, 
stands  close  to  the  lake,  upon  a  plain  surrounded  by  mountains  ; 
and  is  celebrated  for  its  hot  baths,  which  are  much  frequented. 
Tiberias  has  the  most  imposing  appearance,  from  without,  of 
any  town  in  Syria ;  but  within,  it  is  as  wretched  as  any  other. 
About  a  mile  from  this  town,  and  exactly  in  front  of  the  lake,  is 
a  chain  of  rocks,  in  which  are  distinctly  seen  cavities  or  grottoes, 
that  have  been  proof  against  the  ravages  of  time.  These  have 
uniformly  been  represented  to  travellers  as  the  places  referred  to 
in  Scripture,  which  were  frequented  by  miserable  and  fierce 
demoniacs,  upon  one  of  whom  our  Lord  wrought  a  miraculous 
and  instantaneous  cure.  Matt.  viii.  28.  Mark  j^.  2,  3.  Luke  viii. 
27.  (Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  219— 233.  8vo.  Light's 
Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  &c.  p.  203.  Jolliffe's  Letters  from  Pales- 
tine, pp.  32 — 34.  Burkhardt's  Travels  in  Syria,  &c.pp.  320—330. 
Travels  in  Egypt  and  Nubia,  &c.  by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles. 
p.  294.  Jowett's  Researches  in  Syria,  pp.  171.  173.  Game's 
Letters,  pp.  361,  362.  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land, 
vol.  ii.  p.  25.  Third  edition.) 

TiBF.Rius,  Claudius  Drusus  Nero,  emperor  of  Rome,  succeeded 
his  step  father  Augustus :  he  died,  a.  d.  37,  after  reigning  22^ 
years.  In  the  14th  year  of  his  reign,  John  the  Baptist  first 
appeared;  and  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ  took  place  in  the 
third  or  fourth  year  after.  (Luke  iii.  1.) 

TiGLATH-piLESER,  king  of  Assyria,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Sardanapalus.     See  Assyhia,  p.  409. 

Time,  Jewish  and  Roman  modes  of  computing,  72 — 75. 
Calendar  of  the  Jewish  year,  75,  76.  Parts  of  a  period  of  time 
reckoned  for  the  whole,  76,  77.  JRxd.s  of  time  in  use  among  the 
Jews,  77. 

TiMON,  the  name  of  one  of  the  seven  primitive  deacons  of  the 
church  at  Jerusalem.  (Acts  vi.  5.) 

TiMOTHEus,  commonly  called  Timothy,  a  Christian  of  Derbe, 
whose  mother  was  of  Jewish  descent,  and  eminent  for  her  piety, 
while  his  father  was  a  Gentile.  He  was  selected  by  St.  Paul,  as 
his  chosen  companion  in  his  journeys ;  and  was  left  by  him  at 
Ephesus  to  take  the  charge  of  the  church  there.  He  appears  to 
have  possessed  in  a  high  degree  the  confidence  and  affection  of 
St.  Paul,  by  whom  he  is  often  mentioned  in  terms  of  warm  com- 
mendation. For  analyses,  &c.  of  the  two  epistles  addressed  to 
Timothy  by  the  apostle,  see  pp.  343 — 346. 

TiRUAKA,  a  king  of  Egypt  or  Ethiopia,  is  known  in  Scripture 
only  by  the  powerful  diversion  which  he  made  in  behalf  of  Heze- 
kiah,  king  of  Judah,  when  pressed  by  the  forces  of  Sennacherib, 
king  of  Assyria.  (2  Kings  xix.  9.  xviii.  21.  Isa.  xxxvi.  6.  xxxvii. 
9.)  Although,  under  this  prince,  Egypt  appears  to  have  recovered 
some  of  the  advantages  which  it  had  lost  under  So,  the  prede- 
cessor of  Tirhaka ;  it  is  not  clear  whether  we  are  to  understand 
in  the  passages  just  cited  a  mere  report  of  an  invasion  which 
was  circulated,  and  which  deceived  the  Assyrians,  or  an  actual 
war  in  which  they  were  engaged  with  the  Egyptian  monarch. 
Some  expositors  are  of  opinion  that  he  carried  his  arms  into  As- 
syria, while  Sennacherib  was  in  Judffia.  Tirhaka,  the  third  sove- 
reign of  the  Ethiopian  or  twenty-fifth  dynasty,  whose  name  is 
confirmed  by  ancient  Egyptian  monuments  and  inscriptions 
(compare  Vol.  I.  p.  89.),  is  the  Taracus  of  profane  historians. 
If  the  predictions  contained  in  the  thirtieth  and  following 
chapters  of  Isaiah  relate  to  Hezekiah,  Tirhaka  must  be  the 
Pharaoh  intended  in  those  passages ;  which  some  commentators 
refer  to  anterior  times.  The  prophecies  contained  in  the  nine- 
teenth chapter  of  Isaiah,  particularly  verses  2.  and  4.,  have  been 
supposed  to  announce  the  events  which  followed  Tirhaka's 
death,  the  supplanting  or  removal  of  the  Ethiopian  dynasty  by 
that  of  the  Saites,  and  the  revolutions  which  are  recorded  to 
have  taken  place  in  that  period  of  the  history  of  Egypt. 

TxBZAB,  a  delightful  city  of  Ephraim,  the  royal  seat  of  the 


TR 

kings  of  Israel,  from  Jeroboam  I.  to  Omri,  who  built  the  city  of 
Samaria,  which  then  became  the  capital  of  his  kingdom.  (Josh, 
xii.  24.  1  Kings  xiv.  17.  xv.  21.  2  Kings  xv.  14.)  Its  situation 
is  represented  as  pleasant  in  Sol,  Song  vi.  4. 

TisRi  or  Tizui,  the  first  month  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews, 
and  the  seventh  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  a  notice  of  the 
festivals,  &c.  occurring  in  this  month,  see  p.  75. 

Tithes,  when  and  of  what  things  paid,  120. 

Titus,  a  Christian  teacher,  by  birth  a  Gentile,  but  converted 
by  St.  Paul,  who  therefore  calls  him  his  son  (Gal.  ii.  3.  Tit.  i. 
4.),  and  whose  companion  and  fellow-labourer  he  became.  In 
2  Tim.  iv.  10.  the  apostle  speaks  of  him  as  having  gone  to  DaU 
matia;  and  in  Tit.  i.  5.  he  assigns  the  reason  of  his  leaving  Titus 
in  Crete,  viz.  to  perfect  the  work  which  Paul  had  there  begun, 
and  to  establish  and  regulate  the  churches.  For  an  analysis  of 
St.  Paul's  epistle  to  Titus,  see  pp.  346,  347. 

Tola,  the  tenth  judge  of  Israel,  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar.  He 
succeeded  Abimelecli,  and  died  after  an  administration  of  twenty- 
three  years.     (Judg.  x.  1,  2.) 

Tombs  of  the  Hebrews,  account  of,  200,  201. 

ToitNAUoES  frequent  in  Palestine,  38,  39. 

Tower  of  Antonia,  21. 

Tracuonitis,  district  of,  18. 

Traditions  of  the  elders  concerning  the  Sabbath,  expo.sed, 
121. ;  were  preferred  by  the  Pharisees  to  the  Law  of  Moses,  145. 

Transfiguration,  mount  of,  31.  and  note  1. 

Transmigration  of  souls,  believed  by  the  Jews,  144. 

Travelling,  Jewish  mode  of,  122,  note  7.  Horrors  of  travel- 
ling across  the  Great  Desert  of  Arabia,  34,  35. 

Treaties,  nature  of,  80.     How  made  and  ratified,  SO,  81. 

Trees  of  Palestine,  notice  of,  36,  37. 

Trespass-Offerings,  notice  of,  65.  118, 

Trials,  proceedings  of,  among  the  Jews,  55 — 57. 

Tribes,  allotments  of.  See  pp.  16,  17.  Heads  or  princes  of, 
41,  42. 

Tribunal  (Imperial),  appeals  to,  59.  Roman  tribunals,  57. 
Jewish  tribunals,  54,  55. 

Tribute  paid  by  the  Jews,  account  of,  78.  Reluctantly  paid 
to  the  Romans,  ibid. 

Thiumfus  (military)  of  the  Romans,  allusions  to,  explained, 
94,  95. 

Troas,  a  maritime  city  of  Mysia,  situated  on  the  western 
coast,  at  some  distance  to  the  southward  of  the  supposed  site  of 
ancient  Troy.  The  adjacent  region  is  also  called  'Proas  or  the 
Troad.   (Acts  xvi,  8.  11.  xx.  5,  6.  2  Cor.  ii,  12.  2  Tim.  iv.  13.) 

Trogtllium  (Acts  xx.  15.),  a  promontory  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Mycale,  opposite  to,  and  about  five  miles  from,  Samos. 

Trophies,  miUtary,  of  the  Jews,  92. 

Trophimus,  a  Christian  disciple  of  Ephesus,  who  accompanied 
Saint  Paul  on  his  departure  from  Greece  to  Juda;a,  and  at  Jeru- 
salem was  the  innocent  cause  of  the  dangers  to  which  he  was 
there  exposed.  Recognised  by  some  Jews  from  Asia  Minor,  who 
had  seen  him  with  St.  Paul,  they  took  occasion  to  accuse  the 
apostle  of  having  taken  Greeks  with  him  into  the  temple.  (Acts 
XX.  4.  xxi.  29.)  After  this  time  we  find  no  mention  made  of 
Trophimus  in  the  New  Testament^  until  after  his  master's  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome.  In  one  of  the  voyages  which  followed 
the  apostle's  liberation,  Trophimus  was  "  left  at  Miletum  sick." 
(2  Tim.  iv.  20.)  This  circumstance  proves,  if  further  proof 
were  wanting,  that  St,  Paul  was  twice  a  prisoner  at  Rome ;  for 
Trophimus,  at  the  time  of  his  first  journey  to  Miletus,  had  not 
been  left  there,  since  we  read  of  his  arrival  in  Judtea.  (Acts 
XX,  15,) 

Trumpets,  form  of,  184, ;  feast  of,  127. 

Trust,  violations  of,  how  punished,  63. 

Tryph^na  and  Tryphosa,  two  Christian  women  resident  at 
RomeJ  where  they  laboured  in  diffusing  a  knowledge  of  the 
Gospel,  and  in  succouring  their  fellow-believers.  The  mention 
of  both  their  names  by  Saint  Paul  has  led  some  to  conjecture 
that  they  were  sisters.     (Rom.  xvi.  12.) 

Tubal-Cain,  the  son  of  Lamech  and  Zillah,  invented  the 
art  of  working  metals :  there  is  great  reason  to  believe  that  he 
was  the  Vulcan  of  ancient  mythology. 

Tvfji.Tra.vtiTy.oi,  or  beating  to  death,  account  of,  68. 

Tunics,  of  the  Jews,  form  of,  156. 

Tychicus,  a  Christian,  probably  of  Ephesus,  who  was  the 
friend  and  associate  of  St.  Paul,  and  is  mentioned  by  him  in  the 
most  affectionate  terms.  (Acts  xx.  4.  Eph.  vi.  21.  Col.  iv.  T. 
2  Tim.  iv.  12.     Tit.  iii.  12.) 

Ttuannus,  a  person  at  Ephesus,  in  whose  house  or  school 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


455 


T  Y 

St.  Paul  proposed  and  defended  the  doctrines  of  tho  Gospel. 
(Acts  xix.  9.)  By  some  he  is  thought  to  iiavo  been  a  Jewish 
doctor  or  rabbi,  who  had  a  public  sdiool  at  Ephesus ;  while 
others,  with  more  proliability,  sujipose  tiiat  he  was  a  Greeli 
sophist,  because  tho  apostle  taught  for  two  successive  years  in 
his  school,  after  he  liad  ceased  to  preach  in  tlie  synagogues. 
(Acts  xix.  9.) 

TuiE,  a  celebrated  city  and  sea-port  of  Phoenicia,  that  boasted 
of  a  very  early  antiquity,  which  is  recognisiMl  by  the  proi)het 
Isaiah  (xxiii.  7.),  but  which  is  variously  estimated  by  j)rofaiie 
writers,  whose  discordant  accounts  this  is  not  the  })lacc  to  adjust 
and  determine.  Even  iu  the  time  of  .loshua  it  was  stronf!:ly 
fortified  ;  for  it  is  called  the  strong  city  'I'l/re.  (Josh.  xix.  29.) 
Tyro  was  twofold,  insular  and  continental.  Insular  Tyre  was 
certainly  the  most  ancient,  for  it  was  noticed  by  Joshua:  the 
continental  city,  however,  as  being  more  connnodiously  situated, 
first  grew  into  consideration,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Pala)- 
tyrus,  or  Old  Tyre.  Want  of  suUicient  attention  to  this  dis- 
tinction has  embarrassed  both  the  Tyrian  chronology  and 
geography.  Insular  Tyre  was  confined  to  a  small  rocky  island, 
eight  hundred  paces  long  and  four  hundred  broad,  and  could 
never  exceed  two  miles  in  circumference.  But  Tyre,  on  the 
opposite  coast,  about  half  a  mile  from  the  sea,  was  a  city  of 
vast  extent,  since,  many  centuries  after  its  demolition  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, the  scattered  ruins  measured  nineteen  miles  round, 
as  we  learn  from  Pliny  and  Strabo.  Of  these,  the  most  curious 
and  surprising  are,  the  cisterns  of  Ras-el-Ain,  designed  to  supply 
the  city  with  water;  of  which  there  are  three  still  entire,  about 
one  or  two  furlongs  from  the  sea ;  so  well  described  by  Maun- 
drell,  for  their  curious  construction  and  solid  masonry.  "  The 
fountains  of  these  waters,"  says  he,  after  the  description,  "  are 
as  unknown  as  the  contriver  of  them.  According  to  common 
tradition,  they  are  filled  from  a  subterraneous  river,  which  king 
Solomon  discovered  by  his  great  sagacity ;  and  he  caused  these 
cisterns  to  be  made  as  part  of  his  recompense  to  king  Hiram, 
for  the  materials  furnished  by  that  prince  towards  building  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem.  It  is  certain,  however,  from  their  rising  so 
high  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  that  they  must  be  brought 
from  some  part  of  the  mountains,  which  are  about  a  league  dis- 
tant ;  and  it  is  as  certain  that  the  work  was  well  done  at  first ; 
seeing  it  performs  its  office  so  well,  at  so  great  a  distance  of 
time ;  the  Turko  having  broken  an  outlet  on  the  west  side  of  the 
cistern,  through  which  there  issues  a  stream  like  a  brook,  driving 
four  corn  mills  between  it  and  the  sea."  From  these  cisterns 
there  was  an  aqueduct  which  led  to  the  city,  supported  by  arches, 
about  six  yards  from  the  ground,  running  in  a  northerly  direc- 
tion, about  an  hour,  when  it  turns  to  the  west,  at  a  small  mount, 
where  anciently  stood  a  fort,  but  now  a  mosque,  which  seems  to 
ascertain  the  site  of  the  old  city ;  and  thence  proceeds  over  the 
isthmus  that  connects  Insular  Tyre  with  the  main,  built  by 
Alexander,  when  he  besieged  and  took  it. 

Old  Tyre  withstood  the  mighty  Assyrian  power,  having  been 
besieged  in  vain,  by  Shalmaneser,  for  five  years,  although  he  cut 
oil'  their  supplies  of  water  from  the  cisterns,  which  they  remedied 
by  digging  wells  within  the  city.  It  afterwards  held  out  for 
thirteen  years  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  and 
was  at  length  taken  ;  but  not  until  the  Tyrians  had  removed  their 
elVccts  to  the  insular  town,  and  left  nothing  but  the  bare  walls  to 
the  victor,  which  he  demolished.  What  completed  tho  de- 
struction of  the  city  was,  that  Alexander  afterwards  made  use 
of  these  materials  to  build  a  prodigious  causeway,  or  isthmus, 
above  half  a  mile  long,  to  the  insular  city,  which  revived,  as  the 
phccnix,  from  the  ashes  of  the  old,  and  grew  to  great  power  and 
opulence,  as  a  maritime  state;  and  wliich  he  stormed  after  a 
most  obstinate  siege  of  five  months.  Bp.  Pococke  observes,  that 
"there  arc  no  signs  of  the  ancient  city;  and  as  it  is  a  sandy 
shore,  the  face  of  every  thing  is  altered,  and  the  great  aqueduct 
is  in  many  parts  almost  buried  in  the  sand."  (Vol.  ii.  p.  81.) 
Thus  has  been  fullilled  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel :  Thou  shall  be 
built  no  more:  though  thou  be  sought  for,  yet  shall  thou  never 
be  fottnd  again  !  (xxvi.  21.) 

The  fate  of  Insular  Tyre  has  been  no  less  remarkable ;  when 
Alexander  stormed  the  city,  he  set  fire  to  it.  This  circumstance 
was  forfctold  :  "  Tyre  did  build  herself  a  strong-hold,  and  heaped 
up  silver  as  the  dust,  and  fine  gold  as  the  mire  of  the  streets. 
Behold  the  Lord  will  cast  her  out,  and  he  will  smite  her  power 
in  the  sea,  and  she  shall  be  devoured  with  fire."  (Zech.  ix.  3, 4.) 
After  this  terrible  calamity.  Tyre  again  retrieved  her  losses. 
Only  eighteen  years  after,  she  had  recovered  such  a  share  of  her 
ancient  commerce  and  opulence,  as  enabled  her  to  stand  a  siege 


VE 


of  fourteen  months  against  Antigonus,  before  he  could  reduce 
the  city.  After  this.  Tyre  fell  alternately  under  the  dominion 
of  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  then  of  the  liomans,  until 
it  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  about  a.  d.  ()39,  retaken  by  the 
Ousailers,  a.  i>.  1124;  and  at  length  sacked  and  razed  by  tho 
Mamelukes  of  Egypt,  with  Sidon,  and  other  strong  towns,  that 
they  might  no  longer  harbour  the  Christians,  a.  u.  1289.  (Dr. 
Ilales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  pp.  442 — 444.)  Tho 
population  of  modern  Tyre  is  estimated  at  7000;  of  whom 
KiOO  are  Christians  having  places  of  worship,  and  about  two 
hundred  are  Jews,  who  have  a  synagogue.  (Rae  Wilson's 
'P ravels,  vol.  ii.  p.  77.) 

From  Sidon  to  Tyre  is  generally  one  continued  plain,  varying 
from  300  to  1000  yards  in  width.  Nearer  to  Tyre,  it  becomes 
considerably  wider;  and  forms  to  the  east  of  that  city,  on  every 
side,  a  rich  and  pleasing  country.  About  Ras-el-Ain,  in  particu- 
lar, the  meadows,  variegated  by  streamlets,  are  very  picturesque, 
and  capable  of  being  rendered  highly  productive.  (Jowett's  Chris- 
tian llesearches  in  Syria,  p.  297.) 

The  following  description  of  the  modern  town  of  Surat,  by  a 
recent  intelligent  traveller,  will  give  the  reader  a  lively  idea  of 
the  splendour  of  ancient  Tyre  in  the  days  of  her  commercial 
prosperity,  as  delineated  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  3.)  : — 
"  The  bazaars,  filled  with  costly  merchandise,  picturesque  and 
interesting  groups  of  natives  on  elephants,  camels,  horses,  and 
mules;  strangers  from  all  parts  of  the  globe,  in  their  respective 
costume ;  vessels  building  on  the  stocks,  others  navigating  the 
river ;  together  with  Turks,  Persians,  and  Armenians,  on  Ara- 
bian chargers ;  European  ladies  in  splendid  carriages,  the  Asiatic 
females  in  hackeries  drawn  by  oxen ;  and  the  motley  appearance 
of  the  English  and  nabob's  troops  on  the  fortifications,  remind 
us  of  the  following  description  of  Tyre  :  O  thou  that  art  situate, 
&c.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  3.)  This  is  a  true  picture  of  Oriental  com- 
merce in  ancient  times ;  and  a  very  exact  description  of  the  port 
and  the  bazaars  of  Surat,  at  the  present  day."  (Forbes's  Oriental 
Memoirs,  vol.  i.  p.  244.) 

"  Numerous  beautiful  columns,  stretched  along  the  beach,  or 
standing  in  fragments  half  buried  in  the  sand  that  has  been  ac- 
cumulating for  ages,  the  broken  aqueduct,  and  the  ruins  which 
appear  in  its  neighbourhood,  exist,  as  an  affecting  monument  of 
the  fragile  and  transitory  nature  of  earthly  grandeur."  (Jow- 
ett's Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  Appendix,  p. 
422.)  See  also  his  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  pp.  131 — 
141.;  and  for  other  testimonies  of  modern  travellers  relative  to 
the  actual  state  of  Tyre,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  124,  12.5.  supra.  Oa 
the  commerce  of  the  Tyrians  with  the  Hebrews,  see  pp.  187, 188. 
of  this  volume. 

Unbloody  Saciufices,  119. 

Unclean  Persons,  who  were  such,  133. 

Ui'HAz,  a  country  rich  in  gold,  the  situation  of  which  is  no 
where  pointed  out.  Calmet  supposed  it  to  be  the  same  with 
Ophir,    (Dan.  x.  .5.  Jcr.  x.  9.) 

Ui'PER  Garments,  form  of,  156. 

Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  the  dwelling- 
place  of  Terah  and  Abraham ;  which  the  latter  was  ordered  to 
quit,  (Gen.  xi.  28.)  By  faith  he  obeyed,  and  went  out  not 
knowing  whither  he  was  going.  (Heb.  xi.  8.)  Ur  was  subse- 
quently called  Edessa,  by  the  Macedonians;  and  by  the  Turks, 
Orfah.  Mr.  Buckingham  has  given  a  long  and  interesting  de- 
scription of  its  present  state.  (Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  i.  pp. 
121—191.) 

Uhim  and  Thummim,  what.     Seep.  114. 

Uz,  land  of  (Job  i.  1.),  is  Idumiea.  Here  Job  dwelt.  Com- 
pare p.  231. 

UzziAH,  also  called  Azariah,  a  king  of  Judah,  who  succeeded 
his  father  Amaziah,  when  he  was  onlj'  sixteen  years  of  age. 
The  commencement  of  his  reign  was  auspicious  for  his  piety 
and  zeal  for  the  worship  of  God  ;  but,  afterwards,  presuming  to 
take  upon  him  the  sacerdotal  office,  he  was  struck  with  a  lepro- 
sy ;  and  he  continued  without  Jerusalem,  separated  from  other 
men,  until  his  death,  b.c.  758.  (2  Kings  xiv.  21,  22.  xv.  1 — 7.) 

Valley  of  Ajalon,  31.  Berachah  or  Blessing,  Ibid.  Bochim, 
32.  Elah,  Ibid.  Hinnom,  Ibid.  Jehoshaphat,  Ibid.  Mamre, 
31.  Kcphaim, /Z»i  J.  Hak.  Ibid.  Sharon,  32.  Shaveh,  31,  Sid- 
dim,  Ibid. 

Vegetables,  grown  in  Palestine,  35 — 37. 

Veils  of  the  Hebrew  women,  157. 

Vestments  of  the  priests,  113.     Of  the  high-priest,  1 13,  1 14. 


456 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


ZE 


Victims,  selection  and  immolation  of,  117,  1 18. 

VicTons,  reception  of,  91.  Triumphs  of,  among  the  Romans, 
94,  95, 

Vines  and  Vineyards  of  the  Jews,  culture  and  management 
of,  178—180. 

Visiters,  how  received,  169,  170. 

VoLnxTARir  Oblations,  119. 

Vows,  nature  and  ditferent  kinds  of,  129,  130. 

Wars  of  the  Hebrews,  83,  84.  89—91. 

Watches  of  the  Night,  73. 

Water,  importance  of,  in  the  East,  25.  28.  Fetched  by 
women,  29. 

Waters  of  Merom,  notice  of,  27. 

Weapons  (Military)  of  the  Jews,  87,  88.  Allusions  to  the 
Greek  and  Roman  weapons  in  the  New  Testament,  93. 

Weddings  of  the  Jews,  160 — 163, 

Weeks,  account  of,  73. 

Weights,  table  of,  394. 

Wells,  in  Palestine,  account  of,  28.  The  stopping  of  them 
up  an  act  of  hostility,  ibid. 

Wheat,  abundance  of,  in  Palestine,  35. 

Whirlwinds  in  Palestine,  38,  39, 

Widows,  portion  of,  164. 

Wilderness,  in  Palestine,  account  of,  33,  34. 

Wines  of  the  Jews,  179. 

Winter,  in  Palestine,  account  of,  23,  24. 

Withered  hand,  what  disease  intended  by,  197. 

Witnesses,  examination  of,  56.  Punishment  of  false  wit- 
nesses, 64,  65. 

Worship  of  the  Temple  and  in  the  Synagogue,  104 — 106. 
Allusions  to  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  heathens  explained, 
140—142. 

Wounds,  treatment  of,  195. 

Whiting  of  the  Jews,  and  materials  used  for  this  purpose, 
181—183. 

XxLOPHOHiA,  or,  feast  of  wood-oiFerIng,  128. 

Years  (Jewish),  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  account  of,  74.  Ca- 
lendar of  the  Jewish  year,  75,  76.  Years  of  plants  and  beasts, 
74.  Sabbatical  year,  128.     Year  of  jubilee,  128,  129. 

Zahulon,  or  Zebulon,  the  tenth  son  of  Jacob,  bom  of  Leah, 
who  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel ;  for  the 
limits  allotted  to  which,  see  p.  17. 

Zaccheus,  a  chief  collector  or  receiver-general  of  the  customs 
or  taxes ;  who  entertained  Jesus  Christ  at  his  house,  and  became 
his  disciple.  (Luke  xix.  1 — 8.) 

Zaphnath-Paaneah,  the  name  given  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph 
(Gen.  xli.  45.),  which  in  the  margin  of  our  larger  Bibles  is  ren- 
dered, a  revealer  of  secrets,  or  the  man  to  xuhom  secrets  are 
revealed;  this  is  the  interpretation  given  in  the  Chaldee  para- 
phrase, the  Syriac  and  Arabic  versions,  and  by  Kimchi.  It  has, 
however,  been  ascertained  to  be  the  Coptic  or  Egyptian  word 
Joph-te-peneh,  which,  according  to  liOuis  Picques  and  Jablonski, 
signifies  sahis  mundi,  the  salvation  of  the  ivorld,  referring  most 
probably  to  the  preservation  of  Egypt  from  famine  by  the  wise 
counsels  of  Joseph  ;  and  which  in  the  Septuagint  version  is  ren- 
dered by  ^ofiofAcprivi)^  and  'ircvB:[j.!3f:iw)(^.  This  interpretation  of 
Picques  and  Jablonski  is  approved  by  M.  Quatremere.  (Jablonski, 
Opuscula,  ed.  a  Te  Water,  torn.  i.  pp.  207 — 216.  Quatremere, 
Recherches  sur  la  Langue  et  Litterature  de  I'Egypte,  p.  74.) 

Zarephath.     See  Sarkpta,  p.  449. 

Zealots,  a  Jev.ish  sect,  notice  of,  148. 

Zebepee,  the  husband  of  Salome,  and  father  of  the  apostles 
James  and  John. 

Zeboim,  a  city  in  the  vale  of  Siddim,  which  was  sunk,  toge- 
ther with  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  in  the  Dead  Sea. 

Zkbulon.     See  Zabdlon. 

Zechariah. 

1.  The  son  of  the  high-priest  Jehoiada  (or  Barachlas),  who 
was  stoned  to  death  by  order  of  Joash  king  of  Judah,  for  his 
fidelity  in  opposing  the  idolatry  of  the  Jews.  (2  Chron.  xxiv. 
20,21.) 

2.  The  fourteenth  king  of  Israel,  who  succeeded  his  father 
Jeroboam  II.  He  imitated  the  idolatries  and  iniquities  of  his 
predecessors  ;  and,  after  a  short  reign  of  six  months,  he  was  assas- 
sinated by  SuALLUM.  (2  Kings  xiv.  29.  xv.  8 — 10.) 


zo 

3.  The  son  of  Berechiah,  and  the  last  but  one  of  the  minor 
prophets.     For  an  analysis  of  his  predictions,  see  pp.  287,  288. 

4.  A  priest  of  the  class  of  Abia,  the  father  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist. (Luke  i.) 

Zedekiah,  the  name  of  the  last  king  of  Judah,  to  whom  it 
was  given  by  Nebuchadnezzar  instead  of  his  former  name  of 
Mattaniah.  He  revolted  against  the  king  of  Babylon,  who 
besieged  and  captured  Jerusalem,  caused  the  children  of  Zede- 
kiah to  be  slain  before  his  face,  put  out  his  eyes,  and  commanded 
him  to  be  sent  to  Babylon.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  17.  Jer.  xxxii.  4. 
lii.  4— 11.) 

Zemarite  (Gen.  x.  18.),  the  name  of  a  Syrian  people,  who, 
according  to  Calmet  and  others,  dwelt  in  Simyra,  a  city  of 
Phoenicia. 

Zephaniah,  the  son  of  Cushi,  the  ninth  of  the  minor  prophets, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Josiah  king  of  Judah.  For  an  analysis 
of  his  predictions,  see  p.  272. 

Zerah,  king  of  Egypt,  and  contemporary  with  Asa  king  of 
Judah,  is  in  Scripture  termed  an  Ethiopian  or  Cushite;  an  ap- 
pellation which  perhaps  marks  the  origin  of  the  dynasty  to  which 
he  belonged.  He  invaded  Judaea  at  the  head  of  an  immense 
army,  which  was  met  by  Asa  in  the  valley  of  Mareshah,  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  and  totally  discomfited.  Interpreters  have  long 
been  perplexed  to  ascertain  where  the  dominions  of  Zerah  were 
situated ;  some  supposing  him  to  be  a  king  of  Cushite  Arabia 
(though  there  is  no  evidence  that  that  country  then  had  power- 
ful sovereigns),  while  others  have  imagined  that  he  was  king  of 
Abyssinia  or  African  Ethiopia,  but  without  being  able  to  explain 
how  he  could  have  traversed  Egypt,  in  order  to  penetrate  into 
Judaea.  All  these  difficulties  are  nov/  removed.  The  name  of 
this  king  exists  on  ancient  monuments ;  and  the  Zerah  of 
Scripture  is  the  Osorchon  or  Osoroth  of  the  Egyptian  lists 
and  legends,  the  second  king  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Shishak,  who  was  contemporary  with 
Rehoboam. 

Zercb babel  or  Zorobabel,  the  son  of  Salathiel,  of  the 
royal  house  of  David,  was  appointed  chief  of  those  Jews  who, 
by  the  perrnission  of  Cyrus,  came  from  Babylon,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  that  prince's  reign.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
temple,  and  restored  the  Mosaic  worship.  It  is  not  known  when 
this  great  man  and  pious  ruler  died. 

ZiDON.     See  SiDON,  p.  450.  supra. 

ZiF,  the  eighth  month  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews,  and  the 
second  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals, 
&c.  in  this  month,  sec  p.  267. 

Ziklag,  a  city  which  Achish,  king  of  Gath,  gave  to  David 
while  he  took  shelter  in  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  which 
afterwards  remained  as  a  domain  to  the  kings  of  Judah.  (1  Sam. 
xxvii.  6.)  It  was  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Amalekites  during 
David's  absence  :  it  was  situated  in  the  extreme  parts  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  southward. 

Zimri,  the  fifth  king  of  Israel,  commander  of  one  half  of  the 
cavalry  of  Elath,  assassinated  his  master,  usurped  his  throne,  and 
destroyed  all  the  branches  of  the  royal  family.  His  reign  lasted 
only  a  week :  in  consequence  of  his  having  neglected  to  secure 
the  army,  they  chose  Omri  king  of  Israel,  who  besieged  him  in 
Tirzah  ;  and  Zimri,  finding  his  capital  taken,  set  the  royal  palace 
on  fire,  and  perished  in  the  flames.  (1  Kings  xvi.  9 — 20) 

ZiN,  a  desert  in  the  south  of  Palestine  towards  Idumxa. 
(Num.  xiii.  21.  xx.  1.  xxxiv.  3,  4,  Josh.  xv.  1.  3.) 

ZioN,  the  more  elevated  southernmost  mountain,  and  upper 
part  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  poetical  and  prophetical 
books  it  is  often  used  for  Jerusalem  itself. 

ZiPH,  a  city  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  24.),  near  Hebron,  eastward. 
Its  modern  name  is  Sephoury.  It  was  a  place  of  rendezvous  for 
armies  .during  the  crusades  ;  and  at  a  short  distance  from  it  is  a 
celebrated  fountain.    (Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  40.) 

ZiPH,  wilderness  of,  34. 

ZoAN,  an  ancient  city  in  Lower  Egypt ;  according  to  the  Sep- 
tuagint and  Targums,  it  is  Tanis  on  the  eastern  mouth  of  the 
Nile.  (Num.  xiii.  22.  Isa.  xix.  11.  13.  xxx.  4.  Ezek.  xxx.  14.) 

ZoAR,  a  city  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
(Gen.  xiii.  10.  xix.  22.  30.  Isa.  xv.  5.  Jer.  xlviii.  34.)  Its  more 
ancient  name  was  Bola. 

ZoHAH,  a  city  in  Mesopotamia,  otherwise  called  Nesibin,  Nisi- 
bis,  Antiochla,  Mygdonia.   (1  Sam.  xiv.  47.  2  Sam.  viii.  3.  xxiii. 
36.)     Its  territory  is  denominated  Aram  of  Zobah  :  it  was  the- 
residence  of  a  king  who,  in  the  time  of  David,  carried  on  con- 
siderable wars  with  Israel. 


No.  II. 


INDEX 


THE  SYMBOLICAL  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 

[Designed  to  facilitate  the  perusal  of  the  Prophetic  Books,  analysed  in  this  Volume.]^ 


Abomivations. 

(.  Sill   ill  general. — Isa.  Ixvi.  3.      Their  soul  delic;hlelh  in  abomiiia- 

lioiis. — Kzek.  xvi.  50.     1'hei/  .  .  .  committed  abomination  before  me. 

See  also  ver.  51. 

2.  An  Idol. — Isa.  xliv.  19.  Shall  I  make  the  residue  thereof  an  abomi- 
niiiion  ?     See  also  2  Kings  xxiii.  13. 

3.  Tho  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  idolatrous  and  corrupt  church  of 
Rome. — Rev.  xvii.  4.  Having  a  golden  cup  in  her  hand,  full  of 
abominations. 

4.  Abomination  of  Desolation — The  Roman  army,  so  called  on  ac- 
count of  iis  ensigns  and  images  which  the  soldiers  worshipped,  and 
which  were  abominable  to  the  Jews. — Matt.  xxiv.  15.  When  ye 
shall  see  the  abomination  of  desolation  spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  Pro- 
phet. 

Accursed. 

1.  Devoted  to  destruction.     Josh.  vi.  17. 

2.  Accursed  from  Christ.  Excluded  from  intercourse,  fellowship,  and 
alliance  with  Christ. — Rom.  ix.  3. 

Adultkiikss,  or  Harlot. — An  apostate  church  or  city ;  particularly 
the  daughter  of  Jerusalem  or  the  Jewish  church  and  people. — Isa. 
i.  21.  How  is  the  faithful  city  become  a  harlot?  See  Jer.  iii.  6.  8,  9. 
Ezck.  xvi.  22.  xxiii  7.  In  Rev.  xvii.  5.  Babylon  the  Great,  the  M.O- 
Iher  of  flarlols,  means  the  idolatrous  Latin  church. 

Aditi.tekous  Generation  (Matt.  xii.  39.  xvi.  4.  Mark  viii.  38.);  a  faith- 
le.ss  and  impious  generation. 

Adijltkrv. — Idolatry  and  apostacy  from  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 
Jer.  iii.  8,  9.  When  backsliding  Israel  committed  adultery  .  .  .  with 
stones  and  with  stocks.  See  also  Ezek.  xvi.  32.  xxiii.  37.  Rev.  ii. 
22. 

Air,  Wind,  Breath. — The  Hnly  Spirit. — John  iii.  8.  The  wind  bloxveth 
where  it  listelh  ;  and  thou  hearest  the  sound  thereof  but  canst  not  tell 
whence  it  cometh  and  whither  it  goeth ;  so  is  every  one  that  is  born 
of  the  Spirit. — John  xx.  22.  He  breathed  on  them,  and  saith  unto 
them,  "  Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost." — Acts  ii.  2.  4.  Suddenly  there 
came  a  sound  from  Heaven  as  of  a  rushing  mighty  wind  ....  And 
Ihrywere  all  Jilted  with  the  Holy  Ghost. — See  Prince. 

Ai,PH\  and  O.MEG  A,  an  appellation  which  Jesus  Christ  appropriates  to 
himself;  to  denote  that,  as  he  is  the  Creator,  so  he  will  be  the  final 
judge  of  all  things. — Rev.  i.  8.  /  am  Alpha  and  Omega  the  begin- 
ning aiul  the  ending. 

Amkv. 

1.  Truth  and  faithfulness;  a  title  of  Christ. — Rev.  iii.  14.  Thus  saith 
the  Amen  ;  Truth,  i.e.  He  who  is  true  says,  &c. 

2.  So  be  it :  a  form  of  wishing,  approving,  or  praving  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence.  Rom.  i.  25.  Gal.  i.  5.  Eph.  iii.  21.  Phil.  iv.  20.  1  Tim. 
i.  17.  It  was  customary  among  the  Jews,  when  the  priests  or  other 
persons  offered  up  prayers  or  praises  to  God  in  public,  for  the  whole 
assembly  to  res|x)nd  Amen.  '  Numb.  v.  22.  This  custom  was 
adopted  by  Christians  ;  and  in  allusion  to  it  Atnen  occurs  in  1  Cor. 
xiv.  16. 

Angei.s. 

1.  Angel  of  the  Lord. — Jesus  Christ.— Zech.  i.  12.  The  angel  of  the 
Lord  answered  and  said  ....  See  Lowth's  Commentary,  in  loc. 

2.  Those  intellectual  and  immaterial  Beings,  whom  the  Almighty  em- 
ploys, as  the  ministers  of  his  providence  or  of  his  judgments. — Rev. 
XV.  8.  xvi.  1.  Seven  Angels. — xxii.  8.  Ifelldown  to  worship  before 
the  feet  of  the  angel,  who  should  me  these  things. 

3.  The  presiding  ministers  or  bishojis  of  the  church. — Rev.  ii.  1.  The 
angel  nf  the  church  of  Ephesus.     See  also  ii.  8.  12.  18.  iii.  1.  7.  14. 

4.  Fallen  Spirits — Matt.  xxv.  41.  Everlasting  fire  prepared  for  the 
Devil  and  his  Angels. 

»  Resides  the  authorities  cited  for  particular  words,  this  Index  of  the 
Prophetic  or  Symbolical  Language  of  the  Scriptures  has  been  drawn  up, 
after  a  ORn^ful  perusal  of  the  remarks  on  this  subject  by  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton, Bishops  Lowih  anil  llurd,  the  Commentary  of  William  Lowth  on  the 
Prophpls,  the  Rev.  William  Jones's  Key  to  the  Language  of  Prophecy, 
Dr.  Lancaster's  admirable  Symbolical  Alphabetical  Dictionary  prefixed 
to  his  .\briilgment  of  Daubuz's  Perpetual  Commentary  on  the  Revelation 
of  Si,  John,  Robinson's  Greek  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  and  Dr. 
Woodhouse's  Notes  to  his  Translation  of  the  Apocalypse.  Those  symbols, 
anil  interpretations  of  symbols,  which  have  been  the  subject  of  contro- 
versy among  some  late  writers  on  prophecy,  are  designedly  omitted. 
Vol.  I.  3  M 


Arm. 

1.  The  infinite  power  of  God  in  creating  the  world. — Jer.  xxvii.  5.  i 
have  made  the  earth  ■  .  ■  by  my  great  power,  and  by  my  outstretchea 
arm.     See  also  Jer.  xxxii.  17. 

2.  The  power,  strength,  and  miracles  of  Christ — Isa.  liii.  1.  John  xii. 
38.     To  whom  is  the  arm  of  the  Lord  revealed  ? 

3.  When  Jehovah  is  said  to  make  bare  his  holy  arm,  it  means  that  he 
hath  displayed  his  great  power,  which  for  a  long  time  seemed  to  be 
hidden  and  unemployed. — Isa.  Iii.  10.  The  Lord  hath  made  bare  his 
holy  arm. 

Armour. — Such  graces  and  spiritual  weapons,  as  are  for  the  defence 
of  the  soul,  and  by  which  we  may  be  enabled  to  combat  with  our 
spiritual  enemies. — Rom.  xiii.  12.  Let  us  put  on  the  armour  of 
light. — Eph.  vi.  11.    Put  on  the  whole  armour  of  God. 

Arrows. 

1.  Calamities,  or  judgments  of  God. — Job  vi.  4.  The  arrows  of  the 
Almighty  are  within  me,  the  poison  where rfdrinketh  up  my  spirit. — 
2  Sam.  xxii.  14,  15.  compare  Psal.  xxxviii.  2,  3.  and  Ezek.  v.  16. 
That  calamities  are  represented  among  the  eastern  writers  as  the 
arrows  of  the  Almighty,  we  have  abundant  proc/s :  one  single 
instance,  from  the  fine  sayings  ascribed  to  Ali  (or  Aaly)  the  son-in- 
law  of  the  im[K)stor  of  Arabia,  will  illustrate  this  remark.  "  It  was 
once  demanded  of  the  fourth  Khalif  (Ali),  on  whom  be  the  mercy 
of  the  Creator,  if  the  canopy  of  heaven  were  a  bow ;  and  if  the 
earth  were  the  cord  thereof;  and  if  calamities  were  arrows  :  if  man- 
kind were  the  mark  for  those  arrows  ;  and  if  Almighty  God,  the 
tremendous  and  the  glorious,  were  the  unerring  archer,  to  whom 
could  the  sons  of  Adam  flee  for  protection  ?  The  Khalif  answered 
saying, '  The  sons  of  Adam  must  flee  unto  the  Lord.'  This  fine 
image  Job  keeps  in  view,  (vi.  8,  9.)  wishing  that  the  unerring  marks- 
man may  let  fly  these  arrows,  let  loose  his  hand,  to  destroy  and  cut 
him  oflf;       Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Job  vi.  4. 

2.  Abusive  or  slanderous  words. — Psal.  Ixiv.  3.  Who  bend  their  bows  to 
shoot  their  arrows,  even  bitter  words. 

3.  Children. — Psal.  cxxvii.  4,  5.  As  arrows  are  in  the  hand  of  a  mighty 
man  ;  so  are  children  of  the  youth.  Happy  is  the  man  that  hath  his 
quiver  full  of  them.  "  The  orientals  are  accustomed  to  call  brave 
and  valiant  sons  the  arrows  and  darts  of  their  parents,  because  they 
are  able  to  defend  them.  To  sharpen  arrows,  to  make  sharp  arrows, 
is,  among  them,  to  get  brave  and  valiant  sons."  [Burder's  Oriental 
Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  53.] 

Ashes.    See  Dust  and  Ashes. 


Babes. 

1.  Foolish  and  inexfjcrienced  princes. — Tsa.  iii.  4.  I  will  give  children 
to  be  their  princes,  and  babes  (or  infant«)  shall  rule  over  them.  This 
minatory  prediction  was  fully  accomplished  in  the  succession  of 
weak  and  wicked  princes  who  reigned  over  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
from  the  death  of  Josiah  to  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  temple, 
and  the  taking  of  Zedekiah,  the  last  of  them,  captive  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 

2.  Those  who  are  weak  in  the  Christian  faith  and  knowledge,  being 
ignorant  and  inconstant,  like  infants. — 1  Cor.  iii.  1.  And  I,  brethren, 
could  not  speak  unto  you  .  .  .  but  as  .  .  .  unto  babes  in  Christ.-^ 
Heb.  V.  13.     For  he  is  a  babe. 

Babylon. — Papal  Rome  with  all  her  idolatrous  rites. — Rev.  xiv.  8. 
Babylon  is  fallen.     See  also  Rev.  xvii.  xviii. 

Balaam,  Doctrine,  error,  or  way  of. — A  defection  from  true  religion 
united  with  immoral  and  lascivious  practices. — Rev.  ii.  14.  Thoii 
hast  them  that  hold  the  doctrine  of  Balaam. — Jiide  11.  Tliey  hare 
....  run  greedily  after  the  error  of  Balaam. — 2  Pet.  ii.  15.  Following 
the  way  of  Balaam. 

Balance. 

1.  The  known  symbol  of  a  strict  observation  of  justice  and  fair  deal- 
ing. Prov.  xi.  1.  A  false  balance  is  abomination  unto  the  Ijord. — 
Prov.  xvi.  11.  A  just  weight  and  balance  are  the  Lord's.  See  also 
Job  xxxi.  6. 

2.  Joined  with  symbols,  denoting  the  sale  of  com  and  fruits  by  weight, 
it  becomes  the  symbol  of  scarcity. — Lev.  xxvi.  26.  When  I  have 
broken  the  staff  of  your  bread  ;  ten  women  shall  bake  your  bread  in 
one  oven  ;  and  they  shall  deliver  you  bread  again  by  weight,  and 

457 


458 


INDEX  OF  THE  SYMBOLICAL 


ye  shall  eat  and  not  be  satisfied. — Ezek.  iv.  16.  They  shaU  eat  bread 

by  weight  and  with  care. 
Baldness. — Destruction. — Jer.  xlvii.  5.    Baldness  is  come  upon  Gaza. 
Bashan.    See  Kine,  Oaks. 

Bkast. 

1.  A  heathen  kingdom  or  power  of  the  earth. — Dan.  vii.  17.  TTiese 
great  beasts,  which  are  four,  are  four  kings.  See  pp.  208 — 210.  of 
this  volunie. 

2.  The  Papal  antichrist. — Rev.  xiii.  2.  12. 

Bkd — Great  tribulation  and  anguish. — Hev.  ii.  22.  Iwill  cast  her  into 
a  bed.  To  be  tormented  in  bed,  where  men  seek  rest,  is  peculiarly 
grievous.     See  Fsal.  vi.  6.  xli.  3.  Isa.  xxviii.  20. 

BiiiD  of  Prey. — A  hostile  army  coming  to  prey  upon  a  country. — Isa. 
xlvi.  11.  Calling  a  ravenous  h]rd  from  the  east;  Cyrus  and  his 
army.    Compare  Jer.  xii.  9.  Ezek.  xxxii.  4.  and  xxxix.  17. 

BriTEii. — BiTTKaNKss. — Affliction,  misery,  and  servitude. — Exod.  i. 
14.  'J'hei/  made  ih  ir  lives  bitter  with  hard  bondage.  See  Jer.  ix 
15 — Uall  of  bitterness.    (Acts  viii.  23.)    A  state  offensive  to  God. 

Black. — Bi.acknkss. — Afiliciion,  disasters,  and  anguish. — Jer.  xiv.  2. 
Jiidah  moiirneth,  and  the  gales  thereof  languish  ;  they  are  black  unto 
lite  ground. — Joel  ii.  6.  All  faces  shall  gather  blackness. — Rev.  vi. 
5.  Deltoid  a  blai^k  horse.  The  black  colour  of  the  horse  in  this 
place  indicates  that  the  ptiblicition  of  the  Gospel,  at  the  time  al- 
luded lo,  will,  by  way  of  punishment  upon  the  heathens,  for  re- 
fusiiiiT  to  hear  it,  be  attended  with  great  affliction.  [Daubuz  and 
VVoodhouse,  in  loc] 

BlkssiiNg  (Cup  of)    See  Cup,  2. 

Blin'D.ness. — Want  of  understanding  in  divine  wisdom. — Isa.  xxix.  18. 
In  that  day  ■  ...  the  eyes  of  the  blind  shall  see  out  of  obscurity,  and 
Old  (f  darkness. 

Blood. 

1.  Slaughter  and  mortality. — Isa.  xxxiv.  3.  The  mountains  shall  be 
melted  with  blood.     See  Ezek.  xxxii.  6. 

2.  Our  natural  descent  from  one  common  family. — And  halh  made  of 
one  blood  all  nations  of  men,  for  to  dwell  on  all  the  face  of  the  earth. 
(Acts  xvii.  26.)  Flesh  and  blood  is  an  expression,  which  signifies 
the  present  natural  state  of  man,  unaided  by  divine  grace.  When 
Paul  was  converted,  he  did  not  consult  withyZesA  and  blood.  (Gal.  i. 
IG.)  When  Peter  declared  his  belief,  that  his  Master  was  Christ, 
the  Son  of  the  living  God,  Jesus  answered  and  said  unto  him.  Blessed 
art  thou,  Simon  Dar-Jona  ;  for  flesh  and  blood  halh  not  revealed  it 
unto  thee,  but  my  Father  vihich  is  in  heaven.  (Matt.  xvi.  17.)  We  are 
assured  that  flesh  and  blood  cannot  inherit  the  kingdom  of  God. 
(I  Cor.  XV.  50.) 

3.  Death. — To  resist  unto  blood,  is  to  contend  unto  death.  (Heb.  xii.  4.) 
When  I  passed  by  thee,  and  saw  thee  polluted  in  thine  own  blood,  / 
said  unto  thee,  when  thou  wast  in  thy  blood,  Live.  (Ezek.  xvi.  6.)  To 
shed  blood  is  to  murder;  hence  a  cruel  murderer  is  called  a  bloody 
man.  To  give  the  wicked  blood  to  drink,  is  to  put  into  their  hand 
the  cup  of  death.  The  metaphorical  term  is  sometimes  employed 
in  personification.  What  hast  thou  done  ?  said  God  to  Cain.  The 
voice  rf  thy  brother's  blood  crieth  unto  me  from  the  ground.  (Gen.  iv. 
10.)  Ye  are  come  to  the  blood  of  sprinkling,  that  speaketh  better 
things  than  that  of  Abel.     (Heb.  xii.  24.) 

4.  The  suflferirigs  and  death  of  Christ,  considered  as  an  atonement  for 
the  souls  of  sinners      Being  justified  by  his  blood,  we  shall  be  saved 

from  wrath,  through  him.  (Rom.  v.  9.)  The  following  expressions 
in  the  New  Testament  are  allusions  to  the  typical  blood,  which  was 
so  plentifully  shed  under  the  Old.  Christians  are  taught  to  reason  ; 
that  if  the  Mood  of  bulls,  and  of  goats,  and  the  ashes  of  an  heifer 
spriniding  the  unctean,  sanctifieth  to  the  purifying  of  the  flesh  ;  how 
much  more  shall  the  blood  of  Christ,  who  through  the  eternal  Spirit 
offiired  himself  without  spot  to  God,  purge  your  consciences  from  dead 
works  to  serve  the  living  God  ?  (Heb.  ix  13,  14.)  God  hath  set  forth 
Jesus  Christ  to  be  a  propitiation,  that  we  may  have  faith  in  his 
blood  ;  that  is,  that  we  may  believe  in  the  efficacy  of  his  atonement. 
We  have  redemption  through  his  blood  ;  even  the  forgiveness  of  sins, 
according  to  the  riches  of  his  grace.  (Eph.  i.  7.)  We  were  not  re- 
deemed with  corruptible  things,  as  silver  and  gold,  but  with  the 
precious  blood  of  Christ,  as  of  a  lamb  without  blemish,  and  without 
spot.  (1  Peter  i.  18,  19.)  In  the  Scriptures,  the  blood  of  Christ  is 
sometimes  represented  as  the  procuring  cause  of  our  justification. 
Much  more  being  justified  by  his  blood,  we  shall  he  saved  from  torath 
through  him.  (Rom.  v  9.)  The  term  blood,  when  used  in  this  sense, 
means  the  merits  of  Christ's  atonement.     But  in  other  passages,  our 

'  sanctification  is  imputed  to  the  blood  of  Christ.  How  much  more 
shall  the  blood  of  Christ,  who  through  the  eternal  Spirit  offered  him- 
self without  spot  to  God,  purge  your  conscieiice  from  dead  works,  to 
serve  the  living  God  ?  (Heb.  ix.  14.)  The  saints  are  represented  as 
walking  in  white;  because  they  had  washed  their  robes  in  the 
b'i0:i(i  of  (he  Lamb.  (Rev.  vii.  14.)  The  term  blood,  when  used  in 
this  figurative  sense,  evidently  signified  the  doctrines  of  the  cross; 
which  are  the  great  mean  of  purifying  the  believer's  heart.  Now 
ye  are  clean,  said  Christ  to  his  disciples,  through  the  word,  tohich  I 
have  spoken  unto  you.  (John  xv.  3) 

5.  Blood  of  ttie  covenant. — (Matt.  xxvi.  28.)  The  blood  of  Christ,  who 
died  in  consequence  of  a  covenant  to  redeem  sinners. 

B  >DY. — A  society ;  the  church,  with  its  different  members. — 1  Cor. 
xii.  20—27. 

B  )oK  of  Life. — Rev.  iii.  5.  I  will  not  blot  out  his  name  out  of  the  Book 
of  Life.  "  As,  in  states  and  cities,  those  who  obtained  freedom  and 
fellowship,  were  enrolled  in  the  public  register,  which  enrolment 
was  their  title  to  the  privileges  of  citizens,  so  the  King  of  heaven, 
of  the  New  Jerusalem,  engages  to  preserve  in  his  register  and  en- 


rolment, in  the  book  of  life,  the  names  of  those,  who,  like  the  good 
Sardians,  in  a  corrupted  and  supine  society, shall  preserve  allegiance 
and  a  faithful  discharge  of  their  Christian  duties.  He  will  own 
them  as  his  fellow-citizens,  before  men  and  angels.  Matt.  ix.  32. 
Luke  xii.  8.  See  also  Psal.  Ixix.  28.  Ezek.  xiii.  9.  Exod.  xxxii.  33. 
Dan.  xii.  1.  Mai.  iii.  16.  Luke  x.  20."  [Dean  Woodhouse  on  Rev. 
iii.  5.] 

Bottles. — The  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  whom  God  threatened  to  fill 
with  the  wine  of  terror. — Jer.  xiii.  12.  Every  bottle  shall  be  filled 
xuilh  wine. 

Bow. 

1.  Strength. — Job  xxix.  20.     My  bow  was  renewed  in  my  hand. 

2.  Victory. — Rev.  vi.  2.  He  that  sat  on  him  had  a  bow  ;  where  it  sig- 
nifies the  progress  of  the  Gospel,  which  was  assisied  by  sudden  and 
unexpected  and  miraculous  aid  and  deliverance. 

Bowels. — Pity,  compassion. — Luke  i.  7,  8.     Through  the  tender  mercy, 

(literally  bowels  of  mercy)  of  our  God. 
Branch.    See  Trees,  3. 
Brass. — Strength. — Psal.  cvii.  16.     He  hath  broken  the  gates  o/ brass; 

that  is,  the  strong  gates.     See  Isa.  xlv.  2.     In  Jer.  i.  18.  and  xv.  20. 

brazeri  walls  signify  a  strong  and  lasting  adversary  and  opposer. 
Bread  or  Food. 

1.  The  word  of  God. — Deut.  viii.  3.  Matt.  iv.  4.  Man  doth  not  (or 
shall  not)  live  by  bread  only,  but  by  every  word  that  prcceedetk  out 
of  the  mouth  of  God. 

2.  One  bread.    (1  Cor.  x.  17.)    The  union  of  real  Christians. 
Breath.    See  Air. 

Brethren. — Christians  united  by  their  profession. —  Rom.  xii.  1.    / 

beseech  you,  brethren.     See  Acts  xxi.  7.     1  Cor.  xv.  6. 
Briars. — -Mischievous  and  hurtful  persons.-^lsa.  Iv.  13.     Instead  of 

the  briar  shall  come  up  the  myrtle-tree.     See  Thorns,  2. 
Bride. — The    heavenly  Jerusalem. — Rev.  xxi.  9.      The  bride,  the 

Lamb's  wife. 
Bridegroom. — Christ,  as  the  spouse  of  the  church. — Rev.  xxi.  9.    See 

also  Voice,  1. 
Brimstone. 

1.  Perpetual  torment  and  destruction. — Job  xviii.  15.  Brimstone 
shall  be  scattered  upon  his  habitation ;  that  is,  his  home  or  family 
shall  be  destroyed  for  ever  by  an  inextinguishable  fire.  Compare 
Isa.  xxxiv.  9,  10.     Rev.  xiv.  10,  &c. 

2.  Corrupt,  infernal,  and  destructive  doctrines.  Rev.  ix.  17.  Out  of 
their  mouth  issued  fire  and  brimstone.    See  verse  18. 

Bulls. — Wicked,  violent  men. — Psal.  xxii.  12.  Many  bulls  have 
compassed  me ;  strong  [bulls]  of  Bashan  have  beset  me  round :  that 
is,  mine  enemies,  who  are  as  furious  and  formidable  as  the  bulls 
fed  in  the  rich  pastures  of  Bashan,  beset  me  on  every  side. 

Burning.    See  Fire,  2. 

Buy.  To  attain  in  preference  to  earthly  riches. — Seelsa.lv.  1.  Prov, 
xxiii.  13.    Rev.  iii.  18. 


Call — C  a  lled — C  a  lli  ng. 

1.  That  invitation  which  God  holds  out  to  men  to  come  and  enjoy  the 
blessings  which  flow  from  a  sincere  reception  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion. Eph.  i.  18.  That  ye  may  know  what  is  the  hope  of  his  calling : 
that  is,  what  is  the  nature  of  that  hope,  which  those,  who  have 
been  invited  into  the  divine  kingdom,  may  properly  indulge. 

2.  To  call  to  any  duty  ;  that  is,  to  appoint,  constitute,  or  choose.  Gal. 
i.  15.     Who  called  me,  chose  me,  by  his  grace,  viz.  to  be  an  apostle. 

Candlestick.    See  Lamp. 
Cedars. 

1.  Great  men. — Zech.  xi.  2.     T^e  cedar  is  fallen. 

2.  Cedars  of  Lebanon. — Kings,  princes,  and  nobles  of  Judah. — Isa.  ii. 
13.  7%e  day  of  the  Lord  shall  be  ...  .  upon  all  the  cedars  of  Leba- 
non. 

3.  Top  of  the  young  twigs  of  cedars. — The  prime  nobility  and  able 
soldiery. — Ezek.  xvii.  4.     He  cropped  off  the  top  tf  the  young  twigs. 

Chaff. — Unprofitable  and  worthless  men. — Psal.  i.  4.  The  ungodly  are 
.  .  .  like  the  chaff  which  the  wind  drivelh  away. — Matt.  iii.  14.  He 
will  burn  up  the  chaff  joi/^j  unquenchable  fire. 

Chain — Bondage  or  affliction. — Lam.  iii.  7.  He  hath  made  my  chain 
heavy. 

Child,  Children. 

1.  Those  who  have  received  their  religous  knowledge,  character, 
education,  &c.  from  any  one:  i.  e.  a  beloved  disciple.  2  Tim.  i.  2. 
Timothy,  my  dearly  beloved  child. 

2.  Children  joined  with  the  names  of  cities  denote  their  inhabitants  or 

citizens.     Matt,  xxiii.  37.      O  Jerusalem how  often,  would  I 

have  gathered  thy  children.     See  also  Luke  xiii.  34.    xix.  44.     Gal. 
iv.  25. 

3.  Children  of  God  ;  those  whom  he  regards  with  parental  affection, 
and  on  whom  he  bestows  peculiar  favour.  Jol\n  i.  12.  As  many  as 
received  him,  to  them  he  gave  the  privilege  to  become  the  children  of 
God. 

4.  Children  of  God  and  children  of  the  devil,  in  1  .lohn  iii.  10.,  are 
those  who  resemble  God,  and  those  who  resemble  Satan. 

Circumcision. — An  engagement  like  that  of  bapiism,  to  renounce  the 
flesh  and  circumcise  the  heart. — Deut.  x.  16.  Circumcise  therefore 
the  foreskin  of  your  heart. — Deut.  xxx.  6.     The  Lord  thy  God  shall 

■  circumcise  thine  heart. — Rom.  ii.  29.  Circumcision  is  that  of  the 
heart. 

Clay  in  the  hands  of  the  potter. — Man  in  the  hands  of  his  Creator. — 
Isa.  xliv.  8.  Now,  O  Lord,  thou  art  our  Father  ;  we  are  the  clay  ; 
and  thou  our  potter,  and  we  are  all  the  work  of  thy  hand.  See  also 
Rom.  ix.  21. 


LANGUAGE  Ur  TIIL  S:;KI:  TURES. 


459 


Clouds. — MullituJes  nml  nrmieB. — Jer.  iv.  J3.  IfrnhnU.  mme.vpax 
clou  'h. — Isa.  Ix.  b.  Who  are  ihoacjliatjly  us  a  cluud  l — lieb.  xii.  I. 
A  cluud  of  wilnisse.i. 

ViiiA).  IficuimUiii  HI  itfTeciioiiH,  pur[Kiso,  and  conduct;  deatitute  of 
fervent  jiioly  und  holy  zeal.     Kev.  iii.  10,  l(i. 

f'ol.UMV.       Hue    I'll.I.AIl. 

CoR.\Kic-SioNK.  Jesiis  Christ,  who  is  coin|arcd  (o  a  corner xlone  in 
three  |x)intii  of  view  ;   viz. 

1.  As  thiu  Hloiie  lien  ut  the  lijinidaiion,  and  serves  to  give  8iip;)(>rt  and 
8lr(!ii][;lli  to  [lie  binldin)^,  so  ChriNt,  ur  ihe  d'ntrine  of  a  Saviour,  i» 
called  l/te  chief  CDnier-iiUtiin  m  Kph.  ii.  20.  ;  hecuuNe  this  doctrine  in 
the  iiio.st  iiapiirtiiiit  lealuro  of  the  Chrmlian  religion,  and  in  the 
fiintlaiiicnial  objoet  of  all  the  precepts  given  by  tlic  ajHutlei)  and 
olher  ('lirislian  leacher.i. 

2  As  the  coriier-Mioiie  occupies  an  ini(M)rlant  and  conspicuous  place, 
Jesiifi  is  compared  to  it  in  1  i'et.  ii.  6.,  because  God  has  made  him 
highly  eistecmed  (or  prei'ioii.s,)  and  has  advanced  him  to  a  dignity 
and  couspicuoiiHiiuKH  alxive  all  others. 

3.  Since  men  ofien  stinnble  against  a  projerting  corner-stone,  ("hri«I 
is  therefore  so  called  (P.sal.  cxviii.  22.  Malt.  xxi.  42.  and  fmrallel 
passages,)  beiMiuse  Ins  Gospel  will  be  the  cause  of  aggravau-d  con- 
denniation  to  those  who  wilfully  reject  it.  (Uobinsou's  Lexicon, 
p.  21. 

Cross. 

1.  The  doctrine  of  the  cross,  that  is,  of  Christ  crucified.  T/ie  cross  of 
Christ,  the  pretirhins  "f  (he  cross,  orciir  in  this  sense  in  1  Cor.  i.  17, 
18.     See  also  (;al.  v.  11.  vi.  12.  14.  Phil.  iii.  18. 

2.  To  take  up  or  bear  one's  cross,  that  is,  to  be  ready  to  undergo  the 
severest  trials,  or  to  exjwse  one's  self  to  the  most  imminent  duiigers. 
Matt.  X.  38.  xvi.  24.     Mark  viii.  34.  x.  21.     Luke  ix.  23.  xiv.  27. 

Crow.n   of  Life,  a   triumphant   immortality. — l{ev.  ii.  10.     Be  thou 

fiiiUifid  unto  death,  and  I  will  give  thee  a  crown  of  life. 
Cup. 

1.  The  blessings  and  favours  of  God. — Psal.  xxiii.  5.  Mi/ cup  runneth 
over.  The  cup  of  salvation,  in  Psal.  cxvi.  13.,  is  a  cup  of  thanks- 
giving, or  blessing  the  Lord  for  all  his  mercies. 

2.  The  Cup  (f  blessing. — The  paschal  cup  was  called  by  the  Jews  the 
Cup  of  blessing,  because  they  sanctified  it  by  giving  thanks  to  God 
for  it.  To  this  Saint  Paul  alludes  in  I.  Cor.  x.  16.  when  he  terms  the 
sacnmental  cup  the  cup  of  Messing. 

3.  Afflictions  or  sufferings,  the  effficts  of  the  wrath  of  God. — Isn.  Ii.  17. 
Stand  up,  O  Jerusalem,  which  hast  drunk  at  the  hand  of  the  Lord 
the  cup  of  his  fury.  Thou  hast  drunken  the  dregs  of  the  cup  of 
trembling.    See  Wine,  2. 


Darkness. 

1.  Sin  and  ignorance. — Rom.  xiii.  12.  Let  us  cast  off  the  works  of 
darkness. 

2.  Affliction,  misery,  and  adversity — Jer.  xiii.  16.  Give  glory  to  the 
Lord  your  God,  before  he  cause  darkness.  See  Ezck.  xxx.  18. 
xxxiv.  12. 

3.  Darkness  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  General  darkness  and  de- 
ficiency in  the  government. — Isa.  xiii.  10.  The  atHTS  of  heaven,  and 
the  constfllations  thereof,  shall  not  give  their  light ;  the  sun  shall  be 
darkened  in  his  going  forth,  and  the  moon  shall  not  cause  her  light 
to  shine.    See  Ezek.  xxxii.  7.  and  Joel  ii.  10.  31.  iii.  15. 

Day. 

1.  A  year,  in  prophetical  language. — Kzek.  iv.  6.  Thou  thalt  hare 
the  iniquity  of  the  house  of  Jndah  forty  days ;  /  haix  appointed  thee 
each  day  for  a  year.  See  also  Isa.  xx.  3.  (Bp.  Lovvth's  version  and 
notes.) — Rev.  ii.  10.     I'e  shall  have  tribulation  ten  days. 

2.  An  appointed  time  or  season. — Isa.  xxxiv.  8.  It  is  the  day  of  the 
Lord's  vengeance.     See  also  Isa.  Ixiii.  4. 

3.  A  state  of  truth,  hope,  and  knowledge. — 1.  Thess.  v.  5.  Ye  are  all 
children  of  the  light,  and  children  of  the  day. 

Df:ATH. 

1  The  separation  of  the  soul  from  the  body- — Gen.  xxv.  11.  After 
(he  death  of  Abraham,  &c.  This  is  temporal  or  the  frst  death, 
which  is  the  common  lot  of  man  by  the  divine  sentence.  (Gen.  iii. 
19.)    The 

2.  Second  death  (beyond  the  grave)  is  Ihe  eternal  separation  of  the 
whole  man  from  the  presence  and  glory  of  God  ;  not  only  an  ex- 
tinction of  all  our  pleasurable  feelings,  and  of  all  our  ho|x>s  of  hap- 
piness, but  an  ever-diiring  sense  of  this  extinction,  "  where  the 
worm  dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched." — Rev.  ii.  11.  He 
that  overcomrth  shall  not  be  hurt  of  the  second  death. 

3.  The  state  of  a  soul  insensible  of  sin  and  corruption,  and  destitute  of 

the  spirit  of  life. — Judo  12.     Twice  dead.— Rev.  iii.  1.     Thou 

art  dead. 

4.  A  state  of  mortification,  death  unto  sin,  and  crucifixion  vi'ith  Christ. — 
Rom.  vi.  8.  He  thai  is  dead,  \s  freed  from  sin. — 1  Pet.  ii.  24.  Who 
his  own  self  bare  our  sins  in  his  own  body  on  the  tree,  that  we  being 
dead  to  sin,  should  live  to  righteousness. 

Desert. 

Desert  of  the  Sea. — Babylon. — Isa.  xxi.  1.  The  burden  of  the  desert 
of  ths  sea.  Babylon  and  the  adjacent  country  is  so  called,  because 
it  was  shortly  to  become  desert,  and  a  marsh  full  of  pools  of  water, 
as  if  converted  into  a  lake  or  inland  sea.  The  country  about 
Babylon,  and  especially  below  it  towards  the  sea,  was  a  great  flat 
monuis,  often  overflowed,  by  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  (Bp.  Lowth 
and  Dr.  Scott,  in  loc.) 
Dew  upon  Herbs. — The  blessing  of  Heaven,  and  the  power  of  the 
•  Insurrection. — Hos.  xiv.  5.  /  will  be  as  the  dew  unto-Israel. — Isa. 
xxvi.  19.     Thy  dead  men  shall  live ;  together  with  my  dead  body  shall 


they  arise.     Awake  and  sing,  ye  that  duielJ  in  dust,  for  thy  dew  is  as 
the  dew  of  herbs,  and  the  earth  shall  cast  out  the  "dead. 
Doi;. 

1.  The  Gentiles. — The  f/nd  properties  of  dr)gs  are  otetinate  barking, 
biting,  insatiable  gluitoriy,  liliiiiuess  in  lll^l,  m  iiii;ir.g.  and  reiurnir'g 
to  their  vomit.  ((Compare  Prov.  xxi.  11.  2  Pil,  ii.  22.)  Heme  the 
GeniiU'H,  on  account  of  the  iiiiptiri.y  of  their  live.",  and  ilit'ir  being 
without  the  covenant,  were  culled  dogs  by  ihc  Jews. — Mult  xv.  2(i 
It  is  not  meet  to  lake  the  children's  breud  and  cast  il  to  dogs. — Psal. 
xxii.  10.  Dogs  have  compassed  me,  Uie  assembly  of  the  wicl^  have 
inclosed  me. 

2.  A  watchman,  f<)r  his  vigilance  to  give  noiice  of  approaching 
danger. — Isa.  Ivi.  10.  Hts  w  ttihmin  are  blind,  ihey  are  all  i/tnoranl 
they  are  all  dumb  dogs,  they  cannot  bark. 

3.  Impudent,  shunieless  |>ersons,  and  false  teachers. — Rev.  xxii.  15 
Without  are  dogs. — Phil.  iii.  2.     Beware  rf  dogs. 

Do.MI.NION. 

1.  Power. — Neh.  ix.  28.     7'hey  had  dominion  oivr  them. 

2.  Persons  over  w  hum  another  has  ()ower. — I'sal.  cxiv.  2.  Israel  was 
his  dominion. 

3.  .Angels. — ('ol.  i.  16.     By  him  vere created dominions. 

4.  The  universal  government  of  Almighty  God. — Dan.  vii.  14.  His 
dominion  is  an  everlasting  dominion. 

Door. 

1.  Door  opened  in  heaven.  The  beginning  of  a  new  kind  ofgovem- 
ment — Kev.  iv.  1.  /  looked,  and,  bthoUl,  a  door  [v\a.s]  opened  in 
heaven. 

2.  An  open  door. — The  free  exercise  and  projwigation  of  the  Gospel. — 
1  Cor.  xvi.  9.  A  great  door  and  tffectual  is  ojjened  unto  me.  See 
also  2  Cor.  ii.  1 2.     Col.  i v.  3.     Acts  xiv.  27. 

Dragon. 

1.  A  symbol  of  a  king  that  is  an  enemy. — In  Ezek.  ixix.  3.  it  means  the 
king  of  Egypt,  so  also  in  Psal.  Ixxiv.  13. 

2.  Satan  acting  and  ruling  by  his  visible  ministers. — Rev.  xii.  9.  Be- 
hobl,  a  great  red  dragon,  &c. 

3.  Any  hurtful  thing. — Psal.  xci.  13.  The  young  lion  and  the  dragon 
shall  thou  trample  under  foot. 

Drunk — Drunkenness. 

1.  The  symbol  of  the  folly  and  madness  of  sinners,  who,  making  no 
use  of  their  reason,  plunge  themselves  in  all  manner  of  crimes. — 

Isa.  xxviii.  1.  3.      Woe  to  the  drunkards   of  Ephraim The 

drunkards  of  Ephraim  shall  be  trodden  under  feet. 

2.  That  stupidity,  which  arises  from  God's  judgments ;  when  the  sin- 
ner is  under  the  consternation  of  his  misery,  as  one  astonished,  stag- 

fering,  and  not  knowing  what  to  do. — Isa.  xxix.  9.  They  are  drunken, 
ut  not  with  wine ;  they  stagger,  but  not  with  strong  drink. — Isa.  Ii.  21. 
Thou  afflicted  and  drunken,  but  not  with  wine.  See  also  Jer.  xiii 
13,  14.  and  Lam.  iii.  15. 
Dust  and  Ashes. — Mortal  man,  under  death  and  condemnation. — 
Gen.  xviii.  27.  I  have  taken  upon  me  to  speak  unto  the  Lord,  which 
ambut  dustand  eishes. — Gen.  iii.  19.  Hmsi  thou  art,  and  to  dust  slialt 
thou  return.    See  Job  xiii.  6. 


Eagle. 

1.  A  king  or  kingdom. — Ezek.  xvii.  A  great  eagle,  unth  great  wings, 
long  winged,  full  of  feathers,  which  had  divers  colours,  came  to  Leba- 
non: that  is,  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  divers  colours  refer  to  the 
various  nations  that  composed  the  Babylonian  empire. 

2.  The  Roman  army,  whose  ensigns  or  standards  were  eagles. — Matt 
xxi  V.  28.  Where.ioever  the  carcase  is,  there  will  the  eagles  be  gathered 
together.     See  Wi.vgs. 

3.  Eagles'  Wings. — To  be  borne  on  eagles'  wings  signifies  divine, 
miraculous  deliverance.  Who  can  pursue  the  eagle  through  the 
air,  and  take  from  him  what  is  committed  to  his  charge  ?  Exod. 
xix.  4.    Psal.  xci.  4.    Isa.  xl.  31.    Rev.  xii.  14. 

Earthen  Vessel. — The  body  of  man. — 2.  Cor.  iv.  7.  We  have  this 
treasure  in  earthen  vessels. 

Earthquakes. — Great  revolutions  or  changes  in  the  political  world. — 
Joel  ii.  10.  The  earth  shall  quake  before  (him.  See  also  Haggai  ii. 
21.     Heb.  xii.  26. 

Egypt. — A  mystical  name  of  wickedness. — Rev.  xi.  8.  Their  dead 
bodies  [shall  lie]  in  (he  street  of  the  great  city,  which  spiritually  is 
called  Sodom  and  Egypt. 

Elder.s  (the  twenty-four.)  Probably  puch  of  the  Patriarchs  and  Pro- 
phets  of  the  old  church,  as  saw  by  faith  the  day  of  redemption  and 
rejoiced;  and  who  are  expressly  termed  Elders  {-fKr'vTifn,)  in 
Heb.  xi.  2. — Rev.  iv.  10.  The  four  and  twenty  elders /o//  dotvn  be- 
fore him  that  liveth  for  ever.  [See  Dean  Woodhouse  on  Rev.  iv. 
10.] 

Eves  admit  of  various  interpretations,  according  to  circumstances. 

I.  As  applied  to  the  Almighty,  they  denote. 

1.  His  knowledge  and  prescience. — Prov.  xv.  3.  His  eye  is  in  every 
place  to  behold  good  and  evil.     See  Psal.  xi.  4. 

2.  His  watchful  providence. — Psal.  xxxiv.  15.  The  eyes  of  the  Lord 
are  upon  the  righteous. 

II.  As  applied  to  Jesus  Christ  they  signify  his  omnipresence. — Rev.  v. 
6.  In  the  mid.'<t  of  the  elders  stood  a  lamb,  having ....  seven  eyes.  [See 
Dean  Woodhouse,  in  loc] 

III.  As  applied  to  Men,  the  eyes  denote, 

1.  The  understanding,  which  is  as  it  were  the  eye  of  the  soul. — Psal. 
cxix.  18.     Open  thou  wine  eyes. 

2.  A  guide  or  counseller. — Job  xxix.  15.     1  was  eyes  to  the  blind. 

3.  The  whole  man. — Rev.  i.  7.  Every  eye  shall  see  him ;  that  is,  all 
men. 


460 


INDEX  OF  THE  SYMBOLICAL 


4.  Good  or  evil  desires  and  designs. — Deut.  xxviii.  54.  His  eye  shall 
be  evil  toumrds  liis  brothf.r. — ver.  56.  Her  eye  shall  be  evil  towards 
the  husband  of  her  bosom,  and  towards  her  S(m,  and  towards  her 
daughter.  Tliat  is,  they  shall  form  cruel  and  evil  designs  against 
them  to  kill,  and  even  to  eat  them.  History  confirms  the  predic- 
tion. 


Face. 

1.  As  applied  to  God,  it  denotes  his  favour. — Dan.  ix.  17.  Cause  thy 
face  to  shine  upon  thy  sancluary. — See  Psal.  xxxi.  16. 

2.  As  applied  to  man. 

Faces  harder  than  a  rock  (Jer.  v.  3.)  denote  unblushing,  shameless 
persons. 

Faith  (ii.irTi?.)  In  consequence  of  not  attending  to  the  ambiguity  of 
the  word  Trumi,  which  in  our  authorised  version  is  usually  trans- 
lated/ajV/i,  it  has  been  applied  by  many  divines,  wherever  it  occurs, 
exclusively  to  failh  in  the  Messiaii,  when  the  context  often  manifestly 
requires  it  to  be  taken  in  a  ditferent  sense.  Failh  or  believing  then 
denotes, 

1.  Our  uBsenting  to  any  truth,  even  to  such  truths  as  are  known  by  the 
evidences  of  our  senses :  thus  in  John  xx.  29.  Thomas,  whom  the 
evidence  of  his  senses  had  convinced  of  the  reality  of  Christ's  re- 
surrection, is  said  to  have  believed. 

2.  A  general  disposition  of  the  mind  to  embrace  all  that  we  know  concern- 
ing God,  whether  by  reason  or  revelation  :  as  in  Heb.  xi.  6.  Without 
faith  it  is  impossible  to  please  God  ;  which  expression  is  subsequent- 
ly applied  to  the  existence  of  God,  his  goodness  and  bounty  towards 
his  sincere  worshippers. 

3.  A  peculiar  assent  to  a  certain  revelation  ;  for  instance,  in  Rom.  iv. 
throughout,  and  in  other  passages  that  treat  of  Abraham's  faith,  it  is 
manifest  that  this  faith  must  be  referred  to  the  peculiar  promises 
made  to  Abraham  that  a  son  should  be  born  unto  him,  though  he 
himself  was  then  about  a  hundred  years  old,  and  Sarah,  who  was 
ninety,  was  barren. 

4.  An  assent  given  to  the  revelation  made  to  Moses;  as  when  the 
children  of  Israel  are  said  to  have  believed  the  Lord  and  his  servant 
Moses.    (Exod.  xiv.  31.  compared  with  John  v.  45,  46.  and  ix.  28) 

5.  An  asseiit  given  to  the  relation  made  to  the  prophets  :  as  when  King 
Jehoshaphat  says  to  the  Jews  (2  Chron.  xx.  20.,)  "  Believe  in  the 
Lord  your  God,  so  shall  ye  be  established  ;  believe  his  prophets,  so 
shall  ye  prosper."    Compare  also  Isa.  vii.  9. 

6.  A  cordial  assent  to  the  Christian  revelation  or  to  some  of  its  leading 
and  fundamental  points  ;  as  in  those  passages  where  we  are  com- 
manded to  believe  in  Christ,  or  that  he  is  the  Son  of  God,  or  that  he 
rose  from  the  dead. 

7.  An  assent  to  future  and  invisible  things  revealed  by  God,  as  in 
Heb.  xi.  1.  where  it  is  defined  to  be  the  substance  of  things  hoped 
for,  and  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen,  that  is,  the  giving  of  a  present 
subsistence  to  things  future,  which  are  fully  expected,  and  the 
proving  and  demonstrating  of  things  which  are  not  seen. 

8.  The  Gospel,  as  in  Gal.  iii.  2.  where  Saint  Paul  demands  of  the 
Galatians,  whether  they  received  the  Spirit  by  the  works  of  the  law, 
or  by  the  hearing  of  fail  h :  in  which  passage  it  is  evident  that  the 
hearing  of  failh  denotes  the  hearing  of  the  preached  Gospel ;  and  in 
this  sense  the  worii  faith  appears  to  be  used  in  all  those  parts  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  where  it  is  opposed  to  the  works  of  the  law. 

9.  A  persuasion  that  what  we  do  is  well  pleasing  to  God:  thus  the 
meaning  of  Rom.  xiv.  23,  Whatsoever  is  not  of  faith  is  sin,  is,  that 
it  is  sinful  in  us  to  do  any  thing,  which  we  are  not  fully  persuaded 
is  well  pleasing  to  God,  or  at  least  permitted  by  him. 

10.  Faith  in  miracles,  that  is,  a  firm  confidence  in  Christ,  to  which,  at 
the  first  propagation  of  the  Gospel,  was  annexed  the  performance 
of  miracles:  such  was  the  faith  which  Jesus  Christ  frequently  re- 
quired of  his  disciples  and  others,  that  he  might  work  certain 
miracles  by  them  (compare  Matt.  xvii.  20."Mark  xi.  22.  xvi.  17.  and 
Luke  xvii.  6.;)  and  to  which  Saint  Paul  refers  in  1  Cor.  xiii.  2. 
Lastly,  faith  sometimes  signifies, 

11.  Fidelity,  or  faithfulness  in  the  discharge  of  duties  or  promises,  and 
so  the  Greek  word  stitti;  is  properly  rendered  in  Tit.  ii.  10. ;  as  it 
also  should  have  been  in  1  'Tim.  v.  12.,  the  faith,  there  said  to  have 
been  eastoffhy  the  younger  widows,  being  their fdelily  to  Christ. 

Falling  down,  or  prostrate,  before  another. — Submission  and  ho- 
mage.— Isa.  xiv.  14.  They  shall  fall  down  unto  thee,  and  make  sup- 
plication unto  thee.     See  also  Gen.  xxvii-  29.  xxxvii.  7,  8. 

Family.— The  Church  of  God. — Eph.  iii.  15.  Of  whom  the  whole 
family  in  heaven  and  earth  is  named. 

Fat. 

1.  The  most  excellent  of  every  thingc-PsaK  Ixxxi.  16.  He  should  have 
fed  them  with  the  finest  (Heb./aO  of  the  wheat. — Psal.  cxlvii.  14.  He 
filleth  thee  with  the  finest  (Heb.  fat)  of  the  wheat. 

2.  Riches. — Psal.  xxii.  29.  All  the  fat  upon  earth. — Jer.  v.  28.  They 
are  waxen  fat. 

Fathkr. 

1.  God,  whose  children  we  all  are  by  creation  and  redemption. — Mai. 
i.  6.  If  I  be  a  father,  vihere  is  mine  honour  ? — Mai.  ii.  10.  Have  we 
not  all  one  Father  ?  Hath  not  one  God  created  us  ?  See  Jer.  xxxi. 
9. 

2.  Father  of  any  thing;  that  is,  the  author,  cause,  or  source  of  it. — 
John  viii.  44.  When  he  (Satan)  xpeakelh  a  lie  .  .  .  he  is  the  father  o/" 
it. — James  i.  17.  The  Father  of  lights  ;  the  source  of  spiritual  and 
coporeal  light. 

3.  Example,  pattern,  or  prototype. — John  viii.  44.  Ye  are  of  your 
father,  the  devil ;  ye  follow  the  example  of  Satan,  so  that  he  may  be 
properly  called  your  father,  and  ye  his  children. 


Field.    The  World.— Matt.  xiii.  38. 

FiRK. 

1.  With  such  adjuncts  as  denote  that  it  is  not  put  for  light,  it  signifies 
destruction  or  torment,  great  sickness,  war,  and  ils  dismal  effects. — 
Isa.  xiii.  25.  It  hath  set  him  on  fire. — Isa.  Ixvi.  15.  The  Lord  will 
come  with  fire.    See  Ezek.  xxii.  20—22. 

2.  Burning  fire. — The  wraith  of  God. — Ezek.  xxii.  31.  /  have  con- 
sumed them  with  the  fire  of  my  wrath. 

3.  AflTlictions,  or  persecution. — Isa.  xxiv.  15.  Glorify  ye  the  Lord  God 
in  the  fires. 

4.  Coals  of  fire  proceeding  out  of  the  mouth  of  God,  or  from  his 
countenance,  denote  his  anger. — Psal.  xviii-  8.  12,  13. 

Firmament.    See  Heavens. 
Flesh  (or  Meat.) 

1.  The  riches,  goods,  or  possessions  of  any  pferson  conquered,  oppres- 
sed, or  slain,  as  the  case  maybe. — Psal.  Ixxiv.  14.  Thou  breakest 
the  heads  of  leviathan  in  pieces  (didst  destroy  the  power  of  Pharaoh 
and  his  princes,)  [and]  gavest  him  [lo  be]  meat  to  the  people  inhabiting 
the  wilderness :  that  is,  didst  enrich  the  Israelites  with  their 
spoils. — Isa.  xvii.  4.  The  fatness  of  his  flesh  shall  he  made  kan.  See 
also  Mic.  iii.  2,  3.  and  Zech.  xi.  9.  16. ;  in  all  which  places  the  Tar- 
gum  explains^e.^A  by  riches  and  substance. 

2.  To  devour  much  flesh,  is  to  conquer  and  spoil  many  enemies  of  their 
lands  and  possessions.  In  Dan.  vii.  .5.  this  expression  is  used  to  de- 
note the  cruelty  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  many  of  whose  sove- 
reigns were  more  like  ferocious  bears  than  men.  Instances  of  their 
cruelty  abound  in  almost  all  the  historians  who  have  written  of 
their  aflJiirs. 

3.  Weak,  mortal  man. — Isa.  xL  6.     All  flesh  is  grass. 

4.  The  exterior  of  man  ;  viz. 

(1.)  External  actions,  as  circumcision,  the  choice  of  food,  &c.  in 
which  the  body  is  the  part  chiefly  afiected. — Rom.  iv.  1.  What  shall 
we  say  then,  that  Abraham  our  father  hath  found,  as  pertaining  to  the 
flesh  ?  i.  e.  so  far  as  regards  external  actions. — 1  Cor.  x.  18.  Behold 
Israel  after  the  flesh  ;  i.  e.  as  it  respects  the  external  performance  of 
their  religious  rites. — Gal.  iii.  3..  ..Are  ye  now  made  perfect  by  the 
flesh  ?  will  ye  turn  again  to  mere  external  ceremonies  ? 
(2.)  External  appearance,  condition,  circumstances,  character  &c. — 
John  vi.  63.  The  Resh  profiteth  nothing. — 2.  Cor.  v.  16.  We  know 
no  man  after  the  flesh. 

Flood. — Extreme  danger. — Psal.  Ixix.  15.  Let  not  the  water-Rood 
overflow  me.    See  River. 

Food.    See  Bread. 

Forehead. — A  public  profession  or  appearance  before  men. — An 
tiently,  slaves  were  stigmatised  in  their  forehead  with  their  master's 
mark ;  hence  to  be  sealed  in  the  forehead  (Rev.  vii.  3.,)  and  to  have 
a  mark  in'  the  forehead  (Rev.  xiii.  16.  &c.,)  is  to  make  a  public  pro- 
fession of  belonging  to  the  person  whose  mark  is  said  to  be  re- 
ceived. 

Four.    See  Numbers. 

Forest  of  the  South-field.    See  South-field. 

Fornication. — All  those  carnal  impurities,  which  were  common 
among  the  heathens,  and  even  formed  a  part  of  their  sacred  rites. 
Rev.  ii.  20.  Thou  sufferest  that  woman  Jezebel ..  ..to  seduce  my  ser- 
vants to  commit  fornification. 

Fortress. — See  Towers. 

Fox. — A  cunning,  deceitful  person. — Luke  xiii.  32  Go,  tell  that  fox. — 
Ezek.  xiii.  4.     Thy  prophets  are  like  the  foxes  in  the  deserts. 

Fruit. 

1.  The  consequences  of  an  action.  Prov.  i.  31.  They  shall  eat  the  trxiit 
af  their  own  ways. 

2.  Good  works — Psal.  i.  3,     He  (the  pious  man)  bringeth  forth 

his  fruit  in  his  season. — Matt.  iii.  8.    Bring  forth  fruits  meet  for  re- 
pentance. 

Furnace. 

1.  A  place  of  great  affliction. — Deut.  iv.  20.  ThehoKuhath..  .bro^ight 
you  forth  out  of  the  iron  furnace,  oufof  Egypt. 

2.  Such  afflictions  as  God  sends  for  the  amendment  and  correction  of 
men.  — Jer.  ix.  7.  I  will  melt  them,  and  try  them,  that  is,  in  the 
furnace  of  affliction. 


Garments. 

1.  White  garments  were  not  only  the  emblem  of  purity  and  being  in 
the  favour  of  God  (Psal.  Ii.  7.  Isa.  i.  18.,)  but  also,  as  being  worn 
on  festival  days,  were  tokens  of  joy  and  pleasure.  (Isa.  Iii.  1.  Ixi. 
10.)  Kings  and  princes  likewise  were  arrayed  in  white  garments 
of  fine  linen.  (Gen.  xli.  42.  1  Chron.  xv.  27.  Luke  xvi.  19.)  Hence, 
to  walk  or  be  clothed  in  white,  signifies  to  be  prosperous,  succe.ssfiil, 
and  victorious,  to  be  holy,  happy,  honoured,  and  rewarded. — Rev. 

iii.  4,  5.     They  shall  walk  in  white The  same  shall  be  clothed 

in  white  raiment. 

2.  Souls. — Rev.  iii.  4.  ITiou  hast  a  few  names  in  Sardis  which  have 
not  defiled  their  garments. — The  Hebrews  considered  holiness  as  the 
garb  of  the  soul,  and  evil  actions  as  stains  or  spots  upon  this  garb. 

Gatks. 

1.  Gates  of  the  daughter  of  Sion.  The  ordinances  of  Jehovah,  by 
which  the  soul  is  helped  forward  in  the  way  of  salvation. — Psal.  ix. 
14.  That  I  may  show  forth  all  thy  praise  in  the  gates  of  the  daughter 
of  Sion. 

2.  'Gates  of  Death. 

Imminent  danger  of  death. — Psal.  ix.  13.     Have  mercy  upon  me,  O 

Lord thou  that  deliveresl  me  from  the  gates  of  death.     "  The 

Hebrew  poets  supposed  the  lower  world,  or  region  of  death,  to  have 
gates.    Thus  it  is  said  in  Job  xxxviii.  17.    Have  the  gates  of  death 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


461 


been  openc/l  unio  Ihee  ?  or  hagt  thou  seen  the  doors  of  the  shadow  of 
death  ? — King  Hezekiah,  in  hiH  hymn  of  thiitik.xgivinj;  for  his  re- 
covery, (Isa.  xxxviii.  10.)  singH  :  1  shall  go  lo  llie  gales  ol'tlie  grave." 
[Biirdcr'a  Orinnlal  Lileraliiro,  vol.  ii.  p.  11.  'I'he  «ntne  image  is 
toiind  among  tlie  (jreek  and  Roman  poets.  Ibid.  p.  12.  Dr.  Good's 
Translation  of  Job,  p.  452.] 

3.  Security. — (Because  gates  are  a  security  to  a  fi)rtre8s  or  city.) — Psal. 
cxivii.  13.  He  halh  sireniilhened  the  harsiA'  ti[y  giilen.  Thatis.God 
lias  given  Jeru.salem  security,  and  [tut  it  out  of  danger.  So,  in  Job 
xxxviii  10.,  the  sr/tinij  of  liars  and  i^ates  against  the  sea,  means  the 
securing  ol  the  earth  against  its  inroads.  The  decree,  lliere  aibided 
to,  as  imposed  hy  the  .Miiiiglity  U|>on  the  ocean,  is  ihat  wond(!rliil 
hiw  of  gravation  in  (hiidH,  tiy  which,  all  the  [larls  of  them  exerling 
uii  equal  pressure  ujioii  one  another,  the  equihbriuiii  of  the  whole 
is  inaiiilaiiied. 

GiHDi.K. — The  eastern  people,  wearing  long  and  loose  garments,  were 
uiilii  (iir  action  or  business  of  any  kind,  without  girding  their  clothes 
nb  ml  liiem.  A  girdle  iherefiire  denotes  strength  iiiid  activity  ;  and 
to  unloose  it  is  to  deprive  a  person  of  strength,  lo  render  him  unfit 
for  a'lioii — Isa.  v.  27.  i\'iir  .--haU  Ihf  girdle  of  Ihiir  linns  l»'  loosed. — 
Isa.  xlv.  1.  /  will  loo.se  the  loins  of  kings  lo  ojen  Lc/ure  him  (Cyrus) 
the  Iwo-traved  gales. 

Gold. 

1.  (Jood  men  bearing  trouble,  as  gold  bears  the  fire. — Job  xxiii.  10. 
U7(c;i  he  hath  tried  me,  I  shall  come  forth  as  gold. 

2.  Such  failh  and  virtue  us  will  enable  its  possessor  to  stand  a  fiery 
trial. — Kev.  lii.  18.  /  counsel  thee  lo  buy  of  me  gold  tried  in  the 
fire. — See  I  .M  Ai;  k. 

Gkai'ks. — Fruits  of  righteousness. — Isa.  v.  2.    lie  locked  that  it  should 

firing  forth  grapes,  and  it  brought  forth  ruild  grapes. 
GiiAss. — The  common  people,  or  mankind  in  general. — Isa-  xl.  6,  7. 

All  Jlesh  is  grass  ;  that  is,  weak  and  impotent  as  grass. 
Ghoiind. — The  heart  of  man. — Luke  viii.    15.       That   on  the  good 

ground,  are  thei/  which,  in  an  honest  and  good  heart,  having  heard 

the  loiird,  keep  it. 
GKowni  of  plants. 

1.  Kesurrei^ion  and  glorification. — IIos.  xiv.  7.  They  that  dwell  under 
his  shadow  shall  return  ;  they  shall  revive  as  the  corn  ;  they  shall 
grow  a<  the  vine. — John  xii.  24.  Except  a  corn  of  unheal  full  into  the 
griinnd  and  die,  it  abideth  alone  ;  but  if  it  die,  it  bringeth  forth  much 
fruit.     See  also  Isa.  Ixvi.  14.  and  1  Cur.  xv.  3(5 — 44. 

2.  (Jrowth  in  grai-e. — Isa.  I  v.  10,  11.  Far  as  the  rain  cometh  down, 
anil  the  snow  from  heaven,  and  reliirneth  not  thither,  but  v:atereth  the 
earth,  and  maketh  it  bring  forth  and  bud,  that  it  may  give  seed  to  the 
sower,  and  bread  to  the  taler  ; — so  shall  my  word  be. 


II  ur,. 

1.  The  devastations  made  by  the  inroads  of  enemies. — Isa.  xxviii.  2. 
'Ifie  Lord  halli  a  mighty  and  a  strong  one  [which]  as  a  tempest  of 
hail shall  ca^it  down  to  the  earth  with  the  hand. — Under  this  re- 
semblance the  prophet  represents  the  utter  destruction  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  ten  tril)es,  which  afterwards  was  accomplished  by  Shal- 
maneser.     Compare  Isa.  xxxii.  19.    Kzek.  xiii.  II.  13. 

2.  Had  and  fire. — The  calamities  of  war,  with  all  their  horrors. — Rev. 
viii.  7.     'there  followed  hail  and  fire  mingled  with  blood. 

IIaiii. 

1.  Grey  hairs. — Decay  of  natural  strength,  and  tendency  to  dissolu- 
tion.— IIos.  vii.  9.  Grey  hairs  are  here  and  there  upon  him,  and  he 
knoweth  it  not. 

2.  Shaving  the  head,  the  hair  of  the  feet  and  of  the  beard,  with  a 
r.izor  hired  (the  king  of  Assyria),  in  Isa.  vii.  20.  signifies  the  troubles, 
slaughter,  and  destruction  that  were  to  be  brought  upon  the  Jews 
by  the  .\ssvrian  king  and  his  armies. 

Hand. — Power  and  strength. 

1.  Itight  hand. — Great  protection  and  favour. — Psal.  xviii.  35.  Thy 
right  hand  hath  hnlden  me  up. 

2.  Living  the  right  hand  upon  a  person.  The  conveyance  of  bless- 
iiii;s — strength — power,  and  authority.  Thus  Jacob  conveyed  bless- 
ings to  the  two  sons  of  Joseph.  (Gen.  xlviii-  20.)  The  hand  that 
touched  the  prophet  Daniel  (x.  10.)  strengthened  him;  and  Moses 
by  laying  his  rieht  hand  upon  Joshua  (Numb,  xxvii.  18.),  delegated, 
a  portion  of  his  authority  to  him. 

3.  liand  of  God  upon  a  prophet. — The  immediate  operation  of  God  or 
his  Holv  Spirit  upon  a  prophet. — Kzek  viii.  1.  The  hand  of  the 
LoKD  God  fell  upon  me.  Comptare  1  Kings  xviii.  4G.  2  Kings  iii. 
15. 

Harvest. 

1.  Some  destroying  judgment,  by  which  people  fall  as  com  by  the 
scythe. — Joel  iii.  13.     Put  ye  in  the  sickle,  for  the  harvest  is  ripe. 

2.  The  end  of  the  toorW.— Matt  xiii.  39. 
He\d. 

1.  The  superior  part  or  governing  principle. — Tsa.  i.  5.  The  whole 
head  is  sick. — Dan.  ii.  38.  Thou  art  this  head  of  goltl. — Isa.  vii.  8, 
9.  The  head  (that  is,  the  sovereign,)  of  Damascus  is  Rezin ;  and 
the  head  of  Samaria  is  Remaliah's  son  ;  that  is,  Pekah  kiiig  of 
Israel.., 

2.  Heads  of  a  people. — Princes  or  magistrates. — Tsa.  xxix.  10.  The 
prophets  and  your  heads  (marginal  rendering)  hath  he  covered. — 
Micah  iii.  1.  9.  II.  Hear,  O  heads  of  Jacob,  and  ye  princes  of  the 
house  of  Israel ....  The  heads  judge  for  reward. 

3.  When  a  body  politic  is  represented  under  the  symbol  of  an  animal, 
and  is  considered  as  one  body,  the  head  of  it,  by  the  rule  of  analogy, 
is  its  capital  city. — Isa.  viL  8,  9.     The  head  of  Syria' is  Damas- 


cus    .And  the  head  of  Ephraim  (that  is,  of  the  kingdom  of 

Israel,)  is  Samaria. 

IIkat.  (Scorching.) — Trouble  nnd  persecution. — Matt.  xiii.  6.  21. 
When  the  sun  was  up,  they  were  scorched,  and  because  they  had  not 

root,    they   with' red  auvay When    tribulation    or   persecution 

ariscth  because  of  the  word,  by  and  by  he  is  ojfendtd. 

IIkavk.ns. 

1.  The  Divine  Power  ruling  over  the  world. — Dan.  iv.  26 After 

that  thou  shall  know  that  the  heavens  do  rule. 

2.  God. — Matt.  xxi.  25.  'J'he  Ixiptism  of  John,  whence  v:asit?  From 
heaven  or  of  men  >  &c. — Luke  xv.  18.  I  have  sinned  against  hea- 
ven, and  bffore  thee.     See  also  verse  21. 

3.  Heaven  and  earth. — A  (Hjlilical  universe. — Isa.  Ii.  Ifi.  That  T may 
plant  the  heavens,  an(i  lay  the  fiiundations  of  the  earth,  and  say  unto 
Sion.  "  'Itiou  art  my  people."  That  is,  that  I  might  make  those  who 
were  but  scattered  persons  and  slaves  in  Kgypt  before,  a  kingdom 
and  |xj|ity,  tu  be  governed  by  their  own  laws  and  magistrates.  See 
DooK,  1. 

IIki.i,. 

1.  Utter  destruction,  a  total  overthrow. — Isa.  xiv.  15.  Matt.  xi.  23. 
Thou  shall  he  brought  down  to  hell. 

2.  The  general  receptacle  of  the  dead,  the  place  of  departed  souls.— 
Rev.  I.  18. — /  have  the  keys  of  hell  and  of  death. 

HKL.MKT. — Salvation.— Eph.  vi.  17.  1.  Thess.  v.  8. 

Hii.i.s.     See  Mountains. 

HiRKi.iNG.      A  fiilso  minister  who  careth  not  for  the  sheep. — John  x. 

12,  13.     He  that  is  an  hireling,  whose  own  the  sheep  are  not . . .  .jleeth, 
because  he  is  an  hireling,  and  careth  not  for  the  sheep. 

IIol'K. 

1.  The  object  of  hope  ;  i.  e.  future  felicity.  Rom.  viii.  24.  Gal.  v.  5 
Col.  i.  5.  2.  Thess.  ii.  16. 

2.  The  author  or  source  of  hope. — 1  Tim.  i.  1. — Jesus  Christ,  out 
hope. — Col.  i.  27.     Christ  in  you,  the  hope  of  glory. 

3.  Confidence,  security. — Acts  u.  26.     My  Jlesh  shall  rest  in  hope. 
Horn. 

1.  Regal  power,  or  monarchy. — Jer.  xlviii.  25.  The  horn  (f  Moah  is 
cut  off.  In  Zech.  i.  18.  21.  and  Dan.  viii.  20 — 22.  lhe/"(/r  horns  are 
the  f()ur  great  monarchies,  each  of  which  had  subdued  the  Jews 

2.  Horns  of  an  altar. — The  Divine  protection. — Amos  iii.  14.  The 
horns  of  the  altar  shall  be  cut  ojf  and  fall  lo  the  ground.  That  is, 
there  shall  be  no  more  atonements  made  Ufion  the  altar.  The 
asylum  or  sanctuary  thereof  shall  not  stand.  Antienlly,  both  among 
Jews  and  Gentiles,  an  altar  was  an  asylum  or  sanctuary  for  such 
persons  as  fled  to  it  for  refuge. 

3.  Strength,  glory,  and  power. — Horns  (it  is  well  known)  are  emblems 
of  these  qualities  iMjth  in  sacred  and  profme  writers,  because  the 
strength  and  beauty  of  horned  animals  consist  in  their  bonis.  By 
the  seven  horns,  atiributed  to  the  Lamb,  (in  Rev.  v  6.)  is  signified 
that  universal  power  which  our  Lord  obtained,  when,  suffering 
death  under  the  form  of  an  innocent  victim,  he  thereby  vanquished 
the  formidable  enemy  of  man.  All  power,  said  he  to  his  disciples 
immediately  after  this  conflict,  is  given  to  me  in  heaven  and  in  larth. 
(Matt,  xxviii.  18.) 

4.  Horn  of  Salvation. — A  mighty  and  glorious  Saviour,  or  Deliverer. — 
Psal.  xviii.  2.  The  Lord  is. ..  the  horn  of  my  salvation.  See  Luke 
i.  69. 

HORSK. 

1.  The  symbol  of  war  and  conquest. — God  hath  made  Judah  as  his 
goodly  horse  in  the  battle.  That  is.  He  will  make  them  conquerors 
over  his  enemies,  glorious  and  successful. 

2.  More  particularly  of  speedy  conquest.— Joel  ii.  4.  The  appearance 
of  them  is  as  the  appearance  of  horses  ;  and  as  horsemen  so  shall  they 
run. — Hab.  i.  8.     Their  horses  are  swifter  than  leopards. — Jer.  iv. 

13.  His  horses  are  swifter  than  eagles. 

3.  White  being  the  symfwl  of  joy,  felicity,  and  prosperity,  and  while 
horses,  being  used  by  victors  on  their  days  of  triumph,  are  the  sym- 
bol of  certain  victory  and  great  triumph  upon  that  account. — Rev. 
vi.  2.  /  saw,  and  behold  a  white  horse  ;  and  he  that  sal  on  him.. .. 
went  forth  conquering  and  to  conquer.     See  also  Black. 

HOI'SE. 

1.  The  Church  of  God.— 1  Tim.  iii.  15.  The  House  of  God,  which  is 
the  church  of  the  living  God.     See  Heb.  iii.  6. 

2.  The  body  of  man. — 2  Cor.  v.  1.  If  our  earthly  house  of  [this\ 
tabernacle  were  dissolved. 

Hunger  and  Thirst. — The  appetites  of  the  spirit  af^er  righteous- 
ness.— Luke  i.  53.  He  hath  filed  the  hungry  with  good  things. — 
Matt.  v.  6.  Blessed  are  they  which  do  hunger  and  thirst  after 
righteousness, /or  they  shall  be  filled. — Psal.  xiii.  2.  My  soul  thitst- 
eth  for  God. 


Idol. — Idolatry. — Any  thing  too  much,  and  sinfully  indulged. — 1 

John  v.  21 .     Keep  yourself  from  idols. — Col.  iii.  5.     Covetousness 

which  is  idolatry. 
Image  of  gold,  silver,  brass,  and  iron. — The  four  great  monarchies  or 

kingdoms  of  the  world. — Dan.  ii.  31 — 45.     Compare  p.  207.  of  this 

volume. 
Incense. — Prayer,  or  the  devotion  of  the  heart  in  ofl^enng  up  prayer 

to  God. — Psal.  cxii.  2.     Let  my  prayer  be  set  before  Ihee  as  incense. — 

Rev.  v.  8.     Golden  vials  full  of  incense,  which  are  the  prayers  of 

the  saints.     See  also  Luke  i.  10. 
Infirmities  of  the  Body. — All  the  distempers  and  weaknesses  of  the 

mind. — Matt.  viii.  17.     Himself  took  our  infirmities,  and  bare  our 

sicknesses.    Compare  Isa.  liii.  4.  and  xxxv,  5,  6. 


462 


INDEX  OF  THE  SYMBOLICAL 


Isle — Island. — Any  place  or  country  to  which  the  Hebrews  went  by 
sea. — Gen.  x.  5.  By  these  were  the  isles  of  the  Gentiles  divided  in 
their  lands  ;  that  is,  Europe. — In  Fsa.  xx.  6.  T/iis  isle  means  Ethio- 
pia, whither  the  Hebrews  went  by  sea  from  Ezion-geber.  And  in 
Isa.  xxiii.  2.  6.,  the  inhabitants  of  the  isle  are  tlie  Tyrians. 


Jerusale.w. 

1.  The  earlhly  Jerusalem. — A  sign,  earnest,  and  pattern  of  the  heaven- 
ly Jerusalem. — Ke v.  iii.  12.     Him  that  overcoiiieth /  will  write 

upon  him  the  name  of  my  God,  and  the  name  of  the  city  of  my  God 
[which  is]  neit)  Jerusalem. — "  The  numerous  prophecies,  foretelling 
great  and  everlasting  glory  to  Jerusalem,  have  not  been  fulfilled  in 
the  literal  Jerusalem  ;  nor  can  be  so  fulfdled,  without  contradicting 
other  predictions,  especially  those  of  our  Lord  which  have  de- 
nounced its  ruin.  They  remain,  therefore,  to  be  fulfilled  in  a 
spiritual  sense  ;  in  that  sense  which  Saint  Paul  points  out  to  us, 
when  in  opposition  to  Jerusalem  that  now  is,  and  is  in  bondage  with 
her  children,  he  presents  to  our  view,  Jerusalem  which  is  above, 
which  is  the  mother  of  us  all.  (Gal.  iv.  24 — 26.)  This  is  the  city 
which  Abraham  looked  to ;  a  building  not  made  with  hands,  whose 
builder  and  maker  is  God  (Heb.  xi.  10 — l(i.  xii.  22 — 24.  xiii.  14.)  ; 
even  the  heavenly  Jerusalem."  [Dean  Woodhouse  on  Rev.  iii. 
12.] 

2.  Jerusalem  that  now  is  (Gal.  iv.  25.) ;  the  Jewish  or  Mosiac  dispen- 
sation. 

3.  Jerusalem  that  is  above  (Gal.  iv.  26.),  the  celestial  Jerusalem,  i.  e. 
the  Christian  dispensation,  which  will  be  perfected  in  splendour 
and  majesty,  when  Christ  shall  descend  to  judge  the  world. 

Jezebel. — A  woman  of  great  rank  and  influence  at  Thyatira,  who 
seduced  the  Christians  to  intermix  idolatry  and  heathen  impurities 
with  their  religion. — Rev.  ii.  20.  /  have  a  few  things  against  thee, 
because  thou  hast  suffered  that  woman  Jezebel,  which  calleth  herself 
a  prophetess,  to  teach  and  to  seduce  my  servants  to  commit  fornication, 
and  to  eat  things  offered  unto  idols. — Instead  of  that  woman  Jeze- 
bel— rnv  yuvceixtt  ieC'"ii>^ — mauy  excellent  manuscripts,  and  almost 
all  the  ancient  versions,  read  t>)i/  yvvxincc  o-ov  i!(xS>iK,  thy  wife  Jeze- 
bel; which  readmg  a.«serts  thai  this  bad  woman  was  the  wife  of  the 
bishop  or  angel  of  that  church  ;  whose  criminality  in  sufTering  her 
was,  therefore,  the  greater.  She  called  herself  a  prophetess,  that  is, 
set  up  for  a  teacher  ;  and  taught  the  Christians  that  fornication  and 
eating  things  offered  to  idols  were  matters  of  indifference,  and  thus 
they  were  seduced  from  the  truth.  [Dean  Woodhouse  and  Dr.  A. 
Clarke,  on  Rev.  ii.  20.] 


Keys. 

1.  Power,  authority. — Rev.  i.  18.  /. .  ..have  the  keys  of  hell  and  of 
death  ;  that  is,  power  and  authority  over  life,  death,  and  the  grave. 
Compare  Rev.  iii.  7.  and  Isa.  xxii.  22. — The  keys  of  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,  in  Mart.  xvi.  19.,  signify  the  power  to  admit  into  that  state, 
and  to  confer  the  graces  and  benefit.s  thereof 
The  key  of  knowledge,  in  Luke  xi.  52.,  is  the  power  or  mean  of  at- 
taining knowledge. 

KiNE  of  Bashan.     (Amos  iv.  1.)     The  luxurious  matrons  of  Israel. 

King. — God,  the  King  of  kings,  and  origin  of  all  authority  and  power. 
See  Matt.  xxii.  2.    Rev.  xvii.  14. 


Labourer. — The  minister  who  serves  under  God  in  his  husbandry. — 
Matt.  ix.  37,  38.  The  harvest  truly  is  plenteous,  but  the  labourers 
are  few.  Pray  ye,  therefore,  the  Lord  of  the  harvest,  that  he  will  send 
forth  labourers  into  this  harvest. — 1  Cor.  iii.  9.  We  are  labourers 
together  xoith  God. 

Lamb. — The  Messiah,  suffering  for  the  sins  .of  the  world. — John  i.  29. 
Behold  the  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world. — Rev. 
v.  12.     Worthy  is  the  Lamb  that  was  slain. 

Lamp. 

1.  Direction  or  support. — 2  Sam.  xxii.  17.  That  thou  quench  not  the 
light  (Heb.  lamp)  of  Israel. 

2.  A  Christian  church. — Rev.  i.  12.  The  seven  golden  lamps  (incor- 
rectly rendered  eandlesticks  in  our  version)  are  the  seven  churches 
of  Christ  (Rev.  i.  20),  represented  as  golden,  to  show  how  precious 
they  are  in  the  sight  of  God. 

Leaven. — Corrupt  doctrine  and  corrupt  practices. — Matt.  xvi.  6.  Luke 
xii.  1.  Mark  viii.  15.  Beware  of  the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees,  vihich  is  hypocrisy. — 1  Cor.  v.  6 — 8.  Know  ye  not  that  a 
little  leaven  leaveneth  the  vihnle  lump  ?     Purge,  therefore,  the  old 

leaven,  that  ye  may  be  a  new  lump". Let  us  keep  the  feast,  not 

with  old  leaven,  neither  with  the  leaven  of  malice  and  wickedness, 
but  with  the  unleavened  bread  of  sincerity  and  truth. 

Leaves. — Words,  the  service  of  the  lips,  as  distinguished  from  the 
fruits  of  good  works. — Psal.  i.  3.     His  leaf  aZso  shall  not  wither. 

Lebanon. — Zech.  xi.  1.  Open  thy  doors,  O  Lebanon  ;  i.  e.  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem,  the  stately  buildings  of  which  were  compared  to  the 
cedars  of  the  forests  of  Lebanon. 

Legion. — Any  great  number. — Matt.  xxvi.  53.  More  than  twelve 
legions  of  angels. 

Leopard. 

1.  A  swift,  powerful,  and  rapacious  enemy. — Dan.  vii.  6.  7  beheld', 
and  lo,  another  like  a  leopard,  i.  e.  Alexander,  falsely  named  the 
Great,  whose  rapid  conquests  are  well  characterised  by  this  sym- 
bol. 

2.  Men  of  fierce,  untractable,  and  cruel  disposition. — Isa.  xi.  6.  The 
leopard  shalt  lie  down  with  the  kid. 


Life. 

1.  Immortality.— Psal.  xvi.  11.  Thou  wilt  show  me  the  path  oj  life.- 
Psal.  XXX  vi  9.     With  thee  is  the  fountain  of  life. 

2.  Christ,  the  fountain  of  natural,  spiritual,  and  elernal  life. — John  i. 
4.  In  him  was  life. — John  xi.  25.  /  am  the  resurrection  and  the 
life. — Vm\.  iii.  4.      When  Christ,  who  is  our  life,  shall  appear. 

3.  The  doctrine  of  the  Gospel,  which  points  out  the  way  of  life John 

vi.  63.     The  words  that  I  speak  unto  you,  they  are  hie.      See  Thee 
of  Life. 

Light. 

1.  Joy,  comfort,  and  felicity. — Esther  viii.  16.  The  Jews  had  light  and 
gladness,  and  joy,  and  honour. — Psal.  xcvii.  11.  Light  is  s(,wn  for 
the  righteous. — Psal.  cxii.  4.  Unto  the  upright  there  ariseth  light  m 
the  darkness  ;  that  is,  in  affliction. 

2.  That  which  enlightens  the  mind:  instruction,  doctrines,  &c.,  which 
illuminates  and  fills  the  mind  with  higher  and  more  perfect  know- 
ledge ;  so  that  men  are  led  to  adopt  a  new  and  better  mode  of 
thinking,  feeling,  judging,  and  acting,  and  to  entertain  nobler 
views  and  higher  hopes.  1  Thess.  v.  5.  Eph.  v.  8.  Children  (or 
sons)  of  the  light;  that  is,  those  who  have  been  enlightened. 

3.  The  author  of  moral  light,  a  moral  teacher. — Ye  are  the  light  of  the 
world. — John  v.  35.  He  was  a  burning  and  shining  light  ;  i.  e.  a 
distinguished  and  most  zealous  teacher  of  the  mysteries  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven. 

Lion. 

1.  An  emblem  of  fortitude  and  strength. — Rev.  v.  5.  The  Lion  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  means  Jesus  Christ,  who  sprang  from  this  tribe,  of 
which  a  lion  was  the  emblem. 

2.  The  lion  is  seldom  taken  in  an  ill  sense,  except  when  his  mouth  or 
rapacity  is  in  view. — Psal.  xxii.  13.  They  gaped  upon  me  with  their 
mnuths  as  a  ravening  and  a  roaring  lion.     See  also  1  Pet.  v.  8. 

Locusts. — Antichristian  corrupters  of  the  Gospel. — Rev.  ix.  3.  There 
came  out  of  the  smoke  locusts  upon  the  earth.  Dean  Woodhouse  re- 
fers them  to  the  Gnostic  heretics  ;  but  most  other  commentators  to 
the  overwhelming  forces  of  Mohammed. 

Loins. — Gird  up  the  loins  of  your  mind  :  hold  your  minds  in  a  state 
of  constant  preparation  and  expectation.  The  metaphor  is  derived 
from  the  customs  of  the  Orientals  :  who,  when  they  wish  to  apply 
themselves  to  any  business  requiring  exertiim,  are  obliged  to  bind 
their  long  flowing  garments  closely  around  them. 


Mammon  of  unrighteousness. — Luke  xvi.  9.  Worldly  riches.  Mammon 

was  the  Syrian  god  of  riches. 
Manna. 

1.  The  bread  of  life.    John  vi.  26—50. 

2.  Hidden  manna. — The  inefTable  joys  of  immortality. — Rev.  ii.  17. 
To  him  that  overcometh  will  I  give  to  eat  of  the  hidden  manna. 

Meat.    See  Flesh. 
Moon. 

1.  The  Church. — Song  of  Sol.  vi.  10.     Fair  as  the  moon. 

2.  The  Mosaic  dispensation. — Rev.  xii.  1.  2'Ae  moon  under  her  feet. 
See  Sun,  3. 

MOUNTIAN. 

1.  High  mountains  and  lofty  hills  denote  kingdoms,  republics,  states, 

and  cities. — Isa.  ii.  12,  14.     The  day  of  the  iMrd  shall  be upon 

all  the  high  mountains.    In  Jer.  Ii.  25.  the  destroying  mountain  means 
the  Babylonish  nation. 

2.  Mountain  of  the  Lord's  House. — The  kingdom  of  the  Messiah. — 
Isa.  ii.  2.  It  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  last  days,  that  the  mountain  of 
the  Lord's  House  shall  be  established  upon  the  lop  of  the  mountains, 
and  shall  be  exalted  above  the  hilts,  and  all  nations  shall  flow  unto  it. 
See  Isa.  xi.  9.  and  Dan.  ii.  35.  45. 

3.  An  obstacle  to  the  spread  of  the  Gospel.  Isa.  xl.  4. 
Mystfry. 

1.  A  secret,  something  that  is  hidden, sot  fully  manifest,  not  published 
to  the  world,  though,  perhaps,  communicated^to  a  select  number. 
In  this  sense  it  occurs  in  2.  "Thess.  ii.  7.  where  Saint  Paul,  speaking 
of  the  Antichristian  spirit,  says,  •'  The  mystery  of  iniquity  doth  al- 
ready work."  The  spirit  of  Antichrist  has  begun  to  operate,  but  the 
operation  is  latent  and  unperceived.  In  this  sense  also  the  same 
apostle  applies  the  words  "  mystery,"  and  "mystery  of  Christ,"  in  a 
peculiar  manner  to  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  (Eph.  iii.  3—9.); 
"  which  in  other  generations  toas  not  made  known  to  the  sons  of  men, 
as  it  is  now  revealed  to  his  holy  apostles  and  prophets  by  the  Spirit, 
that  the  Gentiles  should  be  fellow-heirs  and  of  the  same  body  (namely 
with  the  Jews),  andpartakers  of  his  promise  in  Christ  by  the  Gospel.' 
Compare  also  Rom.  xvi.  25,  26.  Eph.  i.  9.  iii.  9.  vi.  19.  Col.  i.  26, 
27. 

2.  *'  A  spiritual  truth  couched  under  an  external  representation  or 
similitude,  and  concealed  or  hidden  thereby,  unless  some  explana- 
tion be  given."  To  this  import  of  the  word  our  Saviour  probably 
alluded  when  he  said  to  his  disciples.  To  you  it  is  given  to  krfow  the 
mystery  of  the  kingdom  of  God  ;  but,  to  them  that  are  without,  all 
these  things  are  done  in  parables.  (Mark  iv.  11.)  The  secret  was 
disclosed  to  the  apostles,  who  obtained  the  spiritual  sense  of  the 
similitude,  while  the  multitude  amused  themselves  with  the  para- 
ble, and  sought  no  further.  In  this  sense,  mystery  is  used  in  the 
following  passages  of  the  New  Testament : — Rev.  i.  20.  The 
mystery,  that  is,  the  spiritual  meaning,  o/"  Me  seven  stars. — The  seven 
stars  are  the  angels  of  the  seven  churches  ;  and  the  seven  candlestic\a 
are  the  seven  churches^.  Again,  xvii.  5.  And  upon  her  forehead  a  name 
written  Mystery,  Babylon  the  Great,  that  is,  Babylon  in  a  mystical 
sense,  the  mother  of  idolatry  and  abominations  ;  and,  in  verse  7.  / 
mil  tell  thee  the  mystery,  or  spiritual  signification,  of  the  woman,  and 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


463 


of  the  beast  that  carrieih  her,  &c.     In  this  sense  likewise  the  word 
myxtery  is  to  l)e  uridftrstoiKl  in  Eph.  v.  32. 

3.  "  Some  sacred  thing,  hidden  or  Kccret,  whirh  is  nntiirnlly  unknown 
to  human  reason,  and  is  only  known  hy  the  revelation  oi  God." 
Thus,  in  1  Tim.  iii.  1<>.  we  read — Without  cimlroverxy  great  is  the 
mystery  of  godliness  :  Ond  was  manifest  in  the  Jles/i,  jtislifted  in  the 
Spirit,  seen  of  angels,  preached  unto  the  Gentiles,  beltew'd  on  in  the 
world,  received  up  into  glory.  "  The  mystery  ofgodhnesK,  or  of  true 
religion,  consists  in  the  several  particulars  here  mentioned  by  the 
apostle — particulars,  indeed,  which  it  would  never  have  entered  into 
the  heart  <f  man  loconceive  (1  Cor.  ii.  'J.),  had  not  God  acc<MnpliMh<>d 
them  In  fart,  and  puhlished  them  hy  the  preaching  of  his  (jo8|)el  ; 
but  which,  l>eiiig  ihu.s  man  fisted,  are  intetligilile  us  farts  to  the 
tneanrsi  uiulcrstanding."  So  in  1  Cor.  xili.  2.  the  undcrHtanding  of 
all  mysteries  denote  the  understanding  of  all  the  revealed  truths 
of  the  C'hrislian  religion,  whii-h  in  I  Tim.  iii.  'J.  are  called  the  mi/s- 
tery  of  faith,  and  of  which,  in  1  Cor.  iv.  1.,  the  a))ostle8  are  called 
sleunrds  of  the  mi/steries  if  God. 

4.  The  word  mystery  is  u.secf  in  reference  to  things  or  doctrines  which 
remain  wholly  or  in  |)art  incomjirehensihle,  or  above  rea.son,  afieir 
they  are  revealed.  Such  are  the  doctrines  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  that  all  shall  not  die  at  the  la.st  day,  hut  that  all  shall  he 
changed  (1  ("or.  xv.  f)!.),  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  &c.  This  is  the  ordinary  or  theological 
sense  of  the  word  mystery  :  it  does  not  imply  any  thing  contrary  to 
re.ison,  nor  uitcrly  unknown  as  to  its  being;  hut  it  signifies  a  mat- 
ter, of  whose  existence  we  have  clear  evidence  in  the  Scriptures, 
although  the  motleuf  such  existence  is  incoinprchensihle,  or  above 
Qur  reason.  (Schleusner's  and  farkhursl's  (ireek  Lexicons  to  the 
New  Testament,  voce  Mu.-npior.  Dr.  Cainpl)eirs  Translation  of  the 
Four  Gospels,  vol.  i.  pp.  298 — 306.  See  also  J  G.  PI'eidtir's  Instit. 
Herm.  Sac.  pp.  704—724.) 

Naked. — Destitute  of  the  image  of  God  ;  not  clothed  with  the  gar- 
ment of  holiness  and  purity. — Rev.  iii.  17.  And  knowest  not  that 
thou  art  wretched,  and  miserable,  and  poor,  and  blind,  and  naked. 

Na.mks. — The  persons  called  hy  them. — Acts  i.  13.  The  lunnher  of  the 
names  were  about  an  hundred  and  twenty. — Rev.  iii.  4.  Thou  hast 
a  few  names  even  in  Sardis. 

Natiire. 

1.  Birth,  origin,  or  nativity.     Jeujs  6y  nature.     Gal.  ii.  15. 

2.  The  constitution  and  order  of  God  in  the  natural  world.  Rom.  i. 
26.  xi.  21.  24. 

3.  The  native  dispositions,  qualities,  properties,  &c.  of  any  person  or 
thing.  2  Pet.  i.  14.  Partakers  of  a  divine  nature. — Eph.  ii.  3.  We 
were  by  nature,  i.  e.  according  to  our  natural  disposition,  when  not 
enlightened  and  renewed  by  the  influences  of  the  Gospel,  children 
of  wrath. 

A.  A  native  feeling  of  decorum,  a  native  sense  of  propriety,  by  which 
a  person  is  withheld  from  needlessly  receding  from  the  customs  of 
his  country. — 1  Cor.  xi.  14.  Doth  not  nature  iVsp//"— doth  not  your 
own  native  sense  of  decorum — teach  you,  that  if  a  man  have  long 
hair,  it  is  a  shame  unto  him,  viz.  among  the  Greeks,  to  whom  alone 
the  apostle  was  writing  ;  and  consequently  he  does  not  refer  to  the 
customs  of  the  Hebrews.  (Robinson's  Lexicon,  voce  <i>uti;.) 

Night — Intellectual  darkness;  adversity. — Rev.  xxi.  25.  There  shall 
be  no  night  there  ;  that  is,  there  shall  be  no  more  idolatry,  no  more 
intellectual  clarkness,  no  more  adversity  in  the  New  Jerusalem  ;  but 
all  shall  be  peace,  joy,  happiness,  and  security. 

NuMBfTRS. 

Two  ;  a  few. — Isa.  vii.  21.  A  man  shall  nourish  two  sheep. — 1  Kings 
xvii.  12.     I  am  sathering  two  sticks. 

Three  or  third. — Greatness,  excellency,  and  perfection. — Isa.  xix.  24. 
7/1  that  day  shall  Israel  be  the  third  mi'M  Egypt  atul  Assyria  ;  that  is, 
as  the  prophet  immediately  explains,  great,  admired,  beloved,  and 
blessed. 

Four. — Universality  of  the  matters  comprised  therein. — Isa.  xi.  12. 
The  four  corners  (f  the  earth  denote  all  parts  of  the  earth. — Jer.  xlix. 
6.  Upon  F.lnm  (or  Persia)  will  I  bring  the  four  winds  from  the  four 
quarters  of  the  earth  ;  that  is,  all  the  winds.  In  Ezek.  vii.  2.  the  four 
corners  of  the  bind,  signify  all  parts  of  the  land  of  Judea. 

Seven. — A  large  and  complete,  yet  uncertain  and  indefinite,  number. 
It  is  of  very  freipient  occurrence  in  the  Apocalypse,  where  we  read 
of  the  seven  spirits  Of  God,  seven  angels,  seven  thunders,  seven  seals, 
Ac.  itc.     [See  Dr.  VVtMnlhouse  on  Rev.  i.  4.] 

Ten. — Miny,  as  well  as  that  precise  number.  In  Gen.  xxxi.  7.  41.  Ten 
times  are  many  times;  in  Lev.  xxvi.  26.  ten  women  are  many  wo- 
men.   See  also  Dan.  i.  20.    Amos  vi.  9.    Zech.  viii.  23. 


O.VKS  of  B\snA\. — The  princes  and  nobles  of  Israel  and  Jiidah. — I.sa. 
ii.  1 3.     The  day  of  the  Lord  shall  be .. ..  upon  all  the  oaks  of  Bashan. 
Olives. 

1.  The  wild  olive;  Man  in  a  state  of  nature. — Rom.  xi.  17.  Thoubeing 
a  wild  olive-tree,  wert  g raffed  in  amongst  them 

2.  The  cultivated  olive ;  the  church  of  God. — Rom.  xi.  24.  If  thou 
wert  ^ut  out  of  the  olive-tree,  irhich  is  wild  by  nature,  and  wert  graffed 
contrary  to  nature  into  a  good  olive-tree.. . 


Paums. — Symlwls  of  joy  after  a  victory,  attended  with  antecedent  suf- 
ferings.-—Rev.  vii.  9.  IbeheUl,  and,  lo,  a  great  multitude  .  ..clothed 
Willi  while  rohes,  and  palms  in  their  hands. 

Paiiadi.se. — The  invisible  residence  of  the  blessed. — R^v.  ii.  7.  To 
him  that  ov€rcometh  will  I  give  to  cat  of  the  tree  of  life,  which  is  in  the 


midst  of  the  paradise  of  God.— hnke  xxiii.  43.    To  day  shalt  thou  be 

with  me  in  paradise. 
Pa.ssover.— Jesus   Christ.— 1    Cor.   v.   7.       Christ  our   passover   is 

sacrificed  for  us.    On  the  spiritual  import  of  this  term,  compare  Vol. 

II.  Chap.  IV.  ^IV.  3. 
PiivsiciA.N— The   Saviour,   curing   the   sins   and  sicknesses   of  the 

mind.— Matt.  ix.  12.     T/iey  that  be  whole,  need  not  a  physician  ;  but 

they  that  are  sick. 

PlI.I.AR  or  (-"OI.IJ.MN. 

1.  The  chief  prop  of  a  family,  city,  or  state.— Gal.  ii.  9.  James,  Cephas, 
anil  John,  who  seemed  lo  be  pillars. 

2.  Pillar  of  iron. — The  8ymb<jl  of  great  firmness  and  duration. — Jer.  i. 
18.     I h'lve  made  thee..  ..an  iron  pillar. 

Pm)i;«iiiv<;  and  breaking  up  the  ground. — The  preparation  of  the 
heart  by  repentance. — Hos.  x.  12.  Break  up  your  fallow-ground. 
See  also  Jer.  iv.  3. 

Poi.soN. — Lies,  error,  and  delusion. — Psal.  cxl.  3.  Adders'  poison  is 
under  their  lips. — Psal.  Iviii.  3,  4.  They  no  astray  as  soon  as  they  are 
burn,  speaking  lies.  Their  poison  is  like  the  poison  of  a  serpent. — 
Rom.  lii.  13.  The  poisf)n  of  asps  is  under  their  lips ;  whose  mouth 
is  full  of  cursing  and  bitterness. 

Po\\'KR. 

1.  Dignity,  privilege,  prerogative. — John  i.  12.  ^4*  many  as  received 
him,  to  them  gave  he  power  to  Income  the  sons  of  God. 

2.  The  emblem  of  [)ower,  or  of  honour  and  dignity,  that  is,  a  veil. — 1 
Cor.  xi.  10.  A  wmnan  ought  to  have  |HH\cr  on  her  head,  that  is  to  he 
veiled,  because  of  the  spies,  or  evil-minded  pen-ons  who  were  sent 
into  the  meetings  of  the  Christians  by  their  enemies,  in  order  that 
they  might  be  able  to  take  advantage  of  any  irregularity  in  their 
proceedings,  or  of  any  departure  from  established  customs.  The 
veil,  worn  by  married  women,  was  an  emblem  of  suhjeciion  lo  the 
power  of  the  husband.  The  marginal  rendering  of  1  Cor.  xi.  10. 
is, — a  covering,  in  sign  that  she  is  under  the  power  of  her  husband. 

PowER.s. — A  certain  order  of  angels  ;  wheiher  ^orv/,  as  in  Col.  i.  16. 

Kph.  iii.  10.    1  Pet.  iii.  22. ;  or  evil,  as  in  Col.  ii.  15.  arid  Kph.  vi.  12. 

(Parkhiirst  and  Robinson,  voce  e^-vtii.) 
Pri.nce  of  the  jwwer  of  the  air. — Eph.  ii.  2.    Satan.    In  this  passage 

the  air  denotes  the  jurisdiction  of  tallen  spirits. 


Rain  (gentle). 

1.  The  divine  goodness. — Isa.  xxvii.  3.  xliv.  3. 

2.  Pure  and  heavenly  doctrine. — Deut.  xxxii.  2.  especially  the  word 
of  the  Lord.     Isa  Iv.  10,  11. 

Reapers. — The  angels. — Matt.  xiii.  39. 
Reue.neratio.n. 

1.  The  melioration  of  all  things,  the  new  condition  of  all  things  in  the 
reign  of  the  Messiah,  when  the  universe,  and  all  that  it  contains, 
will  be  restored  to  their  state  of  pristine  purity  and  splendour. — 
Malt.  xix.  28.  In  the  regeneration,  when  the  son  of  man  shall  sit  on 
the  throne  of  his  glory. 

2.  In  a  moral  sense,  renovation,  that  is,  the  change  from  a  carnal  to  a 
Christian  life. — Tit.  iii.  5.  (Robinson,  voce  UiKiyyitinx) 

Riches  and  Talents. — Gifts  and  graces  from  God. — Matt.  xxv.  15. 

To  one  he  gave  Jive  talents,  <!tc.     See  also  Luke  xix.  13,  &c. 
River. 

1.  An  overflowing  river. — Invasion  by  an  army. — Isa.  lix.  19.  The 
enemy  shall  come  in  like  a  flood. — Jer.  xlvi.  7,  8.  Who  is  this  that 
Cometh  up  as  a  flood,  whose  ivaters  are  moved  as  the  rivers  ?  Egypt 
riseth  up  like  a  flood,  and  his  waters  are  moved  like  the  rivers  :  and 
he  saith,  I  will  go  up,  and  will  cover  the  earth  ;  I  will  destroy  the  city 
and  the  inhabitants  thereof.  See  also  Isa.  xxviii.  2.  Jer.  xlvii.  2. 
Amos  ix.  5.  Nahum  i.  4. 

2.  A  river  being  frequently  the  barrier  or  boundary  of  a  nation  or 
country,  the  drying  of  it  up  is  a  symbol  of  evil  to  the  adjoining  land  ; 
and  signifies  that  its  enemies  will  make  an  easy  conquest  of  it 
when  they  find  no  water  to  impede  their  progress.  Thus,  Isaiah, 
foretelling  the  conquest  of  Cyrus  and  the  desi  ruction  of  the  Babylo- 
nian monarchy,  has  these  words  : — That  saith  to  the  deep.  Be  dry  ; 
and  I  will  dry  up  thy  rivers. — Isa.  xi.  15.  1  he  Lord  shall  utterly  de- 
stroy the  timgue  of  the  Egyptian  Sea  (that  part  of  the  land  of  Egypt, 
which  was  inclosed  among  the  mouths  of  the  Nile);  and  icith  his 
mighty  wind  shall  he  shake  his  hand  over  the  river,  and  shall  smite 
it  in  the  sei:en  streams,  and  make  [men]  go  over  dry-shod.  See  also 
Isa.  xix.  6.  and  Zech.  x.  11. 

3.  A  clear  river  is  the  symbol  of  the  greatest  good. — Psal.  xxxvi.  8. 
They  shall  be  abundantly  sati.fed  with  the  fatness  <f  thy  house  ;  and 
thou  shalt  make  them  drink  oj  the  river  of  thy  pleasures.  For  with 
thee  is  the  fountain  of  life. —  Rev.  xxii.  1.  lie  shuuid  me  a  clear 
river  of  water  of  life,  (that  is,  the  inexhaustible  and  abundant  hap- 
piness of  the  inhabitants  of  the  New  Jerusalem,)  bnght  as  crystal, 
proceeding  out  of  the  throne  of  God  and  the  Lamb.  Its  rlearmss  in- 
dicates their  holiness  and  peace  ;  and  the  brightness  of  its  shining 
like  crystal,  the  glorious  life  of  those  who  drink  of  it. 

Rock. 

1.  A  defence,  or  place  of  refuge. — Isa.  xvii.  10.  Thmt  hast  forgotten 
the  God  of  thy  salvation,  and  hast  not  been  mindful  if  the  rock  of  thy 
strength. — Psal.  x\  iii.  2.     The  Lord  is  my  rock. 

2.  A  quarry,  figuratively  the  patriarch  or  first  father  of  a  nation  ;  who 
is,  as  it  were,  the  quarrj-  whence  the  men  of  such  nation  must  have 
proceeded. — Isa.  Ii.  1.  Look  unto  the  rock  whence  ye  are  hewn,  that 
is,  to  .Abraham  and  Sarah,  whose  descendants  ye  are. 

3.  An  unfruitful  hearer. — Luke  viii.  6.  Some  fell  upon  a  rock,  and  as 
soon  as  it  sprang  up,  it  withered  away.  See  tlie  iiilerpreiation  of 
Christ  himself,  iu  verse  13. 


464 


INDEX  OF  THE  SYMBOLICAL 


4.  Rock  giving  water  to  the  Israelites.  (Exod.  xvii.  6.  Numb.  xx.  10, 
11.)  Christ. — 1  Cor.  x.  4.  They  drank  of  thai  spiritual  rock  that 
followed  them,  and  that  rock  was  Christ. 

Rod  or  Wand. — Power  and  rule. — Psal.  ii.  9.  Thou  shall  break  them 
in  pieces  with  a  rod  of  iron. 

Sacrifice. 

1.  The  thing  sacrificed  ;  a  victim. — Eph.  v.  2.  A  .sacrifice /o  Go<Z.  See 
Heb.  ix.  26.  x.  12.  and  also  in  many  other  passages. 

2.  Whatever  is  exhibited  or  undertaken  in  honour  of  God  or  in  refer- 
•  ence  to  liis  will :  as, 

(1.)  Piety,  devotedriess. — IPet.  ii.  5.   SpirtVwaZ  sacrifices. 

(2.)  The  praises  of  God  and  works  of  charity  to  men.    See  Heb.  xiii. 

15,  16. 
(3.)  Virtuous  conduct,  correct  deportment. — Rom.  xii.  1.      Present 
your  bodies  a  living  sacrifice. 

(4.)    Exertions  for  the  support  of  Christian  ministers  and  of  the 
Christian  religion. — Phil.  ii.  17.     If  I  be  offered  upon  the  sacrifice 
and  service  of  your  faith. 
Salt. — Sound  doctrines,  such  as  preserves  the  world  from  corrup- 
tion.— Matt.  V.  13.   Ye  are  the  sah  of  the  earth. — Col.  iv.  6.   Let  your 
speech  be  always  with  grace,  seasoned  with  salt. 
Sand  of  the  sea. — An  aggregate  body  of  innumerable  individuals. — 
Their  widows  are  increased  above  the  sand  of  the  seas. — Gen.  xxii. 
17.     /  will  multiply  thy  seed..  ..as  the  sand  luhich  is  upon  the  sea- 
shore. 
Scorching  Heat.    See  Heat. 
Sea. 

1.  The  Gentile  world. — Isa.  Ix.  5.  The  abundance  of  the  sea  shall  be 
converted.  See  also  Rev.  viii.  8.  and  Dr.  Woodhouse  thereon. 
[.Apocalypse,  p.  213.] 

2.  The  great  river  Euphrates,  Nile,  &c. — Isa.  xxi.  1.  The  desert  of 
the  sea,  means  the  country  of  Babylon,  which  was  watered  by  the 
Euphrates. — Jer.  Ii.  36.  I  will  dry  up  her  sea,  and  make  her  springs 
dry :  this  refers  to  the  stratagem  by  which  Cyrus  diverted  the 
course  of  the  river  and  captured  Babylon. — Ezek.  xxxii.  2.  Thou 
art  as  a  whale  in  the  sea  ;  the  prophet  is  speaking  of  the  king  of 
Egypt,  through  which  the  Nile  flowed.     See  Waves. 

3.  Sea  cf  glass. — Rev.  iv.  6.  The  blood  of  the  Redeemer,  which 
alone  cleanses  man  from  sin.  It  is  called  a  sea,  in  allusion  to  the 
large  vessel  in  the  temple,  out  of  which  the  priests  drew  water  to 
wash  themselves,  the  sacrifices,  and  the  instruments  of  which  they 
made  use,  for  sacrificing. — 1  Kings  vii.  23.  See  also  Sand  and 
Waves. 

Seal — Sealing. 

1.  Preservation  and  security. — Sol.  Song  iv.  12.  A  fountain  sealed, 
is  a  fountain  carefully  preserved  from  the  injuries  of  weather  and 
beasts,  that  its  waters  may  be  preserved  good  and  clean. 

2.  Secresy  and  privacy,  because  men  usually  seal  up  those  things 
which  they  design  to  keep  secret.  Thus  a  book  sealed,  is  one  whose 
oontents  are  secret,  and  are  not  to  be  disclosed  until  the  removal  of 
the  seal.  In  Isa.  xxix.  11.  a  vision  like  unto  a  book  sealed,  is  a 
vision  not  yet  understood. 

3.  Completion  and  perfection,  also  authority  ;  because  the  putting  of 
a  seal  to  any  decree,  will,  or  other  instrument  in  writing,  com- 
pletes the  whole  transaction. — Ezek.  xxviii.  12.  Thou  (the  King  of 
Tyre)  sealest  up  the  sum  full  of  wisdom  and  perfect  in  beauty  ;  that 
is,  thou  lookest  upon  thyself  as  having  arrived  at  the  highest  pitch 
of  wisdom  and  glory.     See  Neh.  ix.  8.  Esther  viii.  8. 

4.  Restraint  or  hinderance. — Job  xxxvii.  7.  He  sealeth  up  the  hand 
of  everv  man  ;  that  is,  the  Almighty  restrains  their  power. — Job  ix. 
7.     Which  sealeth  up  the  .ilars  ;    that  is,  restrains  their  influences. 

5.  Exclusive  property  in  a  thing. — Anciently,  it  was  the  custom  to 
seal  goods  purchased  ;  each  person  having  his  peculiar  mark,  which 
ascertained  the  property  to  be  his  own.  Hence,  the  seal  of  God  is 
His  mark,  by  which  he  knoweth  them  that  are  His.  (2  Tim.  ii.  19.) 
Under  the  law  of  Moses,  circumcision  is  represented  to  be  the  seal 
which  separated  the  people  of  God  from  the  heathen  who  did  not 
call  upon  his  name.  (Rom  iv.  11.)  And  in  this  sense  the  sacra- 
ment of  baptism  succeeding  to  circumcision,  was  called  by  the  fa- 
thers of  the  church  the  seal  of  God  :  but  in  the  Gospel,  this  divine 
seal  is  more  accurately  described  to  be  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God. 
They  who  have  this  spirit  are  marked  as  his  (2  Cor.  i.  22.  Eph.  i. 
13.  iv.  30.)  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is  represented  as  eminently  pos- 
sessing this  mark.  (John  vi.  27.)  Generally,  all  who  name  the 
name  of  Christ  arid  depart  from  iniquity,  are  said  to  be  thus  divine- 
ly sealed.  (2  Tim.  ii.  19)  By  the  .leal  of  the  living  God,  mentioned 
in  Rev.  vii.  2.,  is  signified  that  impression  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon 
the  heart  of  man,  which  preserves  in  it  the  principles  of  pure  faith, 
producing  the  fruits  of  piety  and  virtue.  This  is  the  seal  which 
marks  the  real  Christian  as  the  property  of  the  Almighty.  In  Rev. 
vii.  3,  4.  the  sealed  mark  is  said  to  he  impressed  upon  the  foreheads 
of  the  servants  of  God,  either  because  on  this  conspicuous  part  of 
the  person,  distinguishing  ornaments  were  worn  by  the  eastern 
nations;  or  because  slaves  anciently  were  marked  upon  their  fore- 
heads, as  the  property  of  their  masters.  [Dean  Woodhouse  on  Rev. 
vii.  2,  3] 

S'ilKD. —  The  Word  of  God. — Luke  viii.  11. 

Sehpevt.— Satan,  the  enemy  ofsouls. — Rev.  xii.  9.    That  old  serpent, 

called  the  Devil  and  Satan,  whiclt  deceivelh  the  whole  world. — 2  Cor. 

xi.  3.     The  serpent  beguiled  Eve  through  his  sublility. 
Seven.     See  Numbers. 
Shadow. — Defence,  protection.    In  the  sultry  eastern  countries  this 

metaphor  is  highly  expressive  of  support  and  protection. — Numb. 

xiv.  9.     Their  defence  (Heb.  aSx  tsilom,  shadow)  is  departed  from 

them.     Compare  also  Psal.  xci.  1.  cxxi.  5.  Isa.  xxx.  2.  xxxii.  2.  and 


Ii.  16.  The  Arabs  and  Persians  employ  the  same  word  to  denote 
the  same  thing,  using  these  expressions  : — "  May  the  shadow  ofthv 
prosperity  be  extended." — May  the  shadow  of  thy  prosperity  & 
spread  over  the  heads  of  thy  well-wishers." — "  May  thy  protection 
never  be  removed  from  thy  head  ;  may  God  extend  thy  shadow 
externally."  [Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Numb.  xvi.  9.] 
Sheep — Shepherd. 

1.  Sheep  under  a  Shepherd. — The  people  under  a  king. — Zech.  xiii.  7. 
Smite  the  shepherd  ;  and  the  sheep  shall  be  scattered. 

2.  The  disciples  of  Christ,  who  is  their  shepherd;  the  church  of 
Christ,  consisting  of  all  true  believers  in  Him  their  Shepherd. — 
John  X.  11 — 14.  I  am  the  good  shepherd  ;  the  good  shepherd  givetk 
his  life  for  the  sheep.  /. . . .  know  my  sheep. — 1  Pet.  ii.  25.  I'e . . . . 
are  now  returned  unto  the  Shepherd  and  Bishop  of  your  souls. 

3.  Lost  or  straying  sheep  represent  persons  not  yet  converted,  btit 
wandering  in  sin  and  error. — Matt.  x.  6.  xv.  24.  The  lost  sheep  of 
the  house  of  Israel. — 1  Pet.  ii.  25.  I'e  were  as  sheep  going  astray. 
Compare  also  Matt.  ix.  36.  and  Mark  vi.  34. 

Shield. 

1.  A  defence. — Psal.  xviii.  2.  The  Lord  is  my  buckler  or  shield.  See 
Psal.  xxxiii.  20. 

2.  Faith,  by  which  we  are  enabled  to  resist  the  fiery  darts  of  the 
wicked.     Eph.  vi.  16. 

Ships  of  Tarshish  ;  merchants,  men  enriched  by  commerce,  and 
abounding  in  all  the  elegancies  and  luxuries  of  life,  particularly  the 
merchants  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. — Fsa.  ii.  12 — 16.  The  day  of  the 
Lord  of  Hosts  shall  be..  ..upon  all  the  ships  of  Tarshish. — Isa.  xxiii. 
1.     Homl,  O  ye  ships  of  Tarshish. 

Shoes. — The  preparation  of  the  Gospel  of  peace. — Eph.  vi.  15. 

Silence. 

1.  Bringing  to  silence,  or  putting  to  silence. — Utter  destruction.  Isa; 
XV.  1.  As  if  Moab  is  laid  waste,  and  brought  to  silence. — Jer.  viii. 
14.     The  Lord  ovr  God  hath  put  us  to  silence. 

2.  A  symbol  of  praying. — Luke  i.  9,  10. 
Sit — Sitting. 

1.  Reigning,  ruling,  and  judging — In  Judge  v.  10.  Ve  that  sit  in 
judgment,  are  the  magistrates  or  judges.     The  sitting  on  a  throne, 

which  occurs  so  very  frequently  in   the    Scriptures,  invariably 
means  to  reign. 

2.  With  other  adjuncts,  sitting  has  a  different  signification  :  as, 

(1.)  To  sit  upon  the  earth  or  dust,  (Isa.  iii.  26.  xlvii.  1.     Lam.  ii.  10. 
Ezek.  xxvi.  16.)  or  on  a  dunghill,  signifies  to  be  in  extreme  misery. 
(2.)  To  sit  in  darkness  (Psal.  cvii.  10.  Isa.  xiii.  7.)  is  to  be  in  prison 
and  slavery. 
(3.)  To  sit  as  a  widow  (Isa.  xlvii.  8.)  is  to  mourn  as  a  widow. 

Slave. — One  who  has  no  property  in  himself,  but  is  bought  by 
another.  Such  are  all  mankind,  whom  Christ  has  redeemed  from 
the  slavery  of  sin. — 1  Cor.  vi.  20.  Ye  are  bought  with  a  price.  See 
Deut.  vii.  8.     Isa.  Ixi.  1. 

Sleep. — Death. — Dan.  xii.  2.  Many  that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth 
shall  awake. 

SoDOM  and  Gomarrah. — Any  apostate  city  or  people  :  or  the  wicked 
world  at  large. — Isa.  i.  10.  Hear  the  word  of  the  Lord,  ye  rulers  of 
Sodom;  give  hear  unto  the  law  of  our  God,  ye  people  of  Gomorrah. 
See  Rev.  xi.  8. 

Soldier. — A  Christian  who  is  at  war  with  the  world,  the  flesh,  and 
the  devil. — 2  Tim.  ii.  3.  Endure  hardness  as  a  good,  soldier  ff  Jesus 
Christ. 

Sores,  or  Ulcers,  symbolically  denote  .sins  ;  because,  according  to 
the  Hebrew  idiom  and  notions,  to  heal  signifies  to  pardon  sins  ;  and 
to  pardon  a  si?i  is  equivalent  to  healing. — 2  Chron.  xxx.  20.  The 
pious  monarch,  Hezekiah,  having  prayed  that  God  would  excuse 
and  pardon  those  who  had  eaten  the  passover  without  being  siitH- 
ciently  purified,  the  Lord  hearkened  to  Hezekiah,  and  healed  the 
people. — Isa.  liii.  5.  By  his  stripes  we  are  healed.  In  Isa.  i.  6. 
Wounds,  bruises,  and  sores,  are  sins  ;  the  binding  up  of  them  signifies 
repentance  ;   and  the  healing  up,  remission  or  forgiveness. 

South. — Juda;a. — Ezek.  xx.  46.  Set  thy  face  towards  the  south,  and 
drop  [thi/word]  towards  the  .south. — Judsea  lay  to  south  of  Chaldaa, 
where  the  prophet  Ezekiel  stood. 

South  field. — Ezek.  xx.  46-  Prophesy  against  the  forest  of  the  South 
field  ;  that  is,  against  Jerusalem,  in  which  there  w  ere  good  and  bad 
men,  as  there  are  trees  in  a  forest. 

Sower. — A  preacher  of  the  word. — Matt.  xiii.  3.  A  sower  went  forth 
to  sow.     See  verse  39. 

Si'EAKiNG.    See  Voice,  2. 

Star, 

1.  A  ruler  or  conqueror. — Numb.  xxiv.  17.  Tliere  .shall  come  a  star 
out  of  Jacob  mid  a  sceptre  shall  arise  out  of  Isrocl,  rntd  shall  smite  Ih.e 
corners  of  Moab,  and  shall  destroi/  all  the  children  of  Shelh. — See  an 
exposition  of  this  prophecy  in  the  note  to  p.  208  of  ihis  volume. 

2.  The  rulers  of  the  church. — Rev.  i.  20.  The  seven  stars  are  the 
angels  of  the  seven  churches. 

3.  Glorified  saints. — 1  Cor.  xv-  41.  One  star  diffcrelh  from  another 
star  in  glorif. 

4.  Wandering  stars. — Jude.  13.  Wicked  apostates,  that  go  from  light 
into  outer  darknss. 

Stone. 

1.  Head  stone  of  the  corner — Jesus  Christ.     See  Corner  Stone. 

2.  Stone  of  stumbling,  (1  Pet.  ii.  7.)  spoken  of  Jesus  Christ;  who  is 
termed  a  stone  of  stumbling,  that  is,  an  occasion  of  ruin  to  the  Jews, 
since  they  t<^)ok  offence  at  his  person  and  character,  and  thereby 
brought  destruction  and  misery  upon  themselves. 

3.  Stones. — Believers  who  are   built  upon  the  true  foundation,  the      j 
Lord  Jesus  Christ. — 1  Pet.  ii.  5.    Ye  also  as  lively  (or  living)  stonea 
are  built  up  a  spiritual  house. 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


4G5 


4.  Heart  of  stone. — A  hard,  stubborn,  and  nnbelieving  heart. — Ezek. 
xxxii.  2G.     /  iDill  take  away  the  .stony  heart. 

5.  Stone. — .\n  idol  of  stone.  Ilnbak.  ii.  19.  Woe  unto  him  that  sailk 
until  i/ie  wood,  "  Awake  I"  and  to  the  dumb  stone,  "Arise!"  and  it 
sliiill  teach. 

6.  WInte  slone. — A  full  pardon  and  acMinittal. —  Itev.  ii.  17.  I  will  give 
him  a  while  stone.  See  an  explanation  of  the  custom  alluded  to,  in 
Vol.  II.  i>.  M. 

7.  I'rerioiis  stones  (1  Cor.  iii.  12.),  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, or  the  mode  of  teaching  them. 

Sun. 

1.  The  Lord  God. — Psal.  Ixxxiv.  11.     The  J^rd  God  is  a  Sun. 

2.  Sun  of  Righlroiisness. — Jesus  Christ. — Mai.  iv.  2.  The  Su.v  Ol'" 
Ki(iii'i'Koi;.s.NKSs  shall  arise  with  htaling  m  hi.i  wingf. 

Among  the  various  hieroglyphicw  diMiovered  by  Dr.  Richardson  in  the 
ruins  of  (he  ancient  temple  ofTentyra  or  Deiidera,  in  Upper  KgypI, 
is  one  which  may  ilhislrate  this  expression  of  the  prophet. — "  Im- 
tncdiaicly  over  the  centre  of  the  door-way,"  says  he,  "  is  the  beau- 
tiful Kgyptian  ornament,  usually  called  the  globe,  with  serjientand 
wings,  emblematic  of  the  glorious  sun,  poised  in  the  airy  firmament 
of  heaven,  supported  and  directed  in  his  course  by  the  eternal 
wisdom  of  the  Deity.  The  sublime  phraseology  of  Scripture,  The 
Sun  of  liighteousness  shall  arise  with  healing  in  his  wings,  could  not 
be  more  accurately  or  more  em|)hatically  ri'iirosenlcd  to  the  human 
eye,  than  by  this  elegant  device."  [Dr.  Uichardson's  Travels  along 
the  Mediterranean,  &.c.  vol.  i.  p.  187.] 

3.  Sun  and  moon. —  The  snn  shall  be  turned  into  darkness,  and  the  moon 
into  blood.  (Joel.  ii.  31.  Acts  ii.  20.)  A  (igurative  representation 
of  a  total  eclipse,  in  which  the  sun  is  entirely  darkened,  and  the 
moon  a.ssumes  a  blotxly  hue  :  itsignilies  the  full  of  the  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical state  in  Judica. 

SwiNK. — Wicked  and  unclean  people. — Matt.  vii.  G.     Neither  cast  ye 

your  pearls  before  swine. 
S  wo  III). 

1.  Death  and  destruction.  See  Ezek.  xxi. — This  symbol  occurs  so  re- 
peaiedly  in  the  Scriptures,  and  is,  besides,  so  well  known,  as  to 
render  more  examples  unnecessary. 

2.  Sword  of  the  Spirit. — The  word  of  God.  Eph.  vi.  17.  Heb.  iv.  12. 
Rev.  i.  16. 


TAiiF.aNACLE. — The  body  of  man. — 2  Cor.  v.  1.  He  kiwvi  that  if  our 
earthly  house  of  [this]  tabernacle  were  dissolved. — 2  Pet.  i.  13, 14.  I 
must  shortly  put  ojf  this  tabernacle. 

Tai^knts.    See  Ricuks. 

Tares. — The  children  of  the  wicked  one. — Matt.  xiii.  38. 

Tarsiiisii.     See  Siiii'S. 

Tketii. — The  symbols  of  cruelty  or  of  a  devouring  enemy. — Prov.  xxx. 
14.  There  is  a  generation  whose  teeth  are  as  swords  ;  and  their  jaw- 
teeth  as  knives  to  devour  the  poor  from  off  the  earth,  arid  the  needy 
from  among  men.     See  also  Deut.  xxxii.  24.  Psal  Ivi.  6.  Iviii.  6. 

Ti:n.     See  Nli.mbkks. 

Thirst.     See  HuNGEii. 

Thorns. 

1.  The  cares,  riches,  and  pleasures  of  life. — Luke  viii.  14.  That 
ivhich  fell  among  thorns,  are  they,  tvhich,  when  they  have  heard  the 
word,  go  forth,  and  are  choked  with  cares,  and  riches,  and  pleasures 
of  life. 

2.  Thorns  and  briers ;  wicked,  perverse,  and  untractable  persons. — 
Ezek.  ii.  6.  Son  of  man,  be  not  afraid  of  them ....  though  briers  and 
thorns  be  tnith  thee. 

TiiRER  or  Third.     See  NujinERS. 

TiiRESiii.Mc. — Destruction. — Jer.  Ii.  33.  Babylon  is  like  a  thre.shing- 
Jloor  :  it  is  time  to  thresh  her  ;  that  is,  to  subdue  and  destroy  her 
(Hiwer.     See  Isa.  xli.  15.     Amos  i.  3.     Micah  iv.  13.     Hab.  iii.  12. 

Throne. — Kingdom,  government. — Gen.  xli.  40.  Only  in  the  throne 
will  f  be  greater  than  thou.  In  2  Sam.  iii.  10.  kingdom  and  throne  are 
synonymiis.  To  translate  the  kingdom/row  the  house  of  Saul — and 
to  set  up  the  throne  of  David  over  Israel.  The  setting  of  the  throne 
in  2  Sam.  vii.  12, 13.  16.  signifies  the  settling  or  establishment  of  the 
government  in  peace ;  and  the  enlargement  of  the  throne,  in  1 
Kings  i.  37.  compared  with  47.,  implies  a  great  accession  of  power 
and  dominions. 

Thunder. — The  voice  of  God. — Psal.  xxix.  3.  TAe  voice  o/"McLord 
is  upon  the  lealers  ;  the  God  of  glory  thundereth.  In  Rev.  x.  4.  the 
seven  Ih-inders  may  mean  either  a  particular  prophecy,  or  i>erhai>s 
seven  distinct  prophecies,  uttered  by  seven  voices,  loud  as  thun- 
der. 

Towers  and  Fortresses  ;  defenders  and  protectors,  whether  by  coun- 
sel or  by  strength,  in  peace  or  in  war. — Isa  li.  12.  15.      The  day  of 

the  Lord  of  Hosts  shall  be upon  every  high  tower,  and  every 

fenced  wall  (or  fortress). 

Travailing  with  child. 

1.  .A  slate  of  anguish  and  misery. — Jer.  iv.  31.  I  have  heard  a  voire 
as  of  a  woman  lu  travail,  the  anguish  as  of  her  that  bringelh  forth 
her  first  child,  the  voice  of  the  daughter  of  Zion. — Jer.  xiii.  21.  Shall 
not  sorrows  overtake  thee  as  a  woman  in  travail  ?  See  also  Isa.  xxvi. 
17,  18.     Ixvi.  7.     Jer.  xxx.  6.  7. 

2  The  sorrow  of  tribulation  or  persecution. — Mark  xiii.  8.  These  are 
the  beginnings  of  sorrows,  literally,  the  pains  of  a  woman  in  travail. 
See  l.Thess.  v."  3. 

Tread  under,  or  trample  upon. — To  overcome  and  bring  under  sub- 
jection.— Psal.  Ix.  12.      Through  God  we  sk'dl  do  valiantly  ;  for  it  is 
he  that  shall  tread  down  our  enemies.    See  Isa.  x.  6      xiv  25. 
Vol.  IL  3  N 


Tree  of  Life. — Immortality.— Rev.  ii.  7.  To  him  that  overcometh,  will 
I  gii'e  to  eat  of  the  tree  of  life.  See  a  description  of  it  in  Rev.  xxii. 
2-— 14.,  and  an  excellent  sermon  of  Bishop  Home's  Works,  vol.  iv. 
Sermon  iii.  on  the  Tree  of  Life. 

Trees. 

1.  Men  in  general,  fruitful  and  iinfriiilful. — Psal.  i.  3.  He  (the  good 
man)  fhall  be  like  a  Iree,  planted  by  rierrs  of  waier. —  Malt.  iii.  10. 
Every  Iree  vihirh  bringeth  not  forth  good  fruit,  is  hewn  down,  and 
cast  into  the  fire. 

2.  A  great  tree. — A  king  or  monarch.     See  Dan.  iv.  20—23. 

3.  The  nobles  of  a  kingdom. — Isa.  x.  18,  19.  It  shall  consume  the 
glori/  if  his  forest,  and  of  his  fruitful  field  holh  soul  and  body  .... 
Anil  the  rest  if  the  trees  of  his  forest  shall  be  fi-m.  [See  (V.dars, 
Oaks]  As  trees  denote  great  men  and  princes,  ho  boughs,  branches, 
or  sprouts,  denote  iheir  offspring.  Thus,  in  Isa.  xi.  1.,  Jesus  Christ, 
in  respect  of  his  human  nature,  is  styled  a  rod  if  the  stem  if  Jesse, 
and  a  branch  out  of  his  roots  ;  that  is,  a  jirince  arising  from  the 
lamily  of  David. 


Veil  of  the  Temple. — The  body  of  Christ  opening  the  kingdom  of 

heaven  by  his  death,  when  the  veil  of  the  temple  was  rent. — Matt. 

xxvii.  51.       The  veil  of  the  temple  was  rent  in  twain. — Heb.  x.  20. 

By  a  new  and  living  way,  which  he  has  consecrated  for  us  through  the 

veil,  that  is  to  say,  his  flesh. 
Vine.  ^       "^ 

1.  The  Jewish  Church. — Psal.  Ixxx.  8.  Thou  hrovghtesf  a  vine  out  of 
Egypt.     See  also  verse  14.     Jer.  ii.  21.     Ezek.  xix.  10.  IIos.  x.  1. 

2.  Christ  the  head  of  the  church. — John  xv.  1.     I  am  the  true  vine. 
Vineyard. — The  church  of  Israel. — Isa.  v.  1 — 7.     7Ke  vineyard  of 

the  Lord  of  Hosts  is  the  house  of  Israel. 
Viper. — One  who   injures  his  benefactors.     Matt.  iii.  7.  xii.  .34.     O 

generation  o/"  vipers,  that  is  descendants  of  an  ungrateful  race. 
Voice. 

1.  Voice  of  the  bridegroom. — The  festivity  of  a  wedding,  and  the  ex- 
pressions of  joy  which  are  uttered  on  such  occasions. — Jer.  vii.  34. 
Then  will  I  cause  to  cease  from  the  cities  of  Judah,  and  from  the 
streets  of  Jerusalem,  the  voice  of  mirth,  and  the  voice  of  gladness,  the 
voice  of  the  bridegroom,  and  the  voice  of  the  bride.  The  same  ex- 
pression also  occurs  in  Jer.  xvi  9.  xxv.  10.  xxxiii.  11.  and  John  iii. 
29. 

2.  Speaking  with  a  faint  voice,  denotes  the  being  in  a  weak  and  low 
condition. — Isa.  xxix.  4.  Thou  shalt  be  brought  down,  and.  shall  speak 
out  of  the  ground  ;  and  thy  speech  shall  be  low  out  of  the  dust. 

3.  Voice  of  the  Lord.    See  Thunder. 


WalivING  among,  or  in  the  midst. — Watchfulness  and  protection. — 
Lev.  xxvi.  12.     I  will  walk  among  you,  and  wilt  be  your  God. 

Wai.i>. — Stability  and  safety. — Zech.  ii.  5.  I  will  be  unto  her  a  w-all 
of  fire  roimd  almut ;  that  is,  I  will  defend  her  from  all  enemies  with- 
out, by  my  angels,  as  so  many  flames  of  fire  surrounding  her. 

Wand.     See  Rod. 

Wandering  Stars.    See  Stars. 

Washing  with  water. — Purification  from  sin  and  guilt.— Psal.  li.  2.  7. 
Wash  me  throughly  from  mine  iniquity,  and  cleanse  me  from  my 
sin.     Wash  me,  and  I  shall  be  whiter  than  snow. 

Water. 

1.  The  purifying  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit. — John  iii.  5.  Except  a  man 
be  born  of  water  and  of  the  Spirit,  he  cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom 
of  God.     See  also  Psal.  li.  2. 

2.  Living  water. — The  word  of  the  Gospel. — John  iv.  10.  He  would 
have  given  thee  living  water. 

Waters. 

1.  Troubles  and  afTlictions. — Psal.  Ixix.  1.  Save  me,  O  God :  for  the 
waters  are  come  in  unto  mi/ soul. 

2.  A  great  multitude  of  people. — Isa.  viii.  7.  The  Lord  bringeth  up 
upon  them  the  waters  of  the  river,  strong  and  many,  i.  e.  army  of  the 
king  of  As.syria ;  w^hose  overwhelming  force  is  compared  to  the 
waters  of  the  great,  rapid,  and  impetuous  river  Euphrates.  See 
Rev.  xvii.  15. 

3.  The  Blessings  of  the  Gospel. — Isa.  Iv.  1.  Ho!  every  one  that 
thirsteth.  come  ye  to  the  waters. 

Waves  of  the  Sea. — Numerous  armies  of  the  heathens  marching 
against  the  people  of  God.— Psal.  Ixv.  7.  Which  stillest  the  noi.-<e  of 
the  seas,  the  noise  of  their  waves.  See  also  Psal.  Ixxxix.  9.  and  xciii. 
3,  4. — Jiide  13.     Haging  waves  of  the  sea. 

Week. — Seven  years. — Dan.  ix.  24.  Seventy  weeks  are  determined 
upon  thy  people  ;  that  is,  seventy  weeks  of  years,  or  four  hundred  and 
ninety  years. 

WiiKAT.-^Jood  seed,  the  children  of  the  kingdom.    Matt  xiii.  38. 

White.    See  Garme.nts,  1. ;  Horse,  3. ;  Stone,  5. 

Wilderness. 

1.  All  m.nnner  of  desolation.— Isa  xxvi.  10.  The  defenced  city  shall 
be  desolate,  and  the  habitation  forsaken  and  left  like  a  wilderness. 
Jer.  xxii.  6.  Surely  I  will  make  thee  a  wilderness  [and]  cities  [which] 
are  not  inhabited.     See  also  IIos.  ii.  3. 

2.  This  world,  through  which  all  real  Christians  pass,  and  undergo  all 
the  trials  of  the  Hebrews  in  their  way  to  the  heavenly  Canaan. — 1 
Cor.  X.  5.  fi.  They  were  overthrown  m  the  wilderness.  Now  these 
things  were  our  examples. — Isa.  xli.  18.  /  will  make  the  wilderness 
a  pool  of  water. 


4GG 


INDEX  OF  THE  SYMBOLICAL  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


Wind. 

1.  Violent  wind. — Destruction. — Jer.  li.  1.    1  will  raixe  vp  ngainst  Ba- 

bulon a  destroying  wind. — Jer.  iv.  1 1 ,  12.  A  dry  wind  of  the  high 

places  iti  the  wildtTness..  even  a  full  wind  from  thuse  places  shall  come 
unto  me. 

2.  Tnefour  winds— General  destruction.— Jer.  xlix.  36.  Upon  Elam 
will  I  bring  the  four  wmth,  from  the  four  ijiiarters  of  heaven.  See 
also  Dan.  vii.  2.    viii.  8.    Rev.  vii.  1.    See  Air. 

Wink. 

1.  Wine,  when  mentioned  together  with  corn  and  oil  (ns  it  very  fie- 
.  quently  is),  denotes  all  kinds  of  temporal  good  things.— Hos.  ii.  8. 

1  gave  her  corn,  and  wine,  and  oil.     See  Joel  ii.  19.      Psal.  iv.  7. 

2.  As  the  choicest  heavenly  blessings  are  frequently  represented  in 
the  Scriptures  by  the  saluuiry  effects  of  wine:  so,  from  the  noxious 
and  intoxicating  qualities  of  that  liquor, — (which  anciently  was 
mixed  with  biiter  and  stupefying  ingredients,  and  given  to  male- 
factors who  were  about  to  suffer  death,) — is  borrowed  a  most  tre- 
mendous image  of  the  wrath  and  indignation  of  Almighty  God. — 
Psal.  Ixxv.  8.  In  the  hand  of  the  Lord  there  is  a  cup,  and  the  wine 
is  red  ;  it  is  full  of  mixture,  &c. — Psal.  Ix.  3.  Thou  hast  made  us  to 
drink  the  wine  of  astonishment.  See  Jer.  xxv.  15.  Rev.  xiv.  10. 
xvi.  19. 

WiNE-PRKSS. — Treading  the  wine-press,  from  their  custom  of  pressing 
grapes,  signifies  destruction  attended  with  great  slaughter. — Lament, 
i.  15.  The  Lord  hath  trodden  under  fool  all  my  mighty  men  in  the 
midst  of  me ;  he  hath  called  an  assewhly  against  me  to  crush  my 
young  men  ;  the  Lord  hath  trodden  the  virgin,  the  daughter  of  Judah, 
as  in  a  wine-press.    See  Isa.  Ixiii.  3. 

Wings. 

1.  Protection. — Psal.  xvii.  8.  Hide  me  under  the  shadow  of  thy  wings. 
See  Psal.  xxxvi.  7.  and  xci.  4. 

2.  Wings,  when  nsed  to  fly  upwards,  are  emblems  of  exaltation. — Isa. 
xl.  31.  They  shall  mount  up  with  wings  as  eagles  ;  that  is,  they  shall 
be  highly  exalted. 

Wolf. — A  thief,  or  religions  impostor ;  a  devourer  of  the  church. — 
Luke  X.  3.     I  send  you  forth  as  lamhs  among  wolves. — John  x.  12. 

He  that  is  a  hireling seeth  the  wo\i' coming,  and  leaveth  the  sheep, 

andjleeth :  and  the  wolf  scattereth  them. 

Wo.MAN. 

1.  A  city,  a  state,  or  body  politic,  or  the  inhabitants  thereof — The 
daughter  of  Tyre  in  Psnl.  xlv.  12.,  of  Babylon  in  Psal.  cxxxvii.  8., 
and  of  Jerusalem  in  2  Kings  xix.  21.,  signifies  the  inhabitants  of 
those  cities,  respectively.      The  daughter  of   Jerusalem,  when 


virluous,  is  honoured  with  the  high  appellalion  of  the  espoused  of 
God  in  Isa.  liv.  1.5.,  and  Jer.  xxxi.  4.  When  wicked  and  idolatrous 
she  is  styled  the  harlot,  the  adulteress.     See  Auui.tkrkss. 

2.  The  true  church  of  Christ. — Rev.  xii.  1.  A  woman  clothed  with 
the  sun. 

Write. — To  publish  or  notify.  This  was  the  first  intention  of  writing; 
and,  in  the  earliest  ages,  no  writings  were  made  but  upon  pillars  or 
monuments,  merely  to  notify  things. — Jer.  xxii.  30.  Write  Ihis  maji 
childle.is ;  that  is,  publish  it,  and  let  all  men  know  that  he  shall 
have  no  child  to  succeed  him  upon  the  throne.  For  it  appears  from 
1  Chron.  iii.  17,  18.  and  Matt.  i.  12.,  that  Jeroniah  (of  whom  the 
prophet  is  speaking)  had  children  ;  but  being  born  probably  after 
lie  was  carried  to  Babylon,  where  he  lived  many  years  a  captive, 
none  of  them  ever  succeeded  to  the  royal  authority.  See  2  Kings 
xxv.  27. 

Yoke. 

1.  Oppressive  bondage. — Dent,  xxviii.  48.  He  shall  put  a  yoke  of  iron 
upon  thy  neck,  until  he  shall  have  destroyed  thee.  See  Jer.  xxviii. 
14.  In  Gal.  v.  1.  the  yoke  of  bondage  means  the  burdensome  cere- 
monies of  the  Mosaic  law,  from  which  the  Christian  law  of  liberty 
has  delivered  us. 

2.  Punishment  for  sin. — Lam.  i.  14.  The  yoke  of  my  transgressions 
is  bound  by  his  hand. 

3.  Those  useful  restraints,  which  arise  from  a  sense  of  the  duty  which 
we  owe  to  God,  and  the  obedience  we  ought  to  pay  to  his  laws. — 
Lam.  iii.  27.     it  is  good  for  a  man  to  bear  the  yoke  in  his  youth. 

4.  The  doctrines  and  precepts  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  temper,  dispo- 
sitions, and  duties  which  flow  from  them. — Matt.  xi.  29,  30.  Take 
my  yoke  upon  you,  and  learn  of  vie,  for  I  am  meek  and  lowly  in 
heart,  and  ye  shall  fnd  rest  unto  your  .imils.  For  m  y  yoke  is  easy,  and 
my  burden  is  light. — Quesnel's  remark  upon  the  last  sentence  is  not 
more  beautiful  than  devout.  "  How  easy  and  sweet  is  it,  to  serve 
Christ  even  in  bearing  his  cross !  How  hard  and  painful  is  the  slavery 
of  the  world,  of  sin  and  of  our  own  passions,  even  with  all  their 
false  pleasures !  That  satisfaction,  peace,  and  comfort,  which  grace 
gives  here  below,  and  that  which  hope  encourages  us  to  expect  in 
heaven,  make  a  Christian  full  amends  for  all  his  pains  in  subduing 
his  passions,  and  in  opposing  the  world..  ..A  yoke,  which  Christ 
takes  together  with  us, — can  that  be  uneasy  ?  A  burden,  w  hich  He 
bears  in  us  by  His  Spirit, — can  that  be  heavy  ?  Come,  then,  taste 
and  know  by  experience  how  sweet  the  Lord  is,  and  how  worthy 
His  yoke  is  to  be  chosen  and  loved  !" 


No.  III. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


OF 


MATTERS    IN    VOLUMES    LAND   IL 


AnriRF.viATioNS  in  marmscripla,  aoconnt  of,  I.  221. 

Ahraham,  predu'lioiis  coiiciTiiiiig,  and  iIkmi-  t'lillilniont,  I.  122,  123. 
His  po.slcrily,  in  vviiat  sense  as  numerous  as  t/it  stars  of  heaven 
for  midtilin/e,  421. 

Ahi/ssinian  (Ancient)  version  of  llie  Old  and  New  Testaments,  I. 
273,  274. 

Accents  (Hebrew),  uses  of,  I.  l'J2. 

Accommodalioii,  tiieory  of,  siiown  to  be  unfounded,  I.  324. 

Arwrnelii,  notice  of,  I.  223.  no/e. 

Acroslir  poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  I.  381. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles : — Title,  II.  318.  By  whom  written,  ihid.  Genu- 
ineness and  aulhenlicily,  idid.  Scope,  ihid.  Chronology,  31'J. 
Analysis  ot'  this  book,  320.  Observations  on  lis  style,  ihid.  Im- 
porianee  of  this  book,  as  an  evidence  lor  the  Irutb  of  Christianity, 
320,  321.  Conlirmalion  of  its  veniciiy  by  Josephus,  1.80.  Coin- 
cidence between  il  and  the  ajiostolic  epistles,  50,  51. 

Arts  of  the.  Senate,  what,  I.  81.  Appeals  made  to  them  by  the  first 
Christians,  as  evidence,  82. 

A'ljunct,  metonymy  of,  what,  I.  300,  3G1. 

Advantnpes,  jiecnliar  lo  ihe  Christian  revelation,  a  proof  of  its  supe- 
riority over  all  other  religions,  and  th.it  it  is  I'rom  Uod,  1. 177 — 180. 

Advcrhs  (emphatic),  instances  of,  I.  328. 

Affections,  the  moral  government  of,  enforced  in  the  Gospel,  1. 153, 
"1.54. 

Afie  of  Hebrew  manuscripts,  how  ascertained,  I.  217. 

Agreement  of  ancient  m:innscri|)ts  and  versions,  a  jiroof  of  the  un- 
corr;ipied  preservation  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  64,  55.  Of  quotations 
by  Christian  writers,  a  like  proof,  55. 

Alixander  of  Ponlus,  fabulous  miracles  recorded  of,  exposed,  I.  117. 

Alexandrian  Manuscript,  account  of,  1.  222 — 224.  Fac-simile  of  it, 
224. 

Alexandrian  Version.     See  Septiiagint. 

Alexandrine  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I.  205. 

Allegorical  Sense,  1.  323. 

Allegorij  defined,  I.  3G4.  Different  species  of,  ibid.  Rules  for  the 
interpretation  of  allegories,  364,  305. 

Allusions  to  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New,  I.  312.  318. 

Alphahetical  Poems  of  the  Hebrews,  account  of,  I.  381. 

America,  observations  on  the  peopling  of,  I.  76. 

Ammonian  Sections,  what,  I.  214.     Ammonian  dialect,  273. 

Amos  (ihe  prophei),  account  of,  II.  259,  260.  Occasion  of  his  pro- 
phecy, 260.  Its  scope,  ihid.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Ob- 
servations on  his  style,  ihid. 

AvjiyvxT/^xTt,  or  Church-Lessons,  I.  214. 

jl;i(;'()ir'/ of  languages,  defined,  1.340,311.  Use  of  grammatical 
analogy  for  interpreting  Scripture,  341.  Of  kindred  languages, 
341,  342.  Foundation  of  analogy  in  all  languages,  342.  Analogy 
of  Scripture,  330 — 333.  Analogy  of  faith  defined,  342.  lis  im- 
portance in  studying  the  sacred  v\ritings,  342,  343.  Rules  for 
investigating  the  analogy  of  faith,  343,  344. 

Ananias,  why  not  acknowledged  as  high-priest  by  St.  Paul,  I.  50. 

Ancestors  put  for  posterity,  I.  359. 

Anglo-Saxon  version  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I.  280. 

Antediluvians,  longevity  of,  confirmed  by  heathen  writers,  I.  71. 

Antellieroni/mian  Version  of  the  Bible,  I.  275. 

Anthropopath;/,  nature  of,  I.  362. 

Ai-juT«TOi,  propriety  of  the  title  of,  given  by  St.  Paul  to  Sergius 
Paulus,  I.  90. 

Antiquities  (Biblical),  importance  of,  to  the  study  of  the  Sacred 
Writings,  I.  350.     Cautions  in  applying  them,  3.)0,  351. 

Aniiti/pe,  what,  I.  385.  Rules  for  the  application  of  types  to  anti- 
types, 386,  387. 

Apamran  Medal  confirms  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  Deluge,  I.  88. 

Apocalypse.     See  Revelation  of  St.  John. 

Apocnjpha,  derivation  of  the  term,  I.  433. 

1.  The  Apocri/phal  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  why  rejected  from 
the  canon  of  Scripture.  1.  435,  436.  Their  uses,  344.  436.  Ana- 
lysis of  these  books,  II.  289 — 293.  Supposed  quotations  from  them 
in  the  New  Testament,  I.  318.  Actual  value  of  these  produc- 
Jions,  436. 


2.  Apocri/ptial  Hooks  of  the  Nev)  Testament,  I.  437.  F.niimeralion 
of  these  writings,  ihid.  E.xtkr.nal  Evioknck  lo  show  that  they 
were  never  considered  as  inspired  or  canonical,  437,  438.  I.n- 
TKii.N'AL  EviDK.NCK,  438 — 442.  Thcsc  apocryphal  books  are  so 
far  from  afiecling  the  credibility  of  the  genuine  books  oi'  the 
New  Testament,  that  the  latter  are  conhrmed  by  them,  47, 
48.  442. 

Apollonius,  of  Tyana,  fabulous  miracles  ascribed  to,  exposed,  I.  118. 

Apostles  and  evangelists,  credibility  of  See  Crtdihililij  and  Inspi- 
ration.   On  Ihe  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  theni,  1.  447,  448. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  testimonies  of,  to  the  authenticity  of  the  New 
Teslamcni,  I.  44,  45.  In  what  manner  they  quoted  the  Scrip- 
tures, 41.     Force  of  their  lesiimony,  45. 

Aquila's  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  I.  268,  269. 

Arabic  language,  notice  of,  1.  199. 

Arabic  versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  I.  274,  275.  Of  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  204. 

Araniaan  Language,  and  its  dialects,  I.  199. 

Aramcisms  of  ihe  New  Tesiaineni,  I.  198. 

Aretas,  a  king  of  Arabia  Petraja,  why  at  war  with  Ilerod  the  Great, 
I.  50. 

Arinteas's  fabulous  account  of  the  Septuagint  version  exposed,  I. 
204,  265.  Fabulous  miracles  related  of  Arisicas  the  Proconnesian 
exposed,  117. 

Ark  of  Noah,  dimensions  of,  I.  75. 

Armenian  version  of  Scriptures,  I.  275. 

Arnohius,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament 
I.  42. 

Article  (Greek),  elucidations  of,  I.  327,  328. 

Articles  of  faith,  not  lo  be  established  from  single,  obscure,  or  figu- 
rative texts,  1.  395. 

Arts,  the  late  invention  and  progress  of,  a  confirmation  of  the  cre- 
dibility of  the  Mosaic  History  of  the  Deluge,  I.  73,  74. 

Asaph,  Psalms  ascribed  to,  11.  239. 

Ascension,  Odes  of,  II.  243. 

Ascension  of  Jesus  Christ,  circumstances  of,  considered,  I.  446. 

Asher  (Rabbi  Aaron  Ben),  Codex  of,  I.  203. 

Atheists,  principles  ol",  contrasted  with  those  of  the  Gospel.  I.  176, 
177.     Fllecls  of,  in  rejiiiblican  France,  25,  26. 

Athenagoras.  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  Nevi'  Testa- 
ment, I.  43. 

Athens,  miserable  condition  of  the  women  at,  I.  19.  note  7.  Origin 
of  the  altar  erected  at,  to  "The  unktwu-n  God,"  90.  St.  Luke's 
and  St.  Paul's  account  of  the  Athenians  confirmed  by  Demos- 
thenes, 80.:  and  by  ancient  inscriptions,  91.  Remarks  on  Paul's 
admirable  address  to  tiicm,  II.  326,  327. 

Atonement,  true  notion  of,  unknown  to  the  heathen,  I.  17.  Though 
they  felt  the  necessity  of  an  atonement  for  sin,  70,  71.  The  doc- 
trine of,  as  set  forth  in  the  New  Testament,  150. 

Authenticity  defined,  F.  28.  Of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  proved, 
28 — 52.  Recapitulation  of  this  argument,  18-4.  Ksjiecially  of 
Matt.  i.  and  ii.  and  Luke  i.  and  ii.,  II.  299—302.  309.  Of  Luke 
viii.27— 39.,  310.;  and  xxii.  44.,  310.  Of  John  vii.  53.  and  viii.  1— 
11.,  315.  Examination  of  the  authenticity  of  1  John  v.  7.,  366 — 
375. 

Author,  put  for  his  book  or  writings,  I.  359.  Importance  of  know- 
ing, 348. 


Babel,  erection  of  the  tower  of,  confirmed  by  heathen  testimony, 

Bahi/lon,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  126. 

Balaam's  ass  speaking,  remarks  on,  I.  421. 

Baptism,  observance  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, I.  67. 

Bariiabas,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  44. 

Baruch,  apocryphal  book  of,  IT.  391,  392. 

Bath-Kol,  notice  of,  II.  256. 

467 


468 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Bel  and  the  Dragon,  apocrj'phal  hislory  of,  II.  292. 

Benefits  coiilerred  by  Chrisiianiiy,  a  proof  lliat  it  is  from  God,  I.  1C9 
—177. 

Bethlehem,  massacre  of  the  infant.s  at,  I.  419. 

Bible,  a  perl'oct  rule  of  fiiith  and  practice,  I.  186.  Moral  qualifica- 
lions  for  studying  it  advantageously,  18tj,  187.  In  what  order  it 
should  be  read,  187.  Refutation  ot  the  assertion  that  the  Bible 
is  the  most  immoral  book  in  the  world,  1(56.  Does  not  inculcate 
a  spirit  of  intolerance  and  persecution,  166,  167.  Harmony  be- 
tween all  its  pans,  a  proof  of  its  divine  origin  and  authority,  167, 
168.  As  also  its  preservation,  168.  See  Scriptures,  Versions, 
Testament  (Old),  and  Testament  (New). 

Blind  man  restored  to  sight,  remarks  on  the  miracle  of,  I.  104,  105. 

Blount  (Mr.),  absurd  and  contradictory  notions  of,  on  religion  and 
morals,  I.  23.     His  profligacy,  26. 

Boils,  on  the  plague  of,  in  Egypt,  H.  207. 

Bolingbroke  [Lord),  absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  of,  on  religion 
and  morals,  1.  24,  23.  His  hypocrisy  exposed,  26.  His  involun- 
tary testimony  in  favour  of  the  evangelist,  68. 

Book,  every  writing  so  termed  by  the  ancients,  however  small,!.  56. 

Book  of  the  Covenant,  I.  57. 

Book  of  Jasher,  remarks  on,  I.  57.  II.  216. 

Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord,  observations  on,  I.  57.  II.  210. 

Byzantine  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  205. 


Caius  Romanus,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  Nevr  Tes- 
tament, I.  42. 

Cana,  observation  on  the  miracle  wrought  at,  I.  103,  104. 

Canaanites,  extirpation  of,  considered,  I.  409,  410. 

Canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  account  of,  1.  28 — 30.  Canon  of  the 
New  Testament,  39.  General  divisions  of  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  II.  212,  213. 

Catalogues  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  I.  29,  30. ;  and  of 
the  New  Testament,  41. 

Catholic  Epistles,  origin  of  the  appellation  of,  II.  358.  Its  antiquity, 
ibid.  The  authenticity  of  the  Catholic  Epistles,  and  in  what 
order  usually  placed,  ibid.     Their  dates,  330. 

Cause,  metonymy  of,  I.  359,  360. 

Celsus.  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  46,  47. ;  and  to  the  character  of  Christ,  82. ; 
and  of  the  first  Christians,  85. 

Census,  alluded  to  by  St.  Luke,  explained,  I.  419,  420. 

Cerinthus,  account  of  the  tenets  of,  11.  316,  317.  His  testimony  to 
the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  46. 

Cctubim,  an  ancient  division  of  the  Old  Testament,  account  of,  1. 
213. 

ChaldcBons,  pretence  of,  to  antiquity,  disproved,  I.  73. 

Chaldaisms  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  198. 

Chaldee  Language,  notice  of,  I.  199. 

Chaldee  Paraphrases  on  the  Scriptures,  account  of,  I.  262 — 264. 

Chapters  and  verses,  origin  of,  in  the  Old  Testament,  I.  213.  And 
in  the  New  Testament,  214. 

Characters  (Hebrew),  antiquity  of,  I.  190. 

Children,  the  visiting  of  the  fathers'  sins  on,  explained,  I.  409. 

Chinese,  pretences  of,  to  antiquity,  disproved,  I.  74.  Degraded  state 
of  religion  and  morals  among  the  Chinese,  I.  21. 

Christ  (Jesus).  Duration  of  his  ministry,  I.  321.  The  Lord's  sup- 
per a  perpetual  memorial  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel,  67.  Testi- 
mony of  Josephus  to  the  character  of  Jesus  Christ,  81.  463,  464. 
Of  the  Talmuds,  81.  Of  Pontius  Pilate,  81,  82.  Of  Suetonius, 
Tacitus,  Pliny,  iElius,  Lampridius,  Celsus,  and  Porphyry,  82. 
Of  Julian  and  Mohammed,  83.  Jesus  Christ  put  for  his  doctrine, 
359.  Parables,  why  used  by  him,  368,  369.  Superiority  of  his 
parables,  369,  370.  Difficulties  in  his  genealogy  solved,  400,  401. 
417,  418.  Why  he  used  external  means  in  performing  some  of 
his  miracles,  99,  100. ;  and  gave  different  degrees  of  notoriety  to 
them,  98,  99.  Their  number,  101.  Variety,  ibid.  Design,  101, 
102.  Greatness,  102.  Before  whom  wrought,  103.  In  what  man- 
ner wrought,  ibid.  Their  efl^ecUs,  ibid.  Were  never  denied,  ibid. 
A  critical  examination  of  some  of  Christ's  miracles,  particularly 
the  conversion  of  water  into  wine,  ibid.  The  feeding  of  five 
thousand  men,  104.  The  healing  of  the  paralytic,  ibid.  The 
giving  of  sight  to  the  man  who  had  been  born  blind,  104,  105. 
The  raising  of  Jairus's  daughter  to  life,  105.  Of  the  widow's  son 
at  Nain,  ibid.  And  of  Lazarus,  105,  106.  The  circumstances  of 
his  Resurrection  stated  and  scrutinized,  106 — 115.  And  of  his  As- 
cension, 446.  The  miracles  of  Christ  compared  with  pretended 
pagan  and  popish  miracles,  115 — 119.  Character  of  Christ,  149. 
Testimonies  of  heathen  adversaries  to  his  life  and  character,  81 
— 83.  Involuntary  testimonies  of  the  infidels,  Chubb  and  Rous- 
seau, to  his  character,  156.  and  note.  Christ  a  greater  prophet 
than  Moses,  453,  454.  Salvation  only  through  him,  462.  Neces- 
sity of  believing  in  him,  and  danger  of  rejecting  him,  ibid.  Christ 
put  for  his  doctrine,  359.     See  Messiah. 

Christianity,  propagation  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  New 
Testament,  I.  67.  And  that  the  Gospel  is  from  God,  130 — 132. 
Gibbon's  five  secondary  causes  of  its  success  refuted,  133.  Its 
rejection  by  unbelieving  Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  non-universality, 
no  argument  against  its  divine  original,  but  rather  a  confirmation, 
134 — 140.  The  Mosaic  dispensation  introductory  to  it,  147,  148. 
Excellence  of  its  doctrines,  149 — 151.  And  morality,  152 — 156. 
Superiority  of  its  motives  to  duty,  156 — 158.    Its  doctrines  not 


contrary  to  reason,  158 — 160.  Its  doctrine  of  a  future  judgment 
not  imi)robal)le,  160,  161.  Does  not  establish  a  system  of  priest- 
craft, 161,  162.  Or  prohibit  free  inquiry,  but  on  the  contrary  in- 
vites it,  162.  Its  morality  not  too  strict,  162,  163.  Norany  of  its 
moral  precepts  unreasonable  and  impracticable,  163,  164.  Does 
not  produce  a  timid  spirit,  164.  Nor  overlook  the  generous  sen- 
timents of  fViendship,  164,  165.;  and  of  patriotism,  165,  166.  Nor 
inculcate  either  iiuolcrance  or  persecution,  166,  167.  The  ten- 
dency of  Christianity  (evinced  by  facts)  to  promote  the  present 
and  eternal  happiness  of  mankind,  169 — 175.  Comparison  of  the 
actual  effects  of  the  Gospel,  with  those  produced  by  the  atheisti- 
cal philosophy,  175 — 177.  A  fiiriher  proof  that  it  is  from  God,  is 
afforded  by  its  superiority  over  all  other  religions,  177.  Particu- 
larly in  its  perfection,  ibid.  Its  openness,  ibid.  Its  adaptation  to 
the  capacities  of  all  men,  178.  The  spirituality  of  its  worship, 
ibid.  Its  opposition  to  the  si)irit  of  the  world,  179.  Its  humilia- 
tion of  man  and  exalting  the  Deity,  ibid.  Its  restoration  of  order 
to  the  world,  ibid.  Its  tendency  to  eradicate  all  evil  passions 
from  the  heart,  ibid.  Its  contrariety  to  the  covetousness  and  am- 
bition of  mankind,  ibid.  Its  restoring  the  divine  image  to  man, 
ibid.  Its  mighty  effects,  ibid.  Examination  of  the  difficulties 
attendant  on  the  propagation  of  Christianity,  448 — 450. 
Christians,  exemplary  character  and  conduct  of,  I.  169,  170.  At- 
tested by  their  heathen  adversaries,  83 — 85.  170.  The  crimes  of 
nominal  Christians  not  chargeable  on  the  Gospel,  173. 
Chronicles  (two  books  of),  II.  222.  Their  title,  ibid.  Author  and 
date,  ibid.  Scope  and  analysis  of  these  books,  223.  Observations 
on  these  books,  224.  Account  of  the  Targums  or  Chaldee  para 
phrases  on,  I.  263. 
Chronology,  alleged  contradictions  in,  considered,  and  shown  to  be 
unfounded,  1.  404,  405.  Importance  of,  to  biblical  students,  349. 
Chubb  (Mr.),  absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  of,  concerning  religion, 
I.  23,  24.  His  hypocrisy,  26.  Involuntary  testimony  of,  to  the 
divine  mission  of  Jesus  Christ,  68.;  and  to  his  character,  155. 
Churches  (Christian),  state  of,  necessary  to  be  known  in  studying 

the  Epistles,  I.  393. 
Cilicisms  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  199. 
Circu7ncision,  the  observance  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the 

Old  Testament,  I.  66. 
Circumstantiality  of  the  Old  Testament  narratives  a  proof  of  their 
authenticity,  1.  31,  32.;  as  also  of  the  Pentateuch,  35,  36.;  and 
of  the  New  Testament  narratives,  49,  50. 
Clarius's  (Isidore)  revision  of  the  Vulgate  version,  notice  of,  I.  277 
Classification  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  II.  293,  294. 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New 

Testament,  I.  43. 
Clement  of  Rome,  testimony  of,   to  the  genuineness  of  the  New 

Testament,  I.  45. 
Cognate,  or  kindred  languages,  what  so  termed,  I.  199.     Account 
of  them,  ibid.     The  use  of  the  cognate  languages  for  illustrating 
the  Scriptures  elucidated,  199.  341,  342. 
Coincidence  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  narratives  with  the 
relations  of  profane  authors  a  proof  of  their  credibility,  I.  49 — 52. 
69—87. 
Coins  (ancient),  collateral   testimony  of,  to  the  credibility  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  88 — 91.     Importance  of,  as  an  hermeneutical 
aid,  350. 
Collins  (Mr.),  absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  of,  on  religion,  I.  23. 

His  hypocrisy,  26. 
Colossians,  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to,  II.  340.     Account  of  the  church 
at  Colossffi,  341.     Date  of  this  Epistle,  ibid.     Its  occasion,  ibid. 
Scope  and  analysis  of  its  contents,  ibid. 
Commentaries,  different  classes  of,  I.  352.    Of  commentaries,  strictly 
so  called,  ibid.     Their  utility,  353.    Design  to  be  kept  in  view  in 
consulting  them,  ibid.     Rules  for  consulting  them  to  the  best 
advantage,  353,  354. 
Comparison  not  to  be  extended  to  all  the  circumstances  of  an  alle- 
gory, I.  365. 
Complexion,  varieties  of,  in  different  nations,  not  contrary  to  the 

Mosaic  account  of  the  origin  of  mankind,  I.  76. 
Conjecture  (critical),  a  source  of  various  readings,  I.  284.     Rules 
for  applying  it  to  the  determination  of  various  readings,  289,  290. 
Constanlinopolitan  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  205.  209. 
Contemporary  Writers,  testimonv  of,  a  source  for  ascertaining  the 

meaning  of  Scripture,  I.  329 — 333 
Context,  definition  of,  I.  336.     Rules  for  investigating  it,  337,  338 
Importance  of  attending  to  the  context,  in  the  interpretation  of 
allegories,  365. 
Contradictions,  alleged  to  exist  in  the  Scriptures,  considered,  and 
shown  to  have  no  foundation,  I.  399,  400.     In  historical  passages, 
400 — 404.     In  chronology,  404,  405.     Between   prophecies  and 
their  fulfilment,  406.     In  doctrine,  406 — 408.     Apparent  contra- 
dictions to  morality,  408 — 414.     Between  the  sacred  writers,  414 
— 418.    Between  sacred  and  profane  writers,  418 — 420.    Seeming 
contradictions  to  philosophy  and  the  nature  of  things,  420 — 422. 
Conversation  with  the  Deity,  the  most  eminent  degree  of  prophetic 

inspiration,  II.  256. 
Conversion  of  Paul,  remarks  on,  11.  322,  323. 
Coptic  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  I.  272. 
Corinthians  (Saint  Paul's  First  Epistle  to),  II.  334.    Paul's  character 
of  the  Gentile  Corinthians  confirmed  by  profane  historians,  I.  80. 
State  of  the  Corinthian  church,  II.  334.      Occasion  and  scope  of 
this  Epistle,  ibid.     Analysis  of  its  contents,  335.     Date  and  genu- 
ineness, ibid.    Examination  of  the  question,  how  many  epistles 
Paul  wrote  to  the  Corinthians,  ibid. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


469 


Corhilhlans  (Saint  Paul's  Secmid  I'^ii'imIIo  to),  II.  335.  Date  and 
whore  vvrilleii,  331).  Ocrusion  of  lliiw  l'',|)isilo,  ihiil.  Iih  srupe, 
illid,  i>\/\\«\fii:H  of  iis  coiileiilN,  ibid.  Oksfrviilioiis  on  il,  itiid.  A 
siippo.soil  clirorioloijical  (li/fn-uliy  in  this  Kpisile  elucidaiffd,  331), 
337.  No  oHkt  cpi.sik'M  wniien  lo  iho  C'orinliiiun.s  but  the  two 
which  are  now  t'Mani,  1.  i)?,  08.  II.  335. 

Corniptniii  of  Ihi-  Sen  pi  ores,  inipossihilily  of,  proved,  I.  52 — 58. 
VViliiil  corriiplloii,  how  liir  a  caii.-ic;  of  various  rt-uUings,  285. 

Coiniiids  oC  iierii^clioii,  tialure  und  liillacy  olj  I.  3'J6.  nole. 

Covenaiil.  book  o(  thi;,  I.  57. 

Creation  of  the  world,  inio  account  of,  unknown  to  tlio  ancient 
l)liilo.sophor.s.  I.  17.  Mosaic  narrative  of,  conlirined  by  proliinc 
hisiory,  C/J.  And  by  tho  modern  discoveries  ni  philosophy,  1. 
120,  121. 

Ciidilidthj  of  the  Old  and  Xew  Toslainont.",  I.  50.  Proofs  that  tlic 
wrilcTft Of  liu  01  h;ui  a  pcrtcr-i  linowlcdi,'e  of  the  subjects  whicli 
they  relate;  and  ihcir  moral  character,  thoui^h  rii'idiy  tried,  was 
never  inijieachcil  by  their  keenest  op;M>ncnls,  ihid.  'I'his  test  a\t- 
plied  to  ttie  Olil  '1  c.slainent,  Und  And  also  to  the  I\ew  Testa- 
ment, (■>().  These  wrilin|,'s  never  cliarf^od  with  eonlainintj  liilse- 
hoods,  illid.  This  jiroved  at  !arf,'e  concerninf?  the  Old  Testament, 
()0 — ()2.  And  the  New  Testament,  02.  The  writers  of  which 
were  contemporary  with,  and  competent  witnesses  of,  the  events 
related,  (■)2,  ()3.  Anil  could  not  have  recorded  the  actions  ascrib- 
ed to  Christ,  if  they  had  n(»t  been  true,  ()2.  Were  neither  enthu- 
siasts nor  fanatics,  t)3.  Were  neither  deceived  themselves,  nor 
did  nor  C4)uld  deceive  others,  f)3,  IM.  Uut  on  the  contrary  they 
were  men  of  the  strictest  integrity  and  sincerity,  GI,  05.  Ap- 
pealed to  notorious  proofs,  CG.  And  sullered  every  thing  for  the 
truth  of  their  narration,  ihid.  The  credibility  of  the  S(rri|)tures  fur- 
ther conliruicd  by  iIk;  subsistence,  to  this  very  day,  of  monuments 
insiiiuieil  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  principal  facts  and 
events  ihereiu  recorded,  GG,  G7.  And  by  the  wonderful  establish- 
ment and  pro]>a!;aiion  of  Christianity,  G7,  G8.  Testimonies  from 
natural  ami  civil  history  to  the  credibility  of  the  (31d  Testament, 
(•,<) — 7H.  And  also  of  the  New  Testament,  78 — 83.  The  silence 
of  proliinc  auiliors  concerning  facts  rccoided  by  the  sacred  histo- 
rians no  argument  against  their  credibility.  85 — 87.  Which  is 
further  eoutiriued  by  coins  and  medals,  88 — 91.  Recapitulation 
of  this  argiimcui,  185.     Credibility  of  miracles,  proved,  1)5 — 1)7. 

Creed  of  unbelievers,  I.  159.  iiole. 

Cretans,  St.  Paul's  character  of,  confirmed  by  profane  writers,  1.81. 
Chnslianily,  when  planted  in  Crete,  II.  3-47. 

Criticism  of  the  Scriptures,  objects  of,  1.  188. 

Cyprian,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament, 
1.42. 

Cyprian  Rerensio7i  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  209.  nole. 

Cy renins,  census  of,  explained,  1.  419,  420. 


D'ALKMnERT,  miserable  death  of,  I.  17G. 

Daniel  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  277.  His  predictions  relative 
to  the  four  great  monarchies,  I.  129.  Aii-.ilysis  of  his  prophecies, 
II.  277 — 279.  Observations  on  their  canonical  authority  and  style, 
with  a  refutation  of  neologian  objections,  279 — 282.  Account  of 
the  spurious  additions  made  to  the  book  of  Daniel,  282. 

Darkness,  on  the  plague  of,  in  Egypt,  II.  207. 

Dales  of  the  books  of  Scripture,  importance  of  knowing,  I.  348. 

David,  in  what  sense  the  "  man  after  God's  own  heart,"  I.  411,412. 
List  of  Psalms  ascribed  to,  II.  239.  211. 

Deborah,  remarks  on  the  ode  of,  II.  217.  7iole. 

Deists,  or  enemies  of  divine  revelation,  origin  of,  I.  22.  7io!e.  Are 
indebted  to  the  Scriptures  for  all  that  they  have  written,  which 
is  either  wise  or  good,  ihid.  Their  boast,  that  unassisted  reason 
is  a  suflicient  guide  to  man,  disproved,  ibid.  A  summary  of  their 
absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  concerning  religion,  the  worship 
of  God,  and  a  future  state,  23 — 25.  And  concerning  morals,  25. 
Deadly  eflects  of  deism  on  nations,  25,  26.  .■\iid  (m  individuals, 
2G.  Effects  of  their  principles  contrasted  with  tliose  of  the  Gos- 
pel, 17G,  177. 

Deities  (heathen),  immense  number  of,  I.  16.  and  7iote  8.,  21.  Hor- 
rid rites  of,  and  their  oiTects,  16,  17.     See  Idolatry. 

Deluge,  Mosaic  account  of,  not  contrary  to  philosophy,  but  confirm- 
ed by  indubitable  testimonies  from  natural  an<l  civil  history,  I. 
72 — 75.  And  by  the  Apamean  medal,  88.  Infidel  objections  to 
it  refuted,  75,  7t). 

Dc  Rossi,  notice  of  the  principal  Hebrew  MSS.  collected  by,  I.  219. 

Design  of  the  sacred  writers  in  composing  their  narratives,  a  source 
of  apparent  contradictions  in  historical  pai^ages,  I.  400 — 402. 
And  also  in  points  of  doctrine,  408. 

Deiileronomi/  (book  of),  date  and  chronology  of.  11.210,211.  Its 
scope,  211.  Prediction  relative  to  the  Messiah  contained  in  it 
illustrated,  ibid.  I.  453,  454.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  II.  211,  212. 
Observations  on  this  book,  212. 

Dialects  of  the  Greek  Testament,  I.  196—199. 

A.a5,x,,  import  of,  I.  28.  39. 

ei>%lx\fi=c^  import  of,  IL  243. 

Didactic  poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  I.  381. 

Difficulties  attendant  on  the  propagation  of  Christianity,  examined, 

I.  448—450. 
Dissection,  curious,  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  I.  202.  nole. 
Divisions  (ancient  and  modern)  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  212 — 215. 
Doctrines  delivered  in  the  Bible  a  proof  that  it  must  be  fi^im  God, 
I.  142.     Doctrines  of  tlie  patriarchal  age,  142,  143.  IL  236,  237. 


Doctrines  delivered  by  Mo.ses,  and  by  the  prophet.s,  I.  143 — 148. 
Summary  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  149. ;  particularly  the 
vicarious  atonement  of  Clirist,  and  the  blessings  thereby  procured 
lor  man,  150 — 152.  .Alleged  contradictions  in  doctrines  proved 
to  have  no  litundalion,  40G — 408.  On  the  doctrinal  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptures,  393 — 395. 

Doubt,  Sense  of  piojihecy,  I.  390,  391. 

Drainaiic  Poems  of  the  Hebrews,  1.  381. 

Dreams,  prophetic,  II.  255. 

Duelling  not  sunctioncd  by  the  Gospel.  I.  171.  twlc 


I'.nKii's  (Paul)  revision  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  notice  of,  I.  277. 

r.biiiniies.  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  4G. 

Ecrlesiastcs  (book  of),  II.  247.  Its  title,  author,  and  canonical  au- 
thority, ibid.  Its  scope  and  synopsis,  247,  248.  Observations  on 
this  book,  249. 

Ecclesiasticits  (apocryphal  book  of),  account  of,  II.  291. 

Kde.t.fene  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I.  206. 

Editions  (ancient)  of  the  Scripture,  considered  as  a  source  of  the 
sacred  text,  1.  280. 

Effect,  metonymy  of,  I.  3G0. 

^^VP''  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  12.5.  The 
borrowing  from  the  Egyptians  fiy  the  Israelites  explained,  409. 
Remarks  on  the  plagues  inflicted  upon  the  Egyptians,  II.  20G, 
207.  Pretensions  of  the  Egyptians  to  remote  antiquity  disproved, 
I.  73.  Confirmations  of  Scripture  from  Egyptian  hieroglyphics, 
88,  89. 

Egyptian  versions  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  272,  273.  Egyptian  Reccu- 
sioii  of  the  New  Testament,  205. 

Eichlinrn's  theory  of  recensions,  account  of,  I.  209. 

Elegiac  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  I.  380. 

Elijah  fed  by  ravens,  remarks  on  the  narrative  of,  I.  422. 

Emphases,  definition  of,  I.  32G,  327.  Different  kinds  of,  327.  Em- 
phasis of  the  Greek  article,  327,  328.  Emphases  of  other  words, 
328.  Emphatic  adverbs,  ibid.  Real  cmiih.ises,  ibid.  Rules  lor 
the  investigation  of  emphatic  words,  328,  329. 

England,  beneficial  effects  of  Christianity  in,  I.  174. 

Enoch,  tran.slalion  of,  confirmed  by  heathen  traditions,  I.  71.  Re- 
marks on  the  apocrj-plial  book  of,  supposed  to  be  quoted  by  the 
Apostle  Jude,  318.  II.  377. 

Enthnsiasm,  characteristics  of,  I.  63.  Proof  that  Mo.ses  was  not  an 
enthusiast,  60.  Nor  the  apostles  and  evangelists,  63.  Especially 
Saint  Paul,  II.  322,  323. 

Ephesus,  temple  of  Diana  at,  L  90.  That  city,  why  termed  Nei>. 
Koroi;,  90,  91.  Account  of  the  church  at,  U".  338.  Genuineness 
and  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  lo  the  Ephesians,  338,  339.  Its 
date,  339.  Occasion  and  scope,  ihid.  Analysis  of  its  contents, 
ibid.     Observations  on  its  style,  ibid. 

Epistles  of  the  apostles,  importance  of,  H.  329,  330.  Their  number 
and  order,  particularly  those  of  St.  Paul,  330.  Of  the  Catholic 
epistles,  ibid.  General  plan  of  the  apostolic  epistles,  ihid.  Causes 
of  their  obscurity  explained,  331.  Remarks  on  the  phraseology 
of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  in  particular,  ibid.  Rules  for  studying  the 
apostolic  epistles  most  beneficially,  I.  393 — 395.  Subscripliong 
attached  to  them,  215.     See  Catholic  Epistles. 

Epithets  of  Scripture,  dillerent  kinds  of,  1.  325. 

Esdras,  account  of  the  two  apocryphal  books  of,  II.  289,  290. 

Esther  (book  of),  11.  225.  Its  title  and  author,  225,  226.  Argument, 
266.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Account  of  the  Targums  or 
Chaldee  paraphrases  on  this  book,  I.  2G3.  Apocryphal  additiooB 
to  the  book  ol  Esther,  II.  290. 

Ethan,  psalm  ascribed  to,  II.  240. 

Ethiopia,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  125,  126. 

Eihiopic  language,  notice  of,  1.  199.  Eihiopic  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, 273,  274. 

Eusebius't  account  of  the  classification  and  genuineness  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  1.  42.  Notice  of  his  Harmony  of 
the  four  Gospels,  319,  320.  j  and  of  his  recension  of  the  Septuagint 
version,  268.     Eusebian  Sections,  214. 

Euthaliiis,  Sections  of,  I.  214. 

Evangelists,  were  contemporary  with,  and  competent  witnesses  of, 
the  liicts  recorded  by  them,  I.  62,  G3.  Were  not  enthusiasts  nor 
fanatics,  63.  Neither  did  nor  could  deceive  or  impose  upon 
others,  63,  64.  Were  men  of  the  strictest  integrity  and  sincerity, 
64,  65.  Appealed  to  notorious  proofs,  66.  Suffered  every  thing 
for  the  truth  of  their  narrative,  ihid.  On  the  credibility  and  in- 
spiration of  the  evangelists. — See  Credibility,  Inspiration. 

Evidence.     See  Historical  Testimony. 

Evil  (moral  and  physical),  the  true  cause  of,  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients, I.  17.  The  Bible  account  of  it  confirmed  by  heathen 
writers,  70. 

Exodus  (book  of).  Title,  II.  206.  Author  and  date,  ibid.  Occasion 
and  subject-matter,  ibid.  Scope,  ibid.  Types  of  the  Messiah, 
ibid.    Synopsis,  ibid.    Illustration  of  Exodus,  ch.  vii. — xi.  206,207. 

E.Tjiositors.     See  Commentators. 

Ezekiel  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  283.  Canonical  authority  of 
his  prophecies,  ibid.  Their  scope,  284.  Analysis  of  them,  284 — 
286.  Observations  on  the  style  of  Ezekiel,  286.  Supposed  dif^ 
ference  between  him  and  Jeremiah  reconciled,  I.  124. 

Ezra  (book  of),  II.  224.  Its  title  and  author,  ibid.  Argument, 
scope,  and  synopsis  of  its  contents,  224,  225.  Observations  on 
a  spurious  passage  ascribed  to  Ezra,  225. 


470 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Faith,  analogy  of,  1.  342.     Rules  for  invRstiffntin;;  it,  312—341. 

fall  ot'  man.  Mosaic  afcouiii  of,  confirmed  by  the  existence  of 
moral  evil,  anil  by  historical  tcsliniony,  I.  G9 — 71. 

Families  of  Hebrew  Manuscripts,  account  of,  I.  tilS.  And  of  the 
manuscripts  of  the  Greek  Testament,  204 — 212. 

Faf/iirs.  lesiinioiiy  of,  to  the  auihenlicily  of  the  New  Testament,  I. 
41 — 45.  Assistance  to  be  derived  from  them  in  the  interpretation 
of  Scripture,  346 — 348.  Rennrks  on  their  mode  of  quoting  the 
Scriptures,  41.  Authority  of  their  quotations  as  a  source  of  the 
sacred  text,  281.     Rules  lor  applying  their  quotations  to  the  de- 

•    termination  of  various  readings,  288,  289. 

Felix,  procurator  of  Judrea,  the  singular  propriety  of  Saint  Paul's 
address  to,  illiislraled,  II.  327. 

Fertilili/  of  the  Holy  Land,  attested  by  heathen  writers,  I.  78.- 

Fig-tree,  the  withering  of  the  barren,  explanied,  I.  102. 

Fi^'irntive  Lmigiiaqc,  origin  of,  I.  355.  Distinction  between  figures 
of  words  and  figures  of  thought,  ibid.  General  observations  on 
the  interpretation  of  tropes  and  figures,  355 — 358.  The  figura- 
tive language  of  the  prophets  sometimes  the  source  of  seeming 
contradictions,  406.  See  Allegory,  Hijperhole,  Irony,  Metaphor, 
Metonymy,  Parable,  Proverbs,  and  Synecdoche. 

First-born,  on  the  destruction  of,  in  Egypt,  II.  207. 

First  dai/  of  the  week,  observance  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of 
the  New  Testament,  I.  67. 

Five  thousand  men,  miracle  of  the  feeding  of,  I.  104. 

Flies,  on  the  plague  of,  II.  206. 

Fcediis  cum  Grcecis,  account  of,  I.  212. 

Fool,  how  to  be  answered,  1.  397. 

Foigery,  impossibility  of,  as  it  respects  the  Old  Testament,  I.  29. 
And  the  New  Testament,  40.  54,  55. 

Forgiveness  of  sins,  New  Testament  doctrine  of,  I.  150. 

France,  horrible  state  of,  during  the  French  Revolution,  in  conse- 
quence of  infidelity,  I.  25,  26. 

Frederick  II.  king  of  Prussia,  impious  tenets  of,  I.  24. 

Friendship,  why  not  enforced  by  name,  in  the  Gospel,  I.  165. 

Frogs,  on  the  plague  of,  II.  206. 

Future  slate.    See  Immortality  of  the  Soul. 


Galatians,  account  of,  II.  337.    Date  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to 
them,  ibid.     Its  genuineness  and  authenticity,  ibid.    Occasion  and 
scope,  ibid.     Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.     Observations  on  this 
Epistle,  338. 
Gallio,  character  of,  I.  79. 

Gaon  (rabbi  Saadias),  Arabic  version  by,  notice  of,  I.  274. 
Gemaras  of  Jerusalem  and  Babylon,  account  of  I.  345. 
Genealogy,  importance  of,  in  studying  the  Scriptures,  I.  351,  352. 
The  seeming  contradictions  in  the  genealogies  of  our  Saviour, 
as  recorded  by  Matthew  and  Luke,  examined  and  reconciled, 
400,  401.  417,  418.  Importance  of  the  genealogies  in  the  fast 
book  of  Chronicles,  II.  223. 

Genesis  (book  of),  title,  II.  203.  Author,  204.  Date,  ibid.  General 
argument,  ibid.  Scope,  ibid.  Types  of  the  Messiah  in  this  book 
ibid.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Si'.mmary  of  the  patriarchal 
religion,  as  exhibited  in  this  book,  I.  142,  143.  The  literal  sense 
of  the  first  three  chapters  vindicated,  II.  205.  Whence  Moses 
derived  his  materials  for  it,  I.  34. 

Gentiles,  rejection  of  the  Gospel  by,  no  objection  to  the  truth  of 
Christianity,  I.  136. 

Genuineness  defined,  I.  28.  Criteria  for  distinguishing  genuine 
from  spurious  writings,  39,  40.  Genuineness  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment demonstrated,  28 — 32.:  especially  of  the  Pentateuch,  32 — 
38.  And  of  the  New  Testament,  40 — 50.  Recapitulation  of  this 
argument,  184. 

Geography,  importance  of,  to  the  study  of  the  Bible,  I.  351. 

Geologi/,  testimony  of,  to  the  credibility  of  the  Mosaic  narrative  of 
the  deluge,  I.  71,  72. 

German  Divines,  heterodox  notions  of  many  of,  I.  326.  Refutation 
of  their  theory,  that  some  of  the  interpretations  of  Christ  and  his 
Apostles  are  doctrinal  accommodations  to  Jewish  opinions  and 
prejudices,  324. 

German  Jeivs,  manuscripts  of,  I.  218. 

Giants,  Mosaic  account  of  confirmed  by  heathen  writers,  I.  71. 

Gibbon's  false  account  of  the  spread  of  Christianity,  confuted  by 
facts,  I.  133.     His  immoral  principles  exposed,  25. 

Gitlith,  import  of,  II.  244. 

Glossaries,  nature  of,  I.  335.  Rules  for  consulting  them  to  advan- 
tage, ibid. 

Gnostics,  tenets  of,  refuted  by  St.  John,  II.  316. 

God,  the  true  nature  and  worship  of,  imperfectly  known  among  the 
ancient  heathen  nations,  I.  16,  17.  And  also  among  the  modern 
heathens,  21,  22.  Sublime  doctrines  of  the  Scriptures  concerning 
God,  in  the  patriarchal  times,  142,  143.  Under  the  Mosaic  dis- 
pensation, 143 — 145.     And  in  the  Gospel,  149,  150. 

Gospel,  meaning  of,  II.  294.  General  design  of  the  Gospels,  295. 
Their  number,  ibid.  And  importance,  ibid.  The  sources  of  the 
first  three  Gospels  examined,  385 — 393.  Why  rejected  by  the 
unbelieving  Jews,  I.  134,  135.  And  by  the  Gentiles,  136.  See 
Christianity,  Doctrines,  Morality,  John,  Luke,  Mark,  and  Matthew, 
in  tliis  Index. 

Gothic  version  of  the  Bible,  account  of,  I.  277.     Description  of  the 
Upsal  manuscript  of,  277, 278.     Important  remains  of,  discovered 
in  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan,  278,  279. 
Governors  and  Governed,  duties  of,  under  the  Gospel,  1. 153. 


Crammafirn-ITistorlral  Sense,  defined,  I.  323. 

Oreik  Article,  elucidations  of,  I.  327,  328. 

Greek  Language,  the  New  Testament  why  written  in,  I.  193,  194. 
Similarity  of  the  New  Testament  (ireek  with  liial  of  the  Sepiu- 
agint  version,  193.  Examination  of  its  style,  194,  195.  Dialect*, 
196—199. 

Greek  Versions  (ancient)  of  the  Old  Testament : — See  Aquila,  Sep- 
tnagint,  Symmachns,  Theodotion. 

Greeks,  the  New  Testament  character  of,  confirmed  by  heathen 
writers,  I.  80. 

Grieshach's  (Dr.)  system  of  recension  of  the  New  Testament,  ac- 
count of,  1.  205,  206. 


IIabakkuic  (the  prophet),  notice  of,  II.  277.    Analysis  of  his  pro- 
phecy, ibid.     Its  style,  ibid. 
Haggai  (the  prophet),  account  of  II.  287.     Argument  and  scope  of 

his  proi)hecy,  ibid.     Analysis  of  its  contents,  ibid.     Style,  ibid. 
Hagiographa,  an  ancient  division  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  account 

of,  I.  213.     Chaldee  paraphrase  on,  263. 
Hail,  on  the  plague  of  in  Egypt,  II.  207. 
Haptoroth,  or  sections  of  the  Prophets,  origin  of,  I  213. 
Hapiiiness,  dark  and  confused  notions  of  the  heathen  concemin?, 

I.  18. 
Harmonies  of  the  Scriptures,  occasion  of,  I.  319.     Observations  on 
the  different  schemes  of  hn.rmonizers,  and  on  the  duration  of  the 
public  ministry  of  Jesus  Christ,  319 — 321. 
Harmony  subsisting  between  all  parts  of  the  Bible,  a  proof  of  its 

divine  authority  and  original,  I.  167,  168. 
Heathen  Nations  (ancient),  deplorable  state  of  religion  and  morals 
among,  I   16 — 20. ;  and  among  the  modern  heathens,  21,  22.  This 
a  proof  of  the   necessity  of  a  divine   revelation,   22.      Derived 
many  of  their  institutions  from   the   Scriptures,  77,  78.     Their 
characters,  as  incidentally  noticed  in  the  New  Testament,  con- 
firmed by  profane  writers,  80,  81. 
Heathen  Writers,  testimonies  of  to  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, I.  69 — 71.     And  of  the  New  Testament,  78 — 83.     And  to 
the  beneficial  effects  of  the  Gospel,  in  the  character  and  conduct 
of  the  first  Christians,  170. 
Hebraisms  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  196.     Examples  of  them,  and 
observations  on  them,  196,  197.    Rules  for  the  better  understand- 
ing of  Hebraisms,  197,  198. 
Hebrew  Language,  origin  and  antiquity  of,  I.  189.    Historical  sketch 
of,  190.    Antiquity  of  its  character,  ibid.     Hebrew  vowel  points, 
191,   192.     And  accents,  192.     Rabbinical  Hebrew,  198.    The 
Hebrew  language  a  proof  of  the  genuineness  and  authenticity 
of  the  Old  Testament,  31.     Particularly  of  the  Pentateuch,  32. 
Notice  of  the  principal  Hebrew  manuscripts,  216 — 221.    And  of 
the  printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  203. 
Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testament,  history  of  from  the  writing  of 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  until  the  lime  of  Jesus  Christ, 
I.  200.    From  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the  age  ot  the  Masorites, 
200,  201.     From  the  .tge  of  the  Masorites  to  the  invention  of  the 
art  of  printing,  201 — 203.    From  the  invention  of  the  art  of  print- 
ing to  our  own  time,  203. 
Hebrews  (Epistle  to),  II.  349.    To  whom  written,  349,  350.    In  what 
language,  351,  352.     Its  genuineness  and   authenticity,  and  by 
whom  written,  352 — 358.   Date  of  this  Epistle,  356.    Its  occasion 
and  scope,  353,  357.    Synopsis  of  its  contents,  357.    Observations 
on  it,  ibid. 
Hegesippus,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, I.  43. 
Helvelius,  immoral  tenets  of  I.  25. 
Heman,  psalm  ascribed  to,  II.  240. 
Herbert  (Lord),  absurd  and  contradictoiy  tenets  of,  in  religion  and 

morals,  I.  22.  25. 
Heretical  Writers  (ancient),  testimonies  of,  to  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  45,  46.     Various  readings 
sometimes  to  be  found  in  their  works,  289. 
Hernias,  testimony  of  to  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 

New  Testament,  I.  45. 
Hesychius's  Recension  of  the  Septuagint,  notice  of,  I.  268. 
Hexupla  of  Origen,  specimen  of  with  illustrative  remarks,  I.  267, 

208. 
Hillel  (Rabbi),  Codex  of  I.  203. 
Hindoos,  degraded  stale  of  religion  and  morals  among,  I.  21.    Their 

extravagant  pretensions  to  antiquity  refuted,  74. 
Historians  (profane),  confirm  the  truth  of  the  Old  Testament  nar- 
ratives, I.  09 — 78.     And  also  of  those  of  the  New  Testament,  78 
— 83.    This  coincidence  a  proof  of  their  genuineness  and  authen- 
ticity, 49 — 52.     Seeming  inconsistencies  between  the  sacred  and 
proiane  historians  accounted  for,  414 — 418.     Silence  of  ancient 
historians  concerning  many  facts  accounted  for,  85 — 87. 
Historical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  general  observations  on,  II. 
213.     Their  authors,  ibid.    Importance,  214.    For  analyses  of  the 
Historical  Books,  see  their  several  titles  in  this  Index. 
Historical  Circumstances,  importance  of  to  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures generally,  I.  348—351.     Of  Scripture  allegories  in  particu- 
lar, 365.     And  also  of  parables,  368. 
Historical  Passages  of  Scripture,  alleged  contradictions  in,  consider- 
ed, and  shown  to  have  no  foundation,  I.  400 — 404. 
Historical  Sense  of  Scripture,  I.  323. 

Historical  Testimony,  credibility  of  illustrated,  I.  95,  96.     Hume's 
objections  to  it,  considered  and  refuted,  96,  97.    Historical  testi- 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


471 


mony  not  diminished  by  the  lapse  of  ages,  I.  97,  98.  Historical 
testimony  of  Jews  and  Gentiles  to  the  authenticity  of  the  Penta- 
teiK  li,  '.i'-l. 

Jlistiiriial  Ti/pes,  I.  386. 

Jlision/  (Jewish),  a  source  of  Scriiitiire  meta[)hors,  I.  303.  The  cre- 
(jihliity  of  the  Old  Tcstaiiipnt  histories  coii/irmed  by  testimonies 
from  rmliiriil  and  civil  hislory,  01) — 78.  And  also  the  NewTesta- 
niciii,  78 — H7.  Imporiance  of  sacred  and  profane  history  to  the 
rit(lil  inidorslaiiiliiig  of  Scripture,  349. 

Jlo/ihix  (Mr.),  absurd  and  contradictory  notions  concerning  religion 
and  morals,  I.  23.  25.  His  base  conduct,  26.  His  involuntary 
Icslimony  in  favour  of  the  New  Testament,  08. 

lliMen  (Itev.  George),  im|)oriant  observations  of,  on  the  impreca- 
tions supposed  to  be  coniained  in  the  Scri|)tures,  1.  413. 

Ihilii  Spirit,  put  iiir  his  ellcct.s,  operations,  and  gifts,  1.  359.  The 
descent  of  llic  Holy  Spirit  on  the  apostles,  considered,  447. 

Ifomilics,  nature  of,  I.  353. 

Jlosia  (the  prophol),  account  of,  H.  200.  Occasion  and  scope  of  his 
pro|)hecy,  200,  201.  Analysis  of  its  contents,  201.  Observations 
on  (lis  style,  201,  202. 

Hug  (Prof),  system  of  recensions  of,  I.  208,  209. 

Hugo  de  Saiicio  Curu  (Cardaial),  invented  the  division  of  chapters 
in  the  Bible,  I.  213. 

Iliimt  (Mr.),  absurd  and  contradictory  notions  of,  concerning  religion 
and  morals,  1. 24,  25.  His  objection  against  the  Pentateuch  refuted, 
09.  Refutation  of  his  objections  to  the  credibility  of  miracles, 
90,  97. 

Hyperbole,  nature  of,  I.  272. 


Idolatry  of  the  ancient  heathen  nations,  I.  10,  17.  And  of  the 
modern  heathen  nations,  21,  22.  Idolatry  abolished  by  Chris- 
lianilv,  171. 

Iilijl  (Hebrew),  nature  of,  I.  .381. 

lamiliiis,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament, 
'  I.  4.5. 

Immoral  ill/  unjustly  charged  upon  the  Bible,  I.  106.  Immoral  prin- 
ciples and  i)ractices  of  deists  and  atheists  proved,  21 — 20. 

Jmmorlnllli/  of  the  Soul  and  a  future  state,  imperfectly  known 
to  ihc  ancient  philosophers,  I.  18.  Revealed  in  the  Scriptures, 
143.  14.'),  140.  151. 

Im/iarlialili/  of  Moses  as  an  historian,  I.  61,  62.  Of  the  other 
writers  lif  the  Old  Testament,  62.  And  of  the  writers  of  the 
Mew  Testament,  04—06. 

Imprecalioiis  contained  in  the  Scriptures  explained,  I.  413. 

Iiiiprovirnciits  (spiritual),  observations  on,  I.  384. 

Inflian  Jews,  manuscripts  of,  I.  219 — 221. 

Iiifvrcniiul  reading  of  the  Bible,  I.  423.  Its  foundation,  ibid.  Rules 
for  it,  423,  424.  Sources  of  inferences,  424.  Rules  for  ascertain- 
ing them,  424,  425. 

Infidels,  absurd  and  contradictory  notions  of,  concerning  religion  and 
morals,  1.  22 — 25.  159.  note.  Their  objections  to  the  doctrines  and 
moral  precepts  of  the  Bible  refuted,  158 — 107.  Their  creed  full 
of  contradictions,  159.  no/e.  The  efl!)rts  of  infidels  to  subvert 
Christianity,  a  fulfilment  of  jirophecy,  140.  Their  total  want  of 
candour,  158.  and  note.  Ktrecls  of  their  writings  in  France,  25, 
20.  And  on  individuals,  20.  Particularly  at  tlie  hour  of  death, 
170.  Inability  to  answer  all  the  objections  of  infidels  no  just 
cause  for  rejecting  the  Scriptures,  180,  181.  Infidels  proved  to 
be  more  credulous  than  Christians,  182,  183. 

Inscriptions  of  the  Psalms,  observations  on,  II.  242,  243.  And  of 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  215. 

Insiiiration  defined,  I.  92.  443.  Reasonable  and  necessary,  92. 
Criteria  of  inspiration,  93.  Inspiration  of  the  Old  Testament 
443.  .^nd  of  the  ]\evv  Testament,  443,  444.  Conclusions  thence 
derived,  444 — 440.  Nature  of  prophetic  Inspiration,  II.  257. 
(See  Miracles,  Prophecij,  Doctrines,  Morality,  <fec.) 

Interpretation  of  Scripture,  principles  of,  illustrated,  I.  355. 

Intolerance  not  taught  in  the  Bible,  I.  166,  167.  Though  practised 
by  Jews  and  Pagans,  167. 

Irentriis,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament, 
1.  43. 

Irnnij,  nature  of,  I.  372.     Examples  of  it,  ibid. 

Isaiah  (the  pro|)hei),  account  of,  11.262.  Genuineness  of  his  pre- 
dictions, 202 — 265.  Their  scope,  200.  Synopsis  of  their  contents, 
2Cifi — 2t)9.     Observations  on  the  style  of  Isaiah,  209. 

Ishmael,  predictions  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  122. 

Israelites,  their  borrowing  from  the  Egyptians  explained,  I.  409. 
Table  of  their  stations  in  the  wilderness,  II.  210. 

Italian  Jews,  manuscripts  of,  I.  218. 

Italic  version  (ancient),  notice  of,  I.  275,  276. 


J.\oon's  family  in  Egypt ;  numerical  difficulties  as  to  the  number 
of  its  members,  solved,  I.  404.,  and  note  2.  The  circumstances 
of  his  alleged  fraud  upon  Isaac  considered,  408.,  note. 

Jairus's  daughter  restored  to  life,  I.  105. 

James  (Saint),  account  of,  II.  359.  Genuineness  and  authenticity 
of  his  Epistle,  ibid.  To  whom  addressed,  ibid.  Its  scope,  359, 
3t(0.    Synopsis  of  its  contents,  360.    Observations  on  its  style,  I'iic/. 

Jasher  (loook  of),  I.  57.   II.  216. 

Jeduthun,  Psaluis  ascribed  to  II.  240. 


Jephthah  proved  not  to  have  immolated  his  daughter,  I.  411. 

Jeremiah  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  272.  Occasion  of  his  pro- 
phecies, 273.  DiUerent  collections  of  them,  272.  Their  chrono- 
logical order,  273.  Synopsis  of  their  contents,  273 — 275.  His 
predictions  concerning  the  Messiah,  275.  Obt>ervations  on  hia 
style,  276.     See  Lamentations. 

Jtricho  (Codex  of),  I.  203. 

Jerome,  notice  o/',  and  bis  testimony  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New 
TcKiaiacnt,  1.  41.     Account  of  the  biblical  labours  of,  275,  276. 

Jerusalem,  prophecies  concerning  the  destruction  of,  and  their  ful- 
filment, I.  129,  130.  458—462.  Account  of  the  Jerusalem  Tar- 
gum,  2f)3. 

Jksus.     See  Christ,  Messiah. 

Jewish  Nation,  predictions  concerning,  I.  123,  124.  The  rejection 
of  Christianity  by  them  accounted  lijr,  134.  136.  Did  not  corrupt 
the  Old  Tcsiaiuent,  52,  53  The  secis,  morals,  and  customs  of 
the  Jews,  as  described  in  the  New  Testament,  confirmed  by  pro- 
fane writers,  80.  Accouiit  of  the  manuscripts  of  the  Indi.n  Jews, 
219 — 221.  The  miseries  of  the  Jews  during  and  subsequently 
to  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  460. 

Jewish  Writers,  benefit  of,  in  studying  the  Bible,  I.  344 — 346. 

Job  (book  of),  II.  227.     Its  title,  ibid.    Job,  a  real  character,  227, 

228.  In  what  ago  he  lived,  228,  229.     Scene  of  the  poem  of  Job, 

229,  230.  Its  author  and  canonical  authority,  230,  231.  Siruciure 
of  the  poem,  23J,  232.  lis  argument  and  scope.  232 — 234.  Spu- 
rious addition  to  it,  234,235.  Rules  for  studying  this  book  to  ad- 
vantage, 235.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  235,  236.  Idea  of  the 
patriarchal  theology,  as  contained  in  this  book,  236,  237. 

Joel  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  270.  Occasion  and  scope  of  his 
prophecy,  ibid.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Observations  on 
its  style,  ibid. 

John  (Saint),  account  of,  II.  313,  314.  Title  of  his  Gospel,  313.  Its 
date,  ibid.  lis  genuineness,  iVj(</.  Especially  of  John  vii.  53.  and 
viii.  1 — 11.,  315.  Occasion  and  <lesign,  315,  310.  Analysis  of  its 
contents,  316,  317.  His  Gospel  a  supi'lemcnt  to  the  other  three, 
318.  Observations  on  its  style,  ibid.  Coincidences  between  it 
and  his  first  epistle,  I.  51,  52.,  notes.  Genuineness  and  canonical 
authority  of  his  first  General  Epistle,  II.  304.  lis  date,  304,  305. 
To  whom  written,  305.  Its  structure,  occasion,  and  scope,  365, 
300.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  306.  Siyle,  ibid.  The  question 
concerning  the  authenticity  of  the  dis|)uted  clause  in  1  John  v. 
7,  8.  considered,  '366— 'Sid.  Genuineness,  autheniiciiy,  and  date, 
of  the  second  and  third  Epistles  of  St.  John,  376.  The  second 
Epistle,  to  whom  addressed,  ibid.  Its  scope,  ibid.  The  third 
Epistle,  to  whom  addressed,  ibid.  Its  scope,  ibid.  Observations 
on  this  Epistle,  ibid.     See  Revelation. 

Jonah,  circumstance  of  his  being  in  a  whale's  belly  explained,  I. 
422      Scope  and  analysis  of  his  prophetical  book,  II.  259. 

Jonathan  Ben  i'zziel,  Targum  of,  I.  203.  Targum  of  the  pseudo- 
Jonathan,  ibid. 

Joseph  (Rabbi),  Targum  of,  on  the  Ilagiographa,  I.  263. 

Josephus,  account  ot;  I.  346.  His  testimony  to  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  the  Old  Testameni,  30.  And  to  the  accounts  of 
princes  and  governors,  79.  Especially  to  ihe  character  of  Jesus 
Christ,  81.  Vindication  of  the  genuineness  of  that  testimony, 
463,  464.  Importance  of  his  writings  as  a  source  for  ascertaining 
various  readings,  288.  And  in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  34b. 
His  silence  respecting  the  slaughter  of  the  inlants  by  Herod  ac- 
counted for,  419. 

Joshua,  observations  on  the  pile  of  stones  raised  by,  at  Gilgal,  L 
100,  101. 

Joshua  (book  of),  author,  genuineness,  and  authenticity  of,  II.  214, 
215.  Its  argument,  215.  Scope,  215,  216.  Synopsis  of  its  con- 
tents, 216.     Observations  on  it,  ibid. 

Josiah,  prophecy  concerning,  I.  123,  124. 

Judas  Iscariot,  character  of,  an  argument  for  the  truth  of  the  Gos- 
pel, I.  155.  7tote  1. 

Jude  (the  apostle),  account  of,  II.  377.  Genuineness  of  his  Epistle, 
ibid.  Its  date,  378.  To  whom  addressed,  ibid.  Its  occasion  and 
scope,  ibid.     Observations  on  its  style,  ibid. 

Judges  (book  of).  H.  216.  Its  date  and  author,  217.  Its  scope  and 
chronology,  ibid.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Observations  on 
this  book,  ibid. 

Judgment  (future),  doctrine  of,  not  improbable,  I.  160,  161. 

Judith,  apocryphal  book  of,  II.  290. 

Julian,  the  apostate  emperor,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  ond 
authenticity  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  47.  And  to  the  character 
and  conduct  of  Jesus  Christ,  83.     And  of  the  first  Christians,  85. 

Justification,  New  Testament  doctrine  of,  I.  150,  151. 

Justin  Martyr,  notice  of,  I.  44.  His  testimony  to  the  genuineness 
of  the  New  Testament,  ibid. 

Juvenal,  testimony  of,  to  the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  I.  83. 


Kant's  theory  of  interpretation,  unfounded,  I.  323,  324. 

Karhaphensian  recension,  I.  272. 

Kennicott  (Dr.),  account  of  the  principal  manuscripts  collated  by, 
1-218,219.  ,  „,^ 

¥.'.^»Kx,x,  account  of,  in  the  New  Testament,  1.  214. 

A'erj  and  A'e/i6,  account  of,  I.  201.  ., -,    a    .i,       oon  ooi 

A'i«irs(thetwobooksof),11.220.  Their  title,  i/W.  Author,  220,221. 
Argument  and  synopsis  of  the  first  book  of  Kings,  221.  And  of 
the  second  book  of  Kings,  222.    Observations  on  these  books,  ihid. 

Korah  (sons  of),  psalms  Inscribed  for,  II.  239. 


472 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Laotantius,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, I.  42. ;  and  to  tlie  moral  cliange  produced  by  the  cordial 
belief  of  the  Gospel,  170. 

Lfime  man  miraculously  healed  by  Peter  and  John,  I.  105. 

Lamentalloits  of  Jeremiah,  date  of,  II.  27G.  Synopsis  of  the  con- 
tents of  iliis  book,  ibid.     Observations  on  the  slyle  and  structure 

of  this  book,  ^7;(V/.  ^<^,    ■ 

Z/iTO/)ri(/i«s,  testimony  of,  to  the  character  of  Christ,  1.  8x2. 

Language  of  the  Old  Testament,  a  proof  of  its  authenticity,  I.  31. 
Of  the  Pentateuch,  a  proof  of  its  authenticity,  32.  Of  tlie  New 
Testament,  also  a  proof  of  its  aiillienticity,  48,  4'J.  See  the  ar- 
ticles Cognate  Languages,  Greek,  Hebrew.  ,      o     t>     i 

Laodicea,  church  oi;  no  se|)arate  epistle  addressed  to  by  St.  Paul, 
I.  58.     Pretended  epistle  of  Paul  to  iliem,  441.  ^   . 

Latin  Versions  (ancient)  of  the  Scriptures,  account  of,  I.  275 — 277. 

Latinisms  of  the  New  Testamenl,  I.  198. 

Law.—"  The  Law,"  an  ancient  division  of  the  Old  Testament,  I. 
212. 

Law  (Mosaic),  a  proof  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  I.  32, 
33.  Table  or  harmony  of  the  entire  Mosaic  law,  arranged  under 
heads,  II.  212,  213. 

Lazarus,  miracle  of  the  resurrection  of,  examined,  I.  105,  10b. 

Legal  types,  I.  385. 

Letters,  antiquity  of  Hebrew,  I.  190.  Form  of  Greek  letters  in 
manuscripts,  221. 

Leviticus  (book  of),  title,  author,  and  date,  II.  207.  Scope,  ibid. 
Synopsis  of  its  contents,  207,  208. 

Lice,  on  the  plague  of,  II.  200. 

Literal  sense,  nature  of,  I.  322.  In  what  cases  the  literal  meaning 
of  words  and  phrases  is  to  be  retained,  or  given  up,  356,  357. 
Vindication  of  tiie  literal  sense  of  the  first  three  chapters  of 
Genesis,  II.  205. 

Literature,  influence  of  the  Gospel  on,  I.  172,  173. 

Locusts,  on  the  plague  of,  in  Egypt,  II.  207. 

Longevity  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  world,  the  Scripture  ac- 
count of,  confirmed  by  profane  history,  I.  71. 

Lord's  Supper,  celebration  of  the  sacrament  of,  a  perpetual  memo- 
rial of  the  truth  of  tiie  New  Testament,  I.  67. 

Lucian's  Recension  of  the  Sepiuagint  version,  I.  268. 

Lucian,  the  philosopher,  testimony  of,  to  the  character  of  the  first 
Christians,  I.  85. 

Luke  (St.),  account  of,  II.  307.  Title  of  his  Gospel,  ibid.  Genuine- 
ness and  authenticity  of  his  Gospel,  ibid.  Vindication  of  its 
genuineness  from  the  objections  of  Michaelis,  308,  309.  Vindi- 
cation of  the  genuineness  of  chapters  i.  and  ii.,  309,  310.  Of 
chapter  viii.  verses  27.  to  39.,  310.;  and  of  chapter  xxii.  verses 
43.  and  44.,  ibid.  His  narrative  confirmed  by  profane  historians, 
I.  49,  50.  80. ;  and  by  ancient  coins  and  inscriptions,  90,  91.  Date 
of  his  Gospel,  II.  310.  For  whom  written,  310,  311.  Its  occasion 
and  scope,  311.  Synopsis  of  its  coiitenls,  312,  313.  Observations 
on  the  style  of  his  Gospel,  313,     See  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

Lycaonians,  Paul's  address  lo,  illustraied,  II.  326. 

Lying,  systematically  taught  by  some  heathens,  I.  20.  and  note. 

Lyric  poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  1.  381. 


Maccabees,  account  of  the  first  apocryphal  book  of,  II.  292.    Of 
the  second  book,  ibid.    Of  the  third  and  fourth  books,  293.     Of 
the  fifth  book,  ibid. 
Mugislrutes  and  subjects,  reciprocal  duties  of,  I.  153. 
Mahalatk  and  Mahnlath-Leannotli,  import  of,  II.  243. 
Malabar  coast,  account  ola  valuable  Hebrew  MS.  brought  from,  I. 

219,  220. 
Malachi  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  288,  289.    Occasion  and  scope 
of  his  prophecy,  289.    Analysis  of  its  contents,  ibid.    Its  style,  ibid. 
Man,  Scripture  account  of  the  creation  and  fall  of,  confirmed  by 
profane  historians,  I.  69,  70.      Mutual  duties  between  man  and 
man,  enforced  in  the  Gospel,  152,  153. 
Manasses,  apocryphal  prayer  of,  II.  292. 

Manuscripts  of  the  Bible,  agreement  of  all  that  are  extant,  a  proof 
oi^  its  uncorrupted  preservation,  I.  54,  55.  Use  of  manuscripts 
for  determining  various  readings,  285. 
Manuscripts  {Hebrew)  of  the  Old  Testament,  diflferent  classes  of, 
I.  216.  The  rolled  manuscripts  of"  the  synagogues,  ibid.  Rules 
attended  to  in  copying  them,  217.  Square  manuscripts  in  private 
use,  ibid.  The  age  of  Hebriw  manuscripts,  ibid.  Order  of  books 
in  them,  217,  218.  Notices  of  the  most  ancient  manuscripts,  218, 
219.  Modern  families  of  Hebrew  manuscripts,  218.  Notices  of 
the  manuscripts  of  the  Indian  Jews,  219 — 221.  Manuscripts  of 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  221. 
Manuscripts  (Greek)  of  the  Septuagint  Version,  account  of,  I.  222 

—229. 
Manuscri}}ts  (Greek)  of  the  New  Te.=!TAMENT,  on  what  materials 
written,  1.  221.  Form  of  letiers,  ibid.  Abbreviations,  ibid.  Co- 
dices Palimpsesti  or  Rescripti,  222.  Account  of  the  different 
families,  recensions,  or  editions  of  manuscripts,  205 — 212.  On 
the  Fcedus  cum  Greeds,  or  coincidence  between  many  Greek 
manuscripts  amd  the  Vulgate  version,  213.  Descriptions  of 
manuscripts  containing  both  the  New  and  the  Old  Testaments, 
222 — 226.  Of  Manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament,  entire  or  in 
part,  which  have  been  used  in  critical  editions  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, 229—261. 
Marciuii,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 
New  Testament,  L  46. 


Mark  (Saint),  account  of,  II.  304.  Genuineness  and  aulhenficify  of 
his  Gospel,  304,  305.  Its  title,  304.  Ii.s  date,  305.  Octasrion  and 
scope,  ibid.  In  what  language  written,  ibid.  Synopsis  of  ilst 
contents,  305,  306.  Exarainaiion  of  the  question,  whether  Saint 
Mark  transcribed  or  abridged  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  300. 
Style  of  his  Gospel,  307. 

Martial,  testimony  of,  to  the  persecutions  of  the  Christians,  I.  83. 

Martyrdom,  how  far  a  test  of  truth,  1.  66. 

Maschil,  psalms,  why  so  called,  II.  243. 

Masora,  account  of,  1.  201,  202.     Estimate  of  its  real  value,  202. 

Massacre  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem,  I.  419. 

Matthcsi's  system  of  recensions  considered,  I.  206. 

Matthew  (Saint),  account  of,  II.  296.  Title  of  his  Gospel,  295.  Its 
date,  296,  297.  In  what  language  written,  297,  298.  Genuine- 
ness and  authenticity  of  his  Gospel,  299.  Particularly  of  the  first 
two  chapters,  299 — 302.  His  Gos|)el,  for  whom  vvniien,  302,  303. 
Synopsis  of  its  contents,  303.  Observations  on  its  style,  ibid.  His 
narrative  of  the  slaughter  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem  vindicated, 
I.  419.  Apparent  contradiction  between  his  account  of  our  Sa- 
viour's genealogy  and  that  of  Saint  Luke  reconciled,  400,  401. 
417,  418. 

Meaning  of  words,  general  rules  for  the  investigation  of,  I.  324 — 326. 

Medals  (ancient),  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  88 
—92. 

Mediator,  Scripture  doctrine  of  the  necessity  of,  confirmed  by  the 
traditions  and  opinions  of  the  heathens,  I.  70,  71. 

Megilloth,  a  division  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  notice  of,  I.  213. 
riote  2.   And  of  the  Targum  orChaldee  paraphrase  on  it,  263. 

Mekama,  a  species  of  Oriental  poetry,  nature  of,  II.  232. 7iote  2.  The 
book  of  Job  a  poem  of  this  description,  ibid. 

Melito  (Bishop  of  Sardis),  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  43. 

Messiah,  or  the  Christ,  observations  on  the  accomplishment  of 
prophecy  concerning,  I.  126,  127.  390—393. 
Messiah,  or  the  Christ. 

I.  Prophecies  in  the  Old  Testament,  concerning  the  Messiah,  and 
their  fulf  line nt : — That  a  Messiah  should  come,  I.  127.  451.  The 
time  and  place  when  and  where  he  was  to  come,  127.451.  That 
he  was  to  be  God  and  man  together,  451.  From  whom  he  was 
to  be  descended,  127.  451.  That  he  was  to  be  preceded  by  a 
prophet,  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elias,  451.  That  the  Messiah 
was  to  be  a  prophet,  and  confirm  his  doctrine  by  great  miracles, 
451,  452.  Predictions  relative  to  his  sufferings,  death,  resurrec- 
tion, and  ascension,  128.  452,  453.  Predictions  relative  to  the  par- 
ticular offices  of  the  Messiah,  as  a  prophet,  priest,  and  king,  453 
—456. 

II.  Predictions  of  Jesus  the  Messiah  relative  to  his  own  sufferings,  ^c. 
and  their  fulfilment: — Predictions  and  their  fulfilment  for  the  con- 
firmation of  his  disciples'  faith,  I.  456,457.  Relative  to  the  time, 
place,  and  manner  of  his  sufierings,  and  the  persons  by  whom 
they  were  to  be  infiicted,  129.  457,  458.  His  resurrection  and 
ascension,  457.  The  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  his  apostles, 
129.  Prophecies  concerning  the  various  minute  circumstances 
which  were  to  precede,  accompany,  and  follow  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  129,  130.  458 — 462.  Prophecies  concerning  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel,  with  a  refutation  of  their  alleged  non-fulfil- 
ment, 130—141. 

Metaphors,  nature  of,  I.  361.  Sources  of  Scripture  metaphors,  361, 
362.  The  works  of  nature,  362.  The  occupations,  customs,  and 
arts  of  life,  363.  Religion  and  things  connected  with  it,  ibid. 
Sacred  history,  ibid.  Rules  for  the  interpretation  of  them,  355 — 
358. 

Metonymy,  nature  of,  I.  359.  Metonymy  of  the  cause,  359,  360.  Of 
the  effect,  360.     Of  the  subject,  i6(V/.     Of  the  adjunct,  360,  361. 

Micah  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  270.  Occasion  and  scope  of  his 
prophecy,  ibid.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  270,  271.  His  predic- 
tion concerning  the  Messiah,  271.   Observations  on  his  style,  ibid. 

Michaelis  (J.  D.),  notice  of  his  system  of  recensions  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, 1.  206. 

Michtam,  or  Golden  Psalms,  II.  242. 

Midianites,  severity  of  Moses  to,  vindicated,  I.  410. 

Ministry  of  Christ,  duration  of,  1.  321. 

Miracles  recorded  in  the  Scriptures  are  proofs  of  their  divine  inspi- 
ration, I.  93.  Definition  of  a  miracle,  93,  94.  Nature  of  the  evi- 
dence from  miracles,  94.  Their  design,  94,  95.  The  credibility 
of  miracles  proved,  95 — 98.  Refutation  of  the  sophistry  of  Mr. 
Hume,  96,  97.  Six  criteria  for  ascertaining  miracles,  98,  99.  In- 
applicable to  pretended  popish  miracles,  99.  note.  Why  Jesus 
Christ  on  some  occasions  enjoined  secrecy  on  the  persons  healed 
by  him,  98,  99.  And  used  external  applications,  99,  100.  Appli- 
cation of  our  six  criteria  to  several  miracles  related  in  the  Old 
Testament,  100.  And  lo  the  miracles  recorded  to  have  been 
wrought  by  Jesus  and  his  apostles,  101.  Tlioir  number,  ibid. 
Variety,  ibid.  Design,  101,  102.  Greatness,  102.  Persons  by  or 
before  whom  they  were  wrought,  102,  103.  In  what  manner  per- 
formed, 103.  Their  effects,  ibid.  V/ere  never  denied,  ibid.  Ex- 
amination of  some  of  them,  103 — 106.  Particularly  of  the  miracle 
of  Christ's  resurrection,  100 — 115.  General  summary  of  the  argu- 
ment from  miracles,  115,  116.  Comparison  of  the  miracles  related 
in  the  Scriptures  with  pretended  pagan  and  popish  miracles,  116 
— 119.  Cessation  of  miracles,  117,  118.  note.  The  moral  and 
religious  instruction  concealed  under  the  miracles  of  Jesus  Christ, 
illustrated,  384,  385. 

Mismor  and  Mismor-Shur,  titles  of  the  Psalms,  probable  impoj-t  of, 
U.  243. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


473 


Hflsna,  acroiint  of,  I.  3U,  315. 

Minlakes  of  traiiHcriberH,  a  cause  of  various  readings,  I.  283,  284. 

Mijliuwmed  acknovvledf^ed  llie  aulliurily  of  ihc  Go.spels,  J.  83.  De- 
iilorable  Hlale  of  religion  and  morals  uiiiong  liiH  Ibllowers,  22. 
J'lic  spread  ol'  Moliaiiiiiicdism  no  ol)J<!ction  to  llie  trulh  of  Chris- 
tianily,  bill  rather  a  cunlirniution  oi'il,  137.  lis  progresM  accounted 
fi.r,  I. It,  13H. 

MmiuK hiiK  (the  four  greal),  Daniel's  j)rediction  concerning,  and  its 
fiiliiiuK-iil,  I.  riC. 

Mural  I'arix  of  Scripture,  rules  for  inlerpreling,  I.  39;") — 3'J8. 

Moral  (iii<ilifi((ilioiis  thr  studying  llie  .Scriptures,  I.  18(1,  187. 

Moral  Sfust:  of  Scripture,  Kaiil's  theory  of,  unloiinded,  1.  323,  321. 

Munttifi/,  appan'iit  coiilradirlions  to,  in  the  Scriptures,  considered, 
and  shown  to  have  no  (i)undation,  I.  408 — 414.  Morality  of  the 
patriarchal  ages.  143.  Of  the  Mosaic  dis|>ensation,  14G,  147.  Of 
the  Gospal,  152 — 151).  Superior  motives  of  iho  morality  of  the 
(iospel,  15t> — 158.  It  is  not  too  strict,  1G2,  1G3.  Wor  are  any  of 
the  moral  precepts  of  Christianity  unreasonable  and  impracti- 
cable, 103,  1C)4. 

Murfran  (iJr.),  contradictory  deistical  observations  of,  I.  23. 

Musvs  not  a  mythological  out  a  real  person,  I.  34,  35.  77.  Charac- 
ter of,  as  an  historian,  59.  Was  not  an  enthusiast,  GO.  Was  not 
himself  imposed  \i\y.n\,  ibid.  Did  not  im|>ose  u|X)n  others,  Gl.  His 
impartiality,  ibid.  Credibility  ol'  his  writings  confirmed  by  tes- 
timonies from  natural  and  civil  history,  G'J — 77.  Observations  on 
the  miracles  wrought  by  him,  100,  101.  Christ,  in  what  sense  a 
greater  prophet  than  Moses,  453,  454.  His  predictions  respecting 
the  Jewish  nation,  and  their  fulfilment,  123.  Summary  view  of 
the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  143 — 147. 
The  Mosaic  dispensation  introductory  to  that  of  the  Gospel,  148. 
Apocryphal  books  ascribed  to  Moses,  11.  203.  Psalms  ascribed  to 
him,  239.  Accounts  o£  his  genuine  writings;  see  the  articles 
Dvuteronomij,  Exodus,  (Jcnesis,  JLuvilicus,  lumbers,  Pentateuch, 
in  this  i(ide.x. 

Murrain  among  cattle,  on  the  plague  of,  II.  206. 

Mulhlahbi'ii,  im|)ort  of,  II.  243. 

Mysteries  (CJrecian),  ineflicacy  of,  in  a  religious  and  moral  point  of 
view,  I.  17. 

Mysteries  in  religion,  no  just  ground  for  rejecting  the  Scriptures, 
1.  158,  159. 

Mi/stical  Sense  of  Scripture  defined,  I.  323.  Necessity  of  it  argued 
a  priori,  .382.  Instances  of  it  found  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, 382,  383.  The  Song  of  Solomon,  a  sublime  mystical  alle- 
gory, II.  251 — 253. 


NaiiliiM  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  271  Scope  and  synopsis  of  his 
pro()liecy,  ibid. 

Aaiii,  miracle  wrought  at,  I.  105. 

Names,  synonymous  with  persons,  I.  197.  Of  persons  and  places 
liable  to  change,  402.  Several  names  sometimes  given  to  the 
same  persons  and  places,  ibid.  False  readings  sometimes  a  source 
of  ditferences  in  names,  ibid.  Names  of  things  put  for  the  things 
themselves,  31)1. 

Nuliinil  JJisiory,  importance  of,  in  studying  the  Sacred  Writings, 
1.  352.     (Jonlirms  the  I\losaic  narrative  of  tlie  deluge,  71,  72. 

Nature,  works  of,  a  source  of  Scripture  metaphors,  I.  3G2.  The 
course  of  nature  explained,  93,  94. 

Ntbuchadnetzur,  prophecies  conceniing,  and  their  fulfilment,  1. 124. 

Nvginolh,  import  of,  II.  243. 

Ndumiah  (book  of),  11.  225.  Its  title  and  author,  ibid.  Argument 
and  synopsis  of  its  contenls,  ibid.  Observations  on  the  character 
of  Aelicimali,  ibid. 

Nehilvlh,  import  of.  11.  213. 

Neokoros,  odice  of,  I.  90,  91. 

Neologian  Interpretations  e.xjwsed,  I.  326.  Particularly  in  the  book 
of  Genesis,  11.  205. 

New  Testament.     See  Testament  (New). 

Nineveh,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  125,  126. 

Nohin's  (Dr.)  system  of  recensions,  abstract  of,  I.  20G — 208. 

Numbers,  apparent  contradictions  in,  explained,  I.  403,  404.  Singu- 
lar number  put  for  the  plural,  372.  And  a  definite  for  an  indefi- 
nite number,  ibid. 

Numbers  (l)ook  ol"),  title,  author,  date,  and  argument,  II.  208.  Scope, 
ibid.  Types  of  the  Messiah,  208,  209.  7iote.  Predictions  of  the 
Messiah,  208.  Chronology,  ibid.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  209. 
Observations  on  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord,  mentioned  in 
Num.  xxi.  21.,  I.  57.  II.  210. 


Odadiaii  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  282.  Synopsis  of  his  pro- 
phecy, ibid. 

Obedience,  powerful  motives  to,  contained  in  the  Gospel,  1. 156 — 158. 

Objections,  various,  of  infidels  to  the  docirine  and  morality  of  the 
Scriptures  refuted,  I.  158 — 167.  Inability  to  answer  all  such 
objections  no  just  cause  for  rejecting  the  Scriptures,  180,  181. 

Observations  on  the  Scriptures,  ihiporiance  of  collections  of,  I.  353. 

Occasions  of  particular  books  of  Scripture,  importance  of  knowing, 
1.349.    Particularly  for  the  interpretation  of  Scripture  allegories. 

Occidental  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I.  205. 
Old  and  New  Tf.<<lameiils,  Mcfied  contradictions  between,  explained, 
1.  414 — 418.     See  Testament  (Old),  and  Testament  (New) 
Vol.  II.  3  O 


Onkelos,  Targum  of,  I.  2C2. 

Oracles  (heathen),  vagueness  of,  contrasted  with  the  clearness  of 
the  Scripture  prophecies,  1.  120,  121. 

"  Ordained  to  eternal  Life,"  the  phrase  explained,  I.  423,  424.  and 
notes. 

Order  of  books,  importance  of  knowing,  I.  348.  In  what  order  the 
Scriptures  should  be  read,  187.  In  what  order  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  arranged  in  Hebrew  Bibles,  217,  218. 

Oriental  Liinpuages,  remarks  on,  I.  188,  189. 

Oriental  and  Occidenttd  Headings,  account  of,  I.  202,  203. 

Oriental  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  205. 

Origen,  notice  of,  I.  42.  His  testimony  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
New  Testament,  i7)/rf.  Account  of  his  biblical  labours,  267.  Spe- 
cimen of  his  Tetrapla  and  Ilexapla,  ibid.  Observations  thereon, 
267,  2G8. 

Original  Sin,  Scripture  account  of,  confirmed  by  heathen  testimo- 
nies, 1.  70. 

Osiander's  (Luke)  revision  of  the  Vulgate,  notice  of,  I.  277. 

Otuheite,  beneficial  effects  of  Christianity  at,  I.  175. 


Pagan  pretended  miracles,  observations  on,  I.  116 — 118. 

Pagan  writers,  value  of,  in  the  study  of  the  Scriplures,  I.  335,  336. 

Their  testimony  to  the  credibility  of  the  facts  related  in  the  New 

Testament,  78 — 87. 
Palestino-Syriac  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  272. 
Papias,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament. 

Parable,  nature  of,  I.  366.  Antiquity  of  this  mode  of  instruction, 
ibid.  Rules  for  the  internretation  of  parables,  366—368.  Para- 
bles, why  used  by  Jesus  Christ,  368,  369.  The  parables  of  Christ 
compared  with  the  most  celebrated  fables  of  antiquity,  369,  370. 

Parabolic  Sense,  I.  323. 

Parallel  Passages,  or  analogy  of  Scripture,  importance  of,  I.  330. 
Nature  of  them,  (7«Vi.  Dillerent  kinds  of,  iftiVi.  Verbal  parallel- 
isms,/iiVi.  Real  parallelisms,  330,  331  Parallelisms  of  members, 
or  poetical  parallelisms,  331,  332.  Rules  for  investigating  paral- 
lel passages,  332,  333.  And  lor  emjjloving  parallel  passages  in 
the  determination  of  various  readings,  288. 

Parallelism,  defined,  1.  374.  Examples  of  parallel  lines  gradational, 
375.  Parallel  lines  antithetic,  ibid.  Parallel  lines  constructive, 
375,  376.  Parallel  lines  introverted,  376.  The  poetical  parallel- 
ism not  confined  to  the  Old  Testament,  377.  But  proved  to  exist 
in  the  New  Testament,  377,  378.  Examples  of  parallel  couplets, 
378.  Triplets,  ibid.  Quatrains,  ibid.  Five-lined  stanzas,  ibid, 
StanZvis  of  six  lines,  379.  And  of  more  than  six  parallel  lines,  ibid. 
Parallel  lines  gradational  in  the  New  Testament,  ibid.  Intro, 
verted  parallelisms,  379,  380. 

Paralytic,  circumstances  of  the  healing  of,  L  104. 

Paraphrases,  nature  of,  I.  353. 

Paraschiolh,  or  ancient  divisions  of  the  Pentateuch,  notice  of,  I.  213. 

Parents,  put  for  their  descendants,  I.  359. 

Parenthesis,  nature  and  use  of,  in  the  interpretation  of  Scripture, 

I.  338. 

Paris  (Abbe  de),  pretended  miracles  ascribed  to,  exposed,  I.  118, 
119. 

Paronomasia,  nature  of,  f.  372. 

Part  put  for  the  whole. — Examples  of,  I.  371. 

Passover,  observance  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, I.  66. 

Patriarchal  Theology,  idea  of,  as  contained  in  the  l)ook  of  Job,  IL 
236,  237.     And  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  I.  142,  143. 

Patriotism,  the  duly  of,  taught  in  effect  in  the  New  Testament, 
though  not  by  name,  I.  165,  166. 

Paul  (St.),  account  of  the  life  and  labours  of,  II.  321—325.  Remarks 
on  his  conversion,  322,  323.  His  character,  325,  326.  Obser- 
vations on  the  style  of  his  writings,  326 — 329.  Was  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  Greek  classic  poets,  327.  note.  The  genuine- 
ness of  Paul's  writings  attested  by  Peter,  I.  45.  Propriety  of  his 
address  to  Felix  illustrated,  II.  327.  Number  and  order  of  his 
Epistles,  330.  Observations  on  their  phraseology,  330,  331.  Rules 
for  studying  them  most  advantageously,  I.  393—395.  Paul  wrote 
no  other  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  than  those  now  extant,  57,  58. 

II.  335.     For  Critical  Analyses  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistles,  see  their 
several  titles  in  this  index. 

Pentateuch  (Hebrew),  im|x>rt  of,  II.  203.  Its  divisions,  ibid.  Exter- 
nal Proofs  of  its  authenticitv,  I.  32.  Its  language,  ibid  The 
nature  of  the  Mosaic  law,  32,  33.  The  united  testimonies  of  Chris- 
tians, Gentiles,  and  Jews,  from  the  latest  to  the  remotest  times, 
33 — 35.  Internal  Evidences  arising  from  its  contenls,  35,  36.  Its 
credibility  confirmed  by  natural  and  civil  history.  68-— 78.  Refu- 
tations of^  objections  to  the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  36 — 
38.  Its  argument,  II.  203.  How  divided  by  the  Jews,  I.  213. 
History  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Pentateuch,  200.  Form  of 
synagogue  rolls  of,  216.  The  Pentateuch,  the  best  executed  por- 
tion of  the  Septuagint  Greek  translation,  ibid.  For  accounts  of- 
the  several  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  see  the  articles  Deuteronomy, 
Exodus,  (ienesis,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers. 

Pentateuch  (Samaritan),  account  of,  I.  203.  Manuscripts  of  it,  221. 
Differences  between  it  and  the  Jewish  Pentateuch,  how  ac- 
counted for,  204.  Samaritan  version  of  it,  ibid.  Arabic  version, 
ibid. 

Pentecost,  feast  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testament. 
I.  66. 


474 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Perstrcvtion,  not  sanctionrd  by  the  Scrrptiires,  I.  166,  167. 

Jfersic  versions  (anr-ient),  of  ihe  Old  and  New  Testaments,  I.  275. 

I^ersisins  of'ihe  New  Tesiameni,  nnlice  of,  I.  199. 

Fersonifiaditm,  nature  of,  I.  362.  363. 

Persons,  transitions  of,  to  Ue  carefully  noticed,  I.  394,  395. 

Ptsihiio,  or  old  Syriac  version  of  the  Scriptures,  account  of,  I.  270, 
271. 

Pesnkim,  or  verses  of  the  Pentateuch,  notice  of,  I.  213. 

Peler  (St.),  account  of,  II.  360,  361.  Genuineness  of  his  first  Epis- 
tle, 361.  To  whom  addressed,  Hid.  Whence  written,  361,  362. 
Its  scope,  362.  Analysis  of  its  contents,  ihid.  Genuineness  and 
aulhenticity  of  his  seto/irf  Epistle,  362 — 364.  Its  date,  364.  Scope 
and  synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Observations  on  the  style  of 
St.  Peter's  two  Epistles,  362. 

Pharaoh,  hardening  of,  explained,  I.  409.  Pharaoh-Necho's  war 
against  Judaja  confirmed  by  one  of  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  I.  89. 

Philemon,  account  of,  II.  347,  348.  Dale  of  the  Epistle  to  him,  348. 
Its  genuineness  and  authenticity,  ibid.  Occasion  and  scope  of  this 
Epistle,  348,  349.     Observations  on  it,  349. 

Philippians,  notice  of,  II.  340.  Date  of  the  Epistle  to,  ibid.  Occa- 
sion, ibid.     Scope  and  synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid. 

Philo-Jndaus,  account  of,  I.  345.  Value  of  his  writings  in  the  study 
of  the  Scriptures,  ibid.  His  testimony  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
Old  Testament,  I.  30. 

PhilusopJters  (ancient),  ignorance  of,  concerning  the  true  nature  and 
worship  of  God,  I.  16.  The  creation  of  the  world,  17.  And  ori- 
gin of  evil,  ibid.  The  means  of  reconciling  man  to  God,  17,  18. 
Divine  grace  and  assistance  towards  the  attainment  of  virtue,  18. 
The  true  happiness  of  inan,  ibid.  The  immortality  of  the  soul, 
ibid.  A  future  state  of  rewards  and  piniishments,  19.  Ettects  of 
their  ignorance  in  principle,  19,  20.  They  countenanced  flagi- 
tious practices,  20.  Why  they  produced  so  little  effect  on  man- 
kind, ibid.  Importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  philoso- 
phical notions  and  sects  to  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  352. 

Philosophers  (modern  deistical),  absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  of, 
concerning  religion,  1. 22 — 24.  And  morals,  25.  Baneful  effects  of 
their  principles  on  a  nation,  25,  26.  And  on  individuals,  26.  Are 
indebted  for  every  thing  wise  or  good  in  their  writings  to  the 
Scriptin-es,  22.  173. 

Philosophy,  alleged  contradictions  to,  in  the  Sacred  Writings,  con- 
sidered, and  shown  to  be  unfounded,  I.  421,  422. 

Philoxenian-Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I. 
271,  272. 

Pilate  (Pontius),  procurator  of  Judasa,  testimony  of,  to  the  character 
of  Christ,  I.  81,  82. 

Place,  importance  of  knowing  where  any  of  the  sacred  hooks  were 
written,  I.  348,  349.  Examples  of  place,  put  for  what  is  con- 
tained therein,  360. 

Plagues  inflicted  upon  the  Egyptians,  remarks  on,  II.  206,  207. 

Pliny's  account  of  the  character  and  principles  of  the  Christians, 
with  remarks,  I.  84,  85. 

Poetry  of  the  Hebrews  : — Account  of  its  peculiar  construction,  I. 
373 — 376.  Vestiges  of  the  poetical  style  in  the  New  Testament, 
377—380.  Difl'erent  species  of  Hebrew  poetry,  380,  381.  Obser- 
vations for  the  better  understanding  the  composition  of  the  sacred 
poets,  381,  382.  The  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  why 
so  termed,  II.  227.  For  analyses  of  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old 
,  Testatnent,  see  Ecrlesiasles,  Job,  Proverbs,  Psalms,  and  Song  of 
Solomon,  in  this  index. 

Points.     See  Vowel  Points. 

Poiycarp,  testimony  of,  to  the  authenticity  of  the  New  Testament, 
I.  45. 

Polytheism,  deplorable  effects  of,  I.  16,  17.  20—22.  Abolished  by 
Christianity,  171. 

Popery,  corruptions  of  religion  by,  a  proof  of  the  fulfilment  of  pro- 
phecy, I.  140.  Remarks  on  some  pretended  popish  miracles,  118, 
119. 

Porphyry,  testimony  of,  to  the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  I.  35. 
And  of  the  New  Testament,  47.  And  to  the  character  of  the  first 
Christians,  85.  His  objections  against  the  prophecies  of  Daniel 
refuted,  II.  280. 

Possessor  of  a  thing  put  for  the  thing  possessed,  I.  360. 

Poussiries'  collection  of  various  readings,  notice  of,  I.  245. 

Practical  Reading  of  the  Scriptures,  importance  of,  I.  425,  426. 
Rules  for  it,  426,  427. 

Prayer  of  Manasses,  apocryphal,  II.  292. 

Prtservation  of  the  Scriptures,  a  proof  of  their  divine  origin,  1. 168. 
The  uncorrupted  preservation  of  the  Old  Testament  proved  from 
the  absolute  impossibility  of  its  being  falsified  or  corrupted,  either 
?jy  Jews,  52,  53. ;  or  by  Christians,  53.  And  from  the  agreement  of 
ancient  versions  and  manuscripts,  53,  54.  The  uncorrupted  pre- 
servation of  iho  Now  Testament  proved  from  its  contents,  54.;  from 
the  utter  impossibility  of  its  being  universally  corrupted,  54,  55. ; 
from  the  agreement  of  all  I  he  manuscripts  extant,  55.  Of  ancient 
versions,  and  of  the  quotations  of  the  New  Testament  in  the 
writings  of  the  early  Christians,  55,  56.  Proofs  that  none  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  have  ever  been  lost,  56,  57.  Nor  any 
of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  57,  58.  Recapitulation  of 
this  argument,  184,  i85. 
P rincipals  include  accessaries,  I.  396. 

Profane  writers,  alleged  inconsistencies  between,  and  the  sacred 
writers,  considered,  I.  418 — 420.     Supposed  quotations  from,  in 
the  New  Testament,  318,  319. 
Promises  of  Scripture,  classification  of,  I.  398.    Rules  for  the  right 
interpretation  of  them,  398,  399. 


Propagation  of  Christianity,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  o»f  the  New 
Testament,  I.  67,  68.  And  that  the  (iospel  is  fnmi  God,  130-132. 
Examination  of  the  difliculties  attendant  on  the  propagation  of 
Christianity,  448—450. 

Pro^jAecy  defined,  I.  119,  120.  Difference  betvreen  the  pretended 
predictions  of  the  heathen  oracles  and  the  prophecies  contained 
in  Scripture,  120 — 122.  Use  and  intent  of  prophecy,  122.  On 
the  chain  of  prophecy,  ibid.  Classification  of  Scripture  prophe- 
cies, ibid.  Class  I.  Prophecies  relating  to  Abraham,  Ishmael, 
and  the  settlement  of  the  Israelites  in  Canaan,  122,  123.  Moses's 
prophecy  concerning  the  sufferings,  captivity,  and  present  state 
of  the  Jews,  123.  Birth  of  Jo.siah  foretold,  and  his  destruction 
of  idolatry,  123,  124.  Predictions  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
Daniel,  and  llosea,  relative  to  the  Jews,  124.  Class  II.  Prophe- 
cies relating  to  the  empires  or  nations  that  were  neighbouring  to 
the  Jews,  124.  Tyre,  124,  125.  Egypt,  125.  Ethiopia,  ibid. 
Nineveh,  125,  126.  Babylon,  126.  The  four  great  monarchies, 
ibid.  Class  III.  Prophecies  announcing  the  Messiah,  his  offices, 
atonement,  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension,  &c.  126 — 129.  454 
— 458.  Class  IV.  Prophecies  delivered  by  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  129.  Predictions  of  Jesus  Christ  concerning  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem,  129,  130.  458 — 462.  And  the  spread  of  the  Gospel, 
130 — 132.  Refutations  of  objections  from  the  alleged  obscurity 
of  prophecy,  141.  Prophecy,  a  standing  miracle,  ibid.  Recapitu- 
lation of  this  argument,  185,  186.  Contradictions  asserted  to  sub- 
sist between  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  and  their  fulfilment, 
shown  to  have  no  foundation,  406.  On  the  accomplishment  of 
prophecy  in  general,  390,  391.  And  on  the  accomplishment  of 
prophecies  concerning  the  Messiah  in  particular,  391,  392.  And 
also  of  the  Apocalypse,  II.  383.  Tables  of  the  prophecies  cited 
in  the  New  Testament,  as  being  accomplished,  either  literally, 
typically,  or  by  way  of  illustration,  I.  316,  317. 

Prophets,  different  kinds  of,  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  II.  253, 

254.  Their  situation  and  manner  of  living,  254.  Mosaic  statutes 
concerning  prophets,  ibid.  Evidences  of  a  divine  mission,  ibid. 
Qualifications  of  the  prophets,  255.     Nature  of  their  inspiration, 

255,  256.  Antiquity  and  succession  of  the  prophets,  257.  Col- 
lection of  their  writings  and  mode  of  announcing  their  predic- 
tions, 257,  258.  Observations  on  the  structure  of  the  prophetic 
poesy,  I.  380.  The  prophetical  books,  why  so  called,  II.  253. 
Their  number  and  order,  258.  Tables  of  the  prophets,  according 
to  the  times  when  they  are  supposed  to  have  flourished,  259. 
General  rules  for  ascertaining  the  sense  of  the  prophetic  writings, 
I.  388 — 390. ;  and  particularly  the  accomplishment  of  prophecies 
concerning  the  Messiah,  391,  392.  For  analyses  of  the  propheti- 
cal books,  see  their  several  titles  in  this  index. 

"  The  Prophets,"  an  ancient  division  of  the  Old  Testament,  I.  213. 

Prophetic  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  I.  380. 

Prosopopceia,  instances  of,  I.  362,  363. 

Proverbs  (Scripture),  nature  of,  I.  370,  371.  Prevalence  of  this  mode 
of  instruction,  370.  Different  kinds  of  proverbs  :  —  Proverbial 
sentences,  371.  Proverbial  phrases,  ibid.  The  proverbs  occur 
ring  in  the  New  Testament,  how  to  be  interpreted,  ibid. 

Proverbs  (Book  of),  II.  245.  Title,  author,  and  canonical  authonty, 
245,  246.  Scope,  246.  Quotations  from  this  book  in  the  New 
Testament,  ibid,  and  note.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Obser- 
vations on  this  book.  247. 

Psalms  (Book  of),  II.  237.  General  title,  ibid.  Their  structure,  238. 
Canonical  authority,  ibid.  Authors  to  whom  they  have  been 
ascribed,  ihid.  Moses,  239.  David,  ibid.  Asaph,  ibid.  The  sons 
of  Korah,  ibid.  Heman  and  Ethan,  240.  Solomon,  ibid.  Anony- 
mous Psalms,  ibid.  Chronological  arrangement  of  the  Psalms  by 
Calmet,  240,  241.  Collection  of  the  Psalms  into  a  volume,  241, 
242.  The  hundred  and  fifty-first  Psalm  spurious,  ibid,  and  note. 
On  the  inscriptions  or  titles  of  the  Psalms,  242,  243.  Probable 
meaning  of  the  word  Selah,  occurring  in  them,  243,  244.  Scope 
of  the  book  of  Psalms,  244,  245.  Table  of  Psalms,  strictly  pro- 
phetical of  the  Messiah,  I.  316.  Rules  for  better  understanding 
them,  II.  245.  Table  of  the  Psalms  classed  according  to  their 
several  subjects,  ibid. 

Pseudo- Jonathan,  Targum  of,  I.  263. 

Punctnation  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  214,  215. 

Pythagoras,  fabulous  miracles  ascribed  to,  exposed,  I.  117. 


Qualifications  (moral)  for  studying  the  Scriptures,  I.  186,  187. 

Quotations : — 

1.  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Nev),  general  observa- 
tions on,  1.  293.  Quotations  from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  and  from 
the  Septuagint  version  in  the  New  Testament,  with  notes  there- 
on, 293 — 310.  Classification  of  quotations  from  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures in  the  New  Testament,  311,  312.  And  of  quotations  from 
the  Septuagint  version,  312,  313.  On  the  probable  causes  of 
seeming  discrepancies  in  such  quotations,  313,  314.  On  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  are  applied 
in  the  New,  315.  Rabbinical  and  other  modes  of  quoting  in  the 
New  Testament,  315,  316.  Classification  of  quotations  from  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  New,  316.  Quotations  in  which  the  pre- 
dictions are  literalli/  accomplished,  ibid.  Quotations  applied  in 
a  spiritual  or  mystical  sense,  ibid.  Qiiolations  made  in  the  way 
of  illustration,  316,  317.  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament, 
which  are  alluded  to  in  the  New,  318.  Quotations  from  the 
apocryphal  writers,  ibid.    And  from  profane  authors,  318,  319L 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


475 


n.  Quotations  from  the  Scriptures,  how  made  by  the  aposlulical 
falherw,  I.  41.  Force  of  iheir  Icstinioriy,  4.0.  'J  he  (juotations  of 
Scripture  by  Kuhse(|iicnt  wrilorri,  a  proof  of  their  uiu'orru|)tf!iJ 
prescrvalioii,  5!),  5G.  Authority  of  quotations  by  the  futhero  as  a 
source  of  th(5  sacred  text,  '^80,281.  Apt)licati(in  of  sucii  (juola- 
lioiis  to  llie  dcteriiimalioii  of  various  readings,  288,  289. 


RAnnmiCAi.  Hi:nnF.\v  Dialect,  notice  of,  I.  198. 

Rahhinirnl  wrili/igs,  iniportunco  of,  in  studying  the  Scriptures,  I. 

:mi,  :m.->. 

Rahliinisms  of  tlie  New  Testament,  I.  198. 
Rainbow,  observations  on,  1.  75,  70. 

lluvensi,  the  supplying  ot  Elijah  by,  with  food,  explained  and  vin- 
dicated, I.  422. 
Reason  iiisuliicirnt,  without  Revelation,  I.  22. 
7^tc«"/)x<o«.<i, or  editions  ol'MSS.  li)uiid  anioti^  ancient  classic  atithors, 

I.  205.  Ac<-ount,  of  the  recensions  of  the  Old  Testament,  203. 
Of  the  New  Testunient,  204,  Hengel's  system  of  recensions,  205. 
Of  Griesbach's  system,  205,  20().  Of  Michadis's,  20t).  Of  Mat- 
lUiPi,  il/id.  Of  Nolan,  200— 208.  Of  Hug,  208, 209.  OfEichhorn, 
209.     Ol"  Scholz,  209—212. 

Rcthmplion,  Scripture  doctrine  of,  not  inconsistent  with  the  received 
notions  of  the  magnitude  of  creation,  I.  159,  1<>0. 

Re^al  f^overnnifnt  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews.     See  Kings. 

Reii;7is  of  Jewish  monarchs,  on  the  commencement  of,  1.  405. 

Religion  of  the  patriarchal  times,  I.  142,  143.  Of  the  Mosaic  dis- 
pensation, 143 — 148.  lieligion  of  the  Jews,  a  source  of  Scripture 
metaphors,  3()3. 

Resurrection  (future),  doctrine  of,  unknown  to  the  ancients,  I.  19. 
Fully  revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  145,  14G.  151.     Believed  by  Job, 

II.  237.  And  by  the  patriarchs,  I.  143.  Circumstances  of  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ  crmsidered,  lOG — 115.  And  of  the 
resurrection  of  Lazarus,  105,  106. 

Rcvdalion  (divine),  defined,  I.  15.  Its  possil>ility, /i"/.  Probability, 
15,  16.  Necessity  of,  shown  from  the  state  ol  moral  and  religious 
knowledge  among  the  ancients,  16 — 21.  183,  184.  And  also  from 
the  actual  slate  of  morals  among  the  modern  heathen  nations,  21, 
22.  184.  And  from  the  absurd,  impious,  and  contradictory  tenets 
of  modern  infidels,  22 — 20.  On  the  possible  means  of  affording 
a  revelation,  26-^28.     See  Scripture,  7'estamertt,  Old  and  New. 

Revelation  of  St.  Jo/in  the  divine, -II.  378.  Title,  ibid.  External 
arguments  for  its  genuineness,  378 — 380.  Internal  evidences  of 
its  genuineness,  380.  Objections  to  the  Kevelation  examined  and 
refuted,  380,  381.  Its  date,  381,  382.  Occasion  and  scope,  382. 
Synopsis  of  its  contents,  382,  383.  Observations  on  this  book, 
383. 

Revolution  in  France,  horrid  effects  of,  I.  25,  26. 

Rewards  and  punishments,  doctrine  of,  not  of  human  invention,  I. 
160,  161. 

Romans  (Epistle  to),  II.  331.  Its  date,  and  where  written,  iJi"</.  Its 
genuineness  and  authenticity,  ibid.  And  of  chapters  xv.  and  xvi., 
tbid.  The  church  at  Rome,  when  and  by  whom  Ibunded,  331,  332. 
Its  internal  state,  332,  333.  Occasion  of  this  Epistle,  332.  Its 
scope,  333.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  333,  334.  Observations  on 
this  Epistle,  334. 

Romish  Church,  corniptions  of,  a  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel, 
I.  140. 

Rossi.    See  De  RossL 

Rousseau,  profligate  principles  and  conduct  of,  I.  25.  His  involun- 
tary testimony  to  the  character  of  Jesus  Christ,  156.  note. 

Ruth  (Book  of),  title  and  argument  of,  II.  218.  Its  date  and  chro- 
nology, ibid.  Author,  ibid.  Scope,  ib'-d.  Synopsis  of  its  contents, 
ibid. 


Sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper,  a  proof  of  the  cre- 
dibility of  the  New  Testament,  I.  67. 

Sacred  Writers,  alleged  contradictions  betweeji,  shown  to  have  no 
foundation,  I.  414—418,  Seeming  contradictions  between  them 
and  profane  writers  accounted  for,  418 — 420. 

Sacrifices  (human),  universal  among  the  ancients,  I.  17.  and  note  1. 
Prevalence  of,  among  some  modern  heathen  nations,  21.  Abo- 
lished by  Christianity,  171. 

SaJiidic  version  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  272,  273. 

Samaritans,  origin  of,  I.  203.  Account  of  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch, ibid.  Differences  between  it  and  the  Hebrew  Pentateuch 
accounted  for,  204.  Manuscripts  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
221.  Critical  use  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  in  determining 
various  readings,  286,  287.  Samaritan  version  of  the  Pentateuch, 
804.  Arabic  version  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  iiit/.  Account 
of  their  copy  of  the  book  of  Joshua,  II.  215. 

Samuel  (the  prophet),  reality  of  the  appearance  of,  to  Saul,  II.  219. 
note. 

Samuel  (two  books  of),  II.  218.  Their  titles,  ibid.  Authors,  218, 
219.  Argument,  scope,  and  analysis  of  the  First  Book  of  Samuel, 
219.  And  of  the  Second  Book  of  Samuel,  219,  220.  Observations 
on  the  importance  of  these  books,  220. 

Sanctification,  New  Testament  doctrine  of,  I.  151. 

SoKcasm,  instance  of,  I.  372. 

Scholia,  nature  of,  I.  335.  352.  Rules  for  consulting  scholia  to  ad- 
vantage, 335. 

Scholz  (Dr.),  abstract  of  the  system  of  recensions  of,  I.  309—212. 


Sclavonic  version  of  the  Scriptures,  notice  of,  I.  279,  280. 
Scope,  definition  of,  I.  33'J.  Its  importance,  ibid.  Particularly  in 
studying  the  epistles,  394.  Rules  (or  invrsiigaiing  it,  339,  340- 
Applicalion  of  the  scope  to  the  inlerpreiaiioii  of  parables,  367. 
Scriptures,  dilfcrent  appellations  of,  1.  212.  Why  conmiiltp<l  to  writ- 
ing, 27.  Prools  that  none  of  the  canonical  book.s  of  Scripture 
either  are  or  ever  were  lost,  56 — 58.  Iiiipossib:lity  of  their  bciii" 
the  contrivance  or  invention  of  men,  92.  Prooli*  that  they  arc 
of  Divine  authority,  and  their  authors  divinely  inspired,  93.  (Sco 
Aulhenlicily,  Genuineness,  Chrislianili/,  Miiarlet,  J'rophtci/,  Doc- 
trine, Moral  Precepts,  Harmony,  I'reservalioiL,  Jienijils,'  Objec- 
tions.) A  perfect  rule  of  faith  and  jiraclicc,  1.  180.  Moral  quali- 
fications for  the  study  of  the  Scrr|)tures,  180,  187.  In  what  order 
they  should  be  read,  187.  Original  languages  of,  188 — 199. 
Manuscripts  of  21f) — 261.  Divisions  and  marks  ol'  distinction 
in,  212 — 215.  Ancient  versions  of,  261 — 280.  Knowledge  of  the 
order  of  time,  authors,  and  occasirtn  of  each  book,  neces.iary  to 
a  right  interpretation  thereof,  348,  349.  And  also  of  biblical 
geography  and  antiquities,  &.C.,  350 — 352.  See  Testament  (Old) 
and  Testament  (New). 
Srlah,  im|Kjrt  of  the  word  explained,  II.  243,  244. 
Sennacherib's  army,  destruction  of,  1.  418. 

Sense  of  Scripture,  definition  of,  and  general  rules  for  investigating 
it,  I.  322 — 324.  Subsidiary  means  lor  ascertaining  it,  329^354. 
Interpretation  of  the  figurative  meaning  of  Scripture,  3.5.5 — 358. 
Of  the  spiritual  sense,  382 — 384.  Of  the  typical  and  symliolical 
sense,  385 — 387.  Different  senses  given  to  the  same  words  lu 
different  texts,  a  source  of  apparent  contradiction  in  doctrinal 
points,  407. 

Sentuagint  version,  critical  history  of,  I.  264 — 266.  From  what 
MSS.  it  was  made,  266.  Held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  the 
Jews  and  early  Christian  fathers,  ibid.  Biblical  labours  of  Origen 
concerning  it,  267,  268.  Recensions  of  Eusebius,  Lucian,  and 
Ilesychius,  268.  Similarity  of  its  Greek  with  that  of  the  New 
Testament,  193.  Estimate  of  the  real  value  of  the  Septiiagint, 
208.  Its  importance  in  the  criticism  of  the  New  Testament,  268. 
and  note  6.  Syriac  version  of  Origen's  llexaplar  edition  of  the 
Septuagint,  272.  Tables  of  quotations  from  the  Septuagiut,  in 
the  New  Testament,  312,  313. 

Shaftesbury  (Lord),  absurd  and  contradictory  notions  of,  concerning 
religion,  I.  23. 

Shcclanah,  notice  of,  II.  2.')5. 

Shcminilh,  im]X)rt  of,  II.  243. 

Shemitish  Languages,  remarks  on,  L  188,  189. 

Sheggaion,  imjxirt  of,  II.  243. 

Shir,  Shir-Mismor,  and  Shir-Hammachaloth,  psalms  so  called,  II.  243. 

Sign,  y\n  for  the  thing  signified,  I.  301. 

Signification  of  words,  general  rules  for  investigating,  I.  324 — 326. 

Sin,  origin  of,  as  related  by  Moses,  confirmed  by  facts,  and  by  his- 
tory, I.  69,  70. 

Sinai  (Codex  of),  I.  203. 

Singular  number  put  for  the  plural,  I.  372. 

Society,  influence  of  Christianity  on,  I.  170,  171. 

Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  destruction  of,  conflrmed  by  profane  histo- 
rians, I.  77. 

Solomon,  list  of  psalms  ascribed  to,  II.  240.  Notice  of  writings  at- 
tributed to  him,  I.  57.  See  Ecclesiasles,  Song  of  Solomon,  Wisdom 
of  Solomon. 

Son,  different  significations  of,  I.  197. 

Song  of  the  Three  Children,  apocryphal  book  of,  II.  292. 

Song  of  Solomon,  author  of,  II.  249.  Canonical  authority  of,  ibid. 
Structure  of  the  poem,  250.  Its  subject  and  scope,  250,  251.  A 
sublime  mystical  allegory,  251 — 253.  Observations  on  its  style,  253. 

Songs  of  the  Steps,  what  psalms  so  called,  II.  243. 

Soul.     See  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  Transmigration. 

Spanish  Jews,  manuscripts  of,  I.  218. 

Spirit.    See  Holy  Spirit. 

Spiritual  Sense  of  Scripture,  nature  of,  I.  323.  Vindicated,  388, 
383.  Observations  on  the  spiritual  interpretaUon  of  the  Bible, 
383.  Rules  for  such  interpretation,  383,  384.  Cautions  against 
extremes  in  spiritually  exiwunding  the  Scriptures,  384. 

Spurious  writings,  criteria  for  ascertaiaing,  I.  39,  40.  None  of  these 
criteria  to  be  found  in  the  New  Testament,  39. 

Stations  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wildorne.ss,  II.  210. 

y:Ti-/,it  and  x.ri-/,ofiiTfij.,  account  of,  I.  214,  215. 

Style  of  the  Old  Testament,  a  proof  of  its  authenticity,  I.  31.  And 
also  of  the  New  Testament,  49.  Examination  of  it,  194 — 196. 
And  of  its  dialect.%  196—199. 

SiMect,  metonymy  of,  what,  I.  359.     Examples  of  it,  360. 

Subject-matter  defined,  1. 338,  339.  Examples  showing  the  necessity 
of  considering  it  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible,  339. 

Subjects,  duties  of,  I.  153. 

Subscriptions  annexed  to  the  epistles,  remarks  on,  I.  215. 

Substantives  used  by  the  Jews  in  lieu  of  adjectives,  1.  197. 

Suetonius,  testimony  oC  concerning  Jesus  Christ,  I.  82.  And  to  the 
persecutions  of  the  Christians,  83. 

Suicide,  recommended  and  practised  by  the  ancient  philosophers, 
I.  20.  and  note  I. 

Sun  standing  still,  account  of,  vindicated,  I.  421. 

Sunday,  or  Lord's  day,  observance  of,  a  perpetual  proof  of  the  cre- 
dibility of  the  New  Testament,  I.  67. 

Susanna,  apwcryphal  history  of,  II.  292. 

Swine,  destruction  of  the  herd  of,  vindicated,  I.  102. 

Symbolical  language  of  Scripture,  remarks  on,  I.  387.  Symbolic 
actions,  how  to  be  interpreted,  390.    Concise  dictionary  of  the 


476 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


principal  symbolical  terms  occurmg  in  the  pi-ophetic  writings, 

II.  4;')"— 40f). 
Si/m?nar/i>is's  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testameni,  account  of,  1. 269. 
Sijnecdoche.,  nature  of,  I.  371.     Examples  of  it,  371,  372. 
Synomimoiis  words,  observations  on,  I.  325. 
ISyriac  La/ifiiiage,  notice  oi;  I.  I'J9. 
i!si/riac  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  acct unt  of,  I.  270 — 272.     Syriac 

version  of  Origen's  Hcxaplar  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  272. 
Syriasms  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  198. 

Tabernacles  (feast  of),  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, I.  Gfi. 

Tacitus,  testimony  of,  concerning  Jesus  Christ,  I.  82. ;  and  the  cha- 
racter and  persecutions  of  the  Christians,  83. 

Talmud,  account  of,  I.  344,  345.  Talraudical  arrangement  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  217.  Testimony  of  the  Talmuds  to 
the  character  of  Jesus  Christ,  81. 

Targums,  or  Clialdee  paraphrases  of  the  Old  Testament,  critical 
account  of,  I.  2G2— 204. 

Talian,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament,  I. 
43,  44.     Notice  of  his  harmony  of  the  Gospels,  319. 

Tertullinn,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament. 
I.  42,  43. 

TtslamenI  (Old),  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  why  so  termed,  1.28.  Genu- 
ineness of,  ibid.  External  evidences  of  its  genuineness,  29,  30. 
hiternal  evidences.  Its  language,  style,  and  manner  of  writing, 
31.  The  circumstantiality  of  its  narratives,  31,  32.  Its  uncor- 
rupted  preservation  proved  from  the  absolute  impossibility  of  its 
being  falsified  or  corrupted,  either  by  Jews,  52,  53.  184,  185.;  or 
by  Christians,  53. ;  and  from  the  agreement  of  all  the  ancient 
paraphrases,  versions,  and  manuscripts,  53,  54.  Particular  proofs 
of  tiie  integrity  of  the  Old  Testament,  56,  67.  Its  accounts  con- 
firmed by  profane  historians,  73 — 83.  History  of  the  Hebrew  text 
of,  200 — 203.  Different  appellations  given  to  it,  212.  Order  and 
ancient  divisions  of,  212,  213.  Modern  divisions  of,  213.  Ancient 
versions,  261 — 280.  Account  of  the  principal  Hebrew  MSS.  of 
the  Old  Testament,  216—221.  Editions,  203.  See  Credibility, 
Inspiration,  Pentateuch,  Preservation. 

Testament  (New),  general  title  of,  I.  38,  39.  Account  of  its  canon, 
39.  The  New  Testament,  why  written  in  Greek,  193,  194.  Simi- 
larity of  its  Greek  with  that  of  the  Septuagint  version,  193.  Ex- 
amination of  its  style,  194 — 196.  Account  of  its  dialects,  19(5 — 
199.  Genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  New  Testament  proved, 
from  the  impossibility  of  forgery,  40.  54,  55.  From  the  external 
evidence  aflorded  by  the  testimonies  of  ancient  Christians,  40 — 
45.  Of  iieretical  writers,  45,  46.  And  heathen  testimonies  46 — 
48.  And  by  ancient  versions  of  it,  48.  From  the  internal  evi- 
dence furnished  by  the  character  of  its  writers,  ibid.  By  its 
language  and  style,  48,  49.  195,  196.  By  the  circumstantiality 
of  its  narratives,  49.  And  by  the  coincidence  of  its  accounts 
with  the  history  of  those  times,  49 — 51.  Its  uncorrupted  preser- 
vation proved  from  its  contents,  54.  From  the  utter  impossibility 
of  its  being  universally  accomj)lished,  54,  55.  From  the  agree- 
ment of  all  the  manuscripts,  55.  Versions  and  quotations  from 
the  New  Testament  in  the  writings  of  the  early  Christians,  55, 
56.  Particular  proo-ns  of  its  integrity,  57,  58.  Its  accounts  con- 
firmed by  pro.fane  historians,  78—87.  (See  Credibility,  Inspira- 
tion.) Recensions  or  families  of  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 204 — 212.  Descriptive  catalogue  of  the  principal  manu- 
scripts, 222 — 261.  Classification  of  its  several  books,  II.  293.  294. 
Aiu-.ieut  divisions  of,  I.  213,  214.  Titles  to  each  book,  215.  Sub- 
scriptions, ibid.  Ancient  stichoi  and  modern  verses,  214,  215. 
Ancient  and  modern  punctuation,  214.     See  Versions. 

Testiinony,  observations  on  the  credibility  of,  I.  95,  96.  Refutation 
of  JVIr.  Himie's  objections  against  testimony,  96,  97.  Testimony 
of  native  contemporary  writers  a  source  of  interpretation,  329 — 
333.  And  also  the  testimony  of  foreigners  who  have  acquired  a 
lajiguage,  335,  336. 

Tetropla  of  Origc;n,  account  of,  I.  267. 

Theodot ion's  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  account  of,  I.  269. 
Its  critical  value,  ibid. 

Theophilus  (bishop  of  Antioch),  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of 
the  New  Testament,  I.  43. 

Thessalonians,  First  Epistle  to,  II.  341.  Account  of  the  Thessalo- 
nian  church  there,  ibid.  Its  genuineness,  342.  Occasion,  scope, 
and  synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid. 

Tliessalonians,  Second  Epistle  to,  II.  342.  Its  date,  occasion,  and 
scope,  ibid.  Analysis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Observations  on  this 
Epistle,  ibid. 

Threatenings  of  Scripture,  interpretation  of,  I.  399. 

Time,  instances  of,  being  put  for  things  done  in  time,  I.  360.  Dif- 
ferent modes  of  computing  time  sometimes  adopted  by  the  sacred 
writers,  405, 

Timothy,  account  of,  II.  343. 

Timothy,  First  Epistle  to,  II.  343.  Its  date,  343,  344.  Genuineness 
and  authenticity  of  the  Ejiistles  to  Timothy,  344.  Scope  and 
synopsis  of  the  First  Epistle,  344,  345. 

Timothy,  Second  Epistle  to,  II.  345.  Its  date,  345,  346.  Where 
written,  346.  Its  scope,  «6/'/.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  i'SkZ.  Ob- 
servations on  this  Epistle,  ibid.  On  the  use  which  the  Christain 
church  in  every  age  is  to  make  of  the  two  Epistles  to  Timothy 
and  that  to  Titus,  345. 

Tindal,  absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  of,  concerning  religion,  I.  23. 

Titles  of  books,  remarks  on,  I.  348.  Of  the  Psalms,  II.  242,  243. 
Of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  215. 


Titus,  account  of,  II.  346,  347.  Date  of  the  Epistle  to  him,  347.  Its 
scope  and  analysis,  ibid.     Ohservations  on  it,  ibid. 

Titus  (the  Roman  emperor),  triumphal  arch  of,  a  proof  of  the  cre- 
dibility of  the  Scriptures,  I.  91.  His  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
commemorated  by  a  coin,  ibid.  Inscription  erected  in  his  honour, 
iliid.  note. 

Tobit,  apocryphal  book  of,  11.  290. 

Tradition,  insecurity  of,  I.  27. 

Trajan,  letter  of,  concerning  the  Christians,  I.  84. 

Transubstantiation,  Romish  notion  of,  unsupported  by  Scripture,  I. 
356,  357.     No  miracle  in  it,  99.  note. 

Tropes  and  figures,  on  the  interpretation  of,  I.  355 — 358. 

Tropical  Sense,  I.  322. 

Types,  nature  of,  I.  385.  Legal  types,  ibid.  Prophetical  types,  385, 
386.  Hi^orical  types,  386.  Rules  for  the  interpretation  of  types, 
386,  387.  Types  of  the  Messiah,  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  II.  204 
Exodus,  206.     Numbers,  218. 

Typical  sense  of  Scripture,  I.  323. 

Tyre,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  124,  125. 

Ulphilas's  Gothic  version  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I. 

277.     Notice  of  some  manuscripts  of  it,  277 — 279. 
Universal  Propositions  to  be  understood  with  limitations,  I.  395,  396. 
"  Unknown  God,"  origin  of  the  altar  to,  at  Athens,  I.  90. 
Uriin  and  Thummim,  what,  II.  255. 
Usus  Loquendi,  defined,  I.  329.     Direct  testimonies  for  ascertaining 

it,  329—336.    Indirect  testimonies  for  ascertaining  it,  336—352: 

Various  Readings,  the  Christian  faith  not  affected  by,  I.  55.  281, 
282.  Their  nature,  282.  Difference  between  them  and  mere 
errata,  ibid.  Notice  of  the  principal  collations  and  collections 
of  various  readings,  ibid.  Causes  of  them,  ibid.  The  negligence 
or  mistakes  of  transcribers,  errors  or  imperfections  in  the  manu- 
script copied,  283,  284.  Critical  conjecture,  284.  Wilful  corrup 
tions  from  party  motives,  285.  Sources  whence  a  true  reading 
is  to  be  determined,  ibid.  Manuscripts,  285,  286.  Ancient  edi- 
tions, 286.  Ancient  versions,  286,  287.  The  writings  of  Josephus, 
288.  Parallel  passages,  ibid.  Quotations  of  the  fathers,  288,289. 
Heretical  writings,  289.  Critical  conjecture,  289,  290.  _  General 
rules  for  judging  of  various  readings,  290 — 292.  Notice  ol'  the 
collections  of  various  readings  by  Poussines,  245.,  and  the  Mar- 
quis of  Velez,  ?6t(f.  7iote. 

Velesian  Manuscripts,  notice  of,  I.  245.  note. 

Verses,  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  when  divided  into,  I.  213. 

Versions  (ancient),  a  proof  of  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
the  New  Testament,  I.  48.  Account  of  the  ancient  versions  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  261 — 280.  Versions  of  the  Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch,  204.  The  critical  value  of  ancient  versions, 
and  hints  for  consulting  them  to  the  best  advantage,  333 — 335. 
Their  use  in  determining  various  readings,  286,  287. 

Vespasian,  pretended  miracle  of,  exposed,  I.  118. 

Victorinus,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament, 
I.  42. 

Virtue,  no  motives  to,  among  the  heathen  nations,  I.  18.  Admi 
rable  and  beautiful  motives  to  virtue  presented  in  the  Gospel 
156—158. 

Visions,  prophetic,  II.  255,  256. 

Visiting  the  sins  of  fathers  upon  their  children  explained,  I.  409. 

Voltaire,,  impious  opinions  of,  on  religion,  I.  24.  Advocated  immo- 
rality, 25.  And  exemplified  his  precepts  by  his  own  profligate 
example,  26.     His  miserable  death,  176. 

Vowel  Points  (Hebrew),  evidence  concerning  the  ancient  or  mo- 
dern date  of,  I.  191,  192.     Their  relative  utility,  192. 

Vulgate  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures,  account  of,  I.  275,  276. 
Variations  between  the  Sixtine  aud  Clementine  editions,  276,  277. 
Its  critical  value,  277.    Modern  revisions  of  it,  ibid. 

Wars  of  the  Lord  (book  of),  observations  on,  I.  57. ;  II.  210. 

Water  turned  into  wine,  observations  on  the  miracle  of,  I.  103,  104. 
Turned  into  blood,  in  Egypt,  II.  206. 

Weeks,  the  division  of  lime  by,  a  confirmation  of  the  Mosaic  narra- 
tive, I.  69. 

Western  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  205. 

Wwle  put  for  part,  I.  371. 

Widow's  son  raised  to  life,  remarks  on,  I.  101,  102.  105. 

Wilder7iess,  table  of  the  stations  of  the  Israelites  in  the,  II.  210. 

Wisdom  of  Solomon,  account  of  the  apocryphal  book  of,  II.  290, 291. 

Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach,  account  of  the  apocryphal  book 
of,  II.  291. 

Women,  miserable  condition  of,  at  Athens,  I.  19.  note  7.  Their 
condition  elevated  by  Christianity,  170. 

Woolston  (Mr.),  absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  of,  I.  24. 

Words  and  phrases,  rules  for  investigating  the  meaning  of,  I.  324 
—326.     Emphatic  words,  327—329. 

Wnli7ig,  the  Scriptures  why  committed  to,  I.  27. 

Zeciiariaii  (prophet),  account  of,  II.  287.  Analysis  of  his  prophecy, 

287,  288.  Remarks  on  his  style,  288.  The  last  six  chapters  proved 

to  be  genuine,  ibid. 
Zedekiah,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  124. ;  II. 

286. 
Zephaniah  (prophet),  account  of,  II.  272.    Scope  and  analysis  of  his 

book,  ibid. 
Zodiac  of  Dendera,  comparatively  modern  date  of,  I.  73.  note  8. 


No.  IV. 

INDEX 

THE  PRINCIPAL  TEXTS  OF  SCRIPTURE 

WHICH  ARE 

PARTICULARLY  ILLUSTRATED  OR  EXPLAINED. 


Such  Tixlii  OK  are  died  merehj  hy  vmy  of  proof  or  illustration,  or  in  the  Biopravhical,  Historical,  and  Geographical  Index,  and 
also  in  the  Index  of  the  Symbolical  Language  of  Scripture,  are  here  designedly  omitted,  that  this  Index  may  not  be  unneces- 
sarily enlarged. 


Genesis. 


rii.ip.       Verse 


2,  3.  6,  7,  « i. 

3.  6.  9 ii 


26,  27 i. 

28 ii 

3 i. 


9.  . 

17. 
24. 
15. 
22. 
1.. 
7.. 
8.. 


20 ii 

21 ii 

5 ii 

6 i. 

9 ii 

12 i. 

1.5,  16 i. 

19—21 i. 

2,  3.  8,  9.  15 i. 

12.  17.  24 i. 

3,  4,  5 i. 

22 ii 

13 i. 

20 ii 

27 i. 

5 i. 

8—10 ii 

15.  et  seq ii 

1—4 i. 

26.  32 i. 


10 i. 

18 ii. 

2—10 ii. 

14 i. 

14,  15 ii, 


Pace 
420,421. 
205. 

420,421. 
20.5. 
289. 

325.421. 
160. 
414.421. 

73. 
197. 

142.  ?jote. 
286.  295. 
333. 
372. 
204. 
407. 

371. nofe. 
287. 
151. 

18.3, 184. 
135. 
400. 
185. 
339. 

75. 
414. 
414. 
414. 
414. 

23. 

7.5. 
177. 
359. 

36. 

83. 

13.  15. 

77. 
404,  405. 

&  note. 
299.  40.3. 
359. 

404,  405. 
&  note. 
197. 

32. 

32, 

37. 

83.85. 


Genesis. 

Chap.       Verse  Vol.  Page 

xiv.         17 ii.       32. 

IS ii.       19.32. 

20 i.  287. 

22,  23 ii.       81. 

XV.         5 i.  301. 

6 i.  301. 

9,  10.  17 ii.       80. 

13,  14 i.  299.403. 

405. 

xvi.        7 ii.      33. 

12 i.  337. 

xvii.       5 i.  301. 

12 ii.       76.110. 

12,  13 ii.  165. 

19 i.  371. 

21 i.  302.wo<e. 

xviii.      1 — 10 ii.  151.  Wn. 

173. y«. 

10 i.  302. 

xix.        30 ii,       33.150. 

30—38 ii.       15. 

XX.         7 i.  413. 

xxi.         8 ii.  163, 

10 i.  306. 

12 i.  302. 

14 ii.       40, 

22—32 ii,       80, 

33 ii,  102. 

xxii.       1 i.  414. 

1—12 i.  409. 

2—4 ii.       19. 

13 i.  286, 

18 i.  299, 

xxiii.      10.18 IL      54. 

16 ii.  Isg.Wn. 

xxiv,      15 IL       29,  £ifn, 

22 ii.  158. 

22—47 iu       29. 

50,  51,57.67 ii.  160. 

67 ii,  151, 

XXV,       2 — 6 iL       15, 

16 ii,      Al.note. 

34 ii.  171. 

xxvi.      12 ii.      35. 

15—18 ii.      28. 

30 ii.      80, 

ixvii.     6 — 29 i,  AQS.note. 

15 iL      67 


Genesis. 
Chaji.       Ver.-se  Vol. 

xxvii.     27 ii. 

28 ii. 

41 ii. 

xxviii.    18 ii. 

20—22 i. 

xxix.      1 — 8 i. 

2—8 ii. 

5 ii. 

6.9 ii. 

XXX.       14 ii. 

xxxi.      27 ii. 

34 ii. 

38—41 i. 

40 ii, 

42.  53 i. 

44 — 54 ii. 

ixxii.     13 — 17 ii, 

22 iL 

xxxiiL    19 i. 

xxxiv,    7 L 

ii. 

XXXV.     2. 4 ii. 

20 iL 

21 L 

xxxvi.    31 L 

xxxviL  25 ii. 

29 iL 

xxxviii,  24 ii. 

xl.  15 iL 

xlL         45 L 

xlii,         15 ii. 

38 L 

xliii.       11.26 ii. 

xliv.       5 iL 

xlvL       27 L 

34 L 

ii. 

xlvii.      11 i. 

31 L 

ilviii.     1 iL 

8,10,22 i 

xlLr,      3,4 ii. 

9 L 

10 L 

342. 

14 L 

25 ii. 

477 


Pape 

38.  159. 

25. 
202. 
1.38. 
409. 
402. 

28. 
223.Mo/e. 

28. 

36, 
18.3, 
175. 
414. 

23.  176. 
358. 

80. 
174.£;;n 

28. 
414. 

36, 
228, 
158. 
202. 

37. 

37. 
187. 
1.59. 

40, 68. 

13, 

88, 

83, 
337. 

4.5. 
142.£!fn. 
299.  404. 

&  note. 

88, 

lib. note. 
414, 
309, 
164. 
414. 

40. 
357. 
198.331 
371.  406. 
358. 

25. 


478 

Genesis. 

Chap.      Verse  Vol. 

1.  1 ii. 

2,3 ii. 

3.24—26 ii. 

7—10 ii. 

25 i. 

Exodus. 

L  11.  14 i. 

19 ii. 

iL  18 i. 

ilL         2.  4 i. 

6 i. 

22 i. 

iv.  21 i. 

23 i. 

V.  6—29 ii. 

7 ii. 

14,  15.  19 ii. 

vii.         13 i. 

14—25 ii. 

19—22 i. 

viii.        1 — 15 ii. 

16—19 ii. 

20—32 ii. 

IT.  1 — 7 ii. 

6.  20 i. 

8—12 ii. 

12 i. 

13—35 ii. 

16 i. 

18.  23,  24 ii. 

28 i. 

X.  1—20 ii. 

12,  13.  15.  19 ii. 

21—27 ii. 

xL  1 — 8 ii. 

xiL         5 ii. 

6 ii. 

9 ii. 

10 ii. 

8.11.46 ii. 

12—14.29.51....  ii. 

25,26 ii. 

29,  30 ii. 

34 ii. 

35 i. 

39 ii. 

40,41 i. 

46 i. 

ii. 

51 ii. 

xiii        2 i. 

18 ii. 

xiv.       6,  7. ii. 

17 i. 

24 ii. 

IV.         1.21 i. 

1.  20,21 ii. 

14 i. 

ii. 
xvi.        18 i. 

35,36 i. 

xvii.       8—16 ii. 

11 ii. 

xviii.      13—23 i. 

14—26 ii. 

xix.        3—6 ii. 

XX.         3 — 5 ii. 

5 i. 

6 ii. 

7 i. 

ii. 

10,  11 ii. 

11 i. 

12 i. 

12—16 i. 

xxi.       5,  6 ii. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


Page 
198. 
198. 
199 

Chap. 
xxi. 

xxii. 

xxiii. 
xxiv. 

xxvii. 
xxviii. 

xxix. 
xxx. 
xxxii. 

xxxiii. 
xxxiv. 

XXXV. 

xxxvii 
xl. 

i. 

ii. 
iii. 
iv.  v. 
iv. 

V. 

vi.  vii. 
vi. 

vii. 

ix. 

xii. 

xiii. 

xiv.  - 
xvi. 

xvii. 
xviii. 

xix. 

Exodus. 

Verse 

6  

Vol. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 
.   ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 

ii. 

ii. 
.  ii. 
.   i. 

ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.   ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.   i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.   ii. 
.  ii. 
.   ii. 
.  ii. 

.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.   ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 

ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 

ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 

Page 
351. 
166. 

67.  97. 
164. 

63. 

63. 

64. 

64. 

65. 

62. 

63. 

63. 
300. 

62. 

28. 
121. 
126. 

28.  57. 
204. 

42. 
180. 
114. 
382. 
114.  118. 

97. 
136. 
141. 

96. 
415. 
302. 

61. 
126. 
181. 
158. 
207. 

96. 

207. 
415. 
207. 
207. 
207. 

65. 

65. 
118. 
207. 

65. 

96.note. 
113. 
118. 
286. 

76. 
297. 
208. 
360. 
195. 
195. 
134. 

196.&n. 
133. 
134. 
208. 
127. 
127. 
386. 

96.  note, 
132. 
415. 

61. 
303. 

61. 

64. 
410. 

64. 
295. 

64. 

64.  65. 

62. 

Chap. 
xix. 

XX. 

xxi. 
xxiii. 

xxiv. 

xxiv. 
XXV. 

xxvi. 
xxvii. 

i.  ii. 
i. 

ii. 
iv. 

V. 

viii. 

X. 

xi. 
xii. 
xiii. 

xiv. 

XV. 

xvi. 

xviii. 
xix. 

XX. 

xxi. 

xxii. 
xxiv. 

XXV, 

Leviticus 
Verse 
27.  29 

Vol. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 
.  ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 

ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.   i. 

.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.  ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.   i. 
.  ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.   i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.   ii. 
.   i. 
.   ii. 
.   i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i; 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 

ii. 

ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.   ii. 
.  ii, 
.  ii. 

Page 
142. 

7     11        

32 

82. 

14 

6.23.27 

10 

62. 

200 

15    17      

64.  67. 

286 

16 

14 

68. 

18 — 21 

24—26 

9 

171. 

22—25.  27 

24 

68. 

4 

6 

73. 

88. 

30.  32,  33,  34.  36. 
1 — 4 

l23.7iote. 

163. 

14 

24,  2,5.  27—30... 

32 

34.43 

12 

178. 

414. 

2,  3. . .' 

127. 

415. 

8 

72. 

296.  423. 

28 

126. 

409. 

31 

65. 

409. 

18 

XXV 

65. 

337. 

12         

208. 

\66.note. 

16 

1—7 

8.  10.  15.  30 

10 

34 

128. 

151. 

7 

128, 129. 

40. 

12 

16. 

409. 

13 

113. 

206. 

20 

39 

63. 

415. 

11,  12 

306. 

206. 

38 

22.  24 

208. 

206. 

1 — 37 

32 

1—24 

38. 

206. 

22,  &c 

130. 

206. 

1     6 

28 

4:11.  &  71. 

415. 

19  

34 

415. 

207. 

7 

Numbers. 

409. 

15   20 

207. 

19 

302  409 

15 

209. 

2 

&  note. 

22 

41. 

3.22 

16 

24. 

30 35 

84. 

197 

.8 

41. 

2 

207 

17 

209. 

3 

16 

11—31 

39. 
207. 
207. 
123. 

73. 126. 
124 

26—29.  34,  35. . . 
Leviticus 

415. 

111. 

56. 

19—22 

23 

82. 
182. 

1 

6,  7,  8 

112. 

124 

24 

415. 

124. 

24,  25 

8.  10 

112. 

123 

184. 

125 

2 

12 

33. 

207. 

154. 156. 
409. 

1.4—7.  14,  15... 
17,  18 

29 

5,  6 

3 

414. 

l79.note. 
37. 

124 

1 7 

209 

287  403 

12,  13 

3 

33 

405.  &  n. 
298. 

6.  10.  33,  34 

37,38 

23 

35  36 

33 

25.  45 

372. 

124  126 

21 

415 

85.  &n. 

3 

22,  23.  30 

37 — 40 

404. 

297 

8 

156 

85. 

3 

2 

41. 

85 

23 — 35 

409 

372. 

38,39 

41—50 

209.  £if  n. 

73. 

13.  15,  16 

19 

113. 

372. 

47 59 

81 

132. 

4.  6 

2 

117. 

36. 

3,  4.  9.  17 

15 

13.3. 

14. 

33 — 37 

134. 

306. 

11 

208. 

37. 

2 — 5.  17 

23—29 

416. 

15. 

3 28 

208 

131. 

7 

3 

37 

416. 

12,  13 

6 — 9 

136 

42. 

29 

8,  9 

383 

41. 

1 — 7 

14 

57 

61. 
409. 

5 

29 

84. 
210 

82. 

21.  24—30 

22  23 

138. 

375. 

15 

169 

62. 

28 

28 

421 

121. 

16     18 

2.5,6 

5 — 9 

86 

415. 

18 

380  &n. 

307. 

20 

17.  19 

208  &n. 

295. 

20 22 

1 

33 

167.  yn. 

26.31 

1—5 

137.. 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


NuMDinB. 
Chap.       Verso  Vol. 

xx'ix.      1 ii. 

XXX.        3.  7.  9.  13 ii. 

xxxi.      10 i. 

28—41 ii. 

xxxii.     41 ii. 

xxxiii.    49 ii. 

xxxiv,    1 — 16 ii. 

.3 ii, 

6 ii. 

11 ii. 

zxxv.     4,  5 ii. 

6—15 ii. 

16—22 ii. 

26,  27 ii. 

31,  32 ii. 

xxxvL    13 ii. 

Deuteroitomt. 

i.  1 1. 

9—18 i. 

10 i. 

28 i. 

iii.  9 ii. 

12—17 ii. 

14 i. 

17 ii. 

iv.  15—20 ii. 

48 ii. 

49 ii. 

V.  15 i. 

vi.  5 i. 

9 ii. 

13 i. 

16 i. 

vii.         25,  26 ii. 

viii.        3 i. 

9 ii. 

15 ii. 

ix.  1 i. 

X.  6,7 i. 

16 ii. 

22 i. 

xi.  10 ii. 

14 ii. 

29 ii. 

xii.         5—12.  17—19 ii. 

6,7 ii. 

15.  20—23 i. 

15.  22 ii. 

30 ii. 

xiii i. 

2—6 ii. 

2—12 ii. 

13—16 ii. 

13—18 ii. 

xiv.        2,  3.  31 ii. 

XV.  1 — 12 ii. 

7—10 ii. 

22 ii. 

xvi.        3 ii. 

6 ii. 

11—15 ii. 

16,  17 ii. 

18,  19 ii. 

xvii.       6,  7 ii. 

8,  9 ii. 

8—12 ii. 

13 ii. 

14—20 ii. 

xviii.      3 ii. 

9—12 ii. 

10 ii. 

10,11 ii. 

15.  19 i. 

15.  18,  19 ii. 

18,  19 i. 

20—^2 .,,..  ii. 

ii. 


Page 
127. 
129. 
416. 
11.3. 

17.  165. 

3.3. 

14. 

27. 

28. 

20. 
113. 

16. 

6.3. 

63.  67. 

65. 
208. 


36. 
416. 
421. 
372. 

30. 

16. 

37. 

27,  28. 

&  notes. 
139. 

30. 

27. 
415. 
296. 
154. 
294. 
294. 

61. 
294. 

37. 

34.  Sjf  71. 
372. 
416. 

llO.note. 
416. 
177. 

24.nofe. 

31. 

83. 

81. 
415. 
117. 

61. 
411. 
254. 

61. 

67. 

61. 
172. 

16.63. 

83. 
117. 
124. 

73. 
122. 
122. 

54. 

56,  57. 

54. 

54. 

55.  64. 

43. 
113. 

62. 

61. 
142. 
299. 
211. 
453. 

62. 
214.  254. 


(-"hap. 
xix. 


XXVI. 
xxvii. 


XXX. 

xxxii. 


DtUTEnONOMT. 
Verse  Vol. 

3 ii. 

5,  6.  11 ii. 

15 i. 

16—21 ii. 

5 ii. 

5—8 ii. 

9 ii. 

10—15.  16—20.  ..  ii. 

1—9 ii. 

15—17 ii. 

18—21 ii. 


22. 
2.3., 


10 ii. 

13—19 ii. 

1.3—21 ii. 

15 ii. 


18 ii. 

19.29 ii. 

26 ii. 

6 ii. 


10—12. 

13 

1 


II. 


2,3 ii. 

7—9 ii. 

5—11 ii. 

11—13 ii. 

15 ii. 

15—26 i. 

26 i. 

24. ii. 

39 ii. 

40 ii. 

58,59 ii. 

9 ii. 

10—18 ii. 

22.  et  seq ii. 

23 ii. 


•ib—'in. 

6 

12 

2 

13 

17 

21 

25 

3.5 

42 

43 


13. 
17. 
18., 


1,2,3 ii. 

7 ii. 


Joshua. 


1.. 
5.. 
3.., 
15. 
7.. 


Page 

67. 

63. 
359. 

64. 

42. 154. 

84. 

85. 

84. 

63. 
163. 
411. 

62. 

67. 
386, 

69.199. 

1.53. 
177. 

64. 
410. 

54. 

64. 

65. 

66. 

63.  154. 
178. 

63. 
156. 

56, 

64. 
170. 
125. 
147. 

61. 
413. 
326. 

35. 
179. 
180. 

64. 

64. 

41, 

38. 

27.  &  n. 

41. 
WQ.note. 
372. 

25. 

35,  36. 
305. 
303. 
331. 
304. 

331.301. 
304. 
211. 

2.5. 
358. 

33. 

37. 

31. 
194. 


42. 
309. 
13. 
26. 
96. 


Chap, 
viii. 


9 ii.  214. 

18 ii.  26. 

1 ii.  26. 

4.  6.  9 ii.  110. 

4 ii.  90. 

21 ii.  88. 

25 ii.  215, 

26 ii,  90,- 

14 ii.  41. 

25,  26 ii.  68. 


xu. 
xiii. 

XV. 


xvu. 

xviii. 


XX. 

xxi. 


XXII. 

xxiii. 


Vlll. 

ix. 


479 

Joshua, 

Verse                          Vol.  Page 

30—35 ii,  31, 

3—27 ii.  112. 

4 ii,  155, 

4.  13 ii.  179, 

10 ii.  24, 

11 ii,  21.5, 

12 i.  421. 

13 i.  57. 

ii.  215.£;fn, 
216.  ii^M 

15.43 i.  416. 

2.3.  37 i.  416. 

6.  7 ii.  27. 

18 ii,  14, 

19 i,  416. 

19,20 i.  410. 

1—6 ii.  16. 

3 ii.  26. 

3 ii.  1 5.note. 

5 ii,  14, 

2 — 4 ii,  U.isfn. 

5 ii,  27,£jf». 

7 ii.  28, 

9 ii,  216. 

20—62 ii,  38. 

47 ii,  14, 

55 ii,  30, 

63 i,  416. 

ii,  19. 

ii,  214, 

8,  9 ii,  26, 

15 ii,  36, 

16 ii,  19.28. 

25 ii.  216. 

28 ii.  19, 

8 ii,  18, 

17 ii,  216, 

43,  44 i,  416, 

16—22 ii,  237, 

5 i,  407, 

14 ii.  216. 

25 ii.  21.5. 

26.  29 ii.  214. 

Judges. 

1 ii.  214. 

7 ii.  90.(^71. 

19 i.  416. 

.5 ii,  32, 

13 ii,  135.138, 

20,21 i.  412, 

15—26 i.  411. 

16 ii.  88. 

31 ii.  I75.&n. 

ii.  30. 

13.  15,  16 ii.  33. 

17—20 i.  411. 

ii.  2l7.note. 

8 ii.  89. 

6 ii.  217. 

10 ii.  54.tf«. 

11 ii.  29. 

17 ii.  17.187, 

19 ii,  3.3, 

20 i.  421. 

28—30 i.  363. 

30 ii.  91. 

1 i.  416. 

3 ii.  85, 

12 ii,  175, 

18 i.  288. 

19 ii.  73. 

2 ii.  ns.note. 

24—27 ii.  137, 

7 — 15 i.  366, 

27 ii.  141, 

14 i.  372, 

30.  39 ii.  130, 

30,  31 i.  411.  £;fn. 


480 


Chap. 
xi. 
xiv. 
xvi, 

xvii. 
xviii. 

XX. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


TU. 

viii. 


xu. 
xiii. 


Judges. 
Verse  Vol. 

34 i. 

12 ii. 

21 ii. 

31 ii. 

6 ii. 

30 

8.  17 ii. 

16 ii- 

35.46 i. 

45.47 ii. 

25 ii. 

Ruth. 
1 ii.    218. 


xix. 
xxi. 
xxii. 


XXIH. 

xxiv. 


Page 
i.  411. 
ii,  162. 
ii.  66. 
ii.  199. 
ii.  217. 
ii.  217. 
ii.  84. 
ii.  87, 88. 
405. 

31. 

42. 


14 

15 

1,  2.  7.  11.., 
4 


1  Samuel. 

13 ii. 

22—24 ii. 

24—28 ii. 

10 ii. 

14 ii. 

25 i. 

2.  4,  5,  &c ii. 

6.  12 ii. 

17 ii. 

19 i. 

4 ii. 

5 i. 

11—17 ii. 

14 ii. 

2 ii. 


Chap. 

XXV. 

xxvi. 
xxvii. 
XX  viii. 


XXIX. 
XXX. 


9 

24... 
25... 
27... 
1—3. 
5—7. 
17... 
1.. .. 


1,2 ii. 

14 i. 

7, 8 i. 

11 ii. 

12 ii. 

23 ii. 

33 ii. 

12 ii. 

14 ii. 

18 i. 

20 ii. 

16.  23 ii. 

2,  3 ii. 

5 ii. 

6,  7. 45 ii. 

33.42 i. 

38 ii. 

4 ii. 


7,  8.... 

10 

17 

13—17. 

15 

1 


7.... 
1,  2. 


17,  18 ii. 

14,  15 ii 


4,  5.11. 
5—8.  . . 


177. 

156. 

81. 

176. 


131. 
163. 
164. 
219. 

97. 
325. 

97. 
196. 
196. 
288. 
138. 
219. 

a. note. 

46. 

43. 
287. 
213.710  te. 

43. 

43. 

46. 

84. 

43. 

25. 

77. 

85. 

416. 
156. 

92. 

137. 

57.  67. 

43. 

196. 

403. 

46. 
184. 

32. 

87,  88. 

87.  y  n. 
403. 

87. 

81.88. 

£if  note. 

91. 

44. 

46. 

28. 
XM.note. 
417. 

46. 

31,32. 

46. 

43.  &  n. 

34. 

32. 
.     156. 

44. 

45. 
,       30. 


VI. 

vii. 
viii. 


xu. 
xiii. 
xiv. 
XV. 

xvii. 
xviii. 


xix. 

XX. 

xxi. 
xxii. 
xxiii. 


1  Samuel. 
Verse  Vol. 

18 ii. 

28 i. 

5.  7 ii. 

6 ii.     213. 

ii.     219.(^71. 

7 ii 

7—25 i. 

1 ii 

1,  2 i. 

9 ii 

12. . . .'. , ii 

21 ii 

1—6 i. 

10 ii 

12. ii 

13 ii 


Page 
37.  179. 
196. 

87. 


89. 

95. 

28. 
416. 

26. 

37. 

28. 
416, 
138. 
199. 
202. 


2  Samuel. 

5—15 ii. 

10 i. 

14 ii. 

18 ii. 

19—27 ii. 

21 ii. 

18 ii- 

3 ii. 

31,  32 ii. 

3.3,  34 ii. 

35 ii. 

ii. 

, ii. 


43. 
416. 

44. 
216. note. 


9—12. 


18.  22 11. 

5 ii. 

17 ii. 

2 ii. 

14 i. 

3—14 ii. 

13 ii. 

16,  17 ii. 

18 ii. 


1 

9 

20  ... 

26 

1—14. 
31 


29. 
2.. 
20. 


18.. 
23.. 
8,9. 
12.. 


6.  8.  17. 

9 

18 

24—27. 


15. 


1,2. 


13. 

1.. 
9.., 


Chap. 


1  Kings. 

20 i- 

32—40 iL 

33 ii- 

5,  6.  8 i. 

5,  6.  28—34 ii. 

25.29 — 31 ii. 

26,  27 ii. 


87. 

xu. 

30. 

199,200. 

200. 

XUI. 

202. 

XIV. 

43. 

43. 

XVU. 

32. 

xvm. 

184. 

97. 

219. 

307. 

14. 

31. 

XIX. 

47. 

46. 

15.5. 157. 

XX. 

74. 

l52.7iote. 

196. 

202. 

XXI. 

366. 

xxu. 

412. 

427.7io<e. 

46. 

202. 

4:5.  &  71. 

287. 

46. 
26. 

ii. 

87. 

25. 

36. 
85.  157, 

iii. 

31, 
44. 

iv. 

202. 

87. 
89. 

v. 

68. 
220. 

vi. 

245. 

355. 

31. 

417. 

ix. 

X. 

421. 

xi. 

Xlll. 

290. 

xiv. 

44. 

28. 

XV, 

411. 

67. 

57. 

XVl, 

43. 

xvii 

1  KtKG0. 

Verse                            Vol.  Page 

2,5,  29.  31.  34,  46,,  ii,  67. 

16—28 ii.  55. 

7 ii.  46. 

21.  24 ii.  14. 

21 ii.  17. 

22,  23,  28 ii.  44, 

23 i.  422. 

25 ii,  l.'?0. 

26 i.  4t  :.}. 

32,33 i.  C->7. 

33 ii.  29. 

7—11 ii.  32.187. 

9 i,  418. 

46 i.  343. 

63.  65 i,  422, 

12,  13 ii.  187. 

4,  5 ii.  46. 

14,  15.  22.  28,  29..  ii.  46. 

16,  17 ii.  87.note. 

7 ii.  19.137. 

138. 

27 ii.  78. 

40 i.  88. 

41 ii.  221. 

14.  18 ii.  46. 

6 ii.  47. 

28.  32 ii.  136. 

4—6 ii.  197. 

21,  22 ii.  135. 

25 i.  88. 

4.  6 i.  422.  6?  n. 

ii.  141. 

19 — 40 ii.  30. 

26 ii.  141.tf7i. 

27 i.  372. 

40 ii-  26. 

44,45 iL  24. 

14 i.  303. 

18 i.  303. 

19 ii.  165. 

1 ii.  164. 

11 ii.  87,88. 

15 ii.  47. 

23 ii.  139. 

1 — 14 ii.  4:3.7iote. 

5,  6 i.  120. 

6.19—23 i.  412. 

15 i.  336.  372. 

34 ii.  87. 

2  Kings. 

2 ii.  153. 

9 i.  359. 

15 ii.  165. 

23,24 i.  412. 

24 ii.  36. 

15 ii.  184. 

16,  17 ii.  24. 

13 ii.  85. 

19,  20 ii,  24. 

38 ii,  184, 

8 ii,  138, 

18 ii.  141. 

1 — 4 ii.  254. 

25 ii.  176.  &n. 

179.  note. 

30 ii.  158. 

7,  8 ii.  90. 

15,16.23 ii.  116. 

11,  12.  19,  20 ii.  44.£ifn. 

1.  10 i.  405. 

17 ii,  89. 

7 ii,  31. 

13 ii.  19. 

5 ii.  196, 

30.  33 i.  40.5. 

35 ii.     102. 

3 ii.     13.5.141. 

9—13 ii.     102. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


Chap, 
xvii. 


XXI. 

xxiii. 


XIV. 
xix. 

XX. 

xxi. 


xxviii. 
xxix. 


ui. 
ix. 


XII. 

xvi. 
xix. 

XX. 

xxi. 

xxii. 
XXV. 
xxvi. 


2  Kings. 


ViTHC 

26 

24.  27,  28. 

4 

5 

35 

9 

23 

26 

37 

2 

7 

11 

3 

10 

13 

25 

8 

13 

14 

17 


Vol 


Page 

ii.  139. 

ii.  147. 

ii.  136. 

ii.  22l.7iote. 

i.  418. 

i.  89. 

ii.  30. 

ii.  40. 

ii.  139. 

ii.  132. note. 

ii.  196. 

ii.  72.  y  n. 

ii.  140. 

ii.  32, 
ii.       19. 

ii.  221.  note. 

i.  405. 

i.  416. 
ii.  89. 
ii.       91. 


8—12 i.      416. 

1  Chronicles. 

31 ii. 

23 ii. 

34,  35 ii. 

14.  21.  23 ii. 

22 ii. 

15 ii. 

2.  8 ii. 

16 ii. 

9 ii. 

7 i. 

3 i. 

4 i. 


4.. 
U. 
31. 


16—22 ii. 

25 ii. 

26—31 ii. 

30 ii. 

2 ii. 

4—7 i. 

29 ii. 

2  Chronicles. 

1.  10 ii.  179. 

17,  18 ii.  82. 

1 ii.  178. 

26 ii.  14. 

5.  12 ii.  77. 

22 ii.  44. 

1,  2 ii.  153. 


18. 

IX. 

17. 

xu. 

166. 

Xlll 

181. 

223. 

32. 

87,  88. 

26.  74. 
32. 
417. 

iv. 

V. 

412. 
417. 
421. 
42.  79. 

vii. 
ix. 

X. 

42. 

112. 

42. 

35.  46. 

I. 

46. 

175. 

43. 

422. 

11. 

218,219. 

Ezra. 


Chap.       Verso 


Vol. 


2 i.  88. 

10 ii.  65.  &n. 

14 ii.  198. 

3 i.  196. 

8—11 ii.  54.79. 

22—26 ii.  31. 

8—10 ii.  15. 

12—15.  18,  19 ii.  196. 

2 i.  403. 

12 ii.  68. 

11 ii.  42. 

14,  15 ii.  87. 

2,3 ii.  135. 


3... 
7... 
20. 


XXXI. 

xxxiv. 
XXXV. 


, u.  32. 

ii.  46. 

i.  417. 

11 ii.  112. 

34 ii.  113. 

2 ii.  112. 

5 ii.  198. 

20—24 i.  89. 

25 ii.  200. 

1—4 i.  89. 

4 ii.  91. 

'''^.  23 ii.  223.;io<e. 

Vol.    II  3  P 


Xll. 

xiii. 


XVll. 

xviii. 
xix. 

XX. 

xxi. 
xxii. 
xxiii. 

xxvi. 

xxvii. 

xxix. 


58.  . . . 
10,  11. 

4 

2 

9 

23 

20 


8.... 
7,  8. 
9.... 


Neiiemiaii. 


14 

1.  3.  6.  11.  13. 
15.  26.  28.  3 


.3.7 


Page 
417. 
112. 
374. 
224. 
182. 
243. 

226.  &  n. 
112. 
1.54. 

66. 

24. 


21. 
19,20. 


15. 
18. 


63 

6 

16 

3 

38,  39. 

5 

25 


Esther. 


14 

2 

1.  8—11.. 


20.  23 11. 

1 i. 

2 ii. 


Job. 


1.  3.. 
5.  11. 


22.  . 
5.  9. 
7.... 
9.... 


13—16. 

19 

4 


13.  . 
8,9. 
2,3. 
4.... 
2.... 
7..., 

27.  . 
10.  . 

28.  . 


13 1. 

24 ii. 

25—29 ii. 

24 ii. 


32 

15—20. 
3—14.. 
11,  12.. 


7... 
16. 
19. 
14. 
19. 
23. 


26,  27 ii. 

26—28 ii. 

33 ii. 


Chap. 

xxxii. 

xxxiii. 

xxxvii. 

xxxix. 

xli. 

xlii. 


1—3. 


21. 

46. 

417. 

401. 

V. 

131. 

1.54. 

via. 

72. 

20. 

X. 

66. 

xiv. 

66. 

157. 

xvi. 
xviii. 

128. 
196. 

xix. 

44. 

45. 

57. 

226. 

xxi. 
xxii. 

323. 

226. 

xxiii. 

230. 

xxiv. 

407. 

227. 

232. 

xxvui. 

407. 

xxix. 

196. 

XXX. 

336. 

XXXI. 

256. 

XXXll. 

l5l.note. 

54. 

XXXIU. 

305. 

228. 

235. 

XX  XI  v. 

339. 

XXXV. 

372. 

XXXVl. 

396. 

65. 

XXXVUl 

228. 

xl. 

151. 

note. 

xli. 

81. 

xlii. 

197. 

182. 

234. 

237. 

88. 

xliv. 

202. 

237. 

xlv. 

23.5. 

237. 

376. 

xlvi. 

422. 

159. 

199. 

157. 

xlvii. 

25. 

xiviii. 

24. 

141. 

Ii. 

229.no<e. 

205. 

237. 

Iv. 

note. 

Ivi. 

233. 

lix. 

481 

Job. 
Verse  Vol.  Page 

16,  17 ii.  2:i0.note. 

22,  23 ii.  237.7io^e. 

9 ii.       38. 

9 i.  422. 

i.  336. 

5 ii.  231. 

7 i.  426. 

11 ii.  229. note. 

11 — 17 ii.  2:iQ.nute. 

Psalms. 

1 i.  375. 

3 ii.  177. 

1,2 i.  198. 

299.  390. 

6 i.  290. 

7 i.  300. 

9 i.  310. 

12 ii.       44.  141. 

9 i.  301.359. 

12. u.       87. 

2 i.  296. 

4—6 i.  307. 

7 i.  301. 

1—3 i.  301. 

4 ii.  119. 

8—11 i.  298,299. 

2 i.  356. 

49 i.  364. 

4 i.  303.  yn. 

8 i.  3.57. 

7—11 i.  37.5. 

1   2 i.  297.375. 

1 i.  297. 

6 i.  294. 

16 i.  389. 

18 i.  297,298. 

22 i.  307. 

4 ii.  124.no<e. 

2 i.  422. 

ii.  205. 

3,4 i.  375. 

8 i.  290. 

4,  5 ii.       36. 

title ii.       84.  154. 

2 i.  362. 

1,2 i.  301. 

4 ii.       25. 

9 ii.  205. 

13,14 i.  376. 

16 ii.       89. 

12—16 i.  310. 

13 ii.  132. 

1 i.  301. 

6 i.  197. 

.10 i.  332. 

6—8 i.  308. 

9 i.  298. 

i.  349. 

1 ii.       30. 

2 i.  340. 

7 ii.       39. 

3 ii-       84. 

22 i.  301. 

2 ii.  252. 

■  3.  6 ii.       44. 

6,7 i.  307. 

2.  3 ».        19- 

2—5 ii.       38. 

6.  10 i.  376. 

9 i.  372. 

5 ii.       44. 

2 ii.       21. 

7 ii.       25. 

4 i.  301. 

10 i.  359. 

i.  413. 

8 ii.  20\.&fn. 

6.  14,  15 ii.  176. 


48!2 


Chap. 
Ixiii. 

Ixv. 

Ixviii. 


Ixix. 


Ixxii. 
Ixxvi. 
Ixxviii. 


Ixxix. 
Ixxxii. 
Ixxxiii. 
Ixxxiv. 


Ixxxv, 
Ixxxvii. 
Ixxxix. 
xci. 

xcii. 

xciv. 
xcv. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


Psalms. 
Verse 

title 

6 

2 

4 

9 

18 

9 

9,  10 

22,  23 

25 

9 

1 

1.  11.  16 i. 

2 i. 

19,  20 ii. 

24 i. 

11 ii. 

6 i. 

13 ii. 

5—7 i. 

6 ii. 

6,  7 ii. 

7 i. 

10 ii. 

11 i. 


u. 


11,  12 i. 


3 

12.... 
11.... 
7—11. 
11.... 


XCVUl. 

xcix 

cii. 

ciii. 


cvi. 
cvii. 


7 i. 

11 i. 

6 u. 

5 ii. 

25—27 i, 

11,  12 i. 

15,  16 ii, 

4 i. 

5 i. 

17 ii. 

28 ii. 

5 

34 


II. 


3. 


cxiv. 
cxvii. 
cxviii. 
cxix. 

cxxi. 
cxxvii. 

cxxix. 
cxxx. 

cxxxiii, 

cxxxiv, 

cxxxv. 

cxxxvii, 

cxxxix, 

cxl. 

cxli. 

cxliv. 

cxlvii. 


23 

1 

4 

4 

10 

4.  6. . . . 

1 

22,23... 

63 

96. 130. 
6 


u 


cl. 


5 

6 , 

1 

6 , 

3 

1,2,  3 ii. 

15—18 i. 

.3,4 ii. 

2 i. 

3 i. 

2 ii. 

5,6 i. 

15.  18 ii. 

16,  17 ii. 

5 ii. 


34. 
73. 

339. 

244.  note. 

297. 

306.£jfn. 

297. 

294.  297. 

303. 

298. 

361. 

14. 
876. 
295. 
139, 
297, 

66. 
297. 

38.£;fn. 
331. 
122. 

IS.note. 
332.noie. 
111. 

362.  399. 
&  n. 
362. 

24.7io;e. 

44. 

38. 
294. 
184. 

36. 
305. 
307. 
323. 
208. 
307. 
357. 

44. 

96. 
307. 
376. 

40. 
307. 
422. 

66. 
138. 

34. 


Chap. 


413. 

298. 

298. 
39. 

296. 

383. 

357. 

376. 
38. 
i.  304. 
i.  296. 
ii.  155.  179. 
i.  425. 
ii.  25. 
ii.  240. 
ii.  54. 
ii.  153. 
i.  356. 
ii.  73. 
ii.  25. 6?  71. 30. 
l^.note. 

376. 

\&Q.note. 

361. 

301. 

119. 

376. 
37. 
24. 

183. 


XV. 

xvi. 


XVII. 

xviii. 

XX. 

xxi. 
xxii. 

xxiii. 
XXV. 


x:xvu. 

XXX. 

xxxi. 


Vlll. 

xi. 


V. 

vii. 
viii. 


PnOVEHBS. 

Verse  Vol. 

27 ii. 

16 ii. 

11,  12 i. 

15—18 i. 

1,2 i. 

6—23 ii. 

1,  V i. 

12 i. 

14 i. 


15. 

21. 
22. 
1... 
4... 
14. 
15. 
18. 


21,  22 i. 

16 i. 

1 ii. 

6 i. 

27 ii. 

15.  16 i. 

11 i. 

13 ii. 

15 i. 

21,  22 i. 

1 ii. 

4,  5 i. 

22 ii. 

7—9 ii. 

6 ii. 

10—31 ii. 

24 ii. 

ECCLESIASTES. 

2 i. 

3 ii. 

5.  9 ii. 

3 ii. 

6 ii. 

20 


I. 


Page 

38. 

64.7io<e. 
377. 
365. 
397. 

IbS.jiote. 
375. 
310. 
350. 
247. 
397. 

63. 

80. 
158. 
395. 
343. 

57. 

24. 
397. 
286. 
397. 
177. 
395. 

63. 
376. 
370. 

30. 
359. 
304. 

25. 
397. 

68.  178. 
246, 

57. 
164. 
156. 


424. 

247. 

in.&n. 

199. 

2^1. note. 
343. 


Chap. 


1 ii.  247.72o;e. 

1 ii.  176. 

9 i.  372. 

i.  365. 

ii.  199. 

ii.  247.no<e. 

ii.  28.£tfn. 

i.  371. 


2—6. 
5 


6.. 

11. 


Canticles, 
on  Song  of  Solomon. 

1 ii.     249. 

3 ii.     159. 

5 ii.     \bl.&n 

152.  note 

5,  6 ii.     159. 

1 

3 

7 

11 

13 

7,8 


11. 
1.. 
4.. 


15. 


32. 
36. 
82. 
24. 
37. 

88.  173. 
note. 
161. 
31. 
92. 
30. 
29. 


4 :s ii.     153. 


1.. 
13. 

1.  i 
2., 


157.  &?i. 
36. 
251. 

172.  &ji. 
179. 
157. 


xu. 

xiii. 
xiv. 


xvu. 
xviii. 


XX. 

xxi. 


XXIV. 
XXV. 

XX  vii. 


XXX. 

xxxi. 
xxxii. 


Isaiah. 

Verse  Vol.  Page 

i.      339. 

1 ii.     266.note 

3 i.      376. 

5 i.      335. 

8 ii.     179. 

notes  1  &  9 

9 i.      302. 

4 i.      336. 

19 ii.       32. 

16—24 ii.     158. 

17 ii.       90. 

18.  20 ii.     158. 

23 ii.     157,  158. 

26 i.        91. 

1 i.      384.no;e. 

ii.     151. 160. 

1 — 7 i.  366,  367. 

3 i.  374. 

9,10 i.      197.295 

298.  344, 
390. 

9,  10,  11 i.  295. 

3 ii.       20. 

ii.  262. 

14 i.  293.390. 

23 ii.  178. 

1—3 ii.  262. 

6 ii.       28.183. 

12,13 i.  310. 

14 i.  302.392. 

17,  18 i.  307. 

1. il       18. 

1,2 i.  294. 

2,  3 i.  287. 

4 i.  383. 

1 ii.       56. 

22,  23 i.  302. 

6 i.  391. 

10 i.  304. 

15 i.  388. 

3 i.  297. 

10,  13 i.  389. 

1—27 ii.  269. 

18 ii.  201. 

30 i.  197. 

5... ii.       32. 

13 ii.       38. 

2 ii.  lS9.&n. 

2.7 ii.  262. 

5 ii.  179. 

6,7 ii.  182.&n. 

18—25 ii.  264. 

19.21 i.  389. 

2 i.  385. 

1 i.  388. 

11,  12 i.  389. 

6 ii.       88. 

16 ii.  201. 

21 ii.  165. 

22 ii.       47. 

23 ii.  154. 

10—13 ii.  264. 

11 ii.  264. 

20 ii.       38. 

8 i.  305. 

1 i.  388. 

12,  13 i.  376. 

11,12 i.  305. 

15 ii.       80. 

16 i.  302,303. 

23—29 i.  366. 

1 ii.       19, 

10 i.  303. 

13 i.  295. 

14 i.  304. 

26 i.  389. 

4 i.  376. 

2 ii.       31.^71. 

30 ii.  176. 

i.  3d0.note. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


l!4ATAn. 

Chap.      VoMC  Vol. 

xxxiv.    4 ii. 

4—6 i. 

XXXV.     2 ii. 

7 ii. 

xxxvi.    6 i. 

xxxvii.  9 i. 

24 ii. 

27 ii. 

3H ii. 

ixxviii.  17 ii. 

21 ii. 

xl.  1— 10 i. 

3 ii. 

3—5 i. 

6 i. 

6 i. 

C,  7 ii. 

6.  8 i. 

13 i. 

24 ii. 

xli  19 ii. 

xlii.        1 — 4 i. 

xliii.       2 i. 

xliv.       26 i. 

28 ii. 

xlv.        23 i. 

xlvi.       I.  2 ii. 

7 ii. 

xlvii.      2 ii. 

xlix.       6 i. 

8 i. 

9—11 ii. 

Ii.  1.4.7 i. 

3 i. 

17—23 i. 

23 ii. 

lii.  2 ii. 

5 i. 

7 i. 

10 i. 

11,  12 i. 

15 i. 

liii.         1 i. 

4 i. 

5 i. 

7,  8 i. 

10 ii. 

12 i. 

liv.         1 i. 

5 i. 

5,6 ii. 

10 i. 

13 i. 

Iv.  3 i. 

6,  7 i. 

Ivii.        4,  5 ii. 

Iviii.       1 ii. 

10 i. 

lix.         7,  8 i. 

20,  21 i. 

Ix.  1 i. 

19 i. 

hi.         1,2 i. 

4 i. 

Ixii.        5 ii. 

Ixiv.       4 i. 

Ixv.         1,  2 i. 

4 ii. 

10 ii. 

11 ii. 

21,  22 i. 

Ixvi.       1,  2 i. 

17 U. 

Jeremiah. 

L  4—10,  11 ii. 

10 i, 

18 i. 

ii.  6 ii. 


Page 

Chap. 

1S2. 

11. 

389. 

iii. 

30. 

35.  &  n. 

iv. 

89. 

89. 

30. 

vi. 

153. 

vii. 

139. 

viii. 

32. 

196. 

ix. 

392. 

X. 

4fi.6fn. 

xiii. 

294. 

287. 

xiv. 

358. 

XV. 

25.  y  n. 

xvi. 

310. 

305. 

xvii. 

38. 

36.  £jf  n. 

294. 

xviii. 

376. 

xix. 

376. 

XX. 

268.«o<e. 

304. 

xxi. 

91.  139. 

xxii. 

140. 

26.  178. 

xxiii. 

300. 

317, 

xxiv. 

2.5. 

xxvi. 

375. 

xxix. 

196. 

367. 

XXX. 

90. 

xxxi. 

MQ.note. 

300, 

303. 

287. 

xxxii. 

306. 

304. 

XXXV. 

297. 

xxxvi. 

294.  358. 

389. 

300. 

xxxvii 

119. 

297. 

xxxvii 

306. 389. 

376. 

252. 

xlvi. 

375. 

297. 

xlvii. 

300. 

xlviii. 

375. 

xlix. 

140. 

257. 

^m.&n. 

Ii. 

301. 

304. 

362. 

389. 

lii. 

297. 

288. 

252. 

304.  305. 

1. 

303. 

201.no/c. 

11. 

32. 

IV. 

137. 

376. 

300. 

137. 

u. 

273. 

360.  390. 
356. 
34.  U  n. 


Jeremiau. 

Verge  V 

18 

6 

26 

10 

11 

30 

6 

31 

20 

22 

17,  18 

l.S 

1—7 

22 

3 

18 

2.  5.  8 

7 

5 

8 

9 

2—10 

2 

2 

7 

12 

14 

19 

5,  6 

5—8 

2 

23 

22 

26 

18 

15 

22 

31—34 

38.40 

10—15 

35 

5—7.18,  19 

2.  18 

22 

30 

.   15 

16—20 

i.6 

7 

23 

4 

11 

4 

36 

19 


8 n. 

19 i. 

20,21 ii. 

64 ii. 

24 ii. 

Lamentations. 


6... 
19. 
12. 


EZERIEL. 


VU. 

viii. 


9,  10. . 
12.  ... 

15 

8—10. 
8—11. 
17.  ... 
2 


Page 
\b.note. 
140. 
91. 
360.  375. 
40. 
158. 
89. 
19. 
24. 
36. 
199,200. 
197. 
386. 

154.«o<e. 

29.7iote. 

3.5. 

386. 

202. 

339. 

177. 

330. 

386. 

19. 

Qb.note. 
412. 
5.5. 
152. 
199. 
275. 
392, 
37. 
201. 
68.  Ww. 
Qb.note- 
151. note. 
294. 

276. note. 
308. 
19,20. 
19.81. 
137. 
116. 
182. 
23.  74. 
199. 
%b.note. 
66. 
65. 
47. 
360. 
88. 
36. 
323. 
199. 
368. 
&  note. 
26. 
36. 
287. 
88. 
275.nofe. 
113. 


91. 
22. 
73. 
\^.note. 


183.  yn. 
171. 
360. 

201.  yn. 
139. 
141. 

156.  183. 
note. 


Chap, 
xiii. 


XV. 
xvi. 
xvii. 


XX. 

xxi. 


xxvu. 


EZEKIEL. 

Verse  ^'<>1- 

11 ii. 

18 ii. 

19.22 i. 

7 ii. 

9 i. 

14 ii. 


12. 
3.. 


22.  24 H. 

1_9,  10—14 i. 

11 ii. 

25,  26 i. 

6 i. 

21 ii. 

14,  15 ii. 

2.5 ii. 

6 u. 


10,  11 11. 

17,  18 ii. 

18 ii. 

26 ii. 

12 ii. 

3—17 i. 

27 ii. 

21.30 ii. 

xxxvii.  1 1. 

16 ii. 

3 i. 

23,24 ii. 

16.  18 ii. 

18 ii. 

1 ii. 


XXVllI. 

xxxi. 
xxxii. 
xxxiii. 


xliii. 
xlvi. 
xlvii. 


xlviii. 


Vll. 

viii. 


Daniel. 


5 

6.  15 

25,  26.31—33.. 
12 

7.  12.  16—24... 

10 

1—7 


1 — 7.  20—22 11. 

14 ii. 

1—27 ii. 

1 — 45 ii. 

2 i. 


483 


Page 

24. 
153. 
360. 

109.HO/e. 
412. 
227. 
366. 
1.58. 

29. 

36. 
366. 

44. 
360. 
372. 

14.3.  cffn. 
183. 

QQ.note. 

^X.note. 

36. 

92. 

35. 
\19.&n. 

25. 
269. 
366. 
201. 

24. 
359. 

181. Wn. 
390. 
1.54, 

18, 

27. 

14, 


184. 

72. 
196. 
196. 

68. 
131,  132. 
278. 
338. 
278, 

72. 
279. 
279. 
372. 


HOSEA. 


2... 
10. 
6... 
23. 
12. 


i.  387. 

i.  302. 

ii.  37. 

i.  302. 

i.  357. 

ii.  143. 


4 ii.      25.  6f  M. 

5 i.  360. 

6 i.  295. 

4 ii.  202. 

9 i.  315. 

8 ii.      32. 

1 i.  293.391. 

8,9 i.  375. 


10,11 ii.    261.Mo/e, 


3,.. 
5,.. 
14. 
2.., 
5... 
7.., 


Joel, 


4—20, 
3 


25.  154. 

34. 
30b. 
309. 

25, 

29.  3.5. 
1 79.  &  n. 
376. 


39. 
22. 


484 


Chap. 

ii. 


vu. 
viii. 


JoEl 
Verse 

7 

11 ii 

20 ii 

28—32 i 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE 
Malachi. 


Vol. 
.  i. 


2—12. 

4 

10 

18 


Amos. 


2 

15 

16,  17.. 
25—27. 

26 

4 

10 

14,  15.. 

6 

9,  10... 
2,  3. . . . 
11,12.  . 
12 


11. 
vii. 
viii. 
ix. 


Jonah. 


3 

17.... 

2 

4—10. 


Page 
375. 

39.&71. 

27.  39. 
298.  389. 
\05.iiote. 

32. 
389. 
336. 

33. 


30. 
153. 
199. 
299. 

96.  140. 
153. 
199. 
185. 

54. 
260.^71. 

30. 
300. 
389. 


139. 

422.  &  n. 
197. 


Chap. 


Verse 
2,  3.. 

6 

8 

11... 

7 

1 


Vol. 


1—5. 
14... 
16... 
5,6.. 


Page 
302. 
3S9. note. 

46. 
l]9. note. 
396. 
295.^71. 

46. 
392. 
426. 
328. 
325.  407, 


Chap. 


APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  OF 

THE 

OLD  TESTAMENT. 


MrcAH. 


3.., 

12. 


5,  6. 
12.. 


5.... 
3,4. 
4.... 

8..., 
12.. 


Nahum. 


Habakkuk. 


12... 
1.... 
19.. 
9.... 
11.. 
2,3. 
13.. 


Habgai. 


Zechakiah. 


17.. 
3...- 
10.. 
11.. 
4..., 
7.... 
16.. 


391. 


271. 
462. 

19.7io(e. 

90. 
336. 

36. 
271. 
293. 

42. 
271. 

25. 


91. 
37. 


300. 
309. 
301. 
25. note. 
363. 


309. 
98,  99. 


13. 

74. 
128. 
296,  297. 

65. 

36. 
'2.96.  &n. 
417. 
197. 
190. 
298.  389. 

33. 
254. 
296. 
389. 


1. 

X. 

xvi 


VII. 

viii. 


xu. 
xvi. 
xviii. 


xu. 

xxiv. 

XXV. 


XIV. 

xvi. 


1. 
iv. 
vi. 
viii. 

X. 

xiii. 

XV. 


TOBIT. 


ii.     228.no«e. 


12 

Judith. 

g ii.  33. note. 

4 ii.  157. &ti. 

9 ii.  151.  &n. 

Wisdom. 

23,24 ii-     205. 

26 ii-     158.7io(e. 


20 

1,2 

15.17.20.. 

3 

4—12 

1.  7.  9.  20. 


ECCLESIASTICUS. 

11 ii- 

30,31 ii- 

24 ii- 

Bahuch. 


144.7io<e. 
205. 
108. 
13. 
136. 
108. 


158.7io^e. 

177. 

205. 


46. 


1  Maccabees. 

63 u. 

no. 

4 11- 

80. 

54 u- 

90. 

8—11.  13 ii. 

90. 

5"  —59       i ......  .  11. 

128. 

52 ii- 

76. 

55—58 11. 

197. 

67 11- 

26. 

32 11. 

87. 

7,  8 li- 

89. 

2  Maccabees. 

7 ii. 

9—15 ii- 

19.28.  30 ii- 

28.  30 ii. 

1—8 ii- 

2 ii- 

37 ii- 


13. 
190. 

68. 
91. 
98. 
86. 
76. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 
Matthew. 


Matthew. 


Verse 
6 


11. 
15. 
16. 


17,  18 1. 

18 i. 

20,  21 ii. 

22 i- 


11. 


23... 
1 

1—4. 


1—16.. 

4 

18 

23 

1—3. . , 
1—16., 


299,  302. 
400.  417. 

288. 
285. 
293. 

51. 

79. 


9,  10. 

4 

5 

6,  7.  . 


10 

15 

15,  16. 

25 

1 

5 

9.  19.. 
13.... 


14 

15 

19 

21,22.27—30. 

22 


25 1. 

ii. 

26 ii- 

3\.etseq ii- 

33—37 ii' 

34 i. 

38 — 42 i. 

41 ii' 

42 1. 

43 ii' 

1—4 i. 

2 ii 

5 ii 

9—13 1. 

13 i. 

19 1' 

19,20 11 

19.  31.  34 i 


28 

32 

33 

2 

6 

16—20. . 

23 

24—27... 
25—27.. 
26,  27. . . 

6 

8,9 

12 

17 

20 

22 

23—27. . 
28—34. , 

2 

2—8.  . . 
6 


Pase 
293.  377 
271. 
45. 
293. 
419. 
&  notes. 
51.77. 
317. 
294. 
13. 
79. 

17.51. 
note. 
294. 
34. 
46. 
\5&.&n. 
294. 
46. 

35.  156. 
33. 
26. 
294. 

18.  99. 
294. 
31. 
294.  396. 

18. 
294.  y  71. 

18. 
106.7io/e. 

13. 
196. 

365.  389. 
7io/e. 
365. 
155. 
394. 
144. 
19.  55. 
170. 
340. 
55,  56. 
,       32. 
,     144. 
.       82. 
396. 
358. 
.       47. 
378: 
.     144. 

289.  396. 

.       83. 

L     131. 

,      399. 

.      360. 

i.     159. 

i.     151. 

358. 

35.  &  n. 

13. 

399. 423 

290. 

380. 

379. 

197. 

379.  &  n, 
24. 
ii.  151. 
ii.  197. 
ii.  93. 
ii.  167. 
i.  294. 
i.  342. 378 
i.  356. 
ii.  27. 
i.  102. 
ii.  197. 
i.  104. 
iL     I54:.&n 


u 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


Matthew 
Chap.       Vpr.sn 
ix.  9,10,11 

13 

15 

17 

18—26 

20 

23 

36 

X.  5,6 

9 

10 

14 

17 

25 

27 

34 

39 

Xi.  10 

19 

28 

xii.  1 

2 

4 

8 

18—21 

35 

0 

xiii.        3—30 

8 

13—15 

14.  15 

31,32 

31—34 

35 

45 

47,48 , 

xiv.         3—12 

6—8 

1.5—21 

24—26 

25 

34 

IT.  2 

3—6 

4—6 

8,  9 

14 

31 

xvi.         2,3 

6 

16 

18 

19 

21 

xvii.        1 — 8 

14 

20 , 

xviii.       1—10 

6 

8,  9 

11 

17 

23—35 

xix.        3 

3—12 

5 

e 

10 

12 

16.20 

18,  19 

19 

XX.  1—15 

3.6,  6.9 


Vol. 


Pa!;c 

ii.        79. 

i.  295. 

ii.  161. 

ii.  1.5.5.  179. 

i.  10.5. 

ii.  156.  197. 

ii.  199. 

i.  :VZH. 

i.  379. 

i.  336. 

ii.  1.56. 

ii.  124. 

ii.       14. 

ii.       54.  104. 

ii.  187. 

ii.  106. 

i.  358. 360. 

i.  197. 

i.  29.5. 

ii.       79. 

i.  398.  &  n. 

ii.  178. 

ii.  121. 

ii.       97. 

i.  284. 

i.  29.5. 

i.  284. 

i.  383.  406. 
422. 

i.  368. 

ii.       35. 

i.  390. 

L  295. 298. 

i.  367. 368. 
&  note. 

ii.       36.  &  n. 

i.  365. 

i.  295. 317. 

1.  367. 

i.       26. 

i.       18.  68. 

ii.  184. 

i.  104. 

li.      27. 

i.       73, 

i.       26, 

i.  14.5. 

.  332.  ?io<c. 

i.       62.  129. 

.  295. 

i.  149. 

I.  101. 

1.  379. 425. 

i.  ^m.note. 

.  327. 

.  343. 

i.       54. 

.  360. 

i.       76, 

i.  31.  yn. 

131. 

i,  368, 

ii,  4.5, 
ii,       68. 

i.  356. 

i.  327. 

i.  338. 340. 

i.  367. 

u.  163. 

ii.  144. 

i,  295. 

ii.  162. 

ii.  163. 

ii.  146. 

ii.  145. 

i.  295, 

i.  295, 

ii,  167.  &n. 
ii.      72. 


u. 


Matthew. 


Chap. 
XX, 


Vorso 

15 

Vr,l 

Page 
120. 

16 

20 — 23 

ii. 

....  ii. 

84. 
45. 

5 

i. 

296. 

8 

ii. 

156. 

8,  9 

9,  10 

12 

....  ii. 

ii. 

....  ii. 

127. 
44. 

78. 

13 

....  ii. 

3.1. 

If) 

....  i. 

296. 

19 

....  i. 

102, 

31 

31,32 

33,  34 

i. 

.  .  ,  .  ii. 

402, 
79. 
176.  179. 

42 

note. 
296. 

42 44 

....  i. 

378. 

1 15 

....  i. 

368. 

2 

,  ,  .  .  ii. 

161. 

11 

101. 

12    

....  ii. 

162. 

13 

....  ii. 

167. 

17   

....  ii. 

AS.note. 

17     21 

78. 

23 

145.^71, 

23—32 

....  i. 

423. 
146. 
296. 
295. 
296. 

145.  156. 
197. 
201. 6fn. 

19. 
000. 

99. 
000. 

21. 

19. 
458. 

458,  459. 
459. 
460. 

99. 
460. 
000. 

23. 
196. 
197. 
155, 

161,162. 
£f?  notes. 
366. 
290. 

56. 
396. 
173, 

19,  125, 
402, 
115. 

55. 
198.  note. 

19. 
125. 
162. 
343. 
125. 
326.  356. 

70.  125. 
327. 

81. 
125.  244. 
note. 
296, 
425, 

57. 
l^i.note. 

56. 
396. 

35 

. . , .  ii. 

37 

....  i. 

39 

.  .  .  .  i. 

44 

....  i. 

5 

....  ii. 

15   

. . . .  i. 

27 

.  ,  .  ,  ii. 

33 

.  .  ,  .  ii. 

37.  38 

. . . .  i. 

1     3 

.  .  .  .  ii. 

2 

.  .  .  .  i. 

2   3 

ii. 

4,  5 

.  .  .  .  i. 

6,  7 

.  .  .  .  i. 

9 

. . . .  i. 

15 

. . . .  i. 

16.  18.24 

19  21 

ii, 
.  .  .  ,  i, 
.  ,  ,  ,  i. 

20 

. , . .  ii. 

24 

36 

1—10 

1 12 

.  .  ,  .  ii. 
,  .  .  .  ii. 

1      13 

,  .  .  ,  i. 

29   

33 

.  .  .  ,  ii. 

34 36 

. . , ,  i. 

41,  45 

.  .  ,  .  ii. 

2   6,  7 

,  .  ,  •  i. 

3   57 

5 

.  .  ,  .  ii. 

12 

.  .  ,  ,  ii. 

18    

, . . ,  iL 

21 — 25 

23 

.  .  .  .  ii. 

26 

. . . .  i. 

26.  28 

ii. 
....  i. 

27     31 

.  .  ,  .  ii. 

28    

. . . .  L 

30 

ii. 
. . . .  ii. 

31 

. .  • .  i. 

39.42 

50 

ii, 
.  ,  .  .  ii. 

63 

.  .  .  .  ii. 

63.64 

. ...  i. 

Chap, 
xxvi. 


485 

Matthew. 

Vprse                          Vol.  Page 

64 ii.  82.  170. 

66 ii.  56. 

67,  68 ii.  70. 

C9 ii.  17. 

5 i.  418. 

9,  10 i.  296.  yn. 

417. 

11 ii.  56. 

15 ii.  123. 

19 ii.  52. 

25 ii.  57, 

27 -. .  ii.  21. 

27—31 ii.  70. &n. 

72.  156. 

29 i.  372. 

33 ii.  19. 

35 i.  284.297. 

ii.  69. note. 

35.  4.3 i.  390. 

37 ii.  Tl.note. 

40 ii.  101. 

46 i.  297.390. 

50 ii.  71. 

52,  53 i.  425. 

54.  58—60 ii.  71. 

62 ii.  7.3.  122. 

6.3 ii.  76. 

6.5 ii.  21.  101. 

1 ii.  73. 

7.  16 ii.  17. 

Mark. 

3 i.  294. 

4 ii.  34. 

6 ii.  40. 

16—20 i.  321. 

4 ii.  152. 6fn 

3—12 i.  104. 

14—16 u.  78,79. 

22 ii.  155. 

26 i.  315.417. 

5 i.  424. 

5 ii.  20l.note. 

12—17 i.  102. 

20 ii.  18. 

22—43 i.  105. 

25,  26 ii.  197. 

29.  34.41.  43 ii.  195. 

38 ii.  200. 

13 ii.  195. 

17.28 i,  50. 

27 ii.  47. 

35—44 i.  104. 

53 ii,  26. 

9 i.  372. 

9—13 ii.  119. 

31 ii.  17,18 

37 i.  284. 

15 ii.  148. 

31 ii.  76. 

2—9 ii.  31. 

43 ii.  19. 

46 ii.  118, 

9 i.  336. 

19 i.  284. 

14.21 i.  102. 

17 i.  377. 

1 ii.  179. note 

12 i.  332. 

26 i.  296.315 

30,31 i.  396. 

38 ii.  156. 

41 — 44 ii.  78&TU 

1,  2 ii.  100. 

2 i.  461. 

5.  8 i  458. 

7,  8 i.  458,459. 

9,10,14 i.  459,460. 

14—16.22.. L  460. 


486 

Mahk. 
Chap.       Verse                            Vol. 
xiii.        17.19 i. 

32 i. 

35 ii. 

xiv ii. 

22.  24 i. 

30 ii. 

70 ii. 

XV,         16—20 ii. 

23 ii. 

28 i. 

32 i. 

42 ii. 

43 ii. 

xvi.        14 i. 

15,  16 i. 

Luke. 

L  iL       ii. 

i.  2 ii. 

5.9 ii. 

10 ii. 

19 ii. 

32 i. 

35 i. 

46,47 i. 

46—55 i. 

52,  53 i. 

63 ii. 

67—79 i. 

80 ii. 

iL  1 ii. 

1—3 i. 

21 ii. 

23,  24 i. 

ii. 

25.  34 ii. 

39—51 ii. 

42 — 44 ii. 

44 ii. 

48 i. 

iiL  1 i. 

ii. 

4—6 i. 

ii. 

14.19,20 i. 

19 i. 

23—38 1. 

36 i. 

iv.  9 i. 

15—22 ii. 

18 ii. 

18,19 i. 

20 ii. 

25 ii. 

33—36.41 ii. 

V.  1 ii. 

18—26 i. 

19 ii. 

29.35,36 i. 

37,  38 ii. 

vi.  1 ii. 

vii.         11—15 i. 

36.  38 ii. 

44 — 46 ii. 

45 i. 

viii.        27—39 ii. 

43 ii. 

41—56 i. 

ix.         3 ii. 

13 i. 

22 ii. 

28 i. 

X.  1 i. 

27 i. 

30 ii. 

30—37 i. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


Page 
460. 
285. 

73. 

19.  125. 
3b6. 

73. 

18. 

70. 

57. 
297. 
372, 

73. 
201. &n. 
405. 
372. 


309. 

311. note. 
112, 

99. 

45. 
401, 
285. 

359.  378. 
332. 
374. 
182. 
'332.note. 

34. 

13. 
419. 
&  notes. 

76. 
297. 
118. 
186, 

17, 
173. 

l22.note. 
361. 
405. 

18.  52, 
294, 

16. 

50, 
420. 

400.  417. 
404. 
403. 
106, 

66. 
297. 
104. 

13. 
197. 

26. 
104,  105. 
152. 

&  notes. 
154:.7iote 
365. 
155. 

73.  177. 
105. 
154. 

170.^  n. 
397. 
310, 
197. 
105. 
124. 
361. 

76. 
405. 
289. 
296.  396. 

31. 
368.  395. 


Cliap. 


XV. 
xvi. 


Luke. 
Verse 

5—8 ii 

13 i 

44 i 

38 i 

42 i 

47,  48 i. 

51 i 

54 i 

58,  59 i 

1 

6—9.; 


Vol. 


11. 


32. 


11. 


II. 


34,35 i. 

1 ii, 

8—10 ii. 

13,  14 i. 

12 ii 

1—8 i. 


19—31. 
22 


10 — 13 

12 

....  ii. 

xix. 

4 

ii. 

12 

12 — 27 

37 — 41 

ii 

40  44 

i. 

41  44 

ii 

43 

44 

....  i. 

XX. 

37 

xxL 

42,43 

5 

....  ii. 
ii 

6 

8 

9,  10,  11,  12. 

i. 

20,  21,  22,  23,  24..  i. 


24. 


20. 
37. 
43. 


43,  44 ii. 

66 ii. 

6 ii, 

7—11 ii. 

11 ii. 


38. 
38. 
44. 


1. 


Pa!!e 
173.  &n. 
359. 
201. 

73. 
332. 

379.  &  n. 
358. 

24. 
340. 

18. 
367. 

37. 
355.  385. 

52. 
461. 

l2'2.7iote. 
162. 
407. 
164. 
367. 

197.413. 
228.noie. 
125. note. 
154. 

79. 

73.  132. 

37. 
368. 

51. 

19. 
372, 

19, 
460 
461. 
296.315. 

94. 
100. 
461. 
458. 

459,  460. 
460. 
197. 
461. 

19.  125. 
126. 

125.  &n. 
297. 
285. 
310. 

56. 

18. 

21. 

44. 
417. 
196. 
2\2.note. 


JOHK. 

3 i.     347. 

14 

18 

28 

[29.. 

6 ii.     133.  £^  71. 

155. 

6—10 ii.     154. 

8,  9 ii.     162. 


i.  328. 

i.  415. 

i.  289. 

ii.  117. 


14 ii. 

17 i. 

18,  19 ii. 

19 i. 

20 ii. 

3—5 ii. 

14 i. 

14,  15 ii. 

16,  17 i. 

19 i. 

29 ii. 

36 i. 


78. 
297. 
150. 
364. 

99. note. 
109. 
383. 

136.201. 
326. 
390. 

161. &n. 
378. 


Chap, 
iv. 


XVI. 

xviii. 


JOHIT. 
Verso  Vol. 

4 ii. 

5—30 ii. 

12 i. 

48 ii. 

2 ii. 

2—7 ii. 

9—16 ii. 

17 i. 

37 i. 

40 i. 

1 ii. 

5—13 i. 

25—65 i. 

27.  51 ii. 

30,  31 ii. 

31 i. 

37—40 i. 

45 i. 

51—58 i. 

59 i. 

63 i. 

69 i. 

2 ii. 

17 i. 

26 i. 

37.  39 ii. 

38 i. 

53.        -) 

1-11.5 "• 

7 ii. 

21—24 ii. 

24 i. 

44 ii. 

48 ii. 

51 i. 

1—4 ii. 

1,  2.  31—33 i. 

6.  14 ii. 

7 ii. 

22.  33,  34 ii. 

3.  14 ii. 

22 ii. 

22,23 ii. 

23 ii. 

30 i. 

34 i. 

39 ii. 

i. 

9,  10 i. 

19 i. 

31 ii. 

44 ii. 

1—3 i. 

15 i. 

20 ii. 

35,36 i. 

38.  40 i. 

47 i. 

ii. 

1,  2 ii. 

5.  14 i. 

10 ii. 

18 i. 

23 ii. 

26 ii. 

2 ii. 

6 i. 

24.28 i. 

27 ii. 

10 i. 

25 i. 

2 ii. 

ii. 

13,  24,28 ii. 

28 ii. 

31 ii. 

10 ii. 


Page 

18. 

28.£!fw 
415. 
149. 

21.99. 
710  te 
195. 

73. 
337. 
415. 
426. 

26. 
104. 
364. 
117. 
150. 
297. 
424. 
297. 
343. 
349. 
359. 
291. 
126. 
425. 
283. 
127. 
297. 

315. 

57. 

67. 
197. 
205. 
147. 
425. 
144. 

104,  105. 
121. 

21.28. 
106. 

176.£<fn. 
128. 

75. 

99. 
322. 
297. 

34. 

105,  106. 
378. 
350. 

202.  &n. 
156.  198. 
402. 
297. 

llO.note. 
365. 

297,  298. 
407. 
125. 

123.7iote. 
397. 
133.  157. 

note. 
298. 
154. 
125. 

99. 
197. 
356. 
168. 
378. 
298. 
l\7. note. 

19. 
115. 

21. 

53. 

53.  &n. 


nsDEX  Oi  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


XX. 

xxi. 


Joim. 
Verse  Vol.  Pose 

13 ii,       21.f)0. 

14  i.      40:}.  4(»5 

ii.     VZ.i.  171 

17—20 ii. 

19 ii- 

24 i- 

30,  31 ii- 

35 ii- 


30,  37. . . . 
38—40... 

40 

41 

7 

30—31... 

1 

7 

18 

20 


xiii. 


Vol. 


Acts. 

11 

12 

18 

20 

15 

17—21 i. 

25—28 i. 

47 i 

2.11 

21 

22,  23.  25.... 

6 

24—30 i 

25,  26 i 

18 

36 

37 

39 

1 

9 


11. 


11. 


11. 


11. 


11. 


71. 

71. 
297,  298. 

71,72. 

72.  &  71. 
139. 
298. 

72. 
198. 

19. 
198.  y«. 
321.401. 

26. 
156. 
365. 
417. 


17 

97. 
360.418 
298. 

73.£^n. 
298. 

298.  390. 
423.  &  n. 

99. 
343. 
299. 
115. 
ZlQ.note. 

299.  390. 
6.5. 

420. 
148. 
196. 

108.^71, 
80. 
103. 

UO.&n 
299. 
404. 


6,7 i.     299.403. 


8... 
14. 


16 i- 

20 i- 

41 i- 

42,  43 i- 

45 ii- 

49,  50 i- 

58,  59 ii. 

27 ii- 

30,  31 ii- 

32,  33 i. 

39 i- 

9 i- 

29 ii- 

31 i- 

34 ii. 

37 ii 

1 ii 

13 i- 

15.  .    i- 

26 i. 

1—3 i. 

2—17 ii 

6.  19 ii 

20 ii 

20—23 i 

21,22 ii 

21—23 i 

25 i 

6—11 i 

7 i 


110 
299.  404. 
ii  note.^\Q. 
299. 
197. 
407, 
.      299. 
1.     216. 
,      300. 
57.  67 
47.  no<e. 
183. 
300. 
292. 
42.5. 
108. 
328. 

154.  note. 
198. 
92. 
423. 

197.  360. 

350. 

79. 

52. 

60. 

32.  168. 
79. 

46.  note. 
52. 
292. 
143.  197 
90. 


u. 


Acts. 
Verse 

14,  15 

18 

22.33,  34.  41.  47 

48 

11 

1.3 

16,  17 ■ 

20 

1 

11,  12 i- 

13—15 ii 

14 i- 

24 ii 

25—29 ii 

37 ii 

18 ii 

21 i- 

23 i. 

23—31.... 

24.28 

26 

28 

14_16.... 

18 

12 

24—27.  31. 

34 

35   i.       90.350 

ii.     140. 

39 »»• 

6—12 u. 

13 '. 

24 ii. 

28 i. 

33 ii- 

23,  24.  26,  27 ii. 

28 ii. 

34,  35 ii. 

38 i- 


II. 


I. 


Page 
106. 
287. 
300. 

423.  Wn. 
140. 

HO.no/e. 
300. 

289.  407. 
108. 
90. 

102.  6fn. 
90. 
65. 
140.  Wn. 
58. 
60. 
80. 
90. 
139. 
61. 
291.325. 
319. 
79. 
130.  Wn. 
156, 
140. 
141. note 


Chap. 


19 

21 

24 

24,  25.  29. 
28—36. . . 

2 

2—5 

5 


23 

24—26 

27—35 

2 

.5 

14 

15 

25,  26 

9 

13.  23 

16 

1 

11 

28 

1 

2,  16—20.40... 

14 

4 

11 

16 

26,27 


Romans. 


17 

4 

16 

17—20. 
24 


61. 
153. 
424. 

194.note. 
289.291. 
159. 
130. 
101. 
21. 
80. 
148. 
106. 148. 
185. 
54. 
149. 
21. 
59. 
57. 
56. 
50. 
300. 
144.  197 
73.  93. 
5.3. 

bS.&n. 
53. 
371. 
314. 

351.  note. 

79. 

59, 

52, 

58. 

92. 

54. 

350. 

50. 

188.  yn. 

25. 

1.39. 

189. 

92. 

295. 


301. 

389.note. 

338. 

149. 

301. 


487 

ROMAKS. 

Verse  Vol.  Page 

25 29 ii-  110. note. 

4        i.  301. 

q'.W i.  396. 

10—12,  13,14....  i.  301. 

15_17,  18 i.  301, 

28 i,  333,340. 

3.7*8.17,18 i.  301. 

12    i.  338. 

14   "". ii.  204. 

19". »•      S'^^. 

1  i.      315. 

\s"".\ i.      395. 

2  '       i,  359. 

3" ''"**' i,  330. 

19 — 21 i.  338. 

36 i-  3«1- 

3               ii.  66. 

5"*'//. i,  325. 

T.'g.'iV,  13.  15.  17.  i.  302. 

18 >•  337. 

25—28,  29.  33. . . .  i.  302. 

5        ._ i,  303. 

6—8..!!. i.  303.yn. 

9.  13 ••  395. 

13—18 i.  378. 

15.  18,  19— 21....  i.     303. 

3  4_' i.      Za^.&n. 

8— 10  !.. i-     303.£jfn. 

16  ".'.'. ii.     120. 

17     i.     328. 

ii,  183,  £<fn. 

26,  27 »•  304.6fn. 

33^35 i-  377. 

1  ii,  117,118. 

o"!!!!!!" i-  342. 

19,20 >•  304, 

4            i,  396. 

^''W i.  315. 

11,12.. i.  •*06. 

12   ii.  93. 

5         i.  393. 

11"             i,  304.  yn. 

13!  *.".■. '-'..'. i-      32.5. 

17 i.      424. 

22    ii-  ^6 

3  i.  304. 

4 ■■ i,  398.426. 

9'"io... i.  304.£ifn. 

11,  12! '21 i.  304. 

9  i.  359. 

16.*.*.'.' .' i.  397. 

1  CoBINTHIASrS. 

17  i.  196. 

19!  ■.'.'. i-  304. 

23 ii.       69- 

28  ii.       14.  note. 

4,  v. '.".'- *.'.■."- i-  196. 

9  i.  304.  &  n. 

iV"     *"..'.' i.  378. 

13'  '         i,  342. 

le!  !!! i-  305. 

9  '"    ii,  180,note. 

9—13 i-  365. 

15 i-  341. 

17  i,  340. 

le:::: ?•  197. 

19  20      i-  305.  Wn 

5  '      ■■    i.  332. 

^"\ i.  372. 

9.13... »•  191. 

13 -):    328. 

5             11.  66. 

gills           i-  364.  &  n. 

rj  8.','..!. ii.  123,  124. 

'     "  *  note.  125. 

9 i.  57. 

1    5         ii.  55. 

5:.."V. ii.  104. 


488 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


Chap. 
vii. 

1  Corinthians. 
Verso                          Vol. 
18 Il- 
ls  19     . . .  • i- 

Page 
110. 
393. 

22 

29—31 

1-4 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

168. 

190.  yn. 
338. 

ix. 

5 

9,10 

9—11 

24        

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

414. 
384. 
323. 
328. 

X. 

24—27 

1—4 

1—11 

4      

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

193.  £^n. 
207. 
208. 
357.  383. 

8      

i. 

289.415. 

20      

i. 

305.  &  n. 

28    

i. 

283. 

xi. 

1      

i. 

426. 

4      

ii. 

94:.7iote. 

13     16  .. .. 

ii. 

157. 

xiL 
xiiL 

3 

ii. 

66. 

6       

i. 

328. 

12     

ii. 

158. 

xiv. 

XV. 

21   

i. 

305.££fn. 

20     23     ... 

ii. 

120. 

24       

i. 

327.  407. 

27  32 

i. 

305. 

33 

i. 

319. 

45 

ii. 
i. 

19\.note. 
305.  SJ  n. 

c4         

383. 
198.  305. 

55 

305.  £5-  n. 

xvi. 

2 

•38.note. 

22 

i. 

413. 

Cliap. 


2  Corinthians. 


3      

i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 

ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 

.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 

ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  ii 

327. 
331. 

80. 

95.  &  n. 
380. 
359. 

28. 
3S9.nGte. 
205. 

94. 
30.5. 
126. 

21 

22 

14 16 

15  16 

6 

6    14  

18     

6      

8        

13 

7   8       

21     

330.  407. 

2    

317. 

7 

93. 

16     18 

306.£ifn. 

4    

197. 

9     11 

94. 

58. 

1 

306.^71. 

Gaiatians 
8 

306. 

10 

306.  &  n. 

13 

306.  &  11. 

17 

386. 

69. 

403. 

24 

4  5       

387. 
165. 

9      

329. 

10   11 

393. 

17 

372. 

22     24 

383. 

24 

323. 

27       

306. 

30 

306.(^71 

1 

168. 

3    

110. 

6 

331. 

15 

331, 

17 

167. 

Ephesians. 
Verse  Vol.         Page 

23 i.  329. 

8 i.  344.407. 


11—13.., 
13,  14... 
14—19... 


14. 
18. 


110. 
.  ii.  99. 
.  ii.  118. 
.  i.  306. 
.  ii.     189. 


1. 


22—24 n. 

5 i. 

8 i. 

8,  9 i. 

27 i. 

31 i. 

2,  3 i. 

11—17 ii. 

11—19 i. 

Philippians. 


329.  332. 
191. 
327. 
329. 
290. 
328. 
289. 

307.  &  n. 
93.  &n. 
365. 


Chap. 


28     ii. 

69.note. 

69. 
196. 

396. note. 
141. 

94. 
108. 
193, 194. 

&  note. 
131. 

328. 
llO.Tio^e. 

81. 

95.(^71. 
385.  387. 

7  8  ii. 

8 i. 

12 i. 

17 ii. 

25 ii. 

4,  5 ii. 

12     14 ii. 

6 ii. 

CoLOSSIANS. 

6 i. 

11 ii. 

14 ii. 

15 ii. 

17   i. 

1Q    9.0    91 i. 

394. 

18.  21.  23 ii. 

22 i. 

23 i. 

9,10 ii. 

16 i. 


1  Thessaionians 


15. 


11. 


19. 
21. 
23. 
27. 


1. 


146. 
325. 
341. 
191. 

58. 


149. 
325. 
365. 

93.note. 
359. 
354. 

332.  359. 
348. 


2  Thessaionians. 

12 i.  327. 

2 i.  359. 

8 i.  379. 

2,8 i.  349. 


1  Timotht. 


9,  10.., 
15.  ... 

9 

16 

1 


10 

17 

21 

1—10. 


16. 


ii.  16.5.  W  71. 

i.  425. 

ii.  157. 

ii.  34.5.nofe. 

i.  197. 359, 

408. 

i.  398. 

i.  397. 

ii.  185. 

i.  327. 

ii.  165. 

,  i.  396. 

i.  415. 


2  Timotht. 


359. 
425. 


2  Timotht. 
Verso  Vol.  Page    ' 

16—18 i.  338. 

ii.  60. 

3,  4 ii.  94.  £^  71. 

5 ii.  193. 

15 ii.  180.no/e. 

15—22 i.  364. 

8 i.  318. 

6 ii.  141. 

7,8 ii.  194.£^n. 

8 ii.  94. 

13 ii.  156. 

14 i.  413. 

Titus. 

10,  11 i.        8  . 

12 i.  319.395. 

11 i.  325. 

13 i.  327. 

5 i.  383.396. 

Hebrews. 

2 i.  347. 

5   6,7 i.  307.yji. 

8*9 i.  307.390. 

10—12 i.  307.^71. 

6—8.12,13 i.  307. 

17     ii.  209. ?io^e. 

7—10 i.  307. 

8    ii.  216. 

12 i.  197. 

12,13 ii.  118. 

13 i.  328. 

14 i.  329. 

13,14 i.  308. 

13—18 ii.       81. 

1 i.  383. 

3 ii.       79. 

5.8—12 i.  308. 

2_7 ii.       96.  100. 

4 i.  418. 

ii.       96. 

7_20 i.  323.  383. 

13,14 ii-  117. 

20 ii.       81. 

21,  22 ii.  133. 

27 i.  400.407. 

5—7 i.  308. 

19—22 ii.  100. 

32,33 ii.  191. 

35 ii.       88. 

37,  38 i.  209. 

5 i.  196.  198. 

21 i.  309. 

34 i.  197. 

35 ii.       68. 

37 ii.       68.  155. 

1—3.  12,13 ii.  193. 

2 i.  328. 

ii.  167. 

4    i.  32.5. 

5,6 i.  377. 

23 ii.  123. 

24 ii.  126. 

26 i.  309. 

5 i.  309. 

8 i.  426. 

12,  13 ii.       I9.&^n. 

15 i.      309. 

15,16 ii.     lis. 

James. 

1 ii.  4:8. note. 

12 ii.  94. 

13 i.  414. 

2 ii.  54. 

10 i.  394.399. 

21 i.  407. 

24 i.  333. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


Oiap. 


James. 

V.TSfi 

Vol. 

Page 

1 — :< 

.    11. 

.  ii. 

1 59. 

11 

228. 

12 

.  i. 

28f). 

14,  15.  10 

.  i. 

34  :j. 

1  Pktku. 

1 

.  i. 
.  ii. 

337. 

2 

120. 

24,  2.') 

310.385 

.•i,  9 

.  1. 

358. 

() 

.  1. 

310. 

8 

.  I. 

337. 

9 

.  I. 

325. 

22 

.  i. 

197. 

n 

.  it. 
.  i. 

1 57. 

10  —  12 

310. 

13 

.  i. 

395. 

14,  15 

310. 

21 

.  ii. 

1 10.  jiote 

4 

■  i. 

325. 

11. 

94. 

5 

.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 

34  1 .  424. 

8 

358. 

13 

286. 

2  PuTKn. 
(;iiap.        VfTie  Vr 

i.  1,2 

18 i 

20 i 


1  Joiiy. 

8—10 

1 

23 

20.  27 , 

27 

1 

6.  9 

7,8 


16. 


JCDE. 


Page 
327. 
.348. 

.342.  388. 
&  note. 
286. 
348. 


343. 

5.5. 
292. 
331. 

W.note. 
196. 
343. 

241.260. 
284. 
306-376. 

67. 


291, 
327. 
56.  135. 


(^Iiap. 


Xlll. 
xvi. 


JUDE. 


Verse 
9..  .. 
12... 
14... 
19... 


489 


Page 

203. 

2.5. 

318. 

332. 


Revelations. 

10 i.  3.59. 

10 ii.       94. 

17 ii.       50.174. 

Sjf  note. 

27 i.  310. 

5 ii.       94.£jfn. 

1 ii.  183. 

8 ii.  1  Wi.note. 

15,  16 ii.       .32. 

9,  10 ii.  127. 

1 ii.  119. 

7 ii.       39. 

5 ii.       81. Wn. 

16,  17,  &c ii.  142. 

15 i.  3.58. 

16 i.  402. 


Vol.  II. — App. 


3Q 


SYNOPTICAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


INTRODUCTION. 

General  IJibliotTrapliical  Works,  treating  on  the  Edi- 
tions, Literary  History,  Criticism,  &c.  of  the 
Bible 


5,6 


PART  I. 

HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 

Chapter  I.  Entire  l^exts  and  Versions  of  the  Bible, 

Section  L  Principal  Editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. ..  6 

§  1.  Editiones  Principes ib. 

§  2.  Editiones  Primariae;  or,  those  which  have  been 
adopted  as  the  Bases  of  subsequent  Impres- 
sions   6,7 

§  3.  Editions  of  the  Bible  with  Rabbinical  Com- 
mentaries    7 

§  4.  Editions  with  Critical  Notes  and  Apparatus. .  7-9 
Section  II.  Editions  of  the  Hebrew-Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch    9 

Section  III.  Principal  Editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment, and  of  detached  Books  thereof. 9-19 

Sectiobt  IV.  Polyglott  Bibles  ;  or,  Editions  of  the  Old 
and   New  Testaments,   with   Versions    in 

several  Languages 19-21 

Triglott  Testament 21 

Diglott  Bibles 22 

Sectiok  V.  Ancient  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments   ib. 

§  1.  Targums,  or  Chaldee  Paraphrases  on  the  Old 

Testament ib. 

§  2.  Ancient  Greek  Versions 22,  23 

[i.J  The  Septuagint 23-25 

[ii.]  Editions  of  Origen's  Hexapla 25 

[iii.]  Another  ancient  Greek  Version ib. 

§  3.  Ancient  Oriental  Versions ib. 

[i.]  The  Syriac  Versions ib. 

The  Peschito,  or  Old  Syriac  Version ib. 

The  Philoxenian  Syriac  Version 26 

[ii.]  The  Arabic  Version ib. 

[iii.]  The  Persic  Version ib. 

[iv.]  The  Egyptian  Versions ib. 

The  Coptic,  or  Version  in  the  Dialect  of 

Lower  Egypt ib. 

The  Sahidic,  or  Version  in  the  Dialect  of 

Upper  Egypt ,        ib. 

The  Bashmouric,  or  Dialect  of  Bashmour, 

a  Province  of  the  Delta ib. 

[v.]  The  Ethiopic  Version 27 

[vi.]  The  Armenian  Version ib. 

§  4.  Ancient  Western  Versions ib. 

[L]  The  Latin  Versions ib. 

Ante-Hieronymian  Versions,  or  those  made 

before  the  Time  of  Jerome ib. 

The  Version  of  Jerome ib. 

The  Latin  Vulgate 27,  28 

[ii.]  The  Gothic  Version 28 

[iii.]  The  Sclavonic  Version 29 

[iv.]  The  Anglo-Saxon  Version »*. 


PACK 

Section  VI.  Modern  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New 

Testaments 29 

§  1.  General   Observations   on  the  Circulation  of 

the  Scriptures ib. 

1.  Scarcity  and  high  Prices  of  the  Scriptures. — 
II.  Rude  Attempts  to  convey  an  Idea  of  theit 
Contents  to  the  Poor  and  Illiterate. — Account 
of  the  BiBLiA  Pauperu.m. — III.  Number  and 
Cla.s8ification  of  the  Translations  of  the  Bible 

into  modern  Languages 29-31 

§  2.  Modem  Latin  Versions  of  the  entire  Bible. . .  31 

Versions  made  by  Romanists ib. 

Versions  made  by  Protestants 31,  32 

%  3.  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Modem  Europe  32 
[i.]  Versions  in  the  Languages  spoken  in  the 

British   Isles ib. 

Wicliffe's  Version 32, 33 

English  Protestant  Versions : — 

Tindal's  Version 33,  34 

Coverdale's  Bible 34 

Matthew's  Bible ib. 

Hollybusche's  New  Testament ib. 

Cranmer's  Great  Bible 34,  35 

Tavemer's  Bible 35 

Other  Editions  of  the  English  Bible 
during  the  remainder  of  Henry  VIII.'s 

reign  and  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. .  35,  36 

Anglo-Genevese  Version 36 

Archbishop  Parker's,  or  the  Bishops* 

Bible ib. 

King  James's  Bible,  or  the  Authorized 

Version  now  in  use 36,  37 

Testimonies  of  eminent  Scholars 

to  its  value 37-39 

Editions  of  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sions, with  Parallel  References  39-41 

Anglo-RoMisH  Versions 41,  42 

Welsh  Version 42 

Irish  Version ib. 

Manks  Version ib. 

Gaelic  Version 43 

[ii.]  Versions  in  the  Ijanguages  spoken  on  the 

Continent  of  Europe ib. 

1.  German  Versions ib. 

Luther's  Version,  and  Versions  in  other 

Languages  derived  from  it 43,  44 

Jewish  German  Versions 44 

2.  French  Versions 44,  45 

3.  Belgian  Versions 45 

4.  Italian  Versions ib. 

5.  Spanish  Versions 45,  46 

6.  Russian  Version 46 

7.  Croat  Version ib. 

8.  Basque  Version ib. 

9.  Hungarian  Version ib. 

10.  Polish  Version ib. 

1 1.  Bohemian  Version 47 

12.  Romaic  or  Modern  Greek  Version ib. 

13.  Wallachian  Version ib. 

14.  15.  Bulgarian  and  Servian  Versions. . .  ib. 

1 6.  Romanese  Versions ib. 

17.  Turkish  Versions ib. 

18.  Portuguese  Versions ib. 

1 


SYNOPTICAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


1 9.  Albanian  Version 

20.  Maltese  Version 

§  4.  Modern  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Asia. . 

[i.]  Hebrew 

[ii.]  Chaldee 

[iii.]  Versions  in  the  Oriental  Languages,  either 
translated  by  the  Baptist  Missionaries  at 
Serampore,  or  printed  at  the  Mission 
Press 

1.  Versions  in  the  Auabic  Languages,  and 

its  Cognate  Dialects 

2.  Versions  in  the  Sanscrit  Language,  and 

its  Cognate  Dialects 

3.  Versions  in  the  Chinese,  and  the  Lan- 

guages derived  from  or  bearing  Affinity 

to  it 

[iv.]  Other  Asiatic  Versions 

1.  Formosan 

2.  Northern  Asiatic 

3.  Georgian 

4.  Modern  Arminian 

5.  Tahitan 

6.  Curdish 

Fac-similes  of  Specimens  of  the  Versions 

of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  in  the  Eastern 

Languages 

§  5.  Modern  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Africa 

1.  Amharic  and  Tigre,  or  the  Vernacular  Lan- 

guages of  Abyssinia 

2.  Berber  Version 

3.  Bullom  Version 

4.  Susoo  Version 

5.  Malagasse  Version 

6.  South  African  Versions 

§  6.  Modern  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  America 

[i.]  North  American  Versions 

1.  Virginian  Indian  Version 

2.  Delaware  Indian  Version 

3.  Massachusetts  Version  

4.  Mohawk  Version 

5.  Mohegan  Version 

6.  Esquimaux  Version 

7.  Chippeway  Version 

8.  Greenlandish  Version 

9.  Creolese  Version 

10.  Negro-English  Version 

[ii.]  South  American  Versions 

Chapter  II.  Harmonies  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments   


Section  I.  Harmonies  of  the  Old  Testament 

Section  II.  Harmonies  of  the  entire  New  Testament, 

and  of  the  Four  Gospels 

Section  III.  Harmonies  of  particular  Parts  of  the  Four 

Gospels 

Sf.ction  IV.  Harmonies  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 

and  of  the  Apostolic  Epistles 


PAGE 

47 
48 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 


ib. 
48,49 
49,50 


50,51 
51 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 

51,52 
52 


52-55 
56 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 
56,57 

57 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 
57,58 

58 
58,59 

59-61 

61,  62 

62 

63 


Chapter  III.  Apocryphal  Books  and  Writings 

Section  I.  Apocryphal  Books  of  the  Old  Testament   .     63-67 
Section  II.  Apocryphal  Books  of  the  New  Testament  67 


PART  II. 

SACRED  PHILOLOGY; 

on,  the  ckiticism  and  interpretation  of  the  scriptures. 

Chapter  I.   Treatises  on  the  Canon  of  Scripture,  and 

on  Apocryphal  Books 68,  69 

Chapter  II.  Introductions  to  the  Study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures   69 

Section  I.  General  Introductions  to  the  entire  Bible. .     69,  70 
Section  II.  Introductions  to  the  Study  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament in  particular 70,  71 

Section  III.  Introductions  to  the  Study  of  the  New 

Testament  in  particular 71,  72 


PAGE 

Chapter  III.   Treatises    on    the   Sacred    Text,   its 

Style,  Idiom,  and  Versions 72 

Section  I.  Treatises  on  Sacred  Criticism,  generally, 
and  on  the  Style  and  Idiom  of  the  Scrip- 
tures   

Section  II.  Treatises  on  Hebrew  Poetry 

Section  III.  Treatises  on  the  Quotations  from  the  Old 

Testament  in  the  New 

Section  IV.  Treatises  on  Manuscripts  and  on  Various 
Readings. — Collations  of  Manuscripts,  and 

Collections  of  Various  Readings 

§  1.  Treatises  on  Manuscripts 

§  2.  Treatises  on  Various  Readings 

§  3.  Collations  of  Manuscripts,   and  Collections 

of  Various  Readings 

§  4.  Treatises  on  the  Genuineness  of  the  Disputed 

Clauses  in  1  John  v.  7,  8 

Section  V.  Treatises  on  Versions  of  the  Scriptui'es. . 

§  1.  Treatises  on  Ancient  Versions 

§  2.  Treatises  on  Modem  Versions 

Chapter  IV.  Treatises  on  the  Original  Languages 
of  Scripture,  and  Grammars  and  Lexi- 
cons thereof 

Section  I.  Treatises,  &c,  on  the  Hebrew  Language 
§  1.  Treatises  on  the  Study  of  the  Hebrew  Lan- 
guage, and  on  the  Vowel  Points 

§  2.  Hebrew  Grammars,  and  other  Treatises  on 

the  Hebrew  Language,  with  Points 

[i.]  In  the  English  Language 

[ii.]  In  the  Latin,  French,  and  German  Lan- 
guages  

Hebrew  Grammars,  &c.  without  Points.. 
Hebrew   Grammars,    with    and   without 

Points 

Chaldee  Grammars 

Section  II.  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicons 

§  1.  Hebrew  Lexicons  with  Points 

§  2.  Hebrew  Lexicons  without  Points 

Section  III.  Grammars  and  Lexicons  for  the  Greek 
Testament  and  for  the  Septuagint  Version 
Grammars  and  other  Treatises  on  the  Greek 

Language  of  the  New  Testament 

Glossaries  and  Lexicons  to  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment   

Lexicons  to  the  Septuagint  Version 

Section  IV.  Grammars  and  Lexicons  of  the  Cognate 

or  Kindred  Languages 

General  Treatises,  and  Polyglott  Grammar  of 

the  Cognate  Languages 

Polyglott    Lexicons  of  the    Cognate   Lan- 
guages  

Syriac  Grammars  and  Lexicons 

§  4.  Arabic  Grammars  and  Lexicons 

§  5.  Egyptian  Grammars  and  Lexicons 

§  6.  Ethiopic  Grammar  and  Lexicons 

§  7.  Persian  Grammars  and  Lexicons 

Chapter  V.  Commentators,  Interpreters,  and  Para- 
phrasts  on  the  Scriptures 

Section  I.  On  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture 

§  1.  General  Treatises  on   the  Interpretation  of 

Scripture 97-99 

§  2.  Treatises  on  the  Interpretation  of  the  Figu- 
rative Language,  and  on  the  Spiritual  and 

Typical  Interpretation  of  Scripture 99, 100 

§  3.  Treatises  on  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture 

Proverbs  and  Promises 100 

§  4.  Treatises  on  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture 

Prophecies 100,  101 

Warburtonian  Lectures  on  Prophecy 101 

Section  II.  Jewish  Writers  and  Commentators,  and 
Illustrations  of  the  Scriptures  derived  from 

Jewish  Sources ib. 

§  1.  Jewish  Writers  and  Commentators 101-103 

§  2.  Illustrations  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  derived 

from  Jewish  Sources 103 

Section  III.   Christian   Commentators,   Interpreters, 

and  Paraphrasts  on  the  Scriptures ib. 


§3. 

§4. 

§5. 


§  1. 
§2. 
§3. 


§  1. 
§2. 
§3. 


72-76 
76 

76,77 


77 
77,78 
78,79 

79,80 

81,82 

82 

82,83 

84,85 


85 
ib. 

ib. 

86 
86,87 

87,88 
88,89 

89 
ib. 
ib. 
89-91 
91 

ib. 

91,92 

92,93 
93,94 

94 

ib. 

94,95 
95 

95,96 
96 
97 
ib. 


97 
ib. 


OF  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


§  1.  Commentaries  by  the  Fathers,  and  other 
Divines  of  the  Chrisliuii  Church,  previ- 
ously to  tlic  l^flbriuation 

[i.]   (Jrecsk  Fatlicrs 

[ii.]   Latin  Fathers 

[iii.j  Later  Divines  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 

Churches 

Greek  Writers 

Latin  Writers 

§  2.  Scholia  on  the  entire  Bible,  or  the  greater 

Part  tlicreof. 

§  3.  The  Principal  Commentators  on  the  Scrip 

tures,  generally,  since  the  Reformation. . 

[i.]  Foreign   Commentators   on    the   whole 

Bible 

[ii.]   British  Commentators 

§  4.  I*rincii)al  Commentators  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  on  detached  Books  thereof. . . . 
[i.]   Commentators  on  the  Old  Testament. . . 
[ii.]   Commentators  on  detached  Books  of  the 

Old  Testament 

Commentators    on   the    Pentateuch 

and  Historical  Books 

Commentators  on  the  Poetical  Books 
Commentators  on  the  Writings  of 

Solomon 

Commentators  on  the  Prophets. . . . 
[iii.]  Commentators  on  the  Apocryphal  Books 

of  the  Old  Testament 

§  5.  Principal  Commentators  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  on  detached  Books  thereof . . . 
[i.J  Commentators  on  the  entire  New  Testa- 
ment  

[ii.]  Commentators  on  detached  Books  of  the 
New  Testament  : 

Commentators    on    the    Historical 

Books 

Commentators     on    the    Apostolic 

Epistles 

Commentators  on  the  Apocalypse. . 

§  6.  Expository  Lectures  and  Sermons  on  the 

Scriptures,   and    on    detached    Portions 

thereof 

§  7.  Treatises  on  reconciling  the  Contradictions 

alleged  to  exist  in  the  Scriptures 

§  8.  Principal  Collections  of  Observations  on  the 
Scriptures,  Critical,  Philological,  and  Mis- 
cellaneous   


10.3 

104 

104, 105 

105 
ih. 
lb. 

106,  107 

107-114 

107-109 
109-111 

114-126 
114 

115-126 

115,116 
117-120 

120-122 
123-126 

126 

127-142 

127-131 


131-134 

134-140 
140-142 


142-146 
146 


Chapter  VI.  Concordances  and  Dictionaries,  Com- 
7iifm-jjlace  Books,  Indexes,  and  Jlnalyses 
of  the  Bible 152-154 

Section  I.  Concordances  to  the  Scriptures 152 

§  1.  Concordances  to  the  Hebrew  Bil)le 152,  153 

§  2.  Concordances  to  the  Septuagint  Greek  Ver- 
sion    153 

§  3.  Concordances  to  the  Greek  Testament. . . .  ib. 

§  4.  Concordance  to  the  Latin  Vulgate ib. 

4  5.  Concordances  to  the  English  Bible 153,  154 

§  6.  Concordance  to  the  French  Bible 154 

Section  II.  Dictionaries  of  the  Bible 154, 155 

Section  III.  Common-place  Books  to  the  Bible....  155,  156 

Section  IV.  Indexes  and  Analyses  of  the  Bible. . . .  156 

Chapter  VII.  Treatises  on  Biblical  Antiquities,  and 
on  other  Historical  Circumstances  of  the 
Bible 156-162 

Section  I.  General  Treatises  on  Biblical  Antiquities     156, 157 
Section  II.  Treatises  on  particular  Subjects  in  Bibli- 
cal Antiquities 157-162 

Scripture  Geography 157,  158 

Natural  History  of  the  Bible 158,  159 

Political  Antiquities  of  the  Jews 159,  160 

Treatises  on  the  Laws,  Government,  Coins, 

&c.  of  the  Jews 159,  160 

Sacred  Antiquities  of  the  Jews 160,  161 

[i.]  Treatises  on  the  Ritual  and  Sacred  Cere- 
monies of  the  Jews 160,  161 

[ii.]  Treatises  on  the  Religious  Notions  of  the 
Jews,  on  the  Corruptions  of  Religion 
among  them,  and  on   the  Sects  into 

which  they  were  divided 161 

Domestic  Antiquities,  Literature,  and  Sci- 
ences of  the  Jews ib. 

Miscellaneous  Illustrations  of  Biblical  An- 
tiquities, from  Voyages  and  Travels  in 
the  East,  and  from  other  Oriental  Sources  162 

Section  III.  Treatises  on  the  Genealogies  mentioned 

in  the  Scriptures 163 

Section  IV.  Treatises  on  Sacred  Chronology 163,164 

Section  V.  Connections  of  Sacred  and  Profane  His- 
tory.— Histories  of  the  Bible  and  Scrip- 
ture Biography 164, 165 


§  1. 
§2. 
§3. 


§4. 


§5. 
§6. 


146-152       Index  to  the  Bibliographical  Appendix. 


167-179 


No.  IV. 
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    APPENDIX. 


INTRODUCTION. 

GENERAL    BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    WORKS,   TREATING   ON    THE   EDITIONS,    LITERARY    HISTORY 

CRITICISM,   ETC.    OP    THE    BIBLE. 


1.  BiBLTOTHECA  Sacha  in  binofi  syllabos  distincta.  Quorum 
prior,  qui  jam  tcrtio  auctior  proiliit,  onincs  sive  Textus  Sacri 
sivc  Versionum  ojusdcin  quavis  lingua  exprcssarum  cditiones, 
necnon  prajstantiorcs  MS-S.  Codices,  cum  notis  historicis  con- 
tiuet  :  Posterior  vero  coiitinct  omnia  eorum  opera  quivis 
idiomatc  conscrij)ta,  qui  hue  usijuc  in  Sacram  Scripturam  edidc- 
runt,  simul  coliecta,  turn  ordine  alphabetico  disposita,  turn  serie 
sacrorum  librorum.  Huic  coronidisloco  subjiciuntur  Grammatica; 
et  Lexica  Linguarum  praiscrtim  orientalium,  quaj  ad  illustrandas 
sacras  paginas  aliquid  adjumenti  conferre  possunt.  Lahore  et 
industria  Jacobi  Le  Long.     Parisiis,  1723,  2  tomis  foho. 

The  third  and  best  edition  of  a  most  laborious  work.  The  first 
edition  np])eared  at  Paris  in  1709,  in  2  vols.  8vo. :  Iho  second,  at 
Leipsic,  in  the  same  year,  with  additions  by  C.  F.  Boomer. 

2.  Discours  Historique  sur  les  principales  Editions  des  Bibles 
Polyglottes.  Par  I'Auteur  de  la  Bibliotheque  Sacr^e,  [Jacques 
Le  Long.]     Paris,  1713.  8vo. 

3.  Bibliotheca  Sacra  post  Jacobi  Le  Long  et  C.  F.  Boemeri 
itcratas  curas  ordine  disposita,  emendata,  suppleta,  continuata  ah 
Andrea  Gottlieb  Masch.  Hate,  1774 — 1797.  5  vols.  4to.  fre- 
quently bound  in  two  thick  volumes. 

This  elal)orato  work,  which  was  discontinued  for  want  of  ade- 
quate supiwrt,  is  confined  to  the  printed  editions  of  the  Holy  Scri|)- 
tures.  Part  I.  contains  editions  of  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek 
text.  Part  H.,  in  three  volumes  treats  on  the  Greek,  Oriental,  and 
Latin  versions,  and  on  editions  of  tliem ;  and  the  last  volume  com- 
prises a  supplement  to  the  preceding  volumes. 

Wo  have  been  largely  indebted  to  this  publication  for  much  in- 
formation concerning  the  printed  editions  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament. To  this  valuable  work  the  Bibliotheca  Biblica  Serenissimi 
Wucrtemberfrensium  Ducis,  olitn  Lorkiana,  published  by  J.  G.  C. 
Adier,  at  Altona,  in  1787  (in  five  j>arts  forming  two  quarto  volumes), 
is  an  indispensable  supplement.  It  is  very  justly  characterized  by 
Bp.  Marsh  as  "  a  catalogue  of  great  merit  and  utility,"  and  con- 
tarns  notices  of  some  versions  and  translators,  which  have  escaped 
even  the  researches  of  Dr.  Masch. 

4.  Calmxt  (Augustin)  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  or  a  Catalogue  of 
the  best  books  that  can  be  read  in  order  to  acquire  a  good  under- 
standing of  the  Scripture.     Folio. 

This  catalogue  fills  a  considerable  portion  of  a  volume  in  the 
various  French  editions  of  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  tlie  Bible.  It 
also  occupies  two  hundred  and  eighty-four  pages  of  the  third 
volume  of  the  English  translation  ol' that  Diclionary,  in  folio.  It 
contains  copious  notices  of  the  earlier  biblical  critics  and  commen- 
tators, and  other  writers  on  Scriptural  Antiquities,  &c.  This  valua- 
ble catalogue  is  omitted  in  the  quarto  edition  of  Calmet's  Dictionary, 
published  by  the  late  Mr.  C.  Taylor. 

5.  Joh.  Christophori  Wolfii  Bibliotheca  Hebrsea ;  sive  No- 
titia  turn  Auctornm  Hebra3orum  cujuscumquc  ojtatis,  turn  Scrip- 
torum,  quae  vcl  Hcbraice  primum  cxarata,  vel  ah  aliis  conver.sa 
sunt,  ad  nostram  a-tatem  deducta.  Accedit  in  calce  Jacobi  Gaf- 
farelli  Index  Codicum  Cabbalistic.  MSS.  quibus  Joh.  Picus, 
Mirandulanus  Comes,  usus  est  Hamburgi  et  Lipsiae,  1715 — 
33.  4  tomis,  4to. 

6.  Jo.  Gcorgii  Walchit  Bibliotheca  Theologica  Sclecta,  litc- 
rariis  adnotationibus  insUucta.  Jense,  1757 — 8 — 62 — 65.  4  vols. 
Bvo. 

All  who  are  conversant  in  sacred  literature  have  borne  willing 
testimony  to  the  correctness  and  research  of  Walch,  whose  work 
will  always  remain  a  production,  admirable  for  the  diligence  and 
for  the  extensive  reading  and  accuracy  which  it  evinces.  The 
sound  judgment,  remarkable  in  other  works  of  this  theologian,  is 
conspicuous  in  this  publication.  All  possible  aids  for  theological 
literature  are  here  embraced.  The  whole  is  well  arranged  :  with 
regard  to  many  Ixwks,  their  contonls  and  value  arc  stated,  and 
directions  arc  given  where  more  exiensive  iulurmalion  is   to  be 


obtained.  Of  many  important  works  an  extensive  and  accurate 
literary  history  is  given.  All  departments  of  theology  have  a  rich 
collection  of  tKXjks  pertaining  to  them  described,  and  abundant 
materials  are  furnished  for  the  history  of  religion.  The  third  and 
fourth  volumes  arc  chiefly  interesting  to  biblical  students.  How 
much  the  author  of  the  present  work  is  indebted  to  the  Bibliotheca 
Theologica  Selecta,  the  frequent  references  made  to  it  will  suffi- 
ciently attest.  In  1770,  Walchius  published  a  Bibliotheca  Patris- 
tica  in  one  large  volume  8vo. :  it  contains  an  excellent  account  of 
treatises  on  the  lives  and  erudition  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
and  on  the  editions  of  their  writings. 

7.  A  Concise  View  of  the  Succession  of  Sacred  Literature, 
in  a  Chronological  Arrangement  of  Authors  and  their  Work.s, 
from  the  Invention  of  Alphabetical  Characters  to  the  Year  of  our 
Lord  1445.  By  Adam  Clarke,  LL.D.  and  J.  B.  B.  Clakke, 
M.A.     London,  1831—32.    2  vols.  8vo. 

The  first  part  of  the  first  volume,  which  comes  down  to  a.d. 
345,  wa.s  published  by  Dr.  Clarke  in  1821,  in  one  volume.  12mo. 
The  remainder  of  the  work  was  composed  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  J. 
B.  B.  Clarke.  The  whole  contains  much  important  information 
relative  to  biblical  and  ecclesiastical  literature. 

8.  A  Course  of  Lectures,  containing  a  Description  and  Syste- 
matic Arrangement  of  the  several  Branches  of  Divinity,  accom- 
panied with  an  Account  both  of  the  principal  Authors  and  of  the 
Progress  which  has  been  made,  at  different  Periods,  in  Theologi- 
cal Learning.  By  Herbert  Marsh,  D.D.  [Bishop  of  Peterbo- 
rough.]    London,  1810—1823.  8vo. 

Seven  parts  of  these  Lectures  have  been  published.  Tliey  em- 
brace almost  every  topic  of  Biblical  Criticism  and  Interpretation, 
and  also  the  genuineness,  authenticity,  and  credibility  of  the 
Scriptures;  and  are  particularly  valuable  for  their  bibliographical 
and  critical  notices  of  the  principal  writers  who  have  treated  on 
these  subjects. 

8.*  Lectures  on  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of  the  Bible, 
with  two  preliminary  Lectures  on  Theological  Study  and  Theo- 
logical Arrangement :  to  which  are  added  two  Lectures  on  the 
History  of  Biblical  Interpretation.  By  Herbert  Mabsh,  D.D. 
Bishop  of  Peterborough.    London,  1828.  8vo. 

This  is  a  new  edition,  revised,  corrected,  and  enlarged,  of  the 
first  four  parts  of  the  preceding  course  of  Lectures.  The  two  addi- 
tional Lectures  on  the  History  of  Biblical  Inlerjirelation,  which 
were  published  separately,  contain  bibliographical  notices  of  the 
principal  writers  on  that  subject. 

9.  Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,  exhibiting  the  History 
and  Fate  of  the  Sacred  Writings,  from  the  earliest  Period  to  the 
present  Century  :  including  Biographical  Notices  of  Transla- 
tors and  other  eminent  Biblical  Scholars.  By  the  Rev.  James 
TowNLET  [now  D.D.].     London,  1821.  3  vols.  8vo. 

"  The  ample  volumes  before  us  comprise  a  rich  fund  of  in.ftruc- 
tive  and  pleasing  information  on  the  subject  of  Sacred  Bibliogra- 
phy. They  have  been  compiled  from  a  great  variety  of  publica- 
tions, many  of  them  inaccessible  to  the  generality  of  readers,  and 
some  of  them  of  extreme  nirity."  ....  "The  industry  and  the 
accuracy  of  Mr.  Townley  will  entitle  his  volumes  lo  the  approba- 
tion of  the  critic  and  the  patronage  of  the  public.  They  aflijrd  a 
more  comprehensive  view  of  the  progress  of  biblical  translations 
and  of  the  Literary  and  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures than  is  to  be  found  in  any  other  work."  (Eclectic  Review, 
N.  S.  vol.  xviii.  pp.  386.  407.) 

10.  An  Introduction  to  the  Literary  History  of  the  Bible.  By 
James  Townley,  D.D.     London,  1828.   12mo. 

This  handsomelv  executed  volume,  which  is  a  second  edition  of 
the  Biblical  Anecdotes  published  by  Dr.  Townley  in  1813,  may  be 
considered  .is  an  epitome  of  his  Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature. 
Il  contains  many  interesting  anecdotes  relative  to  the  Literary 
History  of  the  Scriptures  from  the  earliest  period  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  nineteenth  century. 


HEBREW  BIBLES. 


[Paht  I.  Chap.  I. 


11.  Bibliotheca  Biblica:  a  Select  List  of  Books  on  Sacred 
Literature,  with  Notices  Biographical,  Critical,  and  Bibliogra- 
phical.    By  William  Orme.     London,  1824.  8vo. 

For  many  of  his  titles  and  notices  of  books,  Mr.  Orme  has  been 
indebted  to  the  present  Work,  to  which  he  has  hoitourably  acknow- 
ledged his  obligations.  "  The  theological  student  cannot  fail  to 
derive  much  advantage  from  it;  and  the  more  learned  divine  will 
find  it  an  excellent  supplement  to  the  Bibliotheca  Theologica  Se- 
lecta  of  the  laborious  VValchius,  or  to  the  erudite  Bibliotheca 
Bacra  of  Le  Long."     (British  Critic,  N.  S.  vol.  xxu.  p.  486.) 

12.  Bibliotheque  Sacree  Grecque-Latine  ;  contenant  le  Ta- 
bleau Chronologique,  Biographique,  et  Bibliographique,  des 
Auteurs  Inspires  et  des  Auteurs  Ecclesiastiques,  depuis  Moise 
jusqu'a  Saint  Thomas-d'Aquin.  Ouvrage  redige  d'apres  Mauro 
Boni  et  Gamba.     Par.  Ch.  Nodieii.     Paris,  1826.  8vo. 

A  convenient  summary  of  biblical  and  ecclesiastical  Bibliogra- 
phy. The  author  first  gives  a  concise  biographical  notice  of  the 
sacred  and  ecclesiastical  writers,  and  then  specifies  the  principal 
editions  of  their  works.  A  List  is  then  subjoined  of  the  Collec- 
tions of  the  Canons  and  Acts  of  Councils  and  of  the  Canon  Law, 
of  Ecclesiastical  Biographers,  and  of  the  Works  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Fathers,  and  other  Ecclesiastical  Writers,  and  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Christian  Poets. 

13.  Bibliotheca  Sussexiana.  A  Descriptive  Catalogue,  accom- 
panied by  Historical  and  Biographical  Notices,  of  the  Manu- 
scripts and  Printed  Books  contained  in  the  Library  of  His 
RoTAL  Highness  the  Duke  of  Sussex.  By  Thomas  Jo.seph 
Pettigrew,  F.R.S.  &c.  &,c.  Vol.  I.  in  Two  Parts.  London, 
1827.     Imperial  8vo. 

This  magnificent  publication  has  a  special  claim  to  be  noticed 
in  the  present  Catalogue  of  biblical  Works,  on  account  of  the  di- 
versified and  important  information  which  it  communicates  respect- 
ing Editions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  which  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  liibliographical  treatises  already  described. 

The  first  portion  of  the  Bibliotheca  Sussexiana  is  appropriated 


to  Manuscripts,  the  number  of  which  amounts  very  nearly  to 
three  hundred  :  these  are  arranged  according  to  languages,  viz. 
In  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  German,  Dutch, 
English,  Irish,  Arabic,  Persian,  Armenian,  Pali,  Singhalese,  and 
Burman. 

The  second  part  treats  on  Printed  Editions  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, disposed  under  the  following  titles,  viz.  Polyglotts  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  and  of  detached  portions  thereof; — Hebrew 
Bibles,  Hebrew  and  Hebrew-Samaritan  Pentateuchs,  and  portions 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew ; — Greek  Bibles,  Greek  Penta- 
teuch, and  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Greek  ; — Latin  Bibles  ; 
and  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Latin  :  forming  an  aggregate  of 
four  hundred  and  ninety-nine  articles,  many  of  which  are  among 
the  rarest  and  most  valuable  in  Sacred  Bibliography. 

Much  as  has  been  accomplished  by  preceding  authors  who  have 
treated  on  Sacred  Bibliography,  the  laborious  researches  of  Mr. 
Pettigrew  have  enabled  him  to  contribute  large  and  important 
additions  to  this  branch  of  literature.  He  has  accurately  and  mi- 
nutely described  the  several  editions  of  the  Scriptures,  and  his 
Bibliographical  Notices  correct  the  errors,  and  supply  the  defi- 
ciencies, of  former  writers.  Curious  specimens  of  metrical  Ver- 
sions are  introduced,  besides  numerous  biographical  and  critical 
anecdotes  of  authors  and  editors.  The  numerous  engravings  are 
executed  in  the  highest  style  of  the  chalcographic  art.  Creditable 
as  the  work  is  to  Mr.  Pettigrew,  in  a  literary  point  of  view,  it 
would  be  injustice  to  the  distinguished  owner  of  this  magnificent 
library,  not  to  acknowledge  the  very  liberal  facility  with  which 
His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  Sussex  permits  it  to  be  consulted 
by  scholars. 

There  are  copies  of  this  Catalogue  in  small  folio,  the  typogra- 
phical splendour  of  which  is  unequalled. 

*^*  A  second  volume  of  this  Catalogue  has  been  announced  for 
publication  :  it  is  to  contain  the  history  of  the  remaining  versions 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  or  of  parts  thereof,  both  ancient 
and  modern,  viz.  The  Syriac,  Peschito,  Philoxenian,  and  Palaestino- 
Syriac ;  the  Arabic,  Persic,  Egyptian,  Ethiopic,  Armenian,  Latin, 
Gothic,  Sclavonic,  Anglo-Saxon,  German,  English,  French,  Italian, 
Bohemian,  &c.  &c.,  all  of  which  are  disposed  in  chronological 
order. 


PART  I. 

HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ENTIRE    TEXTS    AND    VERSIONS    OF    THE    BIBLE. 


SECTION  I. 

PRINCIPAL   EDITIONS   OF   THE    HEBRKW   BIBLE 


Bishop  Walton,'  Carpzov,2and  particularly  Le  Long,  have 
treated  at  great  length  on  the  various  editions  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures.  These  have  been  divided  by  De  Rossi  and  others 
into  Masoretic  and  Non-Masoretic  editions, — a  distinction,  the 
utility  of  which  is  not  perceived.  In  the  present  section,  Dr. 
Masch's  improved  edition  of  Le  Long's  Bibliotheca  Sacra^  has 
been  chiefly  followed.  The  various  impressions  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible  may  be  divided  into  the  four  following  classes,  viz. 

(1.)  Editiones  Principes,  or  those  first  printed. 

(2.)  Editiones  Primariae,  or  those  which  have  been  adopted  as 
the  bases  of  subsequent  impressions. 

(3.)  Editions,  the  text  of  which  is  accompanied  with  Rab- 
binical Commentaries. 

(4.)  Editions,  which  are  furnished  with  Critical  Apparatus. 


§  1.     Editiones  Principes. 

1.  Psalterium  Hebraicum,  cumcommentario  KiMCHii.  Anno 
237  (1477).  4to. 

The  first  printed  Hebrew  book.  It  is  of  extreme  rarity,  and  is 
printed   (probably  at  Bologna)  with  a  square  Hebrew  type,  ap- 

1  Prolegom.  cap.  iv.    De  Bibliorum  Editionibus  prfecipuis. 

'>  Critica  Sacra,  pars  i.  cap.  9.  pp.  387 — 423. 

3  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  post.  Jacobi  Le  Long  et  C.  F.  Boeriieri  iteratas 
curas  online  disposita,  einendata  suppleta,  continuata  ab  Andrea  Gottlieb 
Masch.  Halffi,  4lo.  1778—85—90.  4  vols,  with  Supplement.  The  account 
of  Hebrew  ediiions  is  in  the  first  voliune,  pp.  1 — ISO.  331 — 124.  De 
Bure's  Bibliograpliie  Instructive,  toni.  i.  (Paris  1703),  and  Brunct'.s  Manuel 
du  Libraire,  el  de  I'Aniateur  de  Livres,  (1  vols.  8vo.  Paris  1820,  3d  edit.) 
have  also  been  consulted  occasionally. 


preaching  that  of  the  German  Jews.  The  text  is  without  points, 
except  in  the  first  four  psalms,  which  are  clumsily  pointed.  The 
commentary  of  Rabbi  Kimchi  is  subjoined  to  each  verse  of  the 
text  in  the  rabbinical  character,  and  is  much  more  complete  than 
in  the  subsequent  editions,  as  it  contains  all  those  passages  which 
were  afterwards  omitted,  as  being  hostile  to  Christianity.  Prof 
Jahn  states  that  it  is  incorrectly  printed,  and  that  the  matres  lectionis 
are  introduced  or  omitted  at  the  pleasure  of  the  editors. 

2,  Biblia  Hebraica,  cum  punctis.     Soncino,  1488,  folio. 

The  first  edition  of  the  entire  Hebrew  Bible  ever  printed.  It  is 
at  present  of  such  extreme  rarity,  that  only  nine  or  ten  copies  of 
it  are  known  to  be  in  existence.  One  of  these  is  in  the  library  of 
Exeter  College,  Oxford.  At  the  end  of  the  Pentateuch  there  is  a 
long  Hebrew  subscription,  indicating  the  name  of  the  editor  (Abra- 
ham Ben  Chajim),  the  place  where  it  was  printed,  and  the  date  of 
the  edition.  This  very  scarce  volume  consists,  according  to  Masch, 
of  373  (but  Brunet  says  380)  folios,  printed  with  points  and  accents, 
and  also  with  signatures  and  catchwords.  The  initial  letters  of 
each  book  are  larger  than  the  others,  and  are  ornamented.  Dr. 
Kennicott  states,  that  there  are  not  fewer  than  twelve  thousand 
verbal  differences  between  this  edition  and  that  of  Van  der  Hooght ; 
his  assertion  is  questioned  by  Masch.  The  researches  of  biblical 
critics  have  not  succeeded  in  ascertaining  what  manuscripts  were 
used  for  this  Hebrew  Bible.  It  is,  however,  acknowledged  that 
these  two  very  ancient  editions  are  equal  in  value  to  manuscripts. 

§  2.     Editiones  PniMARiiB,  or   those  which  have  beex 

ADOPTED    AS    THE    BASES   OF    SUBSEaUENT  IMPRESSIONS. 

1.  Biblia  Hebraica,  8vo.  Brixije,  1494. 

This  edition  was  conducted  by  Gerson,  tlie  son  of  Rabbi  Moses. 
It  is  also  of  extreme  rarity,  and  is  printed  in  long  lines,  except  part 


Skct.  I.  §  3,  1.] 


HEBREW  BIBLES. 


of  llie  Psalms,  wlii<-h  is  in  Iwo  ooliimns.  The  idt-ntical  copy  of 
lliis  edilioii,  I'rom  vvliicti  IjimIkt  iiiiule  liis  (Jcrniaii  tniiislation,  Ih 
said  lo  Ijo  preserved  in  llic  Itoyal  Library  al  l}<,'rliii.  This  edition 
was  the  l)asis  of,  1.  Tlie  Ifehrew  Text  of  the  Complnleiisian  I'olv- 
glott;  2.  I5iiinl)nri,''s  //>»/  liiil)l)iiiieal  Bible,  Venice,  151H,  in  4  vols, 
iijjio ;  3.  Diuiiii  HoitiberK's  4lo.  Hebrew  Bibl<!,  Venit'C,  1518;  4. 
His  s(r(:()nd  Hebrew  IJible,  4l().  Venice,  1.031;  and,  5.  Sebastian 
Miiiisler's  Hebrew  IJible,  Basil,  153(>,  in  2  vols.  4to. 

2.  Another  primary  edition  is  the  Biblia  Hcbraica  Bombergi- 
ana  II.  folio,  Venice,  1.525,  1526,  folio. 

This  was  edited  by  Rabbi  Jacob  Ben  Ciiajim,  who  had  the  repu- 
tation of  beinf;  profouiully  learned  in  the  Masora,  and  other 
branches  of  Jewish  erudition.  He  pointed  the  toxtaccording  to  the 
Masoretic  system.  This  edition  is  the  basis  of  all  the  modern 
pointed  cojues. 


§3.  Editions  of  the   Bihlk  with  Rabbinical  Com- 

siextakiks, 
Besides  tlie  Biblia  Rabbinica  I.  ct  II.  just  mentioned,  we  may 
notice  in  this  da.ss  the  three  following  editions;  viz. 

1.  Biblia  Hcbraica  cum  utra(|ue  Masora,  Targum,  necnon 
commentariis  Rabbinorum,  studio  ct  cum  pra-fatione  R.  Jacob 
F.  Chajiin,  Vcnctiis,  1.547 — 1549,  4  tomes  in  2  vols,  folio. 

This  is  tlic  second  of  Rablii  Jat'ob  Ben  ("hajim's  editions;  and, 
according  to  M.  Brunei,  is  preferable  to  the  preceding,  as  well  as 
lo  another  edition  executed  in  I5G8,  also  from  the  press  of  Daniel 
Bomborg. 

2.  Biblia  Hcbra;a,  cum  utraquc  Masora  et  Targum.  item  cum 
commentariis  Rabbinorum,  studio  Joannis  Buxtorflii,  patris ; 
adjccta  est  ejusdem  Tiberia.^,  sive  commcntarius  Masoreticus. 
Basilcie,  1618,  1619,  1620,  4  tomes  in  2  vols,  folio. 

This  great  work  was  execiUed  at  the  expense  of  Lewis  Kncnig, 
an  opulent  bookseller  at  Basle  ;  on  account  of  the  additional  mat- 
ter which  it  contains,  it  is  held  in  great  esteem  by  Hebrew  scho- 
lars, many  of  whom  prefer  it  to  the  Hebrew  Bibles  printed  by 
Boniberg.  Buxtorfs  Biblia  Rabbinica  contains  the  commentaries 
of  the  celebrated  Jewish  Rabbins,  Jarchi,  Aben  Ezra,  Kimchi, 
Levi  Ben  Gerson,  and  Saudias  Haggaon.  An  appendix  is  subjoined, 
containing,  besides  the  Jerusalem  Targum,  the  great  Masora  cor- 
rected ami  amended  by  Biixtorf,  the  various  lections  of  the  Itabbis 
Ben  Ascher  and  Ben  Naphtali.  Biixtorf  also  annexed  the  points 
to  the  Clialdee  paraphrase.  The  Tiberias  published  by  Buxtorf,  in 
1020,  was  intended  lo  illustrate  the  Masora  and  other  editions  to 
his  great  Bible. 

3.  Biblia  Hcbraica  Magna  Rabbinica.  Amstelodami,  1724 — 
27.  4  vols,  folio. 

"This  is  unquestionably  the  most  copious  and  most  valuable  of 
all  the  Rabbinical  Bibles,  an<l  was  edited  by  Moses  Ben  Simeon 
of  Franklbrt.  It  is  Ibunded  upon  the  Bomberg  editions,  anil  con- 
tains not  only  their  conienls,  b;it  also  those  of  Buxlorl's,  with  addi- 
tional remarlvs  l)y  the  editor."  Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  ii.  p.  188. 
Ill  pp.  189 — 195.  there  is  a  copious  and  interesting  bibliographical 
deseriplion  of  this  edition. 


§  4.   EniTioNs  WITH  Critical  Notes  and  Apparatus. 

1.  The  first  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  printed  by  Bom- 
berg, and  edited  by  Felix  Piutknsis,  (Venice  1518),  contains 
the  various  lections  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  recensions ; 
which  are  also  to  be  found  in  Buxtorfs  Biblia  Rabbinica. 

2.  Biblia  Hcbraica,  cum  Lalina  Versions  Sebastian!  Mcn- 
STEiii.     Basilcffi,  1534,  1535.  2  vols  folio. 

The  Hebrew  type  of  this  edition  resembles  the  characters  of  the 
German  Jews  :  tiie  Latin  version  of  Munster  is  placed  by  the  side 
of  llio  Hebrew  text.  Tiioiigh  the  editor  has  not  indicated  what 
nianiiseripis  he  used,  he  is  sup|)osed  to  have  formed  his  text  upon 
the  eiliiion  primed  at  Brescia  in  1494,  or  the  still  more  early  one 
of  1488.  His  prolegomena  contain  much  useful  critical  matter; 
and  his  notes  are  subjoined  to  eacli  chapter.  This  is  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  Bible  printed  in  Gci-many. 

3.  Biblia  Sacra  Hcbrrca  correcta,  et  collata  cum  antiquissimis 
oxcinplaribus  nianuscriptis  et  hactenus  imprcssis.  Amstelodami. 
Typis  et  suinptibus  Josephi  Athiffi.   1661;   1667.  8vo. 

An  extremely  rare  edition  of  a  most  beautifully  executed  Hebrew 
R.ble.  The  impression  of  ICitu  is  said  to  be  the  most  correct.  So 
highly  were  the  labours  of  the  printer,  Athias,  ajipreciated,  that  the 
Slates  (leneral  of  Holland  conferred  on  him  a  gold  chain  with  a 
gold  medal  appendant,  as  a  mark  of  their  ajiprobation.  Athias 
adopted  ilie  text  of  Kabbi  Chaim's  edition,  printed  at  Venice  in 
15f2i) — '2G  ;  but  he  avoided  his  errors,  and  rejected  several  of  the 
re.id'nus  which  are  peculiar  to  that  edition.  (Jewish  Expositor, 
July,  1838.  p.  58.) 

4.  Biblia  Hcbraica,  cum  notis  Hebraicis  ct  Lcmmatibus  La- 
tinis,  ex  recensione  Dan.  Ern.  Jablonski,  cum  ejus  Prtefatione 
Latina.     Bcrolini,  1699,  large  Svo. 

Dr.  Rossi  considers  this  to  be  one  of  the  most  correct  and  impor- 
tant editions  of  the  HtMjrew  Bible  ever  printed.     It  is  extremely 
Vol.  IL— App.  3  R 


scarce.  Jablonski  published  another  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
in  1712  al  Berlin,  witliout  points,  in  large  12mo;  and  subjoined  to 
it  Leusden's  (.'aiulogiie  of  22'.'4  select  verses,  containing  all  the 
worils  occurring  in  the  Old  Testament.  There  is  also  a  Berlin 
edition  of  the  Hebrew  B:ble  without  points,  in  1711,  21nio.,  from 
the  [iress  of  Jablonski,  w  ho  has  prefixed  a  short  preface.  It  was 
begun  under  the  editorial  care  of  S.  C;.  S:arcke,  and  finished,  on 
his  death,  by  Jablonski.  Masch  pronounces  it  to  be  both  useless 
and  worthless. 

5.  Biblia  Hcbraica,  edcntc  Evernrdo  V»n  deb.  Hooght.  Am- 
Btcl.  et  Ultraject.  Svo.  2  vols.   1705. 

A  work  of  singular  beauty  and  rarity.  The  Hebrew  text  is 
printed  after  Athias's  second  edition,  witfi  marginal  notes  pointing 
out  the  contents  of  each  section.  The  clmracters,  especially  the 
vowel  points,  are  uncommonly  clear  and  distinct.  At  the  end. 
Van  der  Hooght  has  given  the  various  lec-tions  between  the  edi- 
lif)ns  of  Bomberg,  Planlin,  Alliias,  and  olbei-s.  Van  der  Hooght's 
edition  was  rej)rinled  at  lyjiidon  in  2  vols.  8vo.  1811,  1H12,  under 
the  editorshii)  of  Mr.  Eiey,  and  is  executed  vviih  great  beauty. 

6.  Biblia  Hcbraica  ex  aliquot  Manuscriptis  et  compluribus 
imprcssis  codicibus;  item  Masora  tani  edita  quam  nianuscri|)ta, 
aliisque  Hebra;orum  criticis  diligenter  recensita.  Cura  ac  studio 
D.  Jo.  Henr.  Michaelis.  17*0.  2  vols,  large  8vo.  There  are 
also  copies  in  4to. 

This  edition  has  always  been  held  in  the  highest  estimation. 
The  text  is  printed  fromJablonski's  Hebrew  Bible  fMerlui,  1099); 
and  there  were  collated  for  this  edition  five  rnanusfri|.ls  in  the 
library  of  Erfurt,  and  nineteen  of  the  best  printed  editions.  A  se- 
lection of  various  readings,  and  parallel  passages,  both  real  anrl 
verbal,  is  subjoined,  together  with  brief  notes  on  the  most  difTieult 
texts  of  the  Old  Testament  Michaelis  has  prefixed  learned  prole- 
gomena to  this  edition,  the  type  of  which  is  bad  and  unpleasant  to 
the  eye. 

7.  Biblia  Hcbraica  secundum  cditioncm  Belgicam  Everardi 
Van  der  Hooght,  collatis  aliis  bnnrc  nota;  codicibus,  una  cum 
Versione  Latina  Scba.stiani  Schmidii.     Lipsite,  174),  4to. 

A  tolerably  accurate  reprint  of  V^an  der  Hooght's  text,  but  upon 
very  indifferent  type,  with  additional  various  readings.  The  Laiin 
version  of  Sebasiian  Schmidt  is  placed  opposite  to  the  Hel)rcw 
text.  To  the  work  arc  prefixed,  1.  A  Preface,  by  J.  C.  Claudius, 
vindicating  the  edition  of  Van  der  Hooght  against  some  critical 
censures  ;  2.  Van  der  Ibwght's  Preface,  with  tl:e  testimonies  of  some 
eminent  scholars  in  favour  of  his  edition  ;  and,  3.  The  Testimony 
and  Judgment  of  the  Theological  Faculty  of  Sirasburgh  in  favour 
of  Sebastian  Schmidt's  Latin  Translation.  Masch,  Bibhoihcca 
Sacra,  part  i.  p.  158. 

8.  Biblia  Hcbraica  cum  notis  criticis,  et  Versione  Latina  ad 
notas  criticas  facta.  Acccdunt  Libri  GiiEci,  qui  Deutero-canonici 
vocantur,  in  tres  Classes  distributi.  Autore  Carolo  Francisco 
HouBiGANT.     Lutetiffi  Parisiorum,  1753,  4  vols,  folio. 

The  text  of  this  edition  is  that  of  Van  der  Hooght,  xvilhout 
points;  and  in  the  margin  of  the  Pentateuch  Hoiibigant  has  added 
various  lections  from  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch.  He  collated 
twelve  manuscripts,  of  which  how  ever  he  is  said  not  to  have  iiKide 
all  the  use  he  might  have  done.  Iloubigan!  b,"iS  also  (irinted  a  ik-w 
Latin  version  of  his  own,  expressive  of  siicb.  a  text  as  his  critical 
emendations  appeared  to  justify  and  recommend.  The  book  is 
most  beautifully  printed,  but  has  not  answered  the  high  erpeeta- 
tions  that  were  entertained  of  it.  (See  Bisliop  Marsh's  criticism 
on  it,  in  his  Divinity  Lectures,  part  ii.  pp.  101 — lt4.  and  also  Bibl. 
Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  ii.  pp.  192 — 191.) 

9.  Vctus  Teslamcntum  Hcbraicum  cum  variis  Lectionibus. 
Edidit  Bcnjaminus  Kexnicott,  S-  T.  P.  Oxonii,  1776,  1780, 
2  vols,  folio. 

This  splendid  work  was  ni^cedcd  by  Iwo  dissertations  on  the 
state  of  the  Hebrew  text,  ;niblished  in  1753  and  1759;  the  object 
of  which  was  to  show  the  necessity  of  tUe  same  extensive  colla- 
tion of  Hebrew  manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testament  as  had  already 
been  undertaken  for  the  Greek  manuscripts  of  the  IVew  Testa- 
ment. The  uti'ily  of  the  proposed  collation  being  generally  ad- 
mitted, a  veiy  liberal  subscription  was  made  to  defray  the  expense 
of  the  coUiition,  amounting  on  the  whole  to  nearly  ten  tiiousand 
pound*,  and  the  name  of  liis  majesty  King  George  III.  beaded  the 
list  of  suljscribcrs.  Various  persons  were  employed  both  at  home 
and  abroad  ;  but  of  the  foreicn  literati  the  principal  was  Profes.sor 
Bruns  of  the  University  of  Helmsiadf,  who  not  only  collated  He- 
brew manuscripts  in  Germany,  but  went  for  that  piirposc  into  Italy 
and  Switzerland.  The  bnsiiirss  of  collat'on  continued  from  I7G() 
to  1709  inclusive,  during  xvhich  period  Dr.  Kennicott  published 
annually  an  account  of  the  progress  which  was  made.  More  than 
six  hundred  Hebrew  manuscripis,  and  sixteen  mannscripis  of  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  were  discovered  in  diflirrent  lif)rarie8  in 
England  and  on  the  Continent;  many  of  which  were  wholly  col- 
lated, and  others  consultetl  in  important  passages.  Several  years 
of  course  elapsed,  after  the  collation.'!  were  f;nishe<l,  before  the 
materials  could  be  arranged  and  'digested  for  publication.  The 
variations  contained  in  nearly  fcrcn  kiitufnri  bundles  of  papers, 
being  at  length  digested  (including  the  collations  made  by  Profes- 
sor Bruns} ;  and  the  whole  w  hen  put  together  being  corrected  by 
the  original  collations,  and  then  fjiily  tiTini-ctib(hl  into  thirty  folia 


8 


HEBREW  BIBLES. 


[Paht  I.  Chap.  I. 


volumes,  the  work  was  put  to  press  in  1773.  In  1776  the  first 
volume  of  Dr.  Kennicott's  Hebrew  Bible  was  delivered  to  the 
public,  and  in  1780  the  second  volume.  It  was  printed  at  the  Cla- 
rendon Press;  and  the  University  of  Oxlbrd  has  the  honour  of 
having  produced  the  first  critical  edition  upon  a  large  scale,  both 
of  the  Greek  Testament  and  of  the  Hebrew  Bible — an  honour 
which  it  is  still  mainlaining  by  a  similar  edition,  hitherto  indeed 
unlinished,  of  the  Greek  version,  commenced  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr. 
Holmes,  and  now  continuing  under  the  editorial  care  of  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Parsons. 

"  The  text  of  Kennicott's  edition  was  printed  from  that  of  Van 
der  Hooght,  with  which  the  Hebrew  manuscripts,  by  Kennicott's 
direction,  were  all  collated.  But,  as  variations  in  the  points  were 
disregarded  in  the  collation,  the  points  were  not  added  in  the  text. 
The  various  readings,  as  in  the  critical  editions  of  the  Greek  Tes- 
tament, were  printed  at  tlie  bottom  olthe  page,  with  references  to 
the  correspondent  readings  of  the  text.  In  the  Pentateuch  the 
deviations  of  the  Samaritan  text  were  printed  in  a  column  parallel 
to  the  Hebrew;  and  the  variations  observable  in  the  Samaritan 
manuscripts,  which  difler  from  each  other  as  well  as  the  Hebrew, 
are  likewise  noted,  with  references  to  the  Samaritan  printed  text. 
To  this  collation  of  manuscripts  was  added  a  collation  of  the  most 
distinguished  editions  of  the  Hebrew^  Bible,  in  the  same  manner  as 
Wetsiein  has  noted  tlie  variations  observable  in  the  principal  edi- 
tions of  the  Greek  Testament.  Nor  did  Kennicolt  confine  his  col- 
lation to  manuscripts  and  editions.  He  farther  considered,  that 
as  the  quotations  from  the  Greek  Testament  in  the  works  of  eccle- 
siastical writers  afford  another  source  of  various  readings,  so  the 
quotations  I'rom  the  Hebrew  Bible  in  the  works  of  Jewish  writers 
are  likewise  subjects  of  critical  inquiry.  For  this  purpose  he  had 
recourse  to  the  most  distinguished  among  the  rabbinical  writings, 
but  particularly  to  the  Talmud,  the  text  of  which  is  as  ancient  as 
the  third  century.  In  the  quotation  of  his  authorities  he  designates 
them  by  numbers  from  1  to  692,  including  manuscripts,  editions, 
and  rabbinical  writings,  which  numbers  are  explained  in  the  Dis- 
serlatio  Generalis  annexed  to  the  second  volume. 

"This  Dissertatio  Generalis,  which  corresponds  to  what  are 
called  Prolegomena  in  other  critical  editions,  contains  not  only  an 
account  of  the  manuscripts  and  other  authorities  collated  for  this 
edition,  but  also  a  review  of  the  Hebrew  text  divided  into  periods, 
and  beginning  with  the  formation  of  the  Hebrew  canon  after  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity.  Though  in- 
quiries of  this  description  unavoidably  contain  matters  of  doubtful 
disputation,  though  the  opinions  of  Kennicott  have  been  frequently 
questioned,  and  sometimes  justly  questioned,  his  Dissertatio  Gene- 
ralis is  a  work  of  great  interest  to  every  biblical  scholar.  Kenni- 
cott was  a  disciple  of  Capellus  both  in  respect  to  the  integrity  of 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  in  respect  to  the  preface  of  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch ;  but  he  avoided  the  extreme  into  which  Morinus  and 
Houbigant  hfid  fallen.  And  though  he  possessed  not  the  rabbini- 
cal learning  of  the  two  Buxtorfs,  his  merits  were  greater  than  some 
of  his  contemporaries,  as  well  in  England  as  on  the  Continent, 
were  willing  to  allow."  Bishop  Marsh's  Divinity  Lectures,  part 
ii  pp.  1015 — 108.  For  a  very  copious  account  of  Dr.  Kennicott's 
edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  see  the  Monthly  Review  (O.  S.),  vol. 
Iv.  pp.  92—100.  ^ol.  Ixiv.  pp.  173—182.  321—328.  vol.  Ixv.  pp. 
121—131. 

To  Dr.  Kennicott's  Hebrew  Bible,  M.  De  Rossi  published  an 
important  supplement  at  Parma  (1784—1787),  in  four  volumes  4to. 
of  Varire  Lectiones  Veteris  Testainenti.  This  work  and  Dr.  Kenni- 
cott's edition  form  one  complete  set  of  collations.  Of  the  immense 
mass  of  various  readings  which  the  collations  of  Dr.  Kennicott  and 
M.  De  Rossi  exhibit,  multitudes  are  insignificant ;  consisting  fre- 
quently of  the  omission  or  addition  of  a  single  letter  in  a  word,  as 
a  vau,  &c.  "  But  they  are  not  therefore  useless.  All  of  this  class 
contribute  powerfully  to  establish  the  authenticity  of  the  sacred 
text  in  general  by  their  concurrence ;  while  they  occasionally 
aflTord  valuable  emendations  oi'  the  sacred  text  in  several  important 
passages,  suiiporling  by  their  evidence  the  various  readings  sug- 
gested by  the  ancient  versions  derived  from  manuscripts  of  an 
earlier  date."  (Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i. 
p.  xiv.)  In  the  first  volume  of  Dr.  Masch's  edition  of  Le  Long's 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  there  is  a  valuable  collection  of  various  read- 
ings made  from  the  Masoretic  and  Non-Masot«>tic  printed  copies 
ol  the  Hebrew  Bible.     See  pp.  xl. — cxviii. 

10.  Biblia  Hebraica,  oliin  a  Christiano  Reineccio  edita,  nunc 
denuo  cum  variis  lectionibus,  ex  ingenti  codicum  copia  a  B. 
Kennicotto  et  J.  B.  De  Rossi  collatorum,  ediderunt,  J.  C. 
DonDEHLEiN  et  J.  H.  Meissnku.     Lipsioe,  1793,  8vo. 

This  edition  was  undertaken  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Doederlein 
and  Professor  Meissner,  in  order  to  supply  those  lovers  of  Hebrew 
literature  who  may  not  be  able  to  consult  the  expensive  volumes 
of  Kennicott  and  De  Rossi  Tiiey  have  selected  the  principal  va- 
rious readings  of  those  eminent  collators ;  but  Professor  Jahn 
asserts  that  the  text  is  very  incorrect.  The  fine  paper  copies  are 
beautiful  and  convenient  books;  but  tho.se  on  common  paper  are 
scarcely  legible.  They  are  usually  bound  in  two  volumes.  In  1818 
a  second  edition  of  this  valuable  Hebrew  Bible  was  published  at 
Halle,  with  a  new  preface  by  Dr.  Knappe,  entitled,  Biblia  Hebraica 
oliin  a  Christ.  Reineccio  ev.dgata,  post  ad  Jidem  recensionis  Maso- 
retic^, cum  variis  lectionibus  ex  ingenti  codd.  mss.  copia  a  Bcnj. 
Kennicotto  et  I.  B.  De  Rossi  collatorum  edita,  cur.  J.  C.  Doederleinio 
et  I.  H.  Meissnero.  Quorum  editioni  ante  hos  XXV.  annos  e  bihli- 
opolio  Lipsicnsi  emisscc,  /iij^/ic  emptionis  jure  in  libr.  Orohanotrophei 


Halensis  Iranslalce,  accessit  G.  Chr.  Knappii  prrrfalio  de  editioni- 
bus  Bibliorum  HalensiJms,  Svo.  Hnlrr,  IJbrarin  Orphanotrnphei. 
According  to  the  Journal  General  de  la  Litteratnre  Etrangere  (Jan. 
1819),  the  above-noticed  edition  of  1793  consisted  of  ten  thousand 
copies;  the  unsold  stock  of  which  were  disposed  of  to  the  trustees 
or  governors  of  the  Orphan  House  at  Halle,  by  whom  the  title- 
page  was  altered  to  the  date  of  1818,  and  a  new  preflice  was  added 
by  Professor  Knappe  relative  to  the  editions  of  the  Bible  published 
at  Halle. 

11.  Biblia  Hebraica.  Digessit  et  graviores  Lectionum  varie- 
tates  adjccil  Johannes  Jahn.     Vieniiaj,  1806,  4  vols.  Svo. 

Professor  Jahn  has  long  been  distinguished  for  his  successful 
cultivation  of  oriental  literature.  In  his  edition  the  text  is  very 
distinctly  printed,  the  principal  Hebrew  points  are  retained,  and 
the  poetical  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  are  metrically  arranged: 
it  is  conveniently  divided  into  four  vols. ;  of  which  Vol.  I.  con- 
tains the  Pentateuch. — Vol.  II.  contains  the  Historical  Books  of 
Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  Samuel,  Kings,  Ezra,  Esther,  and  Nehe- 
miah. — Vol.  III.  comprises  the  Prophetical  Books  thus  arranged  ; — 
Amos,  Hosea,  Micah,  Isniah,  Joel,  Nahnm,  Habakkuk,  Obadiah, 
Zcphaniah,  Jeremiah,  Lamentations,  Ezckiel,  Daniel,  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  Jonah,  Malachi. — Vol.  IV.  contains  the  Psalms,  Pro- 
verbs, Job,  Song  of  Solomon,  and  Ecclesiastes.  The  Books  of 
Kings  and  Chronicles  are  given  in  a  kind  of  harmony. 

Each  book  is  judiciously  divided  into  greater  or  less  sections, 
to  which  is  prefixed  a  short  Latin  analysis  of  their  contents.  The 
division  into  chapters  is  preser\'ed,  and  their  numbers  are  noted  at 
the  heads  of  the  sections.  The  number  of  the  verses  are  also 
marked  in  the  margin.  The  Masoretic  Notes,  which  are  generally 
added  in  the  margin  of  the  Hebrew  Bibles,  are  retained,  with  the 
exception  of  a  very  few,  which  relate  to  the  accents,  and  mark  the 
middle  of  the  book.  They  are  all  expressed  at  full  length,  and  many 
of  them  are  also  accompanied  with  a  Latin  version.  The  Jewish 
criticisms,  which  are  in  some  editions  added  at  the  end  of  each 
book,  are  omitted  by  Professor  Jahn,  as  being  of  no  use  to  the 
Christian  reader.  To  the  text  are  subjoined  the  more  important 
various  readings ;  and  in  some  more  difficult  places,  all  the  varia- 
tions that  could  be  found  are  carefully  given.  These  various  read- 
ings are  taken  from  the  collations  of  Bishop  Walton,  Grabe, 
Montfaucon,  Dr.  Kennicott,  De  Rossi,  and  Dr.  Holmes.  The  text 
is  that  of  Van  der  Hooght,  from  which  the  editor  has  departed 
only  in  nine  or  ten  places,  in  which  many  other  editions  had  pre- 
cecled  him,  and  which  are  supported  by  numerous  and  very 
weighty  authorities.  There  are  copies  on  fine  paper  in  8vo., 
which  are  very  beautiful,  and  also  forty  copies  in  4to.,  which  are 
very  rare. 

12.  Biblia  Hebraica,  or  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
Testament,  without  points,  after  the  text  of  Kennicott,  with  the 
chief  various  readings,  selected  from  his  collation  of  Hebrew 
manuscripts,  from  that  of  De  Rossi,  and  from  the  ancient  ver- 
sions; accompanied  with  English  notes,  critical,  philological, 
and  explanatory,  selected  from  the  most  approved  ancient  and 
modern  English  and  foreign  biblical  critics.  By  B.  Boothboid 
[now  LL.D.].     Pontefract  and  London,  1816.  2  vols.  4to. 

This  is  perhaps  the  cheapest  Hebrew  Bible,  with  critical  appa- 
ratus, that  is  extant ;  it  was  published  originally  in  pans,  the  (irst 
of  which  appeared  in  1810.  It  is  peculiarly  interesting  to  the 
Hebrew  scholar  and  critic,  as  it  contains  in  a  condensed  form,  the 
substance  of  the  most  valuable  and  expensive  works.  An  eminent 
critic  has  observed,  "  Mr.  Boothroyd  iias  evidently  spared  neither 
expense  nor  labour  to  furnish  the  student  with  interesting  extracts, 
which  are  calculated  to  assist  him  as  well  in  interpreting  as  in 
obtaining  a  critical  acquaintance  with  the  original  text.  A  good 
philological  note  is  frequently  of  more  importance  towards  the 
elucidation  of  a  difficult  passage  than  a  long  theological  comment, 
which  is  often  little  better  than  a  detail  of  contrary  opinions. 
There  is  evidently  some  hazard  of  adopting  fanciful  and  con- 
jectural corrections  in  so  extensive  an  undertaking  as  this,  which 
is  principally  compiled  from  preceding  authors  of  almost  every 
description.  Against  this  danger  the  sobriety  of  the  editor's  judg- 
ment has  been  a  powerful  protection  ;  and  as  his  avowed  object 
was  the  solid  instruction  of  the  purchasers  of  his  book,  he  has,  in 
a  commendable  manner,  accomplished  his  purpose."  (Eclectic 
Review,  vol.  vii.  p.  34.  New  Series.)  The  type  is  veiy  clear; 
and  the  poetical  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  are  printed  in 
hemistichs,  according  to  the  arrangement  proposed  by  Bishop 
Lowth,  and  adopted  by  Archbishop  Ncwcome.  There  are  copies 
in  royal  4to. 

13.  Biblia  Hebraica  secundum  editionem  Everardi  Van  der 
Hooghl,  denuo  recognita  et  emendata  a  Juda  D'Allkmand, 
Linguse  Sanctaj  Doctore.  Editio  nova,  longe  accuratissima. 
Londini,  1822 ;   1833.  Svo. 

The  editicm,  of  which  there  are  copies  on  fine  paper,  is  stereo- 
typed :  it  is  printed  after  Van  der  Hooght's  text ;  in  preparing 
which  for  the  press,  the  learned  editor,  Mr.  D'Allemand,  states 
that  he  discovered  not  fewer  than  two  hundred  errata.  These  he 
has  carefully  corrected,  and  by  repeated  and  most  attentive 
revision  he  has  perhaps  done  all  that  human  industry  can  accom- 
plish, in  order  to  produce  an  accurate  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
In  addition  to  the  care  previously  bestowed  by  the  editor,  every 
page  was   revised  four  times,  after  the   stereotype  plates  were 


Sect.  III.] 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


cnsl,  liy  prisons  fiiiniliar  with  l)io  Hi'hrow  I,anj()m^p.  Vnii  dfr 
Jl()i>;;lil's  liisiorifiil  ciitiiiiiarics  of  iKr  (•l)llIrlll^<  dC  cacli  fhaplcr  tiiv 
oniitled,  in  ordor  lliat  tlu;  (;x|iciis(i  of  llu;  Ixtok  may  not  l)0  iiiiiic- 
c-ossarily  increased.  Thn  various  reading«  and  Masorclic  notes 
arc  very  neatly  uiul  clearly  exhibited  al  tho  iool  oC  ea<'h  pau'e. 
Upon  the  whole,  tins  edition  may  safely  he  pronounced  the  most 
heantiful,  as  \\(dl  as  the  cheapcsl,  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
liir<!.s  ever  (inblished.  'J\i  il.s  great  accuracy  a  learned  I'cdisli 
|{abbi  has  Ixjnic  testimony.  (See  Jewish  Kxposilor,  .September, 
ia2.">,  p.  346.) 

14.  Biblia  Ileliraica  Maniialia,  ad  Exein|ilar  .Alliianum  accu- 
rata  [i  Jiulu  D'A  i.lkm  ami].     Loiidini,  IH'-i.-f.  larj^c  r-iino. 

'I'iiis  edition  of  the  II(d)rew  Scriptures  was  printed  by  the  I/)n- 
don  Society  lijr  pioiiioliii'4  Christianity  airion;;  the  Jews.  "  In  com- 
pliance with  the  prejudices  of  those,  (<>r  whose  benefil  it  was 
intended,  it  is  strictly  a  Jiwish  Jiililr,  without  a  sint;le  Ifoman 
letter  or  figure.  The  Jews  do  not  like  Van  der  Ifooghi's  edition, 
because  a  mark  (t),  whicii  they  deem  a  crosH,  is  used  in  the  text 
as  a  mark  of  relerenc(^  to  the  notes."  'J'he  <'ditions  most  prized  by 
till'  Jews  are  those  of  Alhias  (seepage?.  i\o.  3  of  this  Appendix); 
and  liom  his  second  edition,  printed  in  I'iCiV,  the  text  ol  the  pre- 
sent Hebrew  15ibie  is  taken,  v\ith  one  or  two  variations.  "From 
its  si/e,  price,  and  the  correclness  of  the  text,  this  book  will  be  a 
tiesirable  ac(|uisitiun  to  the  ('hrisliaii  reader  of  the  Old  Testament 
in  its  original  language,  who  wishes  to  j.'ossess  the  Jens'  tixt.  But 
(or  critical  purpo.'ies,  he  must  have  recourse  to  Bibles  i'rce  f roni  the 
Masorah,  such  tis  those  of  .Minister,  and  tin;  iiuarlo  of  Stephens." 
(Jewish  Expositor,  July,  1828.  vol.  xiii.  pj).  250.  258.) 

15.  Bihlia  Hebraica  secundum  cdifiones  Jos.  Athiae,  Joaunis 
I>eusdeii,  Jo.  Siinoiiis  alioiunique,  iin|)riinis  Everhardi  Van  dor 
Ilooght,  reccnsuit,  seetionuin  prophetieanim  recensum  et  expli- 
cationem  clavemqiie  Masorajtliicain  et  Kabbiiiicam  addidit  Au- 
gustus Haiin.     Lipsia;,  1831.  8vo. 

The  text  of  Van  der  Ilooght  is  scrupiilou.*ly  fiillowed  by  Dr. 
Ilahii,  who  has  carefully  corrected  the  typographical  errors  in  Van 
der  Hooght's  edition.  The  volume  is  siereoiypc^d  from  a  new  and 
very  clear  type,  with  singular  neatness,  and  it  is  printed  on  good 
paper.  As  all  the  late  editors  (Jahn  alone  excepted)  have  pre- 
ferred to  tbllovv  the  judgment  of  \'an  der  Ilooght,  his  text  may 
now  be  regarded  as  the  tcxtus  receptus  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 


Of  the  minor  editions,  containing  the  Hebrew  text  only, 
loilliout  any  critical  apparatus,  the  following  have  been  recom- 
mended to  biblical  students  ;  viz. 

1.  The  most  useful  Hebrew  Bible,  for  any  person  who  is 
moderately  acquainted  with  Latin,  is  that  of  Beiiedictus  Arias 
Montanus,  with  an  interlineary  Latin  translation,  printed  by 
Christopher  Plantin  at  Antwerp,  1572,  1584,  folio. 

2.  Biblia  Hebraica,  accurante  M.  Christiano  Reiiteccio. 
Lipsiffi,  1725,  1729,  1756. 

These  are  neat  and  accurate  editions.  Masch  mentions  another 
edition  dated  1729,  in  quarto,  in  which  the  books  are  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  order  adopted  in  the  editions  of  the  German  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible. 

3.  Biblia  Hebraica  manualia  ad  optimas  quasque  et!itiones 
recensita,  atquc  cum  brcvi  Icclionum  Masorethicarum  Kettriban 
et  Krijan  resolutione  ac  explicatione.  Edita  a  Johanna  Simo- 
Kis.     Halte,  1752;   1767.     Editio  nova,  1828.  8vo. 

The  second  edition  of  17G7  is  the  best.  The  text  is  that  of  Van 
der  Ilooght.  There  is  a  short  yet  full  Hebrew  and  Latin  Lexicon 
at  the  end  of  both  editions,  which  have  the  additional  merit  of 
being  portable,  cheap,  and  useful. 

4.  Bibha  Hebraica  sine  punctis.  Amstelodami,  1701,  small 
8vo. 

This  ia  usually  though  incorrectly  called  Leusden's  Hebrew 
Bible.  The  real  editor  was  Maresius;  Leusden  wrote  a  preface 
to  the  Hebrew  Bible  printed  at  Amsterdam,  1094,  8vo.  which 
abounds  with  errors.  With  the  edition  of  1701  is  frequently  bound 
up  a  neat  and  accurate  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  printed 
by  Wetstein  at  Amsterdam,  1740,  in  small  8vo. 

5.  Biblia  Hehraica,  ad  optimarum  editionum  fidem,  summa 
diligentia  recusa.  Societatum  Biblicarum  suiiiptibus.  Basilese, 
1827.  8vo. 

6.  Victorini  Btthjieri  Lyra  Davidis  regis,  sive  Analysis 
Critico-Practica  Psalmorum ;  qua  Voces  Ebraese  explicantur,  ac 
consensus  Textus  Sacri  cum  Paraphrasi  Chaldaica  ac  Septua- 
ginta  Virorum  Interpretatione  Graeca  monstratur.  Londini, 
1650,  1664,  1679,  4to. ;  Tiguri,  1664,  1670,  8vo. ;  Glasguse 
(in  ffidibus  academicis)  et  Londini,  1823.  8vo. 

Bythner's  Lyra  Prophetica  has  long  been  known  as  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  help  to  the  critical  and  grammatical  study  of  the 
book  of  Psalms.  The  late  reprint,  at  the  university  press  of  Glas- 
gow, is  very  beautiful. 


SECTION  H. 

EIIITIOXS    OF    THE   H  KHn.KO-S  A.'M  AIllTA  N    PEXTATErCH. 

1.  CiiiiisToi'Houi  Ckllaiiii  Horffi  Samaiilanae:  hoc  est, 
Excerpta  Pentateuchi  Samaritatise  \'ersi<.rHs,  cum  Latina  Inter- 
pretatione nova  et  Annotalionibus  perpcti.is.  Eiiain  Grain- 
inatica  Sainaritana  cojno.sis  exeinplis  iliustrata,  et  Glossarium, 
Hcu  Index  Verborum.     Cizte,  1C82.  4to. 

2.  Penlatcudius,  Hebrajo-Sainaritanus,  charactere  Hebraico- 
Chaldaico  editus,  cura  ct  studio  BenJ.  Blav.vkt,  S.  T.  P. 
O.\onii,  1790.  8vo. 

The  text  of  liie  Hebrjro-Samaritan  Peiilateiich.  which  was 
printed  in  Bishop  Walton's  I'o!yglo!l.  described  in  p.  20.  iiif,a,  has 
licen  adopted  us  tlic  ba^is  of  this  ciirlion,  to  which  ha\e  been  added 
vju-ions  rc;uling8  from  Ur.  Kennicoti's  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
already  noticed. 


SECTION  IIL 

PUIXCIPAL     EDITIONS    OF    THE    etlEEK    TKST*MENT,     AND    OK 
IIKTACHED     ROOKS    TIlEKrOr. 

Besihes  the  works  of  Lc  Long  and  Masch,  the  history  of  the 
various  editions  of  the  Greek  Tcstaniciit  is  treated  at  considerable 
length  by  Prilius,'  by  Dr.  Mill  and  Wetstein  in  the  Prolegomena 
to  their  critical  editions  of  it,  by  Michaelis  and  his  learned  an- 
notutor  Bishop  Marsh,'^  Dr.  Griesbach,^  Professors  Beck'  and 
Harles,'^  by  Mr.  Butler,'-  and  by  Dr.  Clarke."  'i"o  their  labours, 
which  have  been  consulted  for  this  section,  the  reader  is  once  fi)r 
all  referred,  who  is  desirous  of  studying  this  important  branch 
of  the  literary  history  of  the  sacred  writings. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  four  principal  Stamlurd- 
Text-KfiitioHs  of  the  Greek  Testament,  together  with  the  prin- 
cipal editions  which  are  founded  upon  them  :' — 

1.  Erasmus.     1516-19-22-27-3.5. 

Aldus.  Fol.  Gr.  1518.— Gerbrlii.  Qto.  (Jr.  1521.— Crp/ial(/i/s.  Oct. 
(Jr.  1524.— Btbelitis.  Oct.  1524.  Gr.  1531-35.— fV;/j7iff»s.  Oct.  Gr. 
1534.— Pfa//6r(.  Oct.  Gr.  1538-40-43.—  Van  Ess.  Oct.  Gr.  Lai.  1827. 

2.    COMPLUTEXSIAN.        1514. 

Plantin.  Oct.  Gr.  1564-73-74-90-91-1601-12.  Fol.  Gr.  et  Lat.  1572. 
Oct.  1574-83.  Fol.  1584.— Gewewi.  Gr.  1609.  24ino.  1619,  1620. 
(ilo.—Goldhagen.  1753.  Oct  Gr.—Gralz.  Gr.  Lat.  1821.  Oct 

3.  RoBT.  Stephens.     1546-49-50. 


Oporinus.  Duod.  (Jr.  1552. —  \yechd.  Fol.  Gr.  1597.  Duod.  1600. 
Fol.  1601.  Duod.  1629.- //n/j.  Nicolai  Didris.  Fol.  Gr.  1687.— 
Edit.  Regia.  Fol.  Gr.  1&42.— Crispin.  Duod.  Gr.  1553-63-1604. 
Duod.  Gr.  et  Lat.  1012-22.— Frosc/(Mer?.  Oct.  Gr.  1559-66.— Bry- 
linger.  Oct.  Gr.  1563. —  Voegelii.  Oct.  Gr.  1564. —  Vignonii.  Duod. 
Gr.  1584-87-1613-15.— J5e2«.  Fol.  Gr.  et  Lat.  1565-82-89-98- 
1642.— ira//on J.  Fol.  Gr.  Lat.  1657.— 3/(7//i.  Fol.  Gr.  1707.— 
Knstcri.  Fol.  Gr.  1710-23— B/rc/ii/.  Gr.  1788.  Fol.  et  Qto.— 
Hardy.  Oct.  Gr.  1768.  1776.  im^.—  Valpy.  Gr.  1816;  1826.  Oct. 
—Uoyd.  Gr.  18mo.  1828.  1830.— Greenfield,  Gr.  48mo.  1829.— 
Bloomfield,  Gr.  1832.  Svo. 

4.  ELZEvin.     1624-3.3,  &c. 

Boecleri.  Oct.  Gr.  1645.— C'urccZ/<pj.  Ocl.Gr.  1058-75-85-99.- /=eZ/^ 

Oct.  Gr.  1675.— A'on(>i7.  Oct.  Gr.  1697-1702.— Grfa-oru.  Fol.  Gr. 

1703.— G.  D.  r.  M.  I).   Oct.  Gr.   1111-35.— Wefslenii.    Fol.   Gr. 

1715.— J5irr/!.  1749.  Ocl— Basil.  1825.  Oct.— Lo':d.  1827.  48mo. 

The  editions  of  Bengel,  Bowyer,  Griesbach,  Alter,  Harwood, 
Knappe,  Tiltmann,  Boissonade,  Lachmann,  Scholz,  Naebe,  and 
Goeschen,  are  not  formed  on  the  text  of  either  of  the  above  editions. 

Of  the  various  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament,  which  have 
issued  from  the  press,  the  following  more  particularly  claim  the 
notice  of  the  biblical  student : — 

1.  Novum  Instrumentii  omne  diligenter  ab  Erasmo  Rotero- 
damo  recognitum  et  emendatum.  Basilea;,  1516,  folio.  Gr.  Lat. 
edit,  princeps. 

»  Introd.  ad  Lect.  Nov.  Test.  pp.  403—423. 

»  Introduction  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  429—494. ;  part  ii.  pp.  844 
— SS5.  Bishop  Marsh's  Divinity  Lectures,  part  i.  pp.  98—110. ;  part  ii. 
pp.  1 — 46. 

»  Nov.  Test.  vol.  i.  prolcgom.  pp.  iii. — xx.xix. 

«  Monogiammata  Herraeneutices  Novi  Testamenti,  pp.  110 — 115. 

»  Brevior  Nolitia  Literalnrse  Graecse,  pp.  656—664. ;  and  also  vol.  iv.  of  his 
improved  edition  of  Fabricius's  Bibliotheca  Grajca,  pp.  839 — 656. 

6  Horse  Biblicae,  vol.  i.  pp.  150—169. 

'  Bibliographlcjil  Dictionary,  vol.  vi.  pp.  168 — 203. 

'  This  table  is  taken  from  Masch  and  Boerner's  edition  of  Le  Long's 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  and  from  Dr.  Dibdin's  Introduction  to  the  Knowledge  of 
the  Classics,  vol.  i.  pp.  55.  3d  edit,  with  the  requisite  corrections  and  addi- 
lions. 


10 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


Erasmus  had  the  distingnislied  honour  of  giving  to  the  world  the 
firsl  edition  of  ttio  enktre  i\evv  Toslamont.'  li  was  reprinted  in 
1519,  153-J,  1527,  and  1535.  The  tirsl  edition  is  of  extreme  rarity, 
and  was  execnted  wiih  groat  haste,  in  the  sh.ort  space  of  five  months. 
Some  of  the  maniiscripm  whicli  he  fonsulied  are  preserved  in  the 
public  library  at  Basle,  but  none  of  tiiem  are  of  very  great  antiquity. 
For  the  firsl  edition  ho  had  only  one  mutilated  manuscript  of  the 
Apocalyjise  (sinte  totally  lost) ;  he  lliereloi-c  tilled  up  the  chasms 
with  his  own  Greek  translations  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  The 
publication  of  this  edition,  in  whicli  he  omitted  the  controverted 
clause  in  1  John  v.  7.  because  it  was  not  in  any  of  his  manuscripts, 
■  involved  him  in  a  literary  contest  with  the  divines  of  Loiivain,  and 
with  Stunica,  the  most  learned  of  the  C-"omplutensian  editors.^  Tlie 
editions  of  1516,  1519,  and  15i!2,  were  published  /n-fore  he  saw  the 
Complutensian  Polygloit,  from  which  he  corrected  the  edition  of 
1527,  particularly  in  the  Apocalypse.  Erasmus's  editions  were 
repeatedly  printed  after  his  death,  particularly  at  Basle,  Frankfort, 
and  Leipsic.  All  his  editions  are  much  esteemed,  notwithstanding 
their  faults,  and  in  some  respects  tiiey  are  considered  as  equal  to 
manuscri])ts.  In  the  first  edition  Dr.  Mill  discovered  about  five 
hundred  vitiated  passages,  and  about  one  hundred  genuine  ones  ; 
a  copy,  on  vellum,  is  in  liie  Cathedral  Library  at  York.  Mr.  Nolan 
has  satisfactorily  vindicated  the  cliaracter  of  Erasmus,  as  a  sound 
critic  and  editor  of  the  New  Testament,  from  the  charges  of  Dr. 
Griesbach.  (Inquiry  into  the  Integrity  of  the  Greek  Vulgate, 
pp.  410—419.) 

2.  Novum  Testamentum,  Grajce  et  Latine.  Compluti,  1514, 
This  forms  the  fiftli  volume  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglott 
noticed  in  p.  19.  infra.  Tliough  it  bears  the  date  of  1514,  yet  as 
it  was  not  allowed  to  be  sold  generally  until  1522,  before  which 
time  Erasmus  h.id  printed  three  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  it 
is  in  fact  entitled  only  to  the  second  place  in  our  list.  The  Greek 
text  of  this  edition  is  printed  without  spirits,  but  the  vowels  are 
frequently  accented.  The  characters  seem  to  have  been  cut  in 
imitation  of  those  found  in  manuscripts  of  the  twelfth  century  ;  and 
were  probably  taken  from  some  manuscripts  of  tliat  age,  which 
were  consulted  by  the  Complutensian  editors.  The  Complutensian 
edition  contains  the  celebrated  text  relative  to  the  heavenly  wit- 
nesses in  1  John  v.  7,  8.,  of  which  we  have  given  an  engraved  fac- 
simile in  anotiier  part  of  this  work.  Wetstein,  Semler,  and  other 
Protestant  critics  charged  the  editors  with  having  altered  the  text, 
in  order  to  make  it  conformable  to  the  Latin  Vulgate ;  but  this 
charge  has  been  refuted  by  Cjoeze  and  Griesbach.  Their  vindica- 
tion is  pronounced  satisfactory  by  Miehaelis  (who  considers  the 
Apocalypse  to  be  the  best  edited  part  of  the  Complutensian  Greek 
Testament) ;  and  also  by  his  annotator.  Bishop  Marsh,  who  stales 
that  this  charge,  in  general,  is  not  true.  For  though  he  is  of  opinion, 
that  in  some  few  single  passages, — as  in  Malt.  x.  25.  and  1  John  v. 
7. — they  follow  the  Vulgate  in  opposition  to  all  the  Greek  manu- 
scripts, he  has  ascertained,  from  actual  collation,  that  there  are  more 
than  two  hundred  passages  in  the  Catholic  Epistles,  in  which  the 
Complutensian  Greek  text  differs  from  the  text  of  the  Vulgate,  as 
printed  in  the  Complutensian  edition.  The  manuscripts  used  for 
this  edition  are  characterized  as  being  very  ancient  and  very  cor- 
rect, but  this  assertion  is  contradicted  by  internal  evidence  (see 
p.  20.  infra.) ;  and  it  is  a  most  remarkable  fact,  that  "  wherever 
modern  Greek  manuscripts,  manuscripts  written  in  the  thirteenth, 
fourteenth,  or  fifteenth  centuries,  difier  from  the  most  ancient  Greek 
manuscripts,  and  from  the  quotations  of  the  early  Greek  fathers,  in 
cliaracterisiic  readings,  the  Complutensian  Greek  Testament  almost 
invariably  agrees  with  the  modern,  in  opposition  to  the  ancient 
manuscripts.  There  cannot  be  a  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  Com- 
plutensian text  was  formed  from  modern  manuscripts  alone." 
(Bishop  Marsh's  Divinity  Lectures,  part  i.  p.  95.)  The  researches 
of  tlie  Danish  professor  Birch  have  shown  that  the  Complutensian 
editors  have  made  no  use  whatever  of  the  Codex  Vaticanus,  thougli 
they  boasted  of  valuable  manuscripts  being  sent  to  them  from  the 
Vatican  library. 

3.  Simonis    Colinjbi. — 'H    Ka/vn    A/a.S-HX»,      'Ev    Xivrmct  tcdv 

tru  ciTTo  T»c  ^ioy-ovia;  a.  if>.  a.  S.      (Paris,  1534.  8vo.) 

An  edition  of  singular  rarity,  beauty,  and  correctness.  Colinoeus 
was  a  very  careful  printer.  He  has  been  unjustly  charged  with 
partiality  in  following  some  unknown  manuscripts;  but  from  this 
accusation  he  has  been  fully  exonerated  by  Dr.  Mill  and  Wetstein. 

4.  Novum  Testamentum,  Grsece.  Lutetire,  ex  oificina  Roberti 
Stephani  Typographi,  Typis  Regiis.  1546,  12mo.  1549,  12mo. 
1550,  folio. 

The  FiKST  of  these  editions  is  usually  called  the  O  mirijicam 
Edition,  from  the  introductory  sentence  of  the  preface,  O  mirificam 
regis  nostri  optimi  et  prastantissimi  principis  liberalitatem.  It  has 
always  been  admired  for  the  neatness  of  its  typograpliy,  as  well  as 
for  its  correctness,  orily  twelve  errata  (it  is  said)  liaving  been  disco- 

'  The  first  portion  ever  prhited  was  executed  by  Aldus  Manutius  at 
Vrnicp,  in  1.501.  A  copy  is  in  the  Royal  Library  of  Wirteniburg  at  Stutgard. 
The  wholeof  St.  .lohn's  Gospel  was  published  at  Tubingen,  in  1514. 

*  In  liis  disputes  with  Stunica,  Erasmus  professed  his  readiness  to  insert 
this  verse  if  it  were  found  in  a  single  manuscript.  Tliough  Stunica  could 
not  produce  one,  yet  as  it  was  afterwards  discovered  in  the  Codex  Britan- 
nicus  (or  Montfortianus),  a  manuscript  of  no  great  antiquity,  Erasmus  felt 
himself  bound  to  insert  it,  and  accordingly  admitted  it  into  his  third  edition 
of  1522. 


[Part  L    Chap.  I. 

vered  in  it.  Robert  Stephens  compiled  this  edition  from  the  Com- 
phiieusian,  and  tlie  edition  (irinted  at  Basil,  in  1531,  and  again  in 
15y5,  by  John  Bebelius  (which  last  followed  the  edition.-s  of  Erasmus, 
and  that  of  Aldus,  printed  in  1518,)  together  witii  the  fifth  edition 
of  Erasmus  according  to  Griesbach,  and  from  fii'teen  ancient  manu- 
scrijits  in  tlie  Royal  Library  at  Paris.  Griesbach  (lom.  i.  proleg. 
pp.  xiv. — xxxi.)  has  given  a  long  and  critical  examination  of  this 
edition,  and  of  the  manuscripts  (ousultcd  by  Stc^'hciis  lor  his  three 
editions.  Stephens's  first  edition  ditl(?rs  from  the  Complutensian 
text  in  five  hundred  and  eighty-one  instances,  exclusive  of  the 
Apocalypse,  in  which  he  closely  follows  Erasmus.  The  second 
edition  closely  resembles  the  first  in  its  exterior  ap|iearaiice,  but 
differs  from  it  in  sixty-seven  places;  of  which  Ibur  are  doulitful 
readings,  thirty-seven  not  genuine,  and  twenty-six  genuine  ;  so  that 
this  latter  edition  has  eleven  readings  of  less  authority  tlian  the 
former,  to  which,  however,  it  is  preferred  on  account  of  its  greater 
rarity  and  correctness.  It  is  this  second  edition  which  has  the 
remarkable  crniXnm  pulres  ibr plitns,  in  the  last  line  but  one  of 
the  first  page  of  the  preface,  occasioned  by  the  transposition  of  a 
single  letter.  Tlie  third  edilion  of  15.50,  in  folio,  is  a  chcf-d'fcuvre 
of  splendid  typography.  It  was  once  supposed  to  have  been  formed 
entirely  on  the  authority  of  Greek  manuscripts,  which  Stephens 
professes,  in  his  preface,  to  have  collated  for  that  purj-.ose,  a  second 
and  even  a  third  time.  So  far,  however,  was  this  from  being  ttie 
case,  that  the  researches  of  critics  have  shown  that,  except  in  the 
Apocalypse,  it  is  scarcely  any  thing  more  than  a  reprint  of  Eras- 
mus's fifth  edition.  Though  its  value  as  a  critical  edition  is  thus 
considerably  reduced,  the  singular  beauty  of  its  tyiograjihy  (which 
has  rarely  been  exceeded  in  modern  times)  has  caused  it  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  dislinguislied  ornament  to  any  library.  Robert  Ste- 
phens reprinted  the  Greek  New  Testament  at  Geneva  in  1551,  in 
8vo.  witli  the  Vulgate  and  Erasmus's  Latin  versions,  and  piarallel 
passages  in  the  margin.  This  is  the  scarcest  of  all  his  ediiions,  and 
is  remarkable  for  being  tlie  first  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
divided  into  verses.  (Marsh's  Miehaelis,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  44(5. 448. 
part  ii.  pp.  848,  849.  Griesbach,  Nov.  Test.  p.  xv.)  The  character 
of  Robert  Stephens,  as  an  editor  of  the  Greek  Testament,  has  been 
elaborately  vindicated  against  the  criticisms  of  Professor  Poreon, 
by  the  Rev.  C.  P.  Greswell  in  the  first  volume  of  his  "  VieW'  of  the 
early  Parisian  Greek  Press"  (Oxford,  1823,  8vo.) ;  and  also  by  the 
Rev.  Francis  Huyshe,  wlio  has  inserted  a  series  of  pajiers  in  the 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  volumes  of  the  British  Magazine,  for  1833- 
34,  in  which  the  statements  of  Person,  Griesbach,  and  some  other 
modern  critics  are  minutely  investigated. 

5.  Novum  Testamentum,  cum  versione  Latina  vetcri,  et  nova 
Theodori  Bezm.  Geneva,  folio,  1565,  1576,  1582,  1589,  1598. 
Cantabrigiffi,  1642,  folio. 

The  New  Testament  of  1565  is  the  first  of  the  editions  conducted 
by  Theodore  Beza,  who  was  a  native  of  France,  and  a  Protestant, 
and  fled  to  Switzerland  on  account  of  his  religion.  "The  critical 
materials  which  he  employed  were  for  the  most  part  the  same  as 
those  which  had  been  used  by  Robert  Stephens.  But  he  had  like- 
wise the  advantage  of  that  very  ancient  manuscript  of  the  Gospels 
and  the  Acts,  which  he  afterwards  sent  to  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  which  is  known  by  tlie  name  of  the  Codex  Beza;.  He 
had  also  a  very  ancient  manuscript  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  which  he 
procured  from  Clermont  in  France,  and  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Codex  Claromontanus.  Lastly,  he  had  the  advantage 
of  the  Syriac  version,  which  had  been  lately  published  by  Trcmcl- 
lius,  with  a  close  Latin  translation.  But  the  use  which  he  made 
of  his  materials  was  not  such  as  might  have  been  expected  from  a 
man  of  Beza's  learning.  Instead  of  applying  his  various  readings 
to  the  emendation  of  the  text,  he  used  them  chiefly  for  polemical 
purposes  in  his  notes.  In  short,  he  amended  Stephens's  text  in  not 
more  than  fifty  places;  and  even  these  emendations  were  not  always 
founded  on  proper  authority."  (Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  i. 
p.  109.)  Beza's  third  edition  of  1582  is  considered  as  the  most  com- 
plete of  those  printed  under  his  own  eye ;  but  all  his  editions  have 
the  Vulgate  Latin  version,  and  a  new  one  of  his  own,  together 
with  philological,  doctrinal,  and  practical  notes.  The  edition  of 
1598,  being  esteemed  the  most  accurate  of  any  that  had  before  been 
published,  was  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  English  version  of  the 
New  Testament,  published  by  authority  in  IGll.  This  testimony 
of  the  Anglican  church  is  highly  honourable  to  its  merit.  Tiie  re- 
print of  Beza's  Testament,  at  Cambridge,  in  1642,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  Joachim  Camerarius's  notes,  is  considered  as  the  edilio 
optima. 

6.  Novum  Testamentum  Graece.  LugJum  Batavorum.  Ex 
Officina  ELZEviniANA,  12mo.   1624. 

This  is  the  first  of  the  celebrated  Elzevir  editions,  and  deserves 
(says  Bishop  Marsh)  to  be  particularly  noticed,  because  the  text  of 
the  Greek  Testament,  which  had  fluctuated  in  the  preceding  edi- 
tions, acquired  in  this  a  consistency,  and  seemed,  during  upwards 
of  a  century,  to  be  exposed  to  no  future  alterations.  The  text  of 
this  edition  has  been  the  basis  of  almost  every  subsequent  impres- 
sion. Wetstein  adapted  his  various  readings  to  it ;  and  it  has 
acquired  the  appellation  oi "Textus  Receptus."  "  The  person  who 
conducted  this  edition  (for  Elzevir  was  only  the  printer)  is  at  pre- 
sent unknown ;  but,  whoever  he  was,  his  critical  exertions  were 
confined  within  a  narrow  compass.  The  text  of  this  edition  was 
copied  from  Beza's  text,  except  in  about  fifty  places ;  and  in  these 
places  the  readings  were  borrowed  partly  from  the  various  readings 
in  Stephens's  margin,  partly  from  other  ediiions,  but  certainly  not 


Sect.  III.] 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


]1 


from  fircck  mnnnsfripfs.  Tlic  tcxlmt  rprcpliix,  lliorcforc,  or  the  text 
ill  coiiiiiH)!!  use,  u;is  copicil,  with  n  fi'U  cycciilioiis,  Crotn  the  text 
of  Heza.  JJ('Z;i  himself  closely  liilloNVil  Sleplieils  ;  and  Stephens 
(in  his  third  and  cliK^f  edition)  eo|)ied  solely  (imn  the  fit'lli  edition 
of  lOrasmus,  e\ee|)t  in  the  !{e\elalion,  vvlirTe  he  liiHowed  somelimes 
Krasiniis,  somelimes  the  (,'()in|)lnlensian  edition.  'I'he  text  there- 
fore in  daily  use,  resolves  il«elf  at  last  into  the  Complntensiaii  and 
iMiismiaii  p<litioiis."    (Bishop  Marsh's  Leetnres,  jjarl  i.  p.  110.) 

The  Kl/evir  edition  of  1021  was  reprinted  nt  Ley<len  in  lf)33, 
and  a  third  lime  in  ItVll.at  Amsterdam  in  l(>.5f),  l(jfi2,  lf)7(),  and 
11)78,  and  also  at  Sedan,  in  lf)2H,  (Jr. — (Jf  these  various  impressions, 
the  I,eyden  edition  of  \C\.V.i  is  the  hest  and  in  most  request:  it  is 
the  first  that  has  the  text  divided  into  separate  veises.  The  edition 
prinli'd  by  Jannon,  at  Sedan,  ha.s  lonj;  been  re;;ar(led  as  a  lypogra- 
phieai  euriosity.  It  is,  liovvever,  f^really  inferior  in  |)oint  of  ex<;eu- 
tion  In  the  heautifidly  small  and  clear  edition  printed  hy  IJleau  at 
Am.s!<  rdani  in  1()33.  (Brunei,  Manned,  toin.  iii.  |)p.  4:i2,  43:5.  Dih- 
din's  Inlrod.  to  the  Classics,  vol.  i.  pp.  13(j,  137.)  (iood  copies  of 
tlie.se  miniature  editions  arc  scarce  and  dear;  hut  th(!y  are  bi^th 
surpassed  in  siiiallness  of  si/e  and  in  typoKrajiliical  neatness  by  the 
London  edition  of  1827,  published  by  Mr.  Pickering.  See  IS'o.  49. 
p.    17.    hi  fid. 

7.  Novum  Testamcntum,  .'itiidio  et  laborc  Stephani  CcnrEL- 
I.K1.  Anislcla;danii,  1G58,  l2mo.  1675,  1085,  12mo.  1699, 
8vo.  Gr. 

All  the  editions  of  Curcellrcus  or  Coureelles  are  in  creat  repute 
liir  their  beauty  and  accuracy  :  the  text  is  fiirmcd  on  tlial  of  the  Klze- 
virs.  lie  has  colle<led  the  greatest  number  of  various  readings  to 
ho  tiiunil  in  any  edition  of  the  i\e\v  Testament  prior  to  that  in  the 
sixth  vidume  of  IJishop  Walton's  Polyglott.  These  various  lections 
are  given  from  a  collation  of  manuscripts  and  printed  editions,  and 
are  jiartlv  at  the  fiiot  of  the  page,  and  partly  at,  the  end  of  the  Acts 
niid  St.  Paul's  l''pistles.  CurcellaMis  has  also  given  a  valuable  col- 
lection of  parallel  passages.  The  edition  of  1G75  contains  a  pro- 
logue or  preface  to  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  which  Boeder  had  printed 
n  few  years  before  from  a  manuscript  brought  from  the  East  by 
Slejiheii  (ierlacliius,  and  differs  from  the  first  edition  only  in  hav- 
ing all  the  various  readings  placed  at  the  f!)ot  of  the  page.  The 
third  and  f<>iirtli  editions  were  printed  after  t!ic  death  of  Curcel- 
heus,  and  ddFi'r  fiom  the  second  only  in  having  the  text  printed  in 
columns.  In  Ki'J."),  John  (lottliob  Moller,  a  divine  of  Rostock,  pub- 
lished a  (li.ss(>rlalion  against  the  CurcelUean  editions,  entitled  C'l/r- 
oiltriiD  ill  iititioiie  orifiiiialis  N.  T.  tcxtiis  variantium  teclioniim  et 
pnriilMorum  Srripliirtn  Li>coriim  addilamnnllg  vestila,  socinizaris. 
Kiinipa'us  (C'om.  Cril.  ad  IVov.  Test.  p.  280.)  has  charged  Coureelles 
vvitli  unnecessarily  multiplying  various  readings,  and  making  them 
Iroin  conjecture,  in  order  tosubserve  tlie  Soeiiiian  scheme.  Michae- 
lis  admits  that  these  charges  are  not  wholly  unfounded.  The  pas- 
sages noiiced  by  Rumiweus  are  1  John  v.  7.;  Jolin  x.  30.  and  xvii. 
22.,  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity;  Rom.  ix.  5.  1  John 
V.  20.  and  Jolin  xvii.  3.,  concerning  the  Son  of  God;  and  Rom.  iii. 
25.  Matt.  xxvi.  39.  42.,  concerning  the  satisfaction  made  by  Jesus 
Christ.     All  the  editions  of  Curcella;iis  are  scarce  and  dear. 

8.  Novum  Tcstanientum,  Gr.  Lat.  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the 
London  Pol3'glott,  which  is  described  in  p.  20.   infra. 

This  (uliiion  is  deserving  of  particular  notice,  as  being  the  first 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  that  is  furnished  with  a  complete 
critical  apparatus.  The  text  is  that  of  Robert  Stephens's  folio  edi- 
tion of  1550,  whose  various  readings  Bishop  Walton  has  incorpo- 
rated in  his  sixth  volume ;  and  in  addition  to  them  he  has  given  a 
collection  of  extracts  from  sixteen  Greek  maniiscrijits,  which  were 
collated  under  the  direction  of  Archbishop  Usher.  "  They  are 
described  at  the  head  of  the  collation  in  the  sixth  volume  by  Wal- 
ton himscdf;  and  a  further  account  of  them  is  given  in  the  Prole- 
gomena to  Mill's  (ireek  Testament  (§  1372 — 1390.)  and  in  Michae- 
lis's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament  (vol.  ii.  chap,  viii.)  But 
the  extracts  from  the  (ireek  manuscripts  were  neither  the  sole  nor 
the  chief  materials  which  the  Polyglott  afforded  for  the  emendation 
of  the  (ireek  text.  In  addition  to  tlie  Latin  Vulgate,  it  contains  the 
Syriac,  the  .\rabic,  and  the  Ethiopic  versions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, with  the  Persian  in  the  gosjiels.  And  these  oriental  ver- 
sions are  not  only  arranged  in  the  most  convenient  manner,  for  the 
jmrpose  of  comparing  them  with  the  Greek,  but  they  are  accom- 
panied with  literal  Latin  translations,  that  even  tliey  who  are  un- 
ncquainied  with  the  oriental  languages  might  still  nave  recourse 
to  them  for  various  readings,  though  indeed  with  less  security,  as 
every  translator  is  liable  to  make  mistakes." — (Bishop  Marsh's  Lec- 
tures, part  ii.  p.  5.) 

9.  TH2  KAINH2  ATA0HKH2  AHANTA.  Novi  Testamenti 
Libri  Omnes.  Accesserunt  Parallela  Scriptura;  Loca,  ncc  non 
variantes  Lcctiones  ex  plus  100  MSS.  Codicibis  et  antiquis 
vcrsionibus  coUectffi.  Oxonii,  e  Theatre  Shcldoniano.   1675.  8vo. 

This  edition  was  superintended  by  the  learned  Dr.  John  Fell, 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  whose  design  in  giving  it  to  tlie  public  was,  to 
remove  the  apprehensions  which  had  been  raised  in  the  minds  of 
many  persons  ignorant  of  criticism,  relative  to  the  supposed  uncer- 
tainty of  the  Greek  text  in  the  New  Testament,  by  the  great  num- 
ber of  various  lections  contained  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott.  To 
show  how  little  the  integrity  of  the  text  was  affected  by  them. 
Bishop  Fell  printed  them  under  the  text,  that  the  reader  might  the 
more  easily  compare  them.  To  the  readings  copied  from  the  Lon- 
don Polyglott,  he  added  those  quoted  by  Curcelteus,  and  the  Bar- 


berini  readings,  also  Marshall's  extracts  from  the  Coptic  and  Gothic 
versions,  and  the  readings  of  twelve  Bodleian,  four  Dublin,  and 
two  Paris  nianus<'ri|)ls.  As  Bishop  t'ell's  edition  sells  at  a  low 
prii-e,  it  may  bo  sulislituted  fiir  the  more  expensive  critical  ediliems 
of  the  .New  Teslament  by  those  who  cannot  purchase  them.  The 
text  is  formed  according  to  that  of  Robert  Slejiheiis  and  the  Elze- 
virs ;  though  Wc^tsiein  has  accused  it  of  retaining  the  errors  of  the 
former,  as  well  as  of  some  of  Walton's  Polyglott.  Bishop  Fell's 
<'diiion  was  rejirinted  at  Leii)sic  in  1097  and  17(i2,and  at  Oxford  in 
17(13,  in  folio.  I'his  magnificent  edition,  which  takes  its  nanu-  from 
the  editor.  Dr.  (iregory,  contains  no  accession  of  critical  materials, 
and  sells  at  a  low  price. 

10.  "H  KAINH  AIA0HKH.  Novum  Testamcntum  Grajcum, 
cum  Icclionibiis  variantibus  MSS.  Exemplarium,  Versionum, 
Editionum,  SS.  Patrum  et  Scrijitoruin  Ecclesiasticorum,  et  in 
easdcm  nolis.  Studio  et  labore  Joannis  Millii,  S.T.P.  Oxonii, 
c  Thcatro  Shcldoniano.  1707.  folio. 

The  labour  of  thirty  years  was  devoted  to  this  edition  by  Dr. 
Mill,  who  finished  it  only  fourteen  days  befiire  his  death.  The 
text,  which  is  that  of  Robert  Stephens's  edition  of  1.550,  is  beauti- 
fully (irinted;  and  the  various  readings  and  parallel  passages  are 
placed  below.  Dr.  Mill  has  inserted  all  the  previously  existing 
collections  of  various  readings;  he  collated  several  original  edi- 
tions, procured  extracts  from  hitherto  uncollaled  (ireek  MS.S.,  and 
revised  and  augmented  the  extracts  (ioin  the  Gothic  and  Coptic 
versions  which  had  appeared  in  Bishop  t'ell's  edition;  and  added 
numerous  readings  from  other  ancient  versions,  and  fW)m  the  quo- 
tations of  the  New  Testament  in  the  writings  of  the  fathers.  The 
prolegomeiui  contain  a  treasure  of  sacred  criticism.  Michaelis 
ohscM'ves  that  "notwithstanding  those  of  Wetstein,  lliey  still  retain 
their  original  value,  fijr  they  contain  a  great  deal  of  matter  which 
is  not  in  Wetstein ;  and  of  the  matter  which  is  common  to  both, 
some  things  are  more  ch\'irly  exjilained  by  Mill.  This  edition  was 
reprinted  by  Kusier  at  Rotterdam,  in  1710,  in  folio,  with  liie  read- 
ings of  twelve  additional  MSS.,  some  of  which  had  been  previ- 
ously but  imperfectly  collated.  Whatever  readings  were  given  in 
Mill's  appendix,  as  coming  too  late  fijr  insertion  under  the  text, 
were  in  this  second  edition  transferred  to  their  projjer  places.  In 
point  of  accuracy,  however,  Kuster's  edition  is  considered  inferior 
to  that  of  Dr.  Mill.  There  are  copies  of  Kuster's  edition  with  the 
date  of  Amsterdam,  1723,  in  the  title-page;  but  Masch  says  that  it 
probably  is  nothing  more  than  the  edition  of  1710  with  a  new 
title-page.  Some  copies  are  also  dated  1740.  To  render  this  edi- 
tion more  ea.sy  of  reference,  the  Rev.  Joseph  IIai.lktt,  jun.,  a 
learned  dissenting  minister,  in  1728,  published  an  Index,  contain- 
ing an  account  of  the  MS.S.  consulted  by  Mill  and  Kuster;  entitled 
Index  Librorum  MSS.  Graconim  cl  Ventiomim  Anliqunnim  Norn. 
Firderis,  qnos  viri  erudilifshni  J.  Millius  el  L.  Kiislerus  cum  Urlia 
editione  Stephanica  contiderunt.  This  publication  is  in  8vo.,  and  is 
not  of  common  occurrence. 

The  various  readings  of  Dr.  Mill,  amounting  to  30,000,  were 
attacked  by  Dr.  Whitby,  in  1710,  in  an  elaborate  work  entitled 
Exameii  \aiiniiliiim  Leclionum  Jvhannis  Millii,  with  more  zeal 
than  knowledge  of  sacred  criticism.  It  was  afterwards  annexed 
to  Whitby's  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament.  Dr.  W.'s  argu- 
ments were  applied  by  Anthony  Collins  against  Divine  Revelation, 
in  his  Discourse  on  Free-thinking;  which  was  refuted  by  Dr. 
Bentley  under  the  assumed  title  of  Phileleulherns  Lipsieiisis, 
"  whose  reply,"  says  Bishop  Marsh,  "  has  been  translated  into  seve- 
ral foreign  languages,  and  should  be  studied  by  every  man  who  is 
desirous  of  forming  just  notions  of  biblical  criticism."  (Lectures, 
part  ii.  p.  13.) 

11.  Dr.  Edward  Wells  published  an  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  at  Oxford,  in  4to.  in  detached  portions,  between  the 
years  1709  and  1719.  It  is  noticed  among  the  commentaries 
infra,  in  this  Appendix  ;  but  "  as  it  exhibits  a  corrected  text  of 
the  Greek  Testament,  it  claims  also  a  place  in  the  present  list 
of  editions,  though  subsequent  improvements  in  sacred  criticism 
have  in  a  great  measure  superseded  the  emendations  of  Dr. 
WelLs."  (Bishop  .Marsh.)  Dr.  Nares,  in  his  Strictures  on  the 
UniUirian  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  has  made  frequent 
and  honourable  mention  of  the  critical  labours  of  Wells. 

12.  'H  KAINH  AlAGHKH.  Novum  Testamcntum,  post 
priores  Steph.  Curcellffii  et  D.D.  Oxoniensium  labores.  Cum 
prolegomenis  G.D.T.M.  et  notis  in  find  adjectis.  Amstclodami, 
ex  OHicina  Wetsteniana.     1711;  1735.  small  8vo. 

These  are  most  beautiful  editions,  but  the  second  is  said  to  be 
the  most  accurate.  The  editor  of  theirs/  was  Gerard  von  Maestricht 
{Gerardus  De  Trajecto  Moscb)  a  syndic  of  the  republic  of  Bremen ; 
the  second  was  revised  by  the  celebrated  critic  J.  J.  Wetstein. 
Having  been  published  by  his  relative  Henry  Wetstein,  a  book- 
seller of  Amsterdam,  these  editions  of  the  ISew  Testament  are 
sometimes  improperly  called  Wetstein's;  and  from  the  name  of 
Curcellreus  being  printed  in  the  title,  they  are  in  most  catalogues 
erroneously  styled  Nov.  Test.  Grcec.  Ciircellai. 

The  text  is  formed  on  the  second  Elzevir  edition  of  1633,  and 
Curcelh-cus's  editions.  It  has  the  most  judicious  selection  of 
parallel  texts  ever  appended  to  any  edition  of  the  New  Testament. 
These  are  placed  immediately  under  the  Greek  text,  and  below 
them  is  a  selection  of  various  readings,  taken  from  upwards  of 
100  manuscriptB  and  versions.    Prefixed  are  very  useful  prolego- 


12 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I. 


nicna,  containing  an  ncconnt  of  manuscripts  and  collectors  of 
various  readings,  with  43  critical  canons  to  enable  the  reader  to 
determine  concerning  the  various  lections  exlubiled  in  the  w orli ; 
an  abstract  ol"  Dr.  Whitby's  Examen  above  noticed ;  and^  the 
prefaces  of  Henry  Welstein,  Curcellteus,  and  Bishop  Fell.  Tiicse 
editions  are  ornamented  witli  an  engraved  frontispiece,  copied 
from  tliat  ofnhe  splendid  folio  Paris  edition  of  1()42,  a  plan  of 
Jerusalem,  an  ichnograph  of  tiie  Temple,  and  two  maps.  At  the 
end  there  are  38  pages  of  critical  notes,  containing  an  examination 
of  the  most  important  various  readings  which  occur  in  the  course 
of  the  work.  Michaclis  does  not  speak  very  higlily  of  the  edition 
•of  1711 ;  but  Dr.  Dibdin  says  that,  upon  the  whole,  the  edition  ot 
1735  "may  be  considered  as  the  very  best  critical  duodecimo 
(rather  small  octavo)  edition  of  tlie  Greek  Testament,  and  the 
biblical  student  will  do  well  to  procure  so  valuable  and  commo- 
dious a  publication."     (On  the  Classics,  vol.  i.  p.  97.)  • 

13.  Acta  Apostolorum  Grffico-Latina,  Literis  Majusculis.  E 
Codice  Laudiano  characteribus  uncialibus  exarato  et  in  Biblio- 
theca  Bodleiana  adservato,  descripsit  ediditque  Tho.  Heaunius, 
A.M.  Oxoniensis,  qui  et  Symbolum  Apostolorum  ex  eodem 
codice  subjunxit.     Oxonii.    E  Theatre  Sheldoniano,  171.5.  8vo. 

The  Codex  Laudianus,  of  which  this  edition  is  a  transcript,  is 
described  in  Part  1.  Chap.  III.  ^  4.  of  the  first  volume:  a  fac- 
simile of  the  MS.  is  prefixed.  This  is  the  scarcest  of  all  Mr. 
Hearne's  publications  :  the  impression  was  limited  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  copies,  at  ten  shillings  each.  A  copy  was  sold  at  the 
sale  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Heath's  library,  in  1810,  for  the  sum  of //»r/eert 
pounds  two  shdinigs :  it  now  adorns  the  very  valuable  library  of 
the  Writers  to  his  Majesty's  Signet  at  Edinburgh.  There  is 
another  copy  in  the  Library  of  the  British  Museum. 

14.  The  New  Testament  in  Greek  and  English,  containing 
the  Original  Text,  corrected  from  the  authority  of  the  most 
authentic  Manuscripts,  and  a  new  Version,  formed  agreeably  to 
the  Illustrations  of  the  most  learned  Commentators  and  Critics. 
"With  Notes  and  various  Readings,  [By  W.  Mace.]  London, 
1729.  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  is  a  beautifully  printed  book;  whose  editor  has  altered 
various  passages  in  conformity  with  the  Arian  hypothesis.  His 
arbitrary  alterations  and  bold  criticisms  were  exposed  by  Dr. 
Leonard  Twells  in  A  Critical  Examination  of  the  late  New  Text 
and  Version  of  the  Greek  Testament.  London,  1732,  8vo.  Mi- 
chaelis  has  also  very  severely  and  justly  censured  the  very 
great  liberties  taken  by  Mace.     Introd.  to  N.T.  vol.  ii.  pp.  463,  464. 

15.  'H  KAINH  AIA0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum  Grsecum. 
Edente  Jo.  Alberto  Bengelio.  Tubings,  1734.  4to.   1763.  4to. 

This  is  an  excellent  edition,  formed  with  an  extraordinary 
degree  of  conscientiousness,  sound  judgment,  and  good  taste.  John 
Albert  Bengel,  or  Bengelius,  as  he  is  generally  called  in  this 
country,  abbot  of  Alpirspach  in  the  duchy  (present  kingdom)  of 
Wirtemburg,  was  led  to  direct  his  attention  to  sacred  criticism,  in 
consequence  of  serious  and  anxious  doubts  arising  from  the  devia- 
tions exhibited  in  preceding  editions;  and  the  result  of  his  labori- 
ous researches  was,  the  edition  now  under  consideration.  The 
text  is  preceded  by  an  Introduclio  in  Crisin  Novi  T'estamenti,  and 
is  followed  by  an  Epilogus  and  Appendix. 

The  text  is  not  formed  on  any  particular  edition,  but  is  corrected 
and  improved  according  to  the  editor's  judgment ;  and  so  scrupu- 
lous was  Bengel,  that  he  studiously  avoided  inserting  any  reading 
which  did  not  exist  in  some  printed  edition,  except  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse ;  in  which  book  alone  he  inserted  readings  that  had  never 
been  printed,  because  it  had  been  printed  from  so  few  manuscripts, 
and  in  one  passage  had  been  printed  by  Erasmus  from  no  manu- 
script whatever.  Beneath  the  text  he  placed  some  select  readings, 
reserving  the  evidence  in  their  favour  for  his  Apparatus  Criticus. 
His  opinion  of  these  marginal  readings  he  expressed  by  the  Greek 
letters  «,  S,  y,  S,  and  s,  and  some  few  other  marks.  Thus,  «  denotes 
that  he  held  the  reading  to  be  genuine  ;  S,  that  its  genuineness  was 
not  absolutely  certain,  but  that  the  reading  was  still  preferable  to 
that  in  the  text ;  y,  that  the  reading  in  the  margin  was  of  equal 
value  with  that  in  the  text,  so  that  he  could  not  determine  which 
was  preferable  ;  i",  that  the  reading  in  the  margin  was  of  less  value ; 
and  6,  that  it  was  absolutely  spurious,  though  defended  by  some 
critics.  Bengel's  edition  was  printed,  after  his  death,  by  Burke,  at 
Tubingen,  in  1763,  4to.  with  important  corrections  and  additions. 
Several  small  impressions  of  Bengel's  Greek  Testament  have  been 
printed  in  Germany,  without  the  Critical  Apparatus ;  viz.  at  Stut- 
gard,  1734,  1739,  1753,  8vo. ;  at  Tubingen,  1762,  1776,  1790,  8vo. ; 
and  at  Leipsic,  1737,  8vo. 

16.  "H  KA3NH  AIAGHKH.  Novum  Testamentum  Graecum 
editionis  receptee,  cum  Lectionibus  Variantibus  Codicum  MSS., 
Edilionum  aliarum,  Versionum  et  Patrum,  necnon  Commentario 

>In  1720,  the  celebrated  critic,  Dr.  Richard  Bentley,  circulated  propo- 
sals for  a  new  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  with  various  lections, 
■which  was  never  executed.  The  proposals  themselves  are  printed  in  the 
Biographia  Britannica,  (article  Bentley,  note  K.) ;  and  the  illustrative 
specimen,  Rev.  xxii.  is  given  in  Pritius's  Introd.  ad  Lect.  Nov.  Test.  pp. 
415 — 419.  A  detailed  account  of  Bentley's  proposed  work  is  given  in 
Bishop  Monk's  Life  of  Dr.  B.  whose  critical  materials  for  his  intended  edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  Testament,  amounting  to  19  volumes,  are  preserved  in  the 
library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  ;  but  Bentley  left  nothing  inastate  of 
preparation  for  the  press.  (Bishop  Burgess's  Anniversary  Discourse, 
delivered  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature,  in  1830.    Appendix,  p.  62.) 


plcniore  ex  Scriptoribus  vetcrlbus,  Hebrajis,  Gra>cis,  et  Latinis, 
historiam  et  vim  verborum  illustrante.  Opera  et  studio  Joannis 
Jacobi  Wetstesii.  Amstclffidami,  1751,  1752,  2  vols,  folio. 
Editio  altera,  aucta  et  emendata,  curantc  J.  A.  Lotze.  Vol.  I. 
Quatuor  Evangclia  complectens.  Rotcrdami,  1831.  Royal  4to. 
Of  all  the  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  this  is  pronounced  by 
Michaelis  to  be  the  most  important,  and  tlie  most  necessary  to  those 
who  are  engaged  in  sacred  criticism.  Wetstcin's  Prolegomena, 
whicli  contain  a  treasure  of  sacred  criticism,  were  first  published 
in  1730.  Tiie  text  is  copied  from  the  Elzevir  editions;  the  verses 
were  numbered  in  the  margin;  and  the  various  readings,  with 
their  authorities  (containing  a  million  of  ([notations),  are  placed 
beneath  the  text.  Wetstein's  edition  is  divided  into  four  parts, 
each  of  which  is  accompanied  with  Prolegomena,  describing  the 
Greek  manuscripts  quoted  in  it.  The  first  part  contains  the  four 
Gospels  ;  the  second,  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul;  the  third,  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Catholic  Epistles ;  and  the  fourth,  the 
Apocalypse.  To  the  last  part  are  annexed  two  Epistles  in  Syriac, 
with  a  Latin  version;  which,  according  to  Wetstein,  were  written 
by  Clement  of  Rome.  But  Dr.  Lardner  has  shown  that  they  are 
not  genuine.  (Works,  8vo.  vol.  xi.  pp.  197 — 226.  4to.  vol.  v.  pp. 
432—446.)  The  critical  observations  on  various  readings,  and  on 
the  interpretation  of  the  New  Testament,  "  must  be  studied,"  says 
Bishop  Marsh,  "  by  every  man  who  would  fully  appreciate  the 
work  in  question."  Michaelis  has  criticised  the  labours  of  Wet- 
stein with  great  severity ;  but  the  latter  has  been  vindicated  by 
Bishop  Marsh,  both  in  his  notes  on  Michaelis  (pp.  865 — 877.),  and 
in  his  Divinity  Lectures  (part  ii.  pp.  21 — 23.). 

In  consequence  of  the  great  rarity,  and  very  high  price  of  Wet- 
stein's edition.  Dr.  Lotze  w-as  induced  to  undertake  a  new  impres- 
sion of  it;  which  would  have  been  greatly  improved  by  the 
correction  of  errors,  and  the  more  accurate  exhibition  of  various 
readings  from  MSS.  and  particularly  from  those  derived  from 
ancient  versions,  in  which  Wetstein  is  acknowledged  to  have  been 
defective.  But  the  decease  of  the  learned  editor  (whose  valuable 
critical  and  theological  library  was  dispersed  by  auction  in  the 
summer  of  1833)  has  caused  this  projected  edition  to  be  abandoned. 
The  Prolegomena  of  Wetstein,  therefore  (forming  a  royal  quarto 
volume  of  279  pages),  are  all  that  has  been  published  by  Dr. 
Lotze,  who  has  edited  them  with  great  care  and  with  con- 
siderable improvements.  Dr.  L.  has  scrupulously  retained  Wet- 
stein's text,  with  the  exception  of  those  passages  in  which  the 
latter  had  thrown  out  unjust  observations  upon  other  critics,  espe- 
cially the  pious  and  erudite  Bengel,  and  also  with  the  omission  of 
his  literary  quarrels  with  Frey  and  Iselius :  and  he  has  added  from 
the  second  volume  of  the  folio  edition  Wetstein's  critical  observa- 
tions upon  various  readings,  and  his  rules  for  judging  of  their 
value,  together  with  most  of  the  notes  of  Dr.  John  Solomon  Semler, 
who  republished  the  Prolegomena  at  Halle  in  1764.  Dr.  Lotze  has 
further  subjoined,  in  an  Appendix,  Dr.  Glocester  Ridley's  learned 
Dissertation  on  the  Syriac  Versions  of  the  New  Testament,  in 
which  the  errors  of  Wetstein  are  corrected,  and  his  deficiencies 
are  supplied.  This  edition  of  Wetstein's  Prolegomena  is  very 
neatly  executed. 

17.  'H  KAINH  AIA0HKH,  sive  Novum  D.  N.  J.  C.  Testa- 
mentum Grfficum  cum  Variantibus  Lectionibus,  quae  demon- 
strant  Vulgatam  Latinam  ipsis  e  Grfficis  Codicibus  hodienura 
extantibus  Authenticam.  Accedit  Index  Epistolarum  et  Evan- 
gehorum,  Spicilegium  Apologeticum,  et  Lexidion  GrtEco-Lati- 
num.  Cura  et  Opera  P.  Hermanni  Goldhagen.  Editio  Catho- 
lica  et  Novissima.     Moguntias,  1753.     8vo. 

Michaelis  states  that  he  has  never  been  able  to  discover 
from  what  edition  Goldhagen  took  his  text :  he  has  given  fifty-two 
readings  from  the  Codex  Molshemiensis,  a  manuscript  containing 
the  Gospels,  Acts,  and  Epistles,  and  which  formerly  belonged  to 
the  college  of  Jesuits  at  Molsheim  in  Alsace.  (Introd.  to  New 
Test.  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  283.  490.)  The  book  is  not  common :  a 
copy  is  in  the  British  Museum. 

18.  "H  KATNH  AIA0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum  Grsecum. 
In  Sectiones  divisit,  Interpunctiones  accurate  posuit,  et  Dispo- 
sitionem  Logicam  adjecit  Christianus  Schoettgenius.  Lipsise, 
1744;   1749,  8vo.     Wratislavis,  1765,  8vo. 

The  divisions  into  sections  and  the  punctuation  are  reputed  to 
be  judiciously  executed.  The  ordinary  divisions  of  chapters  and 
verses  are  retained  in  the  margin.  An  account  of  the  principal 
alterations  is  given  in  the  appendix. 

19.  Novum  Testamentum  Grajcum  ad  fidem  Grscorum  solum 
MSS.  nunc  primum  expressum,  adstipulante  Jo.  Jac.  Wetstenio, 
juxta  Sectiones  Alberti  Bengelii  divisum;  et  nova  interpunctione 
saepius  illustratum.  Accessere  in  altero  volumine  emendationes 
conjecturales  virorum  doctorum  undecunque  coUectse.  Londini, 
cura,  typis  et  sumptibus  G.[ulielmi]  B.[owter.]  1763.  2  vols. 
12mo. 

A  very  valuable  edition,  and  now  scarce ;  it  was  reprinted  in 
1772,  but  not  with  the  same  accuracy  as  the  first  edition.  The 
conjectures  were  published  in  a  separate  form  in  1772,  and  again 
in  4to.  in  1782,  to  accompany  a  handsome  quarto  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament,  which  was  published  by  Mr.  Nichols  in  1783, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Owen,  It  is  now  extremely 
rare  and  dear.    The  conjectures  were  reprinted  in  1818  with 


Skct.  III.] 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


13 


nuniprons  corrorlions  and  additions.  In  hi«  edition  of  iho  Now 
TosiamenI,  Mr.  Boyer  adopted  tlie  einendalion.s  (imposed  by  VVet- 
Btcin.' 

20.  Novum  Testamentum,  Gra!cc  ct  Latine,  Textum  denuo 
rcrensuit,  Varia-s  Li-ctioncs  niimi|iiam  anfea  vuli^ata.s  collogit — 
Scholia  (jJraica  addiilit — .Aniiiiadvcr.-iioncs  Critii'a.s  adjccit,  ct 
edidit  Christ.  Frid.  Mattii.ki.  Kiga;,  1782 — 17H8.    12voIh.  Svo. 

Of  Profisssor  Matthaii's  rocciision  of  manusoripl.-)  somn  acroiinl 
has  already  been  given  in  Part  I.  p.  200.  of  the  (irst  volume.  "  The 
seurrility  which  llie  profesKor  mingled  in  his  opjxj.sition  to  (iries- 
bach's  system  of  cliussificalion,  tended  greally  to  injure  the  wttrk 
at  the  lime  of  its  appearance,  and  to  lower  the  author  in  lh(^ 
esteem  ol' the  <an(lid  and  moderale ;  biil  now  that  the  heat  of 
eonlroversy  has  cooled  down,  ihe  value  of  his  labours  lie(;ins  lo 
be  more  highly  apprecial(!d,  and  more  imparlially  appealed  to,  on 
the  sul)jecl  of  (lie   various  readings  of  the  (ireek  lexl."     (iJr.  Hen- 


derson's IJihIical  ItesiMirches,  p.  53.)  The  late  Bishop  Middleton 
considered  it  as  by  far  the  best  edition  of  ihe  Cireek  Testament 
extant;  and  though  Micliaelis  has  criticised  it  with  consi<leral)lc 
severity,  he  nevertheless  pronounces  it  to  be  absolutely  necessary 
ibr  every  man  who  is  eiLgaged  in  the  criticism  of  the  (ireek  Tes- 
tament. As,  however,  Mallha;i  underlook  a  revision  of  the  Greek 
text  on  the  aulliorily  of  one  set  of  nianuscripls  of  the  Byzantine 
family.  Bishop  Marsh  regrets  that  he  made  so  partial  an  applica- 
tion of  his  critical  materials.  "  And  since  no  impartial  judge  can 
admit  that  the  g(Miuine  lexl  of  Ihe  Greek  Testament  may  be  esta- 
blished as  well,  by  ap|)lying  only  a  part  of  our  materials,  as  by  a 
judicious  employment  of  the  whole,  the  edition  of  MatlhaM  is  only 
so  liir  of  iniporlance,  as  it  furnishes  new  materials  (or  lulure  uses  ; 
materials,  indeed,  which  arc  accompanied  with  much  useful  inlbr- 
maiion  and  many  learned  remarks."  (Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures, 
part  ii.  p.  31.) 

21.  Novum  Testamentum  GrfEce.  Ad  Codices  Mosquenses 
utrlus(|ue  Bibliotheca;  S.S.  Synodi  et  Tahularii,  Imperialis,  item 
Augustanos,  Dresdcnses,  Goettingenses,  Gotlianos,  Guclphcrby- 
tanos,  Langeri,  Monachienses,  Lipsienses,  Nicephori  et  Zittavi- 
cnsem,  adhibitis  Patrum  Grtecorum  Lecfionibus,  Editionibus  N. 
Testamenti  principibus  et  Doctorum  Virorum  Libellis  criticis, 
iterum  recensuit,  Sectiones  niajores  et  minorcs  Eusebii,  Euthalii, 
et  Andreie  Ca;sariensis  notavit,  primuni  quoijue  nunc  Lcctioncs 
Ecclesiasticas,  ex  usu  Grajca;  Ecclesise  designavit,  ac  Synaxaria 
Evangeliarii  et  Praxapostoli  addidit,  ct  Criticis  interpositis  Ani- 
madversionibus  edidit  Christianus  Fridcricus  Matth.«i.  Vol. 
I.  Wittcbcrga;,  1803;  Vol.  II.  Curias  Variscorum,  1806;  Vol. 
III.  Ronneburgi,  1807.  Svo. 

This  second  edition  of  Matthaei's  Greek  Testament  is  seldom  to 
be  met  with.  A  copy  of  the  first  volume  is  in  the  library  of  the 
British  Museum.  The  critical  annotations  of  the  editor  are  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  volume;  tlie  various  readings  are  at  the  foot  of 
each  page.  Malthiei  is  very  severe  on  the  editorial  labours  of  Dr. 
Griesbach. 

22.  "H  KA1NH  A1A0HKH.  The  New  Testament  collated 
with  the  most  approved  manuscripts ;  with  select  notes  in  Eng- 
lish, critical  and  explanatoiy,  and  references  to  those  authors 
who  have  best  illustrated  the  .sacred  writings.  By  Edward  H.vu- 
woon,  U.D.  London,  1776,  2  vols.  12mo.;   1784,  2  vols.  12mo. 

"This  edition,"  says  the  learned  annotator  of  Michaelis,  "  is  cer- 
taiidy  entitled  lo  a  pla<e  among  ihe  critical  editions  of  the  Greek 
Teslunienl,  ihough  it  is  not  accompanied  wilh  various  readings; 
for,  ihough  Dr.  Ilarwood  has  adopied  the  common  text  as  the  basis 
of  his  own,  he  has  made  critical  corrections  wherever  the  received 
reading  ajipeared  to  liim  lo  be  erroneous.  The  manuscripts  which 
lie  has  generally  iiillovved  when  he  departs  from  the  common  text, 
are  the  Cantahngiensis  in  ihe(!ospels  and  .Acls,  and  ihe  Claromon- 
tanus  in  the  Kpistles  of  .St.  Paul."  These  Dr.  Ilarwood  considered 
as  approaching  ihe  nearest  of  any  manuscripts  now  known  in  the 
worl(l  lo  the  original  text  of  ihe  sacred  records.  "  It  is  not  impro- 
bable thai  this  edition  contains  more  of  the  ancient  and  genuine 
text  of  the  (ireek  Testament  than  those  which  are  in  common  use  : 
hut  as  no  single  manuscript,  however  ancient  and  venerable,  is 
cniiiled  lo  such  a  preference  as  to  exclude  the  rest,  and  no  critic 
of  the  present  age  can  adopt  a  new  reading,  unless  the  general 
evidence  be  produced,  and  llie  preponderaney  in  its  favour  dis- 
tincllv  shown,  ihe  learned  and  ingenious  editor  has  in  some  mea- 
sure defeated  his  own  object,  and  rendered  his  labours  less  applica- 
ble lo  the  purposes  of  sacred  criticism."  (Bisliop  Marsh's  Michae- 
lis, vol.  ii.  part  ii.  pp.  884,  885.)  At  (he  end  of  the  second  volume 
there  is  a  catalogue  of  the  principal  editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment, and  a  list  of  the  most  esteemed  commentators  and  critics. 
The  work  is  very  neatly  printed;  and  under  the  Greek  text  are 
short  crilical  notes  in  English,  chiefly  relating  to  classical  illustra- 
tions of  Scripture.  In  the  list  ol' commentators  and  critics,  those  are 
most  comiupiided  by  Dr.  Ilarwood  who  I'avour  the  Socinian  scheme, 
lo  which  he  was  strongly  attached,  and  he  therefore  admitted  or 

» Dr.  Griesbach's  first  edition  of  the  New  Testament  should,  in  strict- 
ness, be  noticed  here;  but  as  it  is  superseded  by  his  second  and  greatly 
inipvoved  edition,  described  in  the  next  two  pases,  it  is  here  designedly 
omilied.  The  edition  of  Koppe,  being  acooinp.inied  with  a  coniuientary, 
is  uuliceU  infra,  amuug  llie  cuuiuienlaiurs  on  the  New  Teslauient. 


rejected  a  variety  of  readings,  according  a.s  they  favour  or  oppose 
the  Socinian  doctrine. 

2.3.  Novum  Testamentum  Gra^cum,  d  Cndice  MS.  Alexan- 
drino,  qui  Londini  in  Bibliotheca  Musei  Britannici  a.sservatur, 
descriptum  a  Carolo  Godofredo  Woihe.  Londini,  ex  prelo 
Joannis  Nichols,  typis  Jacksonianis,  1786.    folio. 

This  is  an  elegant  fac-simile  edition  of  the  Alexandrian  Manu- 
s<-ri|)l  which  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  and  is  described 
in  Part  I.  pp.  222 — 224.  of  Vol.  I.  Twelve  copies  were  (irinled  on 
vellum.  The  fac-simile  it.self  fills  two  hundred  and  sixty  jiages  : 
and  ihe  prefiice,  comprising  Iweiily-two  jiages,  contains  an  accu- 
nile  dcscriplion  of  the  M.'inuscri|)t,  illustrated  by  an  engraving 
represenling  the  style  of  writing  in  various  manuscripls.  To  lhi.s 
is  subjoined  an  exact  list  of  all  ils  various  readings,  in  eighty-nine 
pages;  each  reading  is  accompanied  v\ilh  a  remark,  giving  an 
account  of  what  his  predecessonj  Junius  (i.  e.  Patrick  Young), 
Bisho|)  Walloii,  Drs.  Mill  ami  (irabe,  and  VVelslein,  had  performed 
or  neglected.  The  preface  of  VVoide,  and  his  collection  of  various 
readings,  were  reprinted,  wilh  noles,  by  Profi'ssor  .Sjiolm,  al  Lei|)- 
sic,  in  1790,  in  8vo.  To  complete  lliis  publicalion,  there  should  be 
added  the  fJdlowing :  Ajqiiiidix  ad  Kdilinnim  i\ovi  'reslanicnli 
Oraci  e  C'odice  Ahrandrino  denrripli  a  C.  G.  W'oide.  Oxoiiii :  i 
'I'lipoprajihro  ClaTtndouiuiio.  1799.  folio.  This  splendid  work  was 
edikul  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ford,  who  added  many  useful  notes.  I^fing 
befijre  Dr.  VV^oidc  executed  his  fac-simile  edition  of  the  i\ew  Tes- 
tament from  the  Alexandrian  Manuscript,  it  had  been  suggested  lo 
King  Charles  I.  to  cause  a  fac-simile  of  the  entire  MS.  to  be  engraveij. 
But  Ihe  imporlan<'eand  value  of  such  an  undertaking  do  not  apjiear 
to  have  been  understood — at  least  they  were  not  duly  appreciated — 
by  that  monarch:  he  therefore  refused  to  have  it  done.  The  cir- 
cumstance is  thus  related  by  the  industrious  antiquary  Aubrey,  in 
his  incdited  "  Remaines  of  Genlilisme  and  Jiidaisme,"  preserved 
among  the  Lansdowne  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum,  No.  231.  folio 
169.  VVriting  on  the  disputed  clause  in  1  John  v.  7.  Aubrey  says  ; — 

"The  last  clause  of  this  verse  is  not  found  in  the  antient  MSS. 
copies,  e.g.  that  in  the  Vatican  Library,  and  y*  Tecla  MS.  in  S'. 
James's  Library  and  others  :  as  it  is  not  in  an  old  MS.  in  Magdalen 
Coll:  Library  in  Oxford.  That  at  St.  James's  was  sent  as  a  Present 
to  King  Charles  the  First,  from  Cyrillus  Palriark  of  Conslaniinople  : 
as  a  jewel  of  that  antiquity  noi  fill  to  he  kept  amongst  Infidels. 
Mr Rosse  (translator  of  Statins)  was  Tutor  lo  y*  D.  ofMori- 

gott  him  the  plucp  [of  ] 

mouth  who  made  him  Library  Keeper  at  St. James's:  he  desired 
K.  Cha.  I.  to  be  at  y"^  chardge  to  have  it  engraven  in  copper  plaies  : 
and  told  him  it  would  cost  but  Jt.'200,  but  his  Ma'y  would  not  yield 
lo  it.  Mr.  Ross  sayd  'that  it  would  appeare  glorious  in  History, 
after  his  Ma'J'  death.'  '  Pish,'  sayd  he,  '  I  care  not  what  they 
say  of  me  in  History  when  I  am  dead.'  H.  Grotius,  J.  G.  Vossius, 
Heinsius,  &c.  have  made  Journeys  into  England,  purposely  to  cor- 
rect their  Greeke  Testaments  by  this  Copy  in  St.  James.  S^.  Chr. 
Wren  sayd  that  he  would  rather  have  it  engraved  by  an  Engraver 
that  could  not  understand  or  read  Greek,  than  by  one  that  did." 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the  design  of  priming  this  manuscript 
was  resumed;  and  the  editing  of  the  fac-simile  was  to  have  been 
confided  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Smith,  to  whom  the  king  promised  a 
canonry  of  Windsor,  or  of  Westminster,  for  his  labour.  But,  from 
some  circumstance  or  other  which  cannot  now  be  ascertained,  this 
design  was  abandoned.  (Wood's  Athenaj  Oxoniensis,  vol.  ii  col. 
1020.) 

The  value  of  such  an  undertaking  has  been  better  understood  in 
our  times :  and  the  British  Parliament  nobly  guaranteed  the  expense 
of  the  Fac-simile  Edition,  which  was  executed  under  the  editorship 
of  the  Rev.  il.  II.  Baber.  See  an  account  of  it  in  No.  17.  p.  24. 
infra. 

24.  Novum  Testamentum  Grscum,  ad  Codiccm  Vindobonen- 
sem  Gra;ce  expressum  :  Varietatcm  Lectionis  addidit  Franciscus 
Carolus  Alter.    1786,  1787.    2  vols.  Svo, 

This  edition  differs  entirely  from  those  of  Mill,  Wetstein.  and 
Griesbach.  "The  text  of  this  edition  is  neither  the  common  lexl  nor 
a  revision  of  il,  but  a  mere  copy  from  a  single  manuscript,  and  ihat 
not  a  very  ancient  one  (the  Codex  Lambeeii  I.),  in  the  imperial 
library  at  Vienna.  The  various  readings,  which  are  not  arranged 
as  in  other  editions,  but  primed  in  separate  parcels  as  made  by  the 
collator,  are  likewise  described  from  Greek  manuscripts  in  the 
imperial  library :  and  the  whole  collection  was  augmented  by 
extracts  from  the  Coptic,  Sclavonian,  and  Latin  versions,  which 
are  also  printed  in  the  same  indigested  manner  as  the  Greek  read- 
ings. Alter's  edition  therefore  cimiains  mere  materials  for  fumre 
uses."  (Bp.  Mai-sh's  Lectures,  part  ii.  p.  32.)  Where  the  editor  has 
discovered  manifest  errata  in  the  Vienna  manuscript,  he  has 
recourse  to  the  text  of  Stephens's  edition  of  1540. — See  a  more 
copious  account  of  this  edition  in  Michaelis,  vol.  ii.  pp.  880 — 882, 
where  it  is  said  that  Alter's  edition  is  a  work  with  which  no  one 
engaged  in  sacred  criticism  can  dispense. 

25.  Quatuor  Evangelia,  Grajcc,  cum  Varianfibus  a  textu 
Lectionibus  Codd.  Manuscriptorum  Bibliotheca;  Vaticana; ;  Bar- 
berina;,  Laurcntianac,  Vindoboncnsis,  Escurialcnsis,  Havniensis, 
Regiae  ;  quibus  accedunt  Lectiones  Versionum  Syrarum  Veteris, 
Philoxcniana;,  et  Hierosolymitana?,  jussu  et  sumptibus  regiis 
edidit  Andreas  Biiicu.     Havniae,  1788.  folio  et  4to. 


14 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


This  splendid  and  valuable  work,  containing  only  the  four  Gos- 
pels, is  the  result  of  llio  united  labours  of  Professors  Birdi,  Adler, 
and  Moldenhavver,  who  for  several  years  travelled  into  Germany, 
Italy,  France,  and  Spain,  at  the  expense  of  the  king  of  Denmark, 
in  order  to  examine  and  collate  the  precious  remams  of  sacred 
antiquity.  Birch  collated  all  the  Greek  manuscripts  quoted,  except 
tliose  in  the  library  of  the  Escurial,  vhich  were  collated  by  Mol- 
denhawer.  The  Syriac  collations  were  made  by  Adler.  A  detailed 
account  of  those  manuscripts  is  given  in  the  Prolegomena;  from 
which  we  learn  that  the  manuscripts  which  passed  under  his 
insi)oction  were  very  numerous.  In  the  Vatican,  forty  were  col- 
lated ;  in  the  Barberini  library,  ten  ;  in  other  Roman  libraries,  seven- 
teen ;  in  the  libraries  at  Florence,  and  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  thirty- 
eight;  in  the  imperial  library  at  Vienna,  twelve;  and  in  the  royal 
library  at  Copenhagen,  three.  The  text  is  from  Robert  Stephens's 
edition  of  1550;  but  the  great  value  of  this  splendid  work,  and  in 
which  it  surpasses  all  former  editions,  consists,  frsl,  irj  the  very 
complete  extracts  which  are  given  from  the  celebrated  Codex  Vati- 
canus,  described  in  pp.  224—226.  of  the  first  volume  ;  and,  secondly, 
in  the  extracts  from  the  Versio  Syra  Hi/erosoli/milana,  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  agreement  with  the  Codex  Bezoe,  where  it  is 
wholly  unsupported  by  any  other  authority;  a  circumstance  which 
shows  the  value  and  antiquity,  not  so  much  of  the  manuscripts 
themselves,  as  of  the  text  which  they  contain. 

In  1798,  Professor  Birch  published,  at  Copenhagen,  a  collection 
of  various  readings  to  the  Acts  and  Epistles,  drawn  from  the  same 
sources  ;  intituled  VaricB  Lecliones  ad  texliim  Acloriim  Aposloloriim, 
Epistolarum  CathoUcarum  et  PaiiU,  e  Codd.  GrcBcis  MSS.  Biblio- 
thecee  Vaiicana,  Barherincp,  August.inianoram  Eremilarum  Romw, 
Borgiana  Velitris,  Neapolitance  Regies,  Laurentiniance,  S.  Marci 
Venelorurn  Vindobonensix  Casarece,  et  Hafniensis  Regim,  collects  et 
edit(B  ah  Andrea  Birch,  Theol.  D.  et  Prof. ;  in  1800,  he  published 
Varice  Lectiones  ad  Apocalypsin :  and  in  1801,  Variw  Lectionis  ad 
Textum  IV.  Evangeliorian  e  Codd.  MSS.  ilerum  recognilce  et  quam- 
plurimis  accessionihus  auctcB :  all  in  8vo.  to  the  four  gospels.  The 
completion  of  the  magnificent  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament, 
begun  in  1788,  was  prevented  by  a  calamitous  fire  at  Copenhagen, 
which  consumed  the  royal  printing  office,  together  with  the  beau- 
tiful types  and  paper,  which  had  been  procured  from  Italy,  for 
that  purpose. 

26.  XIII.  Epistolarum  Pauli  Codex  Grsecus,  cum  Versions 
Latina  vetere,  vulgo  Ante-Hieronymiana,  olim  Boernerianus, 
nunc  BibliothecaElectoralis  Dresdensis,  summa  fide  et  diligentia 
transcriptus  et  editus  a  C.  F.  Matth^i.  Meissae,  1791  (re- 
printed in  1818)  ;  4to. 

Of  the  Codex  Boernerianus,  of  which  manuscript  this  publica- 
tion is  a  copy,  an  account  has  been  given  in  the  first  volume  of  this 
work.  The  transcript  is  said  to  be  executed  with  great  accurac)^, 
and  is  illustrated  with  two  plates. 

27.  Codex  Theodori  Bezae  Cantabrigiensifs,  Evangelia  et 
Acta  Apostolorum  complectens,  quadratis  Uteris,  Grceco-Latinus. 
Academia  auspicante  venerandsE  has  vetustatis  reliquias,  summa 
qua  fide  potuit,  adumbravit,  expressit,  edidit,  codicis  historiam 
prffifixit,  notasque  adjecit,  Thomas  Kipiing,  S.T.P.  Coll.  Div. 
Joan,  nupcr  socius.  Cantabrigia;,  e  Prelo  Academic©,  impensis 
AcademioB.   1793.  2  vols,  folio. 

This  fac-simile  of  the  Codex  Bezoe  (which  manuscript  has  already 
been  described)  is  executed  with  the  utmost  typographical  splen- 
dour. In  a  preface  of  twenty-eight  pages,  the  learned  editor  dis- 
cusses the  high  antiquity  of  the  manuscript ;  its  nature  and  excel- 
lence ;  its  migrations ;  the  various  collations  of  it  which  have  been 
made  at  different  times  ;  and  concludes  with  a  very  brief  descrip- 
tion of  the  manuscript  itself,  and  an  Index  Capitiim.  To  this  suc- 
ceeds the  text  of  the  manuscript,  which  is  divided  into  two  parts 
or  volumes;  the  first  ending  with  page  412.,  and  the  second  con- 
taining pages  413.  to  828.  Opposite  to  the  modern  supplement, 
which  concludes  the  Gospels,  on  page  G.57.,  is  the  end  of  the  Latin 
version  of  Saint  John's  third  Epistle.  Pages  829.  to  854.  contain 
Dr.  Kipling's  notes.  The  impression  of  this  fac-simile  was  limited 
to  two  hundred  and  fifty  copies  ;  and  it  usually  sells  for  six  or  eight 
guineas,  according  to  the  condition  and  binding  of  tlie  copies.  Dr. 
Kipling's  fac-simile  was  criticised,  with  groat  severity,  in  the 
Monthly  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xii.  pp.  241 — 246.  And  his  preface 
was  attacked,  in  no  very  courteous  manner,  in  a  pamphlet  entitled 
'  Remarks  on  Dr.  Kipling's  Preface  to  Beza.  Part  the  First. 
By  Thomas  Edwards,  LL.D.'  8vo.  1793.  No  second  part  ever 
appeared. 

Although  the  execution  of  this  noble  undertaking  did  not  answer 
the  expectations  of  some  learned  men,  in  consequence  of  which  it 
was  held  in  comparatively  little  estimation  for  many  years,  yet  its 
value  is  now  more  justly  appreciated.  "  A  critic  of  the  first  cele- 
brity, who  would  have  gladly  seized  an  opportunity  of  exposing 
Dr.  Kipling,  was  unable  to  detect  the  smallest  error  in  the  text. 
.  Person  himself  collated  the  printed  copy  with  the  original  manu- 
script, and  the  only  fiiult  he  could  delect  was  in  a  single  letter  of 
the  margin.  This  fact  must  surely  place  the  value  of  Dr.  Kipling's 
publication  far  beyond  the  reach  of  controversy."  (Brit.  Crit.  vol. 
xi.  p.  619.) 

28.  Novum  Testamentum  Greece  Textum  ad  fidom  Codicum 
Versionum  et  Patrura  recensuit  et  Lectionis  Varictatem  adjecit 


D.  Jo.  Jac.  Ghiesbach. 

1806.    2  vols,  large  8vo. 


[Part  I.   Chap.  I. 

Londini  et   Halae  Saxonum,  1796, 
Editio  secunda. 


Notwithstanding  the  different  opinions  entertained  by  some 
learned  men  relative  to  the  correctness  of  Dr.  Griesbach's  system 
of  recensions  or  editions  of  manuscripts,  all  parties  have  united  in 
commcndati(m  of  the  learning,  diligence,  and  labour  which  he 
bestowed  ujion  his  arduous  undertaking. 

Dr.  Gricsbach  commenced  his  critical  labours,  first,  by  publish- 
ing at  Halle,  in  1774,  the  historical  books  of  the  New  1  estament, 
under  the  following  title :  Libri  Hislorici  Novi  Testamenti,  Greece, 
Pars  i.  sistens  Synopsin  Evangellorum  Matthcui,  Marci,  et  LiicfB. 
Textum  ad  ftdem  Codd.  Versionum  et  Patrum  cmendavit  et  lectionis 
varictatem  adjeci  Jo.  Jac.  Grieshach.  (2d  edit.  Hate,  1797,  3d  edit. 
Halffi,  1809,)  8vo.  pars  ii.  sistens  Evavgelium  Johannis  et  Acta 
Ajjostoloru7ii,  Hate,  1775,  8vo.  This  edition  was  published  as  a 
manual  or  text-book  for  a  course  of  lectures  which  Professor 
Griesbach  was  at  that  time  delivering  at  Jena,  and  in  which  he 
explained  the  first  three  evangelists  synoptically,  that  is  to  say,  by 
uniting  together  the  three  narrations  of  the  same  event.  The  re- 
ceived text,  which  is  adopted,  is  divided  into  one  hundred  and 
thirty-four  sections,  and  is  printed  in  three  columns  ;  and  Griesbach 
indicated  by  various  marks  the  alterations  which  he  judged  neces- 
sary to  be  made.  The  various  readings,  taken  from  the  edition  of 
Mill,  Bengel,  and  Wetstein,  were  not  chosen  until  they  had  under- 
gone a  very  severe  revision ;  but  this  edition  also  contained  other 
lections,  which  the  learned  editor  found  in  manuscripts  preserved 
in  the  British  Museum  at  London,  and  also  in  the  Royal  Libraiy 
at  Paris.  In  1775,  Dr.  Griesbach  published  the  Apostolical  Epistles 
and  the  Apocalypse,  in  a  similar  mixnner  ;  but  as  many  persons 
had  expressed  themselves  dissatisfied  with  his  synoptical  arrange- 
ment of  the  historical  books,  he  printed  another  edition  of  them  in 
1777,  in  the  usual  order.  This  volume  forms  the  frst  part  of  his 
first  edition,  of  which  the  Epistles  and  Revelation,  printed  in  177.5, 
are  considered  as  the  second  part.  A  few  copies  were  struck  off 
in  4to.,  which  are  both  scarce  and  dear.  This  edition  is  of  a  very 
convenient  and  portable  size,  and  was  that  principally  used  in  the 
Universities  of  Germany.  Dr.  Hales  prefers  it  to  the  second  edi- 
tion, because  he  thinks  that  Griesbach  was  at  that  time  more  scru- 
pulous of  innovating  upon  the  text  than  he  afterwards  was. 

The  first  volume  of  the  second  edition  appeared  in  1796,  in  large 
octavo,  with  the  imprint  of  Londini  et  Hala  Saxonum  in  the  title- 
page  ;  and  the  second  with  that  of  HalcB  Saxonum  et  Londini,  on 
account  of  the  expense  of  the  paper  of  the  fine  copies  having  been 
munificently  defrayed  by  his  Grace  the  late  Duke  of  Grafton,  at  that 
time  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Cambridge.  These  are  most 
beautiful  books,  and  are  now  only  procurable  at  a  vei-y  high  price, 
though,  through  his  Grace's  liberality,  they  were  originally  sold, 
we  believe,  at  twelve  or  fourteen  shillings  per  volume.  Fifty 
copies  are  said  to  have  been  struck  off  on  large  paper  in  quarto. 
But  the  whole  of  these  two  volumes  was  printed  at  Jena,  under 
Griesbach's  own  eye.  In  addition  to  the  various  readings  exhi- 
bited in  Griesbach's  first  edition,  he  collated  all  the  Latin  "Versions 
published  by  Sabatier  and  Blanchini ;  and  corrected  the  mistake 
made  by  Mill,  Bengel,  and  Wetstein,  in  their  quotations  from  the 
oriental  versions.  He  also  inserted  the  principal  readings  collected 
by  Matthffii,  Birch,  and  Alter;  together  with  extracts  from  the  two 
Wolfenb'uttel  manuscripts  collated  by  Knittel,  and  the  readings  of 
the  Sahidic  version,  furnished  by  Woide,  Goorgi  and  ]\Iiinter.  Of  the 
Armenian  version  a  collation  was  made  for  him  by  M.  Bredenkampf 
of  Bremen  :  and  the  Sclavonic  version  was  collated  for  him  by  M. 
Dobrowsky  at  Prague. 

The  first  volume  contains  the  four  Gospels.  To  these  are  pre- 
fixed copious  prolegomena,  exhibiting  a  critical  history  of  the  printed 
textr  a  catalogue  of  all  the  manuscripts  from  which  various  read- 
ings are  quoted,  and  an  account  of  the  melliod  pureucd  by 
Griesbach  in  executing  this  second  edition,  together  with  the  prin- 
cipal rules  forjudging  of  various  readings.  The  text  is  printed  in 
two  columns,  the  numbers  of  the  verses  being  placed  in  the  mar- 
gin, below  which  are  the  various  lections. 

The  second  volume  contains  the  remaining  books  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  is  preceded  by  an  introduction  or  preface, 
accounting  for  the  delay  of  its  appearance,  and  an  account  of  the 
manuscripts  consulted  for  that  volume.  At  the  end  arc  forty  pages, 
separately  numbered,  consisting  of  a  Diatrihe  on  the  disputed 
clause  relative  to  the  three  witnesses  in  1  John  v.  7,  8.,  and  of 
additional  various  readings  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  Saint 
Paul's  Epistles,  with  two  pages  of  corrections.  Griesbach's  second 
edition  was  reprinted  at  London  in  1809,  in  two  elegant  8vo. 
volumes ;  one  by  Mr.  Collingwood  of  Oxlbrd,  and  the  other  by 
Mr.  R.  Taylor;  the  text  is  printed  in  long  lines,  and  the  notes  in 
columns,  and  Griesbach's  addenda  of  various  readings  are  inserted 
in  their  proper  places.  A  very  few  inaccuracies  have  been  dis- 
covered in  these  insertions,  which  perhaps  could  hardly  be  avoided 
in  a  work  of  such  minuteness.  This  edition,  which  consisted  of 
one  thousand  copies,  having  been  exhausted,  a  second  London 
edition  issued  from  the  press  of  Messrs.  R.  &  A.  Taylor,  in  two 
volumes,  8vo.  1818.  It  is  executed  in  the  same  handsome  form  as 
before,  and  possesses  some  advantages  even  over  Griesbach's  own 
second  edition.  In  the  first  place,  the  addenda  of  various  lections 
above  noticed  have  been  newly  collated,  and  inserted  in  their 
various  places  with  great  accuracy.  Secondly,  the  reading  of  Acts 
XX.  28.  ill  the  Vatican  manuscript  (which  Griesbach  could  not 
give,  in  consequence  of  Professor  Birch,  who  collated  it,  having 
lost  or  mislaid  his  memorandum  of  that  particular  text)  is  hero 


III.] 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


15 


printed  from  a  transcript  ohtaincd  by  Mr.  R.  Taylor  from  the 
koepor  of  the  Vatican  library.  The  rcailinf,'  of  the  clause  in  ques- 
tion, in  the  Codi^x  Vaticanus  is  thus  determined  to  he  conlbrmahle 
to  tlic  leclion  of  the  Texfus  lieceptiin,  viz.  T.)»  E>c»A.^<riai/  t-.u  fc»,iu, 
l/ir  Church  of  (lot/.  And,  lastly,  as  Griesbach,  in  his  Leipsic  edi- 
tion of  IHOf),  preferred  some  readini^s  dilferenl  from  those  adopted 
in  that  of  Halle,  17'Jl) — 1M()(>,  a  Synoptical  Table  is  given  indicating 
such  diiri'rences.  Bishop  Marsh  has  given  a  high  character  of  the 
laliours  of  Dr.  Griesbach,  in  his  Divinity  Lectures,  part  ii.  pp.  44, 
45.  See  some  strictures  on  them  in  Dr.  Ilales's  Treatise  on  Faith 
in  the  Holy  Trinity,  vol.  ii.  pp.  01— (Vl.  In  IH.TO,  Mr.  J.  G.  Palfrey, 
jiMiilishci!  in  I'iiiio.  at  JJoslon,  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts,  "The; 
JVevv  Teslaineiil,  in  the  comnion  version,  conformed  to  Griesbac'h's 
standard  (ireck  'l'e\t."  This  is  a  successful  endeavour  to  exhibit 
to  lh('  mere  English  reader  the  results  of  (iriesbach's  critical 
labours  (m  the  (Jreek  'I'ext  of  the  New  Testament.  The  text  of 
our  authorized  Knglish  version  is  reprinted  without  note  or  com- 
nuMit ;  and  the  words  arc  in  no  ease  altered,  except  where  a  change 
in  the  original  Greek  re(iuired  it, — that  is,  in  conformity  to  the 
emendations  of  the  (ireek  text  made  by  Dr.  (iriesbach.  In  the 
translations  wliich  the  editor  has  introtluced,  to  correspond  with 
the  amended  (ireek,  he  slates  that,  "  it  has  been  his  careful  endea- 
vour to  imitate  tlie  style  of  the  ref'cived  version,  and  no  one  has 
been  admitted  without  study  and  consideration."  [Preface,  p.  viii.] 
From  an  examination  of  different  parts  of  Mr.  Palfrey's  volume, 
the  writer  of  these  pages  is  enabled  to  state  that  he  has  not  observed 
any  departure  from  the  principles  by  which  Mr.  P.  professes  to 
have  been  guided. 

To  complete  Griesbach's  edition  of  the  New  Testament  there 
should  be  added  the  following  publications : 

1.  (-ura?  in  Ilistoriam  Texlus  Gncci  Epistolarum  Paulinarum. 
Jena; ;  1774,  4to. 

2.  SymljoliB  Criticae,  ad  supplendas  et  corrigendas  variarum 
N.  T.  Lectionum  Collectiones.  Accedit  mullorum  N.  T.  Codicum 
c;rrecorum  Doscriptio  et  Examen.  Hate,  1785,  1793,  2  vols, 
small  8vo. 

3.  ('ommenlarius  Critictis  in  Textiim  Gracum  Novi  Tesfamenti. 
Particuhi  |)rima,  Jense,  1798.     Particula  secunda,  Jenaj,  1811. 

29.  Novum  Tcstamcntum,  Graace.  Ex  Recensione  Jo.  Jac. 
GniESHAciiii,  cum  sclccta  Lectionis  Varietate.  Lipsise,  1803 — 
1807.    4  vols,  imperial  4to.  or  folio. 

This  is  a  most  sumptuous  edition;  the  text  is  formed  chiefly  on 
that  <il"  Griesbach's  second  edition,  and  on  that  of  Knapp,  noticed 
below.  The  type  is  large  and  clear;  the  paper  beautiful  and 
glossy ;  at  tiie  (i)ot  of  the  page  are  some  select  various  readings : 
and  each  volume  is  decorated  with  an  exquisitely  engraved 
frontispiece. 

30.  Novum  Testamentum,  Gra;ce.  Ex  Recensione  Jo.  Jac. 
GiiiKSHAciiii,  cum  selecta  Lectionum  Varietate.  Lip-sise,  180.5, 
1825,  2vols.  8vo. ;  Cambridge  (New  England),  1809,  2  vols. 
8vo.;  Glasgnae,  1817,  18mo. ;  Philadelphia,  1822,  12mo.;  Lon- 
dini,  1829,  18mo. 

This  edition  contains  the  text,  together  with  a  selection  of  the 
principal  various  reatlings,  and  an  extract  from  tiie  Prcjlcgomena 
oltlio  second  edition,  li  is  very  neatly  jirinted,  and  forms  a  valu- 
able manual  lor  constant  reference.  Th's  is  the  edition  now  chiefly 
used  in  the  universities  of  Ciermany.  Tlie  Anglo-American  edition 
printed  at  Cambridge  is  handsomely  executed  ;  and  the  typography 
of  the  largo  paper  copies  is  very  beautiful.  The  reprints  at  Glas- 
gow, Philadelphia,  and  London,  are  also  neatly  executed. 

31.  Novum  Testamentum  Graced.  Tcxtum  ad  Fidem  Codi- 
cum Versionuin  et  Patrum  rcccnsuit,  et  Lectionis  Varictatem 
adjecit  D.  Jo.  Jac.  Griesbach.  Volumen  L,  Quatuor  Evangelia 
couiplectens.  Editionem  tertiam  emendatam  el  auctam  curavit 
D.  David  ScuuLZ.     Berolini,  1827.  8vo. 

A  new  edition  of  Dr.  Griesbach's  revision  of  the  Greek  text  of 
the  New  Testament  having  become  necessary,  the  task  of  editing 
it,  with  such  additional  various  readings  as  have  been  discovered 
since  the  date  of  that  distinguished  critic's  last  labours,  was  con- 
fided to  Dr.  Scliulz,  who  has  executed  it  in  the  following  manner: 

In  the  first  place  he  procured  and  collated  the  various  printed 
Iwoks  of  which  Griesbach  had  made  use  in  preparing  his  edition, 
as  well  as  the  various  critical  materials  which  the  researches  of 
learned  men  had  di.^^covered  within  the  last  thirty  years ;  that  is, 
from  the  date  of  the  first  volume  of  his  second  edition,  in  1790. 
Dr.  Schuiz  then  proceeded  to  correct  all  the  typographical  errors  he 
had  deltMted;  and  he  expunged  a  great  number  of  stops,  especially 
conunas,  which  (lie  savs)  had  been  mmecessarily  intmduced  by 
modern  editoi-s.  aifd  which  in  many  instances  only  tended  to  obscure 
the  sacred  text.  lie  has  also  deviated  in  very  many  places  from 
the  received  mode  of  placing  certain  accents,  and  has  made  various 
improvements  in  the  spelling  of  certain  words. 

i'liese  preliminary  steps  having  been  taken.  Dr.  Schuiz  collated 
anew  the  principal  authorities  cited  by  Ciriesbach,  to  which  he 
coiiKl  procure  access,  ami  noticed  in  what  respects  they  diflcred 
from  the  notation  of  former  editors.  He  then  inserted  readings 
from  some  new  manuscripts  and  vei-sions,  which  had  hitherto  been 
either  little  known  or  altogether  neglected.  More  particularly,  he 
collated  anew, 

I.  Tlie  Alexandrian  Manuscript  of  the  New  Testament  edited 
Vol.  II Aa-p.  3  S 


by  Dr.  Woide,  the  Cambridge  Manuscript  edited  by  Dr.  Kipling, 
and  the  Latin  Manuscript  edited  by  Saliatier  and  Blanchini  ;  to 
which  he  .added  a  collation  of  the  celebrated  Oxiex  Vaticanus  from 
the  pajiers  of  Dr.  Bentley,  iirinted  at  Oxford  in  1799,  in  the  Appendix 
to  Dr.  \Voi<le's  edition  of  the  Alexandrian  MS.,  which  was  un- 
known to  (iricsliach,  and  which  in  many  instances  {lifTers  from 
Dr.  Birch's  readings  collated  from  the  same  manuscripts. 

2.  Dr.  Barrett's  splendid  fac-simile  of  the  (-'odex  Hescriptus  of 
part  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  published  at  Dublin  in  1801,  and 
here  noted  by  the  letter  Z. 

3.  The  eiUtri;  collation  of  the  Codex  Cyprius,  made  and  described 
by  Dr.  Augustine  Scholz,  and  printed  in  pji.  80 — 90  of  his  Cutcb 
Crilirw  in  Ilistoriam  Ttxiiis  IV.  Kvantieliuruin,  but  very  inaccu- 
rately, in  coiisei|ueiice  of  Dr.  S.'s  absence  on  his  biblico-critical 
travels,  so  that  he  could  not  personally  edit  his  collation  of  the 
Codex  Cyprius.  (Scholzii  Nov.  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  xl.)  The  possessor 
of  Dr.  Schulz's  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  must  therefore 
place  no  dependence  u[X)n  the  readings  of  the  Codex  Cyjirius,  as 
exhibited  by  him.  Further,  he  has  selected  from  Dr.  Scholz's 
Bihlischc-Kritixchc  Reise  (Biblico-critical  Travels)  the  various  read- 
ings contained  in  certain  MSS.  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library  at 
Paris,  which  he  has  noted  by  the  numbers  240,  241,  242,  243,  and 
244.     To  these  are  added  the  principal  various  readings  from 

4.  The  Codex  Rehdigeranus,  containing  a  Latin  Anie-Ilierony- 
mian  Version  of  the  four  (Jospels,  written  in  the  seventh  or  eighth 
century,  which  the  editor  had  himself  tnmscribed  in  the  year  1813. 

5.  The  Codex  Messanensis  I.  of  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, in  quarto,  inspected  by  Miinlcr  ;  of  which  an  account  is  given 
in  Dr.  Birch's  prolegomena  ad  Varr.  Lectt  Evv.  p.  xciii.  et  seq. 
This  MS.  is  numbered  237.  by  Dr.  Schuiz. 

6.  The  Codex  Syracusanus  in  the  Landolini  Library,  which  was 
also  inspected  by  Dr.  Muntcr,  and  which  is  described  by  Birch, 
p.  xcvi.  et  scy.     This  is  numbered  238. 

7.  The  Berlin  Manuscript  of  the  four  Gospels,  of  the  eleventh 
century,  of  which  a  description  was  published  by  Pappelbaum  in 
1823.     It  is  numbered  239. 

8.  The  Codex  Gronovianus  131.,  a  manuscript  of  the  four  Gospels 
collated  by  Dermout  in  his  Collectanea  Critica  in  Novum  Testa- 
mentum, part  i.    (Lugd.  Bat.  1825) :  this  is  numbered  245. 

9.  The  Codex  Meermannianus,  containing  the  four  Gospels,  Acta 
of  the  Apostles,  the  Epistles  of  James,  Peter,  1  John,  and  a  frag- 
ment of  the  epistle  to  the  liomans,  also  collated  by  Dermout :  this 
is  numbered  246. 

10.  The  readings  of  the  Gothic  Version,  from  Zahn's  correct 
edition  published  in  1805,  and  the  new  readings  contained  in  the 
fragments  of  this  version  first  published  by  Mai  in  1819,  together 
witli  the  fragments  of  the  Sahidic  Version  published  in  the  Appen- 
dix to  Woide's  fiic-simile  of  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  and  the  frag- 
ments of  the  Basmurico-Coptic  Version  edited  byEngelbreth  in  1811. 

Dr.  Schuiz  has  also  enriched  his  edition  with  many  valuable  notes 
relative  to  the  Syriac,  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Ethiopic  versions,  writ- 
ten by  C.  Benedict  Michaelis,  in  his  own  copy  of  Kuster's  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  which  is  now  dejiosited  in  the  Library  of 
the  Orphan  House  at  Halle.  Further,  Dr.  S.  had  constantly  open 
befiiro  him  the  more  valuable  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, as  well  as  other  works  which  might  afllinl  him  any  assistance, 
including  the  editions  of  Steiihcns,  Mill,  VVetstein,  Birch,  Malthtei 
(two  editions),  and  Knappe,  and  also  Griesbach's  edition  printed  at 
Leipsic  in  1809,  which  differs  from  his  own  second  edition  in  very 
many  respects ;  but  which  exhibits  that  form  and  condition  of  the 
sacred  text  W'hich  in  his  latter  years  and  matures!  judgment 
Dr.  Griesbach  deemed  to  be  true  and  correct.  The  readings 
peculiar  to  these  later  editions  have  been  diligently  noted. 

The  Symbola;  Criticaj  and  other  works  of  Griesbach  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  column,  together  with  the  critical  publications 
of  Gersdorf,  Bode,  Bowyer,  Valckenaer,  and  Wassenberg,  were  in 
like  maimer  constantly  at  hand ;  and  in  doubtful  or  more  impor- 
tant cases,  the  best  edilious  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  Fathers 
were  consulted. 

The  typograi)hical  execution  of  this  edition  is  much  more  com- 
modious than  that  of  Griesbach's  second  edition.  There,  the  text 
was  printed  in  two  columns,  and  the  notes  were  printed  in  a  mass 
in  long  lines,  with  the  notation  of  chapters  and  verses  in  the  mar- 
gin, which  rendered  it  perplexing  to  the  eye  to  compare  the  various 
readings  therein  contained.  In  Dr.  Schulz's  third  edition  the  text 
is  printed  in  long  lines,  and  the  notes  are  very  distinctly  exhibited 
in  two  columns,  each  note  forming  a  distinct  paragraph.  The  con- 
venience thus  afforded  in  consulting  the  work  is  very  great.  Be- 
sides the  editor's  preface,  and  the  corre<ted  preface  of  Griesbach 
(which  is  enlarged  in  the  catalogue  of  MSS.),  the  volume  now 
|)ublished  contains  the  four  CJospels :  at  the  end  there  are  eighteen 
closely-printed  pages  of  addenda,  which  ought  to  be  carefully 
transcribed  and  inserted  in  their  proper  places  before  the  b<H)k  caii 
be  advantageously  consulted:  these  addenda  have  principally  been 
caused  by  the  acquisition  of  many  hundreds  of  various  readings, 
obtained  from  M.  Dermout's  Collectanea  Critica  in  Novum  Testa- 
lamcntum  (of  which  an  account  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent 
page),  and  which  did  not  come  into  Dr.  Schulz's  possession  until 
after  the  present  vidiime  was  finished.  Such  additions  are  unavoid- 
able in  a  work  embracing  so  many  thousand  minute  references  and 
flgures ;  and  every  candid  scholar  will  readily  extend  to  such  a 
laborious  undertaking  as  the  present,  the  liberal  apology  offered  by 
Bishop  Marsh  for  Wetsiein : — "  That  mistakes  and  oversights  are 
discoverable  in  the  work,  detracts  not  from  its  general  merits  No 
work  is  without  them;  and  least -of  all  can  cousummate  accuracy 


16 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


Paht  I.  Chap.  L 


be  expected  where  so  many  causes  never  ceased  to  operate." 
(Bp.  Miir.sli's  Divinity  Lectures,  part  ii.  p.  23.)  This  edition  is  not 
yet  completed.  The  second  volume  is  to  contain  the  Acts,  Epistles, 
and  Apocalypse.     The  work  is  very  neatly  printed. 

32.  Evangelium  secundum  Mattha;um,  ex  Codice  Rescripto 
in  Bibliotheca  Collegii  SSsb.  Trinitatis  juxta  Dithlin :  Descrip- 
tum  Opera  et  Studio  Johannes  Barrett,  S.  T.  P.  Soc.  Sen. 
Trin.  Coll.  Dublin.  Cui  adjungitur  Appendix  CoUationem 
(Jodicis  Montlbrtiani  complectens.  Dublin! :  ^dibus  Academi- 
cis  excudehat  R.  E.  Mercier,  Academise  Typographus,  1801.  4to. 

The  prolegomena  fill  fifty-two  pages,  and  comprise,  1.  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  manuscript  it.sclf,  with  an  account  of  its  age,  and  the 
mode  of  collating  it  adopted  by  the  learned  editor;  and,  2.  An 
elaborate  dissertation  reconciling  the  apparent  discrepancies 
between  the  genealogies  of  Jesus  Christ  as  recorded  by  the 
Evangelists  Matthew  and  Luke.  The  fragments  of  the  Codex 
Kescriptus  are  then  exhibited  in  sixty-four  fac-simile  plates,  and  are 
also  represented  in  as  many  pages  in  the  common  Greek  small 
type.  This  truly  elegant  volume  concludes  with  a  collation  of  the 
Codex  Montfortianus  with  Wetstein's  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, which  occupies  thirty-five  pages.  An  account  of  this  manu- 
script is  given  in  Part  I.  of  the  first  volume. 

33.  Novum  Testamentum  Grasce.  Recognovit  atque  insig- 
niores  lectionum  varietates  et  argumentorum  notationes  subjecit 
Geo.  Christian.  Knappius.  Halse,  1797,  8vo. ;  2d  edit.  1813, 
2  vols.  8vo. ;  3d  edit.  1824,  2  vols.  8vo. ;  4th  edit.  1829,  2  vols. 
8vo. ;  Londoni,  1824,  2  vols,  in  one,  8vo. 

In  this  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  which  received  the  warm 
approbation  of  Griesbach  in  his  preface  to  the  splendid  edition 
above  noticed.  Dr.  Knappe  has  availed  himself  of  Griesbach's 
labours ;  and  has  admitted  into  the  text  not  only  those  readings 
which  the  latter  considered  to  he  of  undoubted  authority,  but  like- 
wise some  others  which  Dr.  K.  himself  regarded  as  such,  but  with- 
out distinguishing  either  of  them.  Such  words,  also,  as  it  might  on 
the  same  grounds  be  thought  right  to  exclude  from  the  text,  as  not 
originally  belonging  to  it,  are  here  enclosed  in  brackets,  partly  of 
the  common  kind,  and  partly  formed  on  purpose  for  this  edition. 
The  most  probable  readings  are  marked  with  an  asterisk :  to  all  of 
them  the  word  alii  is  prefixed,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  rest  of  these  lections,  which  in  reality  are  those  in  which  the 
exegetical  student  is  chiefly  interested.  Great  attention  is  paid  to 
typographical  and  grammatical  accuracy,  to  the  accents,  and  to  the 
punctuation,  which  differ  in  this  edition  from  those  of  Leusden,  or 
Gerard  von  Maestricht,  in  more  than  three  hundred  places.  Very 
useful  summaries  are  likewise  added  under  the  text.  This  valuable 
edition  is  not  common  in  England.  The  second  impression,  pub- 
lished in  two  volumes,  in  1813,  is  very  neatly  printed,  and  is  cor- 
rected throughout.  In  editing  it.  Dr.  K.  has  availed  himself  of 
Griesbach's  second  volume,  which  was  not  published  when  his 
first  edition  appeared.  The  third  edition  is  a  neat  reprint  of  the 
second,  of  which  the  London  edition  is  also  a  reprint.  The  fourth 
edition  is  revised  with  great  care,  and  the  additions  at  the  end  are 
arranged  in  a  more  convenient  form. 

34.  'H  KA:nH  AIA0HKH.  The  New  Testament  in  Greek, 
according  to  the  Text  of  Mill  and  Stephens,  and  the  Arrange- 
ment of  Mr.  Reeves's  Bible.  [Edited  by  John  Reeves,  Esq.] 
London,  1803.    8vo. 

This  edition  is  printed  with  singular  neatness. 

35.  Novum  Testamentum  Graece,  ex  Recensione  Griesbachii, 
nova  Latina  versione  illustratuni,  indice  brevi  praecipuse  lectio- 
num et  interpretationum  diversitatis  instructum,  edidit  Henricus 
Augustus  ScHOTT.  Lipsiae,  1805;  editio  secunda,  1811; 
editio  tertia,  1825.    8vo. 

The  text  is  formed  after  that  of  Griesbach ;  under  it  are  printed 
the  most  important  various  readings,  together  with  very  concise 
notes.  The  Latin  version  in  the  third  edition  professes  to  be  so 
much  corrected,  as  to  be  in  effect  a  new  translation :  many  of  its 
interpretations  and  notes,  however,  equally  with  those  in  the 
second  edition,  are  in  the  worst  style  of  German  neologism. 

36.  Novum  Testamentum  Grajce.  Lectiones  Variantes, 
Griesbachii  judicio,  iis  quas  textus  receptus  exhibet  anteponen- 
das  vel  tequiparandas,  adjecit  Josephus  White,  S.  T.  P.  Lin- 
guarum  Heb.  et  Arab,  in  Academia  Oxoniensi  Professor. 
Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Clarendoniano,  1808.  2  vols,  crown  8vo. 

This  is  a  very  neat  and  accurate  edition.  The  Textus  Receptus 
is  adopted  ;  and  Professor  White  has  contrived  lo  exhibit  in  a  very 
intelligible  form — 1.  Those  readings  which  in  Griesbach's  opinion 
ought,  either  certainly  or  probably,  lo  be  removed  from  the  received 
text ;  2.  Those  various  readings  which  the  same  editor  judged  either 
preferable  or  equal  to  those  of  the  received  text;  and," 3.  Those 
additions  which,  on  the  authority  of  manuscripts,  Griesbach  con- 
siders as  fit  to  be  admitted  into  the  text.  "  An  intermediate  advan- 
tage to  be  derived  from  an  edition  thus  marked,  is  pointed  out  by 
the  learned  editor  at  the  conclusion  of  his  short  preface ;  viz.  that 
it  may  thus  be  seen  at  once  by  every  one,  how  very  litlle,  after  all 
the  labours  of  learned  men,  and  the  collation  of  so  many  manu- 
scripts and  versions,  is  liable  to  just  objection  in  the  received  text." 
British  Critic,  vol.  xxxiv.  (O.  S.)  p.  386.) 


37.  Novum  Testamentum  Gnccum ;  juxta  exemplar  Wet- 
stenii,  Glasguse,  et  J.  J.  Griesbachii,  Halae  iniprcssum  ;  accedunt 
Prolegomena  in  Evangelia,  in  Acta,  et  in  Epistolas  Apostolorum. 
Accurante  Gulielmo  Whitfield  Dakins.  Editio  Stereotypa, 
Londini,  1808,  royal  8vo.  Numerous  subsequent  editions  are 
in  12mo. 

38.  Novum  Testamentum  Grrecum  et  Latinum,  secundum 
curam  Leusdenii  et  Griesbachii,  editum  ab  A.  H.  Aitton. 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1809.   18mo. 

A  neat  impression,  into  the  text  of  which  the  editor  has  intro- 
duced most  of  Griesbach's  emendations. 

39.  Testamentum  Novum  Grsece,  ad  iidem  Rccensionis 
Schoettgenianae ;  addita  ex  Griesbachii  apparatu  Lectionis  varie- 
tate  praecipuse.     Upsate,  1820.    8vo. 

A  reprint  of  Schoettgenius's  text,  which  has  been  noticed  in 
p.  12.  of  this  Appendix,  with  the  addition  of  select  various  read- 
ings from  Griesbach. 

40.  Novum  Testamentum  Graece.  Ad  fidem  optimorum 
librorum  recensuit  A.  H.  Tittmannus.  Lipsise,  1820,  18mo. 
Lipsiffi,  1824,  8vo. 

The  text  of  the  edition  in  18mo.  is  a  corrected  one ;  that  is.  Pro- 
fessor Tittman  has  inserted  in  it  such  various  readings  as  are  in 
his  judgment  preferable  to  (hose  commonly  received,  and  which 
have  been  approved  by  the  most  eminent  critics  ;  and  he  has  printed 
an  index  of  the  altered  passages  at  the  end  of  the  A'olunie.  Its 
portability,  in  addition  to  its  intrinsic  excellence,  is  no  mean  recom- 
mendation of  it  10  students  of  the  New  Testament;  the  Greek 
characters,  though  small,  being  very  distinctly  and  neatly  stereo- 
typed. The  Svo.  edition  of  the  same  text  is  beautifully  stereotyped. 
There  are  copies  of  both  editions  on  fine  paper. 

41.  'H  KAINH  ATA0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum  Manuale. 
Glasguae,  ex  Prelo  Academico:  impensis  Rivingtons  et  Cochran, 
Londini,  1821.  32mo. 

This  edition  contains  the  Greek  text  only:  it  follows  the  text  of 
Aitton,  except  in  a  few  instances,  in  which  the  received  readings 
are  supported  by  the  best  authorities,  and  consequently  are  most  to 
be  preferred.  This  edition  is  beautifully  printed  on  the  finest  blue- 
tinted  writing  paper :  it  was  read  six  times,  with  the  utmost  care, 
in  passing  through  the  press,  and  will  be  foimd  to  be  unusually 
accurate.    No  contractions  are  used. 

42.  Novum  Testamentum  Grseco-Latinum.  Vulgata  Inter- 
pretatione  Latina  Editionis  Clementis  VIIL  Graeco  Textui  ad 
Editionem  Complutensem  diligentissime  expresso  e  regione 
opposita.  Studio  et  cura  Petri  Aloysii  Gratz.  Tubingae,  1821, 
1828.    2  tomis,  8vo. 

An  edition  which  is  not  of  very  common  occurrence  in  this 
country.  The  first  part  or  volume  contains  the  four  Gospels  ;  the 
second,  the  remaining  Books  of  the  New  Testament.  The  Greek 
text  is  a  reprint  of  that  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  with  the 
exception  of  the  contractions,  and  the  correction  of  some  ortho- 
graphic errors :  opposite  to  this  is  the  Latin  Vulgate  version, 
according  to  the  Clementine  Recension.  At  the  foot  of  each  page 
are  exhibited  various  readings,  from  Robert  Stephens's  third  edition, 
printed  in  1550 ;  from  Matlhoji's  critical  edition,  and  from  Gries- 
bach's last  edition.  To  the  labours  of  these  editors  Professor  Gratz 
pays  a  brief  but  high  tribute  of  coinmendalion.  In  order  to  ensure 
correctness,  the  proof  sheets  were  repeatedly  read  by  the  editor 
and  his  friends.  After  the  editor's  preface,  follow  the  preface  of 
Jerome  on  the  four  Gospels,  addressed  to  Damasus,  bishop  of  Rome, 
and  Pope  Clement  VIIl.'s  preface  to  his  edition  of  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate Bible  :  together  with  a  synopsis  of  the  four  Gospels,  and  paral- 
lel passages.  The  fine  paper  copies  are  very  beautiful  books  :  there 
is  one  in  the  library  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
from  an  examination  of  which  the  preceding  description  is  drawn 
up.  The  frequent  appeals  made  to  the  Complutensian  text,  and  the 
extreme  rarity  of  that  Polyglott,  concur  to  render  this  edition  by 
Professor  Gratz  an  acceptable  present  to  the  biblical  critic. 

43.  Novum  Testamentum.  Textum  Graecum  Griesbachii  et 
Knappii  denuo  recognovit,  Delectu  varietatum  Lectionis  Testi- 
moniis  confirmatarum,  Adnotatione  cum  Critica  tum  Exegetica 
et  Indicibus  Historic©  et  Geographico,  Vocum  Graecarum  Infre- 
quentiorum  et  Subsidiorum  Criticorum  Excgcticorumque,  in- 
struxit  Joannes  Severinus  Vater,  Theol.  Doct.  et  Prof.  Hal. 
Halis  Saxonum,  1824.  8vo. 

"  Of  the  various  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  which 
of  late  years  have  been  given  to  the  public,  this  is  not  only  one 
of  the  neatest,  but  one  of  the  cheapest ;  it  is,  in  every  respect,  a 
practical  edition,  equally  adapted  to  the  lecture-room  and  to  the 
private  study.  It  will  not,  indeed,  render  unnecessary  the  critical 
labours  of  Wctstein,  Griesbach,  or  Matthsi,  but  it  will  be  a  valua- 
ble substitute  for  them  to  those  students  who  have  not  the  time  or 
the  means  of  purchasing  their  costly  but  valuable  labours.  The 
following  is  the  plan  on  which  Professor  Vater  has  formed  his 
edition : 

"  The  text  of  each  book  or  epistle  is  exhibited  in  continuous 
paragraphs,  with  the  numbers  of  the  chapters  and  verses  in  the 


Sect.  III.] 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


17 


margin,  for  the  convcnicnne  of  rofcronoc ;  and  in  tho  Goapol 
tho  ]»arullel  passages  arc  also  rnlcned  lo  in  the  margin.  The 
piiiiclualion  oC  the  text  is  fref|iicnliy  improved.  Below  the  text 
nrc  cxhihireii,  in  long  linos,  ihe  priiieipal  various  readings,  di- 
\<'slc(l  of  (Jrieshacli's  slciiogruphii;  marks,  with  the  aiiliiori- 
lies  mi  which  they  rest;  anil,  bonealh  them,  in  two  eolimiiis, 
are  Unci  hut  satisCaetory  exegelical  noles  on  j)assagcs  vvhieli  are 
really  diKicult.  Four  indexes  are  siihjoined,  viz.  1.  Historical  and 
flr-ogniphiciil,  of  ihe  Names  of  Persons  and  I'l.iees,  occurring  in 
(he  New  Tcslament;  2.  Of  Ihe  more  difliciilt  and  uncommon 
(Jreek  words;  3.  Of  the  Manuscripls  and  other  critical  aids  lor 
determining  various  readings;  and,  4.  Of  Kxegetical  or  Kxposilory 
Aids,   comprising  a  list  of  the    be.sl    commentaries  on   partir-ular 

hooks,   ch.iiilers,   or   verses The    hook    is    printed    on    two 

papers — (»ne  inliirior,  which  is  had  enough;  th(^  other  on  a  heller 
sorl  of  paper,  which  is  lioth  ciisv  to  read  and  pleusanl  to  the  eye." 
(IIiiiviTsal  Keview,  vol.  ii.  pp.  083,  084.) 

44.  "H  KAlNH  AlAOHKH.  Novutn  Testamentum  GrsEce. 
Tcxtui  ante  (Jrieshachium  vulgo  recei)to,  additur  Lectionum 
Variantium  earum  prfccipue,  (jua;  a.  Grieshachio  potiores  censen- 
tur, Delectus.     Basilea;,  1825.  2  toinis,  8vo. 

This  very  neat  edition  may  occasionally  he  met  with.  The  text 
is  reprinted  from  an  edition  of  liu;  Greek  Testament,  edited  at 
Basic  by  Andrew  Birr,  in  174'.);  who  added  a  copious  selection  of 
Parallel  Passages.  The  prelace  of  the  |)resent  edition  is  signed 
wilh  the  initial  lellcrs  J.  II.  Whoever  the  edilor  may  be,  he  has 
in  many  passages  improved  the  punctuation,  as  well  as  the  selec- 
tion ol  parallel  texis.  Those  various  readings  of  Griesbach's 
which  anect  the  sense  are  retained  ;  and  ihe  editor  has  sometimes 
BUccessl'uUy  vindicated  the  ordinary  Greek  text  against  the  pro- 
posed alterations  of  that  critic.  The  Epistle  of  Jude  is  placed 
mtmediately  after  St.  Peter's  second  Epistle,  on  account  of  the 
similarity  of  its  subject.  The  passages  cited  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  exhibited  in  a  very  distinct  form. 

4.').  *H  KAINH  A1A0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum,  curante 
.To.  Fr.  BoissoNADE.     Parisiis,  1824.  2  toniis,  18mo. 

In  this  beautifully  and  accurately  printed  edition  of  the  Greek 
Text,  Professor  Boissonade  states  that  he  has  followed  the  best 
copies,  particularly  that  of  Dr.  Griesbach;  yet  not  so  .servilely,  but 
that  he  has  availed  himself  of  the  judgment  of  other  critics,  and 
especially  of  tho  Vulgate  Latin  Version.  The  value  of  this  edi- 
tion, considered  as  a  critical  one,  is  much  diminished  by  the  total 
omission  of  any  notes,  to  apprize  the  reader  when  the  editor  has 
departed  from  the  received  text,  as  also  on  what  authority  he  has 
adopted  particular  readings.  To  specify  two  or  three  instances: — 
On  the  authority  of  Griesbach,  he  omils  the  doxology  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  Matt.  vi.  13.  On  the  same  authority,  in  Acts  xx.  28.  he 
reails  t^v  ixuKktixv  tou  Kup.ou,  Church  of  Ihe  Lord,  instead  of  tou  eiou, 
of  God;  notwithstanding  this  last  reading  is  supported  by  the  Vati- 
can manuscript.  So  also,  in  1  Tim.  iii.  16.  he  reads  o  i^x\'Sf,ii>i, 
which  (mystery)  was  manifested,  instead  of  fcisoj,  God.  But  the 
much  disputed  clause  in  1  John  v.  7.  is  printed  as  in  the  Complu- 
tcnsian  and  other  editions,  without  any  intimation  that  its  genuine- 
ness has  been  denied ;  although  that  clause  is  omitted  in  Gries- 
bach's edition,  and  is  now  generally  considered  to  be  spurious. 

46.  Novum  Testamentum  Graece  et  Latine,  expressum  ad 
binas  editiones  a  Leone  X.  approbatas,  Complutensem  silicet 
et  Erasmi  Roterodami.  Additte  sunt  aliarum  novissimarum 
Recensionum  Variantes  Lectiones  Grsecte,  una  cum  Vulgata 
Latina.  Editionis  Clementinse,  ad  exemplar  ex  Typographia 
ApostoIic;\  Vaticana  Romce,  1592,  correctis  corrigendis  ex  Indi- 
cibus  Correctoriis  ibidem  editis,  necnon  cum  additis  Lectionibus 
ex  Vaticanis  Editionlbus  Latinis,  de  annis  1590,  1592,  1593, 
1598,  Variantibus;  adpositisque  locis  parallelis.  Studio  et  cura 
E.  Leandri  Van  Ess.  Tubingae,  1827.  8vo. 

A  very  neatly  printed  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament.  The 
revised  texts,  consulted  for  it  by  Dr.  Van  Ess,  are  the  original  Com- 
plutensian,  the  five  editions  of  Erasmus,  Robert  Stephens's  edition, 
printed  at  Paris  in  1546,  with  the  preface  O  mirificam,  &c.  Mat- 
thnji's  second  edition,  published  at  VVitlemberg  in  1803 — 1807,  and 
Griesbach's  manual  edition,  published  at  Leipzig  in  1805,  wilh 
select  various  readings.  The  following  is  the  plan  followed  by 
Dr.  Van  Ess  in  the  Greek  text  of  his  edition: — 

1.  The  text  adopted  is  fundamentally  that  of  Erasmus's  fifth 
edition;  and  is  preferably  retained  in  all  those  places  where  the 
revisions  above  enumerated  vary  from  that  edition. 

2.  Where  the  text  of  the  Complutensian  and  Erasmus's  fifth  edi- 
tion agrees  (as  most  frequently  is  the  case)  that  text  alone  is  uni- 
formly adopted. 

3.  VVhere  these  two  texts  differ,  that  reading  of  one  or  other  of 
them  is  retained,  which  is  supported  by  the  authority  of  Gries- 
bach's text. 

4.  All  the  readings  of  the  five  recensions  above  enumerated, 
which  vary  from  the  text  of  Van  Ess's  edition,  are  placed  in  notes 
at  the  foot  of  the  page:  and  v\here  no  various  reading  is  specified, 
the  texts  of  the  several  editions  uniformly  agree. 

The  Latin  text  of  the  Vulgate  is  printed  opposite  to  the  Greek, 
on  each  page,  according  to  the  edition  printed  at  the  Vatican  press, 
at  Rome,  in  1592,  with  tho  requisite  corrections  from  the  Roman 
"  Index  Correclorius."  References  to  parallel  pas.sages  are  added 
in  tlie  notes,  together  wilh  Ihe  various  readings  from  the  editions 


of  Ihe  Latin  Vulgate  printed  at  the  same  press  in  the  years  1590 
15'.)2,  1593,  and  1598. 

The  ordinary  divisions  of  chapters  and  verses  are  retained  ;  but 
there  are  no  summaries  or  tables  of  contents. 

47.  "H  KAINH  AIAOHKH.  Novum  Testamentum,  Acce- 
duiit  Parallcla  S.  Scriptura;  Loca,  necnon  Vetus  (Japitulorum 
Notatio,  et  Canones  Eu.schii.  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Claren- 
doniano,  1828;  Editio  altera,  1830;  royal  18mo. 

For  this  very  commodious  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  junior 
biblical  students  (fijr  whose  use  it  is  especially  designed)  are 
iiidelded  lo  the  Right  Rev.  Charles  LLoyn,  D.D.  Bishop  of  Oxford. 
The  i)lan  of  it  is  as  follows: — 

The  text,  which  is  that  of  Dr.  Mill,  is  printed  in  paragraphs, 
wilh  the  division  inlo  seclions,  and  the  punctuation  of  John  Albert 
Bengcl :  the  numbers  of  the  chapters  and  verses  are  placed  in  the 
margin  on  the  left  of  each  |)age,  in  which  are  inserted  the  «i«x/.»i» 
or  chapters  found  in  ancient  manuscripts,  of  which  an  account  is 
given  in  Part  I.  p.  214.  of  the  first  volume.  These  are  printed  from 
Kusler's  edition  of  the  Greek  TeslamenI,  for  the  convenience  of 
lhos<!  who  may  wish  to  consult  mainiscripis  for  pariicidar  passages 
of  the  New  Testament.  In  the  oilier  margin  there  are  printed 
select  but  highly  valuable  Parallel  References  to  Scripluro,  accord- 
ing to  the  edition  of  Courcelles  (or  CurccUaiiis).  The  Epistle  to 
Carpianus  and  the  canons  of  Eiisebius  (of  which  an  account  is 
given  in  the  first  volume)  are  prefixed,  for  the  piir|M)sc  of  enabling 
any  one  who  may  be  so  disposed,  lo  compile  for  himself  a  harmony 
of  the  four  Gospels 

48.  'H  KAINH  ATA0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum  Gnece, 
secundum  editiones  probatissimas ;  expressum  cum  Aria;  Montani 
Interprctatione  Latina.  Curante  Carolo  Christiano  Leutsch. 
Lipsia;,  1828.  8vo. 

A  neat  reprint  of  the  Greek  text  after  that  of  Dr.  Knappe's  criti- 
cal editions,  with  the  Latin  version  of  Arias  Monlaniis,  which 
from  its  general  fidelity  is  held  in  high  estimation  by  Protestanis 
and  Romanists.  The  Greek  text  and  the  Latin  translation  are 
printed  in  columns  on  each  page :  the  ordinary  divisions  of  chap- 
ters and  verses  are  retained. 

49.  Novum  Testamentum  Grajce.  Londini,  impcnsis  G. 
Pickering,  1828,  48mo. 

This  is  the  first  Greek  Testament  printed  in  England  with  dia- 
mond type ;  and  it  is  also  the  smallest  in  point  of  size  which  has 
ever  been  printed.  The  matrices,  from  which  the  types  were  cast, 
were  cut  by  Mr.  Caslon.  The  text  is  slated  to  be  copied  exactly 
from  the  Elzevir  edition  of  1624 ;  and,  in  order  to  ensure  the 
greater  correctness,  every  proof  sheet  was  critically  examined 
EIGHT  times.  There  is  a  frontispiece,  engraved  on  steel,  repre- 
senting the  Last  Supper,  after  the  celebrated  picture  by  Leonardo 
da  Vinci. 

50.  "H  KAINH  AIA0HKH,  Novum  Testamentum  ad  Exem- 
plar Millianum,  cum  emendationibus  et  lectionibus  Griesbachii, 
prsecipuis  vocibus  ellipticis,  thematibus  omnium  vocum  difTicili- 
orum,  atque  locis  scripturje  parallelis :  studio  et  labore  Gulielmi 
Greenfield.     Londini,  1829.  48mo. 

The  Greek  text  of  this  beautifully  executed  pocket-edition  of  the 
New  Testament  is  printed  after  Dr.  Mill's  edition  (No.  10.  p.  qoo 
supra)  in  columns,  and  with  the  usual  divisions  of  chapters  and 
verses.  The  critical  emendations  and  various  readings  include  the 
principal  of  these  in  Griesbach's  edition  of  1805  (No.  30.  p.  II. 
supra).  These  emendations  and  readings,  together  with  the  themes 
of  the  more  difficult  words,  and  a  selection  of  really  parallel  pas- 
sages, are  all  clearly  exhibited  in  a  column  in  the  centre  of  each 
page.  Such  of  Griesbach's  various  readings  as  could  not  be  in- 
serted in  the  central  column  are  printed  in  an  appendix.  Two 
neat  miniature  maps, — one  of  Palestine,  and  another  illustrating 
St.  Paul's  Travels,  increase  the  utility  of  this  xery  portable  manual 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  ;  as  a  companion  to  which,  Mr. 
Greenfield  published,  in  1829,  "  The  Polymicrian  Lexicon  to  the 
New  Testament,"  also  in  48mo.  "  Elegance  and  accuracy  of  typo- 
graphical execution,  and  the  extreme  smallness  of  the  volume, 
which  renders  it  a  curiosity,  are  but  the  least  of  its  recommenda- 
tions. The  work  does  the  highest  honour  to  the  editor's  fidelity, 
competent  learning,  and  sound  judgment."  (Eclectic  Review, 
February,  1832.  vol.  vii.  p.  1G0.> 

51.  "H  KAINH  AIA0HKH,  sive  Novum  Testamentum  Graece; 
cui  subjicitur  SeJectio  copiosa  Lectionum  Variantium  Emen- 
dationuinque  Griesbachii  praecipuarum,  necnon  quampiurimae 
Voces  Ellipticae;  accurante  Guiielmo  Duncan.  Edinburgi, 
1830.   12mo. 

A  new  and  greatly  improved  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament, 
first  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1811  by  Mr.  Adam  Dicki.nson, 
with  a  small  selection  of  various  readings,  for  the  use  of  the  senior 
classes  in  schools.  It  was  stereotyped  in  1817,  and  was  subse- 
quently often  reprinted.  The  text  is,  for  the  most  part,  that  of  Dr. 
Mill :  at  the  foot  of  the  pages  are  printed  the  principal  elliptical 
words,  collected  from  the  publications  of  Bos,  Leisner,  and  other 
eminent  critics.  In  the  text  all  the  words  and  passages,  absolutely 
rejected  by  Griesbach  as  spurious,  are  pointed  out  by  enclosing 
them  within  brackets.  The  editor  (Mr.  Duncan)  has  annexed  a  co- 
pious selection  of  the  most  important  of  Griesbach's  various  read- 


18 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I 


ings  and  emendations,  which  appears  to  have  been  made  with 
great  care.     The  typograpliical  execution  is  very  neat. 

52.  Novum  Testamentum  Grrece.  Tcxtum  ad  fidem  Testium 
Criticorum  recensuit,  Lcctionum  Familias  siibjecit,  c  Grajcis 
Codicibus  Maiiuscriptis  qui  in  Europa;  et  Asia3  Bibliothecis 
reperiuntur  fere  omnibus,  e  Versionibus  Antiquis,  Conciliis, 
Sanctis  Patribus  ct  ScriptoriI)Us  Eccle.siasticis  quibu.=!cunque,  vcl 
prime  vcl  itcrum  collatis,  Co[)ias  Criticas  addidit,  atque  Condi- 
tionem  horum  Testium  Criticorum,  Historiamque  Textus  Noyi 
•Tcstamenti  in  Prolegomenis  tnsius  expo.suit,  pra;terea  Synaxaria 
Codicum  K.  M.  262.  274.  typis  exscribenda  curavit  Dr.  J.  Mar- 
tinus  Augustinus  Scholz.     Vol.  I.     Lipsiae,  1830.  4to. 

The  preceding  copious  title-page  of  this  beautifully  executed 
work  will  convey  to  the  reader  uu  idea  of  the  plan  adopted  by  the 
learned  editor,  Dr.  J.  Martin  Scholz,  who  devoted  twelve  years  of 
incessant  labour  to  his  arduous  undertaking.  In  order  to  obtain 
materials,  he  visited  in  person  the  libraries  of  Paris,  Vienna,  Land- 
shut,  Munich,  Berlin,  Treves,  Loudon,  Geneva,  Turin,  Florence, 
Venice,  Parma,  Rome,  Naples,  of  the  Greek  monasteries  at  Jerusa- 
lem, of  St.  Saba,  and  the  Isle  of  Patmos;  and  collated,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  all  the  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament 
which  are  to  be  found  in  the  libraries  just  enumerated  (in  Greek, 
Latin,  Arabic,  &c.),  comparing  them  with  the  text  of  Griesbach. 
He  also  professes  to  have  examined  anew  most  of  the  ancient  ver- 
sions, as  well  as  the  passages  cited  from  the  New  Testament  in 
the  writings  of  the  Falhei-s  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  of  suc- 
ceeding ecclesiastical  authors,  and  in  the  acts  of  councils.  In 
addition  to  all  which  sources,  he  has  availed  himself  of  the  printed 
collations  of  preceding  critical  editors  of  the  Greek  Testarnent. 

The  Prolegomena,  which  fill  one  hundred  and  seventy-two 
pages,  contain  a  critical  history  of  the  text  of  the  New  Testament, 
together  with  a  copious  history  and  critical  estimate  of  all  the 
sources  of  various  readings  consulted  by  Professor  Scholz,  distin- 
guishing the  MSS.  collated  by  others  from  those  which  he  had 
himself  collated  for  the  first  time,  either  wholly  or  in  part.  These 
MSS.  form  a  total  of  six  hundred  and  seventy-four;  of  which  num- 
ber three  himdred  and  forty-three  were  collated  by  his  predeces- 
sors in  this  department  of  sacred  literature, — 286  of  various  portions 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  57  evangelisteria  or  lesson-books  ex- 
tracted from  the  four  Gospels;  and  three  hundred  and  thirty-one 
were  for  the  first  time  collated  by  Dr.  Scholz  himself,  viz.  210  MSS. 
of  parts  of  the  New  Testament,  and  121  evangelisteria.  Of  the 
theory  of  recensions  adopted  by  Dr.  S.  in  his  Prolegomena  and  in 
his  Biblico-Critical  Travels,  and  of  the  two  classes  of  instruments 
or  documents  to  which  he  refers  all  the  MSS.  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, an  account  is  given  in  Part  I.  pp.  209 — 212.  of  the  first 
volume. 

To  the  Prolegomena  succeed  the  four  Gospels,  which  fill  four 
hundred  and  fifty-two  pages,  separately  numbered.  The  text, 
which  is  generally  that  called  the  textus  receptus,  is  judiciously 
printed  in  paragraphs,  with  the  numbers  of  chaptere  and  verses 
placed  in  the  side  margin :  not  a  word  is  altered  without  the  sup- 
port of  the  most  decisive  critical  testimonies.  In  the  inner  margin 
below  the  text  are  placed  the  families  of  readings,  as  Dr.  Scholz 
terms  them ;  that  is,  the  general  readings  found  in  the  two  great 
classes  of  manuscripts,  viz.  the  Coustantinopolilan.  and  the  Alex- 
andrine: and  beneath  these,  in  the  outer  margin,  are  given  the 
more  detailed  specifications,  which  are  veiy  clearly  and  commo- 
diously  disposed  of  in  two  columns,  and  in  the  following  order,  viz. 

1.  Maiuiscripts  of  the  greatest  antiqtiity,  which  are  written  in  un- 
cial or  capital  letters:  these  are  designated  by  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  from  A  to  Z,  and  by  the  two  Greek  letters  r  and  il ; 

2.  Manuscripts  written  in  cursive  or  ordinary  Greek  characters ; 

3.  Evangelisteria.  The  references  to  these  two  classes  of  manu- 
scripts are  by  Arabic  figures;  4.  The  readings  found  in  the  several 
ancient  versions;  and  5.  The  quotations  found  in  the  writings  of 
the  fathers  and  other  ecclesiastical  authors  and  in  the  acts  of 
councils. 

Dr.  Scholz  is  proceeding  in  the  second  volume  of  his  most  valua- 
ble work  with  all  the  despatch  practicable,  considering  the  minute 
and  various  objects  which  necessarily  demand  his  attention.  It  is 
expected  to  appear  in  the  course  of  the  present  year,  or  early  in 
1835. 

53.  Novum  Testamentum  Graece,  nova  Versione  Latina 
donatum,  ad  optimas  recensiones  expressum,  selectis  Variis  Lec- 
tionibus  perpetuaque  singularum  librorum  argumento  instructum 
(addita  IIL  Pauli  ad  Corinthios  Epistola),  edidit  M.  Fred.  Aug. 
Adolph  Naebe.     LipsiiB,  1831.  8vo. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  Greek  text  of  this  edition,  Dr.  Naebe 
"  has  chiefly  followed  the  version  of  Griesbach,  considting,  how- 
ever, the  critical  labours  of  Dr.*!.  ScIimIz  and  Scholz,  and  availing 
himself  of  not  a  few  of  the  emendations  proposed  by  Knappe, 
Schott,  Vater,  and  Tittmann.  He  has  also  carefully  corrected  the 
pinictuation  throughout.  In  framing  his  Latin  version,  the  editor 
acknowledges  his  obligations  to  the  critical  and  exegetical  com- 
mentaries and  treatises  of  Grotius,  Wetstein,  Noesselt,  Keil,  Rosen- 
miiller,  Kuinoel,  Paulus,  Pott,  Borger,  Heinrichs,  Tittmann,  Tho- 
luck,  Winer,  Bretschneider,  Fritsche,  and  many  others,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  Latin  versions  of  Castellio,  Reichard,  Schott,  Thale- 
rianu,  and  Jaspis.  His  version,"  [therefore,  is  an  eclectic  one :  it] 
•  is  accurate,  conspicuous,  and  concise;  and  though  it  pretends 


not  to  elegance  of  Latinily,  it  is  nowhere  barbarous  or  imcouth. 
The  privcipal  various  readings  only  are  given,  which  are  best 
supported  by  critical  testimonies;  and  the  brief  summaries  of  con- 
tents in  the  several  chapters  will  be  Ibiuid  a  convenicTU  aid  to  the 
student.  In  compiling  tiu'ui,  M.  Naebe  has  followed,  sometimes 
Fritsche,  sometimes  Knapjie,  sometimes  J:ispis,  sometimes  Eich- 
horn,  and  sometimes  Hug,  according  as  one  or  other  of  these  cri- 
tics appear  to  have  treated  the  several  subjects  with  the  greatest 
accuracy.  The  third  epistle  of  Paid  to  liie  (^Corinthians,  which  is 
here  given  in  La  Croze's  Latin  version  from  the  Armenian  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament,  is  confessedly  apocryphal,  and  of  no 
use  whatever  to  the  biblical  student."  (Foreign  Quarterly  Review, 
vol.  viii.  p.  497.) 

54.  Novum  Testamentum  Grsece,  ex  recensione  Caroli  Lach 
MANNi.     Berolini,  1831.   12mo. 

The  editor  of  this  impression  of  the  Greek  Testament  states  thai 
he  has  framed  it  upon  the  principles  developed  in  his  work  enti 
tied  "  Theolngische  Studien  und  Kritiken"  (pp.  817 — 845.),  pub- 
lished in  1830,  which  the  writer  of  these  pages  has  never  seen. 
It  may  therefore  suffice  to  state,  that  M.  Lachmann  professes  that 
he  has  in  no  instance  followed  his  own  judgment,  but  that  he  has 
restored  the  text  as  it  was  received  by  the  Oriental  Church  in  the 
first  four  centuries;  and  further,  that  wherever  he  could,  he  has 
given  a  preference  to  those  readings  which  could  be  supported  by 
the  consent  of  the  Italians  and  Africans.  Wherever  there  was  a 
discrepancy  between  all  the  authorities,  he  has  indicated  it  partly 
in  brackets,  and  partly  in  the  margin.  The  Apostolic  Epistles  are 
given  in  a  different  order  from  that  which  is  found  in  every  other 
edition.  After  the  Acts  come  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles:  these 
are  followed  by  those  written  by  St.  Paul,  in  the  following  order, 
viz.  Romans,  1  and  2 Corinthians,  Galatians.Ephesians,  Philippians, 
Colossians,  1  and  2  Thessalonians,  Hebrews,  1  and  2  Timothy, 
Titus;  the  Apocalypse  terminates  the  volume.  At  the  end  there 
are  forty-three  pages  containing  the  readings  of  the  Textus  Recep- 
tus, which  Lachmann  had  rejected  from  the  text.  The  type  of  this 
edition  is  very  neat,  but  the  paper  is  of  very  inferior  quality. 

55.  'H  KAINH  AIAGHKH.  The  New  Testament;  with  Eng- 
lish Notes,  Critical,  Philological,  and  Explanatory.  [By  the 
Rev.  E.  Valpt,  B.D.]  A  New  Edition,  London,  1831.  3 
vols.  8vo. 

The  former  edition  of  this  Greek  Testament  appeared  in  1826, 
and  in  this  new  edition  the  work  is  greatly  improved.  The  text 
is  that  of  the  editio  princeps,  at  the  foot  of  which  are  exhibited  the 
principal  various  readings;  and  below  these  are  placed  copious 
critical,  philological,  and  explanatory  notes,  in  English,  selected 
with  great  care  from  Raphelius,  Kypke,  Palairet,  Schleusner, 
RosenmuUer,  and  other  distinguished  foreign  critics.  Ample  u.se 
has  been  made  of  the  late  much-respected  Bishop  Middleton's 
admirable  Treatise  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article,  an  ab- 
stract of  which  is  prefixed  to  the  first  volume.  Verbal  criticism  is 
also  introduced,  together  with  observations  on  the  Greek  Idiom 
from  Vigerus,  on  the  Ellipses  from  Bos,  and  on  the  Particles  from 
Hoogeveen.  As  the  notes  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  are  full 
and  copious,  there  was  less  necessity  in  many  instances,  especially 
in  the  parallel  passages,  for  the  same  extended  mode  of  illustra- 
tion; but  a  frequent  reference  is  made  from  one  to  the  other;  and 
thus  the  student  is  induced  to  consult  and  to  compare  the  whole 
body  of  annotations,  and  is  further  eiiabled  to  fix  more  durably  on 
his  mind  the  result  and  fruit  of  his  industry  and  research.  Two 
well-executed  Maps  of  Judaea,  adapted  to  the  Gospel  History  and 
of  the  Travels  of  the  Apostles  (both  copied  by  permission  from  the 
Maps  illustrating  this  work),  with  Greek  and  English  Indexes, 
contribute  to  enhance  the  utility  of  this  edition. 

56.  'H  KAINH  AIA0HKH.  The  Greek  Testament;  with 
English  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Edward  Burton,  D.D.  Oxford, 
1831.  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  text  of  Bishop  Lloyd's  editions,  printed  at  Oxford,  in  1828 
and  1830,  is  adopted  in  this  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament.  The 
divisions  of  chapters  and  verses  are  thrown  into  the  margin,  in 
which  Dr.  Burton  has  printed  the  parallel  references  of  Curcelteus, 
after  a  very  careful  revision  of  them,  which  enabled  him  to  detect 
numerous  errors.  These  corrected  marginal  references  are  very 
valuable,  not  only  as  pointing  out  the  parallel  passages  in  the  four 
Gospels,  but  also  as  frequently  saving  the  insertion  of  a  note,  where 
a  quotation  is  made  from  the  Old  Testament,  which  does  not  re- 
quire any  further  illustration.  Below  the  text  are  placed  the  notes, 
which  (the  editor  states)  "  are  calculated  for  those  persons  who  are 
not  reading  the  Greek  Testament  for  the  first  time,  but  who  as  yet 
have  little  acquaintance  with  the  labours  of  critical  commenta- 
tors." (Pref.  p.  iii.)  They  are  partly  explanatory  and  philological, 
and  partly  critical  on  the  various  readings  occurring  in  the  New 
Testament.  In  preparing  these  critical  notes.  Dr.  Burton  examined 
for  himself,  with  no  small  labour  and  attention,  the  copious  mate- 
rials which  had  been  collected  by  Griesbach;  and,  after  weighing 
the  evidence  adduced  by  him  in  favour  of  any  particular  reading, 
Dr.  B.  noted  down  all  the  variations  from  the  received  text,  which 
seem  to  have  a  majority  of  documents  in  their  favour.  The  most 
remarkable  variations  are  simply  stated  in  the  notes:  but,  in  hun- 
dreds of  instances,  where  the  difference  consists  in  the  collocation 
of  words,  in  the  addition  or  the  omission  of  the  article,  the  substi 
tution  of  Si  for  x».,  &c.  &c.  Dr.  Burton  has  not  thought  it  necessary 


Skct.  IV.] 


POLYGLOTT  BIBLES. 


19 


to  mention  the  Vfirintion.  In  nil  (ho  onaos  whir-h  ho  has  notifod, 
ihc  ViiriDiis  rendiii;^  is  proliiibly  that  whicii  oiij^lit  to  h<'  n<liniltt'(l 
into  llie  text.  'I'hc  dales,  which  ho  has  f()il()\ve<l  in  the  Aets  of 
the  Aposth's  and  in  arranfiini;  the  apostolic  cpisth-s,  didi'r  I'ruin 
those  <-()mnionly  adopted.  I)r.  B.  has  stated  his  reasons  for  preler- 
r'lixfj,  tliis  chronoh)f;ical  scheme  in  "  An  Attempt  to  ascertain  the 
(-'iironolo^y  of  the  Acts  of  the  A|H)Nllr's  and  of  St.  I'anl's  Kpistles" 
(l^ondon,  IH'.H),  Hvo.),  to  whii-h  the  rcaih'r  is  necessarily  referred. 
'J'wo  very  iiscliil  indexes  terminate  this  edition  of  thr'  (Jrcek  Tes- 
tanicnl.  vi/.  1.  A  list  of  the  most  reinarkal)le  <  ireck  terms  explaine(l 
in  the  notes;  and,  2.  An  iiulex  of  facts  and  [iroper  names.  The 
ty|)OKraphical  execution  of  this  edition  is  singularly  heauliful  and 
accurate. 

fi7.  'H  KAINH  A1AC-)HKH.  The  Greek  Testament;  with 
Ensli^h  notes,  critical,  philological,  and  excgctical.  By  the 
Kev.  S.  T.  Bloomfiklii,  D.D.  Cambridge  and  London,  1832. 
2  vols.  8vo. 

Of  this  Kdition  the  Text  is  a  new  Recension,  fiirmed  most  care- 
fniiy  on  the  basis  of  that  of  Stephens,  adopted  hy  Dr.  Mill,  from 
which  there  is  no  deviation  but  on  the  fiillest  evidence;  sur-li 
alleralioiis  only  having;  been  introduced,  as  ivst  on  tlx,-  iniited 
authority  of  AlSS.  V'ersion.s,  Fathers,  and  early  priiiK'd  editions; 
anil  which  have  been  adopted  in  one  or  more  of  the  critical  edi- 
tions of  Wcl.stein,  Criesbach,  Mattliiei,  and  Sciiolz.  JNothintf  has 
been  omitted  whicli  is  liiiind  in  tlie  Stephanie  text  ;  such  words 
only  as  are,  by  the  almost  universal  consent  of  eilitoi-s  and  critics, 
re>;arded  as  interpolations  being  plaited  within  distinctly  marked 
brackets,  more  or  less  inclusive  according  to  the  degree  of  suspi- 
cion attached  to  the  words.  Nothing  has  been  inserted  but  on  the 
same  weighty  authority ;  and  even  those  words  are  indicated  as 
insertions  by  being  printed  in  smaller  characters.  All  altered 
rciulings  (which  are  comparatively  few,  and  generally  found  in 
the  invaluable  Kdilio  Prince|)s)  have  asterisks  prefixed,  the  com- 
mon readings  being  indicated  in  the  Notes.  And  such  readings  as, 
though  left  untouched,  are  generally  thought  to  need  alteration, 
have  an  obelisk  prefixed.  In  all  cases  the  reasons  for  any  devia- 
tion from  the  Steplianic,  or  cimimon  text,  are  given.  Thus,  the 
reader  possesses  the  advantage  of  having  botli  texts  placed  belijre 
him,  the  common  text  and  the  corrected  text,  constituting,  it  is 
conceived,  the  true  (ireck  V'ulgatc.  The  i>unctuation  has  been 
most  caretiillv  corrected  and  adjusted,  after  a  comparison  of  all 
the  best  editions.  To  each  verse  is  subjoined,  in  the  outer  margin, 
a  select  liody  of  parallel  references  fi-om  Curccllmus's  edition  of 
the  New  Testament,  the  inner  margin  being  appropriated  to  the 
numbi^rs  of  chapters  and  verses.  The  citations  from  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  the  words  of  any  speaker,  are  clearly  indicated  by  a 
peculiar  mode  of  printing.  Under  the;  text  are  copious  note.";  (mostly 
original,  but  partially  derived,  with  acknowledgment,  from  the 
best  coiiunontators  ancient  and  modern)  comprising  whatever 
respects  the  interpretation,  or  tends  to  establish  the  grammatical 
8«nse.  In  these  the  editor  has  endeavoured  to  unite  comprehen- 
siveness with  brevity,  so  as  to  form  one  consistent  body,  in  epitome, 
of  exegeiical  and  philological  annotation,  of  which  the  matter 
(very  carefully  digested)  is,  in  its  general  character,  elementary, 
and  introiluctory  to  the  larger  Commentaries,  especially  Dr.  Hloom- 
ficld's  Keceusio  Synoptica  Novi  Testamenti,  noticed  in  a  subse- 
quent paijcof  this  appendix:  and  it  further  systematically  indicates 
the  interpretation  of  cimtroverted  passages;  being  especially  adapt- 
ed to  the  use  of  academical  students,  and  candidates  for  the  sacred 
office,  tliough  intended  also  a-s  a  manual  edition  for  theological 
readers  in  general. 

Of  the  three  preceding  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  the  fol- 
lowing just  and  comparative  characters  have  been  given  in  an 
ably-conducted  journal.  "  Dr.  Bi.oomfield's  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament  is  the  most  valuable  that  has  yet  been  i.ssucd  irom  the 
press  in  this  country.  We  say  this  without  disparaging  the  merit 
and  usefulness  of  tlie  lalwurs  of  his  predeces-sors.  Dr.  Burton's 
edition  not  only  strongly  recommends  itself  by  the  singular  beauty 
of  the  tyjxjgraphy,  but  the  weight  of  his  critical  authority  in 
respect  to  the  varied  lections  which  he  has  noted,  impart  to  it  a 
substantial  and  independent  value  ;  although,  in  other  respects,  wo 
must  confess  the  notes  have  greatly  disappointed  us.  Mr.  V'alpy's 
edition,  in  point  of  general  utility,  may  compete  with  Dr.  Bloom- 
field's."  *****  "It  is  rather  an  invidious  task  to  adjudicate  the 
comparative  claims  of  competitors ;  but  we  may  perhaps  recom- 
mend Mr.  Valpy's  and  Dr.  Burton's  editions  as  the  more  suitable 
for  those  who  have  as  yet  little  acquaintance  with  critical  com- 
mentators, for  the  upper  classes  of  schools,  and  for  persons  wishing 
to  familiarize  themselves  with  the  sacred  oracles  in  their  genuine 
form,  without  embarrassing  their  minds  with  the  details  of  criti- 
cism. Dr.  Bloomfield's  edition,  though  less  suitable  for  the  novice, 
will  be  invalual)le  to  all  whose  profession  requires,  or  whose  lei- 
sure admits  of  a  more  critical  study  of  the  Sacred  Writings."  (Eclec- 
tic Review,  December,  1832,  pj).  473,  474.  492.; 

58.  Novum  Testamentum  Gra;ce  ad  optimorum  librorum 
fidem  recensuit  Antonius  Jatmaxn.  Cum  selecta  Lectionum 
Varietatc.     Monacliii.  1832.  8vo. 

This  is  professedly  a  manual  edition  for  the  use  of  such  students 
in  the  Universities  of  Germany  as  are  unable  to  procure  the  larger 
and  more  expensive  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
text  is  for  the  most  part  taken  from  Tittmann's  edition  (No.  40.  p. 
16.  supra.)  Various  readings  are  selected  from  the  editions  of 
Gfiesbach,  Mattheei,  Gratz  and  Knappe.     As  might  be  expected 


frr)m  a  Romanist,  the  editor  has  been  guided  very  materially  by  the 
authority  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  version.  A  tabular  harmony  of  the 
l()ur  Gospels  is  prefixed  :  and  the  volume,  which  is  very  neatly 
printed,  concludes  with  an  index  o(  the  Kpislles  and  Gospels  for 
every  Sunday  and  festival  of" the  Romish  Church. 

59.  Novum  Testamentum  Gra;ce  et  Latinc.  Ex  Recensione 
Knappiana,  adjcctis  variis  et  Grieshachii  ct  Lachinanni  Icctioni- 
hus,  cflidit  Adolphus  Goksciiks.     Lipsia;,  1832.  8vo. 

This  also  is  a  manual  edition  fi)r  the  use  of  fierman  biblical 
students,  'i'hc  text  is  taken  from  Knappe's  edition;  and  below-  it 
are  the  princiiml  various  readings  adoptifd  by  (iricsbach  and  Lach- 
mann.  The  Latin  version,  which  is  placecl  below  them,  is  close 
and  faithtiil.  The  divisions  of  chapters  are  retained,  but  the  num- 
bers of  the  vei-ses  are  given  in  the  margin;  and  to  each  chapter  is 
prefixed  a  r-opious  Hiimmary  of  its  contents.  A  clironologic^al  table 
terminates  this  convenient,  cheap,  and  beautifully  printed  edition 
of  the  New  Testament. 


SECTION   IV. 

POLTOLOTT    BIIlLi;S,  OR   EDITIOXS    OF  TIIF.    Ol.n    AXD    NF.W  TES- 
TAMENTS   WITH   VEUSIOX.S    IX     SKVEIIAL   LANGUAGES. 

The  honour  of  having  projected  the  first  plan  of  a  Polygjott 
Bible  is  due  to  the  illustrious  printer,  Aldls  Manittiis  the 
e'.der  ;  but  of  this  projected  work  only  one  page  wa.s  printed  ; 
it  contains  the  first  fifteen  verses  of  the  first  chapter  of  tlie  Book 
of  Genesis  in  collateral  columns  of  Hebrew,  (Jrcek,  and  Latin, 
The  typographical  execution  is  admirable :  M.  Kenouard  has 
given  a  fac-similc  of  it  in  the  .second  edition  of  his  excellent 
work  on  the  productions  of  the  Aldinc  Press.'  A  copy  of  this 
specimen  page  (perhaps  the  only  one  that  is  extant)  is  preserved 
among  the    manuscripts    in   the    Koyal   Library  at  Pari.s,   No. 

MMM.LXIV. 

In  1.516  there  was  printed  at  Genoa,  hy  Peter  Paul  Pomis 
(in  -Edibus  Nicolai  Justiniani  Paul!)  the  Peutaglott  Psalter 
of  Augustin  Justiniani  Bishop  of  Nebo.  It  was  in  Hebrew, 
Arabic,  Chaldcc,  and  Greek,  with  the  Latin  ^'c^sion,  Glo.sscs, 
and  Scholia.  In  I. '318  John  Potken  published  the  P.saltcr  in 
Hebrew,  Greek,  I^atin,  and  Ethiopic,  at  (."ologne.  But  the  first 
Polyglott  edition  of  the  entire  Hebrew  Bible  was  that  printed  at 
Alcala  in  Spain,  viz. 

1.  Biblia  Sacra  Polyglotta,  complectenfia  Vetns  Testamentum, 
Hebraico,  Gra;co,  et  Latino  Idiomatc ;  Novum  Testamentum 
Gra;cum  ct  Latinuni ;  et  Vocabularum  Hcbraicuni  ct  Clialdaicum 
Veteris  Testamenti,  cum  Granimaticfi  Hcbraica,  nee  non  Dic- 
tionario  Gra;co ;  Studio,  Oj)era,  et  Impcnsi.s  Cardlnali.s  Francisci 
XiMKNES  de  Cisncros.  Industria  Arnaldi  Gulielmi  de  Brocario 
artis  impressorie  magistri.  Compluti,  1514,  1515.  1517,  6  vols, 
folio. 

The  printing  of  this  splendid  and  celebraled  work,  usually  called 
the  Compliilensian  Polijirlolt.  was  commenced  in  1502;  though  com- 
pleted in  1517,  it  was  not  published  until  1522,  and  it  cost  the  muni- 
ficent cardinal  Ximenes  .'>0,000  ducats.  The  editors  were  ^lius 
Antonius  Nebrissensis,  Demetrius  Ducas,  Ferdinandus,  Pincianus, 
Lopez  de  Stunica,  Alfonsus  de  Zamora,  Pauliis  Coronellus,  and' 
Johannes  de  Vcrgera,  a  physician  of  Alcala  or  Complutiim.  The  last 
three  were  converted  Jews.  This  Polyglott  is  usuallydivided  intosix 
volumes.  The  first  four  comprise  the  Old  Testament,  with  the 
Hebrew,  Latin,  and  Greek  in  three  distinct  column.s,  the  Chaldee 
paraphrase  being  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  with  a  Latin  interpre- 
tation; and  tlie  margin  is  filled  with  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  radicals. 
The  fifth  volume  contains  the  Greek  Testament,  with  the  Vulgate 
Latin  version  in  a  parallel  column;  in  the  margin  there  is  a  kind 
of  concordance,  referring  to  similar  passages  in  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  And  at  the  end  of  this  volume,  there  are,  1.  A  single 
leaf  containing  some  Greek  and  Latin  verses;  2.  IntcrprttatioJies 
Hehraorum,  Chaldeeorum,  Grepconimque  Nominiim  Novi  Tistamenti, 
on  ten  leaves :  and  3.  Introductio  quani  brevis  ad  GrcBcas  Litleras, 
<^c.  on  thirty-nine  leaves.  Tlie  sixth  volume  contains,  1.  A  sepa- 
rate title ;  2.  Vocahularium  Hebraicum  lotius  Veteris  Testamenti, 
cum  omnibus  dictionibus  Chaldceis,  in  eodem  Veteri  Teslamento  von- 
tentis,on  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  leaves  ;  3.  An  alphabetical 
Index,  on  eight  leaves,  of  the  Latin  words  occurring  in  different 
parts  of  the  work;  4.  Interpretationes  Hebraicorum,  Chaldaicorum, 
GrcBcorumque  Nominum,  \eteris  ac  Novi  Testamenti,  secundum 
Ordinem  Alphabeti ;  5.  Two  leaves  entitled  Nomina  quce  sequuntur, 
sunt  ilia,  qucB  in  utroque  Testamento  vicio  Scriptorum  sunt  aliter 
scripta  quam  in  Hebrao  et  Grceco,  et  in  ahquwus  Bibliis  nostris 
aiitiquis,  &c. ;  6.  Fifteen  leaves  entitled  Introductiones  Artis  Gram/- 
maticcB  Hebraica  et  prima  de  modo  legendi  etpronuntiandi.  These 
several  pieces  are  sometimes  placed  in  a  different  order  from  that 
above  indicated.  With  the  exception  of  the  manuscript  cited  aa 
the  Codex  Rhodiensis  (now  utterly  lost),  and  the  Codex  Bessarionis 

•  Renouard,  Annales  de  I'lmprimerie  des  Aides,  torn.  iii.  pp.  44,  45. 
(Paris,  1826.) 


20 


POLYGLOTT  BIBLES. 


[Part  I.    Chap.  1. 


idcU  expense,  and  partly  lent  to  linn  oy  pope  l.co  a.  oui  oi 
Vatican  Library,  whither  (we  are  inlbrnied  by  Alvaro  Gomez, 
cardinal's  biographer)  they  were  returned  as  soon  as  the  Polv- 
:  was  completed.     The  MSS.  belonging  to  Ximenes  were  sub- 


K resented  to  cardinal  Ximenes  by  the  republic  of  Venice,  the 
ISS.  consuhed  by  his  editors  were  partly  purchased  at  an  un- 
bounded expense,  and  partly  lent  to  him  by  pope  Leo  X.  out  of 
the  V  '    '  .-.       .  ■    ,-11.   «i  r- 

the  card 

glott  was  compl  .^    _ 

sequently  deposited  in  the  library  of  the  University  of  Alcala. 
Learned  men  had  long  suspected  that  they  were  of  modern  date. 
As  it  was  important  to  collate  anew  the  manuscripts  at  Alcala, 
Professors  Moldenhawcr  and  Tychsen,  who  were  in  Sjjain  in  1784, 
went  thitlier  ibr  this  purpose:  but  they  were  informed  that  above 
■  thirty-five  years  beibre,  in  1749,  they  had  been  sold  by  an  illiterate 
librarian  to  a  dealer  in  fireworks  as  materials  for  making  rockets. 
(Marsh's  Michaelis,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  440,  441.)  Notwithstanding 
this  statement,  there  is  "  good  reason  to  believe  that  those  lesn-ned 
Germans  were  the  subjects  of  an  imposition  practised  upon  them 
by  some  people  in  the  Spanish  University,  who  were  not  disposed 
to  permit  their  manuscript  treasures  to  be  scrutinized  by  Protest- 
ants." Dr.  Bowring,  during  the  short  time  that  Spain  enjoyed  the 
blessing  of  a  constitutional  government,  "  had  the  opportunity  of 
carefully  examining  the  manuscripts  at  Alcala :  he  has  published 
reasons  amounting  to  a  demonstration,  that  no  sale  or  destruction  of 
manuscripts  ever  took  place.  By  his  personal  examination  he  found 
THE  SAME  scripture  manuscripts  which  had  been  described  by  Al- 
varo Gomez,  who  died  in  1580  ;"  and  he  adds,  "  that  the  manuscripts 
in  question  are  modern  and  valueless,  there  can  be  no  longer  any 
question."  (Monthly  Repository  for  1821,  vol.  xii.  p.  203.,  and  vol.  i. 
N.  S.  for  1827,  p.  572,  cited  in  Dr.  J.  P.  Smith's  "  Answer  to  the 
ManifestooftheChristianEvidenceSociety,"&c.  pp.  48,49.  (Third 
£ditioii.) 

The  impression  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglott  was  limited  to 
600  copies ;  three  were  struck  oft'  on  vellum.  One  of  these  was 
deposited  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Madrid,  and  another  in  the  Royal 
Library  at  Turin.  The  third  (which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
reserved  for  cardinal  Ximenes),  after  passing  through  various 
hands,  was  purchased  at  the  Pinelli  sale,  in  1789,  for  the  late 
Count  M'Carthy  of  Thoulouse,  for  four  himdred  and  eighty-three 
pounds.  On  the  sale  of  this  gentleman's  library  at  Paris,  in  1817, 
it  was  bought  by  George  Hibbert,  Esq.  for  16,100  francs,  or  six 
hundred  and  seventy-six  pounds  three  shillings  and  four  pence  :  and, 
at  the  sale  of  Mr.  llibbert's  library  in  1829,  it  was  sold  to  Messrs. 
Payne  and  Foss,  booksellers,  of  Pall  Mall,  for_^De  hundred  guineas. 
Copies  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  on  paper,  are  in  the  Libra- 
ries of  the  British  Museum  and  Sion  College,  and  also  in  several 
of  the  College  Libraries  in  the  two  Universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  For  much  interesting  additional  information  respect- 
ing the  Complutensian  and  other  Polyglott  Bibles,  see  Mr.  Petti- 
grew's  Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  ii.  pp.  3—124. 

2.  Biblia  Sacra  Hebraice,  Chaldaice,  Graece,  et  Latins,  Philippi 
IL  Regis  Cathol.  Pictate,  et  Studio  ad  Sacrosanctse  Ecclesise 
Usum,  Ghristophorus  Plantinus  excudebat.  Antverpioe,  1569 — 
1572.  8  vols,  folio. 

Five  hundred  copies  only  were  printed  of  this  magnificent  work, 
which  is  sometimes  called  the  Royal  Polyglott,  because  it  was  exe- 
cuted at  the  expense  of  Philip  II.  King  of  Spain,  and  the  Antwerp 
Polyglott  from  the  place  where  it  was  printed.  The  greater  part 
of  the  impression  being  lost  in  a  voyage  to  Spain,  this  Polyglott 
has  become  of  extreme  rarity.  It  was  printed  in  Hebrew,  Greek, 
Latin,  and  Chaldee ;  and  contains,  besides  the  whole  of  the  Com- 
plutensian Polyglott,  a  Chaldee  paraphrase  of  part  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, which  cardinal  Ximenes  had  deposited  in  the  Public 
Library  at  Alcala,  having  particular  reasons  for  not  publishing  it. 
This  edition  also  has  a  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
the  Latin  translation  of  Santes  Pagninus,  as  reformed  by  Arias 
Montanus,  the  principal  editor  of  this  noble  undertaking.  The 
sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  volumes  are  filled  with  lexicons  and 
grammars  of  the  various  languages  in  which  the  Scriptures  are 
printed,  together  with  indexes,  and  a  treatise  on  sacred  antiquities. 
The  Hebrew  text  is  said  to  be  compiled  from  the  Complutensian 
and  Bomberg  editions. 

3.  Biblia.  1.  Hebraica.  2.  Samaritana.  3.  Chaldaica.  4. 
GrsBca.  5.  Syriaca.  6.  Latina.  7.  Arabica.  Lutetiae  Parisi- 
orum,  excudebat  Antonius  Vitre.     1645,  10  vols,  large  folio. 

This  edition,  which  is  extremely  magnificent,  contains  all  that 
is  inserted  in  the  Complutensian  and  Antwerp  Polyglotts,  with 
the  addition  of  a  Syriac  and  Arabic  version  of  the  greatest  part  of 
the  Old,  and  of  the  entire  New  Testament.  The  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch, with  a  Samaritan  version,  was  printed  for  the  first  time  in 
this  Polyglott,  the  expenses  of  which  ruined  the  Editor,  M.  Le  Jay. 
His  learned  associates  were  Philippus  Aquinas,  Jacobus  Morinus, 
Abraham  Echellensis,  Gabriel  Sionita,  &c.  The  Hebrew  text  is 
that  of  the  Antwerp  Polyglott.  There  are  extant  copies  of  Le  Jay's 
edition  of  the  Polyglott  Bible,  under  the  following  title,  viz.  Biblia 
Alexandrina  Heptaglotta  auspiciis  S.  D.  Alexandri  VII.  anno  ses- 
sio7iis  ejus  xii.  feliciter  inchoati.  LuteticB  Parisiorum  protestant 
apud  Joannem  Jansonium  a  Waesherge,  Johannem  Jacobum  Chipper, 
Elistsum  Weirstraet,  1666. 

4.  Biblia  Sacra  Polyglotta,  complectentia  Textus  Originales, 
Hebraicum  cum  Pentateucho  Samaritano,  Chaldaicum,  Graecum, 
Versionumque  antiquarum  SamaritantE,  Grsecae  LXXIL  Inter- 
pretum,    Chaldaicse,    Syriacse,    Arabicae,   iEthiopicae,   Vulgatae 


Latinae,  quicquid  comparari  poterat  ....  Edidit  Brianus  Wal- 
ton, S.T.D.  Londini,  imprimcbat  Thomas  Roycroft,  1657.  6  vols, 
large  folio. 

Though  less  magnificent  than  the  Paris  Polyglott.  this  of  Bishop 
Walton  is,  in  all  other  respects,  preferable;  being  more  ample  and 
more  commodious.  Nine  languages  are  used  in  it,  iliough  no  one 
book  of  the  Bible  is  printed  in  so  many.  In  the  New  Testament, 
the  four  Gospels  are  in  six  languages;  the  other  books,  ordy  iufve; 
those  of  Judith-  and  Ihc  Maccabees,  only  in  three.  The  Scpttia- 
gint  version  is  printed  from  the  edition  printed  at  Rome  in  1587, 
which  exhibits  the  text  of  the  Vatican  manuscript.  The  Latin  is 
the  Vulgate  of  Clement  VIII.  The  Chaldee  paraplirase  is  more 
complete  than  in  any  former  publication.  The  London  Polyglott 
also  has  an  inlerlincary  Latin  version  of  the  Hebrew  text;  and 
some  parts  of  the  Bible  are  printed  in  Elhiopic  and  Persian,  none 
of  which  are  found  in  any  preceding  Polyglott. 

The  FIRST  volume,  besides  very  learned  and  useful  Prolegomena, 
contains  the  Pentateuch.  Every  sheet  exhibits,  at  one  view,  1st, 
The  Hebrew  Text,  with  Montanus's  interlineary  Latin  version, 
very  correctly  printed  :  2.  The  same  verses  in  the  Vulgate  Latin  : 
3.  The  Greek  version  of  the  Septuagint,  according  to  the  Vatican 
MS.,  with  a  literal  Latin  Translation  by  Flaminius  Nobilis,  and  the 
various  readings  of  the  Alexandrian  MS.  added  at  the  bottom  of 
the  column :  4.  The  Syriac  version,  with  a  collateral  Latin  trans- 
lation :  5.  The  Targum,  or  Chaldee  Paraphrase,  of  Onkelos,  with 
a  Latin  translation  :  6.  The  Hebrceo-Samaritan  text,  which  is  nearly 
the  same  with  the  unpointed  Hebrew,  only  the  character  is  diffe- 
rent ;  and  the  Samaritan  version,  which  differs  vastly  from  the 
other  as  to  the  language,  though  the  sense  is  pretty  nearly  the  same ; 
and  therefore  one  Latin  translation  (with  a  few  notes  added  at  the 
bottom  of  the  column)  serves  for  both :  7.  The  Arabic  version,  with 
a  collateral  Latin  translation,  which  in  general  agrees  with  the 
Septuagint.  This  first  volume  also  contains,  or  should  contain,  a 
portrait  of  Bishop  Walton,  engraved  by  Lombart ;  and  a  frontis- 
piece, together  with  three  plates  relating  to  Solomon's  temple,  all 
engraved  by  Hollar.  There  are  also  two  plates  containing  sections  of 
Jerusalem,  &c.  and  a  chart  of  the  Holy  Land.  These  are  inserted 
in  Capellus's  Treatise  on  the  Temple.  That  part  of  the  Prole- 
gomena, in  this  volume,  which  was  written  by  Bishop  Walton, 
was  commodiously  printed  in  octavo,  at  Leipsic,  in  1777,  by  Pro- 
fessor Dathe.     It  is  a  treasure  of  sacred  criticism. 

The  SECOND  volume  comprises  the  historical  books  in  the  same 
languages  as  are  above  enumerated,  with  the  exception  of  the  Sa- 
maritan (which  is  confined  to  the  Pentateuch)  and  of  the  Targum 
of  Rabbi  Joseph  (surnamed  the  blind)  on  the  books  of  Clironicles, 
which  was  not  discovered  till  after  the  Polyglott  was  in  the  press. 
It  has  since  been  published  in  a  separate  form,  as  is  noticed  in  the 
following  page. 

The  THIRD  volume  comprehends  all  the  poetic  and  prophetic 
books  from  Job  to  Malachi,  in  the  same  languages  as  before,  only 
that  there  is  an  Ethiopic  version  of  the  book  of  Psalms,  which  is 
so  near  akin  to  the  Septuagint,  that  the  same  Latin  translation 
serves  for  both,  with  a  few  exceptions,  which  are  noted  in  the 
margin. 

The  FOURTH  volume  contains  all  the  Apocryphal  Books,  in  Greek, 
Latin,  Syriac,  and  Arabic,  with  a  two-fold  Hebrew  text  of  the  book 
of  Tobit ;  the  first  from  Paul  Fagius,  the  second  from  Sebastian 
Munster.  After  the  Apocrypha  there  is  a  three-fold  Targum  of 
the  Pentateuch  :  the  first  is  in  Chaldee,  and  is  ascribed  to  Jonathan 
Ben  Uzziel :  the  second  is  in  Chaldee  also  ;  it  takes  in  only  select 
parts  of  the  Law,  and  is  commonly  called  the  Jerusalem  Targum : 
the  third  is  in  Persic,  the  work  of  one  Jacob  Tawus,  or  Toose,  and 
seems  to  be  a  pretty  literal  version  of  the  Hebrew  Text.  Each  of 
these  has  a  collateral  Latin  translation.  The  first  two,  though  they 
contain  many  fables,  are  exceedingly  useful,  because  they  explain 
many  words  and  customs,  the  meaning  of  which  is  to  be  found  no 
where  else ;  and  the  latter  will  be  found  very  useful  to  a  student 
in  the  Persian  language,  though  it  contains  many  obsolete  phrases, 
and  the  language  is  by  no  means  in  the  pure  Shirazian  dialect. 

The  FIFTH  volume  includes  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  various  languages  are  here  exhibited  at  one  view,  as  in  the 
others.  The  Greek  text  stands  at  the  head,  with  Montanus's  inter- 
lineary Latin  translation ;  the  Syriac  next ;  the  Persic  third ;  the 
Vulgate  fourth  ;  the  Arabic  fifth  ;  and  the  Ethiopic  sixth.  Each  of 
the  oriental  versions  has  a  collateral  Latin  translation.  The  Persic 
version  only  takes  in  the  four  Gospels  ;  and  for  this,  the  Pars  Altera, 
or  Persian  Dictionary,  in  Castell's  Lexicon,  was  peculiarly  calcu- 
lated. 

The  SIXTH  volume  is  composed  of  various  readings  and  critical 
remarks  on  all  the  preceding  versions,  and  concludes  with  an 
explanation  of  all  the  proper  names,  both  Hebrew  and  Greek,  in 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  The  characters  used  for  the  several 
oriental  versions  are  clear  and  good ;  the  Hebrew  is  rather  the 
worst.  The  simple  reading  of  a  text  in  the  several  versions  often 
throws  more  light  on  the  meaning  of  the  sacred  writer  than  the 
best  commentators  which  can  be  met  with.  This  work  sells  at 
from  twenty-five  pounds  to  seventy  guineas,  according  to  the  dif- 
ference of  condition.  Many  copies  are  ruled  with  red  lines,  which 
is  a  great  help  in  reading,  because  it  distinguishes  the  different 
texts  better,  and  such  copies  ordinarily  sell  for  three  or  four 
guineas  more  than  the  others. 

In  executing  this  great  and  splendid  work.  Bishop  Walton  was 
assisted  by  Dr.  Edmund  Castell,  Dr.  Tho.  Hyde,  Dr.  Pocock, 
Dr.  Lightfoot,  Mr.  Alexander  Huish,  Mr.  Samuel  Clarke,  Louis  de 


Sect.  IV.] 


POLYGLOTT  BIBLES. 


21 


Dieu,  and  other  eminently  learned  men.'  It  was  bep;nn  in  Oeiober 
ICJS,  and  foniplelod  in  Ifi.'iT;  iIk^  (irst  volume  was  lini.slicil  in  Sep- 
tenihi^r  IC)51;  ihe  seeond  in  July  1(>55;  the  lliird  in  July  ICOd;  and 
llio  (imrlli,  (il'lli,  and  nIxiIi,  in  10.07,  tiiree  years  beliiro  ilie  Restora- 
tion.    ('i"lji>  Parisian  Poly(,'lotl  wiitt  .irvcn/nn  years  in  llie  iiress !) 

'J'liis  woriv  was  puhliKlicd  liy  sul)s<Ti|iljoii,  under  llie  palronntjc 
of  Oliver  Cronivveji,  who  pi  ritnUi'd  Ihe  paper  to  he  iniporled  duly 
i'reo  ;  but  the  I'roteclor  dyinj;  beliiro  it  was  (iiiished,  Hisiiop  W'allon 
ennuellcd  two  leaves  ol'ihe  [)relace,  in  vvhieh  he  had  made  honour- 
able mention  ol'  his  patron,  and  others  wore  printed  eontaininj^  com- 
plimenls  to  Charles  II.,  and  some  pretly  sev<,'re  inveelives  against 
republiians.  Hence  has  arisen  iIk;  dislinelion  ol'  n/ju/ilii-tin  aud 
loifdl  copies.  The  liirmer  are  llie  most  valued.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  and 
ftlr.  Buller  liav(^  hoih  |Kiinleil  out  (especially  the  former)  llur  varia- 
tions lielween  liiese  two  edilions.  For  a  long  lime,  it  was  disputed 
among  bd)liographers,  vxhciher  any  dedication  was  ever  prefixed 
lo  lh(!  London  I'olygloll.  There  is,  however,  a  dedicalion  in  one 
<if  Ihe  copies  in  the  Koyal  Library  at  I'aris,  and  another  was  dis- 
eoveri'd  a  f(^vv  years  since,  which  was  reprinled  in  large  liilio,  to 
bind  up  wilh  oilier  copies  of  ihe  I'olyglott ;  it  is  also  reprinled  in 
Ihe  Classical  Journal,  vol.  iv.  pp.  Um — 301.  In  ihr^  (irst  volume 
of  Poll's  and  liujierli's  Sylloge  Commenlationum  Theologicanim 
(|)p.  100 — 137.),  ihcre  is  a  collation  ollhc  (ireckand  oilier  versions, 
as  i)rinled   in   the  London  I'olyglott,  wilh   llie  Hebrew  text  of  the 

iirophel  iMicah,  accompanied  wilh  some  explana'^ms  by  Frofe.ssor 
'aulus.2     To  <omplelc  ihe  London  I'olyglott,  the  Ibllowing  publi- 
cations should  be  added,  viz. 

1.  Pdrap/iriisis  Clmlduiia  in  lihrum  priorem  et  posleriorem  Chro- 
nicoriim.  Aiirlore  Rabhi  Josepfio,  rcrtore  Academio!  in  Syria:  cum 
viTsioiic  Jjiliiia  a  Ikivit/e  Wil/cinx.     Canlabrigiffi,  1715,  4to. 

2.  Dr.  Casiell's  I^'jcunn  Ilip/rifrlo/ion  ;  of  which  an  account  i.s 
given  in  a  subsequent  jiart  of  this  Appendix. 

The  purchaser  of  the  London  I'olyglott  should  also  procure 
Dr.  John  Owen's  Considerations  on  the  I'olyglott,  8vo.  1G58 :  Bishop 
Walton's  Reply,  entitled  The  Considerulor  considered,  ^c.  8vo. 
1059:  and  (a  work  of  much  more  importance  than  either)  Walton's 
Introdiaiio  ad  Lectionem  Lingiiariim  Orientalium,  Hebraica,  Chal- 
daica,  Samaritan<e,  Si/riaccf,  Arabicce,  Persictc,  ji^thiopic<B,  Arme- 
tiicfe,  Coplico',  (Jr.     l8mo.  London,  1015. 

Bishop  Walton's  Polyglolt  having  long  been  extremely  scarce 
and  dear,  it  has  been  the  wish  of  biblical  students  for  many  years 
thai  it  should  be  reprinted.  In  1797,  the  Rev.  Josiah  Pratt  issued 
from  the  jiress,  A  Prospectus,  vnth  Specimens,  of  a  nev)  Polyglutt 
liibic  in  Quarto,  for  the  Use  of  English  Students,  and  in  1799, 
another  Prospectus,  unth  Specimens,  of  an  Octavo  Polyglott  Bible; 
but,  lor  want  of  encouragement,  the  design  w-as  not  carried  into 
execution.  A  similar  fate  attended  The  Plan  and  Specimen  of 
niDLlA  POIAGLOTTA  BRITANMCA,  or  an  enlarged  and 
improved  edition  of  the  London  Polyglolt  Bible,  with  Castell's  Hep- 
tagloit  Lixiian,  which  were  published  and  circulated  by  the  Rev. 
Adam  Clarke,  LL.D.  F.S.A.  in  1810,  in  Iblio.  The  reader  may  see 
them  reprinled  in  the  Cla.ssical  Journal  (where,  however,  no  notice 
is  taken  of  the  author  of  the  plan),  vol.  iv.  pp.  493 — 497.  An  abstract 
of  this  plan  is  given  in  the  Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  ii.  pp.  66 — 68. 

5.  Biblia  Sacra  Quadrilinguia  Veteris  Testamenti  Hebraici, 
cum  Ver.sionibus  e  regione  positis,  utpote  versione  Graica  LXX 
Intcrpretum  ex  codice  manuscripto  Alexandrino,  a  J.  Em.  Grabio 
primuin  cvulgata — Item  versione  Latina  Sobast.  Schmidii  noviter 
revisa  et  textui  Hebrseo  accuratius  accominodata,  et  Gcrmanica 
beati  Lntheri,  ex  ultima  bcati  viri  revisione  et  editione  1544 — 45 
exprcssa.  Adjectis  textui  Hebra;o  Notis  Masorcthicis  et  Grascae 
Vcrsioni  Lectionibus  Codicis  Vaticani ;  notis  philologicis  et 
exegeticis  aliis,  ut  et  suinmariis  capitum  ac  locis  parallelis 
locupleti.ssiinis  ornata.  AccuraiUc  M.  Christ.  Rbineccio.  Lip- 
siiE,  1750.  3  vols,  folio. 

The  comparative  cheapness  of  this  neatly  and  accurately  printed 
work  rendered  it,  betbre  the  publication  of  Mr.  Bagsler's  Polyglott, 
a  valuable  substitute  for  the  preceding  larger  Polygloits.  Dr.  A. 
Clarke,  who  stales  that  he  has  read  over  the  whole  of  the  Hebrew 
and  Chaldee  text,  with  the  exception  of  part  of  the  Pentateuch, 
pronounces  it  to  be  one  of  the  most  correct  extant. 

6.  Biblia  Sacra  Polyglotta,  Textus  Archctypos,  Versioncsque 
pra'cipuas,  ab  Ecclesia  antiquitus  reccptas  complectcntia.  Acce- 
dunt  Prolegomena  in  eorundem  crisin  literalein,  auctore  Samuel 

Lee,  S.  T.  B Lingua;  Hebraja:  apud  Cantabrigiensis  Pro- 

fcssore  Regio.     Londini,  1831,  4to  et  folio. 

'  Concerning  these,  as  well  as  Ihe  literary  history  of  the  London  Poly- 
::l'ilt,  the  re.idtT  will  tind  much  and  very  iuteresling  infoniiation  in  the 
Ucv.  II.  .1.  Toun's  Memoirs  of  ihe  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Kislit  Rev.  Brian 
VVallon.  U.l>.,  L.iril  lii.slmpof  Chester,  editorof  the  London  Holy>;lotl  Bible  : 
Willi  iKiiit'cs  of  his  coadjutors  in  that  iilus'rious  work  ;  of  the  cullivatidn 
of  oriental  Ifarniuff  in  this  country,  preceriinir  and  during  their  time;  and 
of  Ihe  aii'liiiri/.ed  Kiiclisli  version  of  the  Bible,  to  a  prnjecied  revision  of 
wliicli  Dr.  VValioii  and  some  of  his  assistants  in  the  I'ulyglott  were  ap- 
iviiiiteil.  Til  which  is  ailded,  Dr.  Walton's  own  viudicaliou  of  the  London 
Polyalolt.     Ldudon,  l^^l,  in  2  vols.  8vo. 

*  I'lir  a  more  parlicular  ai-counl  of  the  T.ondon  Polyglott,  we  refer  the 
reader  lo  Dr.  f "lirkc's  BiliHosrapliical  Dictiimary,  vol.  i.  pp.  21"^ — 270.  ; 
vol.  ii.  |ip,  1— |o.  ;  Mr.  Butler's  Ilora."  Biblica;,  vol.  i.  pp.  ISS— 119.  ;  and 
Dr.  Dilidin's  Introduction  lo  the  Knowledge  of  the  Editions  of  tlie  Greek 
and  Latin  Classics,  3d  edit.  vol.  i.  pp.  13 — 27.,  from  which  publications  the 
above  account  is  abridged. 


The  great  rarity  and  consequent  high  price  of  all  former  Poly, 
glolls,  which  render  them  for  the  most  part  inaccessible  to  biblical 
students,  induced  the  publisher,  Mr.  Bagsler,  to  undertake  these 
benulifiil  Polyglolt  editions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  i^uarlo 
edition  contains  the  original  Hebrew  text  ol  the  Old  Testament, 
Ihe  Sainarilan  Pentateuch,  llie  Sc|)luagint  Greek  version  of  the 
Old  Teslamenl,  the  \'iilgale  Latin,  and  the  authorized  Knglish  ver- 
sion of  the  entire  Bible  ;  the  original  fireek  text  of  the  Aew  Testa- 
ment; and  the  venerable  Pcschiio  or  Old  Syriae  version  of  it.  The 
folio  edition,  besides  lliese  languages,  contains  entire  traniNlalions 
of  iho  Bible,  in  the  following  moih'rn  languages,  viz.  the  Cerinan. 
by  Dr.  Martin  Lullier;  the  Italian,  by  Giovanni  Diodati ;  the  French, 
by  J.  V.  Ostervald  ;  and  the  .Spanish  (from  the  Rf)mish  Lalin  Vul- 
gate), by  Padre  .Scio.  These  are  so  disposed  as  lo  exhibit  eight 
languages  at  once,  on  opening  the  volume,  the  press-work  of  winch 
is  singularly  beautiful.  The  pointed  Hebrew  text  is  printed  from 
the  celebrated  edition  of  V'ander  Ilooght,  noticed  in  IVo.  5.  page  7. 
supra.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  taken  from  Dr.  Kennicotl's 
eililion  of  Ihe  Hebrew  Bible,  and  is  added  by  way  of  Appendix. 
The  Se|ituagint  is  printed  from  Bos's  edition  ol'  the  Vatican  text; 
and  at  the  end  of  the  Old  Testament  there  are  given  the  various 
readings  of  the  Hebrew  and  Sainarilan  Penlaleuchs,  together  with 
the  masoretic  notes  termed  Keri  and  Ketib,  the  various  lections  of 
the  Alexandrian  MS.  as  edited  by  Dr.  Grabe,  and  the  a|iocryplial 
chapters  of  the  Iwok  of  Kslhcr.  The  Greek  text  is  printed  from 
Mill's  edition  of  the  Textus  Receplus,  with  the  whole  of  the  imjxjr- 
tant  readings  given  by  Griesbach  in  his  edition  of  1805  (No.  30. 
p.  15.  supra) ;  the  Peschilo  or  Old  Syriae  version,  from  VVidman- 
stadts'  edition  published  at  Vienna  in  1555,  collated  with  the  accu- 
rate edition  executed  in  1816  under  the  auspices  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  edited  by  Professor  Lee.  The  Apoca- 
lypse and  such  of  the  Epistles  as  are  not  extant  in  the  Old  Syriae 
version,  are  given  from  the  Philoxenian  or  iS'ew  Syriae  version. 
The  text  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  version  is  taken  from  the  edition  of 
pope  Clement  VIII.  The  authorized  English  version  is  accom- 
panied with  the  marginal  renderings,  and  a  new  selection  of  well- 
chosen  parallel  lexis.  The  other  modern  versions  are  professedly 
given  from  accurate  edition.s.  The  pkoi.ego.mena  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
and  Professor  Lee  present  a  compendious  and  neatly  written  epitome 
of  the  Literary  History  of  the  Text  and  Versions  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  which  contains  some  new  and  im|)ortani  critical 
information.  Copies  of  the  several  texts  and  versions  of  this  poly- 
glott edition  are  thrown  off  in  detached  small  octavo  volumes  :  and 
copies  of  the  quarto  Polyglott  New  Testament  may  also  be  pro- 
cured, with  a  distinct  title-page.^ 


Several  editions  of  the  Bible  are  extant,  in  two  or  three  lan- 
guages, called  Diglotts  and  Triglotta,  as  well  as  Polyglott  edi- 
tions of  particular  parts  of  the  Scriptures.  For  an  account  of 
these,  we  are  compelled  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  Bibliotheca 
Sacra  of  Le  Long  and  Masch,  and  the  Bibliograjihical  Dictionary 
of  Dr.  Clarke,  already  cited.  A  complete  account  of  all  these 
Polyglott  editions  is  a  desideratum  in  English  literature  :  the 
following,  however,  may  be  mentioned  as  the  principal  Triglott 
and  Diglott  editions. 

(1.)  TniGLOTT  Testame:?t. 

Novi  Testamenti  Biblia  Triglotta:  sive  Grseci  Textus  Arche- 
typi,  Versionis  Syriaca;,  et  Versionis  Latin®  Vulgatae  Synopsis: 
cui  accedunt  Subsidia  Critica  varia.  Evangclia.  Londini. 
1828.  4lo. 

Those  who  may  not  be  able  to  procure  any  of  the  more  costly 
polyglotts,  will  find  a  cheap  substitute  for  them  in  this  handsomely 
printed  volume.  The  Greek  text  is  printed  after  the  editions,  wilh 
improved  punctuation,  of  Knappe  and  Vater;  this  is  accomjiariied 
by  the  Syriae  Version,  after  the  text  of  Professor  Lee's  accurate 
edition,  printed  in  1816 ;  and  at  the  foot  of  the  page  is  the  Latin 

'  The  publisher  of  the  Polyglott  Bible  above  noticed,  in  1S19  issued  from 
the  press  an  ocloglott  edition  of  the  Liturgy  of  Ihe  Anglican  church,  in  one 
quarto  volume,  which  may  justly  be  pronounced  one  of  llie  finest  speci- 
mens of  typography  that  ever  issued  from  the  British  press.  The  eight 
languages,  printed  in  this  edilion,  are  the  English,  French,  Italian,  German, 
Spanish,  Ancient  Greek,  Modern  Greek,  and  Lalin.  The  i^nglisk  text  i.s 
given  from  a  copy  of  Ihe  Oxford  Edilion  of  the  Couiiiion  Prayer  Book. 
The  French  version  is  niodern,  and  is  well  known  lo  iiiosi  readers  of  that 
language,  having  freipiently  been  priiiled  and  received  with  general  appro- 
liaiion.  The  Psalms  are  printed  from  the  Basle  Edilion  of  0>lervalirs  Bible. 
The  Italian  is  taken  from  Ihe  edition  of  A.  Moiiliicci  and  L.  Vallciti,  pub- 
lished in  179(i,  but  revised  Ihroughoiit,  and  ils  orilmgraphy  corn  cled.  The 
Psalms  are  copied  from  the  Bible  of  Diodali.  The  German  Irnnslaliim,  by 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Kuper  (Chaplain  of  his  Majesty's  German  Chapel,  sft.  .lames'.'^), 
is  entirely  new,  except  the  Psaluis,  which  are  taken  from  Luther's  German 
Version  of  Ihe  Scriptures.  The  mpariis/i,  by  Ihe  Rev.  Blanco  While,  is  for 
the  most  part  new.  The  Psalms  are  printed  Irom  Padre  Scio's  great  Sjianish 
Ihble.  published  at  Madrid  in  1807,  in  sixteen  volumes.  The  translation  inro 
the  Ancient  Greek  language  is  thai  executed  by  Dr.  Duporl  (A.  D.  IGC.")), 
who  was  Regius  Professor  of  Greek  in  the  I'niversily  of  Cambridge.  Tlie 
Psalms  are  from  the  Sepluagint.  The  Modern  Oieek  is  an  enlirely  new 
tranlalion  by  M.  A.  Calbo,  a  learned  native  Greek,  of  the  island  of  Jiante. 
And  Ihe  Lalin  version  is  nearly  a  reprint  of  the  edilion  which  was  first 
printed  by  W.  Bowyer,  in  1720,  with  some  alterations  and  additions  by  the 
present  editor  (John  Carey,  LL.D.),  sometimes  taken  from  the  translation 
of  Mr.  Thomas  Parsel,  the  foiinh  edition  of  which  was  published  in  1727. 
The  PsaUns  arc  from  the  Vulgate. 


22 


ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 


Vulgate  version,  according  to  the  Sixtine  recension,  printed  from 
the  Antwerp  edition  of  1603,  which  was  superintended  by  John 
Moiet.  To  the  work  is  prefixed  Prof  Vater's  Index  of  Critical 
Subsidia ;  and  in  an  Appendix  there  is  given  his  selection  of  Vari- 
ous Readings,  with  the  authorities  by  which  they  are  supported. 

(2.)   DiGLOTT  Bibles. 

1.  Biblia  Sacra  Hebraica,  cum  interlineari  intcrpretatione 
Latiiia  Xantis  Pagnini :  accessit  Bibliorum  pars,  qune  Hebraice 
non  rcpcritur,  item  Novum  Testamentum,  Grtece,  cum  Vulgata 
Intcrpretatione  Latina  Studio  Benedicti  Aria;  Moxtani.  Ant- 
werpiaj,  1572,  1584.  Genevse,  1G09,  1619,  (with  a  new  title 
only.)     Lipsiaj,  1657,  folio. 

"  You  will  find  the  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  by  Arias 
Montanus  more  useful  to  you  than  perhaps  any  other."  (Bishop 
Gleig's  Directions  for  the  Study  of  Theology,  p.  93.)  The  edition 
of  1572  forms  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Antwerp  Polyglott  (p.  20. 
supra) :  as  it  is  the  first,  so  it  is  the  best  edition.  The  octavo  edi- 
tions, ex  offwina  Plantiniuna  Raphdengii  {Liigdinii  Batavorum), 
1599  or  1610 — 1613,  in  nine  volumes,  are  of  very  little  value.  In 
the  folio  editions  above  noticed,  the  Latin  word  is  placed  above 
the  Hebrew  and  Greek  words,  to  which  they  belong.  The  Latin 
version  of  Xantes  or  Santes  Pagninus  is  corrected  by  Montanus, 
and  his  learned  coadjutors,  Raphelenge,  and  others. 

2.  Biblia  Hebraica,  i.  e.  Vetus  Testamentum,  seu  Hagiographi 
Canonici  Veteris  nempe  Testamenti  Libri,  qui  originario  nobis 
etiamnum  ore  leguntir,  ex  Hebraico  in  Latinum  ad  litteram 
versi,  adjecta  editione  Vulgata.  Hebraice  et  Latine,  cura  et 
studio  Ludovici  de  Biel,  e  Societate  Jesu.  Viennse,  174.3. 
4  vols.  8vo. 

This  is  an  elegant  edition,  little  knowTi  in  this  country,  bnt  in 
many  respects  highly  valuable.  It  contains  the  Hebrew,  and  two 
Latin  versions — that  of  the  Vulgate  edition  in  1592,  and  that  of 
Arias  Montanus.  It  is  ornamented  with  vignettes,  and  the  initial 
letters,  which  are  well  engraved  on  copper,  represent  some  fact  of 
sacred  history,  to  w"hich  the  immediate  subject  is  applicable. 

3.  The  Old  Testament,  English  and  Hebrew,  with  remarks, 
critical  and  grammatical,  on  the  Hebrew,  and  corrections  of  the 
English.  By  Anselm  Batlet,  LL.D.   London,  1774.  4  vols.  8vo. 

The  Hebrew  text  is  printed  in  long  lines  on  the  left  hand  page ; 
and  the  authorized  English  version  on  the  right  hand  page,  divided 
into  two  columns.  The  critical  notes,  which  are  very  few,  are 
placed  under  the  English  text.  The  Hebrew  text  is  accompanied, 
throughout,  with  the  Keri  and  Ketib;  but  all  the  accents,  &c.  are 
omitted,  except  the  athnach,  which  answers  to  our  colon,  and  the 
soph  pasliuk,  which  is  placed  at  the  end  of  each  verse  in  the  Bible. 
At  the  end  of  each  book  is  given  an  epilogue,  containing  a  sum- 
mary view  of  the  history,  transactions,  &c.  recorded  therein.  The 
work  is  ornamented  with  a  frontispiece,  representing  Moses  receiv- 
ing the  f.iblcs  of  Iho  law  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  two  useful  maps — 
one  of  the  journeying  of  tlie  Israelites,  in  wliicli  eacii  station  is 
numbered  ;  and  another  of  their  settlement  in  the  promised  land. 
The  letter-press  of  the  Hebrew  is  very  unequally  distributed  over 
the  pages ;  some  are  long,  and  others  short ;  some  are  wide,  and 
others  narrow.  On  some  pages  not  fewer  than  thirty-seven  lines 
are  crowded  together,  while  others  contain  only  twenty-three.  In 
other  respects.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  pronounces  it  to  be  a  pretty  correct 
work;  but,  besides  the  errata  noticed  by  the  editor,  he  adds,  that 
the  reader  will  find  the  sentence — thou  shall  visit  thy  habitation,  left 
out  of  the  English  text,  in  Job  v.  24. — Bibliogr.  Die.  vol.  i.  p  274. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I 
Londini,  1667,  folio.     (In  Bp. 


SECTION  V. 

.AXCIENT    VERSIOXS    OF    THE    OLD    AND    NEW    TESTAMENTS. 

§  1.  Targums,  or  Chaldee  Paraphrases  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

1.  Tahgum,  scu  Paraphrasis  Chaldaica  On'kelosi  in  Penta- 
teuchum,  Latine,  ex  versione  Alfonsi  de  Zamora.  Venetiis, 
1747,  4to. 

Also  in  the  Complutensian,  Antwerp,  Paris,  and  London  Poly- 
glotts.  This  version  of  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  was  likewise  printed 
at  Antwerp,  1616,  and  at  Venice,  1609,  in  folio. 

2.  Thargum,  hoc  est,  Paraphrasis  Onkcli  Chaldaica  in  Sacra 
Biblia;  ex  Chaldaico  in  Latinum  fidelissiine  versa,  additis  in 
singula  fere  capita  succinctis  annotationibus,  Authore  Paulo 
Fag  10.  Pentateuchus,  sive  quinque  libri  Moysis.  Tom.  I. 
Argentorati,  1546,  folio. 

One  volume  only  of  this  work  was  published.  Fagius's  learned 
annotations  are  inserted  in  the  Critici  Sacri. 

3.  Targum  Pseudo-Jonathanis  in  Pentatcuchum,  Latine,  ex 
versione  Antonii  Cevalerii.  Londini,  1657,  folio.  (In  Bp.  Wal- 
ton's Polyglott.) 

4.  Takuim  HiEHosonMiTANCH  in  Pentate\ichum,  Latine, 


ex  versione  Antonii  Cevalerii. 
Walton's  Polyglott.) 

Bp.  Walton  states  that  the  Latin  version  of  Chevalier  is  more 
faithful  than  that  published  by  Francis  Taylor,  at  London,  in 
1649,  4io. 

5.  Targum  Jonathanis  in  Josue,  Judiccs,  Libros  Regum, 
Isaire,  Hieremiie,  Ezechielis  ct  XII.  Minorum  Prophetaruin, 
Latine,  ex  versione  Alfonsi  de  Zamora,  a  Benedicto  Aria  Mon- 
tano  ad  Hebraicam  et  Chaldaicam  veritatem  corrccta,  folio.  (In 
the  Antwerp,  Paris,  and  London  Polyglotts.) 

V^irioiis  other  editions  of  the  Targum  <»f  Jonalhan  Ben  Uzziel  are 
noticed  in  Masch's  and  Boerner's  edition  of  Lelong's  Bibliotheca 
Sacra,  Part  II.  vol.  iii.  pp.  654 — 656. 

6.  Targum  R.  Josephi  Cceci  el  aliorum  in  Chetuvim,  Latine, 
ex  versione  Alfonsi  de  Zamora,  ct  recognitione  Ariae  Montani, 
folio. 

7.  Targum  in  Psalmos,  Ecclesiasten,  et  Librum  Esther,  ex 
versione  Aria;  Montani,  folio. 

Both  the  preceding  Targums  are  found  in  the  Antw'erp,  Paris, 
and  London  Polyglotls  ;  in  the  last,  the  translation  has  been  further 

; 1    U-.  T-i-    l>.l  — 1   /"*„„. ^n 


Opera  et  stu- 


re vised  by  Dr.  Ldmund  Castell. 

8.  Liber  Jobi,  Chaldaice  et  Latine,  cum  notis. 
dio  Johannis  Terentii.     Franeckerae,  1663,  4to. 

The  Latin  translation  is  that  of  Alfonso  de  Zamora,  revised  by 
Montanus,  and  further  corrected  by  the  editor.  Masch  pronounces 
this  to  be  a  rare  and  erudite  publication. 

9.  Cantica  Canticorum  et  Ecclesiasfes  Saiomonis  paraphrastico 
sermone  conscripti,  et  ex  Chaldwa  lingua  in  Latinam  versi  pel 
Erasmum  Oswaldum  Schreckenfuchsium.     Basilcw,  1553,  8vo. 

10.  Chaldaica  Paraphrasis  Libelli  Ruth,  a  niendis  repurgata 
et  punctis  juxta  analogiam  grammaticam  notafa,  cum  Latina 
Intcrpretatione  et  Annotationibus,  per  Joannem  Mercerum. 
Parisiis,  1564,  4to. 

11.  Paraphrasis  Chaldaica  Librorum  Chronicorum,  Latine, 
cura  MatthitE  Friderici  Beckii.  Augustse  Vindelicorum,  1680 — 
83 — 84,  2  vols.  4to. 

12.  Paraphrasis  Chaldaica  in  Librum  priorem  et  posteriorem 
Chronicorum.  Auctore  Rabbi  Josepho,  Rectore  Acadcmiae  in 
Syria.  Nunc  demum  a  Manuscripto  Cantabrigiensi  descripta, 
ac  cum  Versione  Latina  in  lucem  raissa  a  Davide  Wilkins.  Can- 
tabrigice,  1717,  4to.     Amstelodami,  1725,  4to. 

The  manuscript,  from  which  this  edition  was  printed,  was  WTitten 
A.  D.  1477.  It  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Samuel  Clarke,  an  eminent 
oriental  scholar,  in  the  University  of  Cambridge :  and,  besides  the 
Chaldee  paraphrase  on  the  books  of  Chronicles,  it  contained  the 
books  of  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Daniel,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah,  with 
a  targum  or  paraphrase  on  each.  The  book  is  elegantly  printed, 
the  Chaldee  text  with  vowel  points  being  on  the  right  hand  page, 
and  the  Latin  translation  on  the  left:  both  are  divided  into  versos. 
The  copies,  dated  Amstelodami,  1725,  are  the  same  as  those  printed 
at  Cambridge,  but  with  a  new  title-page. 


§2.  ..Ancient  Greek  Versions. 
[i.]  The  Septuagint.' 
The   following    table    exhibits   the   four   principal    Standard 
Text  Editions  of  the  Septuagint  Greek  version,  together  v^ith 
the  principal  editions  wliich  are  founded  upon  them. 

1.  Complutensian  Text,  1514. 

Antwerp  Pob/glott,  Fol.  Or.  Lat.  &c.  1569-72.— Co;«/nc/iH*.  Fol.  Gr. 
1586, 1599,"1616.—  \\'oldiri—Vo\. Gr.  159G.—IIuttni. Fol.  1599.  Gr. 
Lat.  &.C.— Paris  Polyglott,  Fol.  Gr.  Lat.  &c.  1629—45. 

2.  Aldine  Text,  1518. 

, ■ A _ ^ 

Cephalrri.  Oct.  (ir.  1526. — Htrvngii,  Fol.fir.  1545. — Brylingeri.  Oct. 
Gr.  1550.— Vr«;(t/(i  Hared.  Fol.  Gr.  1597. 

3.  Roman  or  Vatican  Text,  1587. 

f . — ■ _ A 

^Yaltoni  PoUslolta.  Fol.  Cir.  Lat.  &c.  \&^l.—Moriui.  Fol.  Gr.  Lat. 
11)28.— /)«///(/.  Qio.  et  Oct.  Gr.  1C)53.  1665,  1G83.— CVhwt/.  Oct. 
Gr.  1697.— 7?o.<;//.  Gr.  Qlo.  lim.—Milii,  Oct.  G.  \T2b.—ReiMerrii. 
Oct.  Gr.  1730,  1757. — Kirrhnrri.  Oct.  Gr.  1759. — Hohntsii.  Fol. 
Gr.  1798,  &c.  The  editions  printed  at  Oxford,  Oct.  Gr.  1805, 
1817.—  Valpii,  1819.—/-.  Von  Ess,  1824. 

«  This  notice  of  tlie  principul  editions  of  llie  Septuagint  vprsion  is 
chieHy  taken  from  Mascli  and  Itoerner's  edition  of  Lelon^''s  Biblloiheca 
S.icra,  part  ii.  vol.  ii.  pp.  ;*•') — 'i'Si.  Many  oilier  editions  of  this  version, 
and  of  dotacliei!  hooks  of  it,  are  there  described,  which  we  have  iiol  had 
room  to  dctajl. 


Sect.  V.  §  2.] 

4.  The  Alexandrian  Text,  1707- 


THE  SEPTUAGINT 
-1 9—20. 


23 


Bnilinfferi.    Qto.  Gr.  173(J-33.      Reumcii    Rihlia    Quadrilinguia. 
Fol.  Gr.  Lat.  &c.  1750.     Baberi.  Fol.  1810—27. 

Of  the  various  editions  of  the  Septuagint  Greek  version,  which 
have  issued  from  the  press,  the  following  more  particularly  claim 
the  notice  of  the  hihlical  student.  Most  of  them  contain  the 
New  Testament,  in  addition  to  the  Old;  but  as  the  principal 
editions  of  the  former  have  already  been  described,  no  notice  will 
be  taken  of  them. 

1.  Bililia  Grajca;  cum  vcrsione  Latina  ad  vcrbum.  In  Bibliis 
Polyglottis  Compluti  editis,  1514,  1515,  1517. 

The  text  of  this  ediiion  was  composed  aficr  several  manuscripts 
which  the  cdilors  iieglcclod  to  describe;  ihcy  have  frequently 
been  chargrd  with  liiiving  altered  the  Greek  text,  to  make  it  har- 
monize with  ih(!  Hebrew,  or  rniher  with  the  Vulgate  version,  and 
with  having  (Hied  up  the  chasms  in  the  Alexandrian  or  Septnagint 
version  from  other  (iroek  interpreters. — For  a  further  account  of 
the  Conijjlutciisian  Polyglot!,  see  pp.    I'J,  20.    of  this  A|)pendix. 

n-Ak-MM  Ti  Kjo  veac. — SacriB  Scriptur®  Veteris  Novajque  omnia. 
Venetiis,  1518,  small  folio. 

This  edition  appeared  in  1518,  two  years  after  the  death  of  Aldus 
Manulius;  it  was  executed  under  the  care  of  his  father-in-law, 
Andreas  .\sulanus.  The  text  was  compiled  from  numerous  ancient 
MSS.  Archbishop  Usher  is  of  opinion,  that  in  many  instances  it 
follows  the  readings  of  Aquila's  version,  instead  of  those  of  the 
Septuagint.  The  Aldinc  text,  however,  is  pronounced  by  Bishop 
Walton  to  be  much  purer  than  that  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglott, 
to  which  it  is  actually  prior  in  (wint  of  time;  for  though  the  Poly- 
glott bcjirs  date  1514 — 1517,  it  was  not  published  until  the  year  1522. 
?'ather  Simon  and  iM.  de  Colomies  concur  in  speaking  very  highly 
of  the  execution  of  the  Aldine  edition. 

3.  Toe  Qu*(  Tpiiput,  TrxKiiiL!  SuK^tSn  Kit  vs«  a.Tri.'ntt.  Divinae 
ScriptursB  Veteris  Novaeque  omnia.  Argentorati,  apud  Wol- 
phium  CcphaliBum,  1526.  4  vols.  8vo. 

This  ediiion  is  of  great  rarity:  the  fourth  volume  contains  the 
New  Testament.  It  Ibllowsthe  text  of  Aldus,  and  is  not  only  well 
and  correctly  printed,  put  possesses  the  additional  merit  of  judicious 
punctuation.  Though  the  chapters  are  distinguished,  the  text  is 
not  divided  into  verses;  and  a  space  is  left  at  the  beginning  of 
each  c'hapter  for  the  insertion  of  the  initial  letter.  The  Apocry- 
phal hiioks,  and  a  small  but  valuable  collection  of  various  readings, 
are  ad(lj,'d  in  this  ediiion  by  the  editor  John  Lonicerus,  a  disciple 
and  follower  of  the  illustrious  reformer.  Dr.  Martin  Luther.  Copies 
of  this  edition  are  sometimes  to  be  met  with,  having  the  date  of 
1529.  They  are  however  all  of  the  same  impression,  the  beginning 
of  liic  preface  being  altered,  the  name  of  I,onicerus  omitted,  and 
that  of  Jerome  submitted  for  Luther,  with  a  new  title-page. 

4.  Txc  &ui(  Tfij^K,  nxKrtii.t:  SyiKtSn  k-xi  v«c  duTrMTA.  Divinte  Scrip- 
tura;  Veteris  ac  Novi  Testamcnti  omnia,  innumeris  locis  nunc 
demnm,  et  optimoruni  lihrorum  collatione  et  doctorum  vivorum 
oi)era,  mnlto  quam  unquam  emendatiora,  in  lucem  edita.  Cum 
Ca-s.  Majcst.  gratia  et  privilegio  ad  quinquennium.  Basilia),  per 
Joanncm  Hervagium,  1545,  folio. 

Iti  this  rare  and  little  known  edition,  the  text  of  Lonicerus  is 
chielly  fi)llowed  ;  it  is  said  to  surpass  in  correctness  both  the  Slras- 
biirg  and  Venetian  editions,  and  also  has  some  valuable  various 
readings.    The  preface  was  written  by  Melancthon. 

5.  Biblia  GrtEca,  Grajce  et  Latine Basileffi,  per  Nicho- 

iaum  Brylingerum.     1.550,  .5  vols.  Svo. 

Each  of  the  five  volumes,  of  which  this  edition  consists,  has  a 
distinct  title-page  which  is  printed  by  Masch.  The  Greek  and 
Latin  are  placed  in  opiwsite  columns ;  the  former  from  the  Aldine 
i<>vt,  the  latter  from  the  Vulgate,  as  printed  in  the  Complutensian 
rolyglolt.  The  type,  though  rather  too  small  to  be  read  with  ease, 
is  pronoimccd  by  Masch  to  be  distinct  and  neat. 

6.  H  riaAoia.  Aixflox;),  ylat-jl  TiU{  ECTsiMitJciVT*  it  at/SfVTWC  S'uS'TCt/ 
K'  'i-^y.u  Ap^tti,iaK  (xJ'.bacst. — Vetus  Testamentum  Graecum,  juxta 
liXX.Interpretcs, studio  Antonii  Cardinalis Carafe, ope  virorum 
doctorum  adjuti,  cum  prefatione  et  scholiis  Petri  Morini.  Romse 
ex  Typographia  Francisci  Zannetti,  158G,  folio. 

A  beautiful  edition,  of  great  rarity  and  value.  The  copies  of  it 
are  of  two  dates — some  with  .'m.d.lxxxvi,  as  they  originally  ap- 
peared, and  others  with  the  date  of  m.d.lxxxvii,  the  figure  i.  hav- 
nig  been  subsequently  added  with  a  pen.  The  latter  copies  are 
most  commonly  mot  with,  and  hence  this  edition  is  usually  dated 
1587.  They  contain  783  pages  of  text,  preceded  by  four  leaves  of 
lircliminary  matter,  which  are  tbllowed  by  another  (subsequently 
added),  entitled  Corrigenda  in  nolationihus  Pfallerii.  This  last 
nieniioned  leaf  is  not  found  in  the  copies  bearing  the  date  of  1586, 
wlikh  also  want  the  privilege  of  Pope  Sixtus  V.  dated  May  9th, 
1587,  at  whose  request,  and  under  whose  auspices,  it  was  under- 
taken by  Cardinal  Antonio  Caralh.  aided  by  Antonio  Ai;elli,  Peter 
Fulvio   I'rsino,   Robert  Bi'llarmin,  Cardinal  Sirlet,  and 


Mor 


Vol.  IL— Ait. 


3T 


others.  The  celebrated  Codex  Vaticanus  1209  was  the  basis  of  the 
Itoinan  or  Sixtine  edition,  as  it  is  usually  termed  ;  but  the  editors 
did  not  exclusively  adhere  to  that  MS.,  having  changed  both  the 
orthography  and  readings  whenever  these  appeared  to  them  to  be 
faulty.  Such  is  the  opmion  of  Drs.  Ilody  and  Grabe,  Eichhorn, 
Mi>rus,  and  other  eminent  critics ;  though  the  late  Dr.  Holmes  has 
contended  that  the  text  of  the  Roman  edition  w:ls  printed  from  one 
single  MS.,  which  was  exclusively  followed  throughout.  The  first 
forty-six  chapters  of  Genesis,  together  with  some  of  the  Psalms,  and 
the  IxKjk  of  Maccabees,  being  obliterated  from  the  Vatican  manu- 
script through  extreme  age,  the  editors  are  said  to  have  supplied 
this  deficiency  by  compiling  thfwe  parts  of  the  Septuagint  from  a 
Cirecian  and  Venetian  MS.  out  of  Cardinal  Bessarion's  library,  and 
from  another  which  was  brought  to  them  from  Calabria.  So  great 
was  the  agreement  between  the  latter  and  the  Codex  Vaticanus, 
that  they  were  supjiosed  to  have  been  traruscribed  either  the  one 
from  the  other,  or  both  from  the  same  copy.  Various  readings  are 
given  to  each  chapter.  This  ediiion  contains  the  Greek  text  only. 
In  1588,  Flaminio  Nobili  printed  at  Rome  in  folio  Vvtus  Testa- 
mentum secundum  LXX.  Luline  redditum.  This  Latin  version  was 
not  conijiosiHl  by  him,  but  compiled  out  of  the  fragmenis  of  the 
ancient  Latin  translations,  especially  the  Old  Italic.  It  is  a  splen- 
did volume,  and  of  considerable  rarity.  The  R/jman  edition  was 
reprinted  at  Paris  in  1628,  in  three  folio  volumes;  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  Greek  and  Latin  forms  the  third  volume.  This  reprint  is 
in  great  request,  not  only  for  the  neatness  and  correctness  of  its 
execution,  but  also  for  the  learned  notes  which  accoinpany  it. 
Some  copies  are  occasionally  met  with,  dated  Parisiis,  Piget  1641, 
which  might  lead  us  to  suppose  that  they  were  distinct  editions. 
De  Bure  however  says,  that  they  are  but  one  and  the  same  edition, 
with  a  new  title-page,  probably  printed  by  the  bookseller  who  had 
purchased  the  unsold  copies. 

7.  Tuf  ©aatc  Fpa^xc,  ;r«\suaf  ifuKuJii  kh  fwf,  OLTrmiT'x.  Divinae 
Scripturae,  nempe  Veteris  ac  Novi  Testamcnti,  omnia  ....  Fran- 
cofurli,  apud  Andrcae  Wechelii  Haeredes,  1597,  folio. 

This  edition  is  formed  after  that  of  Ilervagius,  the  errors  of  the 
latter  being  previously  corrected.  It  has  a  collection  of  various 
readings,  taken  from  the  Complutensian,  Antwerp,  Strasburg,  and 
Roman  editions.  Morinus  charges  the  editor  (who  is  supposed  to 
have  been  Francis  Junius  or  Frederick  Sylbergius)  with  abandon- 
ing the  Aldine  text  in  four  chapters  of  the  book  of  Exodus,  and  in 
the  twenty-fourth  chapter  of  the  book  of  Proverbs,  and  substituting 
the  Complutensian  text  in  its  stead.  It  is  very  neatly  printed  on 
clear  types,  and  is  divided  into  verses. 

8.  'H  riaxju*  AixBuKu  itctTst  Tofc  Ef/o^xjccvTa.  Vetus  Testa- 
mentum Graecum  ex  versione  Septuaginta  interpretum.  Lon- 
dini,  excudebat  Rogerus  Daniel,  1653,  4to. 

This  edition  is  frequently  mentioned  in  catalogues  as  being  both 
in  quarto  and  in  octavo.  Masch  states  that  there  is  but  one  size, 
viz.  in  quarto,  though  the  paper  be  diflTerent.  It  professes  to  follow 
the  Sixtine  edition:  but  this  is  not  the  fact;  the  editors  having 
altered  and  interjtolaled  the  text  in  several  places,  in  order  to 
bring  it  nearer  to  the  Hebrew  text  and  the  modem  versions.  The 
errors  of  this  edition  have  been  retained,  1.  In  that  printed  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1653,  8vo.  with  a  learned  preface  WTitten  by  Bishop 
Pearson  (whose  initials  are  at  the  end) ;  and,  2.  In  the  very  neat 
Cambridge  edition  printed  by  Field  in  1665,  in  three  volumes,  Svo. 
(including  the  Liturgy  in  Greek  and  the  New  Testament.)  Field's 
edition  was  counterfeited,  page  for  page,  by  John  Hayes,  a  printer 
at  Cambridge,  who  executed  an  edition  in  1684,  to  which  he  put 
Field's  name,  and  the  date  of  1665.  The  fraud,  however,  may 
easily  be  detected,  by  comparing  the  two  editions;  the  typography 
of  the  genuine  one  by  Field  being  very  superior  to  that  of  Hayes. 
The  genuine  Cambridge  editipn  was  reprinted  at  Amsterdam,  in 
1683,  in  12mo.  without  the  Greek  Testament.  The  editing  of  it  is 
commonly,  but  erroneously,  ascribed  to  Leusden.  The  omission  of 
Bishop  Pearson's  initials  at  the  end  of  the  preface,  has  caused  the 
latter  to  be  attributed  to  Leusden.  The  book  is  very  neatly  but 
very  incorrectly  printed  in  two  columns,  divided  into  separate 
verses.  The  Apocrj'phal  books,  which  are  found  in  the  Cambridge 
edition,  are  altogether  omitted. 

9.  "H  riax*/*  A/a9)i*»,  xaTat  t'-uc  \LCJc/ji)iK.oyra..  Vetus  Testa- 
mentum Graecum,  ex  versione  Septuaginta  interpretum,  cum 
libris  Apocryphis,  juxta  exemplar  Vaticanum  Romae  editum,  ct 
Anglicanum  Londini  excusum.     Lipsiffi,  1697,  Svo. 

The  editors  of  this  impression  were  M.  J.  Cluver  and  Tho. 
KLU.MPF ;  though  inferior  to  the  London  and  Amsterdam  editions 
in  beauty  of  execution,  it  is  very  far  superior  to  them  in  point  of 
correctness.  The  prolegomena  of  John  Frickius,  prefixed  to  it, 
contain  a  critical  notice  of  preceding  editions  of  the  Septuagint 
Version,  which  is  said  to  be  very  accurate* 

10.  Vetus  Testamentum  Graecum,  ex  versione  LXX  Interpre- 
tum, ex  antiquissimo  MS.  Codice  Alcxandrino  accurate  descrip- 
tum,  et  ope  aliorum  excmplarium  ac  priscorum  scriptorum,  prs- 
sertim  vero  Hexaplaris  Editionis  Origenianae,  emendatum  atque 
suppletum,  additis  saepe  astcriscorum  et  obelorum  signis,  sunima 
curaedidit  Joannes EmestusGHABE,S.T.P.  Oxonii,  1707,  1709, 
1719,  1720.    4  vols,  folio,  and  8  vols.  Svo. 

This  splendid  edition  exhibits  the  text  of  the  celebrated  Codex 
Alexandrinu!,  now  deposited    in  the  Biitish  Museum.    Thougk 


24 


ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 


Dr.  Grabe  prepared  the  whole  for  the  press,  yet  he  only  lived  to 
j)ublish  the  Ociaieui-h,  forming  the  first  volume  of  the  folio  edition, 
in  1707,  and  the  fourlii,  containing  tlie  metrical  books,  in  1709.  The 
second  volume,  comprising  the  liistorical  books,  was  edited  by 
Francis  Lee,  M.D.,  a  very  eminent  Greek  scholar,  in  1719;  and 
the  tliird  volume,  including  the  prophetical  books,  by  \iV.  Wigan, 
S.  T.  D.,  in  1720.  This  edition  gives  a  fair  representation  of  the 
Alexandrian  Manuscript  where  it  was  perfect;  but  where  it  was 
deicciive  and  incorrect,  the  passages  supplied  and  corrected  read- 
ings are  given  i)artly  from  the  Codex  Vaticanus,  and  partly  from 
the  Compiutensian  edition,  in  a  smaller  character  than  that  em- 
ployed in  the  text,  the  erroneous  lections  being  printed  in  the  mar- 
gin. The  prolegomena  of  Dr.  Grabe  contain  a  treasure  of  sacred 
criticism.  Dr.  Grabe  designed  to  have  added  copious  notes  to  this 
work,  but  was  prevented  by  death  from  composing  them.  After 
the  (olio  sheets  were  struck  off,  the  pages  were  divided,  and  over- 
run into  an  octavo  form,  to  prevent  the  book  from  being  piratically 
jirinted  in  Germany. 

11 .  'H  UdXiid  A/a6«K))  jtstTst  Toi/c  ECS'.juiiicoyrit.  Veins  Testa- 
ineiitum  ex  versione  Scptuaginta  Iiiterpretum  secundum  Exem- 
plar Vaticanum  Ronije  edituni,  accuratissime  denue  recognitum  ; 
una  cum  scholiis  cjusdem  editionis,  variis  Manuscriptorum  Codi- 
cuni  Veterumque  Exemplarium  Lectionibus,  necnon  fragmentis 
Versionuin  Aquilse,  Symmachi,  et  Theodotionis.  Summa  cura 
edidil  Lambertus  Bos.     Francquerae.   1709.  4to. 

An  elegant  and  accurate  edition,  which  is  deservedly  esteemed. 
The  preliice  of  the  editor,  Professor  Bos,  contains  a  critical  disqui- 
sition on  the  Septuagint  Version  and  its  utility  in  sacred  criticism, 
together  with  an  account  of  the  preceding  principal  editions.  Bos's 
text  was  reprinted  at  Amsterdam  in  1725,  in  two  8vo.  vols,  under 
the  editorial  care  of  David  Mill.  It  contains  various  readings  from 
some  MSS.  at  Leyden,  which,  however,  are  of  no  great  critical 
value. 

12.  'H  rr*x=U3t  A(aS»KM  KoLTS.  rou;  'E.Qofji.iimvrct.  Vetus  Testa- 
mentum  ex  Versione  Sepluaginta  Iiiterpretum,  dim  ad  fidem 
Codicis  MS.  Alexandrini  summo  studio  et  incredibili  diligenta 
expressum,  emendatum  et  suppletum  a  Joanne  Ernesti  Grabio, 
S.T.P,  Nunc  vero  exemplaris  Vaticani  aliorumque  MSS.  Codd. 
Lectionibus  var.  nee  non  criticis  dissertationibus  illustratum 
insigniterque  locupletatum,  suiiuna  cura  edidit  Joannes  Jacobus 
Bheitingeiius.    Tiguri  Helvetiorum.     1730-1-2.   4  vols.  4to. 

This  edition  is  a  correct  reprint  of  Dr.  Grabe's  edition,  to  which 
are  added,  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  the  various  readings  of  the  Roman 
or  Vatican  edition,  and  of  three  manuscripts  belonging  to  the  library 
of  the  Academy  at  Basle.  The  beauty  of  its  typography  and  paper, 
and  its  critical  value,  concur  to  render  this  edition  highly  esteemed ; 
it  is  consequently  both  scarce  and  dear.  Michaelis  pronounces  it 
to  be  the  best  edition  of  the  Septuagint  ever  printed,  that  is,  up  to 
his  time. 

13.  'H  YlctK'JU'J.  AtuBmai  Kunt  touc  EQc/uxhovth.  Vetus  Testa- 
mentum  Grjecum  ex  Versione  Septuaginta  Interpretum,  una  cum 
Libris  Apocryphis,  secundum  Exemplar  Vaticanum  Romae  edi- 
fum  et  aliquoties  recognitum,  quod  nunc  denuo  ad  optimas 
quasque  editionis  recensuit,  et  potiores  quasdam  Codicis  Alexan- 
drini et  aliorum  Lectiones  variantes  adjccit  M.  Christianus  Rei- 
NEcrius.     Lipsiae,  1730,  8vo.     175*7,  8vo.  edit,  secunda. 

A  neat  and  commodious  edition,  though  the  type  is  rather  too 
small.    The  apocryphal  books  are  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

14.  'H  TXoKttM  Ai'j.Snii>i.  Vetus  Testainentum  ex  versione  Sep- 
tuaginta Interpretum,  ad  exemplar  Vaticanum  Romae  editum  ex 
optimis  codicibus  impressum.  Accesserunt  Libri  Apocryphi. 
Halae,  sumptibus  Orphanotrophei.     1759.  12mo. 

An  edition  of  more  promise  than  execution.  Masch  denounces 
if  as  very  incorrect,  and  says,  that  instead  of  being  taken  from  the 
best  codices  (as  the  editor  professes),  or  editions,  it  agrees  with  the 
London,  Cambridge,  and  Leipsic  editions. 

15.  Vetus  Testamentum  Graecum,  cum  variis  Lectionibus, 
edidit  Robertus  Holmes,  D.D.,  Decanus  Wintoniensis.  Tom.  I. 
Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Clarendoniano.   1798.  folio. 

Vetus  Testamentum  Graecum,  cum  variis  Lectionibus.  Edi- 
tioncm  a  Roberto  Holmes,  S.T.P.  inchoatam  continuavit  Jacobus 
Parsoxs,  S.T.B.  Tom.  II. — V.  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Claren- 
doniano.   1818—27.  folio. 

To  the  University  of  Oxford  belongs  the  honour  of  giving  to  the 
public  this  valuable  and  splendid  edition  of  the  Septuagint  Ver- 
sion. In  the  year  1788,  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Holmes,  Dean  of  Win- 
chester, circulated  proposals  for  collating  all  the  MSS.  of  that 
version  known  to  be  extant.  These  being  liberally  supported  by 
public  and  private  patrons,  Dr.  H.  published  annual  accounts  of 
his  collations,  which  amounted  to  sixteen  in  number,  up  to  the 
time  of  his  decease.  In  1795  he  published,  in  folio,  two  Latin 
epistles  to  the  Bishop  of  Durham,  containing  specimens  of  his  pro- 
posed work ;  and  in  1798  appeared  the  first  part  of  vol.  i.  contain: 
ing  the  book  of  Genesis:  part  ii.  comprising  Exodus  and  Leviticus, 
was  published  in  1801;  and  the  books  of  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy, 
which  complete  the  first  volume,  in  1804.   The  date  of  1798,  there- 


[Pakt  I.  Chap.  L 

fore,  in  the  title-page  of  the  first  volume,  is  not  strictly  correct.  A 
general  preface  to  this  volume,  in  four  chapters,  discusses  the  his- 
tory of  the  Ko.v«,  or  common  text  of  the  Septuagint  Version,  and  its 
various  corrections;  describes  the  MSS.  consulted  for  this  edition 
(eleven  of  which  were  written  in  uncial  letters,  and  upwards  of 
one  hundred  in  small  letters);  and  gives  an  account  of  the  ])rinted 
editions  of  the  LXX.,  of  the  Fathers,  and  other  Greek  writers  quoted 
in  the  various  readings,  and  of  the  several  ancient  versions,  viz. 
the  Old  Italic  or  Ante-Hieronymian  Latin,  the  Coptic,  Sahidic, 
Syriac  (made  from  the  Greek  text),  Arabic,  Sclavonic,  .\rmenian, 
and  the  Georgian  versions,  whence  various  readings  in  the  Penta- 
teuch have  been  extracted.  Each  of  the  five  books  of  Moses  is 
furnished  with  a  short  preface  and  an  appendix  ;  and  at  the  end  of 
the  volume  are  eleven  pnges  oC add e7ula  et  rniendanda.  Dr.  Holmes 
also  published  the  book  of  Daniel,  in  1805,  according  to  the  text 
of  Theodofion  and  the  Septuagint,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Pen- 
tateuch, a  few  months  before  his  death.  The  text  is  printed  on  a 
strong  and  beautiful  type,  after  the  Sixtine  or  Roman  edition  of 
1587;  and  the  deviati(ms  from  it,  which  are  observable  in  the 
Compiutensian  and  Aldine  editions,  and  in  that  of  Dr.  Grabe,  are 
constantly  noted.  For  this  edition  were  collated  three  hundred 
and  eleven  manuscripts,  the  various  lections  of  which  are  exhibited 
at  the  foot  of  the  page.  On  Dr.  Holmes's  death,  in  1805,  after  a 
considerable  but  unavoidable  delay,  the  publication  of  this  impor- 
tant work  was  resumed  by  the  Rev.  J.  Pai-sons,  A.  M.  (now  B.D.), 
under  whose  editorial  care  the  second  volume  was  completed  in 
1818.  It  comprises  all  the  historical  books  from  Joshua  to  the 
second  book  of  Chronicles  inclusively  ;  the  several  fasciculi  of 
which  were  published  in  the  following  order,  viz.  Joshua  in  1810; 
Judges  and  Ruth  in  1812 ;  1  Kings  in  1813 ;  and  the  five  remain- 
ing books  in  the  four  succeeding  years,  the  whole  being  printed 
oft'  in  the  eurly  part  of  1818.  The  third  and  iburth  volumes  con- 
taining the  book  of  Job  to  the  prophet  Jeremiali,  inclusive,  were 
published  between  the  years  1819—1825 :  and  the  remaining  (or 
fifth)  volume,  which  contains  the  Apocryphal  books,  between  the 
years  1825  and  1827.  The  plan  laid  down  by  Dr.  Holmes  has  been 
followed  by  his  learned  successor,  whose  continuation  is  executed 
in  the  same  splendid  and  accurate  manner  as  the  Pentateuch. 
The  reader  will  find  a  copious  and  very  interesting  critique  on  the 
first  volume  of  this  magnificent  undertaking  in  the  Eclectic  Review, 
vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  85—90.  214—221.  267—274.  337—348. ;  and  of  the 
second  volume  in  the  Classical  Journal,  vol.  ix.  pp.  475 — 479.  and 
vol.  xix.  pp.  367—372. 

16.  Psalterium  Graecum  e  Codice  MS.  Alexandrine,  qui  Lon- 
dini  in  Bibliotheca  Musei  Britannici  asservatur,  Typis  ad  Simili- 
tudinem  ipsius  Codicis  Scripturae  fideliter  descriptum,  Cura  et 
Lahore  Henrici  Herveii  Babek,  A.M.  Musei  Britsmnici  Bib- 
liothecarii.     Londini,  1812,  folio. 

This  is  an  exact  fac-simile  of  the  book  of  Psalms,  from  the  Codex 
Alexandrinus,  which  has  been  described  in  Part  1.  of  the  second 
volume.  There  is  a  chasm  of  about  nine  leaves  in  the  original 
manuscript,  from  Psalm  xlix.  19.  to  Psalm  Ixxix.  12.  The  types 
are  the  same  as  were  used  for  Dr.  Woide's  fac-simile  edition  oi'lhe 
New  Testament,  noticed  in  p.  13.  supra.  The  numbers  of  the 
Psalms  and  verses  are  subjoined  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  for  conve- 
nience of  reference.  Appropriate  marks  are  introduced,  to  point 
out  words  which  have  either  become  obliterated  in  course  of  time, 
or  have  been  designedly  erased,  or  which  have  been  rewritten 
by  a  later  hand.  At  the  end  of  the  volume  there  is  a  collation  of 
the  various  readings  of  the  Alexandrian  MS.  of  the  book  of  Psalms, 
with  the  Roman  edition  of  the  Vatican  text  of  the  Septuagint, 
printed  in  1587.  Twelve  copies  of  this  elegant  fac-simile  were 
printed  on  vellum,  to  match  with  the  same  number  of  copies  of 
Dr.  Woide's  edition. 

17.  Vetus  Testamentum  Graecum  e  Codice  MS.  Alexandrine*, 
qui  Londini  in  Bibliotheca  Musei  Britannici  asservatur,  Typis 
ad  Similitudinem  ipsius  Codicis  Scripturae  fideliter  descriptum, 
Cura  et  Lahore  Henrici  Herveii  Babeb,  A.M.  Londini,  1816 — 
28.   4  vols,  folio. 

At  the  close  of  his  preface  to  the  preceding  fac-simile  edition  of 
the  book  of  Psalms,  the  Rev.  H.  H.  Baber  announced  his  intention 
of  proceeding  with  the  Old  Testament,  in  a  similar  manner  :  but 
this  was  an  undertaking  too  vast  and  too  extensive  for  an  unbene- 
ficed clergyman.  In  consequence,  therefore,  of  a  memorial  by  Mr. 
B.,  seconded  by  the  recommendation  of  several  dignitaries  of  the 
Anglican  church,  as  well  as  professors  and  heads  of  colleges  in 
the  two  universities,  the  British  Parliament  engaged  to  defray  the 
expense  of  completing  this  noble  work.  (See  the  Memorial  and 
other  Proceedings  in  the  Literary  Panorama,  vol.  i.  N.  S.  pp.  46.5 — 
478.)  The  first  three  volumes  comprise  the  entire  text  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint; and  the  fourth  volume  contains  the  Notes  and  the  Prole- 
gomena. The  whole  is  executed  in  a  splendid  folio  size,  and  in 
such  a  manner  as  faithfully  to  represent  every  iota  of  the  original 
manuscript.  The  better  to  preserve  the  identity  of  the  original, 
Mr.  Baber  has  introduced  a  greater  variety  of  type  than  Dr.  Woide 
could  command  for  his  fac-simile  edition  of  the  New  Testament, 
together  with  numerous  wood-cuts.  The  tail  pieces,  or  rude  ara- 
besque ornaments  at  the  end  of  each  book,  are  also  represented  by 
means  of  fac-similes  in  wood.  The  edition  is  limited  to  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  copies,  ten  of  which  are  on  vellum.  The  execution 
of  the  whole  of  this  noble  undertaking  is  such  as  reflects  the 
highest  credit  on  the  learned  editor,  and  on  bis  printers,  Messrs. 
R.  and  A.  Taylor. 


Sect.  V.  §  3.] 


ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 


25 


18.  Vetus  Testamentiim  Grsccnm  ex  Vcrsiono  LXX  sccun- 
Oum  Exemplar  Vaticaniini  Homa;  editum.  Acctdurit  varia; 
Lcctiories  e  Codice  Alexaiidrino  necnon  Introductio  J.  ]J.  Carp- 
zovii.  Oxoiiii,  c 'J'ypograpliiiu  Clarrndouiano.    1H17.   6  vols.  8vo. 

An  accuraH-  niiil  bfaiililully  prinU'd  fdilion  :  lliorc  are  copies  on 
large  papier.  Tlie  inlr<«lii«-lioii  is  cxlraclcd  iVoin  tlie  second  and 
third  cliaplers  of  ('arp/ov's  (^-itica  fSacra,  Pari  JII.,  uiiich  trea- 
liae  in  noticed  in  llie  subsequent  part  ol'tliis  A|)|)endix. 

19.  Vetus  Teslamentuin  ex  Vursione  Septuaffinta  Interprc- 
tum,  jiixla  Exemplar  Valicanuin,  ex  editione  Huimcsii  et  Lam- 
berti  13os.     Londini,  in  ^dibus  Valianis.      181 'J,  Hvo. 

This  eleganlly-exeeuled  voliinie  is  very  coircrlli/  printed,  after 
the  editions  of  llolnies  and  Hos,  and  (vvliicli  cannot  ))nt  rr'conniiend 
it  to  students  in  preference  to  the  incorrect  Cainbridj^^e  and  Ani- 
Blerdani  reprints  of  ihc  Vatican  text)  its  price  is  ho  reasonable  as  to 
place  it  vviiliin  the  reacii  of  almost  every  one. 

20.  'H  riiAKi*  A/a6«)t)(  KMToi  rcu(  ECS'^/uiix.'jvrx.  Vctus  Testa- 
mcntum  ex  Versione  LXX  Interpretuni,  juxta  Excin|)Iar  Vati- 
canum,  ex  edilionc  Holmesii  et  Lambcrti  Bos.  Glasgua;,  1822. 
3  toinis,  12ino.  Editio  nova,  Glasguo;  ct  Londini,  1831.  2  tomis, 
18mo. 

These  very  neatly  printed  editions  are  also  formed  after  those 
of  Holmes  and  l?os  :  they  were  executed  at  the  university  press  of 
(ilasgow.  To  the  edition  of  1831  is  prcHxcd  the  learned  preface 
of  Ui>.  Pearson,  which  is  copied  from  the  Cambridge  edition  of 
ICi:). 

21.  'H  rii^a/*  £j-i6hK>i  K-JLTn  T'.yf  Ef/o^jijtsvTst :  scu  Vetus  Tcs- 
tamentum  Grx-cc,  juxta  Septuaginta  Interpretcs  ex  auctoritatc 
Sixti  V.  Editionis,  juxta  Exemplar  Originale  Vaticanum  Roma; 
editum  quoad  textuni  accuratis.sime  et  ad  amussim  recusum, 
curd  et  studio  Lcandri  vox  Ess.     Lipsite,  1824,  8vo. 

This  edition  is  stereotyped,  and  is  very  neatly  executed.  There 
are  copies  on  Uiick  paper,  which  are  an  ornament  to  any  library. 

22.  Daniel  secundum  Septuaginta  ex  Tetraplis  Origenis,  nunc 
primum  editus  e  singulari  Codice  Cliisiano  annorum  supra 
icccc.    Romse,  1772,  folio. 

For  a  full  account  of  this  splendid  work,  see  Bibl.  Sussex  vol.  i. 
part  ii.  pp.  "281 — 283.,  and  Masch's  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  part  ii.  vol.  ii. 
pp.  320 — 322.  The  octavo  reprints  at  Gottingen  in  1774,  and  at 
Utrecht  in  1775,  are  very  inferior  to  the  original  edition. 

[ii.]  Editioxs  of  Oiiigen's  Hexapla. 

1.  Hexaploruin  Origensis  quse  supersunt.  Ex  Manuscriptis 
et  ex  Libris  editis  eruit  et  Notis  illustravit  D.  Bernardus  de 
MoxTFAUcox.  Accedunt  Opuscula  qusedam  Origenis  anecdota, 
et  ad  calcem  Lexicon  Hebraicum  ex  vaterum  Intcrpretationibus 
concinnatum,  itemque  Lexicon  Grjecum,  et  alia.  Parisiis,  1713. 
2  vols,  folio. 

The  best  edition,  unhappily  very  rare,  of  the  remains  of  Origen's 
Hexapla.  The  first  volume  contains  a  very  valuable  preliminary 
disquisition  on  the  Hebrew  text,  and  on  the  different  ancient  Greek 
versions;  together  with  a  minute  account  of  Origen's  biblical 
labours,  and  some  inedited  fragments  of  Origen,  &c.  To  these  suc- 
ceed the  remains  of  the  Hexapla,  from  Genesis  to  the  Book  of 
Psalms  inclusive.  The  second  volume  comprises  the  rest  of  the 
Hexapla  to  the  end  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  together  with 
Greek  and  Hebrew  Lexicons  to  the  Hexapla. 

2.  Hexaplorum  Origenis  quse  supersunt.  EdiJit,  notisquc 
illustravit  Car.  Frider.  Bauuut.  Lipsiae  ct  Lubecae,  1769 — 70. 
2  vols.  8vo. 

Professor  Bahrdt  undertook  this  edition  for  those  who  could  not 
afford  to  purchase  Montliiucon's  magnificent  edition.  He  has 
omitted,  as  unnecessary,  the  translation  of  the  fragment.s,  the  ex- 
planation of  particular  words  occurring  in  the  notes,  and  some 
scholia.  He  has  improved  the  arrangement  of  the  materials  col- 
lected by  Montfaucon,  and  has  added  some  further  fragments  of 
Origen's  Hexapla,  from  a  Leipsic  manuscript.  Bahrdt  has  also 
given  many  additional  notes,  which  however  are  not  distinguished 
from  those  of  Montfaucon.  The  Hebrew  words  are  given  in  Greek 
characters.  Tliis  edition  was  severely  criticised  by  Fischer,  in  his 
Prolusiones  de  Versionibus,  Greecis,  p.  34.  note. 

The  Fragments  of  the  versions  by  Aquila,  Theodotion,  and  Sym- 
machus,  collected  by  Morin  and  others,  are  printed  in  the  editions 
of  the  Septuagint  Version  executed  at  Rome  in  1587,  at  Frankfort 
in  1597,  at  London  in  1653,  at  Leipsic  in  1697,  and  at  Franeker  in 
1709. 

3.  Animadversionis,  quibus  Fragmenta  Versionum  Graecarum 
V.  T.  a  Bern.  Montefalconio  collecta,  illustrantur,  [et]  emendan- 
tur.  Auctore  Jo.  Gottfr.  Scarfenbero.  Specimina  duo  Lipsis, 
1776—81,  8vo. 

4.  CursB  Hexaplares  in  Jobum,  e  Codice  Syriaco-Hexaplari 
Ambrosio-Mediolancnsi.  Scripsit  Henricus  Middeloorff. 
Vratislavise,  1817,  4to. 


[iii.]  AwoTHER  AirciENT  Greek  Vbrsiott. 

1.  Nova  Versio  Gra-ca  Pentateuchi,  ex  unico  S.  Marci  Biblio- 
theca Codice  Vencto.  Edidit  atquc  reccnsuit  Chr.  Frid.  Ammow. 
Erlaiiga;,  1790-91.    3  vol.s.  8vo. 

2.  Nova  Versio  Graca  Proverbiorum,  Ecclesiastis,  Cantici 
Canticorum,  Ruthi,  Threnorum,  Danielis,  et  selectorum  Penta- 
teuchi Locorum.  Ex  unico  8.  Marci  Bibliotheca;  Codice  Veiieto 
nunc  j)rimum  cruta,  et  notulis  illustrata  a  Joanne  Baptiste  Caa 
pare  D'Ansse  de  Villoiso.v.     Argcntorati,  1784. 


§  3.  ANCif:NT  Oriental  Versions. 

[i.  The  Striac  Versioks.] 
The  Peschito  or  Old  Syriac  Version. 

1.  Biblia  Syriaca  Vetcris  et  Novi  Tcstamcnti.  Parisiis,  1645, 
folio.     (In  Lc  Jay's  Polyglott  Bible.) 

2.  Biblia  Sacra  Vetcris  et  Novi  Te.stamenti.  Londini,  1657, 
folio.     (In  Bp.  Walton's  Polyglott  Bible.) 

3.  Vetus  Testamentum  Syriacc,  eos  tantum  Libros  sistens,  qui 
in  Canone  Hebraico  habentur,  ordine  vero,  quoad  fieri  potuit, 
apud  Syros  usitato  dispositas.  In  usum  Ecclesis  Syrorum 
Malabarcnsium,  jussu  Societalis  Biblicse  recognovit,  ad  tidera 
codicuin  Manuscriptorum  emendavit,  edidit  Samuel  Lef.,  A.M. 
Linguae  Arabica;  apud  Cantabrigienses  Professor.  Londini, 
1823,  4to. 

This  edition  was  printed  under  the  patronage  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  and  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.  Three  manuscripts  have  been  collated  for  this  edi- 
tion, viz.  1.  The  valuable  manuscript  brought  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bu- 
chanan from  Travancore  in  the  East  Indies,  collated  by  Professor 
Lee ;  2.  Another  manuscript  belonging  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Adam  Clarke; 
and,  3.  A  manuscript  of  the  Syriac  Pentateuch  found  by  Mr.  (now 
Dr.)  Lee  in  the  Library  of  IS'ew  College,  Oxford.  (Report  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  for  1817 — 18,  p.  154.) 

4.  Novum  Testamentum,  Syriace,  cura  Alberti  W^idman- 
sTABii.    (Viennae  Austriacae,  1555.)  4to. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Syriac  New  Testament :  it  is  very  rare. 
Dr.  Masch  has  given  a  long  account  of  it  in  his  Bibliotheca  Sacra, 
part  ii.  vol.  i.  pp.  70 — 79.  There  are  copies  dated  Viennae  Austri- 
acse,  1562, 4to. ;  but  they  are  the  same  edition  with  a  new  title-page. 

5.  Novum  Domini  Nostri  Jesu  Christi  Testamentum  Syria- 
cum,  cum  Versione  Latina;  cura  et  studion  Johannis  Lecsdes 
et  Caroli  Schaaf.  Ad  omnes  editiones  diligenter  recensitum,  et 
variis  lectionibus,  mano  labore  collectis,  adomatum.  Secunda 
editio  a  mendis  repurgata.    Lugduni  Batavorum,  1717,  4to. 

The  first  edition  appeared  in  1708;  but  copies  are  most  com- 
monly to  be  met  with  bearing  the  date  of  1709.  Michaelis  pro- 
nounces this  to  be  "  the  very  best  edition  of  the  Syriac  New  Tes- 
tament. The  very  excellent  Lexicon  which  is  annexed  to  it  will 
ever  retain  its  value,  being,  as  far  as  regards  the  New  Testament, 
extremely  accurate  and  complete,  and  supplying  in  some  measure 
the  place  of  a  concordance."     (Introd.  to  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  part  i. 

p.  n.) 

6.  Textus  Sacrorum  Evangeliorum  Versionis  Simplicis  Syri- 
aca;, juxta  Editionem  Schaafianam,  collatus  cum  duobus  ejusdem 
vetustis  Codd.  MSS.  in  Bibliotheca  Bodleiana  rcpositis ;  nee  non 
cum  Cod.  MS.  Commentarii  Gregorii  Bar-Hebrsei  ibidem  adser- 
vato,  a  Ricardo  Jones.  Oionii,  e  Typographeo  Clarendoniano, 
1805,  4to. 

This  publication  is  neces-sary  to  complete  SchaaPs  edition  ;  it  has 
two  fac-sirailes  of  the  Syriac  MSS.  collated  by  the  editor. 

7.  Michaelis  (Joannis  Davidis)  Curae  in  Versionem  Syria- 
cam  Actuum  Apostolicorum ;  cum  Consectariis  Criticis  de  In- 
dole, Cognationibus,  et  usu  Versionis  Syriac®  Novi  Foederis. 
Gottingae,  1755,  4to. 

8.  Novum  Testamentum  Syriace,  denuo  recognitum,  atque 
ad  fidem  Codicum  Manuscriptorum  emendatum.  Londini, 
1816,  4lo. 

A  beautiful  edition,  executed  at  the  press  of  Mr.  Richard  Watts, 
for  the  use  of  the  Syrian  Christians  in  India,  by  whom  it  is  stated 
to  have  been  received  with  the  utmost  gratitude.  This  edition 
was  corrected  for  the  press,  as  far  as  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  by 
the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Buchanan ;  and  w  as  completed  by  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Lee,  A.M.  [now  D.D.],  Professor  of  Arabic  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge.  The  expense  of  the  edition  was  defrayed  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  There  is  an  interesting  com- 
munication by  Prof.  Lee  concerning  this  edition  in  Dr.  Wait's 
translation  of  Hug's  Introduction  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  i.  pp.  368— 
370.  noUs. 


26 


ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  1. 


The  preceding  are  the  principal  editions  of  the  Old  Syriac  Ver- 
sions. For  a  more  copious  account  of  them  and  of  various  other 
editions,  see  Bp.  Marsh's  Translation  of  Michaelis's  Introduction 
to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  4 — 18.  and  part  ii.  pp. 
536 — 540;  also  Masch's  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  part  ii.  vol.  i.  pp.  71—102. 

The  Pliiloxeniaii  Syriac  Version. 

1.  Sacrorum  Evangeliorum  Versio  Syriaca  Philoxeniana,  ex 
Codd.  MSS.  Ridleianis  in  Bibliotheca  CoUcgii  Novi  Oxon.  repo- 

■  siti.s;  nunc  pnmum  edita,  cum  Interpretatione  Latina  et  Anno- 
tationibus  Joseph!  White.  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Clarendo- 
niano,  1778.  2  tomis,  4to. 

2.  Actuum  Apostolorum,  et  Epistolarum  tam  Catholicarum 

quam  Paulinarum,  Versio  Syriaca  Philoxeniana cum 

Interpretatione  Latina  et  Annotationibus  Joseph!  White.  Oxo- 
ni!,  6  Typographeo  Clarendoniano,  1799.  2  tomis,  4to. 

The  Syro-Estrangelo  or  Syriac  Hexaplar  Version, 

1.  Specimen  ineditae  et  Hexaplaris  Bibliorum  Versionis,  Syro- 
Estranghelae,  cum  simplici  atque  utriusque  fontibus,  Grteco  et 
Hebraeo,  coUata  cum  duplic!  Latina  versione  et  notis.  Edidit, 
ac  diatribam  de  rarissimo  codice  Ambrosiano,  unde  illud  haustum 
est,  praemisit  Johannes  Bern.  Rossi.     Parmce,  1778,  Svo. 

This  specimen  consists  of  the  first  psalm  printed  in  six  columns. 
The  first  contains  the  Greek  text  of  the  Septuagint;  the  second, 
the  Syro-Estrangelo  text;  the  third,  the  Latin  text  translated  from 
the  Septuagint ;  the  fourth,  the  Hebrew  text ;  the  fifth,  the  Peschito 
or  Old  Syriac  text  above  noticed ;  and  the  sixth,  the  Latin  text 
translated  from  this  latter  version. 

2.  Codex  Syriaco-Hexaplaris.  Edidit  Henricus  MiDDELDOKPr. 
Berolini,  1831.  2  tomis,  4to. 

Vol.  I.  contains  the  Syriac  text  of  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chro- 
nicles, Isaiah,  the  twelve  Minor  Prophets,  Proverbs,  Job,  Song  of 
Songs,  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  and  Ecclesiastes.  Vol.  II. 
contains  the  critical  commentary  of  the  learned  editor. 

[ii.]  The  Arabic  Versioit. 

1.  Biblia  Arabica  Veteris  et  Novi  Testament!.  Parisiis,  1645, 
folio.    (In  Le  Jay's  Polyglott  Bible.) 

2.  Biblia  Arabica  Veteris  et  Novi  Testament!.  Londini,  16.'57, 
folio.    (In  Bp.  Walton's  Polyglott  Bible.) 

3.  Biblia  Sacra  Arabica,  Sacra  Congregationis  de  Propaganda 
Fide  jussu  edita  in  usum  Ecclesiarum  Orientalium :  additis  e 
Regione  Bibliis  Latinis  Vulgatis.     Romae,  1671.  3  tomis,  folio. 

This  edition  was  published  under  the  inspection  of  Sergius 
Risius,  the  Romish  Bishop  of  Damascus.  It  is  in  Arabic  and  Latin. 
"  But  it  is  of  no  use,  either  to  a  critic  or  an  expositor  of  the  New 
Testament,  being  altered  from  the  Latin  Version."  (Michaelis, 
vol.  ii.  part  i.  p.  93.) 

4.  The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
in  the  Arabic  Language.     Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  1811,  4to. 

Twelve  copies  of  this  beautifully  executed  edition  were  printed 
in  large  folio  for  presents:  one  of  these  is  deposited  in  the  British 
Museum. 

5.  Novum  I).  N.  Jesu  Christ!  Testamentum,  Arabice,  ex 
Bibliotheca  Leidens! ;  edente  Thoma  Erpenio.  In  Typographia 
Erpeniana  Linguarum  Orientalium.  [Lugduni  Batavorum] 
Anno  1616,  4to. 

Erpenius  published  this  edition  of  the  Arabic  New  Testament, 
from  a  manuscript  said  to  be  written  a.  d.  1342,  in  the  monastery 
of  Saint  John,  in  the  desert  of  Thebais :  he  has  copied  his  manu- 
script with  singular  accuracy,  even  where  there  appeared  to  be 
grammatical  errors.  Michaelis  says  that  this  is  the  most  elegant, 
faithful,  and  genuine  edition  of  the  Arabic  version,  but  is  unfortu- 
nately very  difficult  to  be  procured. 

6.  Novum  Testamentum  Arabicum.     Londini,  1727,  4to. 
This  edition,  which  consisted  often  thousand  copies,  was  printed 

at  the  expense  of  the  Society  tor  promoting  Christian  Knowledge, 
for  the  use  of  the  Christians  in  Asia.  Its  basis  is  the  text  of  the 
Paris  and  London  Polyglotts:  but  the  editor,  Solomon  Negri,  has 
filtered  it  in  those  passages  which  vary  from  the  reading  of  our 
present  Greek  text.  It  is  therefore  of  no  use  either  in  the  criticism 
or  interpretation  of  the  New  Testament  The  same  remark  is 
applicable  to 

7.  Quatuor  Evangelia,  Arabice,  RomsE,  e  Typographia  -Medi- 
cea,  Romse,  1591,  folio. 

"  This  edition  was  printed  at  Rome  in  1590  and  1591  in  the 
Medicean  printing-house:  1590  stands  on  the  title-page,  1591  in 
the  subscription :  to  some  of  the  copies  is  annexed  a  Latin  transla- 
tion." (Michaelis.)  This  version  appears  to  have  been  made  from 
the  Greek  text.  The  Roman  edition  of  the  Four  Gospels  was  re- 
printed with  some  corrections  in  the  Paris  Polyglott,  and  again 


with  very  numerous  corrections  from  manuscripts  by  Bishop  Wal- 
ton in  the  London  Polyglott. 

For  more  particular  accounts  of  the  preceding  and  of  other  edi- 
tions of  the  Arabic  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  or  of 
detached  portions  tliercof,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Masch,  part  ii. 
vol.  i.  pp.  110 — 139.;  Michaelis's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp. 
84 — 94.;  Schnurrer's  Bibliotheca  Arabica,  pp.389 — 397.;  and  Hug's 
Introduction  by  Dr.  Wait,  vol.  i.  pp.  445 — 454. 

8.  Commentatio  Critica,  exhibens  e  Bibliotheca  Oxoniensi 
Bodleiana  Specimina  Versionum  Pentateuch!  septem  Arabica- 
rum,  nondum  editarum,  cum  Observationibus.  Scripsit  Henricus 
Eberhardus  Gottlob  Paulus.     Jenae,  1789,  Svo. 

[ii!.]  The  Persic  Version. 

1.  Pentateuch!  Versio  Persica,  interprete  Jacobo  filio  Joseph 
Tavos,  seu  Tawsensi,  Judaeo.     Constantinopoli,  1546,  folio. 

This  extremely  rare  edition,  which  is  printed  with  Hebrew 
types,  and  accompanied  with  the  Hebrew  text,  is  reprinted  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  the  London  Polyglott,  with  Persian  characters, 
and  a  Latin  translation. 

2.  Quatuor  Evangeliorum  Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christ!,  Versio 
Persica  Syriacam  et  Arabicam  suavissime  reddens:  ad  verba  et 

mentem  Grsec!  Textiis  fideliter  et  venuste  concinnata Per 

Abrahamum  Whelocum.     Londini,  1657,  folio. 

3.  Evangelia  Quatuor  Persice,  interprete  Symone  F.  Joseph 
Taurinensi,  juxta  codicem  Pocockianum,  cum  Versione  Latina 
Samuelis  Cleric!.  Londini,  1657,  folio.  (In  the  fifth  volume 
of  Bp.  Walton's  Polyglott  Bible.) 

[iv.]  The  Egyptian  Versions. 
Coptic,  or  Dialect  of  Louver  Egypt. 

1.  Quinque  Libri  Moysis  Prophetae  in  Lingua  ^gyptiaca. 
Ex  MSS.  Vaticano,  Parisiensi,  et  Bodleiano  descripsit,  acLatine 
vertit  David  Wilkins.     Londini,  1731,  4to. 

2.  Psalterium  Coptico- Arabicum.     Romae,  1744,  4to. 

3.  Psalterium  Alexandrinum  Coptico-Arabicum.  Romae, 
1749,  4to. 

Both  these  editions  of  the  Coptic  Psalter  were  printed  at  the 
expense  of  the  Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide  at  Rome,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Coptic  Christians  in  Egypt.  The  Arabic  version  is 
placed  by  the  side  of  the  Coptic  text. 

4.  Novum  Testamentum  .^gyptium,  vulgo  Copticum,  ex 
MSS.  Bodleianis  descripsit,  cum  Vaticanis  et  Parisiensibus  con- 
tulit,  et  in  Latinum  Sermonem  convertit  David  Wilkins. 
Oxonii,  e  Theatre  Sheldoniano,  1716,  4to. 

A  fragment  of  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  (ch.  iv.  22.  and  cli. 
V.)  and  some  fragments  of  the  prophet's  epistle  to  the  Jewish  cap- 
tives at  Babylon,  forming  the  sixth  chapter  of  the  apocryphal  book 
of  Baruch,  are  printed  in  Coptic,  with  a  literal  Latin  version,  by 
M.  Quatremere,  in  his  Recherches  sur  la  Langue  et  Litterature  de 
I'Egypte,  pp.  228 — 246.  (Paris,  1804),  who  has  illustrated  them 
with  numerous  learned  notes. 

Sahidic,  or  Dialect  of  Upper  Egypt. 

5.  Appendix  ad  Editionem  Novi  Testament!  Graeci  e  Codice 
Alexandrino  descripti  a  G.  C.  Woide :  in  qua  continentur  Frag- 
menta  Novi  Testament!,  juxta  Interpretationem  Dialect!  Supe- 
rioris  ^gypti,  quae  Thebaica  vel  Sahidica  appellatur,  e  Codd. 
Oxoniens.  maxima  ex  parte  desumpta :  cum  Dissertatione  de 
Versione  ^gyptiaca,  quibus  subjicitur  Codicis  Vatican!  Collatio. 
Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Clarendoniano.  1799,  folio. 

This  work,  which  contains  the  completest  collection  of  fragments 
of  the  Sahidic  Version,  was  prepared  for  the  press  by  Dr.  Woide, 
and  published  after  his  death  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ford. 

6.  Frideric!  Muntek  Commentatio  de  Indole  Versionis  Novi 
Testament!  Sahidicae.  Accedunt  Fragmenta  Epistolarum  PauUi 
ad  Timotheum,  ex  Membranis  Sahidicis  Muse!  Borgiani,  Veli- 
tris.     Hafniae,  1789,  4to. 

Bashmouric,  or  Dialect  of  Bashmour,  a  Province  of  the  Delta. 

7.  Fragmentum  Evangelii  S.  Joannis  Graeco-Coptico-Thebai- 
cum,  ex  Museo  Borgiano,  Latine  versum  et  Notis  illustratum  ab 
Augustino  Antonio  Georgio.     Romae,  1789,  4to. 

There  is  an  interesting  account  of  this  publication  in  the  Analy- 
tical Review,  vol.  xvi.  pp.  418 — 421. 

8.  Fragmenta  Basmurico-C optica  Veteris  et  Novi  Testament!, 
qu£E  in  Museo  Borgiano  Velitris  asservantur,  cum  reliquis  Ver- 
sionibus  ^gyptiis  contulit,  Latine  vertit,  nee  non  criticis  et 
philologicis  adnotationibus  illustravit,  W.  F.  Engelbreth. 
Hafniae,  1816,  4to. 


Sect.  V.  §  4.] 


POLYGLOTT  BIBLES. 


27 


This  pul)lication  contnins  fra(^ents  of  the  first  and  fifih  thapters 
of  tlic  i'ropliecieK  «f  Isaiali,  uf  the  limrlh  chapli-r  of  St.  John's  (ioH- 
nnl,  of  Si.  I'aiil'H  first  lOpislIc  to  the  (.'oriiithiuiis,  the  F,pisllf«  to  the 
k|)hcsiuiis  and  to  Philemon,  the  first  KpiHtle  to  the  ThcHsalonians, 
and  of  lh(!  Kpisllc  lo  llio  II([)rews,  in  the  Basiimouric,  Thebaie, 
anil  Meniphilif  l)ialcft.s,  with  a  literal  Latin  verwion.  The  corrcs- 
))0]iding  (Jreek  Text  is  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  page.  JN'oles  are 
subjonied  pointing  out  the  various  readings,  with  cnlical  remarks. 

[v.]   Eriiioi'ic  Vkiisiov. 

No  entire  Ethiopic  Bihic   lias  been    printed.     Masrh   (Bibl. 

Sacr.  part  ii.  vol.  i.  pp.  M.'i — l.'i.').)  has  given  an  account  of  the 

various  portions  of  the  Old   and   New  Testament  which   have 

ai)pearcd.     Of  these  the  following  arc  most  worthy  of  notice: — 

1.  Psalmi  et  Canticorum  .(Ethiopice.  Studio  Johannis  Pot- 
KKX.      Ronia;,  1.513,  4to. 

The  (irsi  portion  of  the  Etliiopie  Scriptures  ever  printed.  It  is 
very  rare:  it  was  reprint<'d  at  t'ologne  in  1518,  in  fi)lio. 

2.  Psalteriuni  ^i'jthiopice.     Londini,  16.57.  folio. 

In  the  third  volume  of  Bp.  Walton's  I'olygloll  Bihle:  the  text  is 
t.'ikeu  from  Potken's  two  editions,  with  various  readings,  and  notes 
by  Dr.  Edmund  Castell. 

3.  'J'estainentum   Novum;   cum   Eplstola   Pauli   ad  He!)ra!os 
Quaj  omnia  Fr.  I'etrus  ^Ethiops,  auxilio  piorum,  sedentc 

Paulo  III.  Pont.  Max.  ct  Claudio  illius  regni  iinpcratorc,  im- 
priini  curavit  anno  salutis  1.548.     [Konia!]  4lo. 

This  edition,  wliich  is  of  extreme  rarity,  is  divided  into  two  vo- 
lumes and  four  separate  parts,  viz.  1.  Tiie  Gos|)cls,  the  translation 
of  which  is  much  superior  to  tliat  of  tiie  Epistles,  where  the  trans- 
lator appears  to  have  been  uneciiial  lo  the  task.  (The  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  is  placed  after  the  (iospels,  because  it  was  the  only 
one  of  !Si.  Paul's  Epistles  which  they  had  received  when  they  put 
to  press  tlie  (Jospels,  Apocalypse,  the  Catholic  E|)istles,  and  the 
Acts); — 2.  The  .\ct.s  of  the  Apostles; — 3.  The  liiurleen  Epistles  of 
Saint  Paul; — I.  Tlie  seven  Catholic  Epistles; — The  AjMjcalypse  is 
added  as  an  Appendix.  The  MS.  of  the  Acts  being  very  imper- 
fect, its  chasm-i  were  supplied  from  the  Vulgate.  The  Roman 
edition  was  reprinted  in  the  London  Polyglott;  and  a  Latin  trans- 
lation of  the  Etliiopie  version  was  published  by  Professor  Bode  at 
Brunswick,  in  1732 — 17.55,  in  2  vols.  4io.  (Afichaelis,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
95 — ya  (llO— G14.     Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  i.  pp.  152,  153.) 

4.  Evangelia  Sancta  ^Ethiopica.  Ad  Codicum  Manuscripto- 
ruin  lldem  edidit  Thomas  Pell  Platt,  A.  M.  Londini,  1826,  4to. 

[vi.]  The  Armkn-ian  Versiox. 

Bihlia,  Armenice.  Venetiis,  1805,  4ta. 

The  first  edition  of  the  ,\rmenian  Bihle  w.is  printed  at  Amster- 
dam in  1()G6,  4io.,  and  was  not  very  cordially  received  by  the  Ar- 
menian Christians,  in  consequence  of  its  eilitor  Uscan,  Archbishop 
of  liri van,  having  altered  it  conformably  to  tiie  Romish  Vulgate  Latin 
version.  The  second  edition,  which  was  printed  at  Constantinople 
in  1705,  also  in  4io.,  is  much  more  valuable:  it  was  collated  for 
Dr.  Holmes's  Edition  of  the  Septuagint.  Separate  editions  of  the 
Armenian  i\ew  Testament  were  printed  at  .\msterdam  in  16G8  and 
1698,  and  another  at  Venice  in  1789,  which  was  superintended  by 
Dr.  Zohrab,  a  learned  Armenian  divine,  w'ho  had  collated  a  few 
manuscripts  for  it,  and  who  accompanied  it  with  some  short  notes. 
In  this  impression,  which  was  reprinted  verbatim  in  1816,  the 
editor  marked  1  John  v.  7.  with  an  asterisk. 

In  1805,  the  same  learned  editor  published  at  Venice,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  college  of  the  monks  of  St.  Lazarus,  his  critical  edition 
of  the  entire  Armenian  Bible,  for  which  he  made  use  of  sixty-nine 
mjiniiscripts.  viz.  eight  of  the  entire  Bible,  fifteen  of  the  Psalms, 
thirty-two  of  the  Cospels,  and  fourteen  of  the  Epistles  and  ."Vets  of 
the  Apostles.  He  took  for  the  basis  of  this  edition,  that  manuscript 
of  the  whole  Bible,  which  appeared  to  be  the  most  ancient  and 
accurate:  such  errors  as  were  discovered  he  corrected  by  means 
of  other  copies;  and  in  the  margin  he  inserted  the  various  readings, 
together  with  the  number  of  manuscripts  by  which  they  were  sup- 
ported, and  a  few  critical  explanations,  when  ncces.sary.  In  this 
edition.  Dr.  Zohrab  has  expunged  1  John  v.  7.,  it  being  unsupported 
by  any  of  the  manuscripts  which  he  had  collated.  (Masch,  part  ii. 
vol.  i.  pp.  173 — 180.  Cellerier,  Introduction  au  Nouv.  Test,  pp  185, 
186.)  In  1823,  Dr.  Z.  published  a  neat  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  ancient  and  modern  Armenian,  in  one  volume,  8vo.  The 
modern  version  is  said  to  be  very  exact  and  literal. 

§  4.  Ancient  Western  Versions. 

[i.]  The  Latijt  Versioxs. 

Ante-Hieronymian  Versions,  or  those  made  before  the  time  of 

Jerome. 

1.  Vetvs  Testamentvm  secvndvm  LXX  Latine  redditvm,  et 

ex  avtoritate  Sixti  V.  Pont.  Max.  cditvm.     Additvs  est  Index 

Dictionvm  et  Loquutionum  Hebraicarum,  Graecarum,  Latinarum, 

quarum  observatio  visa  est  non  inutilis  futura.  Romae,  in  .^dibvs 

Popvli  Romani,  1588,  folio. 


This  edition  was  designed  as  n  companion  to  the  celebrated  edi- 
tion of  the  Septuagint,  printed  at  Rome  in  1586,  and  described  in 
page  23,ofthi8  Ajipendix.  Tlie  editor,  Flamini(j  Mohili,  with  the 
assistance  of  Antonio  Agelli,  collected  with  infinite  labour  all  the 
fragments  of  the  Aiite-IIieronymian  versions,  which  he  found  cited 
in  the  works  of  the  ancient  Latin  Fathers:  the  deficient  |)assages 
ho  translated  do  novo  into  Latin,  a  circumstance  which  diminishes 
the  value;  of  his  work.  (Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  6,  7.)  This  vo 
liime  is  extremely  rare:  a  copy  of  it  is  in  the  Library  oi' the  British 
Museum. 

2.  Bibliorum  Sacrorum  Latinse  Vcrsiones  Antique,  seu  Vetus 
Italica,  ct  cetera;  qua;cunque  in  Codicibus  .MSS.  et  Antiquorum 
Libris  repcriri  potucrunt :  (}ua;  cum  Vulgata  Latina  ct  cum 
Textu  Gr.a'co  coinparantur.  Acccdinit  Pra;fationes,  Obscrva- 
tionis,  ac  Notie,  Iiidex<jue  novus  ad  Vulgatam  e  regione  editam, 
ideinque  locupleti.ssitnus.  Opera  et  studio  D.  Petri  Sabatieu. 
Kcinis,  174 — 349.   3  toinis,  folio. 

The  first  two  volumes  contain  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  apo- 
cryphal books.  There  are  three  versions  of  the  Psalms,  viz.  the  Old 
llalic  Version,  that  of  Jerome,  and  the  modern  Vulgate  Version. 
The  iS'ew  Testament  (bniis  the  third  volume.  The  Greek-Latin 
MSS.  consultJ'd  by  Sabalier,  having  chasms,  he  has  supplied  them 
from  the  modern  Latin  Vulgate,  and  h:is  sometimes  added  in  the 
notes  quotations  from  the  Latin  Fathers.  For  a  full  description 
of  this  magnificent  work,  see  Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  9,  10. 

3.  Evangcliarium  Quadruplcx  LatinfE  Versionis  Antique,  seu 
Veteris  Italica?,  editum  ex  Codicibus  Manuscriptis,  aureis,  argcn- 
teis,  purpurcis,  aliisque  plu.squam  millenaria;  antiquitatis:  2k. 
Joscpho  Bla.xchixo.     Roma;,  1749.    2  tomis,  folio. 

A  splendid  edition  of  the  four  (iospels,  taken  from  five  manu- 
scripts of  the  old  It;ilic  version,  viz.  the  codices  Vercellensis,  Vero- 
nensis,  Corbeiensis,  Brixianiis,  and  Forojuliensis.  But  Michaelis 
has  reduced  these  to  fimr,  as  the  last-cited  MS.  contains  only  the 
corrected  version  of  Jerome,  and  therefore  ought  not  to  have  been 
prinled  with  the  others.     (Introd.  to  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  109.) 

For  bibliographical  details  of  this  edition,  as  well  as  of  other 
portions  of  the  Ante-Hieronymian  versions,  the  reader  is  referred 
lo  Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  16 — 19. 

4.  Codex  Quatuor  Evangcliorum  Latinus  Rchdigeriantis, 
Matthteus  et  Marcus,  cum  Textu  Gra;co  et  Editions  Vulgata 
collatus  a  Joh.  Ephr.  Scheibel.     Vratislavije,  1763.  4to. 

The  manuscript,  the  text  of  which  is  here  published,  is  preserved 
in  the  library  belonging  to  the  church  of  St.  Elizaljeih  at  Breslau. 

5.  Fragmcnta  Versionis  Antiqute  Latinae  Ante-Hieronymianae 
Prophetarum  Jcremiae,  Ezechielis,  Danielis,  et  Hosese,  e  Codice 
Rescripto  Bibliothecie  Wirceburgensis.  Edidit  Dr.  Fridericus 
MiJNTEii.  Hafnia;,  1821,  8vo.  (In  the  Mi.scellanea  Hafniensia 
Theologici  el  Philologici  Arguincnti,  torn.  ii.  fascic.  i.  pp.  81 — 
148.) 

The  Codex  Rescriptus,  whence  these  fragments  of  an  Ante- 
Ilieronymian  version  have  been  transcribed,  was  discovered  by 
Dr.  Feder,  in  the  library  of  the  university  of  VVurtzburg ;  who 
copied  nearly  all  that  is  legible,  comprising  portions  of  the  pro- 
phecies of  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  and  Hosea.  Dr.  Feder  hav- 
ing allowed  Dr.  Frederick  Miintcr,  bishop  of  Seeland,  to  make  use 
of  his  labours,  that  leanied  prelate  has  here  printed  the  fragments 
in  question.  They  difler  materially  from  the  fragments  occurring 
in  Sabatier's  splendid  publication  above  noticed.  Bp.  Miinter 
refers  the  date  of  the  original  writing  to  the  sixth  or  seventh 
century. 

The  Version  of  Jerome. 
S.  Eusebii  Hieronymi  Stridonensis  Presbyteri  Divina  Bihlio- 
theca  ante  hac  inedita ;  complcctens  Translationcs  Latinas  Vete- 
ris ct  Novi  Testamenti,  turn  ex  HebrsEis  turn  Gra;cis  fontibus 
derivatas,  innumera  quoquc  scholia  marginalia  antiquissima 
Hebrsi  cujusdam  scriptoris  anonymi,   Hebra-as   voces   pressius 

experimentis Studio  et  Lahore  Monachorum  ordinis  S. 

Bencdicti  e  congregatione  S.  Mauri.    Parisiis,  1693,  folio.    (The 
first  volume  of  the  Benedictine  edition  of  Jerome's  works.) 

For  an  account  of  Jerome's  biblical  labours,  see  Part  I.  Chap.  II. 
Sect.  IV.  of  the  first  volume.  This  edition  is  printed  from  six 
manuscripts.  Editions  of  other  portions  of  Jerome's  translation  are 
described  by  Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  21 — 23. 

The  Latin  Vulgate  Version. 
The  printed  editions  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  are  so  very  nume- 
rous, that  two  or  three  of  the  most  important,  or  most  accessible, 
can  only  be  here  noticed.  A  particular  description  of  all  the 
editions  is  given  by  Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  58 — 372.  ;  and 
of  the  principal  editions,  by  Brunet,  Manuel  du  Libraire,  torn.  L 
art.  Bibha.  Tivo  hundred  and  seventeen  Latin  Bibles,  princi- 
pally of  the  Vulgate  version  (many  of  which  are  of  extreme 
rarity),  are  described  in  the  Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  ii.  pp.  288 
—510. 


28 


GOTHIC  VERSION. 


[Part  L   Chap.  I 


1.  Biblia  Sacra  VulgatJE  Editionis,  tribus  tomis  distincta. 
Romae,  ex  Typographia  Apostolica  Vaticana,  folio. 

After  the  preceding  title  we  read  the  following  on  an  engraved 
title-page : 

"  Biblia  Sacr®  Vulgatse  Editionis  ad  Concilii  Tridenlini  prce- 
scriptum  emendata  et  a  Sixto  V.  P.  M.  recognita  et  approbata. 
Romae,  ex  Typographia  Apostolica  Vaticana,  M.  D.  XC." 

Notwithstanding  the  great  pains  bestowed  upon  this  edition, 
which  by  a  bull  was  authorilaiively  declared  to  be  the  standard 
of  all  future  impressions,  its  extreme  incorrectness  excited  general 
discontent.  At  first,  it  was  attempted  to  remedy  the  evil  by  print- 
ing the  requisite  corrections  on  small  slips  of  paper,  which  were  to 
be  pasted  over  the  incorrect  passages:  but  Gregory  XIV.,  who 
succeeded  Sixtus  V.  in  the  pontificate,  found  it  more  convenient  to 
suppress  the  remaining  copies  of  this  edition,  which  has  therefore 
become  of  extreme  rarity.  (Renouard,  Annales  de  I'lmprimerie  des 
Aides,  torn.  ii.  pp.  164 — 166. 

2.  Biblia  Sacrae  Vulgatae  Editionis  Sixti  V.  Pontificis  Max. 
jussu  recognita  et  edita.  Romse,  ex  Typographia  Apostolica 
Vaticana.    1592,  folio. 

This  edition  was  printed  under  the  auspices  of  Clement  VIII., 
the  successor  of  Sixtus  V.,  whose  constitution  declares  it  to  be  the 
only  authentic  edition :  it  is  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  editions, 
printed  for  the  members  of  the  Romish  church.  For  an  account 
of  the  fatal  variances  between  these  two  revisions,  see  Part  I. 
Chap.  III.  Sect.  II.  $  4.  of  the  first  volume.  A  third  edition  was 
printed  in  1593,  in  4to.  They  are  both  very  rare.  Copies  of  them, 
as  well  as  of  the  Sixtine  edition,  are  in  the  British  Museum. 

3.  Bibliorum  Sacrorum  Vulgatae  Versionis  Editio.  Jussu 
Christianissimi  Regis  ad  Institutionem  Serenissimi  Delphini. 
Parisiis,  excudebat  Fr.  Amb.  Didot,  1785.    2  tomis,  4to. 

A  chef-d'oeuvre  of  typography  :  only  two-hundred  and  fifty  copies 
were  printed  with  the  words  "  ad  Institutionem  Serenissimi  Del- 
phini" in  the  title-page.  These  bear  a  higher  price  than  the  othei 
quarto  copies,  which  were  dedicated  to  the  clergy  of  France. 
Peignot  states,  that  two  copies  of  this  edition  were  printed  on  vel- 
lum. There  are  copies  of  the  same  edition  in  eight  volumes,  8vo., 
with  a  dedication  to  the  Galilean  clergy,  by  the  printer,  F.  A.  Didot. 

4.  Biblia  Sacra  Vulgatse  Editionis  Sixti  Quinti  Pont.  Max. 
jussu  recognita  atque  edita  Romae  ex  Typographia  Apostolica 
Vaticana  MDXCIII.  Editio  nova,  auctoritate  summi  pontificis 
Leonis  XII.  excusa.  Francofurti  a.  M.  [ad  Mosnum],  1826, 
Royal  8vo. 

A  beautiful  and  correct  edition,  which  contains  all  the  prefatory 
and  other  preliminary  matter  of  the  Roman  edition;  and,  besides 
the  ordinary  divisions  of  chapters  and  verses,  it  also  has  the  old 
subdivisions  of  A.  B.  C,  &c.,  introduced  by  Cardinal  Hugo,  of 
which  an  account  is  given  in  the  first  volume. 

5.  Biblia  Sacra  Vulgatae  Editionis,  Sixti.  V.  Pont.  Max.  jussu 
recognita,  et  Clemcntis  VIII.  auctoritate  edita.    Paris,  1828,  8vo. 

A  neat  edition  from  the  press  of  F.  Didot. 

*»*  The  Latin  Vulgate  is  found  in  all  the  Polyglott  editions  of 
the  Bible ;  and  various  other  editions  may  be  met  with,  the  price 
of  which  varies  from  twelve  shillings  to  three  or  four  guineas  and 
upwards,  according  to  their  rarity  and  condition. 


[ii.]  Gothic  Version, 

1.  Sacrorum  Evangeliorum  Versio  Gothica  ex  Codice  Argen- 
teo  emendata  atque  suppleta,  cum  Interpretatione  Latina  et 
Annotationibus  Erici  Benzelii  non  ita  pridem  Archiepiscopi 
Upsaliensis.  Edidit,  Observationes  suas  adjecit,  et  Grammaticam 
Gothicam  praemisit  Edwardus  Lte.  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo 
Clarendoniano.    1750,  4to. 

The  best  edition  of  the  Gothic  version  of  the  four  Gospels.  The 
first  appeared  at  Dordrecht,  under  the  superintendence  of  Francis 
Junius  in  1665,*  4to.  which  has  the  Anglo-Saxon  version  annexed. 
For  the  second  edition  we  are  indebted  to  George  Stiernhelm,  at 
Stockholm,  in  1671,  who  has  added  the  Swedish,  Icelandic,  and 
Latin  Vulgate  versions  to  the  translation  of  Ulphilas.  This  third 
edition  was  prepared  for  the  press  by  the  learned  Eric  Benzel, 
archbishop  of  Upsal  (who  made  a  new  copy  from  the  original 
manuscript) ;  and  was  published  after  his  decease  by  Mr.  Lye,  at 
Oxford,  in  1760,  in  small  folio.  It  is  executed  in  Gothic  letters; 
the  errors  of  the  preceding  editions  are  corrected ;  and  many  of 
the  various  lections,  with  which  the  Gothic  version  furnishes  the 
Greek  Testament,  are  remarked  in  the  notes. 

2.  Ulphilae  Versio  Gothica  nonnullorum  Capitum  Epistolae 
Pauli  ad  Romanes,  e  Cod.  Biblioth.  Guelpherbytanse,  cum  com- 
mentariis  Francisci  Antonii  Kjtittei,.  [1762,]  4to. 

The  fragment  of  the  Gothic  version,  printed  in  this  publication, 

» There  are  copies  dated  in  1684 ;  but  they  are  said  by  Masch  to  be  the 
same  edition  with  a  new  title-page.    Part.  ii.  vol.  iii.  d.  706. 


has  been  reprinted,  in  the  follow  ing  article,  and  also  in  the  appen- 
dix to  the  second  volume  of  Mr.  Lye's  Saxon  and  Gothic  Latin 
Dictionary. 

3.  Fragmenta  Versionis  Ulphilanas,  contincntia  Particulas  ali- 
quot Epistola;,  Pauli  ad  Romanos,  ex  Codice  Rescripto  Bibli- 
othecae  Guelpherbytante  eruta,  et  a  Francisco  Antonio  Knittel 
edita,  cum  aliquot  annotationibus  typis  rcddita  a  Johannc  Iiire. 
Accedunt  duae  Dissertationcs  ad  Philologiam  Mceso-Gothicam 
spectantes.     Upsalice,  1763,  4to. 

4.  Johannis  ab  Ihre  Scripta  Versionem  Ulphilanam  et  Lin- 
guam  Mceso-Gothicam  illustrantia,  ab  ipso  doctissiino  auctore 
emendata,  novisque  accessionibus  aucta,  jam  vero  ob  prsestantiam 
ac  raritatem  coUecta,  et  una  cum  aliis  scriptis  similis  argument! 
edita,  ab  Antonio  Friderico  Busching.     Berolini,  1773,  4to. 

This  volume,  which  is  not  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  contains 
Ihre's  learned  Disquisition,  entitled  Ulphilas  lllustratus ;  various 
fragments  of  Ulphilas's  version;  five  di.ssertations  illustrative  of 
them  ;  a  specimen  of  a  Glossarium  Ulphilanum,  with  prefaces  pre- 
fixed to  it.  In  an  appendix,  the  editor  has  subjoined  dissertations 
on  Ulphilas,  by  Heupelius  (with  remarks  on  Heupelius  by  Oelrichs), 
Esberg,  and  Soedermann ;  specimens  of  critical  observations  on  the 
old  Gothic  translation  of  the  Gospels,  by  John  Gordon,  a  learned 
Scottish  advocate  ;  and  a  dissertation  by  Wachter,  on  the  language 
of  the  Codex  Argenteus. 

5.  Ulfilas  Gothische  Bibel-ubersetzung,  die  alteste  German- 
ische  Urkunde,  nach  Ihre'ns  Text;  mit  einer  grammatisch- 
wortlichen  Lateinischen  Uebersetzung,  und  einem  Glossar, 
ausgearbeitet  von  Friedrich  Karl  Fulda  ;  das  Glossar  umgear- 
beitet  von  W.  F.  H.  Reinwald  ;  und  den  Text  nach  Ihre'ns 
genauer  abschrift  der  silbernen  Handschrift  in  Upsal,  sorgfaltig 
berichtigt,  samt  einer  historisch-kritischen  Einleitung,  versehen 
und  herausgegeben  von  Johann  Christian  Zahx.  Weissenfels, 
1805,  4to. 

A  learned  preface  by  J.  C.  Zahn,  in  the  German  language,  con- 
tains a  history  of  the  Gothic  version,  and  of  the  various  preceding 
editions  of  its  fragments.  To  this  succeed  the  fragments  them- 
selves, in  the  Roman  cuaracter.  The  text  of  them  is  given  from 
a  very  beautiful  and  exact  copy,  which  the  celebrated  scholar  Ihre 
had  procured  to  be  made  under  his  own  inspection,  and  with  tlie 
design  of  priming  it.  The  editor  has  placed  Ihre's  Latin  transla- 
tion by  the  side  of  the  text ;  and  has  also  added  an  interlineary 
Latin  version,  critical  notes  placed  at  the  foot  of  each  page,  and 
an  historical  introduction.  These  are  followed  by  a  Grammar  of 
the  Gothic  language  by  F.  K.  Fulda,  and  by  a  Gothic  Glossary 
compiled  by  W.  F-  H.  Reinwald.  "The  text  is  carefully  given; 
the  grammatical  and  critical  remarks,  added  in  the  margin  below, 
are  short,  directly  applied  to  the  point,  and  well  conceived ;  and 
the  whole  of  the  rich  apparatus  of  the  book  is  valuable." — (Hug's 
Introd.  to  the  New  Test,  by  Dr.  Wait,  vol.  i.  pp.  487,  488.)  A  copy 
of  this  curious  and  valuable  work  is  in  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum. 

6.  The  Gothic  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  from  the  Codex 
Argenteus  of  the  fourth  Century ;  with  the  corresponding  Eng- 
lish or  Saxon,  from  the  Durham  Book  of  the  eighth  Century, 
in  Roman  Characters;  a  literal  English  Lesson  of  each;  and 
Notes,  Illustrations,  and  Etymological  Disquisitions  on  Organic 
Principles.     By  Saimuel  Henshall,  M.A.     London,  1807,  8vo. 

7.  Ulphilae  Partium  Ineditarum,  in  Ambrosianis  Palimpsestis 
ab  Angelo  Maio  repertarum,  Specimen,  conjunctis  curis  ejus- 
dem  Maii  et  Carol!  Octavi!  Castilionae!  editum.  Medlolari!,  1819, 
4to. 

This  work  is  illustrated  by  two  plates  ;  the  first  containing  fac- 
similes of  the  Codices  Rescript!  discovered  in  the  Ambrosian  Li- 
brary (of  which  some  account  has  already  been  given),  and  the 
other  containing  a  fac-simile  specimen  of  a  Greek  mathematical 
treatise,  in  which  the  names  of  Archimedes  and  Apollonius  are 
mentioned,  and  which  Signor  Mai  discovered  under  some  Lom- 
bard Latin  writing  of  great  antiquity. 

8.  Ulphilae  Gothica  Versio  Epistolae  Divi  Pauli  ad  Corinthios 
secundae,  quam  ex  Ambrosiana  Bibliotheca  Palimpsestis  de- 
promptam,  cum  Interpretatione,  Adnotationibus,  Glossario,  edidit 
Carolus  Octavius  Castii-i.ion^us.     Mediolani,  1829,  4to. 

9.  Evangel!!  secundum  Matthaum  Versio  Francica  saecul!  IX. 
necnon  Gothica  saec.  IV.  quoad  superest.  Edidit  J.  AndraffiS 
ScHMELLER.     Stuttgart  und  Tubingen,  1827,  8vo. 

This  work  was  published  by  Professor  Schmeller,  to  illustrate 
his  lectures  on  the  German  Language  and  Literature,  delivered  in 
the  University  of  Munich.  It  contains  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew 
in  the  Prankish  dialect,  from  a  MS.  of  Tatian's  Harmony,  of  the 
ninth  century,  preserved  in  the  Library  at  St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland,  f- 
The  fragments  of  the  Gothic  Version  are  given  according  to  the 
Codex  Argenteus,  and  the  remains  of  the  Gothic  Version,  discover- 
ed by  Mai  and  Count  Castiglioni.  A  comparison  of  these  two 
versions  will  show,  that  the  Frankish  and  Gothic  languages  are 
only  dialects  of  the  same  ancient  language,  which  in  the  lapse  of 
ages  have  gradually  deviated  from  each  other. 


fessora 
and  H 
worshl 
is — thl 
sistcdJ 


FAC  SIMILE  OF  THE  BIBLIA  PAUPERUM. 

Supposed  to  have  been  executed  between  a.  i>.  1420  and  1435. 


to  bB*  trtajniB^^f itoima 
llniacntaiiof  iiwianfflwat 

10V  OTK^  qmAOiunegicfiPA 
(9c  fttaiiiv  manua  016  p(^tt<> 


To  face  page  29  of  Bibliographical  Jlppmdix,  Vol.  II. 


Sect.  VI.  §  1.] 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


29 


[iii.]  The  Sclavonic  VEiisiojf. 

Wiwlia,  sinetz  Kiii>;i,  wctchago  i  nowac;o  sawicta  pojasiku 
slowi-nsku. — Tlio  Bil)I(',  that  is  to  say,  the  Hooks  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  in  tlic  Sclavonic  language.  Ostrog,  1581, 
folio. 

Tills  is  (lie  edilio  priiiceps  of  (lie  entire  Selavoiiie  Hiblo  :  an  in- 
tcTcstiiii;  a<'coiiiil  of  Viirious  [in'vioiis  cdilioiis  of  d(!la<'li('(l  |Mjrlioiis 
of  tin-  Old  and  iVevv  Te.slainenl,  as  well  as  of  llie  pains  Iteslovved 
in  order  lo  render  this  impression  correct,  will  be  ibiiiid  in  Dr. 
Henderson's  Hihliea!  Ri'searelies,  pp.  78 — H2.  ('lenient  (Bil)liolli. 
C-'nrieuse,  loni.  iii.  pp.  441 — 144.)  has  given  a  uiinutc!  description  of 
it;  to  which  Dr.  Dihdin  acknowledges  himself  indebted  ihr  part 
of  his  aceonnt  of  l^arl  Spencer's  co|)y.  (Bibliolheea  Spenceriana, 
vol.  i.  pp.  yo — y3.)  Hut  Dr.  Henderson,  liom  his  residence  in 
Knssia.and  his  crilii:al  ae(ni!iintuii<-e  with  ihi^  Sclavonic  hini-uage, 
has  been  enabled  to  add  much  im|Kirlant  information  (which  does 
not  admit  <d'  al)riil>;ment)  relative  to  this  and  to  subs<'ijuent  edi- 
tions of  the  Scla\oni<;  version,  which  was  utterly  unknown  to 
those  bibliograj)iiers.  See  his  Biblical  Ucsearches,  pp.  W3 — 80. 
y^— 103. 

[iv.]  The  A.vglo-Saxon  Vehsioxs. 

1.  Heptateuchus,  Liber  Job,  ct  Evangeliuni  Nicodcmi,  Anglo- 
Saxoiiice.  Historia!  Juilith  Fraginentuni,  Uano-Saxoiiice.  Edi- 
dit  nunc  priinuin  ex  MSS.  Codicibus  Edwardus  Tuwaites. 
Oxonia;,  1699,  8vo. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  version  of  the  Heptateuch,  that  is,  of  the  five 
books  of  ^ioses  and  the  books  of  Joshua  and  Judges,  wa.s  made 
towiirds  the  close  of  the  tenth  century  by  /Elfrie,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  and  was  published  by  Mr.  Thwaites  from  an  unique 
manuscript  preserved  in  the  Uodleian  Library.  The  book  of  Job, 
also  translated  by  /Elfrie,  was  printed  from  a  transcript  of  a  MS. 
in  the  Cotlonian  Library  (now  in  the  British  Museum);  and  the 
apocryphal  Gospel  of  A'lcodennis,  from  Junius's  <'opy  of  the  origi- 
nal manuscript  m  the  Library  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge. 
The  Danish-Saxon  version  of  the  book  of  Judith  (a  fragment  of 
which  is  given  in  the  publication  now  under  notice)  was  made 
during  the  time  when  England  groaned  under  the  yoke  of  the 
Dani.sli  kings.  A  lew  notes  on  vEH'rie's  preface,  and  some  various 
readings  collected  from  an  Anglo-Saxon  fragment  of  the  book  of 
Exodus,  and  the  pseudo-gospel  of  Nicodemus,  close  this  curious 
and  rare  volume. 

2.  Psalterium  Davidis  Latino-Saxonicum  Vetus,  a  Johanne 
SpELMANNo,  D.  Henrici  fil.  editum  e  vetustissimo  exemplari 
Ms.  in  Bibliotheca  ipsiu.s  Henrici,  et  cum  tribus  aliis  non  muitu 
minus  vetustis  collatum.     Londini,  1640,  4to. 

3.  The  Gospels  of  the  fower  Euangelistes  translated  in  the 
olde  Saxons  tytne  out  of  Latin  into  the  vulgare  toung  of  the 
Saxons,  newly  collected  out  of  auncicnt  Monumentes  of  the 
sayd  Saxons,  and  now  published  for  testimonie  of  the  same. 
London,  printed  by  John  Dayc.   1571,  4to. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  text  is  divided  into  chapters,  and  is  accompa- 
nied by  the  English  version  then  in  use,  in  a  parallel  column, 
divided  into  chapters  and  verses,  "which,"  it  is  stated  in  a  prefa- 
tory note,  "  was  observed  tor  the  better  understanding  of  the 
reader."  The  editor  of  this  now  rare  volume  was  Matthew 
PARKtiR  ;  it  has  a  preface,  written  by  the  celebrated  martyrologist, 
John  FoxE,  by  whom  it  is  dedicated  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Two  other  editions  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Gospels  have  been 
printed,  viz.  by  William  Lisle,  in  4to.,  London,  1G58;  and  by 
J'liomas  Marsiiall.  in  4to.,  Dordrecht,  1(505,  w  ilh  the  Ma'so-Gothic 
version.  (,)!'  the  last  edition  there  are  copies,  witli  Amsterdam, 
1084,  in  tJie  title ;  but  these  are  the  same  edition,  with  a  new  title- 
page. 


SECTION  VI. 

MODKRN    VERSIONS    OF   THE    OLD    AND    NEW    TESTAMENTS. 

§  1.  Ge.nehal  Observations  ox  the  Circulation  of  the 

ScHIPTURES. 

I.  Scarciti/  aiidhiffh  prices  of  the  Scriptures. — II.  Rude  attempts 
to  convey  an  idea  of  their  contents  to  the  poor  and  illiterate. 
— Account  of  the  Biui.ia  Pauperim. — III.  J\'umber  and 
classification  of  the  translations  of  the  Jiible  into  modern 
lang-uages. 

I.  ly  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  however  anxious  its  pro- 
fessors must  have  been  to  become  possessed  of  the  sacred  volume, 
and  however  widely  it  was  read  in  their  assemblies  for  divine 
worship,  still  the  publication  of  a  version  was  not  what  it  now 
is — the  emission  of  thousands  of  copies  into  the  world.  It  con- 
sisted, in  a  great  measure,  in  translators  permitting  their  manu- 


scripts to  be  transcribed  by  others ;  and  so  long  as  the  tedious 
process  of  copying  was  the  only  one  which  could  be  resorted  to, 
exemplars  of  the  sacred  writings  must  have  been  multiplied  very 
slowly.  Before  the  inventions  of  paper  and  printing,  manuscripts 
were  the  oidy  books  in  use,  and  bore  such  excessively  high 
|)rices,  especially  those  which  were  voluminous,  that  few  besides 
the  most  opulent  could  allbrd  to  purchase  them :'  even  monas- 
teries of  some  consideraliuii  had  frecpiently  oiUy  a  missal.  So 
long  as  the  Roman  empire  subsisted  in  Europe,  the  reading  of 
the  Scriptures  in  Latin  universally  prevailed:  but,  in  consequence 
of  the  irruptions  of  the  barbarous  nation.s,  and  the  erection  of 
new  monarchies  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  power,  the  Latin 
language  became  so  altered  and  corrupted,  as  no  longer  to  be 
intelligible  by  the  multitude,  and  at  length  it  fell  into  disuse, 
except  among  the  ecclesiastics. 

In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuricp,  when  the  Vulgate  Latin 
version  had  ceased  to  be  generally  understood,  there  is  no  reason 
to  suspect  any  intention  in  the  Church  of  Koine  to  de]irive  the 
laity  of  the  Scriptures.  "  Translations  were  freely  made,  although 
the  acts  of  the  saints  were  generally  deemed  more  instructive. 
Louis  the  Debonnair  is  said  to  have  caused  a  German  version 
of  the  New  'i'estament  to  be  made.  Otfrid,  in  the  same"  (that 
is,  the  ninth)  "  century,  rendered  the  Gospels,  or  rather  abridged 
them,  into  German  verse  :  this  work  is  still  extant,  and  is  in 
several  respects  an  object  of  curiosity.  In  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
century,  we  find  translations  of  the  Psalms,  Job,  Kings,  and  the 
Maccabees,  into  French.  But,  after  the  diffusion  of  heretical 
principles,  it  became  expedient  to  secure  the  orthodox  faith  from 
lawless  interpretation.  Accordingly  the  council  of  Thoulouse, 
in  1229,  prohibited  the  laity  from  possessing  the  Scriptures;  and 
this  prohibition  was  frequently  repeated  upon  subsequent  occa- 
sions."'^ 

II.  Although  the  invention  of  paper,  in  the  clo.se  of  the  thir- 
teenth or  early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  rendered  the  transcrij)- 
tion  of  books  less  expensive,  yet  their  cost  necessarily  placed 
them  out  of  the  reach  of  the  middling  and  lower  cla.sscs,  who 
(it  is  well  known)  were  immersed  in  the  deepest  ignorance. 
Means,  however,  were  subsequently  devised,  in  order  to  convey 
a  rude  idea  of  the  leading  facts  of  Scripture,  by  means  of  the 
Block  Books,  or  Books  of  Images,  as  they  are  termed  by  Bibli- 
ographers, of  which  the  following  notice  may  not  be  unaccept- 
able to  the  reader. 

The  manufacturers  of  playing  cards,  which  were  first  invented^ 
and  painted  in  the  fourteenth  century,  had  in  the  following  cen- 
tury begun  to  engrave  on  wood  the  images  of  the  saints,  to  which 
they  afterwards  added  some  verses  or  sentences  analogous  to  the 
subject.  As  the  art  of  engraving  on  wood  proceeded,  its  profes- 
sors at  length  composed  historical  subjects,  chiefly  (if  not  en- 
tirely) taken  from  the  Scriptures,  with  a  text  or  explanation 
engraved  on  the  same  blocks.  These  form  the  Books  of  Images, 
or  Block  Books  just  mentioned  :  they  were  printed  from  wooden 
blocks ;  one  side  of  the  leaf  only  is  impressed,  and  the  corres- 
ponding text  is  placed  beloiv,  beside,  or  proceeding  out  of,  the 
mouth  of  the  figures  introduced. 

Of  all  the  Xylographic  works,  that  is,  such  as  are  printed  from 
wooden  blocks,  the  Biblia  Paupervm  is  perhaps  the  rarest,  as 
well  as  the  most  ancient;  it  is  a  manual,  or  kind  of  catechism 
of  the  Bible,  for  the  use  of  young  persons,  and  of  the  common 
people,  whence  it  derives  its  name — Biblia  Paupcrum — the 
Bible  of  the  Poor ;  who  were  thus  enabled  to  acquire,  at  a  com- 
paratively low  price,  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  some  of  the 
events  recorded  in  the  Scriptures.  Being  much  in  use,  the  few 
copies  of  it  which  are  at  present  to  be  found  in  the  libraries  of 
the  curious  are  for  the  most  part  either  mutilated  or  in  bad  con- 
dition. The  extreme  rarity  of  this  book,  and  the  circumstances 
under  which  it  was  produced,  concur  to  impart  a  high  degree  of 
interest  to  it. 

The  Biblia  Paupcrum  consists  of  forty  plates,  with  extracts 
and  sentences  analogous  to  the  figures  and  images  represented 
therein ;  the  whole  are  engraven  on  wood,  on  one  side  of  the 
leaves  of  paper;  so  that,  when  folded,  they  are  placed  opposite  to 
each  other.  Thus,  as  the  white  sides  of  the  leaves  may  be 
cemented   together,  the    total    number   is    reduced    to    twenty, 

«  Concemins  the  rarity  and  high  prices  of  books  durins  the  dark  ases, 
ttie  reader  will  tiiid  several  authentic  anecdotes  in  tlie  first  volume  of  an 
"  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bibliography,"  (pp.  ^5—^9.),  by  the  author 
of  this  work. 

»  Hallam's  View  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  vol.  ii.  p.  536.  Ito. 
edition. 

»  They  appear  to  have  been  first  invented  in  1390,  by  Jacquemin  Grln- 
gonneur,  a  painter  at  Paris,  for  the  amusement  of  Charles  VI.  king  of 
France,  who  had  fallen  into  a  confirmed  melancholy,  bordering  on  iusadity. 
Uccs's  Cyclopa;dia,  vol  vi.  article  Cards. 


30 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Paet  I.  Chap.  I. 


because  Ihe  first  and  last  page  remain  blank.  Copies,  however, 
arc  sometimes  found,  the  leaves  of  which,  not  having  been 
cemented  on  their  blank  side,  are  forty  in  number,  like  the 
plates.  Each  plate  or  page  contains  four  busts,  two  at  the  top, 
and  two  at  the  bottom,  together  with  three  historical  subjects  : 
the  two  upper  busts  represent  thf-  prophets  or  other  persons 
whose  names  arc  always  written  beneath  them ;  the  two  lower 
busts  are  anonymous.  The  middle  of  the  plates,  which  are  all 
marked  by  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  the  centre  of  the  upper  com- 
•  partment,'  is  occupied  by  three  historical  pictures,  one  of  which 
is  taken  from  the  New  Testament :  this  is  the  type  or  principal 
subject,  and  occupies  the  centre  of  the  page,  between  the  two 
antitypes  or  other  subjects  which  allude  to  it.  The  inscriptions 
which  occur  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  page,  consist  of  texts 
of  Scripture  and  Leonine  verses. 

Thus  in  the  fortieth  plate,  of  which  our  engraving  is  a  copy ,2 
the  two  busts  of  David  and  Isaiah  are  placed  in  the  middle  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  page,  between  two  passages  of  the  Bible. 
The  first  of  these,  on  the  left  of  those  prophets,  is  partly  taken 
from  the  Song  of  Solomon  (chap.  v.  7,  8.),  and  runs  thus: — 
Legitur  in  Cantico  Canticorum  quarto  cupite,  quod  (or  quo) 
apoiisus .  alloquitur  sponsam,  et  earn  sumendo  dixit;  "  Tota 
pulchra  et  arnica  mea,  et  macula  non  est  in  te.  Veni,  arnica 
mea ;  veni,  coronabere."  Sponstis  vents  isle  est  Christiis  ; 
qui,  in  assumendo  earn  sponsam,  qux  est  anime  siiie  macula 
omnis  peccati,  et  inlroducit  earn  in  requiem  eternam,  et  coronat 
cum  corona  immortalitatis.^ 

The  second  passage,  which  is  on  the  right  of  David  and 
Isaiah,  is  taken  from  the  Book  of  Revelation,  and  runs  thus: — 
Legitur  in  Apocalypsi  xxi°.  capite,  quod  angelus  Dei  appre- 
hendit  Jlioannem  Evangelistam,  cum  esset  in  spiritu,  et  volens 
sibi  ostendere  archana  Dei  dixit  ad  eum  ;  "  Veni,  et  ostendam, 
tibi  sponsam,  uxorem  agni."  Angelus  loquitur  ad  omnes  in 
^enerali,  ut  veniatit  ad  auscultandum  in  spiritu  agnum  inno- 
centem  Christrim,  animam  innocentem  coronantem.^ 

Beneath  the  bust  of  David,  which  is  indicated  by  his  name,  is  a 
scroll  proceeding  from  his  hand  inscribed  Tamqtiam  sponsus  domi- 
nus  procedejis  de  thalamo  suo.  [See  Ps.  xix.  5.  Vulgate  Version.] 
Beneath  Isaiah  is  ysaye  vi,  with  a  label  proceeding  from  his 
hand  inscribed  Tanqvam  sponsus  decoravit  me  corona.  [See 
Isa.  Ixi.  10.  Vulgate  Version.] 

The  letter  ,  b  .  between  these  two  labels  denotes  the  order 
of  the  plate  or  page,  as  the  cuts  in  this  work  follow  each  other 
according  to  two  sets  of  alphabets,  each  of  which  extends  from 
a  to  b  only :  when  the  first  series  is  completed,  a  second  is 
begun,  the  letters  of  which  are  distinguished  by  two  points 
.  a  .  .  b  .  .  c  .  .  &c. 

In  the  central  compartment,  between  the  busts  above  described, 
is  the  type  or  principal  subject ;  it  represents  the  rewards  of  the 
righteous  in  the  eternal  world,  and  the  Redeemer  is  introduced 
as  bestowing  the  crown  of  life  on  one  of  the  elect  spirits.  The 
antitype  on  the  left  is  the  daughter  of  Sion,  crowned  by  her 
spouse  with  the  following  Leonine  verse, 

Laus  aie  vere :  sposu  bn  sest  here  ; 
that  is, 
Laus  anime  vere  spo7isum  bene  sensit  habere. 
The  antitype  on  the  right  is  an  angel,  speaking  to  St.  John, 
with  this  verse  beneath  : — 

Spas'*-  amat  sposam  X'  nimis  et  speciosam ; 
that  is, 
Sponsus  amat  sponsam  Christus  nimis  et  speciosam. 
From  the  left-hand  figure  of  the  bust  at  the  bottom  of  the  plate 
proceeds  this  label : — corona  tua  c'cuUgata   [circumligata]  siet 
[sit]  et  calciame  [calciamenta]  i  peb'^  [in  pedibus],  with  a  refer- 
ence to  Ezekiel,  ch.  xxiv.     The  twenty-third  verse  of  that  chap- 
ter [Vulgate  Version]  is  most  probably  the  passage  intended. 

From  the  figure  on  the  right  (which  seems  to  have  been  de- 
signed for  the  prophet  Hosea,  as  the  other  figure  may  mean  the 
prophet  Ezekiel)  proceeds  the  label  Spo?isabo  te  mihi  in  sempi- 
ternum,  &c.  with  a  reference  to  Hosea  v.  The  passage  alluded 
to  will  be  found  in  Hos.  ii.  19.  which  runs  thus: — Sponsabo  te 
mihi  in  setnpiternum,  et  sponsabo  te  mihi  in  justitia,  et  in  mise- 
ricordia  et  in  minerationibus.    [Vulgate  Version.] 

•  These  Letters,  Dr.  Dibdin  thinks,  are  the  origin  of  the  signatures 
whioh  are  used  to  denote  the  order  of  the  sheets  in  printed  books.  Bib. 
Spenc.  vol.  i.  p.  xxvi. 

«  Made  from  the  last  plate  or  page  of  the  exemplar,  which  was  the  late 
Mr.  Willet's.     See  the  engraving  facing  the  title-page. 

3  The  above  sentences  are  printed  wilhout  the  contractions,  which  are 
60  numerous  and  so  complex,  as  to  be  with  difficulty  understood  by  any 
who  are  not  conversant  iu  ancient  records  and  early-printed  books. 

«  See  preceding  note. 


The  last  line  in  our  fac-simile  of  the  Biblia  Pauperum  may  be 
thus  read : — 


V^  tuc  gaudi't  aie  sibi,  qu  bonu  dat'  ome. 

that  is, 

Versus.     Tunc  gaudent  animx  sibi  qmtm  bonum  datnr  omne. 

Bibliographers  are  by  no  means  agreed  concerning  the  age* 
which  they  assign  to  the  curious  volume  above  described.  Dr. 
Dibdin,"  it  is  apprehended,  dates  it  too  low,  in  fixing  it  to  the 
year  1450;  and  though  the  cuts  are  not  designed  in  so  heavy 
and  Gothic  a  style  as  Baron  Heinecken  ascribes  to  them,  yet  the 
execution  of  them  on  the  wood-blocks  is  confessedly  very  coar.se, 
as  our  specimen  (which  is  an  exact  fac-simile)  will  abundantly 
prove.  The  form  of  the  letters  also  is  too  Gothic,  and  too  void 
of  proportion,  to  bear  so  late  a  date :  indeed,  if  they  be  compared 
with  the  letters  exhibited  in  some  of  the  fac-similes  in  the  Biblio- 
theca  Spenceriana  (which  are  supposed  to  have  been  executed 
between  1420  and  1430),  the  similarity  of  coarseness  in  the 
shape  of  the  letters  will  render  it  probable  that  the  Biblia  Pau- 
perum is  nearly  of  equal  antiquity.  In  fact,  it  is  this  very 
coarseness  of  the  letters  (as  Heinecken  has  remarked)  which  has 
caused  the  edition  above  described  to  be  preferred  to  every  other 
of  the  Biblia  Pauperum.' 

III.  The  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  establishment  of  the  glorious  Reformation  through- 
out Europe  in  the  following  century,  facilitated  the  circulation 
of  the  Scriptures.  Wherever  its  pure  doctrines  penetrated,  the 
nations  that  embraced  it,  adopting  its  grand  principle — that  the 
Bible  contains  the  religion  of  Protestants — were  naturally  de- 
sirous of  obtaining  the  sacred  volume  in  their  respective  lan- 
guages. And  even  in  those  countries  into  which  the  reformed 
doctrines  were  but  partially  introduced,  it  was  found  necessary 
to  yield  so  far  to  the  spirit  of  the  times,  as  to  admit,  in  a  Hmited 
degree,  vernacular  translations  among  the  people.*  Since  the 
Reformation,  wherever  learned  and  pious  missionaries  have  car- 
ried the  Christian  faith,  the  Scriptures  have  been  translated  into 
the  languages  of  its  professors. 

The  total  number  of  dialects,  spoken  in  any  part  of  the  world, 
is  computed  to  be  about  five  hundred  ;  and  of  these  somewhat 
more  than  one  hundred  appear  to  constitute  languages  generically 
distinct,  or  exhibiting  more  diversity  than  resemblance  to  each 
other.  Into  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  these  various 
dialects  the  sacred  Scriptures  have  been  translated,  either  wholly 
or  in  part;  and  not  less  than  sixty  of  them  are  versions  in  the 
languages  and  dialects  of  Asia.  It  is  obvious  that  very  few 
modern  versions  can  be  of  service  in  the  criticism  or  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Bible ;  but  as  the  author  has  been  censured  for 
omitting  them  in  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  he  has  endea- 
voured to  supply  that  deficiency,  and  to  procure  the  best  infor- 
mation possible,  on  a  topic  so  interesting  to  every  sincere 
professor  of  Christianity. 

'  Baron  Heinecken,  who  has  examined  several  copies  of  this  work  with 
minute  attention,  has  discovered  five  different  editions  of  Ihe  Biblia  Pau- 
perum ;  the  fifth  is  easily  known,  as  it  has  fifty  plates.  In  executing  the 
other  four  editions,  the  engravers,  he  observes,  have  worked  with  such 
exactness,  that  there  is  very  little  difference  between  any  of  them,  so  that 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  which  is  the  first.  The  attentive  bibliogra- 
pher, however,  will  discover  several  variations.  Tliese  are  pointed  out  by 
Heinecken,  who  has  described  Ihe  subjects  of  the  different  plates  or  leaves 
with  much  minuteness.  As  his  interesting  work  is  in  the  hand  of  every 
bibliographer  and  amateur,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  refer  to  his  Idre  d'une 
Collection  d'Estampes,  pp.  293 — 333. ;  from  which  Santander  has  abridged 
his  neat  account.  l)ict.  du  xv.  Si 'cle,  vol.  ii.  pp.  207 — 210.  Lambinet  (Ke- 
cherches  sur  riinpriinerie,  pp.  61 — 72.)  and  Daunou  (Analyse  des  Opinions 
sur  I'Origiue  de  I'luiprimerie,  pp.  7 — 15.)  have  short  but  interesting  notices 
relative  to  this  and  the  other  books  of  images,  which  will  repay  the  trouble 
of  perusal  to  those  who  have  not  the  dear  volume  of  Heinecken,  or  the  ela- 
borate work  of  .'Santander. 

6  IJibliotheca  Spenceriana,  vol.  i.  p.  xxvi. 

•>  The  rarity  of  the  Biblia  Pauperum  has  caused  the  few  copies  of  it, 
which  are  known  to  be  extant,  to  be  sold  for  the  most  exorbitant  prices. 
These  indeed  have  varied  according  to  the  condition  and  difference  of  the 
several  editions.  Tlie  copy  which  Heinecken  describes  as  the  fir.st  (and 
which  is  noticed  above)  co.st  at  the  sale  of  M.  de  Boze,  in  1753,  1000  livre.s 
(13/.  I5s.);  at  the  sale  of  M.  Gaignat,  in  1769,  a30  livres  (-36/.  6s.);  at  the 
siile  of  M.  Paris,  in  1791,  .51/.  ;  and  that  of  Mr.  Willet,  in  1813,  two  hundred 
and  forty  five  guineas!  The  edition  described  by  Heinecken  as  the  se- 
cond, produced,  at  M.  Verdussen's  sale,  in  1776,  aW  liorins  of  exchange 
(about  24/.) ;  at  that  of  M.  la  Valliere,  in  1783,  780  livres  (34/.  2s.  6d.)  ;  and 
at  that  of  M.  Crevenna,  in  )7S9,  916  livres  (41/.  7s.  9rf.).  Copies  of  the  Biblia 
Pauperum  are  in  his  Majesty's  hbrary  (formerly  Oaianat's  copy)  ;  in  that 
of  Eail  Spencer ;  the  Bodleian  and  Corpus  Christi  Libraries,  at  O.Yford; 
Corpus  Chrisli  College  Library,  Cambridge;  in  (he  Hunterian  Museum, 
Glasgow  (it  is  very  imperfect);  in  the  Rnyal  Library  at  Paris  (Ihrmerly 
Vallii're's  copy  ;  it  is  imperfect);  and  in  tlie  Public  Library  at  Basle.  For 
an  account  of  tlie  Speculum  Hunuina.  Salcalidiiis  and  the  other  curious 
Books  of  Images,  see  the  author's  hitroduclion  to  Bibliography,  vol  ii.  Ap- 
pendix, pp.  v. — xiv. ;  and  Baron  Heinecken's  Idee  Generale  d'une  Collec- 
tion complete  d'Estampes.    Leipsic,  1771,  8vo. 

8  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Translation  and  Circulation  of  the  Scriptures 
by  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Thomson  and  Orme  (Perth,  1S15,  8vo.),  p.  44. 


Sect.  IV.  §  2.] 


MODERN  LATIN  VERSIONS. 


31 


The  modern  versions  of  the  Scriptures  arc  twofold,  viz.  in  the 
liatin  language,  and  in  the  vernacular  language  of  all  the  coun- 
tries in  wliicli  (Christianity  has  been  propagated;  and  both  are 
made  either  by  jjcrsons  in  communion  with  the  Church  of  Rome 
or  by  Protestants. 

§  2.  Modern  Latin  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament. 
[i.]  Latin  Version's  of  the  entire  Biiile,  or  of  the  Olu 
Testament. 

Versions  made  by  Romaiiists. 

Of  the  modern  Latin  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament,  made 
by  individuals  in  communion  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  those 
of  I'agninus,  Montanus,  Midvcnda,  Cajctan,  and  Houbigant,  arc 
particularly  worthy  of  notice.' 

1.  Paoninlh. — Veteris  ac  Novi  Testamenti  nova  translatio, 
per  Sanct.  PACiMNUM  edita.     Lugduiii,  1.528,  in  large  4to. 

Snnrlos  Pagiiinus,  a  Dominican  monk,  was  the  first  modern  ori- 
ental scholar  who  attempted  to  make  a  new  translation  of  the 
Scriptures  from  the  original  languages.  Having,  in  the  course  of 
his  studies,  been  led  to  conceive  that  tlie  Vulgate  Latin  Version 
of  Jerome  (of  which  nnnccoiint  has  been  given  in  the  first  volume 
of  this  work)  was  greatly  corrupted,  he  undertook  to  form  a  new 
translation  of  the  OI<l  TestameiU  irom  the  Hebrew,  following 
Jerome  only  where  he  thoiighr  that  his  version  corresponded  to  the 
original.  Under  the  [latronage  of  the  Popes  Leo  X.,  Hadrian  VI., 
and  Ch^meiit  VII.,  he  devoted  twenty-five  years  to  this  groat  work; 
wliich  was  first  publislied  at  F^yoiis  in  l.'')2rt.  The  Jews  who  read  it 
attested  its  fidelity.  The  great  liiidl  of  Pagninus  is,  that  he  has  ad- 
hered too  closely  and  servilely  to  the  original  text ;  and  this  scrupu- 
lous attachment  lias  made  his  translation  obscure,  barbarous,  and  full 
of  solecisms.  He  has  also  altered  the  commonly-received  names 
of  men  and  cities,  and  has  substituted  others  in  their  place,  which 
are  pronouiuted  according  to  the  proiuinciation  of  the  Masorites. 
Tiiough  this  translator's  labours  were  very  severely  criticised  by 
Father  Simon,  yet  he  acknowledges  his  great  abilities  and  learn- 
ing ;  and  all  the  latter  commentators  and  critics  concur  in  justly 
connnending  his  work,  as  being  remarkably  exact  and  faithful,  and 
admirably  adapted  to  explain  the  literal  sense  of  the  Hebrew  text. 
Pagninus  afterwards  translated  the  New  Testament  from  the 
Cireek,  which  he  dedicated  to  his  patron.  Pope  Clement  VII.  It 
was  printed  with  the  former  at  Lyons,  in  1528.  In  1.557,  Robert 
Stephens  printed  a  new  edition  of  his  translation  in  two  volumes 
folio,  with  corrections;  but  it  contains  only  the  Old  Testament  of 
Pagninus's  version.  The  New  Testament  is  given  in  the  Latin 
version  of  Bcza,  w^hich  is  noticed  in  p.  32.  infra. 

2.  Montanus. — Biblia  Latina  Pagnini,  a  Benedicto  Aria 
Montano  recognita.     Antverpiae,  1584,  folio. 

The  translation  of  Pagninus  was  revised  by  Benedict  Arias 
Montanus.  wlio  has  erroneously  been  considerecl  as  a  new  trans- 
lator of  the  Bible  in  the  Latin  language.  His  chief  aim  was  to 
translate  the  Hebrew  words  by  the  same  numl)er  of  Latin  ones; 
so  that  he  has  accommodated  his  whole  translation  lo  tlie  most 
scrujuilous  rules  of  grammar,  without  any  regard  to  the  elegance 
of  his  Latinity.  Montaiuis's  edition,  therefore,  may  be  considered 
rather  as  a  grammatical  commentary,  tlian  a  true  version,  and  as 
being  adapted  lo  instruct  young  beginners  in  the  Hebrew,  than  to 
be  read  separately:  being  priiUed  interlinearily  with  the  Latin 
word  placed  exaeily  over  the  Hebrew,  it  saves  the  student  the 
trouble  of  frecjuently  referring  to  his  Lexicon.  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament, Montanus  changed  oidy  a  few  words  in  the  Vulgate  ver- 
sion, w"here  he  foimd  it  to  dillc-r  from  the  Greek.  This  revision 
has  been  very  fre(|uenlly  printed  in  various  sizes:  it  is  also  found 
in  the  Antwerp,  Paris,  and  London  Polyglotts. 

3.  Malvenha. — Thomaj  Malvend^  Commcntarii  in  Scrip- 
turain  Sacram,  una  cum  nova  ex  Hebra;o  translatione,  variisque 
lectionibus.     Lugduni,  1650,  5  tomis,  folio. 

The  translation  of  Thomas  Malvenda,  a  Spanish  Dominican, 
being  more  grammatical  and  barbarous  than  that  of  Montanus,  is 
but  little  esteemed,  and  has  fallen  into  oblivion. 

4.  Ca.ietan. — Librorum  Veteris  Testamenti,  scilicet  Penta- 
teuchi,  Josua>,  Judicum,  Regum,  Paralipomenon,  Esdrce,  Nehe- 
mim.  Job,  Psalmorum,  Proverbiorum  Salomonis,  et  priorum 
frium  capitum  Esaia;,  Versio  nova  Latina  ex  Hebrteo  a  Thoma 
de  Vio,  Cardinale  (^a-iktano,  ope  duorum  Linguam  HcbrfEam 
scientium  (alterius  Hcbr.Ti  Alagistri  illius  lingua%  altcrius  Chris- 
tiani)  instituta  juxta  methodum  quam  ipse  tradidit  in  pnrfationc 
commentariorum  in  Psalmos.     Lugduni,  1639,  5  vols,  folio. 

The  version  which  bears  the  name  of  Cardinal  Cajetan,  strictly 
speaking,  is  not  his  production  ;  having  been  made  by  two  per- 
sons (one  a  Jew,  the  other  a  Christian),  both  of  whom  were  well 

'The  materials  of  this  section  are  rlrrivod  from  Marsh's  and  Boerner's 
Eitilioii  of  I.eldnii's  Bibliotheca  .«acra,  vol.  ii  Walrliji  Bjhllothec:i  Theo- 
losiea  Selecta,  vol.  iv.  pp.  Gl^-70.  Tarpzo .  ii  Oitica  Sacra,  Veteris  Tes- 
tamenti, pp.  707— 7u7.  Si/non's  Hi«t.  Crilitiue  du  Vieux  Testament,  livre  ii. 
c\\.  xx\\. 

Vol.  II. — .\pp,  3  U 


skilled  in  the  original  language  of  the  sacred  volume.  Cajetan 
carefully  avoided  those  barbarous  expressions  which  he  must  ha Vv. 
used  if  his  version  had  been  grammatically  literal. 

5.  HouBioANT. — Biblia  Veteris  Testamenti  Latine,  ex  Vcr 
sionc  Caroli  Francisci  Holuigant.  Lutctiae  Parisiorum,  1753, 
4  tomis,  folio. 

The  Latin  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  printed  by  Fathci 
Hoidiigant  in  his  critical  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  (noticed  in 
p.  31.  supra),  is  not  framed  according  to  the  present  Hebrew  text, 
but  according  to  the  text,  as  he  thought  it  should  be  corrected  by 
niainiscripts,  ancient  versions,  and  critical  conjectures.  The  Latin 
text  of  Houbigant's  version  was  also  printed  at  Paris  in  1753,  in 
8  vols.  8vo.  This  version  is  much  admired  for  its  elegance  and 
energy. 

Versions  made  by  Protestants. 

Since  the  Reformation,  several  Latin  versions  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament have  been  made  from  the  original  Hebrew  by  learned 
Protestants.  The  most  esteemed  are  tho.sc  of  Munster,  Leo 
Juda,  Castalio,  Junius  and  TremcUius,  Schmidt,  Dathe,  Schott, 
and  Winzer. 

1.  Munster. — Biblia  Latina,  ex  Vcrsione  Sebastian!  Mun- 
STERi.     Ba-silcffi,  1534;   1546,  folio. 

In  the  year  1534,  Sebastian  Munster  printed  at  Basle  a  new 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original  Hebrew,  with 
the  Hebrew  text;  and  in  1546  he  published  a  second  edition, 
with  the  addition  of  some  notes,  which  Father  Simon  thinks  useful 
for  underst.'inding  the  style  of  the  sacred  writings.  Without  rigidly 
adhering  lo  the  grammatical  signification  of  the  words,  like  Pagni- 
nus and  Montanus,  he  has  given  a  more  {rco  and  intelligible  version  : 
but  by  not  deviating  from  the  sense  of  the  Hebrew  text,  he  has 
retained  some  of  its  peculiar  idioms.  He  has  also  availed  himself 
of  the  commentaries  of  the  best  of  the  rabbinical  WTiters.  Though 
Simon  freely  censures  particular  parts  of  Murister's  version,  he 
decidedly  prefers  it  to  those  of  Pagninus  and  Montanus;  and  Iluet 
gives  him  the  character  of  a  translator  well  versed  in  the  Hebrew 
language,  whose  style  is  very  exact,  and  conformable  to  the 
original. 

2.  Leo  Jcda. — Biblia  Sacro-Sancta  Testamenti  Veteris  et 
Novi,  e  sacra  Hebra;orum  lingua  Grajcorumque  fontibus,  con- 
sultis  simul  orthodoxis  interprctibus  religiosissime,  translata  in 
scrmonem  Latinum.  Tiguri,  154.3,  folio;  1544,  Svo.,  and  various 
subsequent  editions. 

The  translation  which  bears  the  name  of  Leo  Juda  was  com- 
menced bv  him ;  but  being  prevented  by  death  from  finishing  the 
work,  he  left  it  to  be  completed  by  Theodore  Bibliander,  profe.s.sor 
of  divinity  at  Zurich.  With  the  assistance  of  Corn-ad  Pellican, 
who  was  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  same  place,  Bibliander  trans- 
lated the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew;  the  New 
Testament  was  undertaken  by  Peter  Cholin  and  Rodolph  Gualter, 
two  learned  Protestants,  at  that  time  resident  at  Zurich.  This 
version  was  first  printed  in  154.S,  and  was  reprinted  by  Robert 
Stephens  at  Paris,  in  1543,  with  the  addition  of  tlie  Vulgate  version, 
in  two  columns,  and  with  short  notes  or  scholia,  but  without 
specifying  the  translator's  name.  Though  it  was  condemned  by 
the  divines  at  Paris,  it  was  favourably  received  by  those  of  Sala- 
manca, who  reprinted  it  with  some  trifling  alterations.  It  is  ac- 
knowledged to  bo  very  faithful ;  and  its  style  is  more  elegant  than 
that  of  Munster:  but  the  translators  are  said,  in  some  instances,  to 
have  receded  too  far  from  the  literal  sense. 

3.  Castalio. — Biblia  Latina,  Interprete  Scbastiano  Casta- 
LioNE.     BasilcK,  1573,  folio;  Lipsia,  1738,  4  tomis,  12mo. 

The  Latin  version  of  Sebastian  Chatillon,  or  Castalio  (as  he  is 
generally  called),  was  begun  at  Geneva  in  1542,  and  finished  at 
Basle  in  15.50,  where  it  was  printed  in  the  following  year,  with  a 
dedication  to  F.dward  VI.  king  of  England.  His  design  was,  tf> 
render  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in  elegant  Latin  like  that  of 
the  ancient  classic  authors ;  but  his  style  has  been  severely  cen- 
sured bv  some  critics,  as  being  too  much  afTected,  and  destiliile  of 
that  noble  simplicity,  grandeur,  and  energy,  which  characterize 
the  sacred  originals.  Professor  Dathe,  however,  has  vindicated  ihis 
learned  Protestant  from  the.se  charges.  Castalio's  version  has  been 
frequently  reprinted  :  the  best  edition  of  it  is  sai<l  to  be  that  printed 
at  Leipsic,  in  1738,  in  4  vols.  12mo. ;  but  the  folio  edition,  printed 
in  1573,  is  in  most  request,  not  only  on  account  of  its  beauty,  but 
also  because  it  contains  the  author's  last  corrections,  together  with 
a  very  complete  table  of  matters. 

4.  Junius  and  Tremf.llius. — Testamenti  Veteris  Biblia 
Sacra:  sive  Libri  Canonici  priscrc  Juda^orum  Ecclesiae  a  Deo 
traditi,  Latini  recens  ex  Hebixo  facti  brevibustpie  scholiis  illus- 
trati  ab  Immanuele  Trkmelmo.  Accesserunt  Libri,  qui  vulgo 
dicuntur  Apocryphi,  liatinc  redditi  et  notis  qnibusdam  aucti  a 
Francisco  Juxio.  Quibus  ctiam  adjunximus  Novi  Testamenti 
Libros  ex  Sermone  Syro  ab  eodein  Tremellio,  et  ex  GrEECo  a 
Theodoro  Bf.za  in  Latinum  versos,  notisq lie  itidem  illustrados 
Secunda  cura  Francisci  Junii.     Geneva;,  1590,  4to 


32 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Pakt  I,  Chap.  I 


The  version  of  Francis  Junius  and  Immanuel  Tremellius  was 
first  publii^heil  at  Frankfort  on  the  Wain,  in  four  tomes  folio,  in  the 
years  1575-7G-79 :  it  was  subsequently  corrected  by  Junius,  and 
has  since  been  repeatedly  printed.  By  the  Protestant  churches  it 
was  received  with  great  approbation ;  and  to  this  day  it  is  held  in 
great  esteem  fi)r  its  simplicity,  perspicuity,  and  fidelity.  Father 
Simon  criticised  it  with  great  severity  ;  bat  our  learned  country- 
man, Matthew  Poole,  in  the  preliice  to  his  Spwpsis  Crilicorum 
Sacronun,  reckons  it  among  the  best  versions :  and  the  ecclesias- 
tical historian,  Dupin,  commends  it  for  its  close  adherence  to  the 
Hebrew.  Junius  and  Tremellius  have  been  very  particular  in 
expressing  the  article  by  demonstrative  pronouns. 

5.  Sciniinr. — Biblia  Sacra,  sive  Testamentum  Vetus_  et 
Novum  ex  linguis  origlnalibus  in  Linguam  Latinam  translatum, 
additis  Capitum  Summariis  et  Partitionibus,  a  Sebastiano  Schmi- 
i)io.     Argcntorati,  1696,  4to. 

Sebastian  Schmidt  was  professor  of  oriental  languages  at  Stras- 
biirgh.  Of  his  version,  which  was  published  after  the  author's 
decease,  there  have  been  several  editions.  It  is  strictly  literal ; 
and  is  cliiefly  useful  to  students  in  the  Hebrew  language. 

6.  Datiik. — Libri  Veteris  Testaraenti,  ex  reccnsione  Textus 
Hcbra;i  et  Versionum  Anliquarum,  Latine  versi,  Notis  philologicis 
et  criticis  illustrati  a  Joanne  Augusto  Datuio.  HaliE,  1773- 
89.    6  vols.  8vo. 

The  version  of  John  Augustus  Dathe,  who  was  professor  of  ori- 
ental literature  at  Leipsic,  is  deservedly  in  high  repute  for  its 
general  fidelity  and  elegance,  both  in  this  country  and  on  the 
Continent.  Piof!  Dathe  "never  published  any  part,  until  he  had 
repeatedly  explained  it  in  his  public  lectures,  and  convinced  him- 
self that  no  diffituUy  remained,  but  such  as  could  not  be  removed. 
In  this  manuer  was  his  translation  produced,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  perpetual  commentary."  (Aikin's  Biographical  Dic- 
tionary, vol.  X.  Supplement,  p.  305.) 

7.  ScHOTT  and  Winzeh. — Libri  Sacri  Antiqui  Foederis  ex 
Sermone  Hebrajo  in  Latinura  translali ;  notatione  brevi  praecipuae 
Lectionura  et  Interpretationuni  diversitatis  addita.  Auctoribus 
D.  Henrico  Augusto  Schott  et  Julio  Friederico  Winzek. 
Volumen  primum.     Altonae  et  LipsiiE,  1816,  8vo. 

This  volume  comprises  the  Pentateuch  only  ;  the  three  first  books 
were  translated  by  M.  Schott,  and  the  two  last  by  M.  Winzer ;  but 
the  whole  work  has  been  so  carefully  revised,  that  it  appears  to  be 
the  production  of  only  one  person.    It  professes  to  be  very  close. 


[ii.]  Latin  Versions  of  the  New  Testament. 

1.  Erasmus. — Novi  Testamenti  JSditio  postrema,  per  Deside- 
rium  Ebasmtim,  Roterodamum.     Basileae,  1535,  Bvo. 

The  celebrated  Erasmus  has  the  hoaour  of  being  the  first  trans- 
hitf)r  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  Latin  language  from  the 
original  Greek.  His  object  was,  to  give  a  iaithful  and  clear  ver- 
sion, in  which  it  is  admitted  that  he  succeeded  as  far  as  it  was  pos- 
sible at  tliat  time.  In  this  version  he  followed  not  only  the  printed 
copies,  but  also  four  (Jreek  manuscripts;  according  to  the  example 
of  Jerome,  he  varied  but  little  from  the  Vulgate.  The  first  edition 
of  his  translation  appeared  with  his  Greek  Testament  in  1516,  and 
was  dedicated  to  Pope  Leo  X.,  by  whom  it  was  highly  commended 
in  a  letter  of  thanks  which  he  wrote  to  Erasmus.  The  pontiff's 
praises,'  however,  did  not  prevent  his  labours  from  being  censured 
with  great  severity  by  certain  writers  belonging  to  the  Romish 
communion,  against  whom  Erasmus  defended  himself  with  great 
spirit.  Ilis  version  has  been  frequently  printed  and  corrected,  both 
by  himself  and  by  his  editore. 

2.  Beza. — Novum  D.  N.  Jesu  Christi  Testamentum.  Latine 
jam  olim  a  Veteri  Interprete,  nunc  denuo  a  Theodoro  Beza 
versum,  cum  ejusdem  annotationibus,  in  quibus  ratio  interpreta- 
tionis  redditur.     Oliva  Roberti  Stephani  [Genevse],  1556,  folio. 

This  version  has  been  repeatedly  printed.  On  account  of  its 
fidelity,  it  has  always  been  highly  esteemed  by  Protestants  of 
every  denomination.  Bishop  Walton,  indeed,  was  of  opinion  that 
he  was  justly  charged  with  departing  unnecessarily  from  the  com- 
mon readings,  without  the  authority  of  manuscripts ;  but  a  careful 
examination  of  Beza's  translation  will  show  that  that  distinguished 
prelate  was  in  this  instance  mistaken. 

3.  Chr.  Giiii.  Tiialemanni  Versio  Latina  Evangeliorum 
Malthaei,  Marci,  Lucfe,  et  Johannis,  itemque  Actuum  Apostolo- 
runi,  edita  a  C.  C.  Tittmanno.  Berolini,  1781,  8vo.  The  re- 
maining books  of  the  New  Testament  were  translated  by  M. 
laspis,  and  entitled, 

Versio  Latina  Epistolarum  Novi  Testamenti,  perpetua  anno- 
tatione  illustrata  a  Godofredo  Sigismundo  Iaspis.  Lipsise, 
Vol.1.  1793,  Vol.  n.  1797,  Bvo.  Editio  nova,  Lipsias,  1821. 
2  tomis  8vo. 

4.  Sacri  novi  Testamenti  Libri  omncs,  veteri  Latinitate  donati 
ab  Henrico  Godofredo  Reiciiaruo.     Lipsise,  1799,  Bvo. 

5.  Seuasxiani. — Novum  Testamentum  ob  frequentes  omni- 


um Interpretationum  Hallucinationcs,  nunc  dcraum  ex  Codice 
Alexandrine,  adhibitis  etiam  compluribus  manuscriptis  varianti- 
busque  Lectionibus  editis,  sumtna  fide  ac  cura  Latine  redditum. 
Omnibus  Sacris  Auctoribus  Gra;cis,  Sacris  Criticis,  Glossariis,  et 
Instructioribus  per  totam  Grseciam  Ecclesiasticis  Viris  diligentis- 
sime  consultis.  Interprete  Leopoldo  Sebastiani.  Londini, 
1817,  royal  Bvo. 

M.  Sebastian!  is  advantageously  knowni  to  scholars  as  the  editor 
of  Lycophron  (Romte,  1803,  4to.).  His  version  is  made  from  the 
text  of  the  Alexandrian  Manuscript,  with  which  the  translator 
stales  that  he  collated  several  manuscripts  and  collections  of  various 
readings,  availing  himself  also  of  every  critical  aid  he  could  pro- 
cure, and  particularly  of  the  writings  of  the  Greek  fathers,  and  tiie 
assistance  of  the  most  learned  of  the  modern  Greek  clergy.  To 
obtain  the  latter,  M.  Sebustiani  expressly  travelled  through  the 
whole  of  Greece.  In  all  doctrinal  points,  this  version  is  made  con- 
formable to  the  tenets  inculcated  by  the  Romish  churcJi. 

***  For  notices  of  the  modern  Latin  Versions  of  Schott,  Naebe, 
and  Goeschen,  see  pp.  16,  18,  and   19,  of  this  Appendix. 

§  3.  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Modern  Europe. 

[i.]  Versions  in  the  Languages  spoken  in  the  British 

Isles. 

English  Protestant  Versions.^ 

Although  it  is  impossible,  at  this  distance  of  time,  to  ascertain 
when  or  by  whom  Christianity  was  first  planted  in  this  island, 
as  well  as  the  earliest  time  when  the  Scriptures  were  translated 
into  the  language  of  its  inhabitants,  yet  we  know  that,  for  many 
hundred  years,  they  were  favoured  with  the  possession  of  part,  at 
least,  of  the  sacred  volume  in  their  vernacular  tongue.  Of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  versions  an  account  has  already  been  given ;  to 
which  we  may  now  add,  that  a  Saxon  translation  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, of  Joshua,  part  of  the  books  of  Kings,  Esther,  and  of  the 
apocryphal  book  of  Judith,  and  the  Maccabees,  is  attributed  to 
Elfric  or  Elfred,  who  was  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a.  d.  995. 

A  chasm  of  several  centuries  ensued,  during  which  the  Scrip- 
tures appeared  to  have  been  buried  in  oblivion,  the  general  read- 
ing of  them  being  prohibited  by  the  papal  see.  Thefirst  English 
translation  of  the  Bible  known  to  be  extant  was  executed  by  an 
unknown  individual,  and  is  placed  by  Archbishop  Usher  to  the 
year  1290:  of  this  there  are  three  manuscript  copies  preserved, 
in  the  Bodleian  library,  and  in  the  libraries  of  Christ  Church  and 
Queen's  Colleges  at  Oxford.  Towards  the  close  of  the  following 
century,  John  de  Tretisa,  vicar  of  Berkeley  in  the  county  of 
Gloucester,  at  the  desire  of  his  patron.  Lord  Berkeley,  is  said  to 
have  translated  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  into  the  English 
tongue.  But  as  no  part  of  this  work  appears  ever  to  have  been 
printed,  the  translation  ascribed  to  him  is  supposed  to  have  been 
confined  to  a  few  texts,  which  are  scattered  in  some  parts  of  his 
works  (several  copies  of  which  are  known  to  exist  in  manu- 
script), or  which  were  painted  on  the  walls  of  his  patron's  chapel 
at  Berkeley  Castle.  It  is  by  no  means  improbable,  that,  before 
the  invention  of  printing,  recourse  was  had  to  the  painting  of  the 
principal  events  in  the  sacred  history,  on  the  windows  of 
churches,  in  order  to  convey  some  knowledge  of  Scripture  facts 
to  the  illiterate.  Among  the  finest  specimens  of  this  pictorial 
instruction,  we  may  mention  the  beautifully-executed  windows 
of  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge.^ 

1.  Wicliffe's  Version. 
The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, 
translated  out  of  the  Latin  Vulgat  by  John  Wiclif,  S.T.P. 
about  1378.  To  which  is  prtefixt  a  History  of  the -Translations 
of  the  H.  Bible  and  N.  Testament,  &c.  into  English,  both  in 
MS.  and  print,  and  of  the  most  remarkable  Editions  of  them 
since  the  Invention  of  Printing.  By  John  Lewis,  M.A.  London, 
1731,  folio;  1810,  4to.5 

»  Our  account  of  Enslish  translations  is  drawn  from  Lewis's  History  of 
the  translaiions  of  the"  Bible,  prefixed  to  his  edilion  of  WicklilTe's  New 
Testament,  folio,  1731  ;  Johiison'sHislorical  Account  of  the  several  English 
translations  of  the  Bible,  originally  published  in  1730,  in  8vo.  and  reprinted 
in  the  third  volume  of  Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Theological  Tracts; 
Archbishop  Newcome's  View  of  the  Enslish  Biblical  Translations.  Dublin, 
1792,  8vo.  ;  Mr.  Whittaker's  learned  and  elaborate  Inquiry  into  the  Inter- 
pretation of  Hebrew  Scriptures,  pp.  38—114.  ;  and  Mr.  Walter's  Letter  to 
the  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  on  the  Independence  of  the  authorized  Ver- 
sion of  the  Bible. 

2  There  is  a  peculiar  correspondence  between  the  paintings  on  the 
same  window,  in  the  upper  and  lower  divisions:  for  instance,  in  the  upper 
division  is  painted  a  piece  of  history  taken  from  the  Old  Testament ;  and  in 
the  lower  division,  is  painted  some  circumstance  selected  from  the  New 
Testament,  corresponding  to  tliat  above  it  from  the  Old. 

3  The  titles  of  this  and  the  following  English  versions  are  given  from  the 
copies  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  British  Museum,  with  the  exception 
of  HoUybushe's  New  Testament,  in  p.  68.,  and  the  Anglo-Genevese  Bible 
ill  p.  71. 


i:RN  LANGUAGES 


TED. 


Additions ;  the  second  and  third  Tables 


TABLE  II. 
Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Modern  Asia — Continued. 


age. 


Asiatic 
ons. 


jTariar 
Tartar 
lau         ) 
ir  ( 

Bssian  > 
spcls)  \ 
nissian  ) 
spels)      i 

in 

;ean  or  ) 
tan         i 


I  Arme- 


New  Testament,  or 
tlftarhcd    Books 
thereof. 

Bilde,  or  Old  Testa- 
ment, or  detached 
Books  thereof 

New 
Test. 

Detached' 
Cooks, 

Bilde,  or 
Old  Test. 

Detached 
Books. 

1809-14 

1815-21 

1811-13-16 

1 

Matt,  and 
John  IGOl 

1813-20 

t 

! 

1813 

Psal.  1815 

1820 
1815-20 

! 

Matt,  and 
Luke  1815 

j :;;::: 

::::::  1 

1821 

1821 

1743 

1818-25 

1 

4  Gosp. 
182&-33 

1 

1832 

! 

Rev.  Dr.  Marshman 

Kev.  Dr.  Morrison     j 

&.  Rev.  Mr.  Milne 


Robert  Junius. 


EUin.  Soc.  Mission. 

Edin.  Soc.  Mission. 
Morav.  Mission. 
Two  Mongolian 
Chieftains 

Russian  Bible 
Society. 


Unknown  

Missionaries  of  the 
London  Society     ' 


Missionaries  of  the  i 
Basle  Societv.        i 


Place  of 
Printing. 


Serampore. 
Canton. 


Harass  and 
Astrachan. 
Astrachan. 

Petersburgh. 


Pctersburgh. 

Moscow. 
Eimeo  and 
Taliiti. 


Moscow. 


TABLE  III. 
Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Modern  Africa  and  America. 


,  a  dia- 
Abys- 


Indian. 


iMassa- 

ts 


BUX  .  ., 

Jidish  . 

IAN. 


reolese . 


New  Testament,  or 
detached    Books 
thereof. 

Bible,  or  Old  Testa- 
ment, or  detached 
Books  thereof 

New 
Test. 

Detached 
Books 

Bible,  or 
Old  Test. 

Detached 
Books. 

1822 

\ 

182S-32 
1832 

1831      1 
1C61 

1 

\ 

1832 
1809-13-19 
1799 

1829" 
1832 

Gosp.  of 
Matt. 
1810 

4  Gospels 

Gosp.  of 

Luke 

3  Epist. 

of  John 

1818 

Gosp.  of 

John 

1709 

Matt. 

Mark,  and 

John 

1787, 1804 

John 

Gosp.  of 
Luke 
1829 

1663 

\ 

\ 

I 

Psal.  1709 

\ 

Psal.  1S32 

M.  Assclin  de  Cher- 
ville 


Rev.  G.  Nylander 

Missionaries. 

Rev.  Mr.  Schmelin. . 

Rev.  Mr.  Moffat. 


Rev.  John  Eliot. . 
C.  F.  Denckc  • . . . 


Experience  Mayhew 

Rev.  Mr.  Freeman, 
Captain  Brant, 
Captain  Norton 

Messrs.  Jones 

Moravian  Mission 
Moravian  Mission 

Unknown  

Missionaries 

Dr.  Mora. 


'  Dr.  Pazos 
'       Kanki 


Place  of 
Printine. 


London. 


Cape  Town 


Cambridge, 

New  Enu. 


New  York. 


Boston, 
New  Eng. 


> London. 
York,  U.  C. 


Copenhagen. 
London. 


To  face  Vol.  II.  Bihlioirrapkical  Appcyidijr,  p.  32. 

TABLES 

EXHIBITIXG  AT  OXE  VIEW  THE  PRINCIPAL  TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES  INTO  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES 


■tl 


EUROPE,   ASIA,   AFRICA,   AND   AMERICA, 

TOGETHER  WITH  THE  DATES  WHEN  THEY  APPEARED, 
THE  AUTHORS  BY  WHOM  THEY  WERE  EXECUTED.  AND  THE  PLACES  WHERE  THEY  WERE  SEVERALLY  PRINTED. 


*,"  Tho  first  of  these  Tables  is  copied  from  Messrs.  Thomson  and  Orrae's  Historical  Sketch  of  tlie  Translntion  and  Circulation  of  the  Scriptures,  (p.  45,)  with  Corrections  and  Additions  ;  the  second  and  third  Tables 
are  given  from  the  Auliior's  Compendious  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Bible,  which  is  an  Analysis  of  the  present  work. 


TABLE  1. 
in  the  Languages  of  Modem  Europe. 


Eiiglieli 

Prt-nch 

Swedisli 

Danish ■■  ■■  ■ 

Italian'!!!'.".!'.!'.... 

Russian  !!!!,.! 

Helvetian  dinleci  .... 
LowfrSaioiKlialect.. 
Finnish 

Basque 

Welsh 

Hungarian 

Bouiarieee  ..!.!'.!..!. 

Lithuanian 

Turkish 

Estlioniau 

Eelhonian.  dialect  of . 
Dnrpatiaii  dialect  — 

Upper  Lusalion 

Mnnks. ..!!!!!!!!!!!! 

Portuguese < 

Spanish 

Haltcee 

iiX-f-poUsh!!."!!!!!! 

Karelian  (Gospel  of "j 
Matthew)  ' 

Catnlonian 


43-53 
783 
1793^ 


Tindal  and  Covei 


PalladiuB  and  others.. 


Cyril  and  Melbodlus.  ■ 


Biehnps  Wilson  and  Hildesley 


Place  of  Prinlmc. 


Frankfort  or  Basil. 


Holum,  Iceland. 


CroIiW.  Moravia. 


Edinburgh. 

Lisbon. 

Madrid. 

Malta. 

PottTsbureh- 

London. 

Peiereburgh. 


TABLE  n. 
I  the  Languages  of  Modtrn  Asia. 


Pc-rfian 

Bulocha  ....... 

lanciiages. 
Sikh  or'  Pu'nja- 

Wulcli'  or  Mu'l! 
Gu/.<.TaMe'e-!.! 
KurLkii.m'.'.'.V.! 

Bundelkundee  • 
Mn2iiilliaer"' 

Mahratta. ..... 

Hinilec 

Hiadoostanhee 

Bengalee 

Orissa i 

Tamiil 

Telinca  or  Te- 
logoo 

Cingalese • 


"iSr^"^' 

Bible,  or  Old  Testa- 
Books  thereof. 

s 

Detached 

Bible,  or 
Old  Test. 

Detached 
Books, 

1816 

4  Gnsp. 

!•■'■•■ 

......  1 

1818 
....      j 

4  Gosp. 

lem. 

,::' 

Gen.  Lev. 

1808 

leu-ia 

1819 

Pent.  1818 

1819 
1820 
1819 
1818 
1^ 
18a 
18K 

1820 " 

1815-32 

I  1807 

iei2 

! 

Pent,  and 
Ilist.Bks. 
1812-15. 
Pent.Hisi. 
and  Poet. 
Books, 

PH.  1747. 

1808-14 
J80I 
1807 
1820 

iwa-14 

1320 

';:::;; 

1715 

1723-28 

I 1 

1771-80 

GoBp.  of 
Mark. 
1812. 

\ 

1823 

Gen.  Ex. 
Sc  Levit. 

N.EabaiandRev.  H. 

Martyn,B.  D. 
Li.Col.CoIebrooke 
Rev.  H.  Marlyn 


Baptist  and  Wes- , 
leyan  Miss.  ' 

Rev.  T.  T.  Thorn- ; 
son  and  Mr.  Da 


Rev.  W.  Hands 


M.  Des  Granges 
Fyhrnntz  and 


Calcutta. 
Bombay. 


Halle. 
Calcutta. 
Se  ram  pore. 

Tranquebar 
Visagapatam. 

Colomho 


TABLE  II. 
Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Modem  Asia — Conliiiucfl. 


3.  CUINBSE  .  > 

4.  Other   Asi 

Versions 
FormoBan 

OrcnbttfgTarta 
Calmuct 
Mongol! ! 
Tart 


Teh. 


(4  Gospels) 
(4  GoBpels) 


CuTdifh 

Eastern  Armc- 


Bible.  or  Old  Testa- 


fit  Rev.  Mr.  Milne  j 


Russian  Bible 


Moscow. 
Eimeo  am 


TABLE  III. 
Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Modem  Africa  and  Av 


--- 

New  Tes 

ed    Buoka 

Bible,  or 

Books 

Old  Testa- 
r  dctaclied 

.,„,„„, 

Pri'nlim 

S 

"boS/" 

Sis,s; 

Books. 

lectTfAbJs!! 

le-a 

t 

.l...»,.„.c.,„.| 

i 

Gosp.  of 

* 

B0..0....„„„       1 

MalagaesG 

Namaquit 

1828-32 
1832 

4  GoBpels 

s 

Cnpc  Town 

Bichuana 

1831      j 

Goap.  of 

( 

Rev.  Mr.Modbt. 

AMKRtcAii  Indiaw. 
Virginian 

lOCl 

Rev.John  Eliot,...! 

Cambri.lee. 

Delaware 

1 

3  Epist. 

\ 

C.  F.  DeiickL. 

Ncv  Vo,k. 

Indian-Ma^sa-  J 

1 

Gosp.  of 
John 

\ 

Psal.KOO 

Experience  flfnyhew 

J  New  Eng. 

Moliawlt 

Chippoway 

Esquimaux 

Grccniaiidish  ■■. 

WSBT  iNDtlK. 

Creolese 

Negro.Creolene.. 
Mexican 

J 

1832 

MBit. 

John 

*;;;;:: 

\ 

Hov.  Mr.  Freeman. 
Captain  Drnnt. 
Capinin  Norton 

t London. 
York.  U.C- 
Copenlingen. 

Dr'.Xra."" 

Aimarii 

1 

°iz:' 

\ 

^'"■K, 

■''■"'>■■"" 

P,.I.1KH 

Sect.  VI.  §  3.] 


ENGLISH  VERSIONS. 


33 


Nearly  conleni|x)rary  with  John  de  Trevisa  wns  Iho  cplphratod 
.Tdliii  Wic.lif,  iir  Widillis  \slio,  ahoiil  iIk;  year  i TiH  or  1380,  iraiis- 
Ihk.'iJ  iIio  ciiliro  Bible  from  the  I,ulin  Viilgato  iiili)  the  Kiii,'lish  laii- 
fjiiaKe  as  thru  c|)<jkeii,  iu»l  Ikmii/^  siiflic-it'iiiiy  ai-i|iiaiiilcd  with  the 
Hohrew  and  (Jrock  laiifjiiagns  to  traiinlale  fi-orii  tho  originals. 
IJoUne  lln^  invention  ol  prnilini?,  Iransrripls  wvro  r)l>iaino.l  witii 
dinirully.  and  coiiics  wcro  ho  raio,  that,  accordini^  to  tlio  rci^islry 
of  VViiliani  Alncuirk,  l)isli<)|)  of  Aorvvicii,  in  142'.*,  Ilic  iiricc  of  one 
of  VVicklilliVs  TcslanicnLs  was  not  less  tliiin  li<ur  inarKH  and  forty 
jK-nci',  or  tvM)  iHiunds  Hixlccn  Nhillini^s  and  t'iglit-|H'nco,  a  sum  oqni- 
valcnl  tx)  more  llian  l()rly  poinids  at  prrscni.  This  transhition  f)f 
llin  Cible,  wo  aro  informed,  was  so  r)fr('nsiv(3  to  those  who  wore  for 
takin;?  away  the  key  of  kno%viod(ie  and  means  of  l)etler  inlorma- 
tion,  that  a  l>ill  was  brou'^ht  into  the  House  of  I.ords,  \',i  Rich.  II. 
A.  I).  ILi'Jt),  for  tlie  iMirpose  of  suppre.ssing  it.  On  which  tin;  Duke 
of  Lan<-aster,  the  kinii's  nnde,  is  reported  to  have  s|>oken  to 
this  efleitt : — "We  will  not  be  the  drf-gs  of  all  ;  seeiiij^  other 
nations  have  the  law  of  ( lod.  which  is  the  law  of  our  faith,  written 
in  their  own  hini;iiau;e."  At  the  same  lime  he  declared  in  a  very 
solemn  manner,  "That  he  would  maintain  oiir  havinf^  this  law  in 
our  own  tongue  against  those,  whoever  they  should  be,  who  first 
brought  in  the  bill."  'J'heduke  was  seconded  by  others,  who  said  : 
"That  if  the  (lospel,  by  its  being  transhitcd  into  Ktiglish,  was  the 
occasion  of  ruiuiiug  into  error,  they  miuht  know  that  there  were 
more  In^retics  to  be  l()un(l  among  the  I,ali]is  than  among  the  people 
of  any  other  language.  For  that  the  Decretals  reckoned  no  fewer 
than  sixty-six  Latin  heretics;  and  so  the  (iospel  must  not  be  read 
in  Latin,  which  yet  the  opposers  of  its  Knglish  translation  allowed." 
Through  the  duke  of  Lancaster's  innueiice  the  bill  was  rejected  ; 
and  this  success  gave  encouragement  to  some  of  VViclifh-'s  followers 
to  publish  another  and  more  correct  translation  of  tho  Bible.  But 
in  the  year  1408,  in  a  convocation  ludd  at  Oxti)rd  by  Archbishop 
Arundel,  it  was  decreed  by  a  constitution,  " 'J'hat  no  one  should 
therealler  translate  any  text  of  Holy  Scripture  in  English,  by  way 
of  a  book,  or  little  book  or  tract;  and  tiiat  no  book  of  this  kind 
should  be  read,  that  was  comj)osed  lately  in  the  time  of  John 
VViclilFe,  or  since  his  death."  This  constitution  led  the  way  to 
great  iierseculion,  and  many  persons  were  punished  .severely,  and 
some  even  with  death,  for  reading  the  Scriptures  in  English. — 
(  Lewis's  History,  pp.  7 — 18. ) 

JVo  part  of  WiclifTe's  version  of  the  Scriptures  was  printed, 
until  Mr.  Lewis  published  the  New  Testament  in  folio,  in  the 
year  1731.  In  1739,  his  history  of  translations  was  printed  by  it- 
self in  an  octavo  volume.  Wicliffe's  translation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament was  hand.somely  re-edited  in  quarto,  in  1810,  by  the  Rev. 
Henry  Hervey  Baber,  M.A.,  one  of  the  Librarians  of  the  British 
Museum;  who  prefixed  a  valuable  memoir  of  the  life,  opinions, 
and  writings  of  Ur.  Wicliffe,  and  also  an  Historical  Account  of  the 
Saxon  and  English  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  previous  to  the 
opening  of  the  fifth  century. 

2.  Tixdal's  Versiox. 

In  England,  as  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  the  spread  of  the  pure 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation  was  accompanied  with  new  transla- 
tions into  the  vernacular  language.  F"or  the  first  printed^  English 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  we  are  indebted  to  William  Tindal, 
who,  having  formed  the  design  of  translating  the  New  Testament 
from  the  original  Greek  into  English  (an  undertaking  for  which  he 
was  fully  qualified),  removed  to  Antwerp  in  Flanders  for  this  pur- 
pose. Ilere,  with  the  a.ssistance  of  the  learned  John  Fry,  or  Fryth, 
who  was  burnt  on  a  charge  of  heresy  in  Smithfield,  in  1552,  and 
a  friar,  called  William  Roye,  who  suffered  death  on  the  same  ac- 
count in  Portugal,  he  finished  it,  and  in  the  year  1526  it  was  print- 
ed either  at  Antwerp  or  Hamburg,  without  a  name,  in  a  middle- 
sized  8vo.  volume,  and  without  either  calendar,  references  in  the 
margin,  or  Uible  at  the  end.  ■^  Tindal  annexed  a  "pistil"  at  the 
close  of  it,  in  which  he  "desyrcd  them  that  were  learned  to 
amende  if  ought  were  found  amysse."  Le  Long  calls  this  "The 
New  Testament  translated  into  English,  from  the  German  Version 
of  Luther;"  but  lor  this  degrading  appellation  he  seems  to  have  no 
other  authority  besides  a  story  related  by  one  Cochlirus,^  an  enemy 
of  the  Reformation,  with  a  view  of  depreciating  Tindal's  trans- 
lation. Many  copies  of  this  translation  having  found  their  way 
into  England,  in  order  to  prevent  their  dispersion  among  the  people, 
and  the  more  affoctually  to  enforce  the  prohibition  published  in  all 
the  dioceses  against  reading  them,  Tonstal,  bishop  of  Ix)ndon,  pur- 
chased all  the  remaining  copies  of  this  edition,  and  all  which  he 
could  collect  from  private  hands,  and  committed  them  to  the  flames 
at  St.  Paul's  cross.  The  first  impression  of  Tindal's  translation  being 
thus  disposed  of,  several  other  editions  were  published  in  Holland, 
before  the  year  1530,  in  which  Tindal  seems  to  have  had  no  in- 
terest, but  which  found  a  ready  sale,  and  those  which  were  imfxjrt- 
ed  into  England  were  ordered  to  be  burned.  On  one  of  these  oc- 
ca-sions.  Sir  Thomas  More,  who  was  then  chancellor,  and  who 
concurred  with  the  bishop  in  the  execution  of  this  measure,  in- 
quired of  a  person,  who  stood  accused  of  heresy,  and  to  whom  he 

«  Though  Wicliffe's  translation  is  prior  in  point  of  time,  no  part  of  it  was 
printed  before  tlie  year  1731. 

»  Speciniens  of  Tindal's  translation  of  the  New  Tesramcnt,  as  well  as  of 
the  other  early  Enslish  translations  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  are 
given  (together  wiih  concise  bibliographical  descri|'tions)  in  the  appendix 
to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ccttnn's  "  List  of  Editions  of  the  Bible,  and  of  parts 
thereof,"  &c.  pp.  STi— 14t). 

»  In  Actis  Manini  Lutheri  ad  an.  1526,  p.  132. 


promised  indemtiity  on  consideration  of  an  explicit  and  satisfactory 
answer,  how  'J'iiidal  subsisted  abroad,  and  wiio  were  the  persons 
in  Jjondon  that  abetted  and  supjiortcd  him:  to  which  inquiry  the 
heretical  convert  replied,  "  It  was  the  Bishop  of  London  who 
maintained  him.  by  sending  a  sum  of  money  to  buy  up  the  im- 
|)rcssiou  of  lii.s  'IVslainent."  'J'he  ihancellor  rrniled,  admitted  tho 
truth  of  tho  declaration,  and  su/fi'red  the  accused  pci-son  to  escape. 
The  people  lijrmcd  a  very  unfiivounible  opinion  of  those  who 
ordered  the  word  of  God  to  be  burned,  and  concluded,  that  there 
must  be  an  obvious  repugnance  between  the  Ntrw  Testament  and 
the  doctrines  of  those  who  treated  it  with  this  indignity.  Tho.so 
who  were  suspected  of  imjxjrting  and  concealing  any  of  these 
books,  were  adjudged  by  Sir  'i'.  More  to  ride  with  their  faces  to 
the  tails  of  their  horses,  with  pa|)ers  on  their  heads,  and  the  New 
Testaments,  and  other  Ixjoks  which  they  had  dispersed,  hung  about 
their  cloaks,  and  at  the  standard  in  Chea|)side  to  throw  them  into 
a  fire  prepared  lor  that  purpose,  and  to  be  fined  at  the  king's 
pleasure. 

Wlir'n  Tonstal's  purchase  served  only  to  benefit  Tindal,  and 
those  who  were  employed  in  |irintingand  selling  successive  editions 
of  his  Testament,  ana  other  measures  fc)r  restraining  their  disjier- 
sioii  st:emed  to  have  little  or  no  «-lfi'Ct,  the  pen  of  the  witty,  elo- 
(juent,  and  learned  Sir  Thomas  More  was  em|)loyed  against  the 
translator;  and  the  bisiiop  granted  him  a  license,  or  liicnily.  dated 
March  7,  1.027,  to  have  and  to  read  the  several  books  whicdi  'I'iii- 
dal  and  others  published  ;  and  at  his  desire  Sir  Thomas  coinjiosed 
a  dialogue,  written  with  much  humour,  and  dr'signed  to  expose 
Tindal's  translation,  which  was  published  in  1529.  in  this  dia- 
logue, he  alleges,  among  other  charges,  that  Tindal  had  inistran.s- 
lated  three  words  of  great  importance,  viz.  the  words  priests, 
church,  and  charity ;  calling  the  first  seniors,  the  second  congre- 
gation, and  the  third  love.  He  also  charges  him  with  changing 
commonly  the  term  grace  into  favour,  confession  into  knowledge, 
penance  nito  repentance,  and  a  contrite  heart  into  a  troubled  heart. 
The  BL-Jliop  of  London  had,  indeed,  in  a  sermon,  declared,  that  he 
had  found  in  it  no  less  than  2000  errors,  or  mistranslations  ;  and  Sir 
Thomas  More  discovered  (as  he  afiirmcd)  about  1000  texts  by  tale, 
falsely  translated.  In  1530,  a  royal  proclamation  was  issued,  by 
the  advice  of  the  prelates  and  clerks,  and  of  the  universities,  for 
totally  suppressing  the  translation  of  the  Scripture,  corrupted  by 
William  Tindal.  The  jH-oclamation  set  forth,  that  it  was  not  ne- 
cessary to  have  the  Scriptures  in  the  English  tongue,  and  in  the 
hands  of  the  common  people ;  that  the  distribution  of  them,  as  to 
allowing  or  denying  it,  depended  on  the  discretion  of  their  8Uj)e- 
riors;  and  that,  considering  the  malignity  of  the  time,  an  English 
translation  of  the  Bible  would  rather  occasion  the  continuance  or 
increase  of  errors,  than  any  benefit  to  their  souls.  However,  the 
proclamation  announced  the  kuig's  intention,  if  the  present  trans- 
lation were  abandoned,  at  a  proper  season  to  provide  that  the  Holy 
Scriptures  should  be  by  great,  learned,  and  catholic  persons,  trans- 
lated into  the  English  tongue,  if  it  should  then  seem  convenient. 
In  the  mean  time,  Tindal  was  busily  employed  in  translating  from 
the  Hebrew  into  the  English  the  five  books  of  Moses,  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Myles  Coverdale.  But  his  papers  being  lost  by 
shipwreck  in  his  voyage  to  Hamburgh,  where  he  designed  to  print 
it,  a  delay  occurred,  and  it  was  not  put  to  press  till  the  year  1530. 
It  is  a  small  8vo.,  printed  at  different  presses,  and  with  different 
types.  In  the  preface  he  complained,  that  there  was  not  so  much 
as  one  i  in  his  New  Testament,  if  it  wanted  a  tittle  over  its  head, 
but  it  had  been  noted  and  numbered  to  the  ignorant  people  for  a 
heresy,  who  were  made  to  believe  that  there  were  many  thousand 
heresies  in  it,  and  that  it  was  so  faulty  as  to  be  incapable  of  amend- 
ment or  correction.  In  this  year  he  published  an  answer  to  Sir 
Thomas  More's  dialogue,  containing  his  reasons  for  the  changes 
which  he  h.ad  introduced  into  his  translation.  The  three  former 
editions  of  Tindal's  English  New  Testament  being  all  sold  off  tho 
Dutch  booksellers  printed  a  fourth  in  this  year,  in  a  smaller  volume 
and  letter.  In  1531,  Tindal  published  an  English  version  of  the 
prophet  Jonah,  with  a  piologue,  full  of  invective  against  the 
church  of  Rome.  In  1534,  was  published  a  fourth  Dutch  edition, 
or  tho  fifth  in  all,  of  Tindal's  New  Testament,  in  12mo.  In  this 
same  year,  Tindal  printed  his  own  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
in  English,  which  he  had  diligently  revised  and  corrected;  to 
which  is  prefixed  a  prologue;  and  at  the  end  are  the  pistils  of  the 
OUl  Testament,  closing  with  the  following  adver;i:-emenf,  "  Im- 
printed at  Antwerp,  by  Marten  Emperour,  anno.M.n.  xxxiv."  An- 
other edition  was  published  this  year  in  IGmo.  and  j'rinted  in  a 
German  letter.  Upon  his  return  to  Antwerp,  in  1534,  King  Henry 
VIII.  and  his  council  contrived  means  to  have  him  seized  and  im- 
prisoned. After  a  confinement  of  about  a  year  and  a  half  he  was 
condemned  to  death  by  the  emperor's  decree  in  an  assembly  at 
Augsburg;  and  in  1536,  he  was  strangled  at  Vilvorde  (or  Villefort), 
near  Brussels,  the  place  of  his  imprisonment,  after  which  his  body 
was  reduced  to  ashes.  He  expired,  praying  repeatedly  and  earnest- 
ly, "  Lord,  open  the  King  of  England's  "eyes."  Several  editions  of 
his  Testament  were  printed  in  the  year  of  his  death.  "  His  papers 
seem  to  have  remained  in  the  hands  of  his  friends ;  at  least  so 
much  of  them  as  contained  translations  of  the  Old  Testament  from 
Joshua  to  Chronicles  inclusive,  with  prefaces  to  several  different 
Iwoks  of  Scriptures."  Some  writers  on  the  history  of  English 
Bibles  (by  whose  authority  the  author  was  misled  in  preceding 
editions)  have  asserted  that  Tindal  had  little  or  no  skill  in  the 
Hebrew  language,  and  therefore  probably  translated  the  Old  Tes- 
tament from  the  Latin :  but  Mr.  Walter  has  proved,  by  a  copious 
and  elaborate  collation  of  particular  instances,  that  this  able  and 


3t 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I, 


pious  martyr  for  tlie  word  of  God  was  fully  competent  to  translate, 
and  did  actually  execjlc  liis  translation,  directly  from  the  Hebrew- 
original,  and  not  from  the  German  Version  of  Liilher.  (Letter  to 
Bp.  Marsh,  pp.  43 — 5-2.  75—90.)  Few  first  translations,  says  the 
lateDr.Gcddes,  will  be  found  preferable  toTindal's.  It  is  astonish- 
ing, sa}'s  this  writer,  how  little  obsolete  the  language  of  it  is,  even 
at  this  day  ;  and  in  point  of  perspicuity,  and  noble  simplicity,  pro- 
priety of  idiom,  and  purity  of  style,  no  English  version  has  yet 
surpassed  it.    (Prospectus  for  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  p.  88.) 

3.  Coterdale's  Bible. 

Blblia.  The  Bible,  that  is,  the  holy  Scripture  of  the  OJde 
and  New  Testament  faithfully  and  truly  translated  out  of  the 
Douche  and  Latyn  in  to  Englishe.     [Zurich.]  m.u.xxxv.  folio. 

This  first  English  translation  of  the  entire  Bible  was  made  from 
the  Latin  and  German,  and  dedicated  to  king  Henry  VIIL  by  Myles 
CovERDALE,  who  was  greatly  esteemed  for  his  piety,  knowledge 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  diligent  preaching ;  on  account  of  which 
qualities  king  Edward  VL  subsequently  advanced  him  to  the  see 
of  Exeter.  In  his  dedication  and  preface,  lie  observes  to  this  pur- 
pose, that,  as  to  the  present  translation,  it  was  neither  his  labour 
nor  his  desire  to  have  this  work  put  into  his  hand  ;  but  "  when 
others  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  undertake  the  cost  of  it," 
he  was  the  more  bold  to  engage  in  the  execution  of  it.  Agreeably, 
therefore,  to  desire,  he  set  forth  this  "  special"  translation,  not  in 
contempt  of  other  men's  translation,  or  by  way  of  reproving  them, 
but  humbly  and  iiiithfully  following  his  interpreters,  and  that  under 
correction.  Of  these,  he  said,  he  used  five  different  ones,  who  had 
translated  the  Scriptures  not  only  into  Latin,  but  also  into  Dutch. 
He  further  declared,  that  he  had  neither  wrested  nor  altered  so 
much  as  one  word  for  the  maintenance  of  any  manner  of  sect,  but 
had  with  a  clear  conscience  purely  and  faithfully  translated  out  of 
the  foregoing  interpreters,  having  only  before  his  eyes  the  manifest 
truth  of  the  Scriptures.  But  because  such  different  translations,  he 
saw,  were  apt  to  offend  weak  minds,  he  added  that  there  came 
more  understanding  and  knowledge  of  the  Scripture  by  these  sun- 
dry translations,  than  by  all  the  glosses  of  sophistical  doctors;  and 
he  therefore  desires,  that  offence  might  not  be  taken,  because  one 
translated  "scribe,"  and  another  "  lawyer,"  one  "  repentance,"  and 
another  "  penance,"  or  "  amendment."  This  is  the  first  English 
Bible  allowed  by  royal  authority ;  and  also  the  first  translation  of 
the  whole  Bible  printed  in  our  language.  It  was  called  a  "special" 
translation,  because  it  was  different  from  the  former  English  trans- 
lations ;  as  Lewis  has  shown'  by  comparing  it  with  Tindal's.  It 
is  divided  into  six  tomes  or  parts,  adorned  with  wooden  cuts,  and 
furnished  with  Scripture  references  in  the  margin.  The  last  page 
has  these  words :  "  Prynted  in  the  yeare  of  our  Lorde  m.d.xxxv. 
and  fynished  the  fourth  day  of  October."  Of  this  Bible  there  was 
another  edition  in  large  4lo.  1550,  which  was  republished,  with  a 
new  title,  1553  ;  and  these,  according  to  Lewis,  were  all  the  editions 
of  it.  Coverdale,  in  this  edilion  of  the  English  Bible,  prefixed  to 
€very  book  the  contents  of  the  several  chapters,  and  not  to  the 
particular  chapters,  which  was  afterwards  the  case :  and  he  like- 
wise omitted  all  Tindal's  prologues  and  notes.  Soon  after  this 
Bible  was  finished,  in  1536,  Lord  Cromwell,  keeper  of  the  privy 
seal,  and  the  king's  vicar-general  and  vicegerent  in  ecclesiastical 
matters,  published  injunctions  to  the  clergy  by  the  king's  authority, 
the  seventh  of  which  was,  that  every  parson,  or  proprietary  of  any 
parish  church  within  this  realm,  should,  before  the  first  of  Au- 
gust, provide  a  book  of  the  whole  Bible,  both  in  Latin  and  in  English, 
ami  lay  it  in  the  choir,  for  every  man  that  would,  to  look  and  read 
therein;  and  should  discourage  no  man  from  reading  any  part  of 
the  Bible  either  in  Latin  or  English,  but  rather  comfort,  exhort, 
ond  admonish  every  man  to  read  it,  as  the  very  word  of  God,  and 
the  spiritual  food  of  a  man's  soul,  &c. 


4.  Matthew's  Bible. 

The  Bible,  which  is  all  the  Holy  Scripture  ;  In  whych  are 
contayned  the  Olde  and  Newe  Testament,  truly  and  purely 
translated  into  Englysh.  By  Thomas  Matthew,  m.d.xxxvii. 
folio. 

From  the  appearance  of  the  types,  it  is  most  probable  that  this 
edition  was  printed  at  Marlborow  in  Hesse  ;  it  was  edited  by  Co- 
verdale, though  it  bears  the  name  of  Thomas  Matthew,  and  it  was 
published  with  the  royal  license,  which  was  granted  in  conse- 
quence of  Archbishop  Cranmer's  application  to  Lord  Cromwell.^ 
^I"he  Old  Testament  is  Tindal  s  to  the  end  of  the  second  book  of 
Chronicles  ;  it  then  becomes  a  mere  copy  of  Coverdale's  Bible,  with 
a  few  corrections,  and  continues  so  to  the  end  of  the  Apocryphal 
Books.  The  New  Testament  is  wholly  a  transcript  of  Tindal's 
version,  as  contained  in  his  last  published  edition  of  tlie  New  Tes- 
tament.'' In  the  year  1538,  an  injunction  was  published  by  Crom- 
well, as  vicar-general  of  the  kingdom,  ordaining  the  clergy  to  pro- 
vide, before  a  certain  festival,  one  book  of  the  whole  Bible,  of  the 

1  Hist,  of  Ens.  Transl.  p.  29. 

*  Strype's  Life  of  Craniner,  p.  58. 

3  Mr.  Walter's  Letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  pp.  101,  102.  In 
the  following  paaes  he  has  corrected  various  errors  of  precedins  historians 
of  the  English  Bibles,  respecting  Matthew's  (or  rather  Coverdale's)  edition. 


largest  volume,  in  English,  and  to  set  it  up  in  some  convenient 
I)lace  within  their  churches,  where  their  parishioners  might  most 
commodioiisly  resort  to  read  it.  A  royal  declaration  was  also  pub- 
lished, which  the  curates  were  to  read  in  their  several  churches, 
informing  the  people,  that  it  had  pleased  the  king's  majesty  to  )ier 
mit  and  command  the  Bible,  beuig  translated  into  their  moiher- 
longue,  to  be  sincerely  taught  by  ilw^m,  and  to  be  openly  laid  f()rih 
in  every  parish  church.  But  the  curates  were  very  cold  in  this 
affair,-*  and  read  the  king's  injunctions  and  declarations  in  such  a 
manner,  that  scarcely  any  body  could  know  or  understand  wtiat 
they  read.  Johnson^  adds,  that  they  also  read  the  word  of  God 
confusedly;  and  that  they  bade  their  parishioners,  notwithstanding 
what  they  read,  which  they  were  compelled  to  read,  "  to  do  as  they 
did  in  times  past,  and  to  live  as  their  fhthei-s,  the  old  fashion  being 
the  best."  Fox  observes,'  that  the  setting  forth  of  this  book  much 
oifcnded  Gardiner  and  his  fellow-bishops,  both  for  the  prologues, 
and  especially  because  there  was  a  table  in  the  book  chiefly  about 
the  Lord's  supper,  the  marriage  of  priests,  and  the  mass,  which 
was  there  said  not  to  be  found  in  Scripture.  Strype,  however, 
says,''  it  was  wonderful  to  see  with  what  joy  this  hook  was  re- 
ceived, not  only  among  the  more  learned,  and  those  who  were 
noted  lovers  of  the  reformation,  but  generally  all  over  England, 
among  all  the  common  people  ;  and  with  what  avidity  God's  word 
was  read,  and  what  resort  there  was  to  the  places  appointed  for 
reading  it.  Every  one  that  could,  bought  the  book,  and  busily 
read  it,  or  heard  it  read,  and  many  elderly  persons  learned  to  read 
on  purpose.  During  a  vacancy  in  the  see  of  Hereford,  it  was 
visited  by  Cranmer,  who  enjoined  the  clergy  to  procure,  by  the  1st 
of  August,  a  whole  Bible  in  Latin  and  English,  or  at  least  a  New 
Testament  in  these  languages ;  to  study  every  day  one  chapter  of 
these  books,  conferring  the  Latin  and  English  together,  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end ;  and  not  to  discourage  any  layman  from 
reading  them,  but  encourage  them  to  it,  and  to  read  them  for  the 
reformation  of  their  lives  and  knowledge  of  their  duty. 


5.  Holltbusue's  New  Testament. 

The  Newe  Testament  both  in  Latine  and  Englishe,  eche  cor- 
respondent to  the  other,  after  the  vulgare  Text,  commonly  called 
St.  Jerome's.  Faithfully  translated  by  Johan  Holltbusue. 
London,  M.n.xxxviii.  4to.  m.d.xxxix.  8vo. 

This  translation  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  was  executed  by  Myles 
Coverdale,  who  dedicated  it  in  his  own  name  to  Henry  VIIL  It 
is  not  known  why  he  assumed  the  fictitious  name  of  John  Holly- 
bushe.  We  are  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  this  edition  to  Mr. 
Walter's  letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  p.  31. 

6.  Crattmeii's  Great  Bible. 

The  Byble  in  Englyshe,  that  is  to  saye,  the  content  of  all  the 
holy  scripture  bothe  of  y"  olde  and  newe  testament,  truly  trans- 
lated after  the  veryte  of  the  Hebreue  and  Greke  textes  by  y« 
dylygent  studye  of  diuerse  excellent  learned  men,  expert  in  the 
forsayde  tonges.  Printed  by  Rychard  Grafton  &  Edward  Whit- 
church. Cum  privilegio  ad  impriinendum  solum,  m.d.xxxix. 
folio. 

In  1538,  an  edition  in  4lo.  of  the  New  Testament,  in  English, 
with  Erasmus's  Latin  translation,  was  printed,  with  the  king's 
license,  by  Redman.  In  this  year  it  was  resolved  to  revise 
Matthew's  Bible,  and  to  print  a  correct  edition  of  it.  With  this 
view  Grafton  went  to  France,  where  the  workmen  were  more 
skilful,  and  the  paper  was  both  better  and  cheaper  than  in  Eng- 
land, and  obtained  permission  from  Francis  I.,  at  the  request  of 
king  Henry  VIII.,  to  print  his  Bible  at  Paris.  But  notwithstanding 
the  royal  license,  the  inquisition  interposed,  and  issued  an  order, 
dated  December  17,  1538,  summoning  the  French  printers,  their 
English  employers,  and  Coverdale,  the  corrector  of  the  work,  and 
prohibiting  them  to  proceed  ;  and  the  impression,  consisting  of  2500 
copies,  was  seized,  confiscated,  and  condemned  to  the  flames. 
Some  chests,  however,  of  these  books  escaped  the  fire,  by  the  avarice 
of  the  person  who  was  appointed  to  superintend  the  biu-ning  of 
them  ;  and  the  English  proprietors,  who  had  fled  on  the  first  alarm, 
returned  to  Paris  as  soon  as  it  subsided,  and  not  only  recovered 
some  of  these  copies,  but  brought  with  them  to  London  the  presses, 
types,  and  printers,  and,  resuming  the  work,  finished  it  in  the  follow- 
ing year. 

As  soon  as  the  papal  power  was  abolished  in  England,  and  the 
king's  supremacy  settled  by  parliament  in  1534,  Cranmer  was  very 
assiduous  in  promoting  the  translation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  into 
the  vulgar  tongue ;  well  knowing  how  much  the  progress  of  the 
reformation  depended  upon  this  measure.  Accordingly,  he  moved 
in  convocation,  that  a  petition  should  be  presented  to  the  king  for 
leave  to  procure  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible.  This  motion  was 
vigorously  opposed  by  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester,  and  his 
party:  but  Cranmer  prevailed.  The  arguments  for  a  new  transla- 
tion, urged  by  Cranmer,  and  enforced  by  Queen  Anne  Bullen,  who 
had  then  great  interest  in  the  king's  affections,  were  so  much  con- 

*  Lewis,  p.  108. 

6  Hist.  Account,  &c.  in  Bishop  Watson's  Collection,  vol.  iii.  p.  94. 

6  Acts,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  516. 

■>  Life  of  Cranmer,  p.  64.  ; 


Sect.  VI.  5  3.] 


ENGLISH  VERSIONS, 


35 


hiderod  by  him,  ihat,  notwillistandinf;  tlio  opposition,  public  and 
j)rival(>,  on  llie  part  of  (iardincr  and  liis  adlierenl.s,  Henry  gave 
oi'dei-H  lor  selling  about  it  innnedialnly.  To  prevent  any  revocalion 
of  the  order,  (."ramner,  wlioso  mind  was  intent  on  introdiicin;,'  a 
I'ree  use  of  the  Kngiisli  Seriplin-es  by  failhi'iil  and  able  translators, 
proeoeded  without  delay  to  divide  an  olil  English  translation  of 
the  New  Teslanient  inl<i  nine  or  ten  parts,  which  he  caused  to  be 
traiiseriljed  into  paper-books,  and  t(»  be  distributed  anioiif,'  the  most 
learned  bishops  and  others;  recjuiriiif^  that  they  would  perli'iily 
correct  their  respective  jiorlions,  and  return  them  to  him  at  a 
limited  time.  WIkmi  the  assi);ned  day  came,  every  man  sent  his  ap- 
liropriale  portion  to  l,ambi'lli,  <>\ccpl  Slokesly,  bishop  of  London. 
I'liis  laudable  d<'siL,'n  of  lli<!  archbishop  (iiilcd  ;  but  the  business 
was  executed  by  other  persons,  whom  li<^  coinilenanced  and  en- 
c-ourai_'e(l.  In  April,  l.OIi'J,  Oraflon  and  \Vhit(-hurch  printed  the 
IJiblc.  ihe  title  of  vvhi<h  is  >,'iven  at  the  head  of  this  article.  From 
its  coulaininf;  a  prologue  or  prefiici^  by  archbishop  (,'ratuner,  as 
well  :,.■!  from  its  size,  it  is  <()nnnonly  termed  "  Craumer's  (Ireat 
IJiblc."'  A  inaf.'nilicenl  an<l  probably  uni(|iu'copy  of  it. on  vellum, 
wliicli  formerly  l)cdon!;ed  to  Henry  V'lll.,  is  preserved  in  the  Li- 
brary of  the  British  Museum.  It  is  richly  illuminated  ;  and  the 
vividness  of  the  colours  is  very  little  impaired.  This  edition  has 
a  beautiful  frontispiece,  designed  by  Holbein,  and  particularly  de- 
scribed and  exhibited  in  an  engraving  by  Lewis;  and  in  the  text 
those  parls  of  thi'  Lai  in  \'ersion,  which  are  not  (bund  in  the  He- 
brew or  (ireck,  are  inserted  in  a  smaller  letter;  such,  l()r  instance, 
as  the  three  mm-scs  of  the  lllli  IVulm,  which  are  the  .'ilh,  Olh,  and 
7lh,  in  the  translation  of  the  I'jiglish  liturgy,  and  the  conlrovertcd 
clause  in  1  John  v.  7,  8.  ;  and  a  mark  is  used  to  denote  a  dillerence 
of  reading  between  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  afierwanls  explained 
in  a  separate  treatise.  In  this  edition  Matthew's  Bible  was  re- 
vised, and  several  alterations  and  corrections  were  made  in  the 
translation,  especially  in  the  book  of  Psalms.  Tindal's  jirologues 
and  notes,  and  the  notes  added  by  others,  in  the  edition  of  1537, 
Were  wholly  omitted.  The  superintendence  of  this  work  was 
eonlidcd  to  Ooverdale,  who,  in  a  sermon  at  Si.  Paul's  Oross,  defend- 
ed his  translation  from  some  slanderous  reporls  wiiich  were  then 
raised  against  it,  acknowledging  that  "he  himself  now  saw  some 
faults,  which,  if  he  might  review  the  hook  once  again,  as  he  had 
twice  bclbre,  he  doubted  not  he  should  amend  :  but  lor  any  heresy, 
lie  was  sur('  thai  there  were  none  maintained  in  his  translation." 
This  i:s  related  by  Dr.  Fulke,  who  was  one  of  Coverdale's  auditors. 


7.  Tavf.rner's  Bible. 

Tiie  most  sacred  Bible,  whichc  is  the  holy  scripture,  rontayn- 
ing  the  oldc  and  new  testament,  translated  into  English,  and 
newly  recognised  with  great  diligence  after  mo.st  faythful  e.xciii- 
jtlars,  by  Kichard  Taverneu.  London.  Pryiitcd  by  John  Byd- 
dell.  M. II. XXXIX.  folio. 

Hichard  Taverner,  tlie  editor  of  Ihe  Bible  which  bears  his  name, 
vv.is  (Mlucaled  at  ('hrist  Church,  0.\li)rd,  patronized  by  Lord  Crom- 
well, and  probably  encouraged  by  him  to  undertake  the  work,  on 
account  of  his  skill  in  the  Greek  longiic.  This  is  neither  a  bare 
revisal  of  Cranmer's  Bible,  nor  a  new  version  ;  but  a  kind  of  inter- 
mediate work,  being  a  correction  of  what  is  called  "Matthew's 
Bible,"  many  of  whose  marginal  noies  arc  adopted,  and  manv 
omitted,  and  others  inserted  by  the  editor.  It  is  dedieatetl  to  the 
king.  After  his  |)atron's  death,  Taverner  was  imjirisoned  in  the 
Tower  for  this  work;  but  he  had  the  address  to  reinstate  himself  in 
Ihe  king's  favour.  WooiH  gives  a  particular  account  of  Taverner  ; 
attributes  his  imprisonment  to  the  influence  of  those  bishops  who 
were  addicted  to  the  Koinish  religion;  and  informs  us,  that  his 
version  was  read  in  churches  by  royal  authority. 


8.  Other  EniTiox.s  of  the  English  Bible,  DuniNO  the 
Rkmai>m)eii  of  Henrt  VIII.'s  Reigx,  and  the  Reign 
OF   Edw^ari)   VI. 

In  November,  1539,  the  king,  at  the  intercession  of  Cranmer, 
appointed  Lord  Cromwell  to  take  special  care  that  no  person 
within  the  realm  should  attctnpt  to  print  any  English  Bible  for 
five  years,  but  such  as  should  be  admitted  by  Lord  Cromwell; 
and  assigns  this  reason  for  the  prohibition,  that  the  Bible  should 
be  considered  and  perused  in  one  translation,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  manifold  inconveniences  to  which  human  frailty  might  be 
subject  from  a  diversity  of  translations,  and  the  ill  u.se  that  might 
be  made  of  it.  In  the  year  1.540,  two  privileged  editions  of  the 
Bible,  which  had  been  printed  in  the  preceding  year,  issued  from 
the  press  of  Edward  Whitchurch.  Lewis  mentions  three  other 
impressions  of  the  "  Great  Bible,"  which  appeared  in  the  course 
of  this  year;  two  printed  by  Whitchurch,  and  one  by  Petyt 
and  Redman.  Cranmer  wrote  a  preface  for  the  editions  of  the 
year  1540,  from  wliich  we  learn  the  opinions  and  practice  of 
those  times.     In  May  of  this  year,  the  curates  and  parishioners 

>  Johnson's  Hist.  Ace.  in  Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  76. 
9  UisL  et  Ant.  Uaiv.  Oxod.  1.  ii.  p.  2&1.    Edit.  1674. 


of  every  parisii  were  rcfpiired  by  royal  proclamation,  to  provide 
them.selves  with  the  Bible  of  the  largest  volume  before  the  feast 
of  All  Saints,  under  the  penalty  of  40s.  for  every  month  dur- 
ing which  they  should  be  without  it.  'i'hc  king  charged  all 
ordinaries  to  enforce  the  observance  of  this  proclamation  ;  and 
he  ap|)rizc(l  the  people,  that  his  allowing  them  the  Scriptures  in 
their  mother-tongue  was  not  his  duty,  but  an  evidence  of  his 
goodness  and  liberality  to  tlieni,  of  which  he  exhorted  them  not 
to  make  any  ill  u.se.  In  .May,  1541,  one  edition  of  Cranmer's 
Bible  was  linishcd  by  Richard  Grafton  ;  who,  in  the  Novembei 
following,  completed  also  another  Bible  of  the  largest  volume 
wliich  was  su|)erintended,  at  the  king's  command,  by  Tonstal, 
bishop  of  Durham,  and  Heath,  bishop  of  Rochester. 

In  con.seciuence  of  the  king's  .settled  ju<igment,  "  that  his  sub- 
ject.s  should  be  nursed  in  (,'hrist  by  reading  the  Scriptures,"  he 
again,  on  the  7lh  of  .May,  ])ublished  a  brief  or  decree  for  setting  up 
the  Bible  of  the  great  volume  in  every  parish  church  throughout 
Ijiigland.  However,  this  decree  appears  to  iiave  been  very 
partially  and  reluctantly  observed  ;  and  the  bishops  were  charged, 
by  a  writer  in  1.540,  with  attempting  to  suppress  the  Bible,  un- 
der pretence  of  preparing  a  version  of  it  for  publication  within 
seven  years.  After  the  death  of  Cromwell  in  1540,  the  bishops 
inclined  to  popery  gained  strength;  and  the  English  translation 
was  represented  to  the  king  as  very  erroneous  and  heretical,  and 
destructive  of  the  harmony  and  peace  of  the  kingdom.  In  the 
convocation  assembled  in  Feb.  1542,  the  archbishoj),  in  the 
king's  name,  required  the  bishops  and  clergy  to  revise  the  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament,  which,  for  that  purpose,  was  di- 
vided into  fourteen  parts,  and  portioned  out  to  fifteen  bi.shops; 
the  Ajiocalypse,  on  account  of  its  dilliculty,  being  assigned  to 
two.  Ganliner  clogged  this  business  with  embarra.ssing  instruc- 
tions; and  Cranmer,  dearly  perceiving  the  resolution  of  the 
bishops  to  defeat  the  pro[)Osed  translation,  procured  the  king's 
consent  to  refer  the  matter  to  the  two  universities,  against  wiiich 
the  bishops  protested  ;  but  the  archbishop  declan-d  his  purpose 
to  adhere  to  the  will  of  the  king  his  master.  W  ith  this  contest 
Ihe  business  terminated  ;  and  the  convocation  was  soon  after  dis- 
solved. The  Romish  party  prevailed  also  in  parliament,  which 
enacted  a  law  that  condemned  and  abolished  Tindal's  transla- 
tion, and  allowed  other  translations  to  remain  in  force,  under 
certain  restrictions.  After  the  passing  of  this  act,  Grafton,  the 
king's  printer,  was  imprisoned  ;  nor  was  he  released  without 
giving  a  bond  of  300/.  neither  to  jjrint  nor  sell  any  more  English 
Bibles  till  the  king  and  the  clergy  should  agree  on  a  translation. 
In  1544,  the  Pentateuch  was  printed  by  Jolin  Day  and  William 
Seres;  and  in  154(5,  the  king  prohibited  by  proclamation  the 
having  and  reading  of  Wiclilfc's,  Tindal's,  and  Coverdale's 
translations,  and  forbad  the  use  of  any  other  than  what  was  al- 
lowed by  parliament.  From  the  history  of  English  translations 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  we  learn  that  the  friends  to 
the  reformation  conducted  themselves  with  zeal  and  prudence  in 
the  great  work  of  introducing  and  improving  English  tranl.sations 
of  the  Bible  ;  that  they  encountered  many  dilliculties  from  the 
dangerous  inconstancy  of  a  despotic  prince,  and  from  the  inve- 
terate prejudices  of  a  strong  Romish  jiarty ;  and  that  the  Eng- 
lish Scriptures  were  sought  after  and  read  with  avidity  by  the 
bulk  of  the  people. 

Upon  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  the  severe  stat.  34  and  35 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  1.  was  repealed,  and  a  royal  injunction  was  pub- 
lished, that  not  only  the  whole  English  Bible  should  be  placed 
in  churches,  but  also  the  paraphrase  of  Erasmus  in  English  to 
the  end  of  the  four  Evangelists.  It  was  likewise  ordered  by  this 
injunction,  that  every  parson,  vicar,  curate,  &c.  under  the  degree 
of  a  bachelor  of  divinity,  should  possess  the  New  Testament, 
both  in  Latin  and  English,  with  the  paraphrase  of  Erasmus 
upon  it ;  and  that  the  bishops,  &c.  in  their  visitations  and  synods 
should  examine  them,  how  they  had  profited  in  the  study  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  It  was  also  appointed,  that  the  ejjistle  and 
gospel  of  the  mass  should  be  read  in  English ;  and  that  on  every 
Sunday  and  holiday,  one  chapter  of  the  New  Tcstiiment  in 
English  should  be  plainly  and  distinctly  read  at  matins,  and  one 
chapter  of  the  Old  Testament  at  even-song.  But  in  the  year 
1549,  when  the  book  of  Common  Prayer,  <Scc.  was  finished, 
what  nearly  resembles  our  present  custom  was  enjoined,  viz. 
that  after  reading  the  Psalms  in  order  at  morning  and  evening 
prayer,  two  lessons,  the  first  from  the  Old  Testament,  and  the 
second  from  the  New  Testament,  should  be  read  distinctly  with 
a  loud  voice.  During  the  course  of  this  reign,  that  is,  in  less 
than  seven  years  and  six  months,  eleven  impressions  of  the 
whole  English  Bible  were  published,  and  six  of  the  EngUsh 
New  Testament ;  besides  an  English  translation  of  the  whole 


36 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Paht  I.  Chap.  I. 


New  Testament,  paraphrased  by  Erasmus.  The  Bibles  were 
reprinted,  according  to  the  preceding  editions,  whether  Tindal's, 
Coverdale's,  Matthew's,  Cranmcr's,  or  Taverner's  ;  that  is,  with 
a  difVeient  text,  and  dilFerent  notes.  But  it  is  doubted  by  the 
writer  of  the  preface  to  King  James's  translation,  whether  there 
were  any  translation,  or  correction  of  a  translation,  in  the  course 
of  this  reign. 

In  1562,  the  "  Great  Bible,"  viz.  that  of  Coverdale's  transla- 
tion, which  had  been  printed  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
also  in  the  time  of  king  Edward,  was  revised  by  Archbishop 
Parker,  and  reprinted  for  the  use  of  the  church ;  and  this  was 
to  serve  till  that  projected  by  his  grace  was  ready  for  publication. 

9.  Anglq-Gexevese  Vehsion. 
(1.)  JVe-w  Testameiit.  ' 

The  Newe  Testament  of  our  Lord  lesus  Christ,  conferred  di- 
ligently with  the  Greke  and  best  approued  translations.  With 
the  arguments  as  wel  before  the  chapters,  as  for  euery  Boke  and 
Epistle,  also  diuersities  of  readings,  and  moste  prolfitable  anno- 
tations of  all  harde  places  :  whereunto  is  added  a  copious  Table. 
At  Geneva.  Printed  by  Conrad  Badius.  1557,  Svo.  Second 
edition,  Geneva,  1560,  Svo, 

This  translation  was  made  by  many  of  the  principal  English  Re- 
formers, who  had  been  driven  to  Geneva  during  the  sanguinary 
persecutions  of  the  bigoted  Queen  Mary :  it  is  the  first  in  our  lan- 
guage which  contains  the  distinctions  of  verses  by  numerical 
figure*  after  the  manner  of  the  Greek  Testament,  which  had  been 
publisjied  by  Robert  Stephens  in  1551.  R.  Stephens,  indeed,  pub- 
lished his  figures  in  the  margin:  whereas  the  Geneva  editors  pre- 
fixed theirs  to  the  beginning  of  minute  subdivisions  with  breaks, 
after  our  present  manner.  When  Queen  Elizabeth  passed  through 
London  from  the  tower  to  her  coronation,  a  pageant  was  erecfed 
in  Cheapside,  representing  Time  coming  out  of  a  cave  and  leading 
a  person  clothed  in  white  silk,  who  represented  Truth,  his  daugli- 
ter.  Truth  had  the  English  Bible  in  her  hand,  on  which  was 
written  "  Verbum  verilatis."  Truth  addressed  the  queen,  and 
presented  her  with  the  book.  She  kissed  it,  held  it  in  her  hand,  laid 
it  on  her  breast,  greatly  thanked  the  city  for  their  present,  and 
added,  that  she  would  often  and  diligently  read  it.  Upon  a  royal 
visitation  in  1559,  the  Bible,  and  Erasmus's  paraphrase,  were  re- 
stored to  the  churches;  and  articles  of  inquiry  were  exhibited, 
whether  the  clergy  discouraged  any  from  reading  any  part  of  the 
Scriptures.  "  Ministers  were  also  enjoined  to  read  every  day  one 
chapter  of  the  Bible  at  least ;  and  all  who  were  admitted  readers 
in  the  church  were  daily  to  read  one  chapter  at  least  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  another  of  the  New,  with  good  advisement,  to  the 
increase  of  their  knowledge." 

(2.)    The  entire  Bible. 

The  Bible:  that  is,  the  Holy  Scriptures,  conteined  in  the  Olde 
and  Newe  Testament.  Translated  according  to  the  Ebrewe 
and  Greke,  and  conferred  with  the  best  translations  in  divers 
languages,  with  most  profitable  annotations  upon  all  the  harde 
places,  and  other  thinges  of  great  importance,  as  may  appeare 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Reader.  Imprinted  at  London  by  Christo- 
pher Barker,     m.d.lxxvi.  large  4to.' 

The  first  edition  of  the  Geneva  Bible  was  printed  at  Geneva  by 
Rowland  Harle  in  1560.  Eight  years  after,  it  was  printed  in  two 
volumes  folio,  and  again  at  Geneva,  1570,  folio  ;  at  London,  in  folio 
and  quarto,  in  1572,  and  in  1575  and  1576,  in  quarto.  The  transla- 
tors were  bishop  Coverdale,  Anthony  Gilby,  William  Whitlingham, 
Christopher  Woodman.  Thomas  Sampson,  and  Thomas  Cole ;  to 
whom  some  add  John  Knox,  John  Bodleigh,  and  John  Pullain  ;  all 
zealous  Calvinists,  both  in  doctrine  and  discipline :  but  the  chief 
and  the  most  learned  of  them  were  the  three  first.  Professing  to 
observe  the  sense,  and  to  adhere  as  much  as  possible  to  the  words 
of  the  original,  and  in  many  places  to  preserve  the  Hebrew  phraseo- 
logy, after  the  unremitting  labour  and  study  of  more  than  two 
years,  they  finished  their  translation,  and  published  it ;  with  an 
epistle  dedicatory  to  the  queen,  and  another,  by  way  of  preface,  to 
their  brethren  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  Besides  the 
translation,  the  editors  of  the  Geneva  Bible  noted  in  the  margin  the 
diversities  of  speech  and  reading,  especially  according  to  the  He- 
brew ;  then  inserted  in  the  text,  with  another  kind  of  letter,  every 
word  that  seemed  to  be  necessary  for  explaining  any  particular 
sentence ;  in  the  division  of  the  verses,  they  followed  the  Hebrew 
examples,  and  added  the  number  to  each  verse  ;  they  also  noted 
the  principal  matters,  and  the  arguments,  both  for  each  book  and 
each  chapter ;  they  set  over  the  head  of  every  page  some  remark- 
able word  or  sentence,  for  helping  the  memory ;  they  introduced 
brief  annotations  for  ascertaining  the  text  and  explaining  obscure 
words ;  they  set  forth  with  figures  certain  places  in  the  books  of 
Moses,  of  the  Kings,  and  Ezekiel,  which  could  not  be  made  intelli- 
gible by  any  other  description ;  they  added  maps  of  divers  places 
and  countries  mentioned  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament ;  and  they 
annexed  two  tables,  one  for  the  interpretation  of  Hebrew  names, 
and  the  other  containing  all  the  chief  matters  of  the  whole  Bible. 

« In  Lewis's  History,  pp.  264—269.  (Svo.  edit.)  there  is  a  full  description 
cf  the  contents  of  tliis  volume. 


Of  this  translation,  there  were  above  thirty  editions  in  folio,  4to.,  or 
8vo.,  mostly  printed  by  the  queen's  and  king's  printer,  between  the 
years  1560  and  1616.  Editions  of  it  were  likewise  printed  at  Geneva, 
Edinburgh,  and  Amsterdam.  To  some  editions  of  the  Geneva 
Bible,  (as  to  those  of  1599  and  of  1611)  is  subjoined  Beza's  transla- 
tion of  the  J\ew  Testament,  Englished  by  L.  Tompson. 

10.  Archbishop  Pahkeh's,  or,  the  Bishops'  Bible. 
The  holie  Bible.     Imprinted  at  London  in  povvles  Church- 
yarde,  by  Richard  Jugge.     m.d.lxviii.  folio. 

In  the  year  1568,  the  Bible,  proposed  by  Archbishop  Parker  three 
years  before,  was  completed.  This  edition,  according  to  Le  Long, 
was  undertaken  by  royal  command;  and  it  is  mentioned  by  Strype, 
to  the  honour  of  the  archbishop,  that  he  had  resolution  to  perform 
what  Cranmer,  as  opposed  by  the  bishops  of  this  days,  had  in  vain 
endeavoured  to  accomplish.  In  tliis  performance,  distinct  portions 
of  the  Bible,  at  least  15  in  number,  were  allotted  to  select  men  of 
learning  and  abilities,  appointed,  as  Fuller  says,  by  the  queen's 
commission;  but  it  still  remains  uncertain  who,  and  whether  one 
or  more,  revised  the  rest  of  tlie  New  Testament.  Eight  of  the 
persons  employed  were  bishops;  whence  the  book  was  called  the 
"  Bishops'  Bible,"  and  the  "  Great  English  Bible."  The  archbishop 
employed  other  critics  to  compare  this  Bible  with  the  original  lan- 
guages, and  with  the  former  translations;  one  of  whom  was  Laurence, 
a  man  famous  in  those  times  Ipr  his  knowledge  of  Greek,  whose 
casligations  the  Bishops'  Bible  followed  exactly.  His  grace  also 
sent  instructions  concerning  the  method  which  his  translators  were 
to  observe  ;  and  recommended  the  addition  of  some  short  marginal 
notes  for  tlie  illustration  or  correction  of  the  text.  But  the  particu- 
lars of  these  instructions  are  not  known.  The  archbishop,  however, 
directed,  reviewed,  and  finished  the  whole  ;  wliich  was  printed  and 
published,  in  1568,  in  a  large  folio  size,  and  with  a  beautiful  Eng- 
lish letter,  on  royal  paper ;  and  embellished  with  several  cuts  of 
the  most  remarkable  things  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and 
in  the  Apocrypha,  with  maps  cut  in  wood,  and  other  engravings  on 
copper.  It  has  numerous  marginal  references  and  notes,  and  many 
useful  tables.  It  also  has  numerous  insertions  between  brackets, 
and  in  a  smaller  character;  which  are  equivalent  to  the  Italics 
afterwards  used  by  James's  translators.  Dr.  Gcddes  is  of  opinion,^ 
tliat  Italic  supplements  were  first  used  by  Arias  Montanus,  who 
died  in  1598.  The  several  additions  from  the  vulgar  Latin,  insert- 
ed in  the  "Great  Bible,"  are  omitted;  and  verse  7.  of  1  John  v., 
which  was  before  distinguished  by  its  being  printed  in  a  different 
letter,  is  here  printed  without  any  distinction  ;  and  the  chapters  are 
divided  into  verses.  In  the  following  year,  1569,  it  was  again  pub- 
lished in  large  Svo.  for  the  use  of  private  families.  This  Bible  was 
reprinted  in  1572,  in  large  folio,  with  several  corrections  and  amend- 
ments, and  several  prolegomena  ;  this  is  called  "Matthew  Parker's 
Bible."  With  regard  to  this  Bible,  Lewis^  observes,  that  the  editions 
of  it  are  mostly  in  folio  and  4to.,  and  that  he  never  heard  but  of 
one  in  Svo. ;  for  which  he  supposes  this  to  be  the  reason,  that  it  was 
principally  designed  for  the  use  of  churches.  In  the  convocation  of 
the  province  of  Canterbury,  which  met  in  April,  1571,  a  canon  was 
made,  enjoining  the  churchwardens  to  see  that  the  Holy  Bible  be 
in  every  church  in  the  largest  volumes,  if  convenient;  and  it  was 
likewise  ordered,  that  every  archbishop  and  bishop,  every  dean  and 
chief  residentiar)',  and  every  archdeacon,  should  have  one  of  these 
Bibles  in  their  cathedrals,  churches,  and  families.  This  translation 
was  used  in  the  churches  for  forty  years  ;  though  the  Geneva  Bible 
was  more  read  in  private  houses. 

11.  King  James's  Bible,  or,  the  authorized  Version  now 

IN    USE. 

The  last  English  version  that  remains  to  be  noticed,  is  the-au- 
thorized  translation  now  in  use,  which  is  commonly  called  King 
James's  Bible.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England  in  1602  ; 
and,  several  objections  having  been  made  to  the  Bishops'  Bible 
at  the  conference  held  at  Hampton  Court  in  1 60.3,  the  king  in 
the  following  year  gave  orders  for  the  undertaking  of  a  new 
version,  and  fifty-four  learned  men  were  appointed  to  this  im- 
portant labour :  but,  before  it  was  commenced,  seven  of  the 
persons  nominated  were  either  dead  or  had  declined  the  task  ;  for 
the  list, as  given  us  by  Fuller,'  comprises  only  forty-seven  names. 
All  of  them,  however,  were  pre-eminently  distinguished  for  their 
piety  and  for  their  profound  learning  in  the  original  languages  of  the 
sacred  writings ;  and  such  of  them  as  survived  till  the  commence- 
ment of  the  work  were  divided  into  six  classes.  Ten  were  to  meet 
at  Westminster,  and  to  translate  from  the  Pentateuch  to  the  end  of 
the  second  book  of  Kings.  Eight  assembled  at  Cambridge,  were 
to  finish  the  rest  of  the  Historical  Books,  and  the  Hagiographa. 
At  Oxford,  seven  were  to  undertake  the  four  greater  prophets, 
with  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  twelve  minor  pro- 
phets. The  four  Gospels,  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Apoca- 
lypse, were  assigned  to  another  company  of  eight,  also  at  Oxford.: 
and  the  Epistles  oif  St.  Paul,  together  with  the  remaining  ca- 

2  Letter  to  the  Bishop  of  London,  p.  33. 

s  Hist.  Engl.  Transl  p.  61. 

4  Church  History,  Book  x.  pp.  44-46. 


Sect.  VI.  §  3.] 


ENGLISH  VERSIONS. 


37 


nonical  epistles,  were  allolted  1o  another  company  of  seven,  at 
Wcstrninster.  Lastly,  anotlier  company  at  Cainl)riilge  were  to 
translate  the  apocryphal  books,  includiiic;  iho  prayer  of  Manass«'h. 
To  these  six  coniiiaiiies  of  veiieraMe  translators,  the  king  gave 
the  following  instructions: — 

"  1.  Till!  ordinary  I5il>ie  read  in  the  church,  commonly  called  the 
ISisliops'  liiiile,  lu  he  Ibllowcd,  and  aa  litllc  altered  as  the  original 
will  iicrmit. 

•'  2.  The  names  of  the  prophets  and  the  holy  writers,  with  the 
oiher  names  in  llu^  le\l,  to  he  retained  as  near  as  may  he,  accord- 
injjlv  as  ihey  arc  \  iilijariy  used. 

"  3.  The  old  cccjcsiasilcal  words  to  be  kept,  as  the  word  church 
not  lo  he  tratisialcd  (•on;;rc!<alion. 

"4.  When  any  word  h.ilh  divers  significations,  that  to  be  kept 
which  hath  h(!cn  most  conmionly  used  by  the  most  eminent  fathers, 
being  agreeable  U)  the  propriety  of  the  place  and  the  analogy  of 
fail!). 

"  .').  The  division  of  the  chapters  to  be  altered  either  not  at  all,  or 
as  lilth^  as  may  be,  if  necessity  so  require. 

"(>.  No  marginal  notes  at  all  lo  be  affixed,  but  only  for  the  ex- 
planation of  llic  Hebrew  or  (ireck  words,  which  cannot,  without 
some  circuiulociilion,  so  brielly  and  (illy  be  expressed  in  the  text. 

"7.  Such  (|uotalions  of  places  lo  be  marginally  set  down,  as  shall 
serve  for  the  lit  reli'reiices  of  one  Scripture  to  another. 

"  8.  Kvery  particular  man  of  each  company  to  take  the  same 
chapter  or  cliapters;  and  having  transliited  or  amended  them 
severally  l)y  himself,  where  he  thinks  good,  all  to  meet  together,  to 
confer  what  they  have  done,  and  agree  lor  their  part  what  shall 
stand. 

"9.  As  any  one  company  hath  despatched  any  one  book  in  this 
maimer,  ihey  shall  send  it  lo  Iho  rest,  to  he  considered  of  seriously 
and  judiciously:  for  his  mtijesty  is  very  careful  in  this  point. 

"  10.  if  any  company,  upon  the  review  of  the  book  so  sent,  shall 
doubt  or  dilfcr  upon  any  places,  to  send  them  word  thereof,  to  note 
the  places,  and  therewtlhal  to  send  their  reasons  ;  to  which  if  tiicy 
consent  not,  the  dillerence  to  be  compounded  at  the  general  meet- 
ing, which  is  to  be  of  the  chief  persons  of  each  company,  at  the 
end  of  the  work. 

"  11.  When  any  place  of  special  obscurity  is  doubted  of,  letters 
to  be  directed  by  authority,  to  send  to  any  learned  in  the  land  lor 
his  judgment  in  such  a  place. 

"  12.  Letters  lo  be  sent  Irom  every  bishop  to  the  rest  of  his  clergy, 
admonishing  them  of  this  translation  in  hand,  and  to  move  and 
charge  as  many  as,  being  skillid  in  the  tongues,  have  taken  pains 
in  that  kind,  to  send  their  particidar  observations  lo  the  company, 
either  at  Westminster,  Cambridge,  or  Oxl()rd,  according  as  it  was 
directed  before  in  the  king's  letter  to  the  archbishop. 

"  13.  The  directors  in  each  company  lo  be  the  Deans  of  West- 
minster and  Chester  for  Westminster,  and  the  King's  Professors  in 
Hebrew  and  (Jreek  in  the  two  Univereities. 

"  14.  These  translations  to  be  used,  wiien  ihey  agree  better  with 
the  text  than  the  Hishops'  Bible,  viz.  Tindal's,  Covcrdale's,  Mat- 
thew's, Whitchurch's,  Geneva. 

['•  l;'j.  Besides  the  said  directors  before  mentioned,  three  or  four 
of  the  most  ancient  and  grave  divines  in  either  of  the  Universities, 
not  em[)loyed  in  translating,  tt)  be  assigned  by  tlie  Vice-chancellor, 
upon  conlerence  with  the  rest  of  the  heads,  to  be  overseers  of  the 
ir:inslation,  as  well  Hebrew  as  Greek,  for  the  better  observation  of 
the  4ih  rule  above  specilied."]' 

According  to  these  regulations,  each  book  passed  the  scrutiny 
of  all  the  translators  successively.  In  the  fir.st  instance,  each  in- 
dividual translated  every  hook,  which  was  allotted  to  his  division. 
Secondly,  the  readings  to  be  adopted  were  agreed  upon  by  the 
whole  of  that  company  asseiublcd  together,  at  which  meeting 
each  translator  must  have  been  solely  occupied  by  his  own  version. 
The  book,  thus  finished,  was  sent  to  each  of  the  other  compa- 
nies to  be  again  examined;  and  at  these  meetings  it  probably 
was,  as  Selden  informs  us,  that  "  one  read  the  translation,  the  rest 
holding  in  their  hands  some  Bible,  either  of  the  learned  tongues, 
or  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  «&c.  If  they  found  any  fault,  they 
spoke;  if  not,  he  read  on.''^  Further,  the  translators  were  em- 
powered to  call  to  their  assistance  any  learned  men,  whose  studies 
enabled  them  to  he  serviceable,  when  an  urgent  occasion  of  ditfi- 
cuUy  presented  itself.  The  translation  was  commenced  in  the 
spring  of  1607,  and  the  com])letion  of  it  occupied  almost  three 
years.  At  the  ex])iration  of  that  time,  three  copies  of  the  whole 
Bible,  thus  translated  and  revised,  wi?re  sent  to  London, — one 
from  Oxford,  one  from  Cambridge,  and  a  third  from  Westminster. 
Hero  a  committee  of  six,  two  being  deputed  by  the  companies  at 
Oxford,  two  by  those  at  Cambridge,  and  two  by  those  at  West- 
minster, reviewed  a:id  polished  the  whole  work :  which  was 
finally  revised  by  Dr.  Smith  (afterwards  bishop  of  Gloucester), 
who  wrote  the  preface,  and  by  Dr.  Bilson,  bishop  of  Winchester. 
This  translation  of  the  Bible  was  first  published  in  folio  in  1611. 

After  the  publication  of  the  present  authorized  translation,  all 

•  The  prpcedina  nilps  arp  piven  from  a  corrected  copy  in  tbi;  Rev.  H.  J. 
Tiiilit's  viiulicalion  of  ouraailiorizeU  Translation  and  Transtators  of  tlie 
Bill!.-,  pp.  9— !•-'.     London,  1SI9,  Svo. 

«  Sulden's  Table  Talk,  article  DiOle.    \Vorlt.=,  vol.  iii.  col.  3009. 


the  other  versions  gradually  fell  into  disuse,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Psalms,  and  the  Ei)istleB  and  Gospels  in  the  book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  which  were  still  continued,  the  former  according  to 
the  translation  of  Craniner's  Bible,  and  the  latter  according  to 
that  of  the  Bishops'  Bible,  until  the  final  revision  of  the  Liturgy, 
in  1001;  at  which  time  the  Epistles  and  (Jospels  v\'ere  taken 
from  the  present  version,  but  the  Psalms  are  still  retained  accord- 
ing to  the  translation  of  Cranmer's  Bible.-* 

Upwards  of  two  centuries  have  elapsed  since  the  authorized 
English  Version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  now  in  use,  was  given 
to  the  British  nation.  During  that  long  interval,  though  many 
|)assages  in  particular  Ixjoks  have  been  elucidated  by  learned 
men,  with  eijual  felicity  anil  ability  ;  yet  its  general  fidelity, 
perspicuity,  and  excellence,  have  deservedly  given  our  present 
translation  a  high  and  distinguished  |)lace  in  the  judgment  of  the 
Christian  world,  wherever  the  English  language  is  known  or 
read.  Of  late  years,  however,  this  admirable  version — the  guide 
and  solace  of  the  sincere  Christian — has  been  attacked  with  no 
common  virulence,  and  arraigned  as  being  deficient  in  fidelity, 
perspicuity,  and  elegance ;  ambiguous  and  incorrect,  even  in 
matters  of  the  highest  importance.  The  principal  antagonists 
of  this  version,  in  the  present  day  (to  omit  the  bold  and  un- 
measured assertions  of  the  late  Dr.  Geddes,  and  others),  are  Mr. 
.lohn  Bellamy,'  in  the  prospectus,  preface,  and  notes  of  his  new 
translation  of  the  Bible,  and  Sir  James  Bland  Burges,  in  his 
"  Reasons  in  favour  of  a  New  Translation  of  the  Scriptures," 
(Svo.  London,  1819,)  which  were  designed  as  a  defence  of  Mr. 
Bellamy  against  the  severe  strictures  of  the  Quarterly  Review. 
The  former  of  these  writers,  in  his  octavo  prospectus  issued  in 
1818,  allirmed  that  "no  translation  has  been  made  from  the  ori- 
ginal Hebrew  since  the  128th  year  of  Christ :"  and  that  "in  the 
fourth  century  Jerome  made  his  Latin  version  from  this"  [the 
Greek]  "  translation  ;  from  which  came  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate  all  the  European  translations  have  been 
made  ;  thereby  perpetuating  all  the  errors  of  the  first  translators." 
These  erroneous  and  unqualified  assertions  of  Mr.  Bellamy,  as 
well  as  the  assertions  or  implications  of  Sir  J.  B.  Burges,  have 
been  answered  in  detail  by  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Whittaker  and  'i'odd, 
in  their  works  cited  below, ^  to  which  the  reader  is  referred :  and, 
in  further  refutation  of  Mr.  Bellamy's  assertions,  it  is  suHicient 
to  refer  to  the  account  already  given  of  our  present  authorized 
version.^ 

We  shall  conclude  the  present  notice  of  their  admirable  version, 
with  a  few  of  the  very  numerous  testimonies  to  its  value,  which 
have  been  collected  by  Archbishop  Newcomc  and  Mr.  Todd,  and 
shall  subjoin  two  or  three  others  that  appear  to  have  eluded  their 
researches. 

1.  Jon.v  Selden.'' — "The  English  translation  of  the  Bible  is  the 
best  translation  in  the  world,  and  renders  the  sense  of  the  original  licst, 
taking  in  for  the  English  translation  the  Bishr,j)s'  Bible  as  well  ag 
King  James's.  The  translators  in  King  James's  lime  took  an  excellent 
way.  That  part  of  the  Bible  was  given  to  him,  who  was  most  ex- 
cellent in  such  a  tongue  :  as  the  apocrypha  to  Andrew  Dov\ns  :  and 
then  they  met  together,  and  one  read  the  translation,  the  rest  hold- 
ing in  their  hands  some  Bible,  either  of  ihe  learned  tongues,  or 
French,  Spanish,  Italian,  &c.  If  they  found  any  fault,  they  spoke; 
if  not,  he  read  on.  There  is  no  lx)ok  .so  translated  as  the  Bible  (or 
the  pur[X)se.  If  I  translate  a  French  book  into  English,  I  turn  it 
into  English  phrase,  not  into  French-English.  Jl  fail  froid;  I  say, 
'tis  cold,  not  makes  colrl.  But  the  Bible  is  rather  translated  into  Eng- 
lish words  than  into  English  phrase.  The  Hebraisms  are  kept,  and 
Ihe  phrase  of  that  language  is  kepi." 

»  About  the  time  when  King  James  resolved  on  a  new  translation  of  the 
Scripture.?,  another  translation  was  finished  by  Mr.  Auiljrose  Usher,  Ihe 
elder  brother  of  Archbishop  Usher.  It  is  sliU  in  niarniscripl,  and  is  pre.- 
served  in  llie  library  of  Trinity  Collcse,  Dublin.  There  are  likewise  extant 
in  print  several  E^nj^lish  translations  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  of 
detached  parts  thereof:  but  as  lliese  are  more  or  less  accompanied  wilti 
notes,  an  account  ofthem  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent  pari  of  this  Ap- 
pendix. 

*  A  notice  of  Mr.  Bellamy's  work  will  also  be  found  in  a  subsequent  part 
of  lliis  Appendix. 

'  A  V'iudication  of  our  authorized  Tran.slation  and  Translators  of  the 
lijble,  and  of  preceding  English  V'cr.<;ions  authoritatively  commended  to  the 
Noiice  of  those  Translators,  &c.  <fec.  Uy  the  Rev.  H.  J.  Todd,  M.A.  Jx)ndon, 
ISl'.t,  3vo.  —  An  Historical  and  Critical  ln(pnry  into  the  Interprelalion  of  Ihe 
ilebrew  Scriptures,  witli  Remarks  on  Mr.  Bellamy's  New  "Translation.  By 
J.  W.  Whittaker,  MA.     London,  I.-^IH,  Svo. 

«  The  seventh  section  of  Mr.  Todd's  Vindication  of  Ihe  latter  translation 
contains  an  account  of  Ihe  forty-seven  translators  who  were  employed  oa 
it,  and  of  the  stale  of  learning  in  their  time.  This  does  not  admit  of  abridg- 
ment, but  Ihe  result  is  hisrlily  satisfactory,  and  proves  that  those  venerable 
men  were  eminently  skilled  in  Ihe  Oriental  and  Greek  lan^uaaes,  and  con- 
.•sequently  were,  in  every  resiiect,  fitted  for  the  high  and  honourable  tasli 
assigned  to  them  by  their  sovereijin.  That  Luther's  German  Version  wag 
made  from  the  original  languages  of  the  Scriptures,  see  page  43.  infra; 
and  for  other  European  translations,  see  the  following  pages  of  this  section. 

'  Selden,  Works,  iii.  3009.  This  is  cited  by  Abp.  Newcoine,  without  ad- 
dition. Selden  was  the  contemporary  of  the  translators.  He  died  in  1654, 
at  the  age  of  70. 


38 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I. 


2.  Bishop  Walton.' — "Tlie  last  English  translation  made  by 
divers  learnod  nieii  at  the  command  of  King  James,  though  it  may 
justly  conlcnd  with  any  now  extant  in  any  other  language  in  Europe, 
was  yet  carped  and  cavilled  at  by  diverse  among  ourselves;  espe- 
cially by2  one,  who  being  passed  liy,  and  not  employed  in  tiie  work, 
as  one,  though  skilled  in  the  Hebrew,  yet  of  little  or  no  judgment 
in  thai  or  any  other  kinde  of  learning,  was  so  higldy  olFended  that 
he  W9uld  needs  undertake  to  show  now  many  thousand  places  they 
had  falsdi/  rendered,  when  as  he  could  hardly  make  good  Jiis  under- 
iaklnf!  in  am/  one!" 

3.  Bishop  LowTH.3—"Tiie  vulgar  translation  of  the  Bible— is 
'  the  best  standard  of  our  language." 

4.  Bi.sitop  IIoiisi.EY.' — "  When  the  translators  in  James  the 
First's  lime  began  their  work,  they  prescribed  to  themselves  some 
rules,  which  it  may  not  be  amiss  lor  all  translators  to  follow.  Their 
reverence  for  the  sacred  Scriptures  induced  them  to  be  as  literal  as 
they  could,  to  avoid  obscurity  ;  and  it  must  be  acknowledged,  that 
they  were  extremely  happy  in  the  simplicity  and  dignity  of  their 
expressions.  Their  adherence  to  the  Hebrew  idiom  is  supposed  at 
once  to  have  enriched  and  adorned  our  language  ;  and  as  they  labour- 
ed for  the  general  benefit  of  the  learned  and  the  nnlearned,  they 
avoided  all  words  of  Latin  original,  when  they  could  find  words  in 
their  own  language,  even  with  the  aid  of  adverbs  and  propositions, 
which  would  express  their  meaning." 

5.  Bishop  Middleton.^ — "The  style  of  our  present  version  is 
incomparably  superior  to  any  thing  which  might  be  expected  from 
the  finical  and  perverted  taste  of  our  own  age.  It  is  simple,  it  is 
harmonious,  it  is  energetic  ;  and,  which  is  of  no  small  importance, 
use  has  made  it  familiar,  and  time  has  rendered  it  sacred." 

6.  Dr.  White,  Professor  of  Arabic  at  Oxford. — "  After  stating 
the  accuracy  and  scrupulous  attention  of  the  authors  of  this  trans- 
lation, he  adds  : — "  When  the  version  appeared,  it  appeared,  like- 
wise, that  this  accuracy  and  scrupulousness  had  not  been  mis- 
employed. The  necessities  of  the  national  church  could  require  no- 
thing further.  It  contained  nothing  but  what  was  pure  in  its  re- 
presentation of  scriptural  doctrine,  nothing  but  what  was  animated 
in  its  expressions  of  devout  affection  :  general  fidelity  to  its  original 
is  hardly  more  its  characteristic,  than  sublimity  in  itself.  The  Eng- 
lish language  acquired  new  dignity  by  it ;  and  has  hardly  acquired 
additional  purity  since  ;  it  is  still  considered  as  a  standard  of  our 
tongue."  ..."  Upon  the  whole,  the  national  churches  of  Europe 
will  have  abundant  reason  to  be  satisfied,  when  their  versions  of 
Scripture  shall  approach  in  point  of  accuracy,  purity,  and  sublimity, 
to  the  acknowledged  excellence  of  our  English  translation. "^ 

7.  Rev.  J.  W.  Whittaker.'' — "  The  highest  value  has  always 
been  attached  to  our  translation  of  the  Bible.  Sciolists,  it  is  true, 
have  often  attempted  to  raise  their  own  reputation  on  the  ruin  of 
that  of  others  ;  and  the  authors  of  the  English  Bible  have  frequent- 
ly been  calumniated  by  charlatans  of  every  description  ;  but  it  may 
safely  be  asserted,  without  tear  of  contradiction,  that  the  nation  at 
large  has  always  paid  our  translators  the  tribute  of  veneration  and 

1  Dr.  Bryan  Walton's  Considorator  considered,  or  a  defence  of  his  Poly- 
glott  Bible,  &.C.  1659,  p.  5.  This  is  not  noticed  by  Abp.  Newconie.  But  a 
most  important  testimony  it  is.  He  was  one  of  those  most  learned  divines, 
who,  in  1G56,  were  publicly  requested  to  consider  ofthe  translations  and  im- 
pressions of  the  Bible,  and  to  offer  their  opinion  therein  to  the  connnittee 
for  religion  ;  Bulstrode  Whitclock  having  the  care  of  this  affair,  at  whose 
house  they  met.  Tliey  preteniled  to  discover  some  mistakes  in  the  last 
English  translation  ;  but  the  business  came  to  nothing.  See  Lewis,  &;c.  p. 
35.5. ;  .Johnson,  ikc.  p.  99.  In  the  above  citation  we  have  the  opinion  of 
Walton  (than  whom  a  more  competent  judge  neither  friends  nor  foes  of 
our  translation  can  produce),  three  years  subsequent  to  this  meeting,  upon 
the  excellenceoft I] is  version,  together  with  his  notice  of  an  impotent  attack 
made  upon  it.  He  has  also,  in  the  Prolegonjena  to  his  Biblia  Polyglolta, 
1657,  placed  our  own  in  the  highest  rank  of  European  translations. 

»  TIlis  person  was  undoubtedly  Hugh  Broughton,  fellow  of  Christ  College, 
Cambridge,  who  had  certainly  attained  great  knowledge  in  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek  tongues.  But  a  more  conceited  or  arrogant  man  hardly  existed. 
With  the  Bishops'  Bible  he  had  found  gi'eat  fault ;  insisted  upon  the  neces- 
sity of  a  new  translation;  pronounced  his  own  sufTicieney  to  make  one 
exactly  agreeable  to  the  original  text  ofthe  Hebrew  ;  boastedof  encourage- 
ment to  this  purpose  from  men  of  all  ranks;  and  at  length  excited  a  very 
warrantable  suspicion,  that,  in  so  important  a  task,  he  was  unfit  to  be  trust, 
ed.  Thus  discountenanced,  he  went  abroad;  leaving  behind  him  this 
quaint  character,  expressive  at  once  of  his  vanity  pnd  learning,  "that  he 
was  gone  to  teach  the  .Jews  Hebrew  !"  See  Sir  J.  Harrington's  Brief  View 
of  the  State  of  the  Church,  16.53,  p.  7.5.  He  returned  to  England,  liowever, 
in  1611,  and  commenced  his  def  imation  against  the  new  translation  to  which 
Walton  adverts.  By  the  contents  of  a  little  tract,  which  he  published  in 
1608,  entitled  "  A  petition  to  the  Lords  to  examine  the  religion  and  carriage 
of  Arclibisliop  Bancroft,"  he  gives  us  no  cause  to  lament  that  he  had  no 
sliare  in  the  new  translation.  1  question  if  his  countrymen  would  have  un- 
derstood his  language  ;  as  the  case  has  been  with  another  partial  translator, 
who  was  not  of  the  authorized  selection'.'  Broughton  thus  rails  at  Bancroft : 
"  Bancroft,  seeing  himself  in  .Judaisine,  as  I  heard  in  his  allowed  libel  equal 
scoffer,  as  of  a  mist  soone  scattered,  raved  against  me  for  pearls  to  such, 
and  holy  things  to  such  !"  p.  2.  "  Bancroft  is  a  deadly  enemy  to  both  Tes- 
taments, and  unallowable  in  this  course  to  be  a  teacher  or  to  rule  in  learn- 
ing !"  p.  8.  After  this  foolory  and  slander,  the  reader  will  not  be  surprised 
to  hear  that  he  abuses  Lively  and  Barlow  also,  two  of  our  authorized  trans. 
lators.  "  : . .-.. 

»  Lowfh,  Inlrod.  to  Eng.  Gramniarj.2d  edit.  p.  93.,  cited  by  Archbishop 
Newcome. 

'  Review  of  Dr.  Geddes's  Translation  of  the  Holy  Bible,  Brit.  Crit.,  July, 
1794,  p.  7.  The  reviewer  is  now  known  to  have  been  the  late  Bishop 
Horsley. 

»  Dr.  Middleton  (late  Bishop  of  Calcutta)  on  the  Greek  Article,  p.  328. 

'  White's  Sermon  before  the  University  of  Oxfonl,  recommending  a 
revisalof  the  English  Translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  p.  9.  Oxford,  1779. 
4to. 

■>  Wliittakor,  Hist,  and  Crit.  Enq.,  p.  92. 


gratitude  which  they  so  justly  merit.  Like  the  mighty  of  former 
times,  they  have  departed,  and  shared  the  common  iiite  of  mortali- 
ty ;  but  they  have  not,  like  those  heroes  of  antiquity,  gone  without 
their  fame,  though  but  little  is  known  of  their  individual  worth. 
Their  reputation  for  learning  and  piety  has  not  descended  with 
them  to  tlie  grave,  though  they  are  there  alike  heedless  ofthe  voice 
of  calumny,  and  deaf  to  the  praise  which  admiring  posterity  awards 
to  the  great  and  good.  Let  us  not,  therefore,  too  hastily  conclude 
that  they  have  fallen  on  evil  days  and  evil  tongues,  because  it  has 
occasionally  happened  that  an  individual,  as  inferior  to  them,  in  erU' 
dition  as  in  talents  and  integrity,  is  found  questioning  their  motives, 
or  denying  their  qualif  rations  for  the  task  vihich  they  so  well  per- 
formed. Their  version  has  been  used,  ever  since  its  first  ap- 
pearance, not  only  by  ilie  church,  but  by  all  the  sects  which  have 
forsaken  her ;  and  has  justly  been  esteemed  by  all  for  its  general  faith- 
fulness, and  the  severe  beauty  of  its  language.  It  has  survived  the 
convulsion  both  of  church  and  state,  being  universally  respected 
by  the  enemies  of  both,  when  the  established  religion  was  perse- 
cuted with  the  most  rancorous  malignity ;  as  if  its  merits  were  in- 
dependent of  circumstances,  and  left  at  a  distance  all  the  petty 
rivalships  of  sectarianism,  and  tlie  etiervcscenee  of  national  phren- 
sy.  It  mm/  be  compared  'with  any  translation  in  the  world,  without 
fear  of  inferiority  ;  it  has  not  shrunk  from  the  7tiost  rigorous  ex- 
amination ;  it  challenges  investigation  ;  and,  in  spile  of  numerous 
attempts  to  supersede  it,  has  hitherto  remained  unrivalled  in  the  affec- 
tions of  the  country." 

8.  Dr.  Doddridge. — "On  a  diligent  comparison  of  our  transla- 
tion with  the  original,  we  find  that  of  the  New  Testament,  and  I 
might  also  add  that  of  the  Old,  in  the  main,  faithful  and  judicious. 
You  know,  indeed,  that  we  do  not  scruple,  on  some  occasions,  to 
animadvert  upon  it:  but  you  also  know,  that  these  remarks  affect 
not  the  fundamentals  of  religion,  and  seldom  reach  any  further 
than  the  beauty  of  a  figure,  or  at  most  the  connection  of  an  argu- 
ment."^ 

9.  The  Testimony  of  Dr.  John  Taylor,  of  Norwich,  author  of 
the  excellent  Hebrew  and  English  Concordance  (whose  theological 
creed,  we  regret  to  say,  was  Arian),  is  yet  more  striking. — "  In 
above  the  space  of  one  [now  two]  hundred  years,"  says  he,  "  learn- 
ing may  have  received  considerable  improvements ;  and  by  that 
means  some  inaccuracies  may  be  found  in  a  translation  more  than  a 
[two]  hundred  years  old.  But  you  may  rest  fully  satisfied,  that  as 
onr  English  translation  is,  in  itself,  by  fur  the  most  excellent  book  in 
our  language,  so  it  is  a  pure  and  plentiful  fountain  of  divine  know- 
ledge, giving  a  TRUE,  clear,  and  full  account  of  the  divine  dispen- 
sations, and  of  the  gospel  of  our  salvation:  insomuch  that  whoever 
studies  the  Bible,  the  English  Bible,  is  sure  of  gaining  that  know- 
ledge and  faith,  which,  if  duly  applied  to  the  heart  and  conversation, 
will  infallibly  guide  him  to  eternal  life."9 

10.  Dr.  Geddes.'o — "  The  highest  eulogiums  have  been  made  on 
the  translation  of  James  the  First,  both  by  our  own  writers  and  by 
foreigners.  And  indeed,  if  accuracy,  fidelity,  and  the  strictest  at- 
tention to  the  letter  of  the  text,  be  supposed  to  constitute  the  qua- 
lities of  an  excellent  version,  tliis  of  all  versions  must,  in  general,  be 
accounted  the  most  excellent.  Every  sentence,  every  word,  every 
syllable,  every  letter  and  point,  seem  to  have  been  weighed  with 
the  nicest  exactitude,  and  expressed  either  in  the  text,  or  margin, 
with  the  greatest  precision.  Pagniniis  himself  is  hardly  more 
literal ;  and  it  was  well  remarked  by  Robertson,  above  a  hinidrcd 
years  ago,  that  it  may  serve  for  a  Lexicon  of  the  Hebrew  language, 
as  ivell  as  for  a  translation." 

11.  Dr.  James  Beattie. — "It  is  a  striking  beauty  in  our  English 
Bible,  that,  though  the  language  is  always  elegant  and  nervous,  and 
for  the  most  part  very  harmonious,  the  words  are  all  plain  and 
common — no  affectation  of  learned  terms,  or  of  words  of"  Greek  or 
Latin  etymology."" 

12.  Dr.  Adam  Clarke. — "Those  who  have  compared  most  of 
the  European  translations  with  the  original,  have  not  scrupled  to 
say,  that  the  English  translation  of  the  Bible,  made  under  the 
direction  of  King  James  the  First,  is  tlie  most  accurate  and  fiiithful 
of  the  whole.  Nor,"  adds  Dr.  C,  "  is  this  its  only  praise  :  the  trans- 
lators have  seized  the  very  spirit  and  soul  of  the  original,  and  ex- 
pressed  this  almost  every  where  with  pathos  and  energy.  Besides, 
onr  translators  have  not  only  made  a  standard  translation,  but  they 
have  made  their  translation  the  standard  of  our  language:  the 
English  tongue  in  their  day  was  not  equal  to  such  a  work — but  God 
enabled  them  to  stand  as  upon  Mount  Sinai,  and  crane  up  their 
country's  language  to  the  dignity  of  the  originals,  so  that,  after  the 
lapse  of  two  hundred  years,  the  English  Bible  is,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  the  standard  of  the  purity  and  excellence  ofthe  Eng- 
lish tongue.  The  original,  from  which  it  was  taken,  is  alone 
superior  to  the  Bible  translated  by  the  aulhorit)'  of  King  Jamcs."'^ 

13.  The  Rev.  Professor  Stuart,  of  Andover,  Massachusetts,  ll;e 
most  eminent  orientalist  in  North  America. —  Contrasting  the  Eng- 
lish version  with  the  Latin  Vulgate,  he  says:  "Oars  is,  on  the 
whole,  a  most  noble  production  for  the  time  in  which  it  was  made. 
The  divines  of  that  day  were  very  dilierent  Hebrew  scholars  from 

8  Dr.  Doddridge's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  329.  Leeds  edit. 

"  Scheme  of  Scripture  Divinitv,  ch.  xl.,  in  Bishop  Watson's  Collection 
of  Theological  Tracts,  vol.  i.  p.  18S. 

">  Dr.  Geddes's  Prospectus  of  a  new  Translation  of  the  Holy  Bible, 
p.  92.  Cited  by  Abp.  Newcome,  with  a  long  extract  from  the  author. — 
Todd's  Vindication,  pp.  68.  70.  75.  SO. 

11  Sir  William  Forbes's  Life  ef  Dr.  Bealtie,  vol.  ii.  p.  193.  8vo.  edit. 

■■>  Dr.  .'V.  Clarke's  General  Preface  to  his  Commentary  on  the  Bible, 
vol.  i.  p.  21. 


Sect.  VI.  §  .3.] 


ENGLISH  VERSIONS. 


39 


from  vvhal most  of  ilieirmicocsxorshavebeeri.in  England  or  Scotland. 
Willi  ilio  cxccpiioii  of  IJisliDp  LowthH  classic  work  ujioii  Isaiah,  no 
oilier  flfiirl  al,  Irunslaliiig,  among  llio  Knglisli  divnu's,  will  compare, 
either  in  respeel  to  lasie,  judgment,  or  sound  undorslunding  of  the 
Ilchrovv,  with  the  authorized  version."' 

14.  TiiK  A.MKUicA.v  Monthly  Review. — "No  new  translation 
can  succeed,  which  is  not  based  U|wii  that  now  in  use.  The  phrase- 
ology ol'  King  James's  translation  is  connected  loo  intimalely  with 
the  religious  impressions  (»f  individuals,  and  with  almost  all  the 
religious  literalure  extant  in  our  languag<',  to  he  renoiiiic(;d  by  those 
who  cherish  the  (iiriucr  and  renounce  the  latter.  JVor  would  we 
wish  to  renounce  it,  il'  the  (Christian  public  would  consent  to  it.  It 
is  euphonious,  elegaul,  and  loCly.  It  coni|)rises  few  words  now 
obsolete, — lew  which  every  v\  ell-trained  chilil  does  not  understand. 
And  King  James's  translation  has  been  itsell'  the  reason,  why  its 
phraseology  has  not  become  obsolete.  Il  has  been  as  an  anchor  to 
the  iMiglish  language,  which,  before  that  work  wua  undertaken, 
had  been  constantly  fluctuating."'' 

Notwithstanding  these  decisive  testimonies  to  the  superior  ex- 
cellency ol"  our  authorized  version,  it  is  readily  admitted  that  it  is 
not  iinmuciilate,  and  that  a  revision  or  currection  of  it  is  an 
object  of  desire  to  the  friends  of  religion,  were  it  only  to  silence 
the  perpetually  repeated  cavils  of  the  opposcrs  of  divine  revelation ; 
who,  studiously  disregarding  the  various  satisfactory  answers  which 
have  been  given  to  their  unfounded  objections,  persevere  in  re- 
peating them,  so  long  as  they  find  a  very  few  mistranslated 
passages  in  the  authorized  version.  But  that  the  existing  trans- 
lation is  so  faulty  in  innumerable  instances,  and  so  ambiguous 
and  incorrect  even  in  matters  of  the  highest  importance,  as  to 
render  a  new  translation  absolutely  necessary,^-or  that  sacred 
criticism  is  yet  so  far  advanced  as  to  furnish  all  the  means  that  may 
be  expected,  we  hesitate  not  to  deny.  Indeed,  when  we  consider 
the  very  feiv  heal  faults  which  the  most  minute  and  scrupulous 
inquirer  has  been  able  to  find  in  our  present  translation  ;  when 
we  perceive  such  distinguished  critics  as  Archbishop  Newcome 
and  Bishop  Horslcy  (to  mention  no  more),  producing  very  dis- 
cordant interpretations  of  the  same  text  or  word,  we  cannot  but 
call  to  mind,  with  gratitude  and  admiration,  the  integrity,  wisdom, 
fidelity,  and  learning  of  the  venerable  translators,  of  whose  pious 
labours  we  are  now  reaping  the  benefit;  who,  while  their  reve- 
rence for  the  Sacred  Scriptures  induced  them  to  be  as  literal  as 
they  could,  to  avoid  obscurity,  have  been  extremely  happy  in  the 
simplicity  and  dignity  of  their  expressions,  and  who,  by  their  ad- 
herence to  the  Hebrew  idiom,  have  at  once  enriched  and  adorn- 
ed our  language.  And  instead  of  being  impatient  for  a  new 
translation,  we  shall  (to  adopt  the  energetic  expression  of  Mr. 
Todd)  "take  up  the  hook,  which  from  our  infancy  wo  have 
known  and  loved,  with  increased  delight;  and  resolve  not  has- 
tily to  violate,  in  regard  to  itself,  the  rule  which  it  records : — '  Fon- 

8AKF.  NOT  AX  OLD  FHIEND,  FOlt  THE  IfEW  IS  NOT  COIPARABLE 
TO  niM.'  " 

"Hap[)y,  thrice  happy,  hath  our  English  nation  been,  since 
God  hath  given  it  learned  translators  to  express,  in  our  mother 
tongue,  the  heavenly  mysteries  of  his  holy  word,  delivered  to  his 
church  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  languages;  who,  although 
they  may  have  in  some  matters  of  no  importance  unto  salvation, 
as  men,  been  deceived  and  mistaken,  yet  they  have  faithfully 
delivered  the  whole  substance  of  the  heavenly  doctrine  contained 
in  the  Holy  Scri[)turcs,  without  any  heretical  translations  or 
wilful  corruptions.  With  what  reverence,  joy,  and  gladness, 
then,  ought  we  to  receive  this  blessing !  Let  us  read  the  Scrip- 
tures with  an  humble,  modest,  and  teachable  disposition  :  with 
a  willingness  to  embrace  all  truths  which  are  plainly  delivered 
there,  how  contrary  soever  to  our  own  opinions  and  prejudices ; 
and,  in  matters  of  difficulty,  readily  hearken  to  the  judgment  of 
our  teachers,  and  those  that  are  set  over  us  in  the  Lord  ;  check 
every  presumptuous  thought  or  reasoning  which  exalts  itself 
against  any  of  tho.se  mysterious  truths  therein  revealed  ;  and  if 
we  thus  search  after  the  truth  in  the  love  of  it,  we  shall  not  miss 
of  tliat  knowledge  which  will  make  us  wise  unto  salvation."^ 


Editions  of  the  Authorized  Version,  -with  Parallel  Refer- 
ences, ■• 
1 .  The  Holy  Bible,  contcyningthe  Old  Testament  and  the  New : 
Newly  translated  out  of  the  Originall  tongues,  &  with  the  former 

»  Stunrt's  Dissertations  on  the  Importance  and  Best  Method  of  studying 
the  Original  I^mgua^es  of  the  Bible,  p.  61. 

»  The  American  Monthly  Review,  vol.  iii.  (March,  1833),  p.  221. 

'  .lohnsou'i  Hist.  Ace.  in  the  concluding  paragraph.  Bp.  Watson's 
Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  100. 

•  The  reailer,  who  is  desirous  of  perusing  more  minute  bibliographical 

accounts  of  the  English  Versions  e.\eciitcd  anterior  to  Kim:  James's  (or 

the  authorized  En-ilish)  version  of  the  Bible,  is  referred  to  Le'wis's  History 

of  the  principal  Translations  of  the  Bib!.-  ;  Dr.  Cotton's  List  of  Editions  of 

Vol.  II.— Apf.  3  X 


Translations  diligently  compared  and  reuised  by  his  Maiestie's 
speciall  Cbmandement.  Imprinted  at  London  by  Robert  Barker, 
Printer  to  the  King's  most  Excellent  Maicstie.  Anno  Dom.  1611, 
folio. 

This  is  the  title  of  the  first  edition  of  the  authorized  English 
version;  it  is  retained  in  all  the  8ul)se(|ueni  editions,  the  spelling 
being  modernized,  and  "  command"  being  substituted  for  "  comande- 
meiit."  To  this  edition  there  are  prefixed  a  C'alendar  of  Lcs.sons, 
the  (Jenealogical  Tables  ascribed  to  the  in<lustrious  aniifjiiary  John 
Speed,  and  an  engraved  map  of  Canaan,  together  with  an  alpha- 
betical list  of  the  places  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  The  first 
quarto  edition  appeared  in  1012. 

In  some  of  the  very  numerous  editions  printed  between  tlie  years 
1G38  and  ICH.'j,  an  alteration  is  introduced  in  Acts  vi.  3.  ;  where, 
instead  of  we  may  appoint,  we  read  VE  may  appoint.  This  altera- 
tion has  been  charged  upon  the  Independents  during  the  time  of 
Cromwell's  usurpation  ;  but,  as  the  first  Bible  in  which  it  was  ob- 
served is  that  printed  at  Cambridge,  by  Buck  and  Daniel,  in  1G:J8 
(which  was  revised,  by  royal  command,  by  Dr.  Ward,  Dr.  Goad, 
Mr.  Boys,  Mr.  Mede,  and  other  eminent  scholars),^'  it  is  in  all  pro- 
bability an  error  of  the  press,  without  any  design  to  favour  any 
particular  narty.*"  In  1C53,  an  edition  was  printed  by  John  Field, 
at  Cambridge,  in  21mo.,  which  is  of  extreme  rarity  and  beauty  :  it 
is  called  the  Pearl  Bilde,  from  the  very  small  type  witli  which  it 
was  printed,  but  is  disgraced  by  very  numerous  errata,  some  of 
which  are  of  importance.''  An  imitation  of  it  was  made  in  Hol- 
land, in  1658;  but  the  genuine  edition  is  known  by  having  the 
first  four  psalms  on  a  page,  without  turning  over.  In  IGGO,  the 
same  printer  executed  a  splendid  folio  edition  of  the  Bible,  which 
was  illustrated  with  chorographical  plates,  engraved  by  Ogilby,  an 
eminent  artist  of  that  time  :  he  also  printed  several  other  editions 
in  Svo.  and  12mo.,  but  they  arc  not  considered  as  typographical 
curiosities.  From  the  time  of  Field  to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  several  curious  flat  Bibles  were  printed,  which  are  deno- 
minated preachiufr  Bibles,  from  the  use  made  of  them  in  the  pulpit 
during  that  period.  The  typographical  execution  of  them  is  very 
clear,  the  type  being  a  broad-faced  letter,  u|X)n  thin  paper,  w-ith  a 
few  marginal  notes,  which  gives  them  a  superiority  over  many  of 
the  thick  and  heavy  volumes  that  have  since  been  printed.  In 
1683,  tliis  translation  was  corrected,  and  many  references  to  paral- 
lel texts  were  added  by  Dr.  Scattergood ;  and  in  1701,  a  very  fine 
edition  was  published,  in  large  folio,  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Tenison,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  with  chronological  dates,  and 
an  index  by  Bishop  Lloyd,  and  accurate  tables  of  Scripture  weights 
and  measures  by  Bishop  Cumberland  :  but  lliis  edition  is  said  to 
abound  with  typographical  errors.  The  latest  and  most  complete 
revision  is  that  made  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Blayney,  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  vice-chancellor  and  delegates  of  the  Clarendon 
press,  at  Oxford.  In  this  edition,  which  was  printed  both  in  quarto 
and  folio,  in  1769,  the  punctuation  was  thoroughly  revised  ;  the 
words  printed  in  Italics  were  e.xamined  and  corrected  by  the  He- 
brew and  Greek  originals ;  the  proper  names,  to  the  etymology  of 
which  allusions  are  made  in  the  text,  were  translated  and  entered 
in  the  margin;  the  summaries  of  chapters,  ni\i\  running  titles,  at  the 
top  of  each  page  corrected  ;  some  material  errors  in  the  chronology 
rectified ;  and  the  marginal  references  were  re-examined  and  cor- 
rected, and  thirty  thousand  four  hundred  and  ninety  five  new  refer- 
ences were  inserted  in  the  margin.^  P>om  the  singular  pains  be- 
stowed, in  order  to  render  this  edition  as  accurate  as  possible,  it 
has  hitherto  been  considered  the  standard  edition,  from  which  all 
subsequent  impressions  have  been  executed.  .'V  few  copies  of  Iho 
quarto  edition  were  printed  on  thick  paper,  which  are  now  very 
rare :  nearly  the  whole  impression  having  been  destroyed  by  fire. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  labour  and  attention  bestowed  by 
Dr.  Blayney,  his  edition  must  now  yield  the  palm  of  accuracy  to 
the  very  beautiful  and  correct  edition  published  by  Messrs.  Eyre 
ond  Slrahan,  his  majesty's  printers  (but  printed  by  Mr.  Woodfall), 
in  1806,  and  again  in  1813,  in  quarto ;  ns  not  fewer  than  one  him- 
dred  and  sixteen  errors  w^ere  discovered  in  collating  the  edition  of 
1806  with  Dr.  B.'s,  and  one  of  these  errors  was  an  omission  of  con- 

thc  Bible  ;  and  Dr.  Dibdin's  Edition  of  Herbert's  and  Ames's  Typographi- 
cal Antiipiilies,  of  which  work  four  volumes  have  been  publislied. 

»  Kllbourn's  "Dangerous  Errors  in  some  late  printed  Bibles," p. 6.  Lon- 
don, 1059,  'Uo. 

»  Another  material  error  has  crept  into  many  modern  editions  of  tlie 
Englisli  Bible  in  1  Tim.  iv.  16.,  where  we  read  Take  lied  unto  thyself  and 
THY  duclrine,  instead  of  the  doctrine.  The  ori;;in  of  this  iiiistal<e  (which 
the  author  of  this  work  has  found  in  various  editions  printed  between  the 
year  1690  and  the  commencement  of  the  present  century)  it  is  now  impos- 
sible to  ascertain.  It  was  first  pointed  out  by  the  emineudy  learned 
Bishop  Horslcy. 

'  Mr.  D'Israeli  has  an  interesting  article  on  the  above  noticed  "  Pearl 
Bibles  and  Six  Thousand  Errata,"  from  whicti  the  following  instances  arc 
copied  :— Rom  vi.  13.  "Neither  yield  ye  your  members  as  instruments  of 
riglileoiu^ness  unto  sin;" — (or  unrighteousness. — 1  Cor.  vi.  9.  "Know  ye 
not  that  tlie  unrighteous  shall  inherit  the  kingdom  of  God?" — tar  shall 
not  inherit.  "This  erratum,"  Mr.  D.  remarks,  "served  as  the  foundation 
of  a  dangerous  doctrine  :  for  many  libertines  urged  the  text  from  this  cor- 
rupt Bible,  against  the  reproofs  ol'^adi\ine.''  Curiosities  of  Literature  (2d 
Series),  vol.  Iii.  p.  313.  To  the  two  preceding  instances  we  may  add  that 
in  John  ix.  2.  the  words  " or  who  hatli  opinrd  his  eyes,  tec  knoui  not,"  are 
wholly  omitted.  (Kilbourn's  "  Dangerous  Errors  in  some  late  printed 
Bibles,"  p.  7.) 

'  A  full  account  of  Dr.  Blayney's  Collation  and  Revision  was  communi- 
cated by  him  to  the  Gcntleman'sMagazine  for  November,  1769,  vol.  xxxlx 
pp.  517—519 


40 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I 


siderable  importance.'  Messrs.  Eyre  and  Strahan's  editions  may 
therefore  be  regarded  as  approacliing  as  near  as  possible  to  what 
bibliographers  term  an  imtiuiculale  text.  Only  one  erratum,  we  be- 
lieve, lias  been  discovered  in  the  edition  of  180G.  The  Ibllowing 
particulars  relative  to  the  alwve-mentioned  Loiulon  editions  of  the 
liible  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  the  bibliographical  reader,  at  the 
same  inne  they  will  show  that  their  claims  to  be  considered  as 
standard  editions  are  not  altogether  unfounded.  The  booksellers 
of  the  metropolis  having  applied  to  his  majesty's  printers  to  un- 
dertake a  handsome  edition  of  the  Bible,  confided  the  execution  of 
it  to  Mr.  George  Woodfall  in  1804.  The  copy  printed  liom  was 
the  then  current  Cambridge  edition,  with  which  Mr.  W.'s  edition 
agrees  page  for  page.  It  was  afterwards  read  twice  by  the  Oxford 
impression  then  in  use,  and  the  proofs  were  transmitted  to  the  Rev. 
Launcclot  Sharpe,  by  whom  they  were  read  with  Dr.  Blayney's 
4io.  edition  of  1769.  After  the  proofs  returned  by  Mr.  S.  for  press 
had  been  corrected,  the  forms  were  placed  upon  the  press  at  which 
they  were  to  be  worked,  and  another  proof  was  taken.  This  was 
read  by  Mr.  VVoodfall's  superintendent,  and  afterwards  by  Mr.  W. 
himseli;  with  Dr.  Blayney's  edition,  and  any  errors  that  had  pre- 
viously escaped  were  corrected;  tiie  forms  not  having  been  re- 
moved from  the  press  after  the  last  proofs  had  been  taken  oft'.  By 
this  precaution  they  avoided  the  danger  of  errors  (a  danger  of  very 
frequent  occurrence,  and  of  no  small  magnitude),  arising  from  the 
removal  of  the  forms  from  the  proof-press  to  the  presses  on  which 
the  sheets  were  finally  worked  off.  Of  this  edition,  which  was 
ready  lor  publication  in  1806,  five  hundred  copies  were  printed  on 
imperial  4to.  two  thousand  on  royal,  and  three  thousand  on  me- 
dium quarto  size.  In  the  course  of  printing  this  edition  from  the 
Cambridge  copy,  a  great  number  of  errors  in  the  latter  were  dis- 
covered and  corrected.  The  London  edition  of  1806  being  ex- 
hausted, a  new  impression  was  put  to  press  in  1810,  which  was 
completed,  with  equal  beauty  and  accuracy,  in  1812,  and  published 
in  1813.  It  will  gratify  the  reader  to  know  that  the  edition  of  I8I3 
has  been  recommended  by  the  General  Convention  of  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America,  to  be  adopt- 
ed as  the  Standard  Edition  to  which  future  editions  of  the  English 
Version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  (for  the  use  of  the  members  of  that 
church)  are  to  be  made  conformable.  (Journal  of  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Bishops,  Clergy,  and  Laity  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America,  in  a  general  Convention 
held  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  from  the  16th  to  the  24th  of  May, 
1820,  p.  54.  Journal  of  the  Convention  of  the  same  Church  in 
May,  1823,  p.  101.) 

Of  the  various  editions  of  the  authorized  English  Version,  pub- 
lished with  parallel  texts,  those  printed  at  Oxford  (after  that  ol  Dr. 
Blayney  in  1769,  and  that  of  Bishop  Wilson)  are  among  the  best 
and  most  copious  of  the  larger  editions.^  The  Oxford  minion  octa- 
vo, which  issued  from  the  press  in  1821,  is  one  of  the  most  commo- 
dious and  correct  editions  that  has  ever  been  printed.  The  me- 
dium octavo  Bible,  executed  by  his  majesty's  printers,  in  1814,  is 
a  most  beautiful  book.  Canne's  octavo  edition,  1682,  and  Wat- 
son's, Edinburg,  Svo.  1722,  are  the  most  valuable  of  the  earViei pocket 
editions,  and  are  all  scarce  and  dear.  The  Rev.  Thomas  Scott's 
Commentary  on  the  Bible,  in  6  vols.  4to.,  has  a  very  copious  and 
judicious  selection  of  parallel  references  on  the  plan  of  Canne's 
Bible.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Adam  Clarke's  Commentary  also  has  a  simi- 
lar selection  of  parallel  texts.  The  pocket  edition  of  the  entire 
English  Bible,  published  by  Mr.  Bagster  in  1816,  contains  a  new 
selection  of  upwards  of  sixty  thousand  references  to  passages  that 
ure  really  parallel.  But  the  cheapest,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
elegant  and  useful  of  all  the  pocket  editions,  is  that  published  at 
Oxford  in  1827,  after  Dr.  Blayney's  revision,  at  the  very  low  price 
of  eight  shillings  in  sheets,  which,  from  its  type  and  size,  is  known 
by  the  appellation  of  the  oxford  ruby  octavo  Bible. 

In  1833  various  charges  of  inaccuracy  were  made  against  the 
modern  editions  of  the  authorized  English  version  by  Mr.  Thomas 
Curtis,  in  four  letters  addressed  to  the  Bishop  of  London.  The 
misrepresentations  of  this  writer  were  exposed  and  refuted,  on  the 
part  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cardwell,  and  on 

»  In  Dr.  Blayney's  quarto  edition  of  1769,  the  following  vfordsare  omitted 
in  Kev.  xviii.  22.  after  the  words  "  no  more,"  viz.  "  at  all  in  thee  ;  and  no 
craftsman,  of  whatsoever  cralt  he  be,  sliall  be  found  any  more."  The  au- 
thor has  been  informed  that  the  same  omission  occurs  in  the  folio  edition 
ori769.  Similar  errors  have  been  detect'd  in  other  editions  of  the  Bible, 
some  of  which  are  sufficiently  curious.  Tims,  in  1032,  Barker  and  Lucas 
(the  king's  printers)  executed  an  edition  of  the  English  Bible,  consisting  of 
one  ihousund  copies,  in  which  a  very  serious  error  was  committed  by 
leaving  out  the  word  no/ in  the  seventh  commandment,  which  ran  thus: 
Thou  SHALT  coinmit  adullerij.  This  fact  being  proved  before  the  high 
roininission  court,  the  wholi;  impression  was  called  in,  and  a  very  heavy 
fine  was  imposed  upon  the  printers.  (Towiilijy's  lUustralions  of  Biblical 
Literalaie,  vol.  iii.  pp.  318 — 32t).)  The  ;;pkiidid  I'ulio  Bilile,  printed  by  Bas- 
ket, at  Oxford,  in  1/17-16,  is  commonly  tciiiied  the  Vinegar  Bible,  from 
an  error  in  the  running  title  at  Luke  xx.,  whi  re  we  read  the  'parableof 
the  vinegar,"  instead  of  the  "parable  of  the  vineyap.d." 

«  The  f4>llowing  short  table  will  convey  an  accurate  idea  of  the  progres- 
sive increase  of  references  to  parallel  texts  in  various  editions  of  the  Bible. 

r   8ss~l  fe      f  1,537"!       r  9.100 

S,  1,4(10  \    ^a    \     9,S57        .       2-5,895 

<-^  J  l,-H7  I  *^  a  J  1»>371  I   «  J  ^>^*^ 
"  i  £>  via  [  |2  ]  13,717  \p\  39,188 
B  "       1,772       =M  lfl.R93      "^       64,983 
«       L  1,772  J  "^    L  19,998  J        L««'«55 

Hewlett's  Commentary,  vol.  i.  p.  '4b.  <)ln.  edit.,  in  which  Mr.  H.  has  adopted 
thep.Tiallel  texts  in  Bishop  Wilson's  Bible,  as  being  the  most  copious,  and 
upon  the  whole  well  selected. 


In  (he  1st  edition  of  1611 
J.  Hajes',  1877 
l)r.  Scattergood's,  1(J78 
Uisllup  Teiiison  and  / 
Lloyd's,  11)99  5 

Dr.  Blayney's,  17S9 
Hishop  Wilson's,  1785 


14,(i2;) 
2l),:i.'>7 


4',3I8 
^4.5,1911. 


the  part  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Turton 
(the  titles  of  whose  pamphlets  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent  page 
of  this  bibliographical  appendix).  The  result  is  that,  though  abso 
lute  inerrancy  is  impracticable  in  any  printed  book,  yet  all  the 
modern  editions  (those,  for  instance,  which  have  been  printed  since 
the  year  1820)  have  been  proved  to  be  as  correct,  as  unwearied 
and  incessant  industry  can  make  them.  With  reference  to  the 
alleged  charges  of  inaccuracy,  the  editors  of  an  ably  conducted 
Journal  thus  express  themselves  :  —  "  These  charges  we  have  ex- 
amined ;  and  we  assert,  without  hesitation  or  difficulty,  that  the 
TEXT  OF  Scripture  in  the  Engj.ish  Bible  is  NOT  vitiated  by 
THE  modern  Italics,  as  the  charges  allege  ;  and  that  in  any  copy 

OF  THE  translation  IN  COMMON  USE  THERE   IS  NOTHING  TO  BE 

FOUND  which  can  render  the  text  of  Scripture  unworthy 
OF  THE  confidence  OF  THE  UNLEARNED. .  .  .  And  tliose  classes  of 
the  community,  amongst  whom  the  Bible  most  largely  circulates, 
should  be  told  that,  in  the  copies  which  have  been  put  into  their 
hands,  there  is  neither  perversion  nor  obscuration  of  the 
TRUTH.  The  Bibles  of  the  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  London"  [that 
is,  the  king's  printers']  "presses,  recently  issued,  are  most  beauti- 
ful books ;  and  certainly,  in  respect  to  the  important  purposes  of 
their  publication  and  use,  may  be  read  without  distrust.  We 
do  not  affirm  them  to  be  immaculate,  but  they  afford  no  grounds 
for  such  imputations  as  tliose  which  have  been,  we  regret  to  say, 
so  inconsiderately  and  so  reproachfully  directed  against  them." 
(Eclectic  Review,  Third  Series,  vol.  ix.  p.  533.) 

3.  The  New  Testament,  with  References  under  the  Text  in 
words  at  length,  so  that  the  Parallel  Texts  may  be  seen  at  one 
view..  By  the  Rev.  Francis  Fox,  M.A.  London,  1722.  Se- 
cond edition,  1742.     2  vols.  Svo. 

The  editor  of  this  useful  publication  has  given,  for  the  most  part, 
all  the  references  in  the  then  last  and  fullest  edition  of  the  Bible, 
together  with  a  great  number  collected  by  himself;  and  has  further 
added  the  chronology  of  Archbishop  Usher,  the  marginal  render- 
ings, and  several  good  notes  on  really  difficult  passages,  together 
with  a  copious  index.  This  work  is  now  only  to  be  procured  at  a 
very  high  price. 

4.  Scientia  Biblica ;  being  a  copious  Collection  of  Parallel 
Passages,  for  the  illustration  of  the  New  Testament,  printed  in 
words  at  length,  the  whole  so  arranged  as  to  illustrate  and  con- 
firm the  dillerent  clauses  of  each  verse ;  together  with  the  text 
at  large,  in  Greek  and  English,  the  various  readings  and  the 
chronology.     London,  1825.     3  vols.  Svo. 

There  are  copies  of  this  work  in  royal  Svo.  Its  design  is  to  ex- 
pound Scripture  by  Scripture  :  with  this  view  the  different  verees 
of  the  New  Testament  are  neatly  printed  by  themselves,  in  Greek 
and  English  ;  and  below  them  is  placed  (in  words  at  length)  a  new 
selection  of  parallel  references,  which  is  evidently  the  result  of 
great  labour  and  research,  and  is  calculated  to  save  much  time  and 
trouble  to  biblical  students.  The  typographical  execution  is  very 
neat. 

5.  The  Collateral  Bible  ;  or,  a  Key  to  the  Holy  Scriptures ; 
in  which  the  corresponding  texts  are  brought  together  in  one 
view,  and  arranged  in  a  familiar  and  easy  manner.  By  William 
M'CoRKLE,  assisted  by  the  Rev.  Ezra  Styles  Ely,  D.I),  and  the 
Rev.  Gregory  Bedell,  A.M.  Philadelphia,  1S26-1828.  3  vols. 
4to.     [Containing  the  Old  Testament.] 

In  this  work  the  best  marginal  references  are  printed  at  large 
and  in  connection  with  every  passage ;  by  which  means  every  pa- 
rallel or  related  phrase  in  the  sacred  volume  is  brought  at  once 
under  the  eye,  so  as  to  present  the  whole  scope  and  subject  of 
every  text  at  a  single  view.  On  some  passages  the  references  are 
extremely  copious.  This  work,  which  in  England  is  extremely 
rare  and  dear,  is  very  neatly  printed  :  and  some  useful  Tables  are 
prefixed  to  the  first  volume. 

6.  A  new  Self-Interpreting  Testament,  containing  many  thou- 
sands of  Various  Readings  and  Parallel  Passages,  collected  from 
the  most  approved  Translators  and  Biblical  Critics,  including  all 
those  of  the  authorized  Version  ;  and  set  under  the  Text  in 
words  at  length.  With  Introductory  Arguments,  concerning  the 
Origin,  Occasion,  and  Character  of  each  Book  ;  a  Reconcilia- 
tion of  seeming  Contradictions;  and  the  Meaning  and  Pronun- 
ciation of  Scripture  Proper  Names.  By  the  Rev.  John  Platts. 
London,  1827,  royal  4to. ;  also  in  4  vols.  Svo. 

The  plan  of  this  work  differs  from  that  adopted  in  "  Scientia 
Biblica."  In  the  first  place,  the  Greek  text  is  omitted  ;  and  the 
parallel  passages  here  given  at  length  are  much  less  numerous. 
The  compiler  professes  to  have  proceeded  on  a  principle  of  selec- 
tion, and  to  have  inserted  apposite  texts,  while  he  has  rejected  all 
such  as  were  not  really  parallel.  Little  that  is  new  is  confessedly 
to  be  found  in  this  publication,  in  preparing  which  the  editor  ho- 
notirably  acknowledges  his  obligations  to  the  previous  labours  of 
Mr.  Fox  (No.  3.  in  this  page),  and  of  Mr.  Cruttwell,  in  his  edition 
of  the  Bible  with  Bishop  Wilson's  Notes,  and  the  various  render- 
ings of  preceding  translators.  The  introductions  to  each  book  are 
necessarily  brief.  Several  genealogical  tables  are  prefixed,  and 
the  work  terminates  with  a  reconciliation  of  thirty-eight  seemingly 
discrepant  passages  of  the  New  Testament,  together  with  various 


Sect.  VI.  §  3.] 


ANGLO-ROMISII  VERSIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


41 


miscellaneous  observations  for  nnilprstnruling  it:  a  collection  of 
the  princi|):il  prophecies  of  the  Old  Teslaineiit  relalini?  to  the  Mcs- 
siiih  and  his  Kini^doni  ;  the  ineunin'^  and  proninicialion  oI'iIk;  IVcvv 
'JV'sianienl  Proper  INanies  ;  a  Tahle  of  .Scripture  Weights,  Mea- 
siu'cs,  and  'I'inie  ;  and  an  Index  to  tin?  New  Testament  History, 
which  is  cojiied  from  that  usually  annexed  to  the  (juarto  editions  of 
oar  authorized  Version. 

7.  A  Scriptural  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Genesis  and  the 
Gi)S|)cl  accordintj  to  !St.  Matthew,  comprisinjj  the  Sacred  Text 
of  these  Books,  with  tlio  most  co[)i()iis  Marginal  References 
annexed  to  each  chiuse  of  each  verse,  in  the  words  of  Scripture. 
By  the  Rev.  Charles  Lambert  Cooiilan,  U.D.  London,  1832. 
2  vols.  8vo. 

8.  The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Ephcsians:  With 
Parallel  Texts  i)rinteil  at  length.  By  the  lie  v.  H.  A.  Simcok. 
liOndon,  1833,  foolscap  4 to. 

'J'hese  very  co)>ions  parallel  texts  arc  selected  from  the  lalx)urs 
of  the  liev.  riionias  Scoll,  from  Mr.  I'latt's  iSell'-inleriircUint;  IVew 
Testament,  from  Mr.  CrulIweU's  (Concordance  of  I'arallels,  frmn  the 
arallel  references  f^iven  in  the  Knj;lish  Version  of  the  I'olyglott 
ible,  published  by  Mr.  Bagster  in  181(5,  and  from  other  sources. 


& 


^nglo-Romish  Versions  of  the  liibte. 

1.  The  Holie  Bible  faithfvlly  translated  into  Engli.sh  ovt  of  the 
Avthentical  Latin.  Diligently  conferred  with  the  Hebrew, 
Grceke,  and  other  Editions  in  diucrs  languages.  With  Argv- 
ments  of  the  Bookes,  and  Chapters:  Annotations:  Tables:  and 
other  helpes  for  better  vnderstanding  of  the  text:  for  discoueric 
of  corruptions  in  some  late  translations :  and  for  clearing  Contro- 
versies in  Religion.  By  the  English  College  of  Doway.  Printed 
at  Uoway  by  Lavrence  Kcllam.     1G09-10.   2  vols.  4to. 

2.  The  New  Testament  of  Icsvs  Christ,  translated  faithfvlly 
into  English  out  of  the  authentical  Latin,  according  to  the  best 
corrected  copies  of  the  same,  diligently  conferred  with  the  Grecke, 
and  other  editions  in  diucrs  languages :  Vvith  Argvmcnts  of 
bookes  and  chapters,  Annotations,  and  other  neccssarie  helpes, 
for  the  better  vnderstanding  of  the  text,  and  specially  for  the  dis- 
coucrie  of  the  Corrvptions  of  diucrs  late  translations,  and  for 
clecring  the  Controversies  in  religion,  of  these  dales :  In  the 
English  College  of  Rhemes.  Printed  at  Rhemesby  lohn  Fogny. 
1582,  4to. 

These  are  the  first  editions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament:  they 
are  not  often  to  be  met  with.  Fine  copies  of  them  are  in  the  Li- 
brary of  the  British  Museum. 

In  the  year  1582,  the  Romanists,  finding  it  impossible  to  with- 
hold the  Scriptures  any  longer  from  the  common  people,  printed  an 
English  New  Testament  at  Rheims:  it  was  translated,  not  from  the 
original  (Jreek,  but  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  The  Old  Testament 
was  translated  from  the  Vulgate  at  Douay  (whence  it  is  called  the 
Douay  Bible),  in  tw'o  volumes  4to.,  the  first  of  which  appeared  in 
1(509,  and  the  second  in  1610.  Aimotations  are  subjoined,  which 
are  ascribed  to  one  Thomas  Worthington:  the  translators  were 
VVilliam  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Allen,  Gregory  Martin,  and  Richard 
Bristow.  This  translation,  with  the  Rhemish  version  of  the  New- 
Testament  above  noticed,  forms  the  English  Bible,  which  alone  is 
used  by  the  Romanists  of  this  country.  The  translators  retained 
the  words  azymcs,  tunike,  holocaust,  pasche,  and  a  multitude  of  other 
Greek  words  untranslated,  under  ttie  pretext  of  wanting  proper  and 
adequate  English  terms  by  which  lo  render  them;  and  thus  con- 
trived to  render  it  tmintelligible  to  common  readers.  Hence  the 
historian  Fuller  took  occasion  to  remark  that  it  was  "a  translation 
which  needed  to  be  translated;"  and  that  its  editors  "by  all  means 
lalwured  to  suppress  the  light  of  truth,  under  one  pretence  or  other." 
Our  learned  countryman,  Thomas  Carlwright,  was  solicited  by 
Sir  Francis  Walsingham  to  refute  this  translation:  but,  after  he  had 
made  considerable  progress  in  the  work,  he  was  prohibited  from 
proceeding  further  by  .\rchbishop  Whitgil't;  who,  judging  it  im- 
proper that  the  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England 
should  be  committed  to  a  puritan,  appointed  Dr.  William  Fulke  in 
his  place.  By  him  the  divines  of  Rheims  were  refuted  with  great 
spirit  and  ability.  Fulke's  work  appeared  in  1617;  and  in  the  Ibl- 
lovving  year,  Cartwright's  confutation  was  published  under  the 
auspices  of  Archbishop  Abbot ;  both  of  them  were  accompanied 
with  the  Rhemish  translation  of  the  New  Testament;  Uie  titles  of 
their  publications  are  subjoined. 

(1.)  The  Text  of  the  New  Testament  of  Jesus  Christ,  translated 
out  of  the  vulgar  Latine,  by  the  Papists  of  the  traiierous  semi- 
nary at  Rheims,  with  arguments  of  Bookes,  Chapters,  and  An- 
notations, pretending  to  discover  the  corruptions  of  divers 
translations,  and  to  dear  the  controuersies  of  these  dayes.  With 
the  authorized  English  Version,  and  a  confutation  of  all  such 
arguments,  glosses,  and  annotations,  as  contain  manifest  impiety 
or  heresy,  treason  and  slander,  against  the  Catholic  Church  of 
God,  and  the  true  teachers  thereof,  or  the  translations  used  in 
the  Church  of  England.  By  W.  Folke,  D.D.  London,  1617; 
1633,  folio. 

This  elalwrate  work  first  appeared  in  1586,  and  was  again  re- 
printed in  1601.    That  late  elegant  scholar  and  pious  divine,  the 


Rev.  James  Ilervcy  (though  sometimes  rather  too  candid  and  in- 
discriminate in  his  public  reconnnendations  of  books),  pas.-eil  tlie 
lidlowing  very  just  encomium  on  Dr.  Fulke's  noble  ])erform:in(e ; — 
He  styles  it  "a  valuable  piece  of  ancient  conlroveitiy  and  criticism, 
full  of  sound  divinity,  weighty  arguments,  and  important  obscrva- 
lions;"  adding, — "would  the  young  student  be  taught  to  discover 
the  very  sinews  of  popery,  iuid  be  enabled  to  give  an  elTectual 
blow  to  that  complication  of  errors,  I  scarce  know  a  treatise  belter 
calculated  for  liie  purpose." 

(2.)  A  Confutation  of  the  Rheniists'  Translation,  Glosses,  and 

Annoiations  of  the  New  Testament.     By  Thomas  Cartwrigut. 

London,  1618,  folio. 

In  174'J,  a  new  edition  of  the  Anglo-Romish  Bible,  with  some 
alterations  in  the  text,  and  many  in  the  notes,  was  jjublished  from 
the  co|)y  of  Dr.  (Jhaloner,  titular  bishop  of"  Debra,  and  one  ol'  tljo 
vicars  apostolic  of  the  Romish  (Jhiirch  in  Engl:ind.  Various  other 
editions  have  been  printed  at  diderent  times  and  in  diflerent  sizes. 

3.  The  Holy  Bible,  translated  from  the  Latin  Vulgat:  dili- 
gently compared  with  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  other  Editions  in 
divers  languagj-s;  tin;  Old  Testament,  first  published  by  the 
English  College  at  Uoway,  a.  n.  1609;  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment, fir.st  published  by  the  English  College  at  Rhemes,  a.  d. 
1582.  With  Annotations,  and  an  Historical  and  Chronological 
Index.  Revised  and  corrected  according  to  the  Clemcntin  Edi- 
tion of  the  Scrii)tures,  and  ajiprovcd  of  by  the  most  reverend  Doc^ 
tor  Tnoy,  li.C.JlJD.     Dublin,  1816,  4to. 

This  edition  of  the  Anglo-Romish  Bible  was  commenced  by  a 
Romish  lx)okseller  at  Cork,  and  circulated  in  numbers,  umler  the 
authority  of  Dr.  Troy,  the  Romish  archbishop  in  Dublin,  who  de- 
puted one  of  his  clergy  (the  Rev.  P.  A.  Walsh,  of  Denmark-street, 
Chajjel)  to  revise,  correct,  and  approve  the  said  Bible  lor  [lublica- 
tion.  On  the  publisher's  bankrui)tcy,  his  assignee  (a  Protestant 
bookseller)  purchased  the  unfinished  part,  and  resolved  Ut  perfect 
the  work  in  order  to  cover  his  own  losses.  He  affixed  to  the  title 
the  name  of  a  Romish  bookseller  in  Dublin,  who  agreed  to  publish 
the  work,  on  condition,  that  the  same  Romish  clergyman  continued 
to  correct  the  unfinished  part.  In  the  mean  time,  copies  of  the 
New  Testament  found  their  way  into  England ;  w  here  the  mur- 
derous and  implacable  spirit  of  some  of  its  notes,  and  also  the  cha- 
racters of  cardinal  Allen  and  other  traitors  to  their  country,  who 
were  concerned  in  the  original  publication  of  the  text  atid  notes 
of  the  Rheimish  Testament,  were  briefly  but  severely  ex}x>sed  in 
the  British  Cri'ic  for  September,  1817  (,pp.  297 — 3(J8.);  and  much 
more  fully  in  the  Courier  London  Newspaper  of  Oct.  11,  and  23, 
1817.  The  reader  will  find  a  detailed  account  of  this  edition  of  the 
Anglo-Romish  Bible,  and  of  the  subsequent  unsatisfactory  dis- 
claimer of  the  notes  by  Dr.  Troy  on  the  New  Testament,  m  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Kenney's  "  Enquiry  concerning  some  of  the  Doctrines 
maintained  by  the  Church  ol  Rome"  (London,  1818),  pp.  65 — 118., 
from  which  the  above  particulars  are  abridged. 

4.  The  Holy  Bible,  translated  from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  dili- 
gently compared  with  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  other  editions,  in 
divers  languages :  the  Old  Testament,  first  published  at  Doway, 
A.  1).  1609;  and  the  New  Testament,  first  published  by  the 
English  College  at  Rheims,  a.b.  1582.  With  Annotations, 
References,  and  an  Historical  and  Chronological  Index.  The 
whole  revised  and  diligently  compared  with  the  Latin  Vulgate. 
Dublin  and  London,  1825,  8vo. 

This  is  the  latest  and  most  easily  accessible  edition  of  the  Anglo- 
Romish  version  of  the  Bible.  //  has  been  altered  for  the  belter,  and 
maile  conformable  to  oi'R  Protestant  authorized  version,  in  several 
instances,  tvhich  had  been  stigmatized  bi/  Romanists  as  heretical,' 
(See  Mr.  Hamilton's  Observations  on  the  present  State  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  English  Bible,  pp.  19 — 21.)  It  is  worthy  of  observation, 
that  the  translators  of  the  Rheimish  Testament  have  taken  various 
liberties  with  the  Sacred  Text,  which  would  have  been  denounced 
as  heretical  depravations,  if  they  had  been  committed  by  Protest- 
ants, who,  however,  shudder  at  mutilating  and  perverting  the  word 
of  God.  As  the  liberties  here  referred  to  are  equally  taken  with 
the  New  Testament,  printed  in  1825,  under  the  sanction  of  the 
Romish  archbishop  in  Dublin,  Dr.  Murray,  it  may  be  satisfactory  to 
the  reader  to  have  a  few  of  them  put  upon  record. 

(1.)  Wurds  not  extant  in  the  original  Greek,  but  foisted  into 
tuf:  te.xt  in  the  Anglo-Ro.mish  Versio.v. 

In  2  Pel.  i.  10.  we  have  "  by  good  works"  inserted. — "  Where- 
fore, brethren,  labour  more  that  by  good  works  you  may  make  sure 
your  calling  and  election." 

Those  words,  which  were  necessarily  supplied  from  the  idiom 
of  the  language,  they  have  not  put  into  Italics  (as  our  venerable 
translators  have  done),  but  into  the  same  character  with  the  text 
itself,  without  any  mark  or  note  whatever;  as  "  their"  in  Matt.  iv. 
20.,  "  are"  in  Matt.  v.  3,  4,  5.  &c.,  "  garments"  in  Matt  xi.  8. 

(2.)  Words  o.MiTTED  IN  the  Anglo-Rojiish  Version,  which  are 
found  in  the  ori/rinal  Greek  Text. 

In  Matt.  ii.  18.  the  words  "and  weeping."  are  omitted  after  "la- 
mentation." So  in  Matt.  xxvi.  59.,  "and  elders"  are  omitted  after 
"  chief  priests." 

In  Acts  ii.  47.  the  words  "  to  the  church"  are  omitted.  The  sen- 
tence runs  thus:  "And  the  Lord  added  daily  to  the  church  the 
saved,"  or,  those  who  were  saved.    In  the  Anglo-Romish  Version 


42 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  L 


we  read,  "  and  the  Lord  increased  daily  together  such  as  should 
be  saved." 

In  Rom.  xi.  6.  a  whole  sentence  is  omitted,  forming  the  latter 
part  of  the  verse :  "  And  if  by  grace,  it  is  not  now  by  works ;  other- 
wise grace  is  no  more  grace.  But  if  of  works,  then  is  it  no  more, 
grace:  otherwise  work  is  no  more  work."  This  last  sentence  is 
akogelher  oniiiied!  On  the  subject  of  these  unhallowed  additions 
to  and  subtractions  from  the  divinely  inspired  word  of  God,  the 
reader  is  reierred  to  Ueut.  xii.  32.  and  Rev.  xxii.  18,  19.' 

5.  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
.Christ,  newly  translated  out  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  with  the 
original  Greek,  and  divers  Translations  in  vulgar  Languages, 
diligently  compared  and  revised.  Together  with  Annotations 
upon  the  most  remarkable  passages  in  the  Gospels,  and  margiiial 
Notes  upon  other  difficult  texts  of  the  same,  and  upon  the  rest 
of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament,  for  the  better  understanding 
of  the  Literal  Sense.  By  C.[ornelius]  N.[art]  C.[onsultissimjE] 
^.[acultatis]  P.[arisiensis]  D.[octor.]   1718-19,  8vo. 

This  edition  has  no  place  or  printer's  name;  but  Dr.  Geddes 
says  that  it  was  printed  at  Dublin.  (Prospectus  for  a  new  transla- 
tion, p.  110.)  See  a  full  account  of  it  in  Lewis's  Hist,  of  English 
Translations,  pp.  35t3 — 363.  (Bvo.  edition.) 

6.  The  New  Testament,  translated  from  the  Latin  Vulgate, 
with  Annotations.  By  R.  W.[etham]  D.[uacensis]  P.[rofessor.] 
1730-33,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  edition  also  is  without  place  or  printer's  name:  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  printed  at  Douay.  See  an  account  of  it  in 
Lewis's  History,  pp.  363 — 365. 

Welsh  Version. 
Y  Beibl  Cyssegr-Lan.     Sef  yr  hen  Destament,  a'r  Newydd. 
Imprinted  at  London  by  the  Deputies  of  Christopher  Barker, 
1588,  folio. 

From  an  epistle  of  Dr.  Richard  Davis,  Bishop  of  Saint  David's, 
prefixed  to  the  Welsh  New  Testament,  printed  in  1567,  we  learn 
tliat  there  was  a  British  or  Welsh  version  of  the  Pentateuch  extant 
about  (if  not  before)  the  year  1527,  though  the  translator's  name  is 
not  known.  Some  other  small  and  detached  passages  of  Scripture 
appear  also  to  have  been  translated  into  this  language  in  the  reign 
of  King  Edward  VI.,  which  were  printed,  in  all  probability,  lor 
the  use  of  his  Liturgy.  But  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
that  efficient  steps  were  taken  to  supply  the  inhabitants  of  the 
principality  of  Wales  with  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  their  vernacular 
dialect.  In  1563  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed  (5  Eliz.  e.  28.), 
enacting  that  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  together  with  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  should  be  translated  into  the  British  or 
Welsh  tongue ;  and  committing  the  direction  of  the  work  to  the 
Bishops  of  St.  Asaph,  Bangor,  Saint  David's,  LlandafF,  and  Here- 
ford. They  were  to  view,  peruse,  and  allow  the  translation,  and 
to  take  care  (under  a  penalty  of  i."40  on  each  of  them)  that  such  a 
number  should  be  printed  and  distributed  by  iVlarch  1,  1566,  as 
would  furnish  copies  to  every  cathedral,  collegiate  and  parish 
church,  and  chapel  of  ease,  witliin  their  respective  dioceses,  where 
Welsh  was  commonly  spoken.  In  1567,  was  printed  at  London, 
the  first  translation  of  the  New  Testament.  The  translators  were 
Thomas  Huet,  Chanter  of  St.  David's,  Dr.  Richard  Davis,  Bishop 
of  Saint  David's,  and  William  Salesbury,  a  man  of  great  industry, 
learning,  and  piety.  But  there  was  no  edition  or  version  of  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  British  tongue  till  more  than  twenty  years 
after  the  publication  of  the  New  Testament.  The  person  chiefly 
concerned  in  rendering  this  important  service  to  the  ancient  Bri- 
tons, was  William  Morgan,  D.D.,  who  was  bishop  of  Llandaff  in 
1595,  from  which  see  he  was,  in  1604,  translated  to  that  of  Saint 
Asaph.  He  first  translated  the  entire  Old  Testament,  together  with 
the  Apocrypha,  into  Welsh,  and  also  revised  and  corrected  the 
former  version  of  the  New  Testament,  both  of  which  were  printed, 
in  one  volume  folio,  in  1588.  During  the  reign  of  James  I.  the 
Welsh  version  underwent  a  further  examination  and  correction 
from  Dr.  Parry,  Morgan's  successor  in  the  see  of  Saint  Asaph.  This 
corrected  version,  which  is  usually  called  Parry's  Bible,  is  the 
basis  of  all  subsequent  editions.  It  was  printed  at  London  in  1620. 
Seventy  years  atterwards,  another  folio  edition  was  printed  at 
Oxford,  under  the  inspection  of  Bishop  Lloyd,  in  1690.  These  folio 
impressions  were  intended  principally,  if  not  wholly,  for  the  use 
of  churches;  so  that,  for  upwards  of  seventy  years  from  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Reformation  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  there  was  no  provi- 
sion made  for  furnishing  the  country  or  people  in  general  with 
copies  of  the  Scriptures.  The  honour  of  the  first  supply  of  this 
k;nd  is  due  to  one  or  more  citizens  of  London,  at  whose  private 
expense  an  octavo  edition  was  printed  in  1630.  In  1654  and  1678, 
two  other  octavo  editions  appeared ;  the  latter  of  these  consisted 
of  8000  copies,  to  the  publication  of  which  the  Rev.  Thomas  Gouge, 
a  learned  nonconformist  minister,^  not  only  contributed  very  largely 
out  of  his  private  fortune,  but  procured  ample  subscriptions  from 

«  Brief  History  of  the  Versions  of  the  Bible  of  the  English  and  Roman 
Churches,  p.  100.  Dublin,  1830. 

*  The  reader  will  find  a  pleasing  account  of  Mr.  Gouge's  various  bene- 
vuleiit  and  pious  undertakings  in  Archbishop  Tillotson's  Sermon  on  his 
ileatli.    Works,  voL  ii.  pp.  240—349.  8vo.  London,  1820. 


numerous  opulent  and  benevolent  individuals.  The  next  octavo 
edition  of  the  Welsh  Bible  was  published  in  1690,  under  tlie  pa- 
tronage of  Tiiomas  Lord  Wharton,  by  Mr.  David  Jones;  who  was 
assisted  in  the  undertaking  by  .some  ministers  and  citizens  of  Lon- 
don. This  was  the  last  edition  that  appeared  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  also  the  most  numerous;  the  editor,  it  is  said,  having 
distributed  not  fewer  than  ten  thousand  copies.^  During  the 
eighleenlh  century,  six  editions  of  the  Welsh  Bible  were  printed, 
chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  at  llie  expense  of  the  vencraMe  Socif.'TY  for. 
pROiMOTiNG  Christian  Knowledge,  viz.  in  1718,  1727, 1746,  1752, 
1769  or  1770,  and  1799.  This  last  edition  consisted  of /(«  thousand 
copies  of  the  Welsh  Bible,  Common  Prayer,  and  singing  Psalms, 
besides  two  thousand  extra  copies  of  the  New  Testament.  Ample 
as  this  edition  was,  in  a  few  years,  copies  of  the  Scriptures  became 
extremely  scarce  and  dear  in  the  Principality:  and  in  1802,  some 
pious  and  benevolent  individuals  projected  a  new  impression,  the 
circumstances  connected  with  which  ultimately  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Societv.'I  Tiieir  attention 
was  immediately  directed  to  the  wants  of  the  Principality:  in 
1806,  a  large  and  very  correct  stereotype  impression  of  the  New 
Testament  was  issued,  which  obtained  a  rapid  sale;  and  subse- 
quent editions  have  been  printed,  particularly  a  very  neat  pocket 
edition,  executed  for  the  Society  by  his  majesty's  printers,  in  1825. 
In  1821,  the  Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge  defrayed 
the  expense  of  a  large  edition,  in  crown  octavo,  of  the  Welsh  Bible, 
with  the  Liturgy  and  Psalms.  It  was  executed  at  the  press  of  the 
University  of  Oxford,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens 
of  typography  ever  printed ;  so  that  the  inhabitants  of  'Wales  are 
now  abundantly  supplied  with  the  Scriptures  in  their  native  tongue. 


Irish  Version. 
The  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  translated  into  Irish  by  the 
care  and  diligence  of  Dr.  William  Behell,  late  Bishop  of 
Kilmore.  With  the  New  Testament,  translated  by  WiUiam 
O'Domhnuill.  [In  the  vernacular  Irish  character.]  London, 
1685-81,  4to. 

The  New  Testament  having  been  translated  into  Irish  by  Dr. 
William  Daniel,  archbishop  of  Tuam,  Dr.  Bedell  (who  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  see  of  Kilmore  and  Ardagh  in  1629)  procured  the 
Old  Testament  to  be  translated  by  a  Mr.  King  ;  who,  being  ignorant 
of  the  original  languages,  executed  it  from  the  English  version. 
Bedell,  therefore,  revised  and  compared  it  with  the  Hebrew,  the 
Septuagint,  and  the  Italian  version  of  Diodati.  He  supported  Mr. 
King,  during  his  undertaking,  to  the  utmost  of  his  ability;  and 
when  the  translation  was  finished,  he  would  have  printed  it  in  his 
own  house,  and  at  his  own  charge,  if  he  had  not  been  prevented  by 
the  troubles  in  Ireland.  The  translation,  however,  escaped  the 
hands  of  the  rebels,  and  was  subsequently  printed  in  1685,  at  the 
expense  of  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle.^  What  editions  were  printed 
during  the  eighteenth  century,  the  author  of  the  present  work  has 
not  been  able  to  ascertain.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
early  exerted  itself  to  supply  the  want  of  the  Bible  in  the  Irish  lan- 
guage. In  1811,  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament  was  completed  ; 
and  in  1813,  the  Bible  was  stereotyped.  A  handsome  octavo  edition 
of  the  Irish  Bible,  in  the  Irish  character,  was  printed  by  his  ma- 
jesty's printers  at  Dublin,  in  1827. 

Manks  Version. 
Yn  Vible  Casherick;  goaill  stiagh  yn  Chenn  Chonaant,  as  yn 
conaant  Noa  :  veih  ny  Chied  Ghlaraghyn  ;  dy  Kiaralagh  Chyn- 
dait  ayns  Gailck  ;  ta  shen  dy  ghra,  Chengey  ny  Mayrey  Elian 
Vannin.  Pointit  dy  ve  Ihaiht  ayns  Kialteenyn.  Whitehaven, 
1775,  4to. 

Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  the  truly  venerable  Bishop  of  Sodor 
and  Man,  Dr.  Thomas  Wilson,  formed  a  plan  for  translating  the 
New  Testament  into  the  Manks  language;  but  he  did  not  live  to 
make  a  further  progress  than  to  procure  the  four  Gospels  and  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  to  be  translated,  and  to  print  at  his  own  expense 
the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  His  exemplary  successor.  Bishop  Hil- 
desley,  revised  the  manuscript,  and  completed  the  version  of  the 
New  "Testament,  which,  by  the  munificent  aid  of  the  Society  for 
promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  and  of  other  benevolent  indivi- 
duals, he  was  enabled  to  print  between  the  years  1756  and  1760. 
In  1766,  he  was  encouraged,  by  the  influx  of  benefactions,  to 
undertake  a  Manks  Version  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  was  com- 
pleted only  two  days  before  his  decease,  on  the  30th  November, 
1772.6  In  1775,  the  entire  Bible  was  printed  at  the  expense  of^  the 
same  venerable  society,  at  Whitehaven,  in  one  volume  quarto  :  it 
is  very  neatly  printed  in  three  columns  on  a  page. 

In  1819,  a  beautiful  and  accurate  octavo  edition  of  the  Manks 
Bible  was  executed  by  his  majesty's  printers,  for  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society. 

'  Llewellyn's  Historical  Account  of  the  British  Versions  and  Editions  of 
the  Bible,  pp.  1—50. 

*  See  the  Rev.  John  Owen's  History  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  vol.  i.  pp.  1—12.  133.  150.  262.  391. 

5  Biographia  Britannica,  article  Bedell,  vol.  ii.  p.  136.  2d  edition. 

«  Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary,  vol.  xvii.  pp.  410—482.  from  Mr. 
Butler's  Memoirs  of  Bp.  Ilildesley. 


i 


Sect.  VI.  §  3.] 


GERMAN  VERSIONS. 


43 


Gaelic   Version. 

Lciibraichpan  an  T-scann  Tioinnaidh,  air  an  tarriiing  o'n 
clipud  ihaiiain  chum  Gaelic  aihan  naich  ;  a^us  air  an  cur  a 
iiiache  Ic  h-ut^clarras  nrdslioannidii  eaglais  na  li-alba.  Diint-idin 
['J"hi'  Holy  Uil)lc  in  ttic  Gaelic  Language.  Edinburgh],  1826,  4to. 

The  Sociely  in  Scotlaiid  for  propagating  Chrisliaii  Kiiovvlcdgo  has 
the  lioM(»ur  o(  giving  lo  ihe  inhabilanUs  oC  ihe  HiL;bl;iiids  the  Holy 
Scrip, uroM  in  their  verMaciilar  dialect.  The  New  'restainenl  was 
tran.slalod  by  the  late  Kev.Jame.s  Smart,  minister  of  ICillin,  and  print- 
ed al  iheir  expense;  in  ITli;'):  it  l)ears  a  liisih  <haraeler  for  fidelity  and 
occiiracy.  The  several  books  of  the  Old  T(;stainent  were  Iraris- 
lalod  and  published  in  detached  portions  or  volumes,  at  diHi^rent 
limes,  as  \]w  Society's  finids  would  permit,  viz.  The  prophetical 
Ixioks,  by  llu;  liev.  Dr.  Smith,  in  17H:),  and  the  remaining  books  by 
Ihc  Key.  Dr.  John  Stuart,  minister  of  Luss  (son  of  the  translator  of 
the  New  Teslamcnl),  in  three  p:irt.s,  which  appeared  siiccessively  in 
the  years  178:5,  1787,  and  IHOl.  In  17%  the  first  edition  of  the 
Mew  Testariicnt  being  exhausted,  the  Society  |)ublished  another, 
consisting  of /icc/i/y //(oi;.w;ii'/ copies.  And  as  some  otiho  first  |)rint- 
ed  volumes  of  the  Old  Tesiai7ietil  were  so  much  reduced  in  ninn- 
bor,  in  1802,  as  to  be  insuflicient  lo  supply  the  urgent  demands  of 
the  Highlands  in  general,  and  of  the  Society's  own  schools  in  par- 
ticular, a  new  edition  of  twenty  thousand  copies  was  printed. 
Three  parts  out  of  four,  into  wliiih  lliis  portion  of  the  Bible  had 
been  divided,  were  rendered  from  the  Ih'brew  with  great  simplici- 
ty, and  with  as  literal  an  adherence  lo  the  original  text  as  the  idiom 
of  the  respective  languages  would  admit.  As  the  style  of  the  fourth 
part  (containing  the  prophetical  books)  had  receded  from  this  sim- 
plicity, it  was  revised  and  corrected  with  the  utmost  care.  From 
this  corrected  text  (a  copy  of  which  was  furnished  by  the  Society 
in  Scotland  as  soon  as  it  was  finished),  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  executed  their  stereotype  editions  in  1807,  which  (as  the 
Scottish  Society  was  tniable  lo  supply  the  urgent  and  very  nmnerous 
demands  for  the  sacred  writings)  were  purchased  at  reduced  prices 
by  the  jKior  Highlanders,  with  the  liveliest  expressions  of  grati- 
tude.' In  181(3,  this  Gaelic  version  of  the  Bible  received  the  ap- 
probation of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  oi'  Scotlan<l.  Tlic 
quarto  edilioji,  printed  at  Edinburgh,  may  be  considered  as  the 
standard  edition  of  the  Gaeliit  Bible:  it  was  revised  by  a  com- 
mittee of  clergymen  well  skilled  in  the  Gaelic  language,  who  were 
appointed  by  tin;  Clcneral  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  to 
suf)erinteml  the  work.  This  edition,  with  a  revised  tiaelic  Metri- 
cal Version  of  the  Psalms  and  Paraphrases  on  certain  portions  of 
Scripture  subjoined  to  it,  was  completed  in  Ihe  year  1826.  It  was 
then  submitted  to  the  (Jcnoml  Assembly  of  the  (/'hurch  of  Scot- 
land, who  were  pleased  to  approve  of  it,  and  to  authorize  its  exclu- 
sive use  in  the  churches  and  chapels  within  their  bounds  in  which 
public  worsliip  is  conducted  in  the  Gaelic  language.' 

[ii.]   Veusions  is  the  Languages  spoken  ox  the  Conti- 
nent   OF    EUKOFE. 

1.  German  Versions. 
LuTiiER-'s  Version, 
And  ihe  Versions  derived  from  it. 
As  Germany  has  the  honour  of  being  the  country  where  the  art 
of  printing  was  first  discovered,  so  it  was  distinguished  in  the  an- 
nals of  sacred  literature,  by  being  the  first  in  which  the  Holy 
Scrii)tures  were  issued  from  the  press  in  the  vernacular  language 
of  its  inhabitants.  So  early,  indeed,  as  the  year  14GG,  a  Cierman 
translation  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  w'as  printea,  the  author  of  which 
is  unknown.^  Scarcely,  however,  had  the  Reformation  commenced, 
when  Luther  meditated  a  new  version  of  the  Scriptures 'for  the 
general  use  of  his  countrymen.  His  first  publication  comprised  the 
seven  penitential  Psalins,  from  the  Latin  of  John  Reuchlin.  These 
appeared  in  1517  ;  and  were  fbllovvod  by  the  New  Testament,  in 
1522;  by  the  Pentateuch,  in  1523  ;  by  the  lx)ok  of  Joshua,  and  the 
remaining  historical  books,  in  1521 ;  in  which  year  also  appeared 
the  books  of  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Fcclesiastes,  and  the  Song  of 
Songs.  In  152(5,  were  published  ttie  prophecies  of  Jonah  and 
Habakkuk  ;  in  1528,  those  of  Zachariah  and  Isaiah  ;  in  1529,  the 
apocryphal  book  of  Wisdom  ;  in  1530,  the  book  of  Daniel,  together 
with  the  remaining  apocryphal  books  ;  in  1531,  the  entire  book  of 
Psalms  ;  and  1531  and  15^2,  the  rest  of  the  prophetical  books.  All 
these  portions  of  Luther's  translations  are  of^  extreme  rarity  :  in  the 
revision  of  it  he  received  very  important  assistance  from  the  learn- 
ed and  candid  Philip  Melancthon,  who  also  corresponded  with 
eminent  men  on  various  topics  of  biblical  criticism,  in  order  to 
render  the  translation  as  correct  as  possible.  Further  to  ensure  its 
accuracy,  a  select  party  of  learned  men  assembled  daily  with  Lu- 
tlier  at  Wittemberg,  to  revise  every  sentence  which  he  had  made 
directly  from  the  Hebrew  and  Greek.  Melancthon  collated  the 
Greek  original,  Cruciger  the  Chaldee,  and  other  professors  the  Rab- 
binical writings.  Justus  Jonas,  John  Bugenhagen,  and  Matthew 
Aurogallus,  also  contributed  their  aid.      The  whole  Bible  thus  re- 

«  Address  of  the  Society  in  Scotland  for  propagating  Christian  Knowledge, 
1803.  Owen's  History  of  the  Bibl^  Society,  vol.  i.  pp.  ac,  20(5. 314— 31f).  In 
1820,  a  Gaelic  translation  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  completed 
and  printed  at  the  expense  of  the  London  Society  for  promoting  Christian 
Knowledge. 

»  A  copy  of  this  very  rare  work  is  in  the  splendid  collection  of  EarlSpen- 
cer.  Seeadescription  of  itinMr.  Dibdin's  Bibliotheca  Spenceriana,  vol. i. 
pp.  42-47. 


vised  was  first  published  in  1530,and  again  in  1534,  l.'>41,  and  1545.3 
Luther  made  his  version  directly  from  the  original  Hebrew  and 
Greek,  and  not  one  of  his  numerous  enemies  ever  durst  charge  him 
with  i;;noran<c  of  those  languages.  His  translation  is  represented 
as  being  uncoimnoidy  clear  and  accurate,  and  its  style  in  a  high 
degree  pure  and  elegant.  Having  originally  been  published  in  de- 
tiiclied  portions,  as  these  were  gradually  and  successively  circu- 
lated among  the  people,  Luther's  vcrsio;i  produced  sudden  and  al- 
most iiurrc^dible  cflecl.s,  and  contributed,  more  than  any  other  cause, 
lo  extirjiatc  the  erroneous  principles  and  supcrslilious  practices  of 
the  church  of  Rome  from  llie  minds  of  a  prodigious  innnbcr  of 
persons.'  Since  that  time  it  has  been  printed  times  without  num- 
ber ;  and  as  ihc  reformation  spread,  it  served  as  the  basis  of  several 
other  translations,  viz. 

(1.)  The  Lower  Saxon  Translation  was  printed  at  Lubeck,  in 
1533-'l.  lis  aiuhors  are  not  known.3  This  version  was  nndcrt.aken 
at  the  suggestion  of  Luther  hiin.self,  and  under  the  direction  of  John 
Bugenhagen  (or  Bugenhagius),  who  wrote  a  pr<'fiice,  and  supplied 
short  notes,  an<l  also  arguments  to  the  il liferent  iHMiks. 

(2.)  The  I'oiiii  rdiiinii  Version  Wits  printed  in  1588,  in  quarto,  by 
Ihe  command  of  Bogislaus  XIII.  duke  of  Pomernnia ;  it  was  rn.ade 
from  the  VV'irlcmlierg  edition  of  Luther's  Bible,  pritiled  in  154.5. 

(3.)  The  JJuninh  Version  v\as  unilcrlaken  by  roinmand  of  (Jhris- 
tiaii  HI.,  king  of"  Denmark,  and  at  the  suggestion  of  Bugenhagen: 
it  was  printed  at  fJopenbagen  in  1550,  and  is  of  extreme  rarity. 
Prcviou.sly  to  the  publication  of  this  version,  the  New  'i'esiament* 
h.-id  been  translated  from  the  Vidgate,  as  well  as  the  Psalms,  and 
the  five  books  of  Moses.  The  Danish  version  was  subsf(|uciitly 
revised  and  corrected  in  the  reigtis  of  Frederic  II.  and  Christian 
IV.  kings  of  Denmark  ;  the  revision,  made  by  command  of  the  hwt- 
mcnlioned  monarch,  is,  we  believe,  the  standard  of  the  succeeding 
editions  of  the  Danish  Scriptures,  which,  however,  are  said  lo  vary 
considerably  from  Luther's  German  version. — In  1823,  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew  was  printed  at  Copenhagen,  in  the  dialect  of  the  Danish 
language  sjioken  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Faroe  Islands:  the  Danish 
and  Faroese  text.s  are  printed  in  parallel  columns. 

(4.)  The  Lchmdic  Translation  of  the  entire  Bilile  was  printed  at 
Holmn,  in  Iceland,  in  1584,  under  the  patronage  of  Frederic  IL 
The  New  Te.st;iment  had  been  translated  In'  Otidur  (JotLshalkson 
(whose  father  filled  the  episcopal  see  of  Holiim),  and  printed  in 
Denmark,  in  153'J,  at  the  expense  of  Christian  lil.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  li-elandic  version  of  the  Epistles  and  Gosjiels  for  all 
Ihe  Sundays  in  the  year,  |)ublishcd  in  1.5'J2,  by  Olaf  Hialieson,  the 
first  Lutheran  bishop  of  Holum;  which  may  be  considcreil  as  a 
second  edition  of  certain  portions  of  Oddur's  New  Tcstameni,  the 
com()iler  having  availed  himself  chiefly  of  that  version,  in  writing 
out  the  lessons  of  which  the  work  consists.  In  1580,  the  Proverbs 
of  Solomon  were  translated  by  Gissar  Eincerson,  the  first  Lutheran 
bishop  of  Skalholl,  who  also  translated  the  book  of  Sirach,  printed 
in  the  same  year  at  Holum.  At  length,  in  1584,  as  above  noticed, 
the  whole  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  was  primed  in  Ice- 
landic, through  the  unremitting  zeal  and  pious  liberality  of  tJud- 
ijrand  Thorlidison,  bishop  of  Holum,  who  not  only  contributed 
largely  to  the  undertaking  himself,  but  also  obtained  a  munificent 
donaiion  from  Frederic  II.,  with  authority  lo  raise  a  rix-dollar  in 
aid  of  the  work  from  every  church  in  Iceland.  It  is  not  known 
what  share  this  eminent  prelate  had  in  the  translation,  which  is 
considered  as  the  production  of  different  hands.  Goltshalkson's 
version  of  the  New  Tcstameni,  as  well  as  some  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament,  was  adopted,  after  having  been  revised  by  Gudbrand. 
This  edition  has  always  been  very  highly  esteemed,  on  account 
of  ilie  purity  of  iis  diction;  and,  even  at  this  day,  it  is  preferred 
before  more  modern  translations.  A  second  edition  of  the  Icelandic 
Bible  appeared  at  Ilolum  in  1044,  under  the  editorial  careof  Thor- 
lak  Skulcson,  bishop  of  that  see;  by  whom  it  was  carefully  revised 
and  corrected.  This  is  the  standard  text  from  which  the  two  most 
recent  impressions  of  the  Icelandic  Version  have  been  printed.^ 

'  For  further  particulars  relative  to  Luther's  German  Version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  readeris  referred  to  the  life  of  I'liilip. Melancthon,  liy  Francis  Cox, 
M..\.,  pp.  20G— 213.  (2d  edit.),  and  also  to  Dr.  Towuley's  lUiislralionsof  Bib- 
lical Literature,  vol.  ii.  pp.  271—3(10.  Of  the  editions  of  Luther's  versions 
above  noticed,  the  venerable  Reformer  bestowed  the  greatest  care  in  re- 
vising and  correcting  that  of  1541.  It  was  beaunrully  printed  in  two  folio 
volumes,  and  ornamented  with  woodcuts.  A  Uniijue  Copy  uf  this  edition, 
which  had  been  Luther's  oicn  copy,  and  constantly  used  by  him  until  tiis 
decease,  was  in  the  possession  of  Ihe  lateMr.  Edwards  (formerly  an  eminent 
bookseller),  of  Manor  House,  near  Ifarrow-onthe-llill.  On  the  sale  of  his 
choice  library  by  auction,  in  1813,  these  precious  volumes  were  purchased 
by  Geo.  Ilibbert,  Esq.  for  the  sum  of  89/.  5s.  Get  (Seeadescription  of  them 
copied  from  the  sale  catalogue  (No.  812.)  in  Mr.  Dibdin's  Bibliographical  De- 
cameron, vol.  iii.  pp.  123,  124.,  or  in  the  Genlleman's  Macazine,  vol.  Ixxxv. 
part  i.  p.  2.")4.)  At  the  sale  of  Mr.  Ilihbert's  library,  in  1629,  this  copy  of 
Luther's  Bible  ^vas  purchased  for  the  British  Museum,  for  the  sura  of '2551. 
Fac-similes  of  the  handwritings  of  the  venerable  reformers,  Luther,  Bugen- 
hagen, Melancthon,  and  Major  (into  whose  possession  this  copy  succes- 
sively passed),  are  given  in  the  sale  catalogue  of  Mr.  llibbert's  library,  p.  481. 

«  Mosheini's  Ecclesiastical  History,  vol.  iv.  p.  (iO. 

'  Another  Lower  Saxon  Version  from  the  Vulgate  was  printed  at  LubecJc 
in  1494,  in  two  folio  volumes.  The  reader  will  find  a  bibliograpbicaJ  notice 
of  it  in  Ihe  BibliothecaSpenceriana,  vol.  i.  pp.  5.5 — 58. 

«  An  interesting  account  of  this  version  is  given  by  Dr.  Henderson  in  bis 
"Dissertation  on  Hans  Mikkelsen's  (or  the  first  Danish)  translation  of  the 
New  Testament,"  Copenhagen,  1813,  4to. 

1  The  above  particulars  are  abridged  from  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson's 
"  Historical  View  of  the  Translation  and  ditTorcnt  Editions  of  the  Icelandic 
Scriptures,"  in  the  second  volume  (pp.  219-306.)  of  his  very  interesting 
.lournal  of  a  Residence  in  Iceland,  during  the  years  1814  and  1815.  8vo. 
Edinburgh,  1818. 


44 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES, 


[Part  I.  Chap.  L 


(5.)  The  SwcdisJi  Version  was  made  from  the  first  edition  of 
Lutlier's  German  Traiislatiim ;  il  was  begun  by  Lanrenre  Andreas, 
and  finished  by  Lanrenco  Petri,  and  was  printed  at  Upsal,  in  1541, 
by  tlie  command  of  Gnstavus  I.,  iiing  of  Sweden. 

(6.)  The  Dutch  Translation  appeared  in  15G0,  and  after  being 
repeatedly  printed,  was  supereeded  by  a  new  Protestant  transla- 
tion, of  which  an  account  is  given  in  page  45.   infra. 

(7_10.)  The  Fhinish  Version  was  printed  at  Stockholm  in  1G42,' 
and  again  in  1()42;2  the  Lcltish  (or  Livonian)  was  made  by  Ernest 
Cluck,  dean  of  the  Ltiiheran  church  in  Livonia,  who  completed  it 
.between  the  years  lOSO  and  1088:  the  entire  Bible  was  printed  at 
Riga,  in  1089  ;3  the  Sorabic  or  Vie7idish  (a  dialect  spoken  in  Upper 
Lusatia),  at  Bautzen  (Budissro),  in  1728,  and  again  in  1742;  and  the 
Lithuanian,  at  Konigsberg  (Regiomonti),  in  1735. 

Valuable  as  Luther's  German  translation  of  the  Scriptures  con- 
fessedly is,  it  was  severely  attacked,  on  its  publication,  by  the 
enemies  of  the  Reformation,  whose  productions  are  enumerated  by 
Walchius.''  Luther's  translation,  reformed  by  the  Zuinglians  and 
Calvinists,  was  printed,  in  various  editions,  at  Neustadt,  between 
the  years  1G79  and  1095;  at  Herborn  in  109G,  1698,  1701-5-8,  and 
21;  at  Heidelberg  in  1017  and  1018,  and  many  times  since;  at 
Cassel  in  1002;  and  at  Basle  in  1651,  1059,  and  in  the  last  century 
very  frequently. 

Between  Ihe  years  1525  and  1529,  Leo  Juda  published  at  Zurich 
a  German-Swiss  translation  of  the  Scriptures.  As  far  as  he  could, 
he  availed  himself  of  such  parts  of  Luther's  version  as  were  then 
printed.  In  1067,  a  new  and  revised  edition  of  Leo  Juda's  trans- 
lation was  published  at  Zurich:  the  alterations  and  corrections  in 
it  are  so  numerous,  that  it  is  considered  as  a  new  translation,  and 
is  commonly  called  the  New  Zurich  Bible,  in  order  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Old  Zurich  version  of  Leo  Juda.  "  It  was  undertaken 
by  Hettinger,  MLiUer,  Zeller,  Hoffmeister,  and  others,  and  con- 
ducted with  great  care  and  precision.  As  their  plan  seems  to  have 
had  some  resemblance  to  that  pursued  by  our  own  adrnirable 
translators,  and  may,  perhaps,  have  been  copied  from  it,  this  ver- 
sion is  more  particularly  deserving  of  notice.  When  these  learned 
men  met  together,  Hettinger  and  Miiller  had  each  of  them  the 
Hebrew  text  put  into  their  hands:  Zeller  had  the  Old  Zurich  ver- 
sion; Wasser  took  the  Italian  of  Giovanni  Diodati  and  Parens' 
edition  of  Luther's  Bible;  Hoffmeister  had  the  Septuagint  and  the 
Junio-Tremellian  version  before  him,  and  Freitz  the  Belgian  Bible. 
When  any  difference  arose,  the  point  was  argued  by  them  all ; 
each  was  called  upon  to  give  his  opinion  of  the  translation  which 
was  in  his  hands:  and  that  reading  was  adopted,  which,  after  ma- 
ture consideration,  seemed  most  agreeable  to  the  Hebrew.''^ 

As  the  Zurich  edition  differs  very  materially  from  that  of  Luther, 
John  Piscator  undertook  another,  from  the  Latin  version  of  Junius 
and  Tremellius,  which  he  has  followed  very  closely.  It  appeared 
in  detached  portions  between  the  years  1602  and  1004,  and  was 
repeatedly  printed  during  the  seventeenth  century.  Piscator's 
version,  having  become  very  scarce,  has  lately  been  revised  by  the 
Biblical  and  Divinity  Professors,  and  three  pastors  of  the  Helvetic 
church,  who  have  corrected  its  orthography,  and  such  words  as 
have  become  obsolete,  previously  to  an  edition  of  8000  copies  of 
the  entire  Bible,  and  4000  copies  of  the  New  Testament,  which 
has  been  executed  by  the  Berne  Bible  Society,  aided  by  a  pecuni- 
ary grant  from  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  of  London. 

Besides  the  preceding  German  versions  made  by  Protestants, 
there  are  also  translations  made  by  Romish  divines :  some  of  them 
appeared  almost  as  early  as  that  of  Luther,  to  which,  however, 
they  are  greatly  inferior  in  point  of  perspicuity.  Three  of  these 
are  particularly  mentioned  by  Walchius,  viz. 

(1.)  That  of  John  Detemberger,  whose  translation  clearly  evinces 
that  he  was  utterly  unfit  for  the  task  he  undertook,  and  who  hesi- 
tated not  to  acknowledge  that  he  was  totally  ignorant  of  Hebrew. 
He  took  much  from  Luther,  against  whom,  however,  he  vehemently 
inveighs.  His  translation  was  first  published  at  Mayence  in  1534, 
and  has  been  several  times  printed  since  that  time. 

(2.)  The  version  which  bears  the  name  of  John  Eckius.  He 
translated  only  the  Old  Testament,  the  New  being  executed  by 
Jerome  Eraser.  It  was  first  published  in  1537,  and  has  also  been 
repeatedly  printed. 

(3.)  The  version  of  Caspar  Ulenberg,  which  was  undertaken 
under  the  patronage  of  Ferdinand,  archbishop  and  elector  of  Co- 
logne, is  preferred  by  those  of  his  own  communion  to  all  the  other 
German  versions.  He  follows  the  Sixtine  edition  of  the  Latin 
Vulgate.  This  translation  first  appeared  in  1630,  and  has  under- 
gone very  numerous  impressions. 

The  three  translations  just  noticed  include  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.    In  addition  to  them,  three  new  versions  of  the  New 

«  This  edition  was  accompanied  with  a  translation  in  the  Eathonian  lan- 
guage, spoken  in  the  province  of  Esthland  or  Estlionia.  It  is  a  totally  dis- 
tinct language,  being  closely  allied  to  the  Finnish.  Bp.  Marsh's  History  of 
"TrEinslations,  p.  4.  note.  There  is  also  a  dialect  of  the  Esthonian,  called  the 
Dorpatiati  Esthonian,  into  which  the  New  Testament  was  translated  and 
published  in  the  year  1727. 

a  A  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the  Karelian  language  (spoken  in 
Karelia,  a  province  of  East  Finland),  was  printed  in  i822  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  St.  Petersburg  Bible  Society ;  but  it  is  not  known  whether  tliis 
version  is  made  from  the  Finnish,  or  not. 

3  Henderson's  Biblical  Researches,  p.  111.  An  edition  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, both  in  Livonian  and  Esthonian,  had  been  already  printed  at  Riga, 
in  1685  and  1686.    The  Lettish  or  Livonian  is  a  Sclavonian  dialect. 

*  Walchii  Bibliotheca  Theologica  Selecta,  vol.  iv.  pp.  79—81. 

'  Whittaker's  Inquiry  into  the  Interpretation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
in  Europe,  p.  33.   Cambridge,  1819,  8vo. 


Testament  have,  within  a  few  years,  been  circulated  very  largely 
among  the  Romanists  of  Germany,  who  have  evinced  an  ardent 
desire  for  the  Scriptures,  notwithstanding  the  fulminations  of  the 
Papal  See  against  them.  Of  two  of  these  versions,  the  Ratisbon 
edition,  and  that  executed  by  M.  Gossner,  a  learned  Romish  priest, 
formerly  of  Munich,  the  author  has  not  been  able  to  obtain  any 
authentic  particulars;  the  third  was  executed  about  the  year  1812, 
by  the  Rev.  Leander  Von  Ess,  professor  of  divinity  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Marburg,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother.  It  is  made  di- 
rectly from  the  Greek,  and  has  been  recommended  by  the  first 
Protestant  clergymen  at  Dresden  and  Zurich,^  as  well  as  by  seve- 
ral authorities  among  the  literati  of  the  Romish  communion,  as 
exhibiting  a  pure  and  correct  version  of  the  sacred  original.'' 

There  are  also  two  translations  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  the  dia- 
lect spoken  by  the  Jews  in  Germany,  called  the  Jewish-German. 
One  was  made  by  Joseph  Josel  Ben  Alexander,  and  was  printed 
by  Joseph  Athias,  at  Amsterdam,  in  1679  :  previously  to  publica- 
tion it  was  revised  by  Rabbi  Meir  Slern,  chief  rabbi  at  the  syna- 
gogue at  Amsterdam.  The  other  Jewish-German  translation  was 
executed  by  Rabbi  Jekuthiel  Ben  Isaac  Blitz,  and  was  printed  by 
Uri  Veibsch  Ben  Aaron,  also  at  Amsterdam,  in  1679.  Kortholt 
terms  this  translator  a  blasphemous  impostor,  and  charges  him  with 
having  disguised  certain  prophecies  relative  to  the  Messiah,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  Jewish  predilections.  Of  these  two  semi-barba- 
rous, unfaithful,  and  now  almost  universally  neglected  translations, 
which  can  be  of  no  use  whatever  in  Scripture  criticism,  Carpzov 
has  given  an  account,  with  specimens.^  And  as  the  German  Jews 
are  at  this  time  said  to  be  animated  by  a  spirit  of  candid  inquiiy,  a 
Jewish-German  translation  of  the  New  Testament  has  lately  been 
printed  for  their  benefit,  at  the  expense  of  the  London  Society  for 
promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews. 

2.  French  Versions. 
The  earliest  attempt  towards  translating  the  Scriptures  into 
French  was  made  by  Jean  de  Vignay  or  de  Vignes,  who  translated 
the  epistles  and  gospels  contained  in  the  Romish  missal,  at  the 
request  of  Jane  of  Burgundy,  queen  of  Philip  king  of  France,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  fourteenth  century .9  Later  in  the  same  century, 
Raoul  de  Presles,  or  Praelles,  at  the  command  of  Charles  V.  king 
of  France,  translated  the  Bible  into  French  as  far  as  the  Psalms 
or  Proverbs.'"  A  very  fine  manuscript  of  his  version  is  preserved 
among  the  Lansdowne  MSS.,  No.  1175.,  in  the  British  Museum." 
In  1512,  James  le  Fevre,  of  Estaples  (better  known  by  the  name  of 
Jacobus  Faber,  Stapulensis),  published  a  translation  of  St.  Paul's 
epistles,  with  critical  notes  and  a  commentary,  in  which  he  freely 
censures  the  Vulgate  ;  and  in  1523  he  published  at  Paris,  in  a  simi- 
lar manner,  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament.  This  was  followed 
by  detached  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  by  an  edition  of  the 
entire  French  Bible,  translated  by  himself  It  was  printed  at 
Antwerp,  by  Martin  I'Empereur,  in  1530  (again  in  15.34  and  1541), 
and  was  revised  by  the  divines  of  Louvain,  whose  edition  appeared 
in  1550,  and  has  since  been  repeatedly  printed.  The  translation 
of  Le  Fevre  is  said  to  be  the  basis  of  all  the  subsequent  French 
Bibles,  whether  executed  by  Roman  Catholics  or  Protestants.  The 
first  Protestant  French  Bible  was  published  by  Robert  Peter  Olive- 
tan,  with  the  assistance  of  his  relative,  the  illustrious  reformer, 
John  Calvin,  who  corrected  the  Antwerp  edition  wherever  it  dif- 
fered from  the  Hebrew.  It  was  printed  at  Neufchatel,  in  1535,  in 
folio  ;  and  at  Geneva  in  1540,  in  large  quarto,  with  additional  cor- 
rections by  Calvin.  Both  these  editions  are  of  extreme  rarity. 
Another  edition  appeared  at  the  same  place  in  1588,  revised  by 
the  college  of  pastors  and  professors  of  the  Reformed  Church  at 
Geneva  (Beza,  Genlart,  Jaquemot,  Bertram,  and  others),  who  so 
greatly  improved  Olivelan's  Bible,  both  in  correctness  and  diction, 
that  it  henceforth  obtained  the  name  of  the  Geneva  Bible,  by 
which  it  is  now  generally  known.  It  has  gone  through  very  nu- 
merous editions,  the  latest  of  which  is  that  of  Geneva,  1805,  in 
folio,  and  also  in  three  volumes,  8vo.  revised  by  the  college  of  pas- 
tors at  Geneva.  This  is  confessedly  the  most  elegant  French  ver- 
sion extant ;  but  many  Protestants  have  wished  that  it  were  a  lit- 
tle more  literal,  and  they  continue  to  prefer  David  Martin's  revi- 
sion of  the  Genevan  version  of  the  French  Bible  (of  which  the 
New  Testament  was  printed  in  1696,  at  Utrecht,  in  4to.,  and  the 
entire  Bible  at  Amsterdam,  in  1707,  in  two  folio  volumes),  or  the 
revision  of  Jean-Frederic  Ostervald ;  the  best  edition  of  which  is 
said  to  be  that  printed  at  Neufchatel,  in  1772,  in  folio,  with  his 
arguments  and  reflections  on  the  different  books  and  chapters  of 
the  Bible.  Ostervald's  revised  text  (frequently  but  erroneously 
termed  a  version)  has  been  several  times  printed.  Another 
French  Protestant  version  (made  from  the  Italian  translation  of 
Diodati)  was  published  in  1562,  which  for  a  short  time  was  held 

"  The  late  Rev.  Dr.  Reinhart,  first  chaplain  to  the  court  of  Saxony,  and 
the  venerable  superior  of  the  Zuricli  clergy,  Antistes  Hess. 

■"  Owen's  History  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  vol.  ii.  p.  229. 

8  Carpzovii  Crilica  Veteris  Testainenti,  pp.  757 — 786. 

6  Guiars  de  Moulins,  canon  of  St.  Pierre  d'Aire,  in  the  diocese  of  Tou- 
raine,  is  commonly  but  erroneously  considered  as  the  first  French  trans- 
lator of  the  Bible.  Between  the  years  1291  and  1294  he  translated  the  His- 
toria  Scholastica  of  Peter  Comestor;  a  popular  abstract  of  .sacred  history, 
which  has  been  confounded  with  the  Scriptures.  (Townley's  Illustrations 
of  Biblical  Literature,  vol.  i.  pp.  391,  392.)  Several  copies  of  this  translation 
are  in  tlie  Royal  Library  at  Paris;  and  an  edition  of  it  was  printed  by  order 
of  Charles  VIII.,  to  whom  it  was  dedicated,  at  Paris,  in  1487. 

10  Townley's  Illustrations,  vol.  ii.  pp.  8— U. 

"  See  a  description  of  this  MS.  in  the  Bibliotheca  Lansdowniana,  pp,  284, 
285. 


Sect,  VI.  §  3.] 


SPANISH  VERSIONS. 


45 


in  estimation  by  the  Cnlvinists.  Tlie  French  translation  of  Sebas- 
tian Castalio,  who  was  but  iiidiffercntly  skilled  in  lliiil  lanf,'imgo, 
appeared  at  Basil  in  1055  ;  l)eing  aci-oiiniiodaled  lo  his  Latin  ver- 
sion above  noticed,  it  was  liable  lo  the  same  olijeciions,  and  was 
never  held  in  any  esteem.  The  translation  of  the  entire  Hible  by 
C.'liarles  le  (.'ene,  who  quitted  Franco  on  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  JNuntes,  was  iiublished  in  a  folio  volume  in  1711,  thirty-eight 
years  after  his  death,  by  his  son,  a  bookseller  at  Amsterdam.  The 
Slates  of  Groningen  prohibited  the  circulation  of  tiiis  version  in 
their  province,  on  a<<ount  of  its  So(;iniaii  tendency.  A  Frenrdi 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  l)y  the  celebrated  critic  Le 
(,'i<'rc,  ap|)eare(l  at  Amsterdam  in  two  volumes  4lo. :  it  is  said  lo 
be  lainled  with  Socinian  princi|)les,  and  has  never  been  much 
re.id.  But  the  French  I'roieslant  vei-sion  of  the  Wew  Testament, 
executed  by  MM.  Beausobro  and  L'FnIant  (Amsterdam,  1718,  in 
two  volumes,  4to.),  is  highly  and  deservedly  esteemed  lor  its  close- 
ness. An  English  translation  of  the  gospel  of  Matthew,  made  from 
this  version,  was  published  at  Cambridge  in  177'J,  in  8vo.,  to  which 
was  prefixed  a  translation  of  the  excellent  introduction  which  ac- 
comfianicd  the  French  edition.  This  volume  has  been  several 
times  printed. 

A  reformation  of  the  Geneva  Bible  wa.s  undertaken  by  Renat 
Benoist  (Uenatus  Benedictus),  professor  of  divinity  in  the  college 
of  Navarre.  It  was  published  with  notes  in  15G0;  but  being  con- 
demned by  a  brief  of  pope  Gregory  XIII.  in  1575,  a  new  edition 
was  undertaken  by  the  divines  of  Louvain,  who  freed  it  from  the 
corrections  of  the  reformed,  and  made  it  altogether  confiirmable  to 
th(!  Latin.  This  edition  was  printed  at  Antwerp  in  1575,  and  at 
various  places  since.  In  18^0  a  version  of  St.  John's  gospel,  in  the 
dialect  siKjken  at  Toulouse  and  in  its  vicinity,  vva.s  printed  at  Tou- 
louse.' There  are  several  other  French  translations  by  private  in- 
dividuals, as,  1.  The  entire  Bible,  translated  from  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate by  Jac(]iies  Corbin,  an  advocate  of  the  parliament  of  Paris, 
and  published  in  1643,  with  the  approbation  of  the  faculty  of  the- 
ology of  Poitiers :  at  present  it  is  but  little  esteemed  in  France; — 
2.  The  New  Testament,  from  the  Vulgate,  by  Michael  de  Ma- 
rolles,  published  in  1649:  it  is  executed  jirincipally  from  Eras- 
mus's Latin  version,  but  in  some  passages  from  the  Vulgate,  and 
has  often  been  reprinted  ; — 3.  Father  Ainelotle's  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  from  the  Vulgate  was  published  in  1G66,  1667, 
and  1668,  in  four  volumes,  8vo.,  with  notes.  It  has  been  very  justly 
and  severely  criticised,  for  it.s  blunders,  by  Father  Simon.  Ilis  prin- 
cipal design  in  publishing  this  version  was  to  supersede  the  Frencii 
Protestant  translation,  and  especially  that  of  the  learned  Port- 
Royalists  (which  was  then  in  the  press),  whose  bitter  enemy  Ame- 
lotte  was  ; — 4.  The  version  of  the  New  Testament  by  the  Port- 
Royalists,  w'hich  was  depreciated  before  its  publication  by  the 
adversaries  of  the  Jansenists,  appeared  in  1667,  in  two  volumes, 
8vo.  It  was  printed  at  Amsterdam  by  the  Elzevirs,  for  Gaspard 
Migeot,  a  bookseller  of  Mons  (whence  it  is  sometimes  called  the 
Testament  of  Mons),  w-ith  the  approbation  of  the  archbishop  of 
Cambray,  and  the  bishop  of  Namur,  and  with  the  privilege  of  the 
king  of  Spain ;  but  it  w'as  condemned  by  the  popes  Clement  IX. 
and  Innocent  XI.  This  version  (which  is  from  the  Vulgate)  wa.s 
begun  by  Anioine  le  Maitre,  after  whose  death  it  was  finished  by 
his  brother  Isaac  Louis  lo  Maitre  de  Sacy,  with  the  a.ssistancc  of 
the  celebrated  Port-Royalists,  Arnaud,  Nicole,  Claude  Sainte  Mar- 
the,  and  Pierre-Thomas  du  Fosse.  This  version  was  greatly  es- 
teemed, especially  by  the  Jansenists ; — 5.  The  version  of  the  New 
Testament,  by  Antoine  Godeau,  bishop  of  Grasse,  appeared  at  Paris 
in  1668,  in  two  volumes,  8vo. :  it  is  made  from  the  Vulgate,  and 
hohls  a  middle  way  between  a  literal  version  and  a  paraphrase  ; — 
6.  The  New  Testament,  by  Father  Quesnel,  is  made  more  con- 
formable to  Ihe  Vulgate  than  the  translation  published  at  Mons 
(No.  4.),  which  he  took  for  his  basis  :  it  is  accompanied  w^ilh  moral 
reflections,  which  are  justly  admired  for  their  piety,  and  were  com- 
mended by  pope  Clement  XI.,  w'ho  afterwards,  in  1713,  condemned 
his  version  by  the  celebrated  bull  beginning  with  the  words  "  Uni- 
genitus  Dei  Filius,"  together  with  one  hundred  and  one  proposi- 
tions extracted  from  it,  and  every  thing  that  eilhcrhad  been  written 
or  should  be  written  in  defence  of  it !  The  first  part  of  Quesnel's 
Version  and  Reflections  was  published  in  1671,  and  the  work  was 
completed  in  the  course  of  the  following  nine  years.  Editions  of 
the  whole  w-ork  were  printed  at  Brussels  in  1693  and  1694,  in  4 
vols.  8vo.,  at  Trcvoux  in  1698,  and  at  Paris  in  1699.  This  edition 
is  said  to  bo  more  ample  than  the  preceding,  and  has  often  been 
reprinted,  both  in  8vo.  and  l'2mo.  Qiicsncl's  Reflections  were 
translaieil  into  English,  and  published  in  four  volumes,  8vo.,  at  Lon- 
don, in  1719-1725; — 7.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  pub- 
lished by  the  Jesuits  at  Bordeaux  in  1686,  with  Ihe  approbation 
and  permission  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  the  place.^  Of 
the  wilful  alterations  and  falsifications  introduced  into  this  version, 
in  order  to  support  the  peculiar  dogmas  of  the  Romish  church,  an 
account  was  published  by  bishop  Kidder  in  1690.  It  is  supposed 
that  nearly  the  whole  of  this  version  was  bought  up  and  destroyed, 
as  very  few  copies  are  known  to  be  in  existence  ,"3 — 8,  9.  Between 

'  Le  St'nt  Ebatiffely  do  Nostra  Seigneur  Jesus  Christ  seloun  S6nt  Jan, 
IraduiC  en  Lcngo  Toulouzenzo.     A  Toulouse,  1S20,  l'2uio. 

»  Le  Nouveau  Trsiauiont  de  notre  Sei<rneur  J.  C,  traduit  de  Latin  en 
Francois  par  Irs  Thtiologiens  de  Louvain  ;  Impriuii-  a  Uonlraux,  chez 
Jarques  Mongiron-Millanges,  Imprimeur  du  Roi  et  du  ColK'ge,  1GS6.  Avec 
approbation  et  permission. 

»  Two  copies  are  at  O.tford,  one  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  and  anothpr  in 
that  of  Christ  Churcli  College  ;  two  others  are  in  Uulilin,  in  the  ITniversity 
Lit>rary,  and  in  the  Library  founded  by  Archbishop  Marsh ;  and  a  fifth  is 
in  the  po&>essiun  of  his  loyal  highness  Lhc  Duke  of  Sussex.    (Dr.  Cotton's 


1697  and  1703,  the  Jesuits,  B<nihoiirs,  Michael  Tellier,  and  Pierre 
Bernier,  published  another  translalioii  of  the  New  Testament;  but 
this,  as  well  as  the  version  of  Cliarles  Ilure,  also  from  the  Vulgat 
(Paris,  1702,  in  four  volumes,  12ino.),  are  now  nearly  forgotten;— 
10.  The  French  version  of  the  higenioiis  critic,  Father  Simon,  pub- 
lished with  notes  in  1702,  was  translated  into  English  by  Mr.  Welj- 
ster,  in  two  volumes,  4io.,  1730.  This  version  was  condemned  by 
an  ordinance  of  the  ca;dinal  de  Noailles,  archbishop  of  Paris,  and 
also  by  two  "  Instructions,"  issued  by  the  celel»rated  IJossuet,  bisliop 
of  Meaiix.'  Various  portions  of  the  Bible  have  been  translated 
into  French  by  other  writers,  who  are  not  of  sufiicient  note  to  re- 
(|uire  a  distinct  mention. 

3  Belffian  Versions. 
A  Flemish  translation  of  the  Scriptures  was  made  from  the  Vul- 
gate in  Ihe  sixteenth  centurv,  and  printed  at  Cologne  in  1475,  at 
Delft  in  1477,  and  at  other  pfaces.  For  a  long  lime  the  Protcstant.s 
in  the  Low  Countries  had  only  Ihe  Dutch  translation,  made  from  Lu- 
ther's CJerman  version  in  1560,  which  has  already  been  noticed  in 
page  44  ;  but  in  1618,  in  consequence  of  an  order  issued  l)y  tho 
Synod  of  Don,  a  new  translation  was  undertaken  from  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek.  The  translators  of  the  Old  Testamcnl  were  John  Bo- 
germann,  VVilliam  Baudarl,  and  Gcrson  Biicer;  Ihe  New  Testament 
and  a|)ocryphal  books  were  assigned  to  James  lioland,  Anthony 
V'iilipus,  and  Festus  Ilommius.  Their  portions,  when  finished,  were 
submitted  lo  the  careful  revision  of  others.  This  Dutch  version 
was  first  printed  in  1637,  and  is  highly  valued  for  its  fidelity;  the 
Remonstrants,  however,  being  dissatisfied  with  the  New  Testament, 
translated  it  anew  from  the  Greek ;  and  their  version  was  printed 
at  Amsterdam  in  1680. 

4.  Italian  Versions, 
Four  versions  of  the  Bible  are  extant  in  the  Italian  language. 
The  earliest  is  that  of  Nicolao  Malermi,  who  translated  it  from  the 
Latin  Vulgate:  it  was  first  published  at  Venice  in  1471,  in  folio. 
The  sec(md  is  that  of  Antonio  Brnccioli,  also  printed  at  Venice  in 
1532:  he  professes  to  have  made  his  version  from  the  Hebrew  and 
(Jreek;  but  Walchius  says,  that  ho  chiefly  followed  the  Latin 
translation  of  Sanctcs  Pagninus.  A  revised  edition  of  Bruccioli's 
Italian  Bible,  rendered  conformable  to  the  Vulgate  by  Sancies 
Marmochiniis,  was  printed  at  Venice  in  1538.  An  Italian  version 
has,  moreover,  been  said  to  have  been  published  under  the  auspices 
of  pope  Sixtus  V. ;  but  its  existence  is  very  doubtful.  A  Protestant 
Italian  version  of  the  New  Testament  was  published  at  Geneva  in 
1561,  and  of  the  entire  Bible  in  1562,  which  is  usually  considered 
as  a  revision  of  Bruccioli's,  but  Walchius  a.sserts  that  it  is  altogether 
a  new  translation.  It  has,  however,  long  been  superseded  by  the 
elegant  and  faithful  version  of  Giovanni  l3iodati,  published  in  1607. 
The  latest  Italian  version  is  that  executed,  in  conformity  w  ith  the 
Vulgate,  by  Antonio  Martini,  archbishop  of  Florence,  towards  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century :  it  received  the  sanction  of  the 
late  pope  Pius  VI.  The  New  Testament  was  published  at  Turin 
in  1769,  and  Ihe  Old  Testament  in  1779:  both  were  accompanied 
with  explanatory  notes  professedly  taken  from  the  fathers.  Martini's 
translation  has  been  rejicatedly  printed  :  the  edition  of  Livorno 
(Leghorn),  1818,  and  that  of  Italia,  1817,  WMth  the  stereotype  New 
Testament  executed  by  T.  Rutt,  Shacklewell  (near  London),  1813, 
were  put  into  the  Index  or  Catalogue  of  Books,  prohibited  to  be 
sold,  by  a  decree  dated  January  13th,  1820.* 

5.   Spa7iish  Versions. 
The  earliest  edition  of  the  Scriptures  in  Ihe  Spanish  language 
was   executed   from    the    Vulgate,   and    printed    at   Valencia   in 

Memoir  of  a  French  Tran.sIation  of  the  New  Testament,  p.  9.)  Tlie  late 
llcv.  Dr.  Grief,  in  the  preface  to  liis  "Answer  to  Ward's  Errata  of  the 
I'roii'stant  Hible"  (London,  1S1.J,  4to.),  lias  given  many  specimens  of  Ihe 
fal.iificnIiiDix  forgeries,  and  aildiiiwns  made  by  the  Jesuits  lo  the  text  of 
Ihe  Uordcaux  French  version  of  the  New  Testament.  Two  or  three  pas- 
siujtes  are  subjoined  as  examples  of  the  corruptions  thus  wilfully  made  in 
this  version : — 

Acts  xiii.  2.  Or  comme  ils  ofTroienl  an  Seigneur  le  sacrifice  de  la  messe. 
— Now  as  Ihey  otTered  unto  the  Lord  Ihe  sacrifice  of  Ihe  mass,  &c. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  notorious  falsiticalions  to  be  found  in  ihe  French 
translation  ;  it  was  designedly  made  to  support  the  unsrriptural  doctrine  of 
llie  sacrifice  of  the  mass.  Ry  it  Ihe  translators  departed  from  Ihe  Latin 
Viilpite,  as  well  as  from  tho  Eiisrlish  Proloslant  version.  This  is  the  very 
passage  respecting  which  Monsieur  Veron,  when  asked  why  he  wrested  it 
from  its  UHlural  meaning,  replied,  "Because  he  had  <:fien  been  asked  by 
(^alvinists  what  scripture  alBniied  thai  tlie  aposUes  said  mass."  (Simon's 
Crit.  Hist,  of  Ihe  New  Te.stauient,  p.  a'>7.) 

1  Tim.  iv.  1.  Or  I'Esprit  dil  clairenient,  qu'en  demiers  temps  qiielqnes 
uns  se  sipareronl  de  la  foy  Itomaine. — Now  the  Siiirit  soys,  that  in  the 
latter  times  some  shall  depart  from  the  Roman  faith. 

Here  Ihe  Bordeaux  translators  have  been  guilty  of  another  forgery,  for 
the  purpose  of  representing  the  Romish  church  as  the  only  church. 

2  Cor.  viii.  19.  Et  non  seulement  cela,  mais  aiissi  il  a  esie  ordonn*  par 
fes  i-glise.s,  compagnon  de  notre  pc  lerinage. — And  not  only  that,  but  he  was 
also  appointed  by  the  churches  the  companion  of  ourpilgrimase. 

In  this  passage  Saint  Paul  is  merely  speaking  of  his  bavins  selected  a 
brother  to  accompany  him  on  his  travels;  but,  in  the  Bordeaux  version, 
the  apn.stle's  language  is  altered,  for  the  puri)ose  of  showing  that  the  prac- 
tice of  pilgrimage  is  warranted  by  Scri])lure. 

*  Sclioell,  Histoire  Abregee  de'  la  Lilnralure  Grecque,  tome  ii.  pp.  159 — 
160.  Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary,  art.  (iuesnel,  vol.  xxv.  pp.426— 
420. 

»  Townley's  Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,  vol.  iii.  p.  483. 


46 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I. 


1478 ;'  it  is  now  of  very  rare  occurrence.  In  1553,  a  Spanisli  version 
of  the  Old  Testament  was  made  for  the  Jews  by  Edward  Pinel ;  it 
was  printed  at  Ferrara.  In  1G3(),  a  revised  edition  of  it  was  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam,  by  Manasseh  Ben  Israel.  A  much  earlier 
translation  than  this  is  said  to  have  been  made  by  some  learned 
Jews,  which  has  been  too  hastily  attributed  to  Rabbi  David  Kiinchi. 
An  edition  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew  and  in  Jewish  Spa- 
nish was  printed  at  Vienna,  in  the  years  1813,  14,  15,  and  16,  in  four 
volumes,  quarto,  for  the  use  of  the  Jews  of  Constantinople,  and  of 
most  of  the  cities  of  Turkey,  who  are  Spanish  Jews.  The  Hebrew 
text  is  printed,  with  vowel  points,  on  one  half  of  the  page,  and 
the  Jewish-Spanish,  with  rabbinical  characters,  on  the  other  ;^  and 
a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  Jewish-Spanish  dialect 
is  in  progress  at  Consianlinople,  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev.  II. 
D.  Leeves.  The  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark  have  been-  com- 
pleted.3  Among  the  Christians,  Cassiodore  de  Reyna  translated-  the 
Scriptures  into  Spanish,  from  the  original  languages,  but  availed 
himself  of  the  assistance  afforded  by  the  Latin  versions  of  Pagiii- 
nus  and  Leo  Juda :  it  was  published  at  Basil  in  1569.  A  revised 
edition  of  it  by  Cyprian  do  Valera,  a  Protestant,  who  consulted  later 
versions  and  notes,  especially  the  Genevan  French  Bible,  was  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam  in  1602.  A  new  Spanish  version  of  the  entire 
Bible  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  was  published  at  Madrid  in  1793-4, 
by  Don  Philipe  Sciode  San  Miguel  (subsequently  appointed  bishop 
of  Segovia),  in  ten  folio  volumes  ;  it  is  adorned  with  three  hundred 
engravings,  copied  from  those  of  Marillier  and  Monsiaii,  which 
were  executed  for  the  edition  of  Sacy's  French  version  of  the  Bible, 
printed  at  Paris  in  1789  and  the  following  years.  This  edition  is 
very  rare  and  dear,  even  in  Spain.  Padre  Scio's  Spanish  version 
was  reprinted  at  Madrid  between  the  years  1794  and  1797,  in  nine- 
teen large  Svo.  volumes,  with  plates.  There  are  copies  of  this 
edition  both  with  and  without  the  Latin  text.  The  third  edition  of 
this  version  was  published  at  Madrid  in  1808,  in  Latin  and  Spanish, 
in  sixteen  volumes,  which  have  the  appearance  of  small  quartos  : 
they  are  very  neatly  executed.  The  Vulgate  text  and  Spanish 
translation  are  printed  in  parallel  columns.  To  each  JDook  is  pre- 
fixed a  critical  preface  ;  and  at  the  foot  of  the  page  is  a  copious 
commentary,  drawn  principally  from  the  writings  of  the  fiithers. 
In  1824,  another  Spanish  version  of  the  Bible,  from  tlie  Latin  Vul- 
gate, with  notes,  was  published  by  Don  Felix  Torres  Amat,  in  eight 
volumes,  4to.  Thirty  thousand  copies  are  said  to  have  been  work- 
ed off,  part  of  which  was  destined  for  America.*  In  1832,  a  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  into  the  Catalonian  dialect,  by  Mr. 
Prat,  a  native  of  the  province  of  Catalonia,  was  completed  and 
printed.  This  dialect  is  spoken  by  about  four  millions  of  persons. 
The  translator  has  completed  (but  not  printed)  a  version  of  the 
Book  of  Psalras.'J 


6.  Russian  Versions, 

"  About  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  considerable 
changes  were  introduced  into  the  Russian  language,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  relations  subsisting  between  Russia  and  Poland,  the 
progress  of  the  Poles  in  grammar  and  lexicography,  and  other 
powerfully  operative  causes,  whereby  a  peculiar  Polish  Russian 
dialect  was  formed,  which  continues  to  be  spoken  to  this  day  by  the 
common  people  inhabiting  the  provinces  comprehended  under  the 
name  of  White  Russia."  Into  this  dialect  the  Pentateuch,  and 
other  detached  portions  of  the  Scripture  (which  are  enumerated 
by  Dr.  Henderson,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  this  account  of  the 
modern  Russian  Bibles),  were  translated  by  Dr.  Francis  Skorina,  a 
physician,  who  published  them  between  the  years  1517  and  1525. 
The  whole  of  the  copies  appear  to  have  been  sent  into  White 
Russia:  they  are  of  very  rare  occurrence.^ 

"  The  next  attempt  that  was  made  to  furnish  the  Russians  with  a 
version  of  the  Scriptures  in  their  vernacular  tongue,  was  that  of 
Ernest  Gliick,  dean  of  the  Lutheran  church  of  Livonia,"  who,  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  undertook  a  version  of 
the  whole  Sclavonic  (or  ancient  Russian)  Bible  into  the  dialect  at  that 
time  spoken  in  Russia.  It  has  been  erroneously  asserted  that  this 
version  was  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1698;  but  Dr.  Henderson 
states  that  it  was  destroyed,  with  the  whole  of  Gliick's  library  and 
papers,  at  the  siege  of  Marienburg  in  1702. 

When,  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  the  Russian  Bible 
Society,  the  public  attention  was  raised  to  the  importance  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  it  was  found  necessary  to  undertake  a  tran.slation 
into  the  modern  Russ  language.  The  emperor  Alexander  having 
referred  it  to  the  members  of  the  Holy  Synod  at  Moscow,  they  re- 
commended the  members  of  the  Committee  of  Spiritual  Schools  to 

«  Thomson's  and  Ormc's  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Translation  of  the 
Scriptures,  p.  10.  note. 

a  Sixteenth  Report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  Appendix, 
p.  24. 

3  Nineteenth  Report  of  the  Briti.sUand  Foreign  Bible  Society,  pp.  Iv.  98. 
To  ensure  correctness,  the  Rev.  H.  D.  Leeves  states,  that  the  translator 
and  his  assistant  passed  with  him  three  or  four  mornings  in  every  weeii ; 
and  that,  with  his  Greek  Testament  and  various  versions  before  him,  he 
heard  the  whole  read  over,  and  allowed  no  phrase  or  word  to  pass  which 
did  not  convey  the  sense  of  the  sacred  original.    Ibid.  p.  99. 

«  Bibliotheque  de  la  Littf'rature  Etrangiire  pour  1823,  p.  312.  A  complete 
copy  of  Amat's  translation  is  in  the  library  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society. 

'  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  xliii.    Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  xlviii. 

«  Dr.  Henderson's  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  103-^105.  In  pp.  106—110.  he 
has  given  specimens  of  this  version,  with  valuable  philological  observa- 
tions. 


select  proper  persons  for  the  undertaking.  On  the  completion  of 
the  four  Gospels,  ihey  were  examined  by  a  committee  of  revision, 
who  published  in  1819  two  editions,  consisting  of  15,000  copies  each, 
with  the  Sclavonic  text  in  parallel  columns.  In  1820,  50,000  copies 
of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  were  issued  from  the  press:  the  epistles 
were  added  successively,  as  they  passed  the  coinmillee  of  revision, 
and  in  1823,  the  entire  iN'ew  Testament  was  published,  for  the  first 
time,  in  the  modern  Russian  language.  In  1822,  a  version  of  the 
Psalms,  from  the  original  Hebrew,  was  published  ;  the  i)rincipal 
labour  in  preparing  which  had  fallen  on  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pavsky,  the 
first  Hebrew  sciiolar  in  the  empire.  Of  the  other  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  (the  translation  of  which  was  confided  to  the  learned 
members  of  the  Spiritual  Academies  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 
and  Kief),  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  books  of  Job,  Proverbs,  and  Ec- 
clesiastes,  were  translated  at  the  beginning  of  1822,  and  forwarded 
lo  the  committee  of  revision  ;  and  the  archbishop  Philaret  had  com- 
menced the  translation  of  Isaiah.  It  having  been  ascertained  that 
the  first  edition  would  make  several  volumes,  the  Committee  of 
the  Russian  Bible  Society  undertook  an  edition  of  10,000  copies  of 
the  Pentateuch,  or  five  books  of  Moses,  Joshua,  Judges,  and  Ruth : 
but  "  this  edition,  though  ready  for  publication  at  Midsummer,  1824, 
has  not  yet  made  its  appearance;  not  having  obtained  the  sanction 
and  blessing  of  the  Holy  Synod.  Nor  is  it  likely  soon  to  see  the 
light,  unless  the  successor  of  Alexander  act  in  the  spirit  by  which 
that  illustrious  monarch  was  guided  when  he  ordered  the  transla- 
tion to  be  made."'  So  fiir  as  it  has  been  published,  the  Modern 
Russian  version  is  stated  to  have  been  received  with  the  liveliest 
gratitude  both  by  clergy  and  laity. 


7.  Croat  Version 
The  New  Testament  in  the  language  of  Croatia  was  first  pub- 
lished at  Tubingen  in  1551.  It  was  translated  by  the  pastor  Truber, 
and  was  reprinted  with  some  corrections  by  the  translator,  at  the 
same  place,  in  two  octavo  volumes,  in  1581-2.  These  editions  are 
of  extreme  rarity.  The  first  edition  of  the  entire  Croat  Bible  ap- 
peared at  Wittemburg  in  1584.  The  New  Testament  is  the  version 
of  Truber.  The  Pentateuch,  Proverbs,  and  book  of  Ecclesiaslicus 
were  translated  by  the  editor,  George  Dalmatinus,  who  also  wrote 
the  preface.^ 


8.  Basque  Version. 
The  New  Testament,  in  the  Basque  dialect,  was  first  printed  at 
Rochelle  in  1571,  with  a  dedication  in  French  to  Joan  d'Albert, 
queen  of  Navarre,  by  John  de  Licarrague  de  Briscous.  It  is  furnish, 
ed  with  parallel  passages  in  the  margin,  and  at  the  end  are  sum- 
maries of  contents,  indexes,  &c?  In  1826,  a  new  edition  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  in  this  dialect  was  printed  at  Bayonne,  from 
a  copy  (perhaps  uniquej  that  was  discovered  in  the  University 
Library  at  Oxlbrd  :'o  and  in  1829  the  entire  New  Testament  was 
printed  at  Paris,  besides  one  thousand  extra  copies  of  the  four 
Gospels." 


9.  Hungarian  Version. 

The  Hungarian  Protestant  version  was  executed  by  Caspar 
Caroli,  who  availed  himself  of  the  previous  labours  of  Valablus, 
Pagninus,  Minister,  Tremellius,  and  of  the  Vulgate.  It  was  first 
published  in  1589,  at  Wysolyn;  and  subsequently  at  Hanau,  in 
1608;  at  Oppenheim,  in  1612;  at  Amsterdam,  in  1645,  1684,  and 
1685,  and  at  other  places.  Of  the  edition  printed  in  Holland,  in 
1717,  three  thousand  copies  are  said  to  have  been  intercepted  by 
the  Jesuits,  into  whose  custody  they  were  committed,  to  prevent 
any  use  from  being  made  of  them.  There  is  also  a  Popish  version, 
made  from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  by  George  Kuldi,  and  printed  at 
Cologne  and  Vienna. 


10.  Polish  Version. 
Three  versions  of  the  Scriptures  have  been  published  in  the 
Polish  language.  The  first  was  undertaken  for  the  use  of  the 
Romanist.s,  and  was  published  at  Cracow  in  1561 ;  reprinted  at  the 
same  place  in  1577,  1599,  and  1619,  and  at  other  places.  The 
second  was  made  by  the  Socinians,  under  the  patronage  and  at  the 
expense  of  prince  Nicholas  Radzivil ;  it  was  published  at  Pinczow, 
in  Lithuania,  in  1563,  and  is  one  of  the  rarest  books  ever  printed. '^ 
This  translation  was  reprinted  at  Zaslau,  in  Lithuania,  in  1578. 
The  third  Polish  version  was  made  by  the  Reformed,  or  Calvinists, 
in  1596.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  Judajo- 
Polish  dialect  (which  is  spoken  by  the  Jews,  who  are  very  nume- 
rous in  Poland)  has  been  made  by  the  Rev.  N.  Solomon,  at  the 
expense  and  under  the  patronage  of  the  London  Society  for  pro- 

1  Dr.  Henderson's  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  115,  116.  125—127.  In  pp. 
119—121.  126.  128—130.,  Dr.  II.  has  given  specimens  of  the  Modern  Russian 
Version,  with  philological  remarks. 

8  Adler's  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  part  iv.  pp.  131,  132. 

9  Ibid.  p.  151. 

<»  Archives  du  Christianisme  pour  1826,  p.  47. 

"  Twenty-fifth  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  xxvii.  Twenty-sixth  Re- 
port, p.  xxix. 

'»  A  coi)y  of  this  translation  is  in  the  library  of  Earl  Spencer,  and  is 
described  by  Dr.  Dibdin,  Bib.  Spcuc.  vol.  i.  pp.  85—89. 


Sect.  VI.  §  3.] 


ALBANIAN  VERSIONS. 


47 


moling  Clirisliuiiily  among  the  Jews;  it  was  printed  in  If 
Iraii.slaliuii  of  iho  New  Teslameut  iiil(j  the  language  of  Sa 


1821.'     A 

.......n. ........  ., .,^..    -^ ^ ...jiguage  ot  Samofriiia, 

a  province  of  I'olanJ,  was  printed  in  1820,  ut  the  expense  of  the 
Russian  Bible  Society. 


11.  Bohemian  Version, 
The  first  Bohemian  tranwlalion  w.as  macJe  from  the  Latin  Vulgate, 
ond  was  publiKJied  at  Prague  in  1488.  Tlic  other,  (or  the  uhc  of 
the  Prote.stant.s  in  Uoheniia,  was  made  from  the  saercd  originals  hy 
Albert  Nieolai,  John  Capito,  Isaiah  C(epolla,  and  other  learned 
reformers,  at  tlie  expense  of  the  baron  John  Zerotimus.  It  was 
published  between  the  years  1579  and  15'j:j,  in  six  (juarlo  volumes, 
without  any  indication  of  the  place  where  they  were'  printed, 
which  is  8up]xised  to  huve  been  Kralitz. 

12.  Romaic,  or  JModern  Greek  Version, 
The  Romaic  is  a  corruption  of  the  ancient  Greek,  so  great,  in- 
deed, that,  compared  with  the  latter,  it  may  be  pronounced  a  new 
language :  it  is  at  present  in  general  use,  both  for  writing  and  con- 
versation, the  ancient  Greek  being  used  solely  for  ecclesiastical 
alFairs.  Into  this  language  the  New  Testament  was  translated  by 
Maximus  Calliergi,  and  w.as  printed  at  Geneva  in  1038,  in  one 
lorge  quarto  volume,  in  two  columns,  one  containing  the  ancient, 
and  the  other  the  modern  Cireek.  It  was  |)ul)lishcd  at  the  expense 
of  the  then  United  Provinces,  upon  the  solicitation  of  Cornelius 
Haga,  their  ambassador  at  Constantinople.  The  Greeks,  however, 
did  not  receive  it  with  much  liivour.  This  translation  was  reprinted 
at  London  in  1703,  in  one  volume,  12mo.,  by  Seraphin,  a  monk  of 
Mitylene;  who  prefixed  to  it  a  preface,  which  gave  offence  to  the 
Greek  bishops,  particularly  to  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  By 
his  order  it  was  committed  to  the  flames.  The  edition  of  1703 
(which,  in  consequence  of  this  suppression,  has  become  extremely 
rare)  was  reprinted  in  1705 ;  and  m  that  edition  the  objectionable 
passages  in  Seraphin's  preface  were  omitted.  A  more  correct  edi- 
tion of  it  was  printed  at  Halle,  in  Saxony,  in  1710,  in  one  volume, 
12mo.,  under  the  patronage  and  at  the  expense  of  Sophia  Louisa, 
Queen  of  Prussia.^  From  this  last  edition  was  printed  the  im- 
pression executed  at  the  expense  of  tlie  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  in  one  thick  volume,  12mo.  (Chelsea,  1810),  the  ancient  and 
modern  Greek  being  in  parallel  columns.  To  this  edition  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  gave  his  unqualified  approbation.'* 
With  regard  to  the  Old  Testament,  though  llie  book  of  Psalms  was 
translated  into  Romaic,  and  printed  at  Venice  in  1543,  and  the 
Pentateuch  (by  the  Jews  at  Constantinople)  in  1547,  yet  no  entire 
version  of  the  Scriptures  was  extant  in  modem  Greek,  until  the 
archimandrite  Ililarion  (whom  the  general  suffrage  of  the  learned 
Greeks  concurs  in  re|)resenting  as  best  qualified  for  the  task)  un- 
dertook first  to  prepare  a  new  translation  of  the  New  Testament, 
which  was  prinied  in  1830,  and  aflerward.s  of  the  Old  Testament, 
from  the  ancient  into  the  modern  Greek;''  the  Pentateuch  was 
printed  in  1832,  and  the  Book  of  Psalms  in  1831.* 

13.  Wallachian  Version, 
"  Previous  to  the  year  lfi48,  no  part  of  the  Scriptures  existed  in 
the  Wallachian  language,  the  Greek  or  Sclavonic  being  used  in 
the  churcli  service,  and  the  only  Bibles  in  use  were  in  those  lan- 
guages; but  in  that  year  the  New  Testament  was  printed  at  Bel- 
grade." Of  the  Bible  l()ur  editions  have  been  printed  ;  at  Bukharest, 
in  11)68  and  1714;  at  Biaje,  in  Transylvania,  in  17'J5;  and  at  St. 
Petersburg,  in  1819.  "The  translation  was  made  by  the  Metropo- 
litan Theodosius,  by  order  of  Jo.  Scherban  Woivoda,  a  prince  of 
Wallachia.  An  edition  of  the  New  Testament  was  also  |>rinted  at 
St.  Petersburg,  in  1817.  The  number  of  those  by  whom  this  lan- 
guage is  siwkcii  is  estimated  at  nearly  two  millions."'' 

14,  15.  Bulgarian  and  Serbian  Versions, 

The  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  was  translated  and  printed  in  the 
Bulffarian  language,  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1823;  but  doubts  being 
entertained  of  the  competency  of  the  translator,  its  further  progress 
was  discontinued.  The  Serbian  Version  of  the  New  Testament, 
which  was  executed  some  years  since,  being  deemed  inifit  for  the 
press,  the  Russian  Bible  Society  engaged  a  native  Serbian  to  un- 
dertake a  new  translation,  the  printing  of  which  was  completed  in 
1825;  but,  owing  to  the  ces.sation  of  the  Society's  operations,  the 
distribution  of  the  copies  has  hitherto  been  retarded.'' 

16.  Romanese  Versions, 
The  Romanese  language  is  divided  into  two  dialects,  the  Chnr- 
wehche  and  Ladiniche.    The  former  is  spwkcn  by  the  inhabitants 

'  Ttiirleenlh  Report  of  the  London  Society  for  promoting  Christianity 
aiTiono  tlie  .lews,  p.  8. 

»  Butler's  Horae  Biblic.-p,  vol.  i.  pp.  177—179. 

'  Owen's  History  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  vol.  ii.  p.  358. 
note. 

*  Sixteenth  Report  of  the  British  and  Forrign  Bible  Society,  Appendix, 
pp.  19,  *X>.    Seventeenth  Report,  p.  liv.    Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xxjx. 

*  Twentyfinh  Report,  p.  1.  Twenlyseventh  Report,  p.  xlii.  Twenty- 
eighth  Report,  p.  I.     Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  xlix. 

«  Dr.  Henderson's  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  249,  2?0. 
'  Iliid.  pp.  2»>-.3,  263. 
Vol.  II.— Afp.  3  Y 


of  the  Kngadine  (one  of  the  loftiest  valleys  in  Switzerland,  border- 
ing on  the  Tyrol);  the  latter,  by  the  Ladins,  who  reside  on  the 
confines  of  Italy.  The  Scriptures  were  translated  into  the  Chur- 
welscho  dialect,  and  published  in  10.57,  at  Schuol,  a  town  of  the 
Lower  Engadine,  and  into  the  Ladiniche  at  Coire,  in  1719.  Editions 
of  both  these  versions  have  been  printed  by  the  Bible  Society  at 
Basle,  aided  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  London. 


17.   Turkish  Versions. 

In  lOOG,  the  New  Teslnment  was  printed  in  Turkish,  at  Oxford: 
it  was  translated  by  Dr.  Lazarus  Seaman,  and  was  published  at  tho 
joint  expense  of  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle,  and  of  the  Levant  or 
Turkey  (Jompnny  of  London,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Christians  in 
Turkey,  by  whom  it  was  very  gratefully  received.  In  the  same 
year  a  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  into  the  Turkish  language 
was  completed  by  Albertus  Bolxiosky,  better  known  by  his  Turkish 
name  of  Hali  Bey,  first  dragoman  or  interpreter  to  the  Porte.'*  He 
undertook  this  arduous  work  at  the  re(iiieKt  of  the  celebrated  Levin 
Warner,  at  that  lime  ambassador  from  Holland,  .and  his  translation 
was  sent  to  Leyden,  corrected  and  ready  (or  the  press.  Here  it  lay 
until  1814,  when  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pinkcrton,  having  ascertained  its 
value,  recommended  it  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
The  curators  of  the  university  of  Leyden  having  confided  the 
manuscript  to  his  excellency  liaron  von  Diez,  at  that  time  coun- 
sellor of  legation  to  the  court  of  Berlin,  this  distinguished  scholar 
devoted  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  to  its  revision,  and  to  super- 
intending the  printing  of  it.  On  his  decease,  in  1817,  the  editing 
of  this  version  was  undertaken  by  M.  Kieffer,  professor  of  the  ori- 
ental languages  at  Paris;  and  in  1820,  the  New  Testament  wa.s 
finished.'-*  The  printing  of  the  entire  Turkish  Bible  w.as  completed 
in  1828,'*'  and  its  accuracy  has  been  attested  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hen- 
derson, who  had  (not  without  reason)  objected  to  some  passages  in 
the  first  edition  of  the  Turkish  New  Testament. 

The  five  books  of  Moses,  the  book  of  Joshua,  and  the  New  Tes- 
tament, were  translated  into  what  is  calleii  the  plain  Turkish  dia- 
lect, and  published  at  Astrachan,  in  1825.  This  version  was 
executed  by  the  Rev.  John  Dickson,  missionary  from  the  Scottish 
Missionary  Society,  at  Astrachan;  who,  in  executing  it,  derived 
essential  assistance  from  the  preceding  version  of  Hali  Bey."  A 
copy  of  this  plain  Turkish  version  is  in  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum. 


18.  Portiiffuese  Versions. 
In  1681,  the  New  Testament  was  printed  in  the  Portuguese  lan- 
guage at  Amsterdam;  and  some  portions  were  printed  in  the  former 
part  of  the  last  century  by  the  missionaries  at  Tranquebar.  A 
Portuguese  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  executed  by  Joao  Fer- 
reira  d' Almeida  and  Jacob  op  den  Akker,  was  published  at  Batavia, 
in  1748-53,  in  two  volumes,  8vo.  These  were  Protestant  versions. 
In  1781,  Antonio  Pereira  published  a  Portuguese  version  of  the 
New  Testament,  at  Lisbon;  and  in  1783,  the  entire  Bible.  This 
translation  is  made  from  the  Vulgate  Latin  version,  and  in  all  doc- 
trinal points  is  in  unison  with  the  church  of  Rome. 


19.  Albanian  Version, 
'H  Kunii  AlxQuKH  nu  Kvpiou  kxi  SarrnfOf  >iy.w  ^n<T'.u  Xft<rTW  A/yA*T- 
TOf,  TiuTWT/,  TputKH  Kou  Ax/2*wjo(.     [Thc  Ncw  Testament  of  our 
Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  in  two  languages,  that  is,  Greek 
and  Albanian.]     Corfu,  1827,  8vo. 

The  Albanians  are  a  hardy  people,  inhabiting  the  countries  an- 
ciently known  by  the  names  of  Illyricum  and  Epirus ;  numerous 
tribes  of  them  are  also  spread  over  Macedonia  and  the  Morea  or 
Peloponnesus.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  their  lan- 
guage was  finished  in  the  year  1820  by  Dr.  Evangclos  Mexicos, 
under  the  patronage  and  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.  The  Albanian  dialect  had  never  been  brought  to  a 
standard,  until  the  commitlee  of  the  Ionian  Bible  Society  accom- 
plished it,  and  printed  the  New  Testament  under  the  direction  of 
Gregory,  archbishop  of  Eubcea,  in  1827,  in  parallel  columns,  one 

«  Owen's  History  of  the  Bible  Society,  vol.  iii.  pp.  13,  14.  257.  500.  Six- 
teenth Report  of  the  Society,  Appendix,  p.  17.  Albertus  Boboosky  was 
born  in  Poland  In  the  bciiinningof  the  seventeenth  cenlnry.  While  a  youth 
he  was  stolen  by  the  Tartars,  and  sold  to  the  Turks  in  Constantinople.  By 
them  he  was  educated  in  the  Mohanuncdan  faith,  and  when  he  grew  up 
became  first  dragoman  or  translator  to  Mahomet  or  Mohammed  IV.  His 
Turkish  name  was  Hali  Bey.  He  underslood  seventeen  langujiges,  and  is 
said  to  h.ive  spoken  French,  German,  and  English  with  the. fluency  of  a 
native.  To  Hie  English  language  he  was  greatly  allaclied;  and  at  the  re- 
quest of  Mr.  Boyle  translated  the  catechism  of  the  Church  of  England  into 
Turkish.  He  also  composed  several  works  himself,  several  of  which  have 
been  published  :  but  his  great  work  was  the  Translation  of  the  Scriptures, 
above  noticed.  Boboosky  also  wrote  a  grauiniar  and  dictionary  of  the 
Turkish  language.  But  it  Is  not  known  what  has  become  of  them,  and  of 
the  church  catechism.  This  wonderful  luan  intended  to  have  returned 
Into  the  bosom  of  the  Christian  Church  ;  hut  died,  before  he  accomplished 
his  design.     Owen's  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p.  14.  note. 

9  See  the  Collection  of  Documents  relative  to  the  Turkish  Version,  in 
the  twentieth  Report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  Appendix, 
pp.  124-1.T5. 

10  Twenty-fourth  Report,  p.  xxix.  and  Appendix,  p.  161. 
"  New  Baptist  Miscellany,  vol  li  p.  382. 


48 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I. 


containing  the  Greek  text,  the  other  the  Albanian  version, 
alphabet  of  the  Albanian  characters  faces  the  title-page.' 


20.  Maltese  Version. 
The  Maltese  may  almost  be  considered  as  a  dialect  of  the  Arabic 
laiif^nage.  Into  this  dialect  the  New  Testament  was  a  few  years 
since  translated  by  signer  Giuseppe  Cannolo,  a  native  of  the  island 
of  Malta,  under  the  direction  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  Rev. 
William  Jovvett,  M.A.,  at  that  time  one  of  the  representatives  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment is  in  progress.  As  very  few  books  have  appeared  in  Maltese, 
the  Gospel  of  John  has  been  printed  in  this  country,  in  Maltese  and 
English,  in  parallel  columns;  and  copies  have  been  sent  to  JVIalta 
for  distribution  chiefly  among  persons  capable  of  forming  a  judg- 
ment of  the  Maltese,  in  order  to  render  the  translation  as  perfect  as 
practicable,  beibre  the  entire  New  Testament  shall  be  put  to  press. 
The  importance  of  this  undertaking  will  be  felt,  when  it  is  consi- 
dered that  the  crowded  population  of  the  islands  of  Malta  and 
Gozo  never  yet  possessed  the  Scriptures  in  their  own  tongue.  The 
\alue  of  this  translation  is  further  enhanced,  by  the  circumstance 
that  it  may  serve  as  a  step  to  Europeans  who  are  desirous  to  learn 
the  Arabic  language.^ 


§  4.  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Asia. 
[».]  Hebrew  Version. 
The  New  Testament  was  first  translated  into  Hebrew  by  the 
learned  Elias  Hutter,  who  published  it  in  his  Polyglott  edition  of 
the  New  Testament  in  twelve  languages,  viz.  Greek,  Syriac,  He- 
brew, Latin,  German,  Bohemian,  Italian,  Spanish,  French,  English, 
Danish,  and  Polish,  at  Nuremberg,  in  1599 — 1600,  in  two  volumes, 
4to.  In  his  preface  he  states,  that  when  meditating  that  work,  he 
sought  in  vain  for  a  Hebrew  version  of  the  New  Testament.  No 
alternative  therefore  was  left  to  him,  but  to  attempt  it  himself 
Accordingly,  laying  aside  every  other  undertaking,  he  translated, 
corrected,  and  finished  it  in  the  space  of  one  year.  For  a  first 
translation,  especially  when  we  consider  the  shortness  of  the  time  in 
which  it  was  accomplished,  it  is  truly  a  wonderful  f>erformance. 
From  Hutter's  Polyglott  the  Hebrew  text  was  detached,  and  printed 
separately,  with  some  corrections,  under  the  superintendence  of 
William  Robertson,  8vo.  London,  1661.  It  is  a  volume  of  extremely 
rare  occurrence,  as  the  greater  part  of  the  impression  was  consumed 
in  the  great  fire  of  London,  in  1666.  Robertson's  edition  was  beau- 
tifully reprinted  in  12mo.  at  London,  in  1798,  by  the  Rev.  Richard 
Caddick,  with  the  pious  and  benevolent  design  of  enlightening 
the  minds  of  the  Jews.  This  translation  not  being  executed  in 
pure  biblical  Hebrew,  and  consequently  not  adapted  to  the  Jews, 
the  London  Society  for  promoting  Christianity  among  them,  in 
1817,  completed  and  published  a  new  translation  in  biblical  He- 
brew, the  purity  of  which  has  been  acknowledged  by  learned 
Jews.  The  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew  was  published  in  1814,  and 
the  succeeding  books  at  different  times,  as  they  could  be  completed. 
Another  Hebrew  translation  of  the  New  Testament  with  points 
was  executed  by  Mr.  William  Greenfield,  and  published  at  London 
in  1831,  in  8vo.3  The  late  Rev.  Dr.  Buchanan,  during  his  re- 
searches in  the  interior  of  India,  obtained  a  Hebrew  manuscript 
of  the  New  Testament  in  the  country  of  Travancore,  which  is  now 
deposited  in  the  University  Library  at  Cambridge.  It  is  written  in 
the  small  Rabbinical  or  Jerusalem  character.  The  translator  was 
a  learned  rabbi,  and  the  translation  is  in  general  faithful :  his  de- 
sign was,  to  make  an  accurate  version  of  the  New  Testament,  for 
the  express  purpose  of  confuting  it,  and  of  repelling  the  arguments 
of  his  neighbours,  the  Syrian  or  St.  Thome  Christians.  His  own 
work  was  the  providential  instrument  of  subduing  his  unbelief; 
and  he  lived  and  died  in  the  faith  of  Christ.  A  transcript  of  this 
Travancore  Hebrew  New  Testament  is  in  the  Library  of  the  Lon- 
don Society  for  promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews.*  A  He- 
brew translation  of  the  Apocryphal  Books  of  the  Old  Testament 
from  the  Greek  was  made  by  Seckel  Isaac  Fraenkel,  and  pub- 
lished at  Leipzig  in  1830.3 


[i?.]  Chaldee. 
The  New  Testament  has  not  hiiherio  been  published  in  this  Ian 
guage;  but  a  manuscript  copy  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment is  said  to  exist  in  the  Vatican  Library.^  In  the  course  of  his 
missionary  labours  in  Persia,  the  Rev.  Mr.  WolflT  purchased  the 
manuscripts  of  different  portions  of  the  Chaldee  Bible ;  which; 

»  Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  pp.  xxxv.  xxxvi.  Twenty 
third  Report,  p.  xxv. 

2  EighteenthReport  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  for  1817-18,  p.  69 

3  The  reader  will  find  a  critical  account  of  this  Hebrew  version  of  the 
entire  New  Testament  in  the  Con^re^'ational  Magazine  for  October,  1831 
There  are  extant  various  other  Hebrew  translations  of  detached  books  of 
the  New  Testament,  by  ditferent  individuals,  which  we  have  not  room  to 
enumerate.  For  an  account  of  them  see  Dr.  Clarke's  Bibliographical  Dic- 
tionary, vol.  vi.  pp.  218—222. 

*  Fourth  Report  of  the  London  Society  for  promoting  Christianity  among 
the  Jews,  Appendix,  p.  45. 

5  Hagiographa  Posteriora  denominata  Apocrypha,  hactenus  Tsraelitis 
ignota,  nunc  autem e  Textu  Grreco  in  Linguam  Hcbiaicain  convertit  atque 
in  lucem  emisit  Seckel  Isaac  Fraenkel.     Lipsiaj,  1830,  8vo. 

6  Clarke's  Bibliographical  Dicliouary,  vol.  vi.  p.  213. 


though  the  same  in  language  as  the  Syriac,  is  written  in  a  different 
character.'' 


[Hi.]   Versions  in  the  Oriental  Languages,  either  translated  by  the 

Baptist  Missionaries  at  Serampore,  or  printed  at  the  Mission  Press. 

The  Baptist  Missionaries  entered  India  in  1793,  and  ultimately 
fixed  themselves  at  the  Danish  settlement  of  Serampore,  near  Cal- 
cutta. To  this  mission  chiefly  belongs  the  honour  of  reviving  the 
spirit  of  promoting  Christian  knowledge,  by  translations  of  the 
Bible.  Soon  after  their  establishment  at  Serampore,  they  were  con- 
vinced that,  if  ever  Christianity  took  deep  root  in  India,  it  must  be 
through  the  Holy  Scriptures  being  translated  and  put  into  the  hands 
of  the  various  tribes  who  inhabit  that  vast  country.  Aided  by  a 
noble  fund  for  translations,  raised  by  subscriptions  among  the  socie- 
ties of  the  Baptist  denomination  in  Great  Britain,  almost  from  the 
commencement  of  their  pious  labours,  and  also  by  various  an- 
nual grants  of  money  from  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
from  the  year  1806  to  the  present  time,  the  missionaries  applied 
themselves  to  the  great  work  of  translating  the  Scriptures.  In  this 
undertaking,  which  has  been  honoured  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Marquess  Wellesley,  and  subsequent  governors-general  of  India, 
the  Rev.  Doctors  Carey  and  Marshman,  and  the  late  Rev.  William 
Ward,  have  pre-eminently  distinguished  themselves;  and,  with 
their  coadjutors,  have  continued  with  unwearied  assiduity  to  pro- 
secute their  arduous  work.^  Having  formed  a  typographical  esta- 
blishment at  Serampore,  they  have  also  been  enabled  to  print  trans- 
lations of  the  Scriptures,  entire  or  in  part,  which  had  been  made  by 
other  learned  and  pious  individuals.  And  when  the  Mission  Col- 
lege, founded  at  Calcutta  by  the  late  Right  Rev.  Dr.  T.  F.  Middle- 
ton,  Bishop  of  Calcutta  (one  of  whose  special  objects,  for  the  spi- 
ritual welfare  of  India,  is  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the 
hitherto  untranslated  dialects  of  India),  shall  commence  its  active 
operations,  we  may  with  just  confidence  anticipate  the  ultimate 
triumphs  of  our  holy  religion  among  the  numerous  tribes  who  inhabit 
that  immense  continent." 

The  languages  spoken  in  India  form  three  classes,  viz. 

1.  The  Arabic,  and  the  languages  derived  from  or  bearing  an 
affinity  to  it.  2.  The  Sanscrit  or  Sungscrit ;  and  3.  The  Chinese, 
with  the  languages  respectively  derived  from  or  bearing  an  affinity 
to  them.'O 

1.  Modern  Versions  in  the  Arabic  language,  audits  cognate 
dialects. 

(1.)  Arabic. —  A  version  of  the  entire  Bible  in  Arabic  has  come 
down  to  us,  of  which  an  account  has  been  given  in  Part  I.  of  the  first 
Volume.  Though  highly  valued  by  some  oriental  scholars  for  its 
general  accuracy  and  fidelity,  it  has  become  antiquated  in  its  dia- 
lect, and  consequently  unacceptable  to  the  learned  Arabians.  On 
this  account  a  new  translation,  in  elegant  modem  Arabic,  was  com- 
menced by  Sabat,  an  eminent  Arabian  scholar,  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  late  Rev.  T.  T.  Thomason,  M.A.,  one  of  the  Hon. 
East  India  Company's  Chaplains.  The  New  Testament  was  com- 
pleted and  published  at  Calcutta,  in  1816,  at  the  expense  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 'i  A  second  edition  of  the  New 
Testament,  much  revised  and  improved,  was  printed  in  1826  at  the 
press  belonging  to  the  Bishop's  College,  Calcutta.  An  edition  of 
the  Arabic  New  Testament,  in  Syriac  characters,  was  printed  at 
Paris,  at  the  expense  of  the  Bible  Society,  in  1822.  See  a  specimen 
of  the  Arabic  version  in  p.  55.   infra. 

(2.)  Persian. — The  Persian  version,  already  noticed  in  Part  I.  of 
the  first  Volume,  having  also  become  antiquated  and  obsolete,  a  new 
one  was  undertaken  by  Lieut.  Colonel  Colebrooke,  who  completed 
the  Four  Gospels.  They  were  published  at  Calcutta  in  1804.  An 
entire  version  of  the  New  Testament,  in  pure  and  elegant  Persian, 
was  executed  by  the  late  Rev.  H.  Martyn,  who  travelled  from 
India  to  Shiraz,  the  Athens  of  Persia,  for  that  purpose.     He  ar- 

'  Twenty-third  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  xxxii. 

8  For  an  account  of  the  very  great  care  bestowed  on  the  versions  under- 
taken by  the  missionaries  at  Serampore  (each  of  which,  upon  the  average, 
was  the  result  of  seven  years'  labour),  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  Rev 
Dr.  Marshman's  "  Brief  Memoir,"  relative  to  their  operations  in  Bengal 
(pp.  4 — 7.  London,  1827),  which  most  satisfactorily  repels  the  assertions 
of  their  incompetency,  which  liad  been  made  by  an  anonymous  writer  in 
one  of  the  periodical  journals. 

9  As  soon  as  it  was  known  in  England  that  Bp.  Middleton  was  forming  the 
Mission  College  at  Calcutta,  the  sum  of  5000/.  sterling  was  voted  to  hiin  by 
each  of  the  venerable  Societies  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  and 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  in  aid  of  that  Institu- 
tion. The  same  sum  was  voted  to  his  lordship  by  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  without  condition  or  restriction,  in  furtherance  of  his  plan.  And 
the  like  sum  of  5000/.  was  voted  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
in  aid  of  the  translation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

•0  Where  no  other  authority  is  cited,  our  notices  of  original  translations 
are  abridged  from  the  "Brief  View  of  Baptist  Missions  and  Translations," 
8vo.  London,  1815 ;  from  the  "  Periodical  Accounts  of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,"  No.  XXX. ;  from  the  Supplement  to  No.  XXXI.,  containing  a 
further  memoir  of  the  translations  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  dated  March 
21,  IS16,  8vo.  London,  1817 ;  from  specimens  of  Editions  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  in  the  Eastern  languages,  translated  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Se- 
rampore Mission,  and  of  several  others,  printed  at  the  Mission  press,  Se- 
rampore, 1818,  4to.  ;  and  from  the  "  Seventh  Memoir  respecting  the  Trans- 
lations of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  into  the  Languages  of  India,  conducted  by 
the  Brethren  at  Serampore,"  8vo.  Serampore,  1820.  The  Specimens  of 
Versions,  in  pp.  52— 5b,  have  been  stereotyped  from  fac-similes,  libe- 
rally communicated  for  the  use  of  this  work,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Dyer,  one  of 
the  Secretaries  of  that  Society. 

"  Buchanan's  Christian  Researches  in  Asia,  pp.  285—290.  (London,  1811. 


Sect.  VI.  §  .1.] 


SANSCRIT  VERSIONS  AND  ITS  DIALECTS. 


49 


rived  there  in  June,  1811,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  following  year 
he  hud  completed  his  work,  with  the  assislaiii-e  of  Meer  Seyd  Ali, 
a  learned  native.  He  next  proceeded  to  Irunslale  the  hook  of 
Psalms  into  ihe  same  language  ;  and  ihus  rendered  those  important 
parts  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  into  the  vernacular  language  of  two 
hundred  tliousand  who  hear  the  Christian  name,  and  which  is 
known  over  one  fourth  of  the  hahitahle  globe.  A  beautifidiy 
written  cojiy  of  Martyn's  translation  was  presented  by  Sir  fJore 
Ouseley,  hart.,  his  majesty's  pleni|K)tenliary  to  the  sovereign  of 
Persia,  who  publicity  expressed  his  approbation  of  the  work.'  He 
Bubsequenlly  carried  another  copy  of  the  manuscript  to  Petersburg, 
where  it  was  ])rinled  in  181.5,  at  the  expense  of  the  Petersburg 
Bible  Society,  under  the  superintendence  of  Sir  (i.  Otisnlev-  A 
■pecimer.  of  this  version  is  given  in  page  .55.  A  modern  Persian 
version  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  is  in  progress 
also  at  Petersburg;  and  of  the  poetical  and  prophetical  books,  by 
the  Rev.  Mr.  (ilen,  a  Scottish  missionary  at  Astrachan.^  The  book 
of  Psalins  and  the  Proverbs  have  l)een  printed.-'  A  new  version 
of  Isaiah,  by  Mirza  Ibrahim,  a  learned  Persian,  has  been  completeil 
and  printed.''  A  Persian  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  has 
been  commenced  by  the  Rev.  T.  Robinson,  chajdain  at  Poonah, 
with  the  lanction  of  the  laic  Rt.  Rev.  Reginald  Hcber,  bishop  of 
Calcutta.'' 

(3.)  I'ushtno  or  Ajfphan. — This  language  is  spoken  beyond  the 
river  Indus  by  a  people  who,  there  is  every  reason  to  conclude 
(from  the  coincidence  of  their  language  with  the  Chaldaic,  and 
from  other  circumstances),  are  descended  from  the  ten  tribes  of 
Israel.  The  eminent  linguist,  the  late  John  Leyden,  M.D.,  com- 
menced a  translation  of  the  New  Testament;  and  on  his  death,  in 
1812,  the  Baptist  missionaries  at  Serampore  procured  men  skilled 
in  the  language  to  complete  his  tnidertaking.  The  whole  of  the 
New  Testament  was  printed  at  the  mission  press  in  1818  ;  and  the 
Pentateuch  is  advanced  at  the  press  as  far  as  the  book  of  Leviticus. 
A  specimen  of  this  version  is  given  in  page  53. 

(4.)  Biilocha  or  Bidoshee. — This  language  is  spoken  on  the  west- 
ern banks  of  the  Indus,  the  country  of  Biilochistan  extending  west- 
ward to  Persia.  Considerable  progress  has  been  made  by  the  mi.s- 
sionaries  in  translating  the  New  Testament  into  this  dialect,  in 
which  they  have  printed  the  four  Gospels.  See  a  specimen  of  it 
in  page  54. 

2.   Versions  in  the  Sanschit  or  Scngskrit  language,  and  its 
cognate  dialects. 

(1.)  Sanscrit. — ^This,  though  the  parent  of  all  the  languages 
spoken  in  western  and  southern  India,  is,  at  present,  the  current 
language  of  no  country,  though  it  is  spoken  by  the  learned  nearly 
throughout  India.  The  New  Testament  was  published  in  Sanscrit 
at  Serampore,  in  1808;  the  Pentateuch  and  historical  boolcs  in 
1811;  the  Ilagiographa  in  1816;  and  the  translation  of  the  pro- 
phetic books  was  finished  in  1818.  The  Baptist  missionaries  are 
preparing  a  new  edition  of  this  version,  which  is  read  with  great 
interest  by  the  Brahmins.     A  specimen  of  it  is  given  in  page  52. 

(2.)  In  Western  India  not  fewer  than  twenty-nine  languages  are 
derived  from  the  Sanscrit,  and  into  eighteen  of  these  the  sacred 
volume  has  been  wholly  or  in  part  translated,  viz. 

i.  The  Sikh,  Sheek,  or  Punjahee,  which  is  spoken  in  the  province 
of  Punjab,  or  the  country  of  the  five  rivers  (from  punj  five,  and  ah 
water) :  into  this  language  the  entire  Bible  has  been  translated  and 
printed  at  the  Serampore  press.  See  a  specimen  of  it  in  page 
53. 

ii.  The  Gujurat  or  Guzurattee,  which  is  spoken  in  the  peninsula 
ofGuzurat;  in  this  language  the  entire  Bible  has  also  been  printed. 

iii.  The  Assamese,  or  language  of  the  kingdom  of  Assam,  in 
which  the  New  Teslnment  was  completed  and  printed  in  1819. 
See  a  specimen  in  page  5.3. 

The  New  Testament  has  also  been  translated  and  printed  in 

iv.  The  Kashmiree  or  Kashmeer,  which  is  spoken  in  the  exten- 
sive province  of  Kashmire,  in  the  North  of  Ilindostan  : — See  a  spe- 
cimen of  it  in  page  52. 

V.  The  Wutch  or  Multanee,  or  dialect  of  Wuch,  a  country  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Indus,  which  reaches  from  the  Punjab  to  Aiich  ; 

vi.  The  Bikaneer,  which  is  spoken  to  the  south  of  the  Punjab, 
and  extends  westward  to  the  country  where  the  Wucha  begins  ; 
and  in 

vii.  The  Kunkuna,  which  language  begins  where  the  Guzurat- 
tee cea-ses  to  be  vernacular,  and  is  spoken  at  Bombay,  and  thence 
up  the  coast  as  far  as  Goa.  On  the  completion  of  the  Pentateuch 
in  this  language,  the  Serampore  brethren  transferred  the  transla- 
tion of  the  remaining  books  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  Bombay 
Auxiliary  Bible  Society. 

viii.  The  Mdruwar  or  Marwar,  which  is  spoken  to  the  south-west 
of  the  Bikaneer  country ; 

ix.  The  Oqjuvinee,  or  language  of  the  province  of  Oiijein  ; 

X.  The  Bundelkhundee,  spoken  in  the  province  of  Bundelkh-und  ; 
and 

xL  The  Nepalese,  or  language  of  tlie  kingdom  of  Nepal. 

«  Owen's  Hist,  of  the  Bible  Society,  vol.  iii.  p.  41.  ;  vol.  ii.  p.  261.  In  pp. 
265 — 267.  an  English  translation  of  the  letter  of  the  Kins  of  Persia  is  printed 
at  leneth.  See  also  the  very  interesting  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Martyn, 
B.D.  Svo.  London,  1S19,  particularly  pp.  *ti-433. 

•  Twenty-third  Report  of  the  Bible  Societv  p.  xxxil. 

•  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  xlvii. 

•  Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  Ivii. 

•  Twentieth  Report,  p.  Iii. 


The  Four  Gospels  have  bren  printed  in 

xii.  xiii.  The  Kanonj  or  Kaiiltrkdolija,  and  .7»m/>oo  languages. 

77(f  Gospels  of  Mallhtw  and  Mark  have  been  printed  in 

xiv.  XV.  xvi.  The  Palpa  Kausulee  or  Koshnh  and  Bhutaneer  lan- 
guages, and  also  in 

xvii.  The  Mafindha  or  P(di  laneuage,  which  is  sjioken  in  South 
Baliar.  It  begins  where  the  Mahratta  laiigua<ie  ends,  and  extends 
nearly  to  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  and  is  llie  learned  language  of 
Ceylon,  an<I  of  the  Biirman  emjjire.  This  version  was  commenced 
by  Mr.  W.  Tolfrcj,  at  Colombo,  in  1813:  and  on  his  death  in  1817, 
the  ta.'.-k  of  finishing  and  editing  it  was  confided  by  the  Colombo 
Auxiliary  Bible  Society  to  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Chater  and  Clough. 
It  was  completed  in  1832.* 

xviii.  Ill  the  Oordoo  language  tlie  New  Testament  has  been 
printed,  from  the  revision  of  the  late  Rev.  T.  T.  Thoma.«?on  and 
Mr.  Da  Costa.'' 

(3.)  In  Southern  India  twelve  dialects  are  spoken,  that  are 
either  derived  from  the  Sanscrit,  or  bear  an  affinity  to  it,  and  into 
which  the  Scriptures  have  been  wholly  or  in  part  translated,  viz. 

i.  In  the  Mahratta,  of  which  language  Dr.  Carey  is  professor  at 
Calcutta,  the  Pentateuch  and  New  Testament,  translated  by  the 
Baptist  missionaries,  liave  long  been  in  circulation,  and  the  histo- 
rical books  were  printed  in  1820.  The  accuracy  of  this  version 
having  been  impugned  by  an  anonymous  writer  in  the  Asiatic 
.Journal  for  1820,  Air.  W.  Greenfield  ably  vindicated  it  in  a  "De- 
fence" of  Dr.  Carey's  version,  which  was  published  in  1830.  See 
a  specimen  of  it  in  page  52.  A  new  translation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament in  the  Mahratta  language,  by  the  American  missionaries  at 
Boml)ay,  was  printed  at  the  mission  press  in  that  city  in  1826. 

ii.  The  Hindee  or  Ilindooslavhee,  being  spoken  over  an  immense 
tract  of  country  in  India,  varies  much  in  its  dialects;  and  not  lipwer 
than  three  different  translations  of  the  sacred  volume  have  been 
printed.  The  earliest  was  that  of  the  Four  Gospels,  by  William 
Hunter,  Esq. ;  which  was  executed  at  the  press  of  the  college  of 
Fort  William.  Another  translation  was  completed  by  the  late 
Rev.  Henry  Martyn,^  in  1808,  and  printed  at  the  expense  of  the 
Calcutta  Auxiliary  Bible  Society.  A  revised  edition  of  this  ver- 
sion, by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Bowley  (one  of  the  mi.ssionaries  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  who  is  stationed  at  Chunar),  was  finished  at 
Calcutta  in  1820,  at  the  expense  of  the  same  society ;  and  several 
separate  books  of  the  Old  Testament  have  been  added.'  In  1820 
the  Calcutta  Society  printed  a  large  edition  of  Mr.  Martyn's  version 
of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  in  Ilindoostanhee,  with  the  English  on 
the  opposite  page;  and  of  Mr.  Bowley 's  revision,  which,  by  the 
disuse  of  Arabic  and  Persian  words,  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Benares  and  the  upper  provinces:  the  first  three 
Gospels  were  printed  in  the  same  year;  and  in  1826  the  entire 
New  Testament  was  completed.'"  A  specimen  of  the  Ilindoostan- 
hee version  in  the  Persian  character  is  given  in  page  54. 

The  third  Hindee  version  of  the  New  Testament  was  completed 
many  years  since  by  the  missionaries  at  Serampore,  who  published 
the  Old  Testament  in  1818.  A  new  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  printed  in  1820,  at  their  press,  from  a  new  version,  exe- 
cuted by  the  Rev.  John  Chamberlain,  whose  long  residence  in  the 
western  provinces  of  India,  together  with  his  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  popular  dialects  of  the  Hindoos,  has  eminently  qualified  hits 
for  the  undertaking.  A  specimen  of  this  version  is  given  in  page 
53. 

iii.  In  the  Bengalee,  or  language  of  the  province  of  Bengal,  the 
whole  of  the  Scriptures  is  published,  and  the  bjok  of  Common 
Prayer  has  been  translated  by  the  Rev.  Deocar  Schmid.  Five 
editions  of  the  New  Testament  and  two  of  the  Psalms,  and  some 
other  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  have  been  printed ;  and  a  new 
edition  of  the  entire  Bible  is  preparing,  in  one  large  royal  Svo.  vo- 
lume, together  with  two  thousand  extra  copies  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  12mo.  This  edition  was  printed  on  paper  made  of  the  sun 
plant  {Crolalaria  jtincea),  which,  though  inferior  to  English  paper 
in  point  of  colour,  is  equally  impervious  to  the  worm,  and  far  more 
durable.  A  large  edition  of  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St 
.lohn,  ?n  English  and  Bengalee,  on  opposite  pages,  was  printed  at 
Calcutta  in  1820,  chiefly  for  the  benefit  of  the  natives  who  are 
attached  to  public  offices  and  houses  of  agency.  See  a  specimen 
of  the  Bengalee  version  in  page  52. 

A  new  Bengalee  version  of  the  New  Testaraent,  completed  by 
the  late  Mr.  Ellerton,  was  printed  at  Calcutta  in  1820:"  and  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Yates,  a  learned  missionary,  has  been  appointed  to  pre- 
pare a  version  of  the  Psalms  in  Bengalee.'^ 

iv.  The  Ooriya  or  Orissa  language  is  spoken  in  the  province  of 
that  name;  it  has  a  verj-  close  affinity  to  the  Bengalee,  but  with 
different  terminations,  and  a  different  character.  In  this  language 
the  entire  Bible  was  translated  by  the  Baptist  missionaries  several 

«  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  liv.    Twenty-nintli  Report,  p.  bdv. 

i  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  xlviii. 

•  To  this  eminently  learned  and  exemplary  divine,  the  native  Christians 
and  others,  who  speak  the  nindoostanhee  language,  are  indebted  for  a  com- 
pendium of  the  Liturgy  of  the  Anglican  Church,  which  was  translated  by 
liiin.  and  printed  in  1818,  at  the  expense  of  the  Prayer  Book  and  Homily 
Society  of  London.  Mr.  Martyn  was  the  first  cleriryman  of  that  church  in 
India  who  introduced  her  service  to  our  native  subjects  in  Bengal.  His 
work,  having  received  frequent  revision  and  amendment,  is  esteemed  by 
competent  judges  to  be  a  perspicuous  and  faithful  version  of  the  sublime 
orlsinal. 

»  Memoirs  of  Martyn,  p.  292.  Sixteenth  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  pp. 
Ixxi.  lS-2,  133.    Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xxxvi. 

10  Twenty-first  Report,  p.  xlii. 

11  Seventeenth  Report,  p.  Ivii. 

i*  Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xxxvi. 


50 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I. 


years  since:  a  second  edition  of  the  Now  Testament  is  nearly 
completed  at  Serampore.  A  specimen  of  this  veraion  is  given  in 
page  53.  ,       •      , 

V.  The  Brij-Bhassa  language,  which  is  spoken  in  the  upper  pro- 
vinces of  Hindooslan,  contains  a  greater  mixture  ol"  the  Sanscrit 
than  most  of  liie  other  dialects  of  the  Hindec.  The  four  Gospels 
have  been  translated ;  and  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  was  printed 
in  181G.  Sec  a  specimen  of  it  in  page  53.  The  Brij-Bhassa  ver- 
sion is  likely  to  be  more  acceptable  to  the  inhabitants  ot  the  province 
of  Dooab  than  the  Hindoostanhee. 

vi.  The  Kurnafa,  Canarese,  or  Karnatica  language  is  spoken  in 
the  country  extending  northward  from  Tellicherry  to  Goa,  and 
eastward  from  the  coast  of  Malabar  to  the  country  where  the  Taraul 
is  spoken,  including  the  whole  of  the  Mysore.  In  this  language 
the  New  Testament  was  printed  in  1820,  from  the  translation  of 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Hands.  A  specimen  of  it  is  given  in  page  54.  The 
Old  Testament  was  completed  in  1832,  and  the  New  Testament 
has  been  carefully  revised  preparatory  to  a  new  edition.' 

vii.  The  Tainul  language  is  spoken  in  the  south-eastern  part  of 
India,  from  Madras  to  Cape  Comorin.  Two  different  translations 
have  been  made  in  this  language.  The  first  was  executed  by  the 
learned  German  missionaries,  who  were  educated  at  Halle,  and 
were  employed  in  the  last  century  by  the  Danish  government. 
The  New  Testament  was  commenced  by  Bartholomew  Ziegenbalg, 
in  1708,  and  finished  in  1711.  A  printing  press  and  paper  having 
been  provided  at  Tranquebar  by  the  assistance  of  the  venerable 
Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  this  translation,  after 
having  been  revised  by  GrLindler,  another  missionary,  who  arrived 
after  Ziegenbalg,  was  put  to  press  in  1714,  and  finished  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  This  Tamul  New  Testament  was  reprinted  at  Tran- 
quebar in  1722,  and  again  in  1758,  and  also  at  Colombo  in  1743. 
In  the  year  1717,  Ziegenbalg  commenced  a  Tamul  version  of  the 
Old  Testament;  but  he  died  in  1719,  having  finished  only  the  Pen- 
tateuch with  the  books  of  Joshua  and  Judges.  The  translation  was 
continued  and  completed  by  the  distinguished  missionary  Benjamin 
Schultz,  who  arrived  at  Tranquebar  in  1719^  it  was  printed  at 
Tranquebar,  in  four  volumes,  in  the  years  1723-26-27,  and  28. 
The  second  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  Tamul  was 
made  by  Fabricius,  another  German  missionary,  at  Madras,  where 
it  was  printed  in  1777.2  Jn  1814  an  edition  of  the  Tamul  New 
Testament  was  completed  at  the  Serampore  press,  at  the  expense 
of  the  Calcutta  Auxiliary  Bible  Society;  and  as  the  lapse  of  years 
rendered  further  correction  of  it  necessary,  the  Rev.  T.  C.  E.  Rhe- 
nius  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Rottler'  at  Madras  were  employed  to  revise 
Fabricius's  version.  Their  labours  having  been  highly  approved 
by  competent  judges,  the  Madras  Bible  Society  in  1823  printed  a 
revised  edition  of  the  Old  Testament.*  The  revised  version  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  has  been  printed  and  extensively  circulated  ; 
and  the  remainder  of  the  New  Testament  is  to  follow.^  See  a  spe- 
cimen of  the  Tamul  version  in  page  55. 

viii.  The  Telinga  language,  sometimes  called  the  Teloogoo,  is 
spoken  in  the  Northern  Circars.  In  this  language,  which  appears 
to  be  a  dialect  of  the  Tamul,  the  missionary  Schultz,  above  noticed, 
translated  the  Bible  :  but  it  was  never  printed.^  A  Telinga  version 
of  the  New  Testament  was  executed  by  the  missionaries  at  Seram- 
pore, in  1818;  and  the  Pentateuch  was  subsequently  printed.  On 
the  completion  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  honour  of  finishing  this  ver- 
sion was  resigned  to  the  Madras  Auxiliary  Bible  Society:  a  re- 
vised edition  of  the  New  Testament  has  been  printed.  A  specimen 
of  the  Telinga  version  is  given  in  page  53. 

ix.  While  the  Dutch  had  settlements  in  the  island  of  Ceylon, 
Ihey  were  not  inattentive  to  imparting  the  Scriptures  to  such  of  tho 
natives  as  embraced  the  Christian  faith.  The  four  Gospels  were 
translated  into  Cingalese,  or  the  language  of  that  island,  and  were 
printed  at  Colombo  in  1739,  and  again  in  1780;  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  in  1771 ;  the  Psalms  in  1755,  and  again  in  1768 ;  and  the 
entire  New  Testament,  together  with  the  books  of  Genesis,  Exo- 
dus, and  Leviticus,  were  printed  at  the  same  place  in  1783.  After 
Ceylon  had  become  part  of  the  British  empire,  a  new  Cingalese 
version  of  the  New  Testament  was  undertaken  by  Mr.  W.  Tolfrey, 
aided  by  native  assistants,  under  the  patronage  and  at  the  expense 
of  the  Colombo  Auxiliary  Society.  That  nothing  might  be  omitted 
which  could  ensure  the  excellence  of  this  translation,  two  hundred 
copies  of  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark  were  printed  off,  and 
circulated  among  the  Modcliars  (native  magistrates),  proponents, 
and  catechists  at  Colombo,  who  were  the  best  skilled  in  Cingalese  ; 
several  were  also  sent  to  the  settlements  of  Point  de  Galle  and 
Matura,  where  that  language  is  spoken  in  the  greatest  purity. 
Pains  were  taken  to  obtain  a  fair  and  candid  opinion  of  the  new 
work;  and  it  is  satisfactory  to  know,  from  the  decision  of  numerous 
and  competent  judges,  that  the  language  and  style  of  this  exten- 
sive specimen  of  the  new  version  were  not  only  pure,  and  suitable 
to  the  dignity  of  the  subject,  hat  also  plain  and  intelligible.  Mr. 
'  Tolfrey  had  gone  through  repeated  revisions  of  the  whole  New 
Testament,  and  had  finally  corrected  to  the  end  of  the  second 

«  Twenty-fifth  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  pp.  Iviii.  lix.  Twenty-ninth 
Eeport,  p.  1x1. 

«  Bisliop  Marsh's  History  of  the  Translations  of  the  Scriptures,  p.  37. 

3  Tlie  Ilev.  Dr.  Rottler  also  translated  the  hook  of  Common  Prayer  into 
the  Tamul  language:  it  was  printed  at  Madras  in  1819,  in  quarto. 

*  Sixteenth  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  183.  Nineteenth  Report,  p.  lix. 

'  Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xxxvii. 

»  In  1820,  the  Prayer  Book  and  Homily  Society  of  London  made  a  grant 
of  books  to  be  sold  at  Madras,  the  proceeds  of  wliich  were  applied  in  aid 
of  the  printing  the  book  of  Common  Prayer  in  the  Tainul  and  Malayalini 
languages. 


chapter  of  the  second  epistle  to  Timothy,  when  his  labours  were 
interrupted  by  a  sudilen  death,  in  1817.  The  Cingalese  New  Tes- 
tament was  finished  and  printed  by  the  united  exertions  of  the 
Rev.  Messrs.  Chaier  and  Clough  (the  former  a  Baptist,  and  the  lat- 
ter a  Weslcyan-Melhodist  missionary),  and  of  Mr.  Armour,  an  in- 
telligent schoolmaster  of  the  latter  connection ;  and  measures  were 
taken  lor  adding  to  it  the  Old  Testament,  of  which  only  the  first 
three  books  of  Moses  had  been  hitherto  translated.  A  second  edi- 
tion of  the  Cingalese  translation  of  tiie  New  Testament  was  com- 
pleted in  1820;  and  the  Old  Testament  was  printed  in  1823,  in 
three  volumes,  4to.  See  a  specimen  of  the  Cingalese  Testament, 
in  p.  55.'  In  1826  an  Indo-Portuguese  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, executed  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Newstead,  was  printed  in  England.* 

X.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  Maldivinn  lan- 
guage (which  is  sjxjken  in  the  small  but  very  numerous  Maldivian 
islands,  that  lie  to  the  south-west  of  Ceylon)  has  been  commenced 
by  the  missionaries  at  Serampore.  The  Gospel  of  Matthew  has 
been  completed. 

xi.  In  1612  (a  few  years  after  the  establishment  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company),  Albert  Cornelius  Ruyl  began  a  translation 
of  the  New  Testament  into  the  Malay  language,  which  is  spoken 
not  only  in  Malacca,  but  in  Java  and  many  other  islands  of  the 
Indian  archipelago.  He  lived  only  to  finish  the  Gospels  of  Matthew 
and  Mark,  which  were  sent  to  Holland,  where  they  were  printed 
at  Enkhuysen  in  1629,  and  again,  at  Amsterdam,  in  1638.  In  1646 
the  Gospels  of  Luke  and  John,  translated  by  M.  van  Hassel,  one 
of  the  East  India  directors,  was  printed  at  Amsterdam,  where  the 
four  Gospels  were  again  printed  in  1651,  accompanied  with  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  and  in  1668,  the  whole  New  Testament  in 
the  Malay  language  was  printed  at  Amsterdam.  From  this  edition 
the  Gospels  and  Acts  were  printed  at  Oxford  in  1677,  and  again  in 
1704.  Of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Malay  language,  some  portions 
were  printed  in  the  seventeenth  century;  but  the  first  edition  of 
the  entire  Malay  Bible  was  printed  in  1731  and  1733,  in  Roman 
characters.  Another  edition  of  the  whole  Malay  Bible  was  printed 
in  the  Arabic  character  at  Batavia,  in  1758.^  This  version  having 
become  extremely  scarce,  an  edition  of  the  Malay  Bible  in  Roman 
characters  was  printed  at  Calcutta,  in  1815-17,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Auxiliary  Bible  Society  there,  aided  by  a  munificent  grant 
of  10,000  sicca  rupees  from  the  Governor-general  in  council,  on  the 
part  of  the  honourable  East  India  Company.  Another  edition  of 
the  Malay  Bible,  in  Roman  characters,  has  been  completed  at  the 
expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society;  and  another  edi- 
tion, in  Arabic  characters,  revised  by  the  Rev.  R.  S.  Hutchings, 
was  completed  at  Calcutta  in  1822,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Auxiliary  Bible  Society  there.  Specimens  of  the  Malay  version, 
both  in  Roman  and  in  Arabic  characters,  are  given  in  page  55.  As 
a  dialect  of  the  Malay  is  spoken  at  Batavia,  the  Java  Bible  Society, 
in  1814,  engaged  the  Rev.  Mr.  Robinson  (a  Baptist  missionary),  and 
Mr.  Kool,  a  native  translator  to  the  government  of  that  island,  to 
undertake  a  version  of  the  New  Testament  in  that  dialect,  which 
has  since  been  completed.  See  a  specimen  of  this  version,  com- 
prising the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Javanese,  translated  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Trowt,  another  missionary  from  the  Baptist  Society,  in  page  55. 

A  tiew  version  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Javanese  language, 
by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Briickner,  was  printed  at  Serampore  in  1831."' 

xii.  The  Malayalim,  or  Malabar  language,  is  spoken  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  in  the  country  of  Travancore.  In  this  language  the 
Scriptures  have  been  translated  by,  or  under  the  direction  of,  the 
;  Rev.  Benjamin  Bailey,  one  of  the  missionaries  sent  to  India  by  the 
Church  Missionary  Society ;  and  the  New  Testament  has  been 
printed."  The  Malayalim  spoken  by  the  Syrian  Christians  of  Tra- 
vancore differs  greatly,  both  in  words  and  idioms,  from  that  spoken 
in  the  northern  parts  of  Malabar.'^  In  order  to  render  the  Malaya- 
lim version  of  the  Bible  as  correct  as  possible,  the  Calcutta  Bible 
Society  in  1820  sent  a  printing-press,  types,  and  paper,  to  Cotym, 
where  a  new  college  has  been  founded  for  the  Syrian  Christians, 
by  the  Rajah  of  Travancore  and  Colonel  Munro,  the  British  resi 
dent  at  his  court. 

3.    Versions  in  the  Chinese  and  the  Umguages  derived  from 
or  bearing'  affinity  to  it. 
Chinese  Versions. 
The  Chinese  language,  in  the  characters  peculiar  to  it,  is  read 
not  only  throughout  China,  but  also  in  Cochinchina  and  Japan,  by 
a  population  of  more  than  three  hundred  millions  of  persons.  Two 
versions  of  the  entire  Bible  are  extant  in  this  language,  the  trans- 
lators of  which  have  been  aided  in  their  arduous  and  expensive 
undertakings  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  earliest 
of  these  was  commenced  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Marshman,  at  Serampore, 
by  whom  the  New  Testament  was  printed  in  1814.     The  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament,  which  was  executed  many  years  since, 
has  been  printed  in  detached  portions,  and  at  diflerent  times.    The 
Historical  Books,  which  finish  the  Bible,  were  completed  in  1821. 

'  Owen's  History  of  the  Bible  Society,  vol.  iii.  pp.  120, 323. 469.  Sixteenth 
Report  of  that  Society,  p.  189.  In  1820,  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was 
translated  into  Cingalese,  under  the  direction  of  the  Hon.  and  Rev.  T.  J. 
Twisleton,  D.D.  Archdeacon  of  Colombo. 

8  Twenty-first  Report,  p.  xlvii.    Twenty  second  Report,  p.  xlvi. 

9  Bishop  Marsh's  History  of  Translations,  p.  35. 

10  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  xlix.  1. 
»'  Ibid.  p.  li. 

la  Missionary  Register,  for  1820,  p.  48.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  was  the 
first  portion  printed.  Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xxjcviu.  Twenty-fifth  Re- 
port, p.  lix. 


Sect.  VI.  §  3.] 


ASL\TIC  VERSIONS. 


51 


The  missionaries  at  Serampore  arc  possessed  of  several  sets  of  Chi- 
nese characters,  hM)lh  in  wooden  hlociis  iind  also  in  metal  types:  a 
specimen  from  the  lallcr  is  given  in  |)age  54.  Tlic  otlier  version 
Was  commenced  in  1812  hy  the  Rev.  Dr.  Morrison,  then  of  Canton,' 
aided  by  the  (late)  Rev.  Dr.  Milne  at  Malacca  (Ijoth  in  the  employ 
of  the  London  Missionary  Society),  and  was  linished  in  1823.^ 
The  j\ew  Teslamcnt  of  this  version  has  been  circulated  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  among  the  Chinese  inhabitants  rtf  Java,  and  of  the 
islands  in  the  Indian  seas,  and  with  the  happiest  elJects.-'  An  edi- 
tion of  the  Montchon  (Tartar)  Chinese  version  of  the  (iosjjel  of 
Matthew  was  printed  in  1822,  atlho  expense  of  the  British  and  Fo- 
reign Bible  Society.* 

From  the  Chinese  language  are  derived  seven  others,  which  are 
spoken  in  Kastern  India.  Into  three  of  these  the  New  Testament 
is  now  in  course  of  translation,  viz.  the  Khasseo  or  Kassai,  the 
Mnniix)ora,  and  the  Burnian. 

i.  '1  lie  K/iassee  or  Kassai  language  is  spoken  by  an  independent 
nation  ol'  mountaineers,  lying  between  the  eastern  Ixjrdcr  of  Ben- 
gal and  ili(!  northern  border  of  the  Burnian  empire.  In  this  lan- 
guage I  lie  Baptist  missionaries  have  translated  and  printed  tlie  four 
Gospels. 

ii.  The  Munlpoora  is  spoken  in  the  small  kingdom  of  that  name, 
which  lies  between  Assam  and  the  Burman  empire.  The  Gospel 
of  Matthew  has  been  [irinted  in  this  language. 

iii.  The  liurman  language,  which  is  spoken  in  the  empire  of  that 
name,  has  lM)rro\vcd  the  Sanscrit  alphabet.  Into  this  language  the 
New  Testament  has  been  translated  by  Mr.  Felix  Carey,  son  of  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Carey  of  Seramjwre.  The  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  print- 
ed by  him  at  Riingoon,  in  the  Burman  empire,  in  royal  octavo,  in 
1817.  A  specimen  of  it  is  given  in  page  54.  The  Gospel  and 
three  Epistles  of  John,  together  with  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and 
the  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Ephesians,  have  also  been  translated  into 
the  Burman  language  by  the  Rev.  Adoniram  Judson. 

In  concluding  the  preceding  notice  of  the  versions,  executed 
principally  by  the  learned  Baptist  missionaries,  and  at  their  press. 
It  is  impossible  not  to  recognise  the  hand  of  God,  who  has  raised 
lip  and  ()ualified  them  for  the  arduous  task  to  which  they  have  de- 
voted their  time,  money,  and  labour :  for  though  they  have  been 
nobly  assisted  by  subscriptions  and  grants  from  Europe,  yet  it 
ought  not  to  be  forgotten  that  they  have  largely  contributed  to  de- 
fray the  expenses  of  translating  and  printing  out  of  those  profits 
which  their  extraordinary  acquirements  have  enabled  them  to 
realize.  They  have  translated  and  printed  the  whole  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures  mfive  of  the  languages  of  India;  the  whole  of  the  New 
Testament  in  fifteen  others;  in  six  other  languages  it  is  more  than 
half  printed,  and  in  ten  others  considerable  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  work  of  translation.  And  these  vast  undertakings  have  been 
accomplished  within  the  short  space  of  thirty  years,  since  the  com- 
mencement of  their  first  version  (the  New  Testament  in  Bengalee). 
When  we  consider  the  experience  which  they  have  gained, — the 
number  of  learned  natives  whom  they  have  trained  up  and  accus- 
tomed to  the  work  of  translation, — the  assistance  which  is  to  be 
derived  from  our  countrymen  in  various  parts  of  India,  who  are 
acquainted  with  any  of  its  dialects, — and  the  advantages  now  en- 
joyed for  printing  at  a  moderate  expense, — we  may  reasonably 
indulge  the  hope  that,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  more,  the  word 
of  life  will  be  extant  in  oil  the  difibrent  languages  and  dialects  of 
India. 


[ir.]  Other  Asiatic  Versions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
1.  Formosan  Version. 
The  island  of  Formosa  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  who 
expelled  the  Portuguese  thence,  in  1651.  During  their  eleven 
years'  (wssession  of  it,  Robert  Junius,  a  native  of  Delft,  preached 
the  Gospel  to  the  inhabitants,  and,  it  is  said,  with  great  success. 
For  their  use  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  John  were  translated 
into  the  Formosan  language,  and  printed  at  Amsterdam,  with  the 
Dutch  translation,  in  16G1,  in  quarto.  But  the  Dutch  being  ex- 
pelled from  that  island  by  the  Chinese  in  1662,  the  Formosan  ver- 
sion was  discontinued  :  and  in  all  probability  the  Formosans  never 
received  any  benefit  from  the  work  just  noticed.^ 

2.  JVorthern  Asiatic  Versions.^ 
Russia   in   Asia   is   inhabited   by   numerous   races,  whom   Dr. 
Young  (after  the  Mithridates  of  Adelung)  refers  to  the  Tataric 

»  To  Dr.  Morrison  tlie  Christians  in  China  are  indebted  for  a  version  of 
the  Liturgy  and  Psalter  of  ttie  Anglican  Churcti.  Having  presented  llie 
Chinese  with  the  Scriptures  in  their  native  languajie,  tliis  <lislini;uishe(l  ori- 
ental scholar  (who,  to  his  honour  be  it  recorded,  is  a  conscientious  dissen- 
ter from  that  church)  was  desirous  of  giving  them  a  formulary  in  which 
they  might  offer  acceptable  devotions  to  the  throne  of  grace  :  and  as  he 
could  6nd  no  form  which  so  completely  met  his  views  as  the  Liturgy  of  the 
Church  of  England,  he  translated  it  into  the  Chinese  language.  This  ver- 
sion was  printed  in  1820,  at  the  expense  of  the  Prayer  Book  and  Homily 
Society. 

»  Owen's  Hist.  vol.  ii.  p.  467.  Sixteenth  Report,  p.  Ixxvi.  Nineteenth 
Report,  p.  Lxii. 

•  Many  authentic  particulars  were  communicated  to  the  Java  Bible  So- 
ciety by  their  late  secretarjr,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Supper:  some  of  these  arc  re- 
corded by  Mr.  Owen,  vol.  iii.  pp.  224, 225. 

«  Nineteenth  Report,  p.  Ii. 

»  Dr.  Clarke's  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  vol.  i.  p.  288. 

«  Towards  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  a  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  and  of  the  Psalms  of  David  into  the  Tatar  language  was  made 
by  Johannes  a  Monte  Corvino,  in  order  to  accelerate  the  propagation  of  the 
Gospel  among  tlie  dark  and  idolatrous  nations  to  whom  be  nad  been  sent 


class.''  Into  twelve  of  these  languages  it  may  be  Bufficient  to  state 
(without  going  into  minuter  details)  that  translations  of  the  sacred 
volume  are  either  printed  or  nreparing,  under  the  direction  and  at 
the  cxjiense  of  the  Russian  Bible  Society;  viz.  the  Nogai  Tatar,' 
Mongolian,  Calmiick,  Orenburg-Tatar,''  'Tschuwaschian,  Tscherc- 
missian,  Tatar-Hebrew  (s[)oken  in  the  interior  of  Asia),  Mordwa- 
schi;in  or  Mordvinian,  Samoiedian,  Tschapoginian,  Zirian,  and  Os- 
satinian.  Of  these  various  translations,  the  Moravian  Missionaries  at 
Sarepla,  on  the  banks  of  the  Wolga,  in  Asiatic  Russia,  have  com- 
pleted the  lour  Gospels  and  the  Acts  in  the  Culmuck  language  ;  and 
the  remainder  of  the  New  Testament  was  translated  by  M.  Schmidt. 
The  entire  New  Testament,  in  this  language,  was  printed  in  1823 ; 
as  also  were  the  Mongolian  (executed  by  two  converted  Mongolian 
chieftains,  under  the  superintendence  of  M.  Schmidt),  Tscheremis- 
sian,  and  Monlwarhian  versions  of  the  four  Gospels.  The  Rev.  Mr. 
Dick.son,  one  of  the  Edinburgh  Missionary  Society's  missionaries  at 
Karass,  has  completed  and  printed  a  Tatar-Turkish  version  of  the 
entire  New  Testament,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament; but  no  part  of  it  has  yet  been  published.  The  Tatar- 
Turkish  language  is  vernacular  among  the  Tatars  of  Astrachan. 
In  1816,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pinkcrlon,  while  travelling  in  the  Crimea, 
discovered,  at  Dschoufout  Kale,  a  copy  of  a  pure  Tatar  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew,  which  was  mode  several 
centuries  ago.  This  has  been  revised,  and  printed  at  St.  Petersburg."^ 

3.  The  Georgian  Version. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  whole  of  the 
New  Testament,  together  with  the  Psalms  and  the  Prophets,  was 
printed  in  the  Georgian  language,  at  Teflis,  in  Georgia,  by  order 
of  the  Prince  Vaktangh.  The  entire  Bible  was  printed  at  Moscow 
in  1743,  in  folio,  under  the  inspection  of  the  Princes  Arcil  and  Va- 
kuset,  but  at  the  expense  of  Prince  Bacchar.  From  this  edition  the 
Moscow  Bible  Society  printed  an  impression  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  1816,  in  the  sacred  or  ecclesiastical  character,  and  another 
in  1818,  in  the  common  character."  According  to  the  tradition  of 
the  Greek  church,  the  Georgian  version  was  originally  made  in  the 
eighth  century,  by  Euphemius  the  Georgian,  the  founder  of  the 
Ibirian  or  Georgian  monastery  at  Mount  Athos,  where  his  actual 
autograph  was  discovered  in  the  year  1817,  and  is  preserved  to  this 
day.  As  the  greater  part  of  the  Ixwks  of  the  Old  'Testament  of  this 
ancient  version  was  lost  in  the  wars  in  which  the  Georgians  were  so 
frequently  involved  with  the  Persians  and  Turks,  the  editors  of  the 
Moscow  edition  were  obliged  to  translate  most  of  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  from  the  Sclavooian  version.  The  Moscow  Bible 
Society  are  taking  measures  to  obtain  a  correct  transcript  of  Eii- 
phemius's  manuscrijit,  from  which  to  print  a  faithful  edition  of  the 
Georgian  Bible. '^  'Two  MSS.  of  the  Georgian  version  of  the  Gos- 
pels are  said  to  be  preserved  in  the  Vatican  Library  at  Rome. 

4.  Jifodern  Armenian  Version. 

A  translation  of  the  four  Gospels  into  the  modem  Armenian  lan- 
guage, from  the  ancient  Armenian  text,  has  been  completed  by  a 
learned  Armenian  resident  at  Paris  ;  who  has  undertaken  a  version 
of  the  entire  New  Testament. '^  In  1830  the  missionaries  at  Shushi, 
connected  with  the  Basle  Missionary  Society,  completed  a  version 
of  the  four  Gospels  into  the  Ararat  or  Eastern  Armenion  dialect, 
which  was  printed  at  Moscow.''* 


5.   Tahitan  Version. 

The  blessed  effects  with  wliich  the  labours  of  the  missionaries 
(sent  out  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1796)  have  been 
crowned,  have  already  been  noticed  in  the  first  volume  of  this 
work,  p.  175.  In  consequence  of  the  extraordinary  success  which 
attended  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  in  Otaheile  (or  Tahiti,  as 
the  natives  term  that  island)  and  in  Huaheine,  Eimeo,  and  other 
neighbouring  islands,  openings  hove  been  made  of  the  most  pro- 
mising nature  for  the  dissemination  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Aided 
by  grants  of  paper  from  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  the 
missionaries  in  1818  printed  3tX)0  copies  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke'*  in 
the  Tahitan  language,  and  in  1820,  having  received  furthersiipplies, 
they  completed  five  thousand  copies  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew, 
which  were  sought  with  avidity,  and  received  with  gratitude  by 
all.    "The  Gospels  of  Luke  and  John,  and  the  Acta  of  the  Apostles, 

as  a  missionary  in  1288  by  Pope  Nicholas  IV.  (Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist  vol. 
iii.  pp.  113.  299.)  No  vestiges  of  this  Tatar  version  are  known  to  be  in 
existence. 

'  See  the  Supplement  to  the  Encyclopa;dia  Britannica,  vol.  v.  part  ii.  pp. 
225—227. 

8  For  an  account  of  these  Tatar  versions,  see  Dr.  Henderson's  Biblical 
Researches,  pp.  424.  et  seq. 

»  Dr.  Henderson's  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  427,  428.  Report  of  the  Scot- 
tish Missionary  Society  for  1824,  p.  16. 

10  Owen's  History,  vol.  iii.  pp.  211—215.  Sixteenth  Report  of  the  Bible 
Society,  pp.  43,  44.  55.  67.    Nineteenth  Report,  p.  Ii. 

"  Bishop  Marsh's  History  of  TranslaUons,  p.  32.  Dr.  Henderson's  Bib- 
lical Researches  (pp.  513—522.)  contain  an  interesting  account  of  the  editions 
of  the  Georgian  versions. 

i»  Sixteenth  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  pp.  33—35. 

n  Nineteenth  Report,  pp.  xxl. 

i«  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  xlvii.  Twenty-eighth  Report,  p.  m. 

«5  \n  interesting  account  of  the  introduction  of  printing  into Tahita,  and 
of  tlie  printing  of  St  Luke's  Gospel,  is  given  by  Mr.  Ellis  in  his  "Polyne- 
sian Researches,"  vol.  i.  pp.  392-408.    8vo.  edition. 


52 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I. 


have  also  been  translated  and  printed  ;  nnd  a  Tahitan  version  has 
been  completed  of  the  Psalms,  and  several  other  Books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Five  thousand  copies  of  the  books  of  Daniel,  Esther, 
and  Ruth  have  left  the  press.'  At  Borabora,  the  Epistles  have 
been  completed,  and  every  practicable  care  is  used  to  ensure 
fidelity.2  The  following  titles  and  specimens  of  tlie  Tahitan  version 
of  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  John  will  be  not  uninteresting  to 
the  reader. 

1.  Te  Evanklia  a  Mataio  no  Iesu  Chhist  to  tatotj 
FATu  ;  Irithia  EI  Pasau  Tahiti.  ffiabfti :  Printed  at  the 
Windward   Mission  Press.     1820,  12mo. 

(TAe  Lord's  Prayer.  Matt.  VI.  9—13.) 
9.  E  to  matou  Medua  i  te  ao  ra,  ia  raa  to  oe  ioa. 

10.  Ia  tae  to  oe  ra  hau  ;  ia  haapaohia  te  oe  hinaaro  i  te  fenua  nei, 
mai  tei  te  ao  atoa  na. 

11.  Homai  na  matou  i  teinei  mahana  tei  haapaohia  ra  o  te  mahana 
o  te  maa,  o  te  mahana  o  te  maa. 

12.  E  faaore  mai  i  ta  matou  hapa,  mai  ta  matou  mau  amu  tarahu  i 
faaore  atoahia  e  matou  nei. 

«  Twenty-third  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  xlvi. 

»  Twentieth  Report,  p.  Ivi.    Twenty-second  Report,  p.  Ixix. 


13.  E  eiaha  faarue  ia  matou  ia  roohia  e  te  ati  ra,  e  faaora  ra  ia 
matore,  no  oe  hoi  te  hau,  e  te  mana,  i  te  hanahana,  i  te  mau  ui 
atoa  e  ore  e  hope.     Amene. 

2.  Te    Evanelia    a    Ioane    no    Iesc    Christ    to   tatou 
fatoc  :  irithia  ei  Pjirau  Tahiti.    Saljiti:  Printed  at  the 
Windward  Mission  Press.    1821.  12mo. 
(John  III.  14—17.) 

14.  Ma  ia  Mose  i  faa  teilei  i  te  ophi  i  te  fenua  aihere  ra,  oia  loa  te 
Tamaidi  a  te  Taata  e  faa  teitei  atoa  hia  ia. 

15.  Ia  ore  ia  poe  te  faaroo  ia'na  ra,  ia  roaa  te  ora  mure  ore. 

16.  I  aroha  mai  te  Atua  i  to  te  ao,  e  ua  tae  roa  te  horoa  mai  i  ta'na 
Tamaidi  fanau  tahi,  ia  ore  ia  pohe  te  faaroo  ia'na  ra,  ia  roau  te 
ora  mure  ore. 

18.  Aore  hoi  te  Atua  i  tono  mai  i  ta'na  Tamaidi  i  te  ao  nei  e  faa 
hapa  i  to  le  ao,  ia  ora  ra  to  te  ao  ia'na. 

6.    Curdish  Versions. 
A  Translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  language  of  the 
Curds,  or  Koords,  has  been  completed  ;  but  difficulties  have  hither- 
to retarded  the  printing  of  it." 

0  Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xxviil.    Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  Ivi. 


FAC-SIMILES  OF   SPECIMENS 

or  the 
VERSIONS  OF  THE  SACRED  SCRIPTURES  IN  THE  EASTERN  LANGUAGES, 

Chiefii/  translated  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Serampore  Mission. 


Text.   "  The  people  that  sat  in  darkness  saw  great  light ;  and  to  them 
which  sat  in  the  region  and  shadow  of  death,  light  is  sprung  up." 

Matt.  iv.  16. 

SANSCRIT,  or  SUNGSKRIT, 

In  the  Deva  Nagree  character,  which  is  used  throughout  India. 


BENGALEE. 


(9Shss5  ^^atov  trtttel  jpipr  CC^^  i^nifei 


MAHRATTA. 


1^^  si^ai  €3^  yfYj^^jTTS^  mlJ  i— ' 


KASHMIREE,  or  KASHMEER. 


SicT.  VI.  §  4.]  SPECIMENS  OF  ORIENTAL  VERSIONS. 

OORIYA,  or  ORISSA. 

G^§^t^ar>^2i§^§  036j?rG5^  as^^  c^^  (3  si^gq 

TELINGA,  or  TELOOGOO. 
BRIJ-BHASSA. 

%^  rnix:  ^g«  ^slf  tiT  ^i^ll^i^^ir  %^ 

PUSHTOO,  or  AFFGHAN. 
SIKH,  SHEEK,  or  PUNJABEE. 

HINDOOSTANHEE 
UHUMIYA,  or  ASSAMESE. 


54  SPECIMENS  OF  ORIENTAL  VERSIONS.  [Paut  I.  Chap.  I. 

BURMAN 

ococfii 

BULOCHA,  or  BULOSHEE. 


CHINESE  VERSION. 

MOVEABLE    METAL    TTPES. 


Text. — "  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth.  And 
the  earth  was  without  form,  and  void,  and  darkness  was  upon  the  face 
of  the  deep ;  and  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  upon  the  face  of  the  waters. 
And  God  seiid,  Let  there  be  light:  and  there  was  light." — Geit.  i.  1 — 3. 

K  URN  ATA,  or  CANARESE. 

ttqScoS  oSb^s^ogi  ^^5(x6g>    fi8g'6/3 


FAC-SIMILES  OF  SPECIMENS 

OF 

VERSIONS  OF  THE  SACRED  SCRIPTURES  IN  THE  EASTERN  LANGUAGES, 

PRINTED  AT  THE   EXPENSE   OF 

ITie  British  and  Foreign  Bibk  Society,  and  of  the  Calcutta  Auxiliary  Society. 


Text. — "  The  people  that  sat  in  darkness  saw  great  light :  and  to  them 
which  sat  in  the  region  and  shadow  of  death,  light  is  sprung  up." 

Matt.  iv.  1 6. 

HINDOOSTANHEE  VERSION, 

IN     THE    PERSIAN    CHARACTER. 


S«cT.  VI.  §4.]  SPECIMENS  OF  ORIENTAL  VERSIONS. 

PERSIAN. 

TAMUL. 
CINGALESE. 

^ed€i  0^  ^^^  ©soS)  ago  ^ 

ARABIC. 

laJtol^  ^U«J  jU^  fiVijjy  LT^JLasvJT  trlU? 

MALAY  IN  ROMAN  CHARACTERS. 

EHkwm'  itu  jarg  dMoHi  paSakalani,  fiidah.  meJi- 
liat  fawatu  taracg  jaig  besar:  dan  bagi  fegaJa 
''awia^  ja^*  dudoHi  pada  tinah  dan  Ijaja^ 
mawt  'itu,  tarai^pawn  sudaK  terbit  baginja. 

MALAY  IN  ARABIC  CHARACTERS. 

Text. — "  And  Cain  went  out  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  dwelt  in 
the  land  of  Nod,  on  the  east  of  Eden."  Gen.  iv.  16. 

JAVANESE. 
Text. — ^The  Lord's  Prayer. — Matt.  vi.  9 — 13. 

Vol..  II.— App.  3  Z 


55 


56 


MODERN  VERSIONS  IN  THE  AMERICAN  LANGUAGES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I. 


§  5.  Modern  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Africa. 

1.  Jimharic  and  Tigre,  or  the  vernacular  Languages  of 

Jibyssi7iia. 

Evangelia  Sancta :  sub  Auspiciis  D.  Asselini,  Rerum  Gallica- 

rum  apud-Ei;vptios  Procuratoris,  in  Linguam  Amharicain  vertit 

Abu-Rumi    Habcssinus.      Edidit    Thomas    Pell    Platt,    A.M. 

Londini,  1824,  4to. 

The  version  in  the  ecclesiastical  or  ancient  language  of  Ethiopia, 
noticed  in  the  first  part  of  Volume  I.,  being  confined  to  the 
churches,  and  understood  by  few  comparatively  besides  the  clergy, 
M.  Asselin  de  Cherville,  French  consul  at  Cairo,  was  induced  to 
undertake  a  version  of  the  entire  Bible  in  the  Amharic}  the  royal 
dialect  sjioken  at  the  court  of  Gondar,  which  is  the  dialect  preva- 
lent in  the  eastern  parts  of  Africa  bordering  on  the  equator,  and 
through  which  a  considerable  intercourse  is  maintained  between 
the  natives  of  Abyssinia  and  the  Arabians  and  negroes  of  the  inte- 
rior. For  ten  years  M.  Asselin  employed  an  intelligent  Ethiopian, 
named  Abu-Rumi  (who  had  been  the  interpreter  of  Mr.  Bruce  in 
Abyssinia,  and  the  teacher  of  Sir  William  Jones  in  India),  on  this 
important  work,  to  which  he  devoted  two  entire  days  in  every 
week.  In  order  to  ensure  correctness,  he  read  with  this  person 
slowly,  and  with  the  utmost  attention,  every  verse  of  the  sacred 
volume  in  the  Arabic  version,  which  they  were  about  to  trans- 
late. M.  Asselin  then  explained  to  him  all  those  words  which 
were  either  abstruse,  difficult,  or  foreign  to  the  Arabic,  by  the 
help  of  the  Hebrew  original,  the  Syriac  version,  or  the  Septuagint, 
and  also  of  some  commentaries.  After  they  finished  the  translation 
of  one  book,  they  collated  it  once  more  before  they  proceeded  fur- 
ther. This  version  was  purchased  for  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett;  who  undertook  a  voyage 
into  Egypt  from  Malta,  for  the  express  purpose  of  completing  the 
purchase.  The  printing  of  the  four  Gospels  in  Amharic  and  in 
Ethiopic,  in  two  separate  volumes,  was  commenced  in  1822,  under 
the  editorial  care  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Lee,  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
university  of  Cambridge,  and  completed  in  1824,  under  the  super- 
intendence of  T.  P.  Platt,  Esq.  The  Acts  and  Epistles  were  com- 
pleted in  1828,  the  Book  of  Genesis  in  1831,  and  the  Psalms  in 
1832.2  During  Mr.  Jowett's  residence  in  Egypt,  in  1819,  he  em- 
ployed the  late  Mr.  Nathaniel  Pearce,  who  had  lived  many  years 
in  Ethiopia;  and  who  commenced  a  translation  of  the  Gospels  into 
the  Tigri,  the  vernacular  dialect  of  the  extensive  province  of  Tigre. 
The  Gospels  of  Mark  and  John  have  been  completed,  together  with 
a  version  of  the  Gospel  of  Mark  in  Amharic,  which  is  now  super- 
seded by  the  more  accurate  entire  Amharic  version  of  M.  Asselin. 
These  three  versions  are  now  in  the  possession  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.* 


2.  Berber  Version. 
A  translation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Luke  into  the  Berber  lan- 
guage (which  is  spoken  by  a  very  numerous  tribe  in  North  Africa) 
was  made  by  Mr.  Hattersley ;  and  copies  of  the  first  twelve  chap- 
ters have  been  printed,  and  sent  to  different  individuals  in  the  dis- 
tricts where  this  language  is  spoken,  with  a  view  of  ascertaining 
the  merits  of  the  version.'' 


3.  Bullom  Version. 

The  Bulloms  are  a  numerous  people  on  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  among  whom  the  missionaries  sent  out  by  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  laboured  for  several  years.  Into  the  language  of 
this  people,  the  four  Gospels,  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  have 
been  translated  by  the  Rev.  G.  R.  Nylander,^  a  distinguished  la- 
bourer in  the  service  of  that  society.  The  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew 
was  printed  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
in  1816.6 


4.  Susoo  Version. 

The  Susoos  are  also  a  numerous  tribe  on  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  in  the  vicinity  of  Sierra  Leone ;  among  whom  the  same 
society's  missionaries  laboured  for  several  years.  By  these  mis- 
sionaries, the  four  Gospels,  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  other  parts 
of  the  New  Testament,  together  with  several  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  have  been  translated  into  the  Susoo  language.  But 
their  further  benevolent  and  pious  labours  were  suspended  among 

»  In  Ludolph's  Grammatica  Linguae  Amharicse  (pp.  54,  55.)  there  is  an 
Amharic  translation,  Ijy  Abba  Gregorius,  of  thirteen  verses  of  the  eleventh 
cliapter  of  Saint  Luke's  Gospel. 

«  Twenty-eighth  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  Ixxvi.  Twenty-ninth 
Report,  p.  Ixii. 

3  Sixteenth  Report,  p.  169.  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, pp.  197—213. 

*  Twenty-eighth  Report,  p.  Ixii.    Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  Ixxiv.  • 

'  The  Rev.  Mr.  Nylander  has  also  rendered  an  additional  service  to  such 
of  the  Bulloms  as  have  embraced  the  Christian  faith,  by  translating  select 
portions  of  the  Liturgy  of  the  Anglican  church  into  their  vernacular  lan- 
guage. These  were  printed  in  Bullom,  and  in  Roman  characters  (that 
people  having  no  characters  of  their  own),  in  1816,  at  the  expense  of  the 
rrayer  Book  and  Homily  Society. 

6  Owen's  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p.  126. 


the  Susoos  and  the  Bulloms,  by  the  revival  of  the  nefarious  slave- 
ti'ade  on  those  coasts. 

5.  Jifalagass^  Versio7i. 

A  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the  Malagasse,  or  language 
of  the  island  of  Madagascar,  was  made  by  the  missionaries  resident 
on  that  island.  Tlie  New  Testament  was  printed  in  1830.  The 
printing  of  the  Old  Testament  was  completed  in  1833.' 

6.   South  Jlfrican  Versions. 

The  Gospel  of  Saint  Luke  has  been  translated  into  the  Bechuana 
(or  Sichuana)  language  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Moffatt,  and  the  four  (Jos- 
pels  into  the  Namacqua  language  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Schmelin.  They 
have  been  printed  at  Cape  Town.^ 


§  6.  Modern  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  America. 
[i.]  North  Amehican  Versions. 

Although  the  multiplicity  of  dialects  spoken  by  the  Indian 
tribes  of  North  America  seemed  to  interpose  an  insuperable  bar 
to  the  labours  of  those  benevolent  individuals  who  were  desirous 
of  communicating  the  Scriptures  to  them ;  yet  this  obstacle  has 
been  diminished  by  the  discovery,  that  so  close  an  affinity  sub- 
sists among  them,  that  a  young  unlettered  Indian  of  good  capa- 
city can  (it  is  said)  make  himself  master  of  them  all.  The 
following  are  the  dialects  into  which  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
Bible  has  been  translated. 

1.  Virginian  Indian  Version. 
The  Virginian  Bible  was  translated  by  the  Rev.  John  Eliot,  who 
has  justly  been  denominated  the  apostle  to  the  Indians,  from  his 
unwearied  labours  to  diffuse  the  blessings  of  Christianity  among 
them.  The  New  Testament  was  published  in  1661.  The  tille- 
page  states  that  it  was  "  ordered  to  be  printed  by  the  commissioners 
of  the  united  colonies  in  New  England,  at  the  charge  and  with  the 
consent  of  the  corporation  in  England,  for  the  propagation  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Indians  in  New  England."  The  Old  Testament 
was  published  at  Cambridge  in  1663,  and  the  entire  Bible  was 
reprinted  at  the  same  place  in  1685.  The  following  specimen 
exhibits  the  Lord's  Prayer.  (Matt.  vi.  9—13.) 

9.  Yowutche  yen  nuppenantamook :  Nooshun  kesukqut,  quttia- 
natamunach  knowesuonk. 

10.  Peyaumooutch  kukketassootamoonk,  kuttenantamoonk  ne  n 
nach  ohkeit  neane  kesukqut. 

11.  Nummeetsuongash  asekesukokish  assamaiinean  yeuyeu  kesu- 
kod. 

12.  Kah  ahquontamaiinnean  nummatcheseongash,  neane  match- 
eneukqueagig  nutahquontamounnonog. 

13.  Ahque  sagkompagunaiinnean  en  qutchhuaonganit,  webe 
pohquohwussinean  wutch  malchitut.  Newutche  kutahlaun  ketas- 
sootamoonk,  kah  menuhkesuonk,  kah  sohsumoonk  micheme.  Amen. 

This  version  has  now  become  a  literary  curiosity,  there  being 
scarcely  any  persons  living  who  can  read  or  understand  a  single 
verse  in  it.  The  tribe  of  American  Indians,  whom  the  venerable 
missionary  Eliot  instructed,  is  now  very  nearly  extinct.^ 

2.  The  Delaware  Indian  Version. 
Nek  Nechenneawachgissitschik  Bambilak  naga  Geschiechauch- 
sit  panna  Johannessa  Elckhangup.  Gischitak  Ellenechsink 
untski  C.  F.  Dencke.  That  is,  the  Three  Epistles  of  the  Apostle 
John,  translated  into  Delaware  Indian,  by  C.  F.  Dencke.  New 
York,  1818,  18mo. 

The  Delaware  langtiage  is  spoken  through  a  very  considerable 
portion  of  North  America.  Into  this  language  part  of  the  Scrip- 
tures was  translated  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Fabrieius,  one  of  the  Moravian 
missionaries  to  the  Delaware  Indians,  but  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  printed.'"  In  1818,  the  three  Epistles  of  John  were 
translated  into  the  Delaware  language  by  the  Rev.  C.  F.  Dencke, 
a  missionary  from  the  United  Bretlu-en,  or  Moravians.  It  was 
printed  at  the  expense  of  the  American  Bible  Society.  The  trans- 
lation is  printed  on  thte  left-hand  page,  and  the  English  authorized 
version  on  the  right.  As  copies  of^  this  Delaware  Indian  translation 
are  not  common,  the  following  specimen  of  it,  from  1  John  iii.  1 — 4. 
may  be  not  unacceptable  to  the  reader. 

Necheleneyachgichinh  aptonagan. 

Pennamook!  elgiqui  penundelukquonk  Wetochwink  wdaoalto- 
woagan,  wentschi  luwilchgussiank  Gettanittowit  wdamemense- 
mall.  Guntschi  malla  woachgussiwuneen  untschi  pemhakamixi- 
tink,  eli  pemhakamixit  taku  wohaq'  Patamawossall. 

'  Twenty-seventh  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  Ix.  Twenty-eighth  Re- 
port, p.  Ixxvi.    Twpntv-ninth  Report,  p.  Ixx.  Ixxi. 

8  Twenty-eighth  Report,  p.  Ixxiv.    Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  Ixxili. 

9  Christian  Observer  for  1830,  vol.  xxx.  p.  318. 

»"  Bp.  Marsh's  History  of  Translations,  p.  99.,  where  it  is  stated  that 
another  missionary,  Schmick,  translated  a  portion  of  the  Gospels  into  the 
Mahioan  language. 


A 


Skct.  VI.  §  6.] 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  AMERICAN  LANGUAGES. 


57 


2.  Klioiilachgik!  jnqne  metsflii  klelli  wiindiimeinonsinnen  Got- 
taiiiltowiliiik,  scliiikiiOHciiio  miijawii  cisijiiiikstcli.  Schiik  ktelli 
majaweleti(lamriiiu't'n  iintiltfiilHcli  w«ach(|uuko,  ktclliLscli  liiiuxi- 
rienii,  eliiiaxil,  kli'llil.scli  iicvvoaiioon  cliiiaxit. 

3.  VVoak  weini  anucti  ncclipaiichsil  jiin  nliakoiifhsowoa^nn, 
ks<;liiocliicli};iis.silcls(h,  ii<>cainu  I'alainavvos  oli;i(jiii  kscliiochHid. 

4.  Aiiwcii  molaiii-ii.sit,  iiccariia  no  oiidrlii  inikiii<lank  rnallii  wel- 
toq',  vvoak  eli  luacliluuclisil  wuiilschi  inikiiiduincn  iiiattu  welttxi'. 


3.  Massachnsett  Version. 
The  Psalms  and  C!<)s|)el  of  Saint  Joliii  were  translated  by  the 
exemplary  missionary,  Mr.  Kxpericnco  Mayhow,  into  the  Indian 
MaHsacliiisolt  dialect.     They  were  printed  at  Boston  in  Mew  Eng- 
land in  the  year  1709.' 


Mohawk  Version. 

Tlie  Mohawk  Inngnacn,  besides  the  tribe  from  whom  it  takes  its 
name,  is  inlelligil)le  to  Ihc  Five  Nations,  to  tlie  Tuscaroras,  and  to 
the  Wyandols  or  llnrons.  In  iho  early  part  of  llie  eighleenlh  cen- 
tury, a  translation  was  made  of  the  (Jospel  of  Mallhcw,  and  also 
of  several  eliaplers  bolh  of  Ihe  Old  ami  .New  Teslanient,  into  this 
language,  by  the  \h',\.  Mr.  Freeman.  Some  porlioiis  of  llin  lalter 
were  printed  at  i\evv  York,  ami  repriiiled  at  London  with  the 
English  Liturgy,  and  the  (iospel  of  Mark  (translated  by  Captain 
Brant)  in  1787,  lor  the  use  of  llu^  Mohawks,  who  have  a  chajiel  at 
Kingston  in  Upper  Canada,  where  divine  service  is  performed  in 
their  native  tongue,  by  a  missionary  sup|K)rted  by  the  venerable 
Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  This  edition  was 
printed  at  the  expense  of  the  Fnglish  government.  To  these  por- 
tions of  the  Scriptures  were  added  the  Gospel  of  John,  translated 
in  1804  by  Captain  John  Norton,^  a  chief  of  the  Six  Nation  Indians 
in  Upper  C^anada.  This  version  was  printed  at  the  expense  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  its  accuracy  was,  shortly 
nHor,  attested  in  the  most  favourable  maimer  by  the  interpreters  in 
tJio  Indian  villages.^ 


.5.  J\Ioheffati  Version, 
The  New  Testament,  logeiher  with  several  portions  of  the  Old 
Testament,  vvas  translated,  towards  the  close  of  the  eighleenih 
century,  into  the  Mohegan  language,  by  the  Rev.  John  Serjeant, 
sen.,  a  missionary  at  Stockbridge.  No  jiart  of  this  version  appears 
to  have  been  printed.* 


6.  Esquimaux  Version. 
In  the  Esquimaux  language,  a  harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels  was 
made  by  Ihe  missionaries  of  ihe  Moravian  brethren  many  years 
since.  From  this  version  the  Ciospel  of  John  was  selected  by  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Kohlmeister,  and  printed  by  the  Bible  Society  in  1809. 
To  this  was  added  in  1813,  a  translation  of  the  other  three  Gospels, 
which  had  been  made  by  the  venerable  superintendent  of  the 
Labrador  mission,  the  Rev.  C.  F.  Burghardt,  who  possessed  an  in- 
timate knowledge  of  the  Esquimaux  dialect,  and  finished  his  revi- 
sion only  a  short  time  before  his  death,  in  1812.  In  the  year  1819 
the  Acts  of  the  Ajjostles  and  the  Epistles  were  printed  in  the  same 
dialect,  by  the  Bible  Society,  and  received  (as  the  other  portions  of 
the  New  Testament  had  been)  with  the  deepest  sentiments  of  gra- 
titude. And  in  1826  the  New  Testament  was  completed  by  print- 
ing the  Apocalypse.5 


7.  Chippexvay  Version. 
The  Gospels  of  Saint  Matthew  and  Saint  John  have  been  trans- 
lated into  tlie  language  of  the  Chi|)pevvavs,  a  numerous  tribe  resi- 
dent in  British  North  America,  by  Mr.  Peter  Jones,  a  Chippeway 
chief,  and  his  brother,  to  the  fidelity  of  wliose  version  competent 
judges  have  borne  willing  testimony.  The  Gospel  of  Saint  John 
was  printed  at  York  Town,  Upper  Canada  ;  and  the  translators 
have  commenced  the  Old  Tcslamont,  in  consequence  of  the  Ame- 
rican Bible  Society  having  undertaken  to  complete  the  New.® 


8.   Greenlanilish  Version. 
In  1759  the  Greenlandcrs  received  from  the  Moravian  brethren 
a   translation  of  their  harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels  ;'  in  1799  the 
whole  of  the  New  Testament,  and  in  1822  a  new  translation  of 

»  Brown's  History  of  the  Propasalion  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii.  pp.  57,  58. 
Second  Report  of  Ihe  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  Appendix,  p.  118. 

«  Capt.  Norton  was  adopted  by  the  Confederacy  of  the  Six  Nations  in 
1791,  and  in  ISOO  appointed  a  chief,  under  Ihe  title  of  Teyoninhokarawen. 
His  father  was  a  Cherokee,  and  served  in  Ihe  British  army. 

»  Owen's  History,  vol.  i  pp.  126 — 1.35. 

«  Brown's  History  of  the  Propagation  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii.  p.  630. 

*  Owen's  History,  vol.  i.  p.  4tK).  vol.  ii.  pp.  299.  359.  vol.  iii.  p.  483.  Six- 
teenth Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  pp.lxxxiii.  l.xxxiv.  Seventeenth  Report, 
p.  Ixxix.    Twenty-second  Report,  p.  Ixiv.    Twenty-third  Report,  p.  Iv. 

«  Twenty-eiffhih  Report,  p.  l.xxxiv.    Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  Ixxxv. 

'  Crantz's  History  of  Greenland,  vol.  ii.  p.  ^. 


the  entire  New  Testament,  in   the  language  of  Greenland,  was 
printed  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 


9.  Creolese  Version, 
The  New  Testament  was  translated  into  Creolese  for  the  use 
of  the  Christian  negroes  in  the  Danish  West  India  Islands,  and 
was  published  at  Copenhagen,  1781,  at  the  expense  of  the  king  of 
Denmark.  In  181H  the  Danish  Bilile  S<jciety  primed  an  edition  of 
1500  copies,  which  have  been  transmitted  to  the  Danish  West  In- 
dies." 


10.  J^egro-English  Version. 
Da  Njoe  Testamest  va  wi  Masha  en  Helpiman  Jesus 
Chiiistus.     Thanhlateh   into   the   Negro    Enolisii   Lan- 

OUAGE,    IIT   THE   MlS.SIOVAIlIES   OF    THE    UnITAS    FkATHUM,  OR 

United  Biikthiien  :  Phinteh  foh  the  use  of  the  Mission, 
iiT  the  Buitish  and  Foreign  Bible  Societi.  Lonhon, 
1829,  8vo. 

At  Surinam  a  mission  of  the  United  Brethren  has  existed  since 
the  year  1738.  The  missionaries  have  two  thousand  negroes  under 
instruction.  These,  as  well  as  others,  speak  a  Ituiguage  of  their 
own,  which  has  been  denominated  ihe  Negro-English ;  into  which 
a  translatiim  ol' the  Now  Testament  has  been  made.  This  version 
occupied  the  attention  of  the  missionaries  for  several  years ;  and 
after  it  had  undergone  every  necessary  revision  from  persons  long 
resident  in  the  colony,  and  well  acquainted  with  the  language,  it 
was  printed  in  1829,  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.8  As  the  whole  impression,  with  the  exception  ol  a 
small  number  of  copies,  was  sent  to  Surinam,  the  lijllowing  speci- 
men of  this  Negro-English  translation  will  not  be  without  interest 
to  the  reader. 

(matt.  VI.  7 — 13.) 

7.  En  efii  oene  bcgi,  oene  no  mcki  soso  takkiUikki,  leki  dem 
Heidcn,  bikasi  dem  mcmbrc,  effi  dem  mcki  foeloc  takkitakki, 
Gado  sa  harki  dem. 

8.  Va  da  heddi  oene  no  mocssc  djersi  dem ;  oene  Tatta  sabi, 
sannc  oene  habi  vandoe,  bcvo  oene  bcgi  hem. 

9.  Va  da  heddi  oene  moesse  bcgi  so :  Wi  Tatta  ni  tappo  !  Joe 
neem  moesse  santa. 

10.  Joe  kondre  moesse  Kom.  Dem  moesse  doe  W^anni  va 
Joe  na  grontappo,  so  leki  dem  doe  na  Hcmel. 

11.  Gi  wi  tideh  da  janjam  va  wi. 

12.  Gi  wi  da.snotti  vo  alia  missi  va  wi,  leki  wi  gi  da.snotli  na 
somma,  dissi  missi  na  wi. 

13.  No  tjarri  wi  na  inni  tesi.  Ma  loessoe  wi  vo  da  agriwan. 
Bikasi  joe  habi  alia  kondre,  nanga  tranga,  nanga  glori,  tehgo. 
Amen. 

At  the  end  of  the  volume  there  is  a  table  of  the  order  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  together  with  an  index  of  all  the 
passages  which  are  appointed  to  be  read  as  the  Epistles  and  Gos- 
pels lor  every  Sunday  in  the  year.  This  version  was  conducted 
through  the  press  by  the  joint  labour  of  Mr.  C.  A.  Austen  (a  native 
of  Surinam)  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Latrobe,  of  London.  It  was  received 
with  much  gratitude  by  the  poor  slaves  for  whom  it  was  printed."* 

This  version  having  been  attacked  by  an  anonymous  critic  in 
the  Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor,  was  ably  vindicated  by  Mr. 
William  Greenfield,  in  "  A  Defence  of  the  Surinam  Negro-English 
Version  of  the  New  Testament,  founded  on  the  History  of  the 
Negro-English  Version,  a  View  of  the  Situation,  Population,  and 
History  of  Surinam,  a  Philo.sophical  Analysis  of  the  Language, 
and  a  Critical  Examination  of  the  Version."     London,  1830,  8vo. 

[ii.]  South  American  Versions. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  Portuguese  ever  gave  any  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  to  the  natives  of  South  America  who  were  sub- 
jugated by  them  :  and  the  barbarous  cruelties  of  the  Spaniards  in 
IVlexico  are  recorded  in  the  page  of  history.  Towards  the  close 
of  ilie  sixteenth  century,  however,  some  of  the  ecclesiastics  and 
missionaries  adopted  a  different  plan  from  that  pursued  by  their 
predecessors,  by  translating  some  parts  of  the  Scriptures  into  the 
language  of  the  country.  Benedict  Fernandez,  a  Spanish  Domi- 
nican friar,  vicar  of  Mixteca  in  New  Spain,  translated  the  Epistles 
and  Gospels  into  the  dialect  spoken  in  that  province.  Didacus  de 
S.  Maria,  another  Dominican,  and  vicar  of  the  province  of  Mexico 
(who  died  in  1579),  was  the  author  of  a  translation  of  the  Epistles 
and  Gospels  into  the  Mexican  tongue,  or  general  language  of  the 
countrj'.    The  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  and  other  fragments  of  the 

'  Adler's  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  Part  IV.  p.  116.  Sixteenth  Report  of  the 
Bible  Society,  p.  127.  Besides  the  particulars  recorded  in  the  preceding 
sections,  there  are  many  interesiins  circumstances  relative  to  the  history 
of  translations  and  translators,  which  the  limits  of  this  work  do  not  allow  to 
be  detailed.  Fcir  these,  and  indeed  for  every  thing  relative  to  the  literary 
history  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Town- 
ley's  Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,  London,  1S21,  in  3  volumes,  8vo. 

s  Twenty-fifth  Report,  p.  Ixx.  Ixxi. 

lo  Twenty-sixth  Report,  p.  Ixxx. 


58 


HARMONIES  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  I,  Chap.  IT 


Holy  Scriptures,  were  translated  into  the  same  language  by  Louis 
Rodriguez,  a  Spanish  Franciscan  friar:  and  the  Episiles  and  Gos- 
pels, appointed  to  be  read  (or  the  whole  year,  were  translated  into 
the  idiom  of  the  We^lern  Lidiaiis  by  Arnold  a  Basaccio,  also  a 
Franciscan  friar :  but  the  dates  of  these  latter  versions  have  not 
been  ascertained.  A  translation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Luke  into 
the  Mexican  language,  by  Dr.  Mora,  was  printed  in  1832,'  and 


another  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  into  the  Quichua  or  Peruvian  Ian 
guage,  by  Dr.  Pazos  Kanki,  in  18.30.2  The  entire  Bible  is  said  tc 
have  been  translalcd  into  the  Brazilian  language  by  an  English 
minister,  who  accompanied  the  Dutch  to  Recife,  when  they  ac- 
quired it  from  the  Portuguese.  This  version  has  never  been 
printed.3  In  1825  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the 
Peruvian  language  was  completed.'* 


CHAPTER  II. 


HARMONIES    OP    THE    OLD    AND    NEW    TESTAMENTS. 


NicoLAi  Alarui  Bibliotheca  Harnionico-Biblica,  quae,  praeter 
Historian!  Harmonicam,  tradit  Notitiam  Scriptorum  Harmonico- 
rum  cujuscunque  iEtatis  et  religionis,  tam  perpetuorum  quam  sin- 
gularium  ;  nee  omissis  illis,  qui  vel  specialius  quoddam  argumen- 
tum  sacrum,  vel  bina  Oracula  Spiritiis  Sancti  ab  Antilogiarum 
calumnia  vindicarunt.     Hamburgi,  1725,  Svo. 


SECTION  I. 

HARMONIES    OF    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT. 

1.  A  Chrokicle  of  the  Times  and  the  Order  of  the  Text  of 
the  Old  Testament,  wherein  the  books,  chapters,  psalms,  stories, 
prophecies,  &c.,  are  reduced  into  the  proper  order,  and  taken  up 
in  the  proper  places,  in  which  the  natural  method  and  genuine 
series  of  the  chronology  requireth  them  to  be  taken  in.  With 
reason  gfiven  of  dislocations,  where  they  come.  And  many  re- 
markable notes  and  observations  given  all  along,  for  the  better  un- 
derstanding of  the  text;  the  difficulties  of  the  chronicle  declared  ; 
the  differences  occurring  in  the  relating  of  stories  reconciled  ;  and 
exceeding  many  scruples  and  obscurities  in  the  Old  Testament 
explained.     By  John  Lightfoot,  D.D. 

This  "  Chronicle"  is  to  be  found  in  the  first  volume  of  Dr.  Light- 
foot's  works,  published  at  London,  in  1684,  in  two  volumes,  folio,  and 
in  the  second  volume  of  the  8vo.  London  edition,  printed  in  1822- 
25.  Of  all  the  theologians  of  his  time,  this  celebrated  divine  (whose 
opinion  was  consulted  by  every  scholar  of  note,  both  British  and 
Foreign)  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  most  deeply  versed  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures.  "  It  was  his  custom,  for  many  years, 
to  note  down,  as  opportunity  presented,  in  the  course  of  his  talmu- 
dical  and  rabbinical  studies,  the  order  and  time  of  the  several  pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  as  they  came  under  his  consideration."  By  pursu- 
ing this  method  he  gradually  formed  the  invaluable  chronicle,  the 
title  of  which  has  just  been  given,  which  was  first  published  at 
London,  in  4to.,  and  in  the  year  1647.  In  this  work.  Dr.  Lightfoot 
has  briefly  stated  the  summary  or  substance  of  the  historical  parts 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  has  indicated  the  order  in  which  the 
several  chapters,  psalms,  and  prophecies  are  to  be  placed.  In  the 
margin  he  has  given  the  years  of  the  world,  and  of  the  judges  or 
sovereigns  under  whose  administration  the  several  events  took  place. 
Notwithstanding  the  differences  in  opinion  entertained  by  the 
learned  concerning  the  chronology  of  particular  events,  the  genertil 
method  of  this  "  Chronicle"  has  been,  and  still  continues  to  be,  held 
in  the  highest  estimation  by  all  who  are  competent  duly  to  appre- 
ciate its  merits. 

2.  A  Designe  about  disposing  the  Bible  into  an  Harmony.  Or, 
an  Essay  concerning  the  transposing  the  order  of  books  and 
chapters  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  for  the  reducing  of  all  into  a 
continued  history. 

C  Benefits. 
The^  Difficultie. 

C.  Helpes. 
By  Samuel  Torshei.  London,  1747,  4to. 
This  tract  was  published  nearly  at  the  same  time  with  Dr.  Light- 
foot's  Chronicle.  It  appears  from  the  preface  that  Mr.  Torshei  was 
preceptor  of  the  children  of  King  Charles  I.  under  the  earl  of 
Northumberland;  and  his  tract  was  addressed  "To  the  Right 
Honourable  the  Lords  and  Commons  assembled  in  Parliament;" 
whom  he  endeavoured  to  excite  to  patronize  the  undertaking,  bv 
the  consideration  of  the  glory  which  had  redounded  to  France  by 
the  then  recent  publication  of  the  Parisian  Polyglott,  in  ten  folio 
volumes.  The  state,  however,  paid  no  regard  to  this  address,  and 
the  design  which  Torshei  had  ably  sketched  was  never  accomplish- 
ed. He  proposed  "  to  lay  the  whole  story  together  in  a  continued 
connection,  the  books  or  parts  of  books,  and  all  the  severall  parcels 
disposed  and  placed  in  their  proper  order,  as  the  continuance  and 
chronicall  method  of  the  Scripture  history  requires ;  so  that  no 
sentence  nor  word  in  the  whole  Bible  be  omitted,  nor  any  thing 
repeated,  or  any  word  inserted  but  what  is  necessary  for  transition. 

»  Twenty -ninth  Report,  p.  Ixxv. 


So  as  some  whole  chapters  or  pieces  be  put  into  other  places,  yea, 
great  parts  of  some  books,  and  some  whole  books,  to  be  woven  into 
the  body  of  another  book."  (Torshel's  Designe,  p.  10.)  In  the 
prosecution  of  this  undertaking,  besides  reducing  all  the  historical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  to  a  continued  series,  the  book  of 
Psalms,  and  the  sermons  of  the  Prophets,  were  to  be  inserted  in 
their  proper  places,  and  the  writings  of  Solomon  incorporated 
according  to  those  periods  of  his  reign  when  they  are  supposed  to 
have  been  written  ;  and  those  parts  of  the  book  of  Proverbs,  "  which 
the  men  of  Hezekiah  copied  out,"  were  to  be  disposed  in  the  body 
of  the  books  of  Chronicles,  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Heze- 
kiah, king  of  Jiidah.  In  harmonizing  the  Gospels,  Mr.  Torshei 
proposed  to  follow  the  plan  then  recently  adopted  in  the  Latin  Har- 
mony, commenced  by  Chemnitz,  continued  by  Lyser,  and  finished 
by  Gerhard  ;  and  the  apostolic  epistles  were  to  be  distributed  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  according  to  the  order  of  time  when  they 
were  written.  The  writings  of  St.  John  were  to  close  the  proposed 
undertaking.  The  perusal  of  this  modest  and  well-written  tract, 
several  years  since,  suggested  to  the  writer  of  these  pages  the  idea 
of  attempting  a  harmony  of  the  entire  Bible,  on  the  completion  of 
the  present  work.  This  laborious  undertaking,  however,  has  been 
happily  rendered  unnecessary  by  the  publication  of 

3.  The  Rev.  George  Townsend's  Arrangement  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament. 

[i.]  The  Old  Testament,  arranged  in  historical  and  chronologi- 
cal order  (on  the  basis  of  Lightfoot's  Chronicle),  in  such  manner, 
that  the  books,  chapters,  psalms,  prophecies,  &c.  may  be  read  as 
one  connected  history,  in  the  very  words  of  the  authorized  trans- 
lation. By  the  Rev.  George  TowNSEsn,  M.A.  London,  1821 ; 
Second  Edition,  1826.     In  two  very  large  volumes,  Svo. 

This  beautifully  printed  and  carefully  executed  work  (as  its  title- 
page  announces)  is  arranged  on  the  basis  of  Dr.  Lightfoot's  Chro- 
nicle, above  noticed :  from  which,  however,  Mr.  Townsend  has 
deviated  for  the  better  in  one  very  material  respect.  According  to 
Lightfoot's  plan,  the  Old  Testament  would  have  been  read  as  one 
unbroken  history,  without  any  division  into  chapters,  or  any  of  those 
breaks,  the  omission  of  which  causes  not  a  little  weariness  to  the 
reader.  In  order  to  obviate  this  difficulty,  and  also  with  the  view 
of  making  the  Scripture  narrative  more  attractive,  as  well  as  more 
easily  remembered,  Mr.  T.  has  divided  his  harmony  into  eight  suit- 
able periods,  viz.  I.  From  the  creation  to  the  deluge: — 2.  From  the 
confusion  of  tongues  to  the  death  of  Jacob  and  the  Patriarchs  ; — 
3.  From  the  birth  to  the  death  of  Moses  ; — 4.  From  the  entrance  of 
the  Israelites  into  Canaan,  under  the  command  of  Joshua,  to  the 
death  of  David  ; — 5.  The  reign  of  Solomon ; — 6.  From  the  elevation 
of  Rehoboam  to  the  Babylonish  Captivity; — 7.  The  Babylonish  Cap- 
tivity, seventy  years,  from  b.  c.  606  to  536; — 8.  From  the  termination 
of  the  Babylonish  Captivity  to  the  reformation  of  worship  by  Nehe- 
miah,  and  the  completion  of  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  by  Simon 
the  Just,  from  b.  c.  536  to  about  300.  These  eight  periods  are  further 
subdivided  into  chapters  and  sections,  the  length  of  which  is  neces- 
sarily regulated  by  the  subjects  therein  discussed  ;  and  in  settling 
the  chronology  and  order  of  some  particular  events  and  prophecies, 
the  arranger  has  availed  himself  of  the  labours  of  the  most  eminent 
modern  biblical  critics.  A  well-written  introduction  developes  his 
plan  and  design,  and  points  out  its  advantages  to  various  classes  of 
readers,  especially  to  clergymen,  and  those  who  are  preparing  for 
the  sacred  office,  to  whom  this  work  is  indispensably  necessary. 
The  work  is  terminated  by  six  Indexes  ; — the  first,  containing  an 
account  of  the  periods,  chapters,  and  sections  into  which  the  work 
is  divided,  with  the  passages  of  Scfipture  comprised  in  each ; — the 
second,  in  columns,  enabling  the  reader  to  discover  in  what  part  of 
the  arrangement  any  chapter  or  verse  of  the  Bible  may  be  found ; — 
the  third  and  fourth  contain  tables  of  the  Psalms  and  Prophecies, 
showing  in  what  part  of  the  arrangement,  and  after  what  passage 
of  Scripture,  every  psalm  or  prophecy  is  inserted  ;  and  likewise  on 
what  occasion,  and  at  what  period,  they  were  probably  written, 
with  the  authority  for  their  place  in  the  arrangement; — the  Jifth, 
containing  the  dales  of  the  events  according  to  Dr.  Hales's  elaborate 
System  of  Chronology ;  and  the  sixth,  a  general  index  to  the  notes, 
which,  though  not  numerous,  are  very  appropriate,  and  possess  the 
rare  merit  of  compressing  a  great  variety  of  valuable  information 

»  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  Ixiii. 

3  Townley's  Illustrations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  46 — 3.35.  note. 

4  Twenty -first  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  Iv. 


Sect.  II,] 


HARMONIES  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


59 


into  a  small  compnss.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Archdeacon  Narcs  has  juslly 
chiiraclPiizcil  rlii.s  work,  ii«  being  "disgesled  vvilh  such  skill,  and 
illustruti'd  with  siicli  nolo.f,  ns  |ii-oves  (ho  uiillujr  lo  have  stiiiiied  liis 
tiisk  vvilh  deep  uticntioii  and  distinijuiHlicd  jiidjjnicnl."  (Visilation 
.Sermon,  p.  24.  J/ondon,  IH'Z'.i.)  The  ^ccond  eduiou  has  (.arullel  re- 
I'ercnccs  and  ihe  margin.il  renderings. 

[ii.]  The  New  Testament  arranged  in  Chronolojcal  and  His- 
torical Order,  in  .such  manner  that  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles,  and 
the  Acts  may  he  read  as  one  connected  History.  The  (iokjk'I  on 
the  hasis  of  the  Harmonies  of  Lighttuot,  Uoddridge,  Pilkiiigton, 
Newcome,  and  Michaelis;  the  Account  of  the  ilesurrection.on  the 
Authorities  of  West,  Townson,  and  Cranficld.  The  E()islics 
are  inserted  in  their  places,  and  divided  according  to  the  Apostle's 
Arguments.  With  co|)i<)us  Notes  on  many  of  the  principal  Sub- 
jects of 'I'heology.  By  the  Rev.  George  TtiWNSBM),  M.A.  1825; 
Second  Edition  corrected,  1827,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Though  a  distinct  work  in  itself,  this  elaborate  publication  forms 
the  second  part  of  Mr.  Townsend's  Il.irmony  of  the  Scriptures. 
The  remarks  on  the  preceding  portion  are  <'(iiially  applicable  to 
the  present  work.  The  notes,  indeed,  are  much  more  valuable, 
from  the  extent  and  variety  of  the  very  im|H>rtnnt  topics  they  dis- 
cuss. The  usefulness  of  iiiis  portion  of  Mr.  T.'s  labours  is  mate- 
rially increased  by  the  niniierous  and  important  elucidations  which 
he  has  derived  irom  the  works  of  Lightlbot,  Schoettgen,  Meuschen, 
and  others,  which  are  not  withni  the  reach  of  every  biblical  stu- 
dent. 

[iii.]  The  Holy  Bible  arranged  in  Historical  and  Chronologi- 
cal Order,  in  such  manner  that  the  whole  may  be  read  as  one 
connected  History,  in  the  words  of  the  authorized  translation. 
With  short  Notes  ;  and  a  Table,  dividing  the  Sacred  Volume 
into  365  Portions  for  daily  reading  throughout  the  year.  By  the 
Rev.  George  Townsenh,  M.A.     London,  1834,  Bvo. 

A  neat  reprint  of  the  preceding  work,  in  one  commodious  volume, 
illustrated  with  brief  notes. 

3.  A  Harmony  of  the  Kings  and  Prophets,  or  an  arrangement 
of  the  History  contained  in  the  Books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles, 
together  with  the  Writings  of  the  Prophets,  arranged  in  chrono- 
logical order  as  they  were  delivered,  commencing  with  the  Revolt 
of  the  Ten  Tribes,  and  closing  with  the  Prophecies  of  Malachi. 
By  Stephen  Mehuell,  Kiltery  (Maine),  [Nortli  America].  1832, 
Bvo. 


SECTION  II. 

HARMONIES    OF    THE    ENTIRE    NEW'    TESTAMENT,  AND    OF    THE 
FOUR    GOSPELS. 

1.  The  Harmony,  Chronicle,  and  Order  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  text  of  the  four  Evangelists  methodized.  Story 
of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  analyzed.  Order  of  the  Epistles 
manifested.  Times  of  the  Revelation  observed,  and  illustrated 
with  a  variety  of  observations  upon  the  chicfest  difficulties.  Textual 
and  Talmudical,  for  clearing  of  their  sense  and  language.  By 
John  LiGHTFooT,  D.D.  London,  16.54,  folio.  Also  in  the  lirst 
volume  of  his  works.     London,  1682,  folio. 

In  this  valuable  work  Dr.  Lighlfoot  has  pursued  the  ?ame  method 
which  he  had  adopted  in  his  Chronicle  of  the  Old  Testament.  He 
further  pul)lislied,  at  London,  in  1644  and  KioO,  three  parts  of  T/te 
Harmony  of  Ihe  Four  Evangelists,  among  Ihemstlves,  and  with  the 
Old  Testament.  The  Iburth  and  fiftii  parts,  which  were  to  have 
completed  his  design,  never  appeared.  This  harmony  is  enriched 
with  numerous  philological  and  explanatory  remarks,  of  which 
many  subsequent  critics  and  harmonists  have  availed  themselves. 

2.  Harmonia  Quatuor  Evangeliorum  juxta  Sectioncs  Ammo- 
nianas  el  Eusebii  Canoncs.  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Clarendo- 
niano,  1805,  4to. 

3.  Andreae  OsiAwnRi  Harmonise  Evangelicje  Libri  Quatuor, 
Graece  et  Latine.  In  quibus  Evangelica  Historia  ex  quatuor 
Evangelistis  ita  in  unum  est  contexta,  ut  nuUius  verbum  ullum 
omissum,  nihil  alienum  immixtum,  nullius  ordo  turbatus,  nihil 
non  suo  loco  positum.  Omnia  vero  litteris  et  notis  ita  distincta 
sint,  ut  quid  cujusque  evangelists  proprium,  quid  cum  aliis  et 
cum  quibus  commune  sit,  primo  statim  adspectu  deprehendere 
queas :  item  Elenchus  Harmonise :  Adnotationum  liber  unus. 
Basileae,  1537,  folio;  Grajce  et  Latine,  Basilcae,  1567,  folio;  La- 
tine,  Lutetiae  Parisiorum  ex  officina  Roberti  Stephani.  1545, 
12mo. 

Osiander's  Harmony  is  not  of  very  frequent  occurrence.  It  is 
highly  estimated  by  Walchius,  though  Michaelis  rather  harshly 
observes  that  he  undesignedly  renders  the  Gospel  history  not  only 
suspicious,  but  incredible,  by  adopting  the  principle  that  the  evan- 
gelists constantly  wrote  in  chronological  order,  and  that  the  same 
transactions  and  discourses  took  place  twice  or  thrice  in  the  life  of 


Christ.  He  acknowledges,  however,  that  Osiander  did  not  go  so 
far  as  his  successoni,  and  that  he  sometimes  deviates  from  liiS  ge- 
neral priiK.'iple. 

4.  Cornelii  Jansp.jtii,  Gandavcnsi.s,  Concordia  Evangelica, 
in  qua,  pr.-eterquam  quod  suo  loco  ponitur,  qua;  evangelists  non 
.servato  r  censent  ordine,  etiam  nullius  vcrbuni  aliipiod  om  ttilur. 
Litteris  autem  otnnia  sic  distin;^uuntur,  ut  quid  cujusque  pro- 
|)riuni,  quid  cum  aliis  et  cum  quibus  commune,  ctiam  ad  singu- 
las  dictiones  mox  deprehendatur.  LovaJiii,  154'J,  8vo.  Aiit- 
vcrpia',  1558,  Tiino. 

Jansenius />aW(o//^  followed  Osiander.  He  subsequently  wrote 
a  Conniienljiry  on  his  Harmony,  which  was  publislied  together 
vvitli  it  at  I,ouvain,  in  1571.  The  number  of  editions  through 
which  this  work  piisscd  {thirteen  others  are  enumerated  by  Wal- 
chius, between  the  years  1577  and  lf>iI4)  sufliciently  attest  the  lii- 
vourable  opinion  entertained  ol'ils  value.  Walchius  extols  Jansc- 
nius's  learning,  ingciuiity,  and  modesty. 

5.  Martini  Ciiemmtii  Harmonia  Quatuor  Evangeliorum, 
quam  ab  eodem  feliciter  inchoatain  Polycarj)U8  Lyserus  et  Jo- 
hannes Gerhardus,  is  quidem  continuavit,  hie  perfecit.  Ham- 
burgi,  1704,  folio. 

The  best  edition  of  a  most  valuable  Harmony.  Chemnitz  com- 
piled only  the  first  two  books,  and  part  ol'  a  third,  which  were 
publishccl  after  his  death  at  Franklbrt,  in  1593,  by  Polycar|)  Lv^^'e^ ; 
who  wrote  the  remainder  of  the  third  book,  and  added  the  (ourlh 
and  part  of  the  fifth  book.  These  were  published  at  dillereu: 
times  at  Leipsic  and  Frankfort,  between  the  years  1604  and  ICll  : 
and,  on  Lyser's  death,  Gerhard  completed  the  undertaking,  with 
learning  and  industry  not  in(i"rior  to  those  of  his  predecessors.  The 
entire  work,  with  the  several  continuations,  was  first  published  at 
Geneva,  in  1628.  This  elaborate  work  is  not  ordy  a  harmony,  but 
a  learned  commentary  on  the  four  Gospels. 

6.  The  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  and  their  text  me- 
thodized, according  to  the  order  and  series  of  times  in  which  the 
several  things  by  them  mentioned  were  transacted.  By  Samuel 
CiiADOcK,  B.D.  London,  1668,  folio,  and  again  in  1684  and 
1685. 

This  work  w'as  revised  by  the  learned  Dr.  Tillotson,  afterwards 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  by  whom  it  was  preserved  from  destnic- 
tion  during  the  memorable  fire  of  London,  in  1666.  (Chalmers's 
Biog.  Diet.  vol.  X.  p.  447.)  In  the  seventeenth  century  it  was 
deservedly  held  in  the  highest  estimation ;  though  ii  is  now  super- 
seded by  later  and  more  critical  works.  Mr.  Cradock  has  drawn 
up  the  Gospel  history  in  an  explanatory  paraphrase,  in  English, 
which  is  followed  by  the  text  of  the  evangelists.  In  the  margin  ho 
has  given  short  but  useful  notes  in  Latm,  which  are  very  judi- 
ciously extracted  from  (Jrotius,  Drs.  Lightfoot  and  Hammond,  and 
other  critics.  The  book  is  by  no  means  dear ;  which  to  studenta 
(who  may  not  be  able  to  procure  recent  and  more  expensive  har- 
monies) IS  a  great  advantage.  This  harmonist  did  not  adopt  the 
principle  of  Osiander. 

7.  Bernardi  Lamt  Historia,  sive  Concordia  Evangelistarum, 
Parisiis,  1689,  12mo. — Commentarius  in  Harmoniam  sive  Con- 
cordiam  Quatuor  Evangelistarum.  Parisiis,  1699,  in  two  voliunes, 
4to. 

Lamy's  Commentary  is  held  in  much  higher  estimation  than  his 
Harmony.  It  is  justly  characterized  by  Michaelis  as  a  learned 
work.  The  chronological  and  geographical  apparatus  is  peculiarly 
valuable. 

8.  Joannis  Clerici  Harmonia  Evangelica,  cui  subjecta  est 
historia  Christi  ex  quatuor  evangeliis  concinnata.  Accesserunt 
tres  Dissertationes,  de  annis  Chri.sti,  deque  concordia  et  auctori- 
tate  evangeliorum.     Amstelodami,  1699,  folio. 

All  critics  nnite  in  commendation  of  Le  Clerc's  Harmony.  He 
has  arranged  the  history  of  the  four  evangelists,  according  to  chro- 
nological o.'der,  in  cofumns  parallel  to  each  other,  in  Greek  and 
Ijatin  ;  and  imder  the  text  he  has  given  a  Latin  paraphrase,  the 
design  of  which  is  to  remove  apparent  contradictions.  Le  Clerc 
promised  to  publish  Annotations  on  his  Harmony,  which  have 
never  appeared.  A  Latin  edition  of  it  was  printed  at  Altorf  in 
1700,  in  4lo. ;  and  an  English  translation  of  it  is  said  by  Walchiua 
to  have  been  published  at  London  in  the  same  year,  also  in  4to. 

9.  Nicolai  Toinardi  Harmonia  Graeco-Latina.  Parisiis,  1707, 
folio. 

M.  Toinard  drew  up  this  Harmony  for  his  own  private  use,  of 
which  only  five  or  six  copies  were  taken  for  the  use  of  his  friends. 
After  his  decease  they  published  it  (as  he  had  desired  they  would) 
at  the  time  and  place  above  mentioned.  It  has  long  been  held  in 
the  highest  estimation,  for  the  care  and  diligence  which  its  author 
bestowed,  in  order  to  settle  the  several  circumstances  mentioned 
by  the  ditTerent  evangelist.s.  Bishop  Marsh  pronounces  it  to  be  of 
particular  use  to  those  who  wish  to  examine  the  verbal  agreement 
of  the  evangelists ;  as  M.  Toinard  has  not  only  placed  in  adjacent 
columns  the  parallel  passages,  but  has  also  parallelized  even  single 
words. 

1 0.  Jo.  Reinhardi  Rus,  Harmonia  Evangelistarum,  ita  adomata, 
ut,  investigata  sedulo  textus  cohserentia,  nullus  versus,  sive  traji- 


60 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  U. 


ciatur,  sive  prsetereatur  sine  brevi  ac  succincta  explicatione,  qua) 
justi  commentarii  loco  esse  queat.  Jense,  1727-1730,  4  vols. 
12mo. 

Walchius  pronounces  this  to  be  an  elaborate  and  learned  work. 
This  harmonist  Ibllovvs  the  plan  of  those  who  vindicale  the  chro- 
nological order  of  the  history  related  by  each  evangelist.  The  text 
of  the  sacred  writers  is  also  explained  in  the  copious  notes  of 
M.  Rus.     Walchii  Bibliotheca,  vol.  iv.  p.  881. 

11.  In  the  year  1739  and  1740,  Dr.  DonDniDGE  published  the 
first  and  second  volumes  of  his  Family  Expositor,  of  which  an 
account  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  Appendix. 
They  are  noticed  here,  because  they  contain  a  harmony  of  the 
four  Gospels,  which  is  acknowledged  to  be  executed  with'gjreat 
judgment,  independently  of  the  very  valuable  exposition  £md 
notes  that  accompany  it. 

12.  The  Evangelical  History  and  Harmony.  By  Matthew 
PiLKiNGTON,  LL.B.     London,  1747,  folio. 

This  harmonist  professes  not  to  adhere  to  any  of  the  schemes  laid 
down  by  his  predecessors  for  arranging  the  evangelical  history. 
It  is  not  disposed  in  columns,  like  the  works  of  Le  Clerc,  Toinard, 
and  others;  but  the  text  is  exhibited  in  such  a  manner  as  to  relate 
the  various  discourses  and  tacts  recorded  by  the  sacred  writers  in 
their  identical  words,  and  in  the  fullest  manner  possible,  yet  so  as 
to  avoid  tautology.  The  history  is  divided  into  chapters,  and  these 
are  subdivided  into  sections  of  moderate  length.  Two  Chronological 
Dissertations  are  prefixed  :  1.  On  the  time  of  Herod's  death,  of  the 
birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  duration  of  his  ministry,  and  the  year  of 
his  crucifixion,  &c.  &c.  2.  On  the  time  and  place  of  the  adoration 
of  the  wise  men.  Notes  are  subjoined  for  the  elucidation  of  par- 
ticular passages.  The  work  is  executed  with  great  care,  and  may 
frequently  be  purchased  at  a  low  price. 

13.  The  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels;  in  which  the  natural 
order  of  each  is  preserved,  with  a  paraphrase  and  notes.  By  J. 
Macknibht,  D.D.  4to.  2  vols.  1756  ;  2d  edit.  1763  ;  3d  edit.  8vo. 
2  vols.  Edinburgh,  1804. 

Dr.  Macknight  closely  adheres  to  the  principle  of  Osiander;  but 
his  paraphrase  and  commentary  contain  so  much  useful  information, 
that  his  harmony  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  standard  book  among 
divines;  it  is  in  the  lists  of  Bishops  Watson  and  Tomline.  The 
preliminary  disquisitions  greatly  enhance  its  value.  Dr.  Macknight's 
work  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Professor  Ruckersfelder,  and 
published  in  3  vols.  8vo.  at  Bremen  and  Deventer,  1772.  Bishop 
Marsh  says,  that  whoever  makes  use  of  this  harmony  should  com- 
pare with  it  Dr.  Lardner's  observations  on  it,  which  were  first  pub- 
lished in  1764,  and  are  reprinted  in  the  eleventh  volume  of  the 
octavo  edition,  and  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  quarto  edition  of  his 
works. 

14.  An  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  in  which  the  original  text 
is  disposed  after  Le  Clerc's  general  manner,  with  such  various 
readings  at  the  foot  of  the  page  as  have  received  Wetstein's 
sanction  in  his  folio  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament.  Observa- 
tions are  subjoined  tending  to  settle  the  time  and  place  of  every 
transaction,  to  estabUsh  the  series  of  facts,  and  to  reconcile  seem- 
ing inconsistencies.  By  William  Nf.wcome,  D.D.  Bishop  of 
Ossory  (afterwards  Archbishop  of  Armagh).  London,  1778,  folio. 

15.  An  English  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  generally 
disposed  after  the  manner  of  the  Greek  of  William  Newcome, 
Archbishop  of  Armagh  ;  -with  a  J\fap  of  Palestine  divided  ac- 
cording- to  the  ttvelve  tribes,  Explanatory  J^Totes,  and  Indexes. 
London,  1802,  8vo. 

The  Greek  Harmony  of  Archbishop  Newcome  has  long  been  held 
in  the  highest  estimation ;  but  its  bulk  and  price  necessarily  place 
it  beyond  the  reach  of  many  biblical  students.  In  publishing  this 
harmony,  the  anonymous  compiler  (a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends)  has  rendered  to  English  readers  the  same  service  which 
that  learned  prelate  had  conferred  on  biblical  scholars  by  his  larger 
Greek  work.  "  Several  trifling  alterations  have  been  adopted  in 
the  text,  and,  it  is  hoped,  generally  to  advantage."  (Preface,  p.  v.) 
The  harmony  fills  four  hundred  and  thirty-four  pages ;  and  the 
'  Notes  and  lUilstralions"  comprise  thirty-six  pages :  though  brief, 
they  are  judiciously  selected  from  the  critical  and  philological 
labours  of  Beausobre  and  L'Enfant,  Calmet,  Grotius,  the  Rev.  Drs. 
Hammond,  Harwood,  Shaw,  Doddridge,  from  the  harmony  of  the 
late  eminent  physician.  Dr.  Robert  Willan,  and  various  other 
sources.  The  volume  concludes  with  an  index  to  the  Parables 
delivered  by  Jesus  Christ,  and  a  Table  for  finding  any  passage  of 
the  Gospels  in  this  Harmony.  Altogether,  "  the  form  in  which  this 
Mork  is  printed  is  extremely  convenient;  so  much  so,  that  they, 
who  can  use  the  Greek,  may  be  glad  to  consult  the  English  octavo 
rather  than  the  unwieldy  folio  of  the  archbishop."  (British  Critic 
(O.  S.),  vol.  xxii.  p.  437.) 

15*.  An  English  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  disposed 
after  the  manner  of  the  Greek  of  William  Newcome,  Archbishop 
of  Armagh  ;  -with  Explanatory  JSi'otes,  and  Indexes,  arid  a  new 
Map  of  Palestine,  divided  into  Tetrarchies,  and  showing-  the 


Travels  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.     London :  m.dccc.xxvii. 
8vo. 

Though  apparently  a  new  work,  this  is  a  mere  reprint  of  the 
preceduig  Harmony,  with  the  omission  in  the  liile-pageof  the  word 
"generally"  (which  the  original  compiler  had  piojjerly  inserted, 
as  Archbishop  Newcome"s  method  was  only  generally  ibllowed), 
and  with  the  variation,  which  the  reader  w  ill  be  able  to  distinguish, 
from  the  lines  above  printed  in  Italics.  The  dale  of  the  original 
work  is  in  Arabic  figures ;  in  the  volume  under  consideration  it  is 
in  Roman  small  capital  letters.  T\ie  few  errata  which  the  original 
compiler  had  noticed  are  here  corrected:  but  the  following  note, 
which  he  had  prefixed  to  his  table  of  contents,  viz.  "  The  title  pre- 
fixed to  each  section  is  designed  to  mark  the  general  order  at  first 
vieiv,  and  not  faithfully  to  exhibit  its  contents,"  is  omitted :  and  the 
table  of  contents,  which  in  the  original  work  fills  seven  pages  in 
columns,  is  here  printed  in  long  lines,  in  four  pages.  The  thirty- 
six  pages  of  "  notes  and  illustrations"  are  here  compressed  into 
thirty-Mree  ,•  and  the  "  Table  for  finding  any  passage  of  the  Gospels 
in  this  Harmony,"  which  fills  five  pages  in  the  original  edition,  is 
here  compressed  into  four  pages.  The  Map  is  the  only  new  article  : 
it  exhibits  Palestine,  divided  into  Tetrarchies,  and  by  means  of  a 
red  line  shows  the  travels  of  Jesus  Christ.  In  one  corner  of  it  is 
a  ground  plan  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  The  volume  is  very 
neatly  printed. 

16.  A  Harmony  of  the  Evangelists  in  Greek;  to  which  are 
prefixed  Critical  Dissertations  in  English.  By  Joseph  Pkiest- 
LET,  LL.D.     London,  1778,  4to. 

17.  A  Harmony  of  the  Evangelists  in  English ;  with  Critical 
Dissertations,  an  occasional  Paraphrase,  and  Notes  for  the  use 
of  the  unlearned.  By  Joseph  Pbiestlet,  LL.D.  London, 
1780,  4to. 

The  same  method  of  arrangement  is  followed  in  both  these  Har- 
monies. Dr.  Priestley  adopted  the  opinion  of  some  ancient  writers, 
that  the  ministry  of  Jesus  Christ  lasted  only  one  year,  or  a  year  and 
a  few  months.  For  an  account  of  these  two  publications  see  the 
Monthly  Review  (old  series),' vol.  Iviii.  pp.  89 — 94.,  and  vol.  Ixiv. 
pp.  81—90.  161—173. 

1 8.  Synopsis  Evangeliorum  Matthai,  Marci,  et  Lucae,  una  cum 
iis  Joannis  Pericopis,  qusB  historiam  passionis  et  resurrectionis 
historian!  complectuntur.  Textum  recensuit,  et  selectam  lectionis 
varietatem  adjecit  J.  J.  Griesbach.  Halae,  1776,  8vo.  Editio 
secunda,  emendatior  et  auctior.  Halae  Saxonum,  1797,  8vo. 
Editio  quarta,  1822,  8vo. 

The  chief  purport  of  this  synopsis,  Bishop  Marsh  remarks,  is,  not 
to  give  a  chronological  series  of  events,  but  to  represent  in  parallel 
columns  all  those  sections  which  are  common  to  the  Gospels  of 
Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke ;  the  Gospel  of  John  (except  the  last 
part)  being  omitted,  because  the  rest  of  it  has  so  very  little  matter 
in  common  with  the  other  three.  In  order  to  make  as  few  trans- 
positions as  possible,  Mark's  order  is  generally  retained,  because  it 
is  the  same  with  that  of  Luke,  as  far  as  relates  to  the  facts  which 
are  common  to  all  three.  Those  parts  which  each  evangelist  has 
peculiar  to  himself,  are  inserted  in  intermediate  sections.  The 
learned  translator  of  Michaelis  pronounces  the  disposition  of  the 
whole  work  to  be  very  commodious,  and  adds,  that  he  knows  of  no 
harmony,  which  affords  so  much  assistance  in  the  investigation  of 
the  origin  of  the  first  Gospels.  In  1812,  an  English  Synopsis  of  the 
first  three  Gospels,  including  the  last  four  chapters  of  St.  John's 
Gospel,  was  published  in  8vo.  on  the  plan  of  Griesbach's  work, 
with  some  variations,  by  the  Rev.  Charles  Dunster,  who  has  made 
the  narrative  of  St.  Luke  the  standard  to  which  the  other  Gospels 
are  adapted.  Valuable  as  Griesbach's  synopsis  confessedly  is,  some 
of  his  transpositions  have  been  deemed  arbitrary,  and  some  import- 
ant passages  were  omitted  by  him.  To  obviate  these  defects,  AIM. 
De  Wette  and  Liicke  have  compiled  a  new  synopsis  from  Gries- 
bach's third  edition,  so  as  to  exhibit  the  entire  passages  of  the 
Gospels  with  their  parallels ;  at  the  foot  of  each  page  they  have 
given  the  principal  various  lections  from  Griesbach's  critical  edition 
of  the  New  Testament ;  and  they  have  supplied  brief  notices  of 
the  arguments  or  contents  of  each  section.  The  title  of  this  very 
useful  publication  is, 

19.  Synopsis  Evangeliorum  Matthaei,  Marci,  et  Lucae,  cum 
Parallelis  Joannis  Pericopis.  Ex  recensione  Griesbachii,  cum 
selecta  Lectionura  varietate.  Concinnaverunt,  et  Breves  Argu- 
mentorum  Notationes  adjecerunt  Guil.  Mart.  Leber.  De  Wette, 
et  Frid.  Lucke.     Berolini,  1818,  4to. 

20.  Diatessaron,  sive  integra  Historia  Domini  nostri  Jesu 
Christi,  Graece.  Ex  quatuor  Evangeliis  inter  se  collatis,  ipsisque 
Evangelistarum  verbis  apte  et  ordinate  dispositis  confecta.  Sub- 
jungitur  Evangeliorum  brevis  Harmonia.  Edidit  J.  White, 
S.T.P.  Ling.  Arab.  Prof.  Versionis  Syriacse  Philoxenianae  Nov. 
Test.  Interpres,  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Clarendoniamo,  1799, 
small  8vo. 

A  Diatessaron  is  the  result  and  summary  of  a  Harmony.  In  the 
latter  the  whole  text  of  the  four  evangelists  is  given,  only  so  ar- 
ranged in  columns  that  their  parallelifyns  and  differences  may  be 
exactly  seen:  whereas,  in  a  diatessaron,  one  continued  narrative  is 
selected  from  the  four,  avoiding  all  repetitions  of  the  same  or  sirai- 


Sect.  III.] 


HARMONIES  OF  THE  FOUR  GOSPELS. 


61 


lar  words.  Profpsfior  While  founded  his  beautifully  and  correctly 
primed  volume  on  the  excellent  liiirmony  of  Arclibishop  New- 
come,  except  in  the  part  relatnig  to  the  resurrection  of  JesuH  Christ, 
in  which  he  has  (IjI lowed  the  arran>;pment  of  la<!ls  projKJsed  by 
Mr.  West  and  Dr.  Town.son,  in  their  works  on  this  8ubje<l,  whicfi 
are  noticed  in  the  next  col.  The  timr  and  place  in  which  each 
event  happened,  are  judiciously  noticed  in  the  margins:  a  map  rif 
Palestine  is  prelixed  ;  and  a  very  useful,  though  concise,  Kvangeli- 
orum  llurmotiia,  which  is  ailded  at  the  end,  coiniects  the  whole 
with  peculiar  clearness.  In  1H()2,  Dr.  White's  work  was  translated 
into  Latin  by  the  Rev.  T.  Thirlwall,  who  retained  the  chief  part 
of  the  professor's  title,  and  adopted  [iriiicipally  the  Latin  version 
of  Cnstellio;  allhough,  where  the  editor  regarded  his  phrases  as 
forced  and  afli'<-ied  (as  they  sonietinies  are),  he  has  had  recourse  to 
the  versions  of  Hvzu,  Tremellius,  and  the  Vulgate.  This  publica- 
tion may  be  of  use  to  lho.se,  who,  in  reading  the  (ireek,  are  occa- 
sionally induced  to  consult  a  translation;  Mr.  Thirlwall  also  nul>- 
lished,  in  18<):i,  an  Kns.Mi.sli  l>ialis.iaron,  or  Hixlori/  of  our  Lord 
Jeftis  C/irigl,  romudtd  from  l/ie  four  lio.yjels  a(coriliiig  to  the  au- 
thorized version,  H\o.  and  12m(>.  Some  brief  notes,  and  a  concise  but 
useful  introduction  are  annexed,  together  with  a  map  of  Palestine. 

81.  Dialessaron;  or  the  Gospel  History,  from  the  Text  of  the 
Four  Evangelists,  in  a  connected  Series.  With  Notes  critical 
and  explanatory,  by  Robert  Thomson.  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1808,  8vo. 

22.  The  United  Gospel;  or,  Ministry  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ,  combined  from  the  Narrations  of  the  Four  Evan- 
gelists.    By  K.  and  M.  Willan.     London,  1806,  8vo. 

This  is  the  third  edition  of  a  very  useful  Diatessaron,  for  such 
the  work  in  effect  is.  The  first  impression  appeared  in  1782,  and 
the  second  in  1786,  under  the  name  of  the  laie  eminent  physician 
Dr.  Robert  Willan.  It  professes  to  exhibit  the  events  of  the  Gospel 
history  in  a  connected  chain  or  order  of  succession;  and,  by  com- 
bining the  accounts  of  each  evangelist,  to  relate  in  their  own  words 
every  incident,  with  all  its  circumstances,  at  full  length.  The 
notes  which  accompany  the  work  are  judiciously  selected  ;  they 
relate  chiefly  to  the  maimers,  customs,  opinions,  and  expressions, 
proverbial  or  allegorical,  among  the  eastern  nations,  with  which 
the  generality  of  readers  cannot  be  familiarly  acquainted. 

23.  A  Synopsis  of  the  Four  Evangelists;  or,  a  regular  History 
of  the  conception,  birth,  doctrine,  miracles,  death,  resurrection, 
and  ascension  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  the  words  of  the  Evangelists. 
By  Charles  Thomson,  8vo.    Philadelphia,  1815. 

The  venerable  author  of  this  Harmony,  whose  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  noticed  in  a  subsequent  page  of  this  Appendix, 
considering  the  Gospel  as  memoirs  of  remarkable  things  said  and 
done  by  Jesus  Christ,  has  here  arranged  them  according  to  the 
dates,  places,  and  circumstances,  which  he  found  expressly  men- 
tioned in  the  several  Gospels.  He  has  employed  a  literal  transla- 
tion of  the  very  words  of  the  evangelists,  without  any  omission  or 
addition,  excepting  that  he  has  inserted  explanations  of  peculiar 
phrases  and  technical  terms  between  brackets  [  ].  It  is  very 
respectably  executed;  and  at  the  end  there  arc  fifty  pages  of  notes, 
chicdy  explanatory  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Jews. 

24.  An  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels ;  or,  a  series  of  the  Nar- 
ratives of  the  Evangelists,  so  collected  and  disposed,  as  to  bring 
the  whole  into  one  regular  relation;  with  notes,  selected  from 
various  authors.     By  John  Chambkhs.     London,  1813,  8vo. 

2.5.  A  Chronological  History  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ,  from  the  compounded  texts  of  the  Four  Holy  Evange- 
lists; or,  the  English  Dialessaron;  with  a  map  of  the  Holy  Land, 
explanatory  notes,  and  illustrations,  from  late  oriental  travellers 
and  rabbinical  writers,  &c.  &c.  By  the  Rev.  R.  Wau.xkii.  Bath 
and  London,  1819,  8vo. 

26.  Concordance  de  Quatre  Evangelistes,  suivaiit  I'Ordre  de 
Michaclis.     Paris,  1828,  12mo. 

This,  it  is  believed,  is  the  only  detached  harmony  of  the  Gospels 
extant  in  the  French  language:  it  is  drawn  up  agreeably  to  the 
order  of  Michaelis  in  his  harmony  or  table  of  contents  to  the  four 
evangelists,  which  Ibrms  part  of  his  introduction  to  the  New  Tes- 
tament. (Vol.  iii.  pp.  49-— 83.  of  Bishop  Marsh's  English  transla- 
tion; or  vol.  iii.  pp.  58 — 93  of  M.  Chenevierc's  French  translation.) 
The  total  absence  of  a  table  of  contents,  or  even  of  the  summaries 
of  the  contents  given  to  each  section  by  Michaelis,  greatly  lessens 
the  utility  of  this  volume  as  a  book  of  relerence  to  the  French 
reader. 

27.  The  Monotessaron  ;  or,  the  Gospel  History,  according  to 
the  Four  Evangelists,  harmonized  and  chronologically  arranged, 
in  a  new  Translation  from  the  Text  of  Griesbach.  By  the  Rev. 
John  S.  Thompson.     Baltimore,  1829,  8vo. 

28.  Synopsis  Evangcliorum  Mattha;i,  Marci  et  Lucse,  cum 
Joannis  Pericopis  Parallelis.  Textum  ex  ordine  Griesbachii 
dispertitum,  cum  varia  Scriptura  selecta,  edidit  Mauritius  Roeoi- 
OEH.     Halis  Saxonum,  1829,  8vo. 

A  commodious  synopsis  of  the  first  three  Gospels.  The  order 
of  Dr.  Griesbach  (see  No.  18.  p.  60.)  is  followed  in  the  disposition 


of  the  text:  but  the  synopsis  itself  is  divided  into  six  parts,  after 
the  plan  of  De  Weite  and  Luecke.  The  summaries  of  contents 
pre/ixed  to  each  section  are  principally  taken  from  Dr.  Knappe's 
critical  edition.  Great  pains  have  been  bestowed  on  the  punctua- 
tion of  this  work,  the  tyixjgraphical  execution  of  which  is  very 
neat. 

29.  Quatuor  Evangeliorum  Tabulse  Synopticse.  Juxta  ra- 
tiones  temporis  quoad  fieri  potuit  composuit,  annotationibusque 
ex  peq)ctua  sectionum  singularum  collatione  inslruxit,  Hcnricus 
Nicolaus  Clausen.     Haunix,  1829,  8vo. 

No  part  of  the  Greek  text  is  printed  in  this  work,  in  which  the 
author  has  taken  singular  pains  in  adjusting  the  order  of  events, 
from  a  minute  and  laborious  collation  of  the  parallel  passages  in 
the  four  evangelists. 

30.  Harmonia  Evangelica  :  sive  Quatuor  Evangelia  Grsecft, 
f)ro  tem[)oris  et  reruin  serie  in  [lartes  quinque  distnbuta.  Edidit 
Edvardus  Gukswell,  A.M.     Oxonii,  1830,  8vo. 

30*.  Dissertations  upon  the  Principles  and  Arrangement  of  a 
Harmony  of  the  Gosjk-Is.  By  the  Rev.  Edward  Gueswell, 
M.A.     Oxford,  1830,  3  vols.  8vo. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  Mr.  Greswoll's  Harmony  are,  1. 
That  the  last  three  Gospels  are  regular  compositions ;  2.  That  St. 
Matthew's  Gospel  is  partly  regular  and  partly  irregular ;  3.  That 
each  of  the  Gospels  was  written  in  the  order  in  which  it  stands; 
4.  That  the  Gospels  last  written,  in  every  instance,  were  supple- 
mental to  the  prior  Gospels.  "  His  harmony  forms  but  a  portion  of 
the  valuable  critical  apparatus,  which  he  nas  constructed  for  the 
benefit  of  the  critical  student ;  and,  taken  together  with  the  Disser- 
tations, it  will  enable  the  reader  to  make  himself  master  of  the 
whole  range  of  inquiry  relating  to  the  chronology  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, and  the  structure  and  composition  of  the  Gospels."  (Eclec- 
tic Review  for  June,  1833,  vol.  ix.  Third  Series,  p.  313.) 

31.  A  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels  in  the  English  Autho- 
rized version,  arranged  according  to  Greswell's  "Harmonia 
Evangelica"  in  Greek,  with  references  to  his  Dissertations  on  the 
same.     By  R.  Mimpris.     London,  1833,  8vo. 

A  necessary  companion  to  Mr.  Greswell's  elaborate  works. 

32.  A  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,  founded  on  the  Arrange- 
ment of  the  Harmonia  Evangelica  by  the  Rev.  Edward  Greswell. 
With  the  Practical  Reflections  of  Dr.  Doddridge.  By  the  Rev. 
E.  BicKERSTETU.     London,  1832,  8vo. 


SECTION  m. 

HARMONIES    OF    PARTICULAR    PARTS    OF    THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

1.  A  Harmony  and  Exposition  of  our  blessed  Lord's  last  Pro- 
phecy ;  in  which  the  Difficulties  that  have  hitherto  peqilexed 
commentators  are  satisfactorily  explained.  By  John  Faxnik, 
A.B.  Dublin,  1832,  8vo. 

The  principal  design  of  this  publication  is  to  prove  that  the  de- 
tails which  are  given  in  Matt.  xxiv.  15 — 22.,  Mark  xiii.  14 — 20., 
and  Luke  xxi.  20—24.,  refer  to  two  event.i,  difTerent,  distinct,  and 
distant  from  each  other;  the  one,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Romans — an  event  long  past ;  the  other  still  future,  and  likely 
to  occur  about  the  restoration  of  the  Jews.  Mr.  Fannin  considers 
that  Luke's  account  refers  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus,  while  those  of  Matthew  and  Mark  refer  to  the  second  ad- 
vent of  Christ :  and  he  has  devoted  twenty-three  pages  to  prove 
that  the  abomination  of  desolation,  s]K>ken  of  by  the  latter  two 
evangelists,  is  popery. 

2.  Observations  on  the  History  of  the  Evidences  of  the  Re- 
surrection of  Jesus  Christ.  By  Gilbert  West,  Esq.  London, 
1 747,  8vo. 

The  multiplied  editions  of  this  most  valuable  treatise,  which 
places  the  history  of  the  resurrection  on  impregnable  ground,  suffi- 
cienilv  attest  its  value,  and  the  high  estimation  in  which  it  is  de- 
servedly held.  Mr.  West  had  for  a  time  listened  to  the  blandish- 
ments of  infidelity  ;  and  the  treatise  in  question  was  written  in 
consequence  of  the  inquiries  which  he  conscientiously  instituted 
into  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  of  which  he  lived  and  died  a 
bright  ornament.  His  work  is  noticed  here  on  account  of^  the  lu- 
minous and  satisfactory  manner  in  which  he  has  harmonized  the 
several  accounts  of  the  evangelical  history  of  the  resurrection. 

3.  A  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,  so  far  as  relates  to  our 
Saviour's  Resurrection,  with  a  commentary  and  notes.  By 
Richard  Parrt.     London,  1765,  4to. 

4.  A  Discourse  on  the  Evangelical  History,  from  the  Inter- 
ment to  the  Ascension  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ. 
Bv  the  late  Rev.  Thomas  Townson,  D.D.  Archdeacon  of  Rich- 
mond.    Oxford  and  London,  1793,  8vo. 

In  this  very  judicious  work  (which  was  edited,  after  the  learned 
author's  decease,  by  Dr.  John  Loveday)  the  harmony  of  the  four 
evangeUcal  accounts  of  the  resurrection  is  exhibited  m  four  parallel 


G2 


HARMONIES  OF  THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 


[Sect.  IV.  §  3. 


columns,  with  a  collateral  paraphrase,  the  order  of  which  is  il- 
lustrated and  confirmed  by  various  observations.  Dr.  Tovvnson 
professes  to  tread  nearly  in  the  fooiateps  of  Mr.  West,  whose  rea- 
soning he  enforces  by  new  considerations ;  and  he  has  illustrated 
his  accounts  by  a  new  arrangement,  and  by  the  introduction  of 
some  explanatory  particulars.  He  "  accurately  discriminates  the 
respective  particulars  of  the  three  days  of  our  Saviour's  crucifix- 
ion and  resurrection,  minutely  considers  every  circumstance  in  the 
d. liferent  relations,  reconciles  apparent  inconsistencies,  accounts 
for  particular  omissions,  and  furnishes  a  clear  and  consistent  histo- 
ry, confirmed  by  considerations  and  representations,  in  which  much 
learning  is  displayed,  without  any  parade."  (British  Critic,  O.  S., 
vol.  i.  p.  73.)  These  "  Observations"  of  Dr.  Townson  are  also  ex- 
tant in  the  second  volume  of  the  collective  edition  of  his  works, 
jiublished  at  London,  in  1810,  in  two  volumes,  8vo. 

5.  An  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  from  the  Resurrection  to  the 
Ascension  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ ;  in  which  the 
English  Narrations  of  the  Four  Evangelists  are  orderly  exhibited 
in  appropriate  columns.  Observations  are  subjoined  tending  to 
investigate  the  true  evangelical  sense,  reconcile  seeming  discre- 
pancies, and  defend  the  order  of  the  facts  laid  down  in  the  Har- 
mony.    By  Thomas  Cranfield,  A.B.     Dublin,  1795,  folio. 

This  publication  was  originally  an  academical  exercise,  under- 
taken in  pursuance  of  a  theological  suljject,  given  by  the  late  Rev. 
Di'.  Graves,  to  the  gentlemen  attending  his  divinity  class.  The 
author  professes  to  Ibllow  Dr.  Townson's  scheme,  with  some  few 
variations.  His  work  was  published  with  a  recommendatory  cha- 
racter given  by  the  Drs.  Graves  and  Barrett  (at  that  time  the  divi- 
nity lecturers  in  the  University  of  Dublin) ;  who  state  that,  in  their 
opinion,  "  it  contains  much  accurate  research,  and  much  useful  in- 
formation ;  and,  therefore,"  that  they  "  shall  not  hesitate  to  recom- 
mend it  to  the  attention  of  the  students  in  divinity  attending  their 
lectures." 

6.  The  Burial  and  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,  according  to 
the  Four  Evangelists.  From  the  German  of  John  David  Mi- 
chaelis.  [By  Sir  George  Duckett,  Bart.]  London,  1827,  12mo. 

"  If  any  person  should  be  desirous  of  seeing  all  that  the  very 
spirit  of  subtlety  and  mischief  can  produce  against  the  fact  of  the 
resurrection,  we  should  recommend  them  by  all  means  to  peruse 
the  little  work  of  Michaelis  on  this  subject,  which  has  recently 
been  translated  into  English.  This  celebrated  critic  has  there  con- 
sidered almost  every  cavil  with  which  the  wit  or  malice  of  the 
adversaries  has  been  able  to  assail  the  evidence  of  this  great  event. 
And  we  may  safely  venture  to  predict  that  every  intelligent  and 
honest  examiner  of  these  objections  will  pronounce,  with  Michaelis, 
that  the  whole  is  "  a  contest  between  the  accuracy  of  the  Gospels 
and  the  imagination  of  the  unbeliever ;"  and  that,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  the  cavils  are  so  stupid  and  frivolous  as  to  make  their 
authors  worthy  of  sound  flagellation  ;  or  so  shamefully  disingenu- 
ous as  righteously  to  entitle  them  tn  the  honours  of  the  pillory. 
In  referring  our  readers  to  this  treatise,  it  may  be  necessary  to  ap- 
prize them,  by  way  of  caution,  that,  on  the  subject  of  inspiration, 
the  laxity  of  the  author's  notions  is  somewhat  greater  than  would 
be  approved  by  the  Anglican  school  of  divinity.  So  far  as  relates 
to  mere  matters  of  fact,  he  is  much  disposed  to  place  the  evange- 
lists (or  at  all  events  those  two  of  them  who  were  not  apostles) 
precisely  on  the  fooling  of  so  many  ordinary  mortal  witnesses.  He 
contends,  however,  quite  irresistibly,  that  their  testimony,  even  so 
considered,  is  abimdantly  sufficient  to  place  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  beyond  the  reach  of  doubt."  (British  Critic  and  Theologi- 
cal Review,  vol.  v.  pp.  331,  332.) 


SECTION  IV. 


HARMONIES    OF    THE    ACTS    OF   THE    APOSTLES,    AND    OF    THE 
APOSTOLIC   EPISTLES. 

1.  The  Apostolical  History,  containing  the  Acts,  Labours, 
Travels,  Sermons,  Discourses,  Miracles,  Successes,  and  Suffer- 
ings of  the  Holy  Apostles,  from  Christ's  Ascension  to  the  De- 
struction of  Jerusalem.  Also  a  Narration  of  the  particular 
times  and  occasions  upon  which  the  Apostolical  Epistles  were 


written,  together   with   a  brief  analytical  Paraphrase  of  them. 
By  Samuel  Chadock,  B.D.     London,  1672,  folio. 

This  author,  an  eminent  non-conformist  divine,  also  wrote  "  A 
plain  and  brief  Exposition  of  the  Rt;velation,"  now  superseded  by 
later  and  better  works ;  "  The  Old  Testament  History  Method- 
ized," folio,  now  also  superseded  by  the  valuable  work  of  Mr. 
Townsend,  noticed  in  page  58.  supra;  and  the  "Harmony  of  the 
Four  Evangelists,"  likewise  noticed  in  page  59.  "  CradocK's  three 
volumes  are  very  valuable :  the  last  two,  on  the  New  Testament, 
are  much  better  than  the  first,  on  the  Old.  His  extracts  in  the 
margin  from  Hammond,  Lightibot,  and  Grotius,  are  very  judicions; 
and  I  think,  on  the  whole,  I  never  read  any  one  author  that  assisted 
me  more  in  what  relates  to  the  New  Testament."  (Dr.  Doddridge.) 
The  book  is  by  no  means  dear,  which  to  students  is  a  great  advan- 
tage. 

2.  A  History  of  the  First  Planting  of  Christianity,  taken  from 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  their  Epistles.  Together  with  the 
remarkable  Facts  of  the  Jewish  and  Roman  History,  within  this 
period.  By  George  Bknson,  D.D.,  4to.  London,  1735;  2d,  and 
best  edition,  1756,  3  vols,  usually  bound  in  one. 

Though  this  work  does  not  profess  to  be  a  harmony  of  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  and  of  their  Epistles,  it  may  justly  be  considered 
as  one.  Besides  illustrating  the  history  of  tlie  Acts  throughout, 
and  most  of  the  Epistles,  by  a  view  of  the  history  of  the  times, 
the  occasions  of  the  several  Epistles,  and  the  state  of  the  churches 
to  which  they  were  addressed,  the  learned  author  has  incorporated 
a  paraphrastic  abstract  of  those  Epistles  in  the  order  of  time  when 
they  were  written ;  and  has  also  established  the  truth  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  on  a  number  of  facts,  the  most  public,  important,  and 
incontestable.  It  is  indeed  a  most  valuable  help  to  the  study  of  the 
Epistles ;  but  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  its  scarcity  renders  it  accessi- 
ble to  few. 

3.  The  Life  of  the  Apostle  Paul  as  related  in  Scripture  ;  but 
in  which  his  Epistles  are  inserted  in  that  part  of  the  History  to 
which  they  are  supposed  respectively  to  belong ;  with  select  Notes, 
critical  and  explanatory,  and  relating  to  persons  and  places,  and 
a  map  of  the  countries  in  which  the  apostle  travelled.  By  Jo- 
seph Gurney  Betan.     London,  1807,  8vo. 

The  narrative  of  St.  Paul's  life  is  studiously  related  in  the  very 
words  of  Scripture,  having  only  such  additional  matter  as  is  neces- 
sary to  introduce  or  connect  the  several  parts.  Attention,  however, 
has  been  paid  to  the  task  of  selecting,  from  different  parts  of  the 
New  Testament,  such  passages  as  belong  to  the  regular  chain  of 
the  history.  The  notes  are  principally  selected  from  the  best  critics 
and  commentators,  and  those  which  are  geographical  are  the  most 
conspicuous,  and  stamp  a  real  value  on  the  work  ;  which,  though 
designed  for  young  persons  of  his  own  religious  communion  (The 
Society  of  Friends),  may  be  studied  with  advantage  by  those  of 
every  other  class  of  Christians,  especially  such  as  have  not  many 
commentators  within  their  reach,  "  without  danger  of  finding  any 
thing  introduced  which  can  give  the  smallest  bias  towards  any 
principle  that  is  not  really  and  truly  Christian."  (British  Critic, 
O.  S.,  vol.  xxxiii.  p.  477.) 

4.  A  Harmony  of  the  Epistles  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  to  which 
is  added,  a  Summary  of  the  Entire.  By  the  Rev.  Peter  Roberts, 
M.A.     Cambridge,  1800,  4to. 

This  Harmony  of  the  Apostolic  Epistles  differs,  in  its  form  and 
structure,  from  the  three  publications  last  noticed.  It  "  consists  of 
two  columns,  in  the  first  of  which  a  kind  of  continued  Epistle  is 
formed,  principally,  but  not  entirely,  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  ; 
which  the  author  considers  as  intended  more  particularly  for  a  de- 
lineation of  the  scheme  of  Christianity,  as  to  the  speculative  part." 
This  continued  text  or  clue  is  printed  in  a  narrow  column  and  a 
large  letter,  which  gives  room  for  the  introduction  of  all  the  parallel 
passages  in  the  second  column,  which  is  much  broader,  and  printed 
in  a  closer  form  and  smaller  type.  The  whole  is  digested  under 
four  principal  divisions.  1.  Introductory  address.  2.  Doctrinal  in- 
struction. 3.  Practical  precepts.  4.  Conclusion.  In  this  way  the 
whole  substance  of  the  Apostolical  Epistles  is  arranged ;  and  any 
particular  passages  are  found  by  means  of  a  table  at  the  end  of  the 
book.  Subjoined  to  this  Harmony  is  the  "  Summary  of  the  Epistles ; 
in  which  the  view  of  the  contents  is  designed  to  be  completely 
conveyed,  according  to  the  author's  system."  This  part  is  followed 
by  a  very  useful  selection  of  notes.  "Mr.  Roberts  deserves  the 
highest  commendation  for  his  zeal  and  diligence  in  thus  illustrating 
the  Epistles,  and  for  the  attention  and  acuteness  manifested  in  di- 
gesting their  very  various  contents."  (British  Critic,  0.  S.,  vol.  xx. 
pp.  419-421.) 


Sect.  I.] 


APOCllV'PHAL  BOOKS  AND  WRITINGS. 


63 


CHAPTER  III. 

APOCRYPHAL     BOOKS     AND     VVUITINGS. 

SECTION  I. 

APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


The  Apocryphal  Books,  attached  to  the  Old  TcRtamont,  arc 
to  be  found  in  llie  various  Polyglott  Editions  of  the  Bil)le,  and 
also  in  most  of  the  larger  editions  of  the  Septuagint  Version. 
Dr.  Masch  (iJihl.  Hacr.  Part  i.  pp.  437 — 43(5.)  has  described  the 
various  editions  of  the  Apocryphal  Books,  as  well  collectively  as 
of  particular  Books.  The  following  are  the  principal  and  more 
easily  procurable  editions,  including  some  which  have  appeared 
subsequently  to  the  dale  of  his  publication. 

1.  Libri  Veteris  Testamenti  Apocryphi  omnes,  Gra;c6,  ad  Ex- 
emplar Vaticanum  emendatissime  expressi.  [Cura  Ludolphi 
Leusdenii]  Francofurti  ad  Moenum,  1694,  8vo. 

2.  Libri  Apocryphi,  Graice.  Introductionem  praemisit  Georgius 
Johannes  Hemcius.     HaliB,  1711,  8vo. 

The  introduction  was  subsequently  printed  in  a  separate  form, 
in  4to. 

3.  Libri  Veteris  Testamenti  Apocryphi.  Textum  Graecum 
recognovit,  et  Variarum  Lectionum  Delcctum  adjecit,  Joannes 
Christianus  Guliehnus  Acgusti.     LipsiiB,  1804,  8vo. 

4.  The  Books  of  the  Apocry])ha,  with  Critical  and  Historical 
Observations  prefixed  to  each  Book :  also  two  Introductory  Dis- 
courses, the  first,  explaining  the  Distinctions  between  Canonical 
and  Apocryphal  Writings,  estimating  the  Value  of  the  latter, 
and  ascertaining  the  time  when  they  were  introduced  as  Eccle- 
siastical Books  into  the  Service  of  the  Church.  The  second, 
illustrating  the  intimate  connection  between  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  in  religious  and  moral  views,  in  matters  of  faith  and 
practice,  in  style,  composition,  and  allusion ;  with  a  Sketch  of 
the  History  of  the  Jews  from  the  Cessation  of  Prophecy  in  Ma- 
lachi,  to  the  final  dissolution  of  their  State  under  the  Emperor 
Vespasian,  a.  u.  70.  By  Charles  Wilson,  D.D.  Edinburgh, 
1801,  8vo. 

5.  The  Five  Books  of  Maccabees  in  English.  With  Notes 
and  Illustrations.  By  Henry  Cotton,  D.C.L.  Oxford,  1832,  8vo. 

Of  the  Apocryphal  Books  which  hear  the  name  of  the  Maccabees, 
some  account  will  be  found  in  Vol.  II.  pp.  292,  293.  Dr.  Cotton 
has  collected  them  together  in  this  beautifully  printed  volume,  and 
has  for  the  Jirst  time  given  an  English  translation  of  what  are 
called  the  fourth  and  filth  books  ;  and  he  has  successfully  adapted 
the  style  and  language  of  his  version  to  those  of  the  preceding 
books,  as  closely  as  was  consistent  with  a  careful  adherence  to  the 
original.  The  whole  is  illustrated  with  very  numerous  notes,  a 
valuable  critical  Introduction,  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  Families 
of  the  Maccabees  and  of  Herod,  together  w'ith  a  Chronological 
Table,  and  a  copious  Index.  This  work  is  a  necessary  supplement 
to  every  edition  of  our  authorized  English  Version  of^the  Bible. 

6.  Sapientia  Jesu  filii  Sirachi,  Grtece.  Textum  ad  fidem  Codd. 
et  Versionum  emendavit  ct  illustravit  Joh.  Guil.  Linde.  Gedani, 
179ri,  8vo. 

7.  Liber  Jesu  Siracid.-e  GrsEce  :  ad  fidem  Codicum  et  Version- 
um emendatus,  et  pcrpetua  adnotatione  illustratus,  a  Car.  Gottl. 
Bhetsciineiuer.     Ratisbon,  1806,  8vo. 

"  This  work  is,  without  contradiction,  the  best  that  has  appeared 
on  the  Book  of  Ecdesiasticus ;  and  the  Commentary  is  an  excellent 
critique."  (Classical  Journal,  vol.  v.  p.  4.)  It  "deserves  to  be  in- 
troduced into  the  library  of  every  theological  scholar.     The  Greek 

text   bus,  uiuloiiblodly,   been   very  much    corrupted Dr.  Bret- 

schiieidor  has  spared  no  labour  in  his  valual)le  collection  of  read- 
ings from  the  Vatican  and  Alexandrian  MSS.,  from  that  MS.  on 
which  the  text  of  the  Coniplutensian  Polyglott  was  fountled,  and 
from  various  other  sources.  Much  interesting  matter  will  be  found 
in  his  elaborate  Prolegomena,  and  in  the  five  dissertations  at  the 
close  of  the  volume.  His  perpetual  annotations  on  the  text  afl!brd 
evidence  of  great  critical  ability  and  theological  information,  but 
perhaps  exhibit  a  little  of  that  tedious  prolixity  which  is  not  un- 
common in  the  German  school."  (Christian  Remembrancer,  vol. 
ix.  p.  2C>3.) 

8.  Liber  Ecdesiasticus.  The  Book  of  the  Church ;  or,  Ecde- 
siasticus :  translated  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  By  Luke  Howard. 
London,  1827,  royal  8vo. 

"  It  is  a  miserable  attempt  at  an  English  version  of  Ecdesiasticus, 
from  the  Latin  translation  of  the  Vtdpale."  (Christ.  Remem.  vol.  ix. 
Vol.  II. — Arr.  4  A 


p.  263.)  In  pp.  206 — 272.  there  is  an  analysis,  with  specimenfl 
of  this  publiralion. 

9  a.  The  Book  of  Ja.sher.  With  9  b.  The  Book  of  Jasher:  With 
Testimonies  and  Notes  ex-  Testimonies  and  Notes,  Cr-i- 
planatory  of  the  Text.  tical  and  Historical,  expla- 

natory of  the  Text. 
To  which  is  prefixed  Various     To  which  is  prefixed  Various 
Readings.  Readings,  and  a  Preliminary 

Dissertation,    proving    the 
Authenticity  of  the  Work,  i 
Translated  into  English    from     Translated  into  English    from 
the  Hebrew,    by  Alcuin,  of         the  Hebrew,  by  Flaccus  Al- 
Britain,  who  went  a  Pilgrim-         binus  Alcuinr^a   of  Britain, 
age  into  the  Holy  Jjand.  Abbot  of  Canterbury.  Who 

went  a  Pilgrimage  into  the 
Holy    Land,    and   Persia, 
■where  he  discovered  this  vo- 
lume, in  the  city  of  Gazna. 
This  Book  is  twice  mentioned  in     "  Is  not  this  written  in  the  Book 
Holy  Scripture,  viz.  in  Josh.  x.         of  Jasher?"     Joshua  x.  13. 
13.  and  in  2  Sam.  i.  18.  in  both     "  Behold  it  is  written  in  the  Book 
which  Places  it  is  ajjpealed  to         of  Jasher."     2  Sam.  i.  18. 
as  a  Work  of  Credit  and  Re- 
putation, and  as  such  was  at 
that  Time  had  in  great  Esteem. 

Printed  in  the  year  MDCCLI.  Bristol :  Printed  for  the  Editor, 
4to.  by  Philip  Rose,  20,  Broad- 

mead,  MDCCCXXIX.  4to. 

Of  the  literary  forgery  contained  in  the  volume  or  rather  pamphlet 
printed  in  the  year  1751  (9  a.),  the  following  account  is  given  by 
Mr.  Rowe-Mores,  a  diligent  topographer  and  antiquary  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  in  his  "  Dissertation  upon  ^'nglish  Typographical 
Founders  and  Founderies,"  published  in  1778.  "In  the  year  1751, 
Mr.  Hive  published  a  pretended  translation  of  the  Book  of  Jasher, 
said  to  have  been  made  by  one  Alcuin  of  Britain.  The  account 
given  of  the  translation  is  full  of  glaring  absurdities :  but  of  tho 
publication  this  we  can  say  from  the  information  of  the  Only-One 
who  is  capable  of  informing  us,  because  the  business  was  a  secret 
between  the  Two :  Mr.  Hive  in  the  night-time  had  constantly  an 
Hebrew  Bible  before  him  (sed  qu.  de  hoc),  and  cases  in  his  closet, 
lie  produced  the  copy  for  Jasher,  and  it  was  composed  in  private, 
and  the  forms  worked  off  in  the  night-time  in  a  private  press-room 
by  these  two,  after  the  men  of  the  Printing  House  had  left  their 
work."     (Page  65.) 

Jacob  Hive,  the  person  here  mentioned,  was  a  type-founder  and 
printer,  who  carried  on  business  in  London  between  the  years  1730 
and  1703,  in  which  last  year  he  died.  "Being  not  perfectly  sound 
in  his  mind,  he  produced  some  strange  works.  In  1733,  he  pub- 
lished an  Oration,  intended  to  prove  the  plurality  of  worlds,  and 
a.sserting  that  this  earth  is  hell,  that  the  souls  of  men  are  apostate 
angels,  and  that  the  fire  to  punish  those  confined  to  this  world  at 
the  day  of  judgment  will  be  immaterial In  this  strange  per- 
formance the  author  unveils  his  deisiical  principles,  and  takes  no 
small  liberty  with  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  especially  wnth  the 
character  of  Moses.  Emboldened  by  this  first  adventure,  he  deter- 
mined to  become  the  public  teacher  of  infidelity.  For  this  purpose 
he  hired  the  use  of  Carpenters'  Hall,  where  for  some  time  he  deli- 
vered his  orations,  which  consisted  chiefly  of  scraps  from  Tindal 
and  other  similar  writers."  (Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary, 
vol.  xix.  p.  228.) 

In  November,  1751,  he  published  "The  Book  of  Jasher,"  of  which 
the  following  account  was  given  in  the  Monthly  Review  for  De- 
cember in  the  same  year  (vol.  v.  p.  2.50.) : — "The  publisher,  in  order 
to  give  a  sanction  to  this  pretended  Book  of  Jasher,  refers  to  the  men- 
tion made  to  such  a  book  in  Josh.  x.  13.  and  2  Sam.  i.  18.  In  Iwth 
which  places,  says  he,  it  is  appealed  to  as  a  work  of  credit  and 
reputation,  and  as  such  was  at  tint  time  had  in  great  esteem.  But 
the  work  now  published  does  not  in  the  least  appear  to  be  that 
book  referred  to  in  the  Scriptures;  but  a  palpable  piece  of  contri- 
vance intended  to  impose  on  the  credulous  and  the  ignorant,  to  sap 
the  credit  of  the  books  of  Moses,  and  to  blacken  the  character  of 
Moses  himself  Hence  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  editor  or  author  has 
had  tho  precaution  to  conceal  his  name.  He  has  tnimped  up  an 
idle  story  of  the  means  by  which  the  MS.  fell  into  his  hands,  which 
he  relates  in  a  prefatory  epistle  to  a  nameless  earl.  He  has  also 
prefixed  a  history  of  Alcuin's  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  of  the 
manner  of  his  procuring  a  sight  of  the  Book  of  Jasher,  and  th* 


64 


APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  AND  WRITINGS. 


means  by  whicli  he  obtained  permission  to  translate  it  into  English. 
But  the  whole  i»  so  full  of  l)hinders,  inconsisteiifies,  and  absurdi- 
ties, that  we  think  it  beziealh  any  further  notice." 

With  this  quotation  from  the  RIontiily  Review,  m  addition  to  the 
contemporary  evidence  above  given,  llie  author  would  have  dis- 
missed the  pretended  Book  of  Jasher,  had  it  not  come  to  his  know- 
ledge that  very  many  individuals  have  been  induced  to  piircha.se 
the  reprint  of  this  forgery,  executed  at  Bristol  in  1829'  (9  h.)  of 
which  an  account  is  given  in  pages  65,  06.  infra,  under  the  idea 
of  ils  being  the  genuine  long  lost  Book  of  Jasher.  In  the  hope  of 
l)rcventiiig  future  unwary  purchasers  from  being  similarly  misled, 
.  he  now  subjoins  a  few  specimens  of  the  falsehoods,  anachronisms, 
and  contradictions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  characterize  this 
nocturnal  production  of  the  non-sane  infidel  author,  Jacob  Hive. 

1.  The  assertion  in  the  title  page  that  Alcuin  of  Britain  "  w'ent  a 
pilgrimage  into  the  Holy  Land  "  is  contrary  to  hislorical  fact. 
Alcuin  neither  visited  the  Holy  Land  nor  travelled  into  Persia. 
He  was  born  in  Yorkshire  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century, 
and  was  educated  at  York,  where  probably  he  embraced  the 
monastic  profession.  It  is  not  known  what  jn-efermenls  he  held 
before  he  left  England  ;  though  some  accounts  state  that  he  was 
a  deacon  of  the  church  at  York,  and  others,  that  he  was  abbot 
of  Canterbury.  His  earlier  years  were  whulhi  spent  in  England  ; 
and  having  been  sent  on  an  embassy  from  OtTa  king  of  IVIercia 
to  the  enipeior  Charlemagne  (who  formed  so  high  an  opinion  of 
his  aci|uiiemenls  and  cliaracler  as  to  become  his  pupil),  he  was 
induced,  by  the  emperor's  entreaties,  to  settle  in  France.  In  that 
country,  accordingly,  with  the  exception  of  one  short  visit  to 
England,  he  spent  the  remainder  {the  chief  part)  of  his  life,  hav- 
ing rendered  e.ssential  services  to  the  cause  of  religion  and  learn- 
ing, and  there  he  died,  a.  d.  804,  in  the  abbey  of  Saint  Martin  at 
Tours,  without  ever  qidlling  Eurojje.  (Cave,  Scriptorum  Ecclesi- 
asticorum  Historia  Literaria,  pp.  420,  421.  Colonic,  1720.  Chal- 
mers's Biographical  Dictionary,  article  Alcuin.) 

2.  All  the  genuine  writings  of  Alcuin  are  printed  in  Latin,  as  well 
as  some  doubtful  and  spurious  pieces  which  have  been  ascribed 
to  him.2  If  he  had  composed  any  treatise  in  any  other  language, 
it  would  doubtless  have  been  written  in  the  then  vernacular 
language  of  England,  that  is,  the  Anglo-Saxon  ;  fragments  of 
which  language  have  come  down  to  our  time  in  some  portions 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  version  of  the  Scriptures,  executed  in  the 
eighth  century.  Whereas  the  whole  of  this  pretended  Book  of 
Jasher  is  in  modern  English,  and  not  a  few  passages  of  it  are 
verbatim  the  same  as  our  present  authorized  English  version  of 
the  Bible,  which  was  first  published  in  1611,  ordy  eight  hundred 
and  seven  years  after  Alcuin's  death ;  and  what  is  not  copied 
from  our  English  Bible,  is  a  lame  and  studied  imitation  of  its 
style  and  diction,  both  to  conceal  the  fraud  and  to  allure  readers. 

3.  In  "  the  translator's  preface"  (p.  iv.)  Alcuin  is  made  to  say, — "  I 
took  unto  me  two  companions,  who  learned  with  me  in  the  Uni- 
vereity  of  Oxford  all  those  languages  which  the  people  of  the 
East  speak."  But  the  University  of  Oxford,  according  to  the 
earliest  date  which  has  been  stated  by  its  historians,  was  not 
founded  by  king  Alfred  before  the  year  886,  that  is  to  say,  only 
eighty-two  years  after  Alcuin^s  decease  ! 

4.  "The  Words  of  Alcuin,  which  are  read  before  the  Book  of 
Jasher,"  are  further  convicted  of  falsehood  by  the  anachronisms 

they  contain. 

[i.]  In  p.  V.  mention  is  made  of  "  the  paper  on  which  it  is  wrote" 
only  three  hundred  years  before  the  art  of  making  cotton-paper 
was  introduced  into  Europe  (the  use  of  which  did  not  become 
general  until  the  thirteenth  century),  and  considerably  more 
than  three  hundred  years  before  paper  made  from  linen  rags 
was  in  use. 

[ii.]  In  p.  vi.  he  mentions  stationers  upwards  of  four  centuries 
before  bookselling  was  known.  Stationers  were  not  heard  of, 
in  Europe,  before  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  (Du- 
cange,  Glossarium,  voce  Stationarii,  vol.  vi.  col.  716.)  And  the 
Company  of  Stationers,  who  were  the  first  booksellers  in  Lon- 
don, was  not  incorporated  until  May,  1557,  in  the  third  and 
fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Philip  and  Mary  ;  that  is,  ordy  seven 
hundred  and  ffty-lhree  years  after  Alcuin's  death. 

5.  The  book  itself  is  replete  with  falsehoods,  and  with  contradic- 
tions of  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Joshua.  The  restricted 
limits  necessarily  alloted  to  this  article  will  only  allow  the  speci- 
fication of  a  few  examples. 

The  books  of  Moses  and  of  Joshua  are  contradicted  by  Jasher. 

Gbn.  xxii.  2.  11—13.  And  He  Chap.  iii.  19—21.  And  when 
[God]  said,  Take  now  thy  son,  Isaac  was  twenty  and  five  years 
thine  only  son  Isaac,  whom  thou  old,  Abraham  heard  a  voice  say- 
lovcst,  and  get  thee  into  the  land  ing,  Take  thy  son  and  slay  him, 
of  Moriah  ;  and  ofter  him  there     and  otTer  him  up  a  burnt-oifering 

•  In  a  prospectus  for  a  second  editi-m  of  the  reprint  above  alluded  to, 
vvhirh  was  circulated  in  London  in  13-33,  it  is  slated  that  "the  first  edition 
has  Ijeen  honoured  with  tlie  autographs  of  nearlv  one  thoii.sand  of  the 
most  literary  characters  as  subscribers  ;  anioiif;  whom  arc  mam/  Pijelates 
und  oilier  Uignitaries,  as  well  as  most  of  the  puhlic  Eslabli'uhments  of 
the  country." 

«  The  best  and  most  complete  collection  of  Alcuin's  works  was  published 
at  Ratishon,  in  1777,  in  two  larse  volumes,  folio :  it  was  edited  by  M.  Frohe- 
n»us(or  Froben),  abbot  of  Saint  Emmeran,  near  that  city,  who  has  carefully 
distinguished  the  doubtful  and  spurious  piece.s  from  Alcuiri'.s  gpnuino 
writings,  all  of  which  are  in  Latin.  It  is,  perhaps,  scarcely  necessary  to 
state,  that  there  is  not  a  single  word  or  allusion  to  the  Book  of  Jasher,  as 
being  translated  by  him. 


for  a  burnt-offering  upon  one  of 
the  mountains  which  I  will  tell 
thee  of  .  . .  And  the  angel  of  the 
Lord  called  unto  him  [Abraham] 
out  of  heaven. . . .  And  he  said, 
Lay  not  thine  hand  upon  the  lad, 
neither  do  thou  any  thing  unto 
him.  .  .  .  And  Abraham  lifted  up 
his  eyes,  and  looked,  and,  behold, 
behind  him  a  ram  caught  in  a 
thicket  by  his  horiis :  and  Abra- 
ham went  and  took  the  ram,  and 
offered  him  up  for  a  burnt-offer- 
ing in  the  stead  oi  his  son. 

Exod.  ii.  1 — 5.  relates  the  birth 
and  exposure  of  Moses  in  an  ark 
of  bulrushes  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Nile,  and  the  discovery  of 
him  by  Pharaoh's  daughter. 

5 — 8.  And  when  she  [Pharaoh's 
daughter]  saw  the  ark  among  the 
flags,  she  sent  her  maid  to  fetch 
it.  And  when  she  had  opened 
it,  she  saw  the  child ;  and,  be- 
hold, the  babe  wept.  And  she 
had  compassion  on  him,  and  said. 
This  is  one  of  the  Hebrew's  chil- 
dren. Then  said  his  sister  to 
Pharaoh's  daughter.  Shall  I  go 
and  call  to  thee  a  nurse  of  the 
Hebrew  women,  that  she  may 
nurse  the  child  for  thee  ?  And 
Pharoah's  daughter  said  unto  her. 
Go.  And  the  maid  went  and 
called  the  child's  mother.  And 
Pharaoh's  daughter  said.  Take 
this  child  away,  and  nurse  it  for 
me,  and  I  will  give  thee  thy 
wages.  And  the  woman  took 
the  child,  and  nursed  it. 

Exod.  i.  22.  And  Pharaoh 
charged  all  his  people,  saying, 
Eveiy  son  that  is  born  ye  shall 
cast  into  the  river. 

Concerning  the  particular  sub- 
jects of  Moses'  education  the 
book  of  Exodus  is  silent. 

Num.  xxxii.  11,  12.  Surely 
none  of  the  men  that  came  up 
out  of  Egypt,  from  twenty  years 
old  and  upwards,  shall  see  the 
land  whicli  I  sware  unto  Abra- 
ham, unto  Isaac,  and  unto  Jacob, 
because  they  have  not  wholly 
followed  me ;  save  Caleb  the 
son  of  Jephunneh  the  Kenezite, 
and  Joshua  the  son  of  Nun. 


Josh.  ii.  relates  the  mission  of 
the  two  men  whom  Joshua  sent 
to  explore  the  land  of  Canaan, 
and  who  "  went  and  came  into 
a  harlot's  house,  named  Rahab, 
and  lodged  there ;"  together  with 
their  covenant  with  her,  who 
was  a  Canaan  i  less. 

Josh.  iii.  14 — 16.  It  came  to 
pass  ....  As  they  that  bare  the 
ark  were  come  uiilo  Jordan,  and 
the  feet  of  the  priests  that  bare 
the  ark  were  dipped  in  the  brim 
of  the  water,  (for  Jordan  over- 
floweth  all  his  banks  all  the  time 
of  harvest),  that  the  waters  which 
came  down  from  above  stood,  and 
rose  up  upon  a  heap,  very  far 
from  the  city  Adam,  that  is  be- 
side Zarelan  :  and  those  that 
came  down  tovvards  the  sea  of 
the  plain,  even  the  salt  sea,  fail- 
ed, and  were  cut  off;  and  the 
people  passed  over  right  against 
Jericho. 

Josh.  vi.  17.  20,  21.  24,  25.  And 
the  city  shall  be  accursed,  even 
it,  and  all  that  are  therein,  to  the 
Lord.  .  .  .  The  people  went  up 
into  the  city,  every  man  straight 
before  him,  and  they  took  the 
city.  And  Ihey  utterly  destroyed 
all  that  xvas  in  the  city,  both  man 
and  woman,  young  and  old,  and 


[Paht  L  Chap.  Ill, 

in  the  land  wherein  he  was  born. 
And  Sarah  spake  unto  Abruhora 
and  said.  The  holy  voice  hath  not 
so  sjioken  :  for  remember  thou  the 
words  of  that  voice  which  said 
unto  thee,  I  will  make  of  thee  a 
great  nation.  Ami  Abraham  re- 
pented him  of  the  evil  he  pur- 
posed to  do  unto  his  son :  his 
only  son  Isaac. 


V.  9—12.  And  Jochebed  the 
mother  of  Moses,  with  Miriam 
his  sister,  came  unto  Pharaoh's 
daughter:  and  Jochebed  said. 
Behold  here  the  son  of  thy  hand- 
maid !  And  Pharaoh's  daughter 
said,  ^Vliat  wist  ye  ?  And  they 
said.  Thy  father  hath  coramancl- 
ed  that  this  infant  be  slain  :  yea, 
and  that  all  the  Hebrew  males 
as  soon  as  they  are  born  be  slain 
also.  And  Pharaoh's  daughter 
said.  Give  unto  me  the  child. 
And  they  did  so.  And  she  said. 
This  shall  be  my  son. 


iii.  13.  And  it  came  to  pass, 
that  the  wrath  of  Pharaoh  was 
turned  away  from  slaying  the 
males  of  the  Hebrews. 

iii.  14.  And  the  child  Moses 
grew  and  increased  in  stature  : 
and  was  learned  in  all  the  magic 
of  the  Egyptians. 

XXXV.  3,  4.  It  is  affirmed  that, 
after  the  death  of  Moses,  Joshua, 
and  Caleb,  the  people  were  with- 
out a  leader,  and  that  Phinehas 
and  the  elders  of  Israel  "  named 
Jasher  the  son  of  Caleb  by  Azu- 
ba,  seeing  he  is  an  upright  man. 
And  moreover  this  we  know, 
that  he  hath  seen  all  the  won- 
ders wrought  in  Egypt,  in  the 
wilderness  :  even  all  the  might}' 
works  that  have  been  done." 

xxvii.  8.  Rahab  is  styled  "  one 
of  the  princesses  of  Jericho  ;" 
and  in  v.  8.  she  is  represented  as 
saying,  "  I  also  am  the  daughter 
of  an  Israelite  by  a  woman  ot'  Mi- 
laii. 


xxviii.  10.  And  the  wood  where- 
on the  children  of  Israel  passed 
over  Jordan  stayed  upon  the  face 
of  the  waters  six  days  and  six 
nights. 


xxviii.  15,  16.  18.  Then  Rahab 
sent  unto  Joshua,  saying,  Let  me 
entreat  with  thee  for  my  nation 
that  iliey  may  live.  And  Joshua 
answered  and  said.  As  many  as 
save  themselves  by  flight  may 
live  :  but  whosoever  shall  be 
found  in  Jericho  shall  surely  die 
the  death. .  .  .  And  the  people  of 


Sect.  I.] 

ox,  and  sheep,  and  ass,  with  the 
edge  of  the  sword.  .  .  .  An(]  llicy 
burnt  the  cily  willi  lire,  atid  all 
that  WHS  therein.  .  .  .  AikI  Joshua 
saved  Kahali  the  iiarlol  alive, 
and  lier  iiiliier'H  hounchold,  and 
all  tliat  nhe  had. 

Josh.  vii.  relates  the  cireiim- 
stanecH  of  Achan's  Meerctiiig  a 
Babylonish  Karmenl,  two  liun- 
«lreJ  shekels  of  silver,  and  a 
wedfje  of  pold  of  (ifry  shekels' 
weight,  contrary  to  the  divine 
command  :  tin  which  crime  ho 
and  all  he  had  wcrt^  destroyed  in 
the  valley  of  Achor. 


THE  BOOK  OF  JA8HER. 


65 


Jericho  fled  from  the  city,  every 
one  to  the  mountaias. 


|)uinte<l  out  in  tixe  course  of  the  jiresent  article),  and  for  the  follow- 


The  follmmng  translation  of 
"  The  Book  of  janhcr"  vms  dis- 
covered hij  a  gentleman  in  a  jour- 
ney  tliroiish  the  North  of  Eng- 
land in  1721. 


xxviii.  20 — 25.  Achan  is  re- 
preH(!nted  as  charging  Joshua 
with  having  "  taken  from  the 
congregalion  all  llu;  g(dd,  all  the 
silver,  anil  all  the  bra.ss :  even 
all  the  s|H)ils  of  the  city  of  Jeri- 
cho, and  given  it  to  the  tribe  of 
Levi."  For  which  crime  he 
ALONE  was  stoned. 
Hive's  forgery  was  published  in  IT.")!  (()r  two  shillings  and  six- 
pence. For  the  publication  (9  h.)  printed  at  Uristol,  in  182'J,  the 
modest  charge  of  tI';n  snii,i.i.\(;s  was  originally  made,  which  was 
8ubse(|uently  increased  to  one  pound  sterling.  Of  this  publication 
the  author  is  now  to  give  simiv.  act'ourit. 

Though  pnblished  appurenllij  for  the  first  lime  in  1829,  there  is 
every  reason  f<>r  concluding  that  ihis  is  an  unacknowledged  reprint 
of  Hive's  forgery,  with  some  unimportant  variations  (which  will  be 

It  in  tin 
ing  rea.sons 

1.  The  TiTi.r-M'ACE,  with  the  exception  of  the  few  sentences  print- 
ed in  italics  in  page  f)3.,  is  the  same  as  in  Hive's  forgery. 
The  two  titles  are  tiuTC  printed  in  columns,  in  order  that  the  reader 
may  the  more  readily  compaic  them  :  ho  will  observe  that  the 
editor  of  the  Bristol  publication  in  1829  expressly  says  that  the 
pseudo-book  of  Jasher  is  "  Translated  into  E.ngi.isii  from  the  He- 
brew." In  his  proposal  fiir  a  new  edition,  already  alluded  to, 
this  is  altered  into — "  Translated  into  A.vgi,o-Sa.\on  from  the  lie- 
brew  !"  Query,  by  wlioin  was  this  pretended  Anglo-Saxon  ver- 
sion translated  inio  modern  English  I 

2.  The  "Advkrtiskmk.nt,"  if  not  colourably  allered,  is  evidently 
taken  from  Hive's  preliminary  letter  to  a  nameless  earl  ;  as  will 
be  evident  to  any  one  W'ho  compares  the  following  extracts. 

9  a.  The  Book  of  Jasher.  1751.    9  6.  The  Book  of  Jasher.  1829. 

"To  the  Right  Honourable 
the  Earl  of^***  ***. 
"  My  Lord,  The  folloiring  trans- 
lation of  the  Hook  of  Jasher  fell 
into  viij  hands  thirti/  i/ears  ago" 
[that  is,  in  1721]  "  by  mere  acci- 
dent- I  was  travelling  in  the 
North  of  England,  to  see  the 
country."  Hive  then  proceeds 
to  give  a  false  account  of  his 
purchasing  the  manuscript  at  an 
auction  of"  the  goods  and  books 
of  an  old  gentleman  lately  de- 
ceased, w^ho  was  upwards  of 
one  hundred  years  of^age." 

"  Among  the  papers"  (Hive 
continues),  "  my  lord,  I  found  the 
following  translation  of  the  Book 
of  Jasher,  which  I  last  summer 
communicated  to  your  lordship 
on  a  rutnour  of  a  new  translation 
of  the  Bible.  I  ov\-n  that  till  then 
i<  lay  hy  mc  quite  unregarded. 
Your  lordship,  upon  perusal,  tvas 
pleased  to  approve  of  it,  and  to 
advise  its  piMiration  as  a  w'ORK 

OF  GREAT  Sl.NCERITV,  PI.AIN.NESS, 

AND  TRUTH.  Your  lordship's  re- 
mark I  must  not  omit,  'That  it 
was  your  opinion  the  Book  of 
Jasher  ought  to  have  been  printed 
in  the  Bible  btfore  that  of  Jo- 
shua.' " 

"  By  a  writing  on  the  out- 
side OF  THE  manuscript  IT 
SHOULD  SEE.M  THAT  THIS  TRANS- 
LATION WAS  LAID  BEFORE  OUR 
FIRST  REFORMERS,  BECAUSE  IT 
SAYS:   'I  HAVE   READ  THE  BoOK 

OF  Jasher  twice  over,  and  I 

MUCH  APPROVE  OF  IT,  AS  A  PIECE 
OF  GREAT  ANTIQUITY  AND  CU- 
RIOSITY, BUT  I  CANNOT  ASSEMT 
THAT  IT  SHOULD  BE  MADE  A 
PART  OF  THE  CANON  OF  SCRIP- 
TURE. 

"  Signed        '  Wickliffe.' 
"I   am   your   lordship's    most 
humble    and   obedient    ser- 
vant, the  Editor." 


"  It  lay  by  him  for  several  years, 
until,  in  1750,  there  was  a  ru- 
mour of  a  new  translation  of  the 
Bible,  when  he  laid  it  before  a  no- 
ble earl.  On  perusal  he  highly 
approved  of  it,  as  a   work  of 

GREAT      SINCERITY,      PLAINNESS, 

AND  TRUTH.  His  lordship's  opi- 
nion was  that  it  should  have  been 
placed  in  the  Bible  before  the 
Book  of  Joshua." 

He  further  adds  : — 

"  Bv  A  WRITI.NO  ON  THE  OUT- 
SIDE OF  THE  MANUSCRIPT  IT 
SHOULD  SEE.M  THAT  THIS  TRANS- 
LATION WAS  LAID  BEFORE  OUR 
FIRST  REFORMERS,  BECAUSE  IT 
SAYS:   '1  HAVE   READ   THE  BoOK 

OF  Jasher  tw  ice  over  ;  and  1 

MUCH  APPROVE  OF  IT,  AS  A  PIECE 
OF  GREAT  ANTIQUITY  AND  CU- 
RIOSITY, BUT  I  CANNOT  ASSErT, 
THAT  IT  SHOULD  BE  MADE  A 
PART  OF  THE  CANON  OF  SCRIP- 
TURE. 

"  Signed    '  Wickliffe.'  " 


The  editor  of  1829  proceeds  to  state  that,  "  Since  1751"  [the  reader 
will  bear  in  mind  that  Ihis  is  the  identical  dale  of  Hive's  forgery] 
"  the  manuscript'  has  been  preserved  with  great  care  by  a  gentle- 
m.an,  who  lived  to  a  very  advanced  age,  and  died  .some  time  since. 
On  the  event  of  his  deaih,  a  friend  to  whom  he  had  prescnled  it 
gave  it  to  the  present  editor,  who,  conceiving  that  so  valuable  a 
iiiece  of  anti(|uity  should  not  be  lost  to  men  of  lilerature,  and  bib- 
lical .sliidenls,  has  committed  it  to  iho  pn  ss,  not  doid>ting  but  that 
the  alK^ntion  of  the  learned  will  be  allracted  to  so  singular  a 
volume."  The  editor  of  1829  furiher  adds,  ihal  "  he  cannot  assert 
any  thing  from  his  own  knowledge  beyond  Alcuin's  account,  but 
that  carries  with  it  such  an  air  of  probability  and  Inilli,  that  he 
does  not  doubt  its  authenticity." — "  JVothing"  (he  aflinns  in  his 
"Preliminary  Ui.ssertation  on  the  Anlii|uity  and  Auihenticiiy  of 
the  Book  of  Jasher")  "  can  be  produced  to  invalidate  thisaulhcn- 
tic  slaleiuent,  and  conseiiuently  it  merits  our  credence."  (p.  v.) 
Again,  "As  a  l)ook  of  record,  it  appears  to  have  truth,  without 
mixture  of  error,  fi)r  its  peculiar  object  and  design."  (p.  vi.)  And 
in  the  concluding  paragra|)h  of  his  "Testimonies  and  Notes  ctin- 
cerning  the  Book  of  Jasher"  (p.  9.  col.  2.),  he  expresses  himself  in 
the  following  terms: — "Thus,  then,  it  appears  that,  as  fiir  as 
such  a  work  can  be  authenticated,  this  iwhscsscs  every  proof  of 
being  a  transcript  of  the  original  manuscript ;  and,  consefpiently, 
thai  it  is  worthy  to  be  preserved  as  a  collateral  evidence  of  the 
facis  detailed  more  fully  in  the  writings  of  Moses,  the  Book  of 
Joshua,  and  the  Book  of  Judges."  A  reference  to  the  positive. 
historical  evidence  of  Mr.  Kowe-Mores  above  given,  and  al.so  to 
the  internal  evidence  furnished  by  the  anachronisms,  fiilselioods, 
and  contradictions,  in  Hive's  f()rgery  (see  pages  64,  f)5.),  ail  xrhieh 
arc  to  be  found,  verbatim,  literatim,  el  punctuatim,  in  the  edition  of 
1829,  must  convince  the  reader  that  this  publication  is  neither 
"authentic,"  nor  does  it  "merit"  any  "credence"  whatever; 
and  that,  with  the  exception  of  such  passages  as  are  copied  from 
our  authorized  transiaiion  of  the  Bible,  it  is  a  worthless  ti.ssue 
of  "  error"  and  falsehood,  without  the  slightest  "  mixture  of 
truth."  In  the  Dublin  Christian  Examiner,  or  Church  of  I  relan  J 
Magazine,  for  June,  1831  (vol.  xi.  pp.  426^-429.),  there  is  an  able 
exposure  of  this  edition  of  1829,  containing  five  or  six  instances 
of  liilsehoods  and  contradictions,  diflereiU  from  those  above  given 
in  pages  64,  65.,  to  which  we  refer  the  reader  who  may  be  de- 
sirous of  further  evidence,  and  also  to  the  British  Critic  fbr  Ja- 
nuary, 1834,  pp.  127 — 153. 

"  Some  account  of  this  volume"  (says  the  editor  of  1829)  "  may  be 
found  in  Alcuin's  works,  published  in  one  volume,  fol.  in  the 
year  1600,  in  Paris."  Now,  what  is  the  fact  ?  The  first  edition 
of  Alcuin's  collected  worl<s  was  published  at  Paris  by  Andr4 
Duchesne  (Andreas  Quercetanus)  only  seventeen  years  after  the 
date  assigned  by  the  Bristol  editor,  viz.  in  1617,  in  three  parts, 
forming  one  volume,  folio ;  and  in  this  collection  of  Alcuin's 
works  NO  Book  of  Jasher  is  to  be  found.  As  Duchesne's  edi- 
tio  princeps  is  not  of  very  common  occurrence,  the  reader,  who 
may  be  desirous  of  seeing  a  list  of  the  pieces  actually  WTitten 
by  Alcuin,  is  referred  to  Dupin's  Biblioih^que  des  Auteurs  Eccle- 
siastiques,  torn.  vi.  pp.  120 — 123.  4to.  1692,  and  to  Dr.  Cave's  His- 
toria  Literaria,  pp.  420,  421. ;  each  of  whom  has  given  a  catalogue 
of  Alcuin's  works  from  Duchesne's  edition,  and  they  are  both 
totally  silent  concerning  the  pretended  Book  of  Jasher. 

3.  Although  the  concluding  paragraph  of  "  the  Translator's  Preface" 
in  the  edition  of  1751  is  omitted  in  the  reprint  of  1829,  the  editor 
of  the  latter  must  have  been  acquainted  with  it,  as  the  subjoined 
verbal  coincidences  are  too  minute  and  specific  to  be  merely 
accidental. 

(9  b.)  Book  of  Jasiier,  1829. 

(p.  v.) 
"  It  appears  he"  [Jasher] "  never 


(9  a.)  Ilive's  Book  of  Jasher, 
1751.  (p.  vi.) 
"  Some  years  after  my  arrival 
I  related  this  adventure  to  seve- 
ral, and  showed  them  the  work, 
who  advised  me  not  to  suffer  a 
copy  of  it  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  his  friends,  and  when  grown 
of  the  stationers.^  lest  1  should 


made  it  public,  beyond  the  circle 


OLD  he  left  it,  with  his  other 
manuscripts,  to  a  friend,  a  priest 
IN  Yorkshire." 


incur  the  displeasure  of  the  pur- 
ple. Being  now  grown  old  and 
infirm,  I  have  left  it  among 
other  papers  to  a  clergyman 
IN  Yorkshire." 

4.  The  "  Various  Readings,"  which  follow  "  the  words  of  Alcuin," 
are  verbatim  the  same  in  l)oth  publications,  except  that,  in  the 
Bristol  edition  of  1829,  "desart" — the  supposed  various  reading 
in  chap.  xii.  18. — is  printed  desert. 

5.  The  |)seudo-book  of  Jasher  itself  is  next  in  order;  and  it  coin- 
cides with  Ilive's  fabrication  printed  in  1751,  with  most  marvel- 
lous exactness,  both  as  to  certain  gra.mmatical  blunders,  and 
also  as  to  the  matter  which  the  two  publications  severally  contain 
[i.]  Grammatical  Blunders. 

In  the  title-pages  of  both  publications  we  have,  "  To  which  IS 
prefixed  larious  Readings,"  for  are  prefixed.  Compare  page 
63.    supra. 

»  In  the  prospectus  of  1833,  above  referred  to,  for  "manuscript"  the 
word  "copy"  is  substituted — a  general  term,  which  is  equally  applicable 
to  printeil  matter  as  to  manuscript.  The  editor  of  the  Bristol  repriat  never 
exiiibiled  his  pretended  manuscript  to  the  critical  examination  of  the 
learned. 

«  On  the  anachronism  in  tliis  word,  see  the  remrak  4.  [ii.)  in  page  fil. 
supra. 


60 


APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paiit  I.  Chap.  in. 


In  Jasher,  chap.  vii.  7.  we  read,  "Thus  harti  said  our  fathers," 
for  haw.  said;  xiv.  11.  "Thou  judfierii  the  people"  for  thou 
judgesT;  xxvii.  15.  "Whom  thou  ktivivern  not"  for  knowesr 
not,  and  in  the  margin,  "Who7n  thou  dorii  not  worship,"  lijr 
dosr  not;  and  in  xxxvi.  11.  "Thou  hatH  spoken,"  for  Thou 
haST  spoken. 
[ii.]  With  regard  to  the  Contf.nts. 
The  Book  of  Jasher  in  Hive's  forgery  of  1751  fills  exactly  sixttj 
pages;  in  the  Bristol  edition  of  1829  it  makes  sixty-jwo 
pages  and  a  half,  the  excess  being  caused  by  the  addition 
oetween  brackets  of  seventeen  verses  from  Gen.  .xxii.  3 — 20. 
in  ch.  iii.,  and  of  twenty-eight  verses  in  ch.  xi.  from  Exod. 
xiv.  23^31.  and  xv.  1 — 19.  of  our  authorized  version.  Except 
as  occasionally  affected  by  these  additions,  the  same  quantity 
of  matter  is  comprised  in  each  column,  the  summar'ies  of 
chapters,  and  the  head  lines  or  summaries  at  the  top  of  each 
page,  the  pretended  chronology,  marginal  readings,  and  punc- 
tuation are  all  precisely  the  same,  the  spelling  only  of  a 
very  few  words  being  modernized,  as  ether  for  cether,  en- 
crease  and  encreased  for  increase  and  increased ;  and  in  the 
"  Testimonies  and  Notes,"  Phinehas  for  Phineas. 

The  following  are  the  only  additional  material  variations  between 
the  two  publications,  which,  after  a  careful  collation,  the  author 
has  been  able  to  detect. 

(9  a.)  Ilive's  Book  of  Jasher,  (9  6.)  Book  of  Jasher,  1829. 

1751. 

Ch.  i.  17.  Cam  conceived  and  hare  Ch.  i.  17.  Cain  hegat  Enoch 
Enoch 

20.  Seth  conceived  and  hare  20.  Seth  hegat  Enos 
Enos 

ii.  1.  Lamech conceived  ii.  1.  Lamech  hegat  Noah 

and  hare  Noah 

V.  9.  ye  V.  9.  you. 

xxiii.  8.  doeTH  xxiii.  8.  doesT. 

13.  nor  13.  or 

XXXV.  28.  Debora  xxxv.  28.  DeboraA 

xxxvi.  11.  thou  commandefA  xxxvi.  11.  thou  commandest. 

The  variations  in  the  edition  of  1829  are  such  as  might  be  made  by 
any  careful  compositor,  and  cannot  (we  conceive)  in  any  degree 
anect  the  identity  of  the  two  publications. 

6.  The  "Testimonies  and  Notes"  appended  to  both  publications  are 
for  the  most  part  the  same,  and  profess  to  bear  the  names  of  Hur, 
Phinehas,  Othniel,  Jazer,  Jezer,  Zadock,  and  Tobias.  On  the  mi- 
raculous passage  of  the  Israelites  over  the  Red  Sea,  the  editor  of 
the  Bristol  impression  of  the  Book  of  Jasher  has  inserted  a  note, 
chiefly  taken  from  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vindi- 
cating that  miracle  against  the  skeptical  objections  of  Michaelis. 
The  notes  on  ch.  i.  of  Ilive's  edition  in  1751  are  omitted ;  as  also 
are  the  two  concluding  notes  on  ch.  xviii.,  and  the  whole  of  those 
on  ch.  xix.  and  following  to  the  end :  in  which  "  chapters," 
says  the  editor  of  1829,  "  nothing  occurs  but  what  fully  accords 
with  the  statements  of  Moses."  (Testimonies,  p.  9.)  If,  however, 
the  reader  will  turn  back  to  p.  64.,  he  will  find  oidy  five  pas- 
sages which  DO  directly  CONTRADICT  "  the  statements  of  Moses," 
besides  four  more  in  pages  64,  65.,  which  equally  contradict  the 
book  of  Joshua.  The  result,  then,  of  the  preceding  examination 
is,  that  the  pretended  Book  of  Jasher  is  a  gross  and  shameless 
LITERARY  FORGERY,  which  has  no  claim  whatever  to  "  credence," 
and  which  is  utterly  destitute  of  authenticity. 

Respecting  the  Book  of  Jasher  mentioned  in  Josh.  x.  13.  and 
2  Sam.  i.  18.,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  57.  and  Vol.  II.  p.  216.  There  is  also 
extant  a  rabbinical-Hebrew  Book  of  Jasher  printed  at  Venice  in 
1625,  which  is  an  explanation  of  the  histories  comprised  in  the 
Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua.  Bartolocci,  in  his  Bibliotheca 
Rabbinica,  states  that  it  contains  some  curious  but  many  fabulous 
things ;  and  particularly,  that  this  book  was  discovered  at  the  time 
of  the  destruction  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  in  a  certain  place, 
in  which  an  old  man  was  shut  up,  in  whose  f)ossession  a  great 
number  of  Hebrew  books  were  found,  and  among  them  the  Book 
of  Jasher ;  which  was  first  carried  into  Spain,  and  preserved  at 
Seville,  whence  finally  it  was  taken  to  Naples,  where  it  was  first 
published.  (Vol.  iii.  p.  934.)  Bartolocci  also  mentions  (in  p.  868.) 
a  treatise  on  the  Jewish  Laws,  composed  by  rabbi  Tham,  and  called 
Sepher  Jasher,  or  the  Book  of  Jasher,  which  was  printed  at  Cracow 
in  1617. 

10.  Codex  Pseudepigraphus  Veteris  Testamenti,  collectus,  cas- 
tigatus,  Testimoniisque,  Censuris,  et  Animadversionibus,  illus- 
tratus.  Accedit  Josephi  veteris  Christian!  scriptoris  Hypom- 
neslicon :  cum  versione  ac  notis  Johannis  Alberti  Fabricii. 
Hamburgi  et  Lipsise,  1713-23,  2  vols,  in  3  tomis,  8vo.  Editio 
eecunda,  Hamburgi,  1741,  2  tomis,  8vo. 

Besides  the  books  commonly  termed  apocryphal,  which  have 
been  deservedly  rejected  from  the  canon  of  Scripture,  there  are 
numerous  spurious  productions  extant,  the  earliest  of  which  (the 
pretended  Book  of  Enoch)  could  not  have  been  written  till  shortly 
before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  aera;  but  by  far  the 
greatest  part  of  them  were  forged  between  the  second  and  fourth 
centuries.  The  industrious  bibliographer,  John  Albert  Fabricius,  col- 
lected fragments  and  notices  of  all  (or  nearly  all)  these  productions, 
which  he  has  discussed  in  the  two  hundred  and  forty  chapters  of 


which  his  Codex  Pseudepigraphus  Veteris  Testamenti  consists.  The 
bare  enumeration  of  these  forgeries  would  extend  this  article  lo  an 
undue  length:  but  tliere  are  three  apocryphal  productions,  bearing 
the  names  of  Enoch,  Isaiah,  and  Ezra,  which  have  been  rescued 
from  utter  oblivion  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Laurence  (now  Archbishop  of 
("ashel),  and  which  are  of  sufficient  importance  lo  claim  a  distinct 
notice. 

11.  The  Book  of  Enoch  the  Prophet:  an  Apocr}'phal  Pro- 
duction supposed  to  have  been  lost  for  ages ;  but  discovered  at  the 
close  of  the  last  century  in  Abyssinia,  now  first  translated  from 
an  Ethiopic  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  By  Richard  Lau- 
rence, LL.D.  Archbishop  of  Cashel.  Oxford,  1821.  Second 
edition,  corrected  and  enlarged,  1833.  8vo. 

The  Apocryphal  Book  of  Enoch,  in  the  last  and  preceding  cen- 
tury, proved  a  prolific  subject  for  critical  si)eculalion  and  theologi- 
cal discussion.  The  circumstance  of  its  having  been  quoted  by  an 
inspired  writer  of  the  New  Testament,'  augmented  the  despair  of 
recovering  a  supposed  treasure  which  had  been  long  lost.  It  was 
known  until  the  eighth  century  of  the  Christian  sera,  after  which 
it  seems  to  have  sunk  into  complete  oblivion.  A  considerable  frag- 
ment of  it,  however,  was  discovered  by  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger,  in 
the  Chronographia  of  Georgius  Syncellus  ;  a  work  which  had  not 
then  been  printed.  He  extracted  the  whole  of  this  fragment,  which 
he  published  in  his  notes  to  the  Chronicle  of  Eusebius.^  Still, 
however,  as  it  did  not  contain  the  passage  quoted  by  St.  Jude, 
doubts  were  entertained,  whether  the  apostle  really  referred  to  the 
same  production  as  was  cited  by  Syncellus,  or  derived  his  infor- 
mation respecting  the  prophecy  of  Enoch  from  some  other  source. 
Since  the  discovery  of  Scaliger,  much  has  been  written,  but  very 
little  if  any  additional  information  has  been  obtained  upon  this 
subject.  The  fullest  account  of  the  opinions  entertained  by  the 
Fathers,  and  the  quotations  which  they  made  from  tfiis  celebrated 
apocryphal  production,  before  it  was  lost,  as  well  as  what  has  since 
been  conjectured  respecting  it  by  modern  critics,  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Codex  Pseudepigraphus  of  Fabricius,^  above  mentioned,  who 
has  also  printed  at  length  the  Greek  fragment  of  it  preserved  by 
Syncellus.  But  though  the  Greek  copy  of  this  book  (itself  perhaps 
nothing  more  than  a  mere  translation  from  some  Hebrew  or  Chal- 
dee  original)  seems  to  have  been  irretrievably  lost,  yet  an  idea  pre- 
vailed, so  early  as  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
that  an  Ethiopic  version  of  it  still  existed  in  Abyssinia.  Finally, 
researches  were  made  for  it  by  the  distinguished  Ethiopic  scholar 
Ludolph ;  and  every  idea  that  the  book  was  extant  in  an  Ethiopic 
version  was  altogether  abandoned  from  that  time  until  towards  iho 
close  of  the  last  century,  when  our  enterprising  countryman,  Mr. 
Bruce,  not  only  proved  its  existence,  but  brought  with  him  from 
Abyssinia  three  manuscript  copies  of  it,  one  of  w  hich  he  presented 
to  the  Librai:y  at  Paris,  another  to  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford, 
and  the  third  he  reserved  for  himself*  From  the  Bodleian  MS. 
Archbp.  Laurence  has  made  his  translation,  to  which  he  has  pre- 
fixed an  elaborate  preliminary  dissertation  on  the  history,  &c.  of 
this  apocryphal  production,  to  which  we  are  principally  indebted 
for  the  present  outline  of  its  contents.  The  subject  of  the  apocry- 
phal Book  of  Enoch  is,  a  series  of  visions  respecting  the  fallen  an- 
gels, their  posterity,  the  giants  which  occasioned  the  deluge,  the 
mysteries  of  heaven,  the  place  of  the  final  judgment  of  men  and 
angels,  and  various  parts  of  the  universe  seen  by  Enoch.  The  lan- 
guage is  the  purest  Ethiopic,  and  its  style  is  evidently  copied  after 
that  of  the  book  of  Daniel.  In  an  appendix.  Dr.  Laurence  has 
printed  a  Latin  version  of  many  chapters,  executed  by  the  learned 
Baron  Sylvestre  de  Sacy  from  the  Paris  manuscript.  Dr.  L.  also 
announces  that  Professor  Gesenius  of  Halle  has  it  in  contempla- 
tion to  publish  a  transcript  of  the  Parisian  copy,  accompanied  with 
a  Latin  translation. 

Although  neither  the  Jewish  nor  the  Christian  church  ever  ad- 
mitted the  Book  of  Enoch  into  the  canon,  it  was  regarded  by  a 
learned  but  in  some  respects  fanciful  writer  of  the  second  century, 
Tertullian,5  both  as  an  inspired  composition,  and  also  as  the  genu- 
ine prodilction  of  him  whose  name  it  bears ;  but  his  opinion  is  con- 
tradicted by  the  uniform  judgment  of  the  Jewish  and  of  the  Chris- 
tian church  (the  Abyssinian  church  alone  excepted),  among  whose 
canonical  books  it  was  never  enumerated.  Dr.  Laurence  has 
proved,  by  internal  evidence,  that  the  production  in  question  was 
the  composition  of  some  unknown  Jew,  under  the  borrowed  name 
of  Enoch ;  that  it  must  have  originally  been  extant  in  Hebrew, 
though  such  original  is  now  lost ;  and  he  has  further  argued  that  it 
was  written  before  the  rise  of  Christianity,  by  a  Jew,  who  did  not 
reside  in  Palestine,  and  most  probably  at  an  early  period  of  Herod'a 
reign,  about  ninety-six  (perhaps  one  hundred)  years  before  the 
epistle  of  Jude  was  written.  But  the  learned  prelate's  arguments 
have  been  controverted  at  great  length  in  a  critique  in  the  Chris- 
tian Observer  (vol.  xxx.  pp.  417 — 426.  496 — 503.),  the  author  of 
which  has,  from  internal  evidence,  which  does  not  admit  of  abridg- 

1  Jude,  ver.  14,  15. 

3  Pp.  404,  405.  edit.  Amst.  1658. 

3  Vol.  i.  pp.  160—224.  In  pp.  222,  3.  Fabricius  mentions  twenty  different 
authors  wlio  have  more  or  less  alluded  to  this  book. 

*  A  short  summarv  of  the  contents  of  the  Apocryphal  Book  of  Enoch  is 
given  in  a  note  to  vol.  ii.  pp.  424 — 426.  of  the  octavo  edition  of  Mr.  Bruce'a 
travels,  by  the  editor,  Mr.  Murray. 

6  TertuUiani  Opera,  pp.  95. 150, 151.  The  passages  are  given  at  length  by 
Dr.  Laurence.    Prel.  Diss.  pp.  xv.— xvii. 


Sbct.  II.] 


APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


67 


mcnt,  shown  that  this  apocryphal  Imok  was  not  and  could  not  have 
been  wrillen  earlier  than  ihc  iniddle  oi'  the  second  century  of  llie 
Christian  u;ra.  Tiie  additions  in  the  second  impression  consist, 
1.  of  Greek  Kxtracta  (accompanied  with  a  Latin  version)  from  tlie 
Hook  of  Knoch  given  by  Syncellus  in  his  Clironograpiiia,  and  2.  of 
a  Synojwis  of  the  contents  of  the  work. 

12.  Ascensio  Isaias  Vatis,  Opusculum  Pseudepiq^aphum, 
multis  a!)liinc  .scculis,  ut  vidctur,  depcrditum,  nunc  autein 
apud  ^liltliii)|)as  coni|)crtuin,  el  cum  versione  ]>atiiia  Aiij^lica- 
naquc  puhlici  juris  factum.  A  Hicardo  Laukk.nck,  IAj.I). 
HebraiciE  Linguae  Professorc  Regie,  &c.  Oxonii  et  Londini, 
1819,  8vo. 

This  volume  contains  a  pretended  history  of  the  prophet  Isaiah's 
ascension  through  the  (irmamenl  and  six  heavens  into  the  seventh  ; 
togethci'  with  soint^  pseudo-prophecies,  and  a  relation  of  the  pro- 
phet's martyrdom.  With  a  view  to  ascc^rtain  the  dat<!  of  this  com- 
))ositioii,  as  no  satisfactory  external  evidence  is  liirnished  by  the 
early  writers  who  have  incidenlly  mc^ntioned  it.  Dr.  l^aurence  has 
instituted  a  minute  iuvosligalion  of  the  inicirnal  testimony,  furnish- 
ed by  the  prodiu-tion  itself.  The  result  of  this  examination,  wliich 
is  conducted  with  singular  acutenessand  felicity,  is  that  the  ascen- 
sion of  Isaiah  must  have  been  composed  towards  the  dose  of  the 
year  f)8  or  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  09.  From  the  circumstance 
of  an  anonymous  author  having  used  in  the  Kthiopic  the  unusual 
Cireek  word  x:r.,/4x  (ijr  the  roof  of  a  house,  while  in  the  Hebrew 
and  in  all  the  versions  the  word  signifies,  a  net  (that  is,  a  lattice 
placed  in  th<;  flat  roof  to  light  the  apartment  beneath,  see  2  Kings  i. 
2.) — the  learned  editor  concludes  that  this  production  must  have 
been  written  in  (irevk.  It  appears,  however,  that  this  Greek  word 
was  in  use  in  Kgypt  in  the  second  century,  wheiKte  in  all  proba- 
bility it  crept  into  the  Eihiopic  language  about  that  period.  A  Jew 
writing  in  Greek  would  have  used  that  word  vvhicli  his  own  Scrip- 
tures and  the  Septuagint  had  previously  adopted  in  2  Kings  i.  2. 
A  translator  would  have  used  the  first  term  that  suggested  it.self. 
From  the  prevalence  of  the  oriental  orthography  of  particular 
words,  as  well  as  from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  being  quoted  instead 
of  the  Greek  version  in  a  passage  where  they  diHer,  it  seems  more 
probable  that  the  Ascensio  Isaicc  was  originally  written  in  Hebrew, 
the  native  tongue  of  the  writer.    (See  Antijacobin  Review  lor  July, 

1819,  vol.  Ivi.  pp.  430,  431.) 

13.  Primi  Ezra;  Libri,  qui  apud  Vulgatam  appcllatur  quartus, 
Versio  ^Etbiopica,  nunc  primum  in  medio  prolata,  ct  Latinc  An- 
gliceque  reddita  a  Ricardo  Lauiience,  LL.D.  &c.  &c.    OxoiiisE, 

1820,  8vo. 

The  first  book  of  Ezra  or  Esdras,  as  it  is  termed  in  the  Ethiopic 
Version,  forms  the  second  book  of  Esdras  in  the  Apocrypha  usually 
annexed  to  the  larger  editions  of  the  English  Bibles.  A  notice  of 
its  content.s  will  be  found  in  Vol.  II.  Part  V.  pp.  289,  290.  Dr.  (now 
Archbishop)  Laurence  has  the  honour  of  being  the  first  editor  of 
the  Eihiopic  Version.  The  Latin  Version,  which  accompanies  it, 
is  partly  original,  and  in  part  taken  from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  where 
this  could  be  employed.  To  the  Ethiopic  Version  are  subjoined  a 
collation  of  it  with  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  a  new  English  transla- 
tion;  the  volume  terminates  with  an  elaborate  critical  disquisition 
on  the  author  of  this  book,  the  time  when  he  probably  lived,  the 
character  and  value  of  the  Ethiopic,  Arabic,  and  Latin  Versions, 
and  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  book  in  a  theological  point  of 
view. 


SECTION  II. 

APOCHYI'IIAI^  BOOKS  OK  THE  NKW  TESTAMICNT. 


1.  ConEX  Apocryphus  Novi  Testament!,  collectus,  castigatua, 
tcstimoniis(iue,  censuris,  ct  aniinadversioiiibus  illustratus,  a  Jo- 
aniic  Alberto  f^Aiiiiicio.  Partes  I.  et  II.  Hainburgi,  1703,  2 
vols.  8vo. ;  1719,  2  vols.  8vo.     Pars  III.  Hamburgi,  1743,  8vo. 

A  curious  rrollection  of  A|)Ocryphal  pieces,  which  is  not  very  often 
to  be  met  with  complete.  The  learned  Mr.  Join's  made  great  use 
of  it,  and,  in  (iict,  translated  the  greater  part  of  it  in  his  elaborate 
work  r)n  the  (Janons  of  the  New  Testament,  which  is  noticed  in 
page    GH.  of  this  Appendix. 

2.  Auctarium  Codicis  Apocryphi  N.  T.  Fabriciani,  continens 
pluia  incdita,  alia  ad  fidein  cod.  M.SS,  cinendatius  expressa, 
(Jongessit,  disposuit,  cdidit,  Andreas  Biiicii.  Fasciculus  primus. 
Havnia;,  1804.  8vo. 

3.  Acta  S.  Thomas  Apostoli.  Ex  Codd.  Paris,  primum  edidit, 
ct  adnotalionibus  illustravit  J.  C.  Thilo.     Lipsia;,  1H23,  8vo. 

4.  Codex  Apocrj'phus  Novi  Testamenti  c  Libris  editis  ct  manu- 
.scriptis.  maximc  Gallicanis,  Germanicis,  et  Italicis,  collectus,  re- 
censitus,  notisque  et  prolcgomenis  illustratus,  opera  et  studio 
Joannis  Caroli  Thil(»,     'I'oinus  I.     Lipsise,  1832,  8vo. 

This  work,  when  finished,  will  be  the  most  complete  collection 
of  the  .4poeryj)hal  Books  of  the  New  Testament.  The  very  copious 
prolegomena,  which  are  prefixed  to  the  first  volume,  treat  on  the 
collections,  editions,  and  versions  of  the  A|)Ocryphal  Gospels.  These 
are  succ^eeded  by  the  History  of  Joseph  the  Carpenter,  in  Arabic 
and  Latin,  the  Gospel  of  the  fjaviour's  Infancy,  also  in  Arabic  and 
Latin  ;  the  Protevangelion  of  James,  and  the  Gospel  of  Thomiis  the 
Israelite,  in  Greek  and  Latin ;  the  Gos|)el  of  the  nativity  of  Mary, 
and  the  History  of  the  nativity  of  Mary  and  of  the  Saviour  in 
Latin ;  the  Gospel  of  Marcion,  collected  by  Dr.  Augustus  Halm, 
from  ancient  documents,  in  Greek;  the  Gospel  of  Nicodomus,  in 
(ireek  and  Latin  ;  a  narrative  of  the  apprehension  and  death  of 
Pilate,  in  Greek;  a  collation  of  the  manuscript  of  the  mutilated 
and  altered  Gospel  of  John  (which  is  preserved  in  the  archives  of 
the  Templars  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  at  Paris),  with  Griesbach's 
Text.  So  numerous  are  the  alterations,  &c.  in  this  Gospel,  that 
Dr.  Thilo  considers  it  altogether  as  an  apocryphal  writing,  and  has 
therefore  given  it  a  place  in  his  collection  of  the  Apocryphal  B<M>k8 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  volume  closes  with  an  Apocryphal 
Book  of  the  Apostle  John,  in  Latin,  which  abounds  with  Gnostic 
notions  ;  various  readings  and  notes  are  placed,  throughout,  at  the 
foot  of  each  page:  and,  besides  the  general  prolegomena,  there  is 
much  curious  prefatory  matter  relative  to  several  of  the  pieces 
here  printed.  Dr.  Thilo  has  discharged  his  arduous  duties  as  editor 
with  e(itial  industry  and  ability. 

5.  The  Apocryphal  New  Testament :  being  all  the  Gospels, 
Epistles,  and  other  pieces  now  extant,  attributed  in  the  first  four 
centuries  to  Jesus  Christ,  his  Apostles,  and  their  Companions, 
and  not  included  in  the  New  Testament  by  its  Compilers.  Trans- 
lated and  collected  into  one  volume,  with  Prefaces  and  Tables, 
and  various  Notes  and  References.  [By  William  Hone.]  Lon- 
don, 1820,  8vo.  1821,  Second  Edition,  8vo. 

See  an  Analysis  of  this  publication,  with  remarks,  in  Vol.  I.  Ap- 
pendix, No.  I.  Sect.  II.  p.  437.   et  scq. 


68 


SACRED  rniLOLOGY. 


[Part  II. 


PART  11. 

SACRED  PHILOLOGY; 

OR,  THE  CRITICISM  AND  INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

TREATISES    ON    THE     CANON    OF    SCRIPTURE,    AND    ON    APOCRYPHAL     BOOKS. 


1.  A  ScHOLASTiCAL  HisTOBT  of  the  Canon  of  the  Holy 
Scripture :  or  the  certain  and  indubitable  Books  thereof,  as  they 
are  received  in  the  Church  of  England.  By  John  Cosin,  D.D. 
Bishop  of  Durham.  London,  1657,  4to.  Second  Edit.  1672,  4to. 

2.  Dissertation  Preliminaire,  ou  Prolegomenes  sur  la  Bible. 
Par  Louis  Ellies  du  Pin.     Amsterdam,  1701,  2  tomes,  4to. 

2.*  A  Complete  History  of  the  Canon  and  Writers  of  the 
Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  By  L.  E.  du  Pin. 
Done  into  English  from  the  French  original.  London,  1699, 
1700,  2  vols,  folio. 

3.  Aug.Herm.  Franckii  Manuductio  ad  Lectionem  Scripturae 
Sacrae.     Hate,  1693,  1704,  &c.  8vo. 

This  well-known  and  very  useful  little  work  was  translated  into 
English  by  Mr.  Jacques,  and  entitled  "  A  Guide  to  the  Reading  and 
Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures."  London,  1813,  Bvo.,  afterwards 
reprinted  in  12mo. 

4.  Traits  Historique  du  Canon  des  Livres  de  la  Saint  Ecriture, 
depuis  leur  premier  publication  jusqu'au  Concile  du  Trent.  Par 
Jean  Martianat.     Paris,  1703,  12mo. 

5.  Bibliotheca  Sacra:  sive  Diatribe  de  Librorum  Novi  Testa- 
menti  Canone,  Qua  primae  Sacrorum  N.  T.  Librorum  Collec- 
tionis  Historiam  ex  antiquitatibus  ecclesiasticis  depromit,  atque 
Canonem  nunc  vulgo  receptum  continere  vctustissimam  et 
genuinam  illorum  Recensionem  ostendit,  Johannes  Ens.  Am- 
stelaedami,  1710,  12mo. 

6.  Gerardi  van  Maestricht  Commentatio  de  Canone  Scrip- 
turae ecclesiastico,  secundum  seriem  saeculorum  post  Christum 
natum.     Bremae,  1722,  8vo.  Jenae,  8vo. 

7.  A  New  and  Full  Method  of  settling  the  Canonical  Autho- 
rity of  the  New  Testament.  By  the  Rev.  Jeremiah  Jones.  Ox- 
ford, 1798,  3  vols.  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  elaborate  work  appeared  in  1726,  two 
years  after  the  death  of  its  learned  author  (a  dissenting  minister), 
who  died  at  the  early  age  of  31.  He  had  previously  published 
"  A  Vindication  of  the  former  part  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  from 
Mr.  Whiston's  Charge  of  Dislocations ;"  in  which  he  successfully 
proved  that  our  present  Greek  copies  of  that  Gospel  are  in  the  same 
order  in  which  they  were  originally  written  by  the  evangelist.  "  In 
drawing  up  these  works  he  took  care  to  consult  and  examine  the 
originals,  instead  of  satisfying  himself  with  the  quotations  of  other 
learned  men.  They  remain  as  monuments  of  his  learning,  inge- 
nuity, and  indefatigable  industry,  and  would  have  done  credit  to 
the  assiduity  and  ability  of  a  literary  man  of  sixty.  They  were 
become  very  scarce,  and  bore  a  high  price,  when,  with  the  libera- 
lity and  zeal  which  reflects  honour  on  them,  the  conductors  of  the 
Clarendon  Press  republished  therri  at  Oxford.  Mr.  Jones,  observes 
Dr.  Maltby,  has  brought  together,  with  uncommon  diligence,  the 
external  evidence  for  the  authenticity  and  genuineness  of  the  ca- 
nonical books  ,  and  he  has,  with  equal  ability  and  fairness,  stated 
his  reasons  for  deciding  against  the  authority  of  the  apocryphal." 
(Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary,  vol.  xix.  p.  95.) 

8.  The  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History ;  or,  the  Facts  occa- 
sionally mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  confirmed  by  Passages 
of  Ancient  Authors,  who  were  contemporary  with  our  Saviour, 
or  his  Apostles,  or  lived  near  their  time.  By  Nathaniel  Lardner, 
D.D.  London,  Part  L  1727,  2  vols.  8vo.  Part  II.  1733—1755, 
12  vols.  8vo.  Also  in  the  8vo.  Edition  of  his  Collective  Works, 
vols.  1  to  5  :  and  in  vols.  1  and  2  of  the  4to.  Edition. 

The  publication  of  Dr.  Lardner's  Credibility  was  received  with 
every  mark  of  respect  and  gratitude,  both  by  members  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  dissenters,  and  its  reputation  gradually 
extended  into  foreign  countries.  How  deeply  the  present  work  is 
indebted  to  his  laborious  and  accurate  investigations  our  multi- 
plied references  will  amply  attest.    "It  is  indeed  an  invaluable 


performance,  and  hath  rendered  the  most  essential  service  to  the 
cause  of  Christianity.  Whoever  peruses  this  work  will  find  it  re- 
plete with  admirable  instruction,  sound  learning,  and  just  and  can- 
did criticism."  (Dr.  Kippis's  Life  of  Dr.  Lardner,  Works,  vol.  v.  p. 
vi.  4to.  edit.)  The  Abbe  Labouderie,  in  his  historical  notice  of 
father  Colouia  (see  below)  justly  pronounces  the  Credibility  to  be 
a  magnificent  apology  for  Christianity,  and  a  chef-d'oeuvre  of  learn- 
ing and  criticism. 

9.  A  Supplement  to  the  Second  Part  of  the  Credibility  of  the 
Gospel  History,  containing  a  History  of  the  Apostles  and  Evan- 
gelists, Writers  of  the  New  Testament,  with  Remarks  and 
Observations  upon  every  Book  of  the  New  Testament.  By 
Nathaniel  Lardner,  D.D.     London,  1756,  1757,  3  vols.  8vo. 

This  history  forms  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Bvo.  (the  third  volume 
of  the  4to.)  edition  of  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  and  also  the  second 
volume  of  Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Tracts  ;  it  "  is  an  admira- 
ble introduction  to  the  New  Testament," — and  "  a  storehouse  of 
literary  information,  collected  with  equal  industry  and  fidelity." 
(Bishop  Marsh.) 

10.  Horse  Paulinae  :  or,  the  Truth  of  the  Scripture  History  of 
St.  Paul  evinced  by  a  comparison  of  the  Epistles  which  bear  his 
name  with  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  By  William  Palet,  D.D. 
London,  1790,  8vo.  and  numerous  subsequent  editions  in  8vo. 
12mo.  and  18mo. 

11.  The  Veracity  of  the  Five  Books  of  Moses  argued  from 
the  undesigned  coincidences  to  be  found  in  them  when  com- 
pared in  their  several  parts.  By  the  Rev,  J.  J.  Biunt,  B.D. 
London,  1830,  8vo. 

12.  The  Veracity  of  the  Historical  Books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, from  the  conclusion  of  the  Pentateuch  to  the  opening  of 
the  Prophets,  £U-gued  from  the  undesigned  coincidences  to  be 
found  in  them,  when  compared  in  their  several  parts :  being  a 
continuation  of  the  Argument  for  the  Veracity  of  the  Five  Books 
of  Moses.     By  the  Rev.  J.  J,  Bldnt,  B.D.     London,  1832, 8vo. 

13.  The  Veracity  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
argued  from  the  undesigned  coincidences  to  be  found  in  them, 
when  compared,  1.  with  each  other,  and,  2.  with  Josephus.  By 
the  Rev,  J.  J.  Blunt,  B.D.     London,  1828,  8vo. 

In  each  of  these  three  works  Mr.  Blunt  has,  with  singular  abili- 
ty, newly  applied  and  illustrated  the  principle  laid  down  by  Dr. 
raley,  in  his  masterly  treatise  entitled  "  Horse  Paulinae."  The  in- 
genuity of  many  of  Mr.  B.'s  sections  might  stand  in  competition 
with  any  of  his  predecessor's  master-piece  ;  and  the  clearness  and 
liveliness  of  the  language  are  such,  that  his  works  cannot  be  too 
earnestly  recommended  to  biblical  students. 

14.  La  Religion  Chretienne,  autorisee  par  le  Temoignage  des 
Anciens  Auteurs  Paiens.  Par  le  pere  Dominique  de  Colonia. 
Lyon,  1718,  2  tomes,  12mo. — Seconde  Edition,  revue  et  pr6- 
cedee  d'une  Notice  Historique  par  M.  I'Abbe  Labouderie.  Paris, 
1826, 8vo. 

This  treatise,  though  published  nine  years  before  Dr.  Lardner 
commenced  his  admirable  work  on  the  Credibility  of  the  Gospel 
History,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  known  to  him.  The  sub- 
jects discussed  by  Colonia  are  comprised  in  the  third  volume  of 
the  octavo  edition  of  Dr.  Lardner's  works,  from  page  594  to  the 
end,  and  in  the  fourth  volume,  from  page  3  to  page  430  of  the 
quarto  edition  published  at  London  in  1815.  Father  Colonia  has 
collected  together  numerous  important  facts,  which  he  has  illus- 
trated with  many  valuable  remarks,  though  he  has  not  always  fol- 
lowed strict  chronological  order  in  the  arrangement  of  his  mate- 
rials. His  chapter  on  Mohammed  is  full  of  errors  and  ridiculous 
declamations.  Notwithstanding  all  its  defects,  his  work  may  be 
read  with  pleasure,  even  after  a  perusal  of  Dr.  Lardner's  volumes 
on  the  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History ;  the  whole  of  which  the 
Abbe  Labouderie  has  announced  his  intention  of  translating  into 
French. 


Skct.  I.] 


INTRODUCTIONS  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


69 


15.  Historia  Canonis  Sacrique  Tcxtus  Novi  Foederis,  a  Joanne 
Millio  in  Prolegomrnis  ad  Novum  Testamcntum  tradita,  cum 
Adnotationihus   Uaniclis  Saltiikmi.      Regiomonti,    ITXi,  8vo. 

16.  Fcrdinandi  Srosrii  Tractatus  Thcologicus  de  Epistolis 
Apostoiorum  Idiop^raphis ;  quo  Apostolis,  non  per  Amanuenscn, 
sed  sua  mnnu  Epistolas  suas  scri^jsisse,  iuculenter  dcmoustratur. 
Guclpherbyti,  1751,  8vo. 

17.  Ferdinandi  Stosch  An02T0AlK0N  OAOKAHPON;  hoc 
est,  Tractatus  Tlicolof^icus  de  Epistolis  Apostoiorum  non  depcr- 
ditis;  (pio  nullam  ex  Epistolis  ab  Apostolis  Jesu  Christi  cxaratis 
pcriisKC  deinonstratur.     (Jroninga;,  1753,  Hvo. 

18.  Eberliardi  Henrici  Danielis  Srostii  Commentatio  Histo- 
rico-Critica  de  Librorum  Novi  Testanicnti  Canone.  Priuniissa 
est  Dissertatio  de  ("ura  Veteris  Ecclesia;  circa  Libros  Novi  Tes- 
tamenti.     Francofurti  ad  Viadrum,  1755,  8vo. 

19.  Christiani  Frederici  Hciimiiiii  Historia  Anticjua  et  Vin- 
dicatio  Veteris  Novique  Testanicnti,  libris  duobus  comprehcnsi. 
Lipsia),  1775,  8vo. 

An  excellent  treatise,  in  which  the  Canon  of  Scripture  is  most 
satisfaciorily  vindiealed  from  the  rash  erilielsms  and  assertions  of 
Oeder,  Sender,  and  oilier  modern  (Icrinaii  tlieologians. 

20.  Observationcs  ad  Iliustrationcm  Doctrinaj  do  Canone  Ve- 
teris Testament!.  Auctore  Claudio  Frees  Hubnemahn.  Haunlae, 
1775,  8vo. 

21.  Lectures  on  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament;  compre- 
hending a  Dissertation  on  the  Septuagint  Version.  By  John 
Blaih,  LL.D.     London,  1785,  4to. 

22.  The  Canon  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  ascertained  ; 
or,  the  Bible  complete  without  the  Apocrypha  and  Unwritten 
Traditions.  By  Archibald  Alexandku,  Professor  of  Didactic 
and  Polemical  Theology,  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Prince- 
ton, New  Jersey.     Princeton,  1826,  12mo.  London,  1828,  12mo. 

Professor  Alexander  published  this  very  useful  vohimo  on  the 
Canon  of  Scripture,  as  a  Siip|ilement  to  a  Treatise  on  the  Evi- 
dences of  the  Christian  Religion,  wliieh  has  been  very  favourably 
received  in  North  America.  His  Treatise  on  the  Canon  is  avow- 
edly compiled  from  the  previous  labours  of  the  most  eminent  critics, 
especially  Bishop  Cosins's  Scholaslical  History  of  the  Canon  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  the  ample  collections  of  the  im|)artial 
and  indefatigable  Ur.  Lanlner  and  the  learned  Jeremiah  Jones, 
whose  works  are  noticed  in  the  preceding  page.  The  first  part  of 
Dr.  Alexander's  Treatise  discusses  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment;  in  the  second  part  are  considered  the  Canon  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  the  reasons  for  which  the  Apocryphal  books  are 
deservedly  rejected  from  the  Sacred  Canon.  To  divines  and  stu- 
denl.s  (especially  in  North  America)  who  may  not  have  access  to 
numerous  and  more  costly  works,  this  treatise  is  a  very  useful  and 
acceptable  present.     The  London  reprint  is  very  neatly  executed. 

23.  Censura  Apocryphorum  V.  T.  adversum  Pontificios,  im- 
primis Robertum  Bellarminum  :  qua,  turn  Divina  et  Canonica 
Sacrse  Scriptura?  Autoritas  asseritur,  solidissima;  turn  variiE  Quajs- 
tioncs,  (fee.  (imprimis  qua;  est  de  Duratione  Monarchia;  Persica;, 
et  de  70  hebdomadis  Danielis),  expediuntur  accuratissime  ;  Pra;- 
lectionibus  250  posthumis  in  Acadcmia  Oxonicnsi  tractata,  a 
Johanne  Rainoldo,  Anglo,  Academia;  Oxon.  Prof.  Theol.  Oj)- 
penhemii,  1011,  2  vols.  4to. 


This  elaborate  work  is  now  rare.  Dr.  Rainoldes  was  termed  by 
Anthony  k  Wood,  the  Oxfijrd  anti(iiiary  and  biographer,  "a  living 
library  and  a  third  university. "  Ho  was  one  of  the  greatest  He- 
brew scholars  of  bis  age  (if  not  ilio  greatest);  and  it  was  at  his 
instance  that  King  James  I.  assented  to  the  jirojiosal  of  a  new  trans- 
lation of  the  Hdjlr-.  In  the  Hampton  Court  ('(inference,  as  well  as 
in  this  work,  L)r.  K.  strenuously  opposed  llie  reading  of  ajiocryiihal 
lessons  in  the  public  service  of  l\n:  chiircli. 

24.  Wktstkmi  (Job.  Rod.)  Dissertatio  Philologico-Theolo- 
gicade  Historia  Susanna;.     Basilea;,  1691,  4to. 

25.  Gottlieb  VVKiiNsnonPFii  Commentatio  de  Fide  Historica 
Librorum  Maccaba;orum.     Wratislavia;,  1747,  4to. 

20.  De  sccundo  Libro  Maccabajorum  Dissertatio.  Scripsit 
C.  Behtiieac,  Gottinga;,  1829,  8vo. 

27.  An  Epistolary  Di.scourse  concerning  the  Books  of  Ezra, 
genuine  and  spurious  :  but  more  particularly  the  second  apocry- 
phal book  under  that  name,  and  the  Variations  of  the  Arabic 
copy  from  the  Latin.  Together  with  a  New  Version  of  the  Fifth 
Book  of  Esdras,  «fec.    By  Francis  Lee,  M.D.  London,  1722,  8vo. 

28.  An  Essay  concerning  the  Books  commonly  called  Apo- 
crypha and  the  public  Reading  of  them  in  the  Church.  London, 
1740,  8vo. 

29.  A  Statement  submitted  to  the  Mcmljcrs  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  on  the  impropriety  of  circulating  the 
Apocryphal  Books  indiscriminately  intermingled  with  the  Inspired 
W^ritings.    By  George  Cornelius  Goeham,  B.D.     London,  1825, 

8vo. 

Though  this  trjiet  was  occasioned  by  a  local  controversy,  the  con- 
sideration of  which  does  not  fall  within  the  design  of  this  work,  it 
is  deserving  of  a  place  in  the  student's  library,  on  acr-oiint  of  the 
various  and  interesting  inforination  which  it  contains  relative  to  the 
literary  History  of  the  Ajwcrypha.     The  second  edition  is  the  best. 

30.  Two  Letters  addressed  to  the  Rev.  G.  C.  Gorham  on  .some 
points  of  his  Statement  on  the  Apocryphal  Books,  and  on  some 
of  the  alleprcd  Doctrines  of  the  Romish  Church.  By  Leander 
van  Ess,  D.D.  W^ith  a  replv  by  G.  C.  Goiuia.m,  B.D.  London, 
1820,  8vo. 

These  letters  of  Dr.  van  Ess  were  designed  as  a  reply  to  the  pre- 
ceding publication  :  and  his  objections  are  answered  by  Mr.  Gor- 
ham with  sinfjiilar  al)ility,  patience  of  research,  and  with  a  spirit  of 
Christian  candour,  of  which  there  unhappily  are  but  few  instances 
in  controversial  discussions.  Mr.  G.  has  clearly  established  the 
three  following  fact.s;  viz.  1.  That  in  the  ancient  form  of  the  Bible, 
from  the  fourth  century  till  the  reformation,  the  Inspired  and  the 
Apocryphal  Writings,  though  intermingled,  were  invariably  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  the  prefaces  or  notices  of  interptdalion 
connected  with  each  book.  2.  That,  subseipiently  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, a  new  form  was  introduced,  and  these  Scripture  barriers  were 
removed  :  at  first  cautiously  and  rarely  ;  then,  after  the  decree  of 
the  council  of  Trent,  more  freely  and  frequently  ;  and  at  last,  under 
papal  sanction,  boldly  and  alm'o.st  universally ;  and,  3.  That  this 
change  of  form  was  intended  to  advance  tlie  credit  of  the  Apocry- 
phal Books,  and  to  obtain  for  them  the  estimation  of  inspired  writ- 
ings by  removing  these  impediments  to  the  acknowledgment  of  theit 
canonicity. 

31.  An  Inquiry  into  the  Truth  and  Use  of  the  Book  of  Enoch 
as  to  its  Prophecies,  Visions,  and  Accounts  of  Fallen  Angels 
By  John  Ovehton.     London,  1822,  8vo. 


CHAPTER  ir. 

INTRODUCTIONS    TO    THE    STUDY    OF    THE    SCRIPTUKES. 

SECTION  I. 


GENERAL   INTRODUCTIONS  TO  THE   ENTIRE    BIBLE. 


1.  DissEiiTATto.vs,  qui  pcuvent  scrvir  de  Prolegomtncs  de 
I'Ecriture  Sainte,  revues,  corrig'es,  considerablement  augmen- 
tces,  et  mises  dans  un  ordre  methodique.  Par  Augustin  Cal- 
MET.     Paris,  1720,  3  tomes,  4to. 

This  publication  contains  the  various  Dissertations,  prefixed  by 
the  learned  father  Calmet  to  the  different  books  of  Scripture,  and 
published  in  his  commentary,  with  numerous  corrections  and  addi- 
tions. Eighteen  new  Dissertations  have  been  added  ;  and  the  whole 
has  been  arranged  in  a  new  and  commodious  order,  in  order  to  ren- 
der these  disquisitions  what  the  author  designed  they  should  be, — 
Prolegomena  to  the  Bible.  Many  important  topics  are  here  treated 
at  considerable  length.     Vol.  I.  contains  the  Dissertations  relating 


to  the  Scriptures  generally,  and  to  the  History,  Discipline,  Customs, 
and  0|)inions  of  the  Jews.  Vol.  II.  comprises  Prefaces  to  the  seve- 
ral books  of  the  Old  Testament,  Iwih  canonical  and  apocryphal. 
Vol.  HI.  contains  similar  prefjjces  to  the  different  books  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  thirty-one  Dissertations  on  various  subjects. 

2.  .\ntiquities,  Sacred  and  Profane :  or  a  Collection  of  Criti- 
cal Dissertations  on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  translated 
from  the  French  of  Dom  Augustin  Calmet,  by  N.  Tindal.  Vol. 
L     London,  1727,  4to. 

This  work  was  never  completed.  It  originally  appeared  in  num- 
bers, and  comprises  select  dissertations  on  the  Poetry  and  Music  of 


70 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  II. 


the  Hebrews,  their  History  and  Chronology,  Money  and  Coins,  &c. 
&c.,  translated  from  the  preceding  French  work  of  Calmet. 

3.  Introduzione  alia  Sacra  Scrittura,  che  comprende  le  Preno- 
zioni  piu  importante  relative  ai  Testi  Originali  e  alle  lore  Ver- 
sioni,  del  Professore  G.  Bernardo  De-Rossi.     Parma,  1817,  8vo. 

4.  Prolegomena  in  Scripturam  Sacram.  Auctore  Car.  Frid. 
HouBioANT.     Parisiis,  17*6,  4to. 

5.  Sebaldi  Ravii  Exercitationes  Philologicae  in  C.  F.  Hubi- 
gantii  Prolegomena  in  Scripturam  Sacram.  Lugduni  Batavo- 
rum,  1785,  4to. 

"  The  principles  of  Houbigant,  who  carried  his  conjectures  be- 
yond all  bounds,  have  been  very  ably  combaited"  in  this  work. 
(Bp.  Marsh.) 

6.  Johannis  Henrici  Danielis  Moldenhaweri  Introductio  in 
omnes  Libros  Canonicos,  cum  Veteris,  turn  Novi  Foederis,  ut  et 
eos  qui  Apocryphi  dicuntur,  cum  Appendice,  quse  tradit  Acta 
Apostoli  Pauli  chronologice  digesta,  8vo.     Regiomonti,  1744. 

Few  treatises,  professing  to  be  Introductions  to  the  Bible,  are 
more  useful  than  this  work  of  Professor  Moldenhawer's.  Having 
briefly  shown  the  canonical  authority  of  the  Bible,  and  noticed  its 
various  divisions,  he  treats  of  each  book  in  its  order,  showing  its 
author,  time  of  writing,  argument,  scope,  chronology,  and  division. 
He  carefully  points  out  those  passages  which  are  more  particularly 
worthy  of  consideration,  or  more  difficult ;  and  under  each  book  of 
the  Old  Testament  he  specifies  the  types  and  prophecies  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  citations  from  each  book  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  author  has  derived  much  assistance  from  the  labours  of  Mol- 
denhawer  in  the  present  volume  of  this  work. 

7.  A  Scripture  Help,  designed  to  assist  in  reading  the  Bible 
profitably,  by  the  Rev.  Edward  BicKERSTETa.  London,  1806, 
12mo.,  and  numerous  subsequent  editions  in  12mo.  and  8vo. 

This  work  is  professedly  a  practical  introduction  to  the  reading 
of  the  Scriptures.  The  sale  of  30,000  copies  of  the  large  editions, 
and  of  more  than  130,000  copies  of  the  12mo.  and  18mo.  abridg- 
ments, sufliciently  attests  the  high  estimation  in  which  this  manual 
is  deservedly  held.  It  has  been  translated  and  published  in  the 
French  and  modern  Greek  languages. 

8.  The  Sacred  Interpreter :  or  a  Practical  Introduction  towards 
a  beneficial  reading  and  thorough  understanding  of  the  Holy 
Bible.  By  David  CoLLTER.  8vo.2vols.  London,  1746.  Car- 
lisle, 2  vols.  8vo.  1796.     Oxford,  1815,  2  vols.  Svo. 

"  The  author  of  this  work  lived  in  the  former  part  of  the  last  cen- 
tury ;  it  not  only  went  through  several  editions  in  England,  but  in 
1750  was  translated  into  German.  It  is  calculated  for  readers  in 
general,  and  it  is  a  good  popular  preparation  for  the  study  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures."    (Bishop  Marsh.) 

9.  A  General  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures, with  a  Critical  History  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Versions 
of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  and  of  the  Chaldee  Paraphrases. 
By  the  Rev.  George  Hamilton,  M.A.  8vo.     Dublin,  1814. 

The  origin  and  antiquity  of  the  Hebrew  language  and  charac- 
ters, vowel  points,  various  readings,  and  the  question  relative  to  the 
integrity  of  the  present  text,  together  with  an  account  of  the  rab- 
binical notes  on  the  Old  Testament,  are  the  topics  principally  dis- 
cussed in  this  small  volume  ;  and  to  these  succeeds  a  notice  of  the 
different  versions  and  paraphrases  mentioned  in  the  title.  "  Its 
general  execution  is  highly  creditable  to  the  author's  industry  and 
judgment ;  and  we  cheerfully  recommend  it  to  that  class  of  stu- 
dents for  whose  use  it  was  chiefly  designed."  (Eclectic  Review 
(N.  S.),  vol.  i.  p.  503.) 

10.  A  Compendious  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Bible. 
By  Thomas  Hartwell  Horke,  B.D.  Illustrated  with  Maps  and 
other  Engravings.  First  and  Second  Editions.  London,  1 827, 
12mo.  Boston  (Massachusetts),  1827,  12mo.  Third  Edition, 
London,  1829.     Fourth  Edition,  1833,  12mo. 

This  little  manual  (which  has  been  introduced  into  King's  Col- 
lege, London)  is  an  analysis  or  abridgment  of  the  present  work, 
undertaken  by  the  author  in  consequence  of  requests  long  since 
communicated  to  him,  and  frequently  repeated,  that  he  would  pre- 
pare such  an  epitome,  as  an  assistant  to  the  studies  of  those  who 
may  already  possess  the  present  larger  Introduction.  At  the  same 
time  this  abridgment  has  been  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  comprehen- 
sive Guide  to  the  study  of  the  Bible  adapted  to  General  Readers. 
In  preparing  this  Manual  for  the  press,  the  order  of  the  present 
larger  Introduction  has  generally  been  followed.  Those  biblio- 
graphical, critical,  and  other  details  only  have  been  omitted,  which 
either  would  not  admit  of  abridgment,  or  which  would  be  unin- 
teresting to  the  generality  of  English  readers.  The  repeated  and 
unprincipled  attempts  made  to  pirate  the  present  larger  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
will  perhaps  justify  the  author  in  the  estimation  of  candid  readers 
for  thus  describing  his  own  publication. 

The  North  American  reprint  is  very  neatly  executed. 

1 1.  Hermeneutique  Sacree,  ou  Introduction  a  I'Ecriture  Sainte 
en  general,  et  en  particulier  a  chacun  des  Livres  de  I'Ancien  et 


du  Nouveau  Testament,  a  I'Usage  des  Seminaires;  par  J.  Her- 
mann Janssens.  Traduit  du  Latin  par  J.  J.  Pacaud.  Paris, 
1828,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

This  is  a  translation  of  a  Latin  treatise,  published  by  Professor 
Janssens  at  Liege  in  1818.  It  consists  of  five  parts  or  chapters,  in 
the  first  of  which,  the  author  endeavours  to  establish  the  canonical 
authority  of  all  the  books  enumerated  as  sacred  in  the  canon  of  the 
assembly  or  council  of  Trent.  The  second  chapter  treats  on  their 
divinity  and  inspiration  ;  the  third,  on  their  authenticity  ;  the  fourth, 
on  the  substantial  integrity  of  the  original  text,  its  authority,  and 
the  use  to  be  made  of  it,  as  well  as  on  ancient  versions  of  the  Bible, 
and  particularly  on  the  Vulgate.  The  fifth  and  last  chapter  contains 
general  and  particular  rules  for  the  understanding  and  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Scriptures:  and  in  a  short  appendix  there  is  given  an 
outline  of  the  Geography  of  Palestine,  and  the  divisions  of  time, 
festivals,  sacrifices,  weights  and  measures  of  the  Hebrews.  This 
work  is  intended  for  members  of  the  Romish  church,  to  whose 
dogmas  the  author  bows  most  submissively.  The  original  Latin 
edition  called  forth  some  very  severe  anonymous  strictures,  entitled 
"  Aviandi  a  Sancia  Cruce,  Dime.  Leod.  Presbi/teri,  Animadversione* 
Criticm  in  Hermeneuticam  Sacram,  Mosaci,  1820 :"  in  this  publica- 
tion (which  is  said  to  have  been  written  by  M.  Waltrin,  a  curate 
in  the  diocese  of  Liege),  the  errors  of  M.  Janssens  on  some  topics, 
and  his  deficiencies  in  others,  are  pointed  out.  Although  the  French 
translator  professes  to  have  availed  himself  of  these  critical  remarks, 
in  order  to  explain  or  correct  the  original  work,  in  some  instances, 
yet  he  has  left  others  unnoticed.  It  was  to  be  expected,  that  M. 
Janssens  would  maintain,  at  all  hazards,  the  genuineness  of  the 
disputed  clause  in  1  John  v.  7. ;  but  it  will  scarcely  be  credited  that 
he  should  rely  on  the  Codex  Ravianus  (which  has  been  demon- 
strated, by  actual  collation,  to  be  a  mere  transcript  of  the  Greek 
Testament  printed  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  and  of  Stephens's 
third  edition),  and  that  he  has  cited  the  English  manuscript  (Ma- 
nuscrit  d'Angleterre,  the  Codex  Britannicus  cited  by  Erasmus),  and 
that  of  Dublin,  as  two  separate  authorities  !  whereas  they  are  but 
ONE  and  the  same  manuscript,  now  generally  known  under  the 
appellation  of  the  Codex  Montfortianus,  which  was  not  written 
till  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  most  useful  part  is  the 
third  chapter,  in  which  the  objections  of  Deists,  and  of  the  modern 
German  neologian  critics,  Eck  and  Paulus,  are  examined  in  detail, 
and  refuted. 

12.  Apparatus  Biblicus:  or  an  Introduction  to  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures in  three  books.  1.  Of  the  original  and  antiquity  of  the 
Jews.  2.  Of  the  canon,  authors,  original  texts,  versions,  editions, 
and  interpretations  of  Scripture.  3.  Of  the  false  gods,  &c.  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures.  From  the  French  of  Pere  Lamt. 
With  Engravings.     London,  1728,  2  vols.  8vo.  2d  edit. 

13.  Clavis  Bibliorum.  The  Key  of  the  Bible,  unlocking  tlie 
richest  Treasures  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Whereby  the  Order, 
Names,  Times,  Penmen,  Occasion,  Scope,  and  Principal  Parts, 
containing  the  Subject  Matter  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  are  familiarly  and  briefly  opened :  for  the  help  of  the 
weakest  capacity  in  the  understanding  of  the  whole  Bible. 
Wherein  the  Scripture  Songs,  dispersed  here  and  there  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  are  metrically  translated  out  of  the 
Hebrew,  and  analytically  explained.  By  Francis  Roberts,  D.D. 
Third  edition.     London,  1665,  folio. 

The  popularity  of  this  work,  which  contains  a  comprehensive 
digest  of  the  most  valuable  observations  of  the  earlier  biblical 
critics,  caused  it  to  pass  through  several  editions  between  the 
middle  and  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  principally  in 
folio ;  though  copies  are  sometimes  to  be  met  with  in  two  volumes, 
Svo.  The  present  volume  of  this  work  is  indebted  to  Dr.  Roberts's 
Clavis  Bibliorum  for  many  useful  remarks.  His  analyses  of  the 
different  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  are,  however,  some- 
times tediously  minute.  The  third  edition  contains,  for  the  first 
time,  a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms,  made  immediately  from  the 
Hebrew,  together  with  an  analytical  exposition  of  every  Psalm, 
and  a  general  preface  to  the  whole  book  of  Psalms. 


I 


SECTION  II. 

INTRODUCTIONS    TO    THE    STUDY    OF    THE    OLD    TESTAMFNT,    IN 
PARTICULAR,    INCLUDING    THE    APOCRYPHAL    BOOKS. 

1.  iNTRonccTio  ad  Libros  Canonicos  Veteris  Tcstamenti  om- 
nes, praecognita  Critica  et  Historica  ac  Auctoritatis  vindicias  expo- 
nens.  Adornata  studio  D.J.  Gottlob  Carpzovii.  Lipsise,  1731  ; 
2d  edit.  1741,  4to. 

The  reader  will  here  find  very  learned  disquisitions  upon  every 
book  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  a  catalogue  of  the  most  approved 
writers  on  most  of  them.  "  Carpzov  was  a  man  of  profound  erudi- 
tion and  indefatigable  industry.  His  work  contains  the  priiicipal 
materials,  which  have  been  ahorded  by  his  predecessors,  perspicu- 
ously arranged,  and  augmented  by  his  own  valuable  observations." 
(Bp.  Marsh.)    The  third  part  was  translated  from  the  Latin  into 


Sect.  III.] 


INTRODUCTIONS  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


71 


EngliHh,  wilh  additional  notcH,  by  Moses  Marciifl,  q  converted  Jew, 
and  published  at  London  in  172'J,  in  8vo. 

2.  J.  G.  EiciiiionN  Einlcitung  ins  Altc  Testament. — Intro- 
duction to  the  Old  Testament,  by  J.  G.  Eichhorn.  Leipzig, 
1823-24,  4  vols.  8vo.     Best  edition. 

Professor  Kichhorn  succeedeil  Ibo  celebrated  Michaclis  in  the 
divinity  chair  at  (Jottinf^cn.  His  works  are  considered  classical 
on  the  subject  of  biblical  criticism.  Proposals  were  iNsue<l,  many 
years  since,  by  the  liev.  Dr.  Lloyd,  at  that  time  licgiiis  Professor 
of  Hebrew  at  the  Universiiy  of  (Jaiiibrid^e,  for  publisliing  by  sub- 
scription a  translation  I'rom  llic  f  Jornian  of  ProfesMor  Eichliorn's  In- 
troduction to  llie  Study  ol' the  Old  Testament.  Hut  the  translation 
never  appeared.  Of  this  work  the  reader  will  find  a  copious  ana- 
lysis in  the  Monthly  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xxiii.  pp.  IHl — 4'J7.  Kich- 
horn was  one  of  those  (icrman  critics,  who  rijict  the  inspiration 
of  Moses;  and  he  advocated  the  untcnal)lo  opinion  that  the  great 
Jewish  legislator  compiled  his  primu3val  history  from  distinct  «u^'u.<t 
or  traditional  doruments. 

3.  Introductio  in  Libros  Sacros  Vetcris  Fojderis  in  compen- 
dium rcdactii  a  Johanne  Jaiin.     Vienna;,  1804,  8vo. 

A  most  valuable  treatise,  to  which  the  author  of  this  work  has 
been  largely  indebted,  as  bis  frecjiiont  reference  to  it  will  abun- 
dantly show.  By  a  decree  of  iM)pe  Piii."  V'll.  dated  August  26,  1822, 
this  introduction  of  Jahii  was  put  into  the  Index  Kxj)urgatorius,  and 
prohil)ited  to  be  read  ;  as  also  were  his  Knchiridion  Ilermeneiitica; 
Generalis  Vet.  et  Nov.  Fiederis,  and  his  Arclucologia  Biblica ;  both 
which  treatises  are  noticed  in  a  subsccjuent  page  of  this  Appendix. 

4.  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,  translated  from  the 
Latin  and  German  Works  of  John  Jahn,  Doctor  of  Philosophy 
and  Theology  ;  and  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages,  &c.  in  the 
University  of  Vienna.  By  Samuel  H.  Turn  En,  D.D.  Professor 
of  Biblical  Learning  and  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture  in  the 
General  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Protestant  Epi.scopal  Church 
in  the  United  States  of  America,  and  the  Kev.  William  R.  Wuit- 
TiNOHAM.     New  York,   1827,  8vo. 

This  truly  valuable  work  contains  an  entire  translation  of  the 
preceding  treatise,  with  various  improvements  from  the  larger 
German  work  of  Jahn,  sometimes  translated  in  full,  and  sometimes 
abridged,  ami  from  other  works  of  a|)proved  character. 

5.  Introductio  in  Libros  Canonicos  Vcteris  Foederis,  usibus 
academicis  accommodata  a  Fouerio  Ackehmanx.  Viennse, 
1825,  8vo.     Price  9s. 

Though  ]>ublishcd  ostensibly  as  a  new  work,  this  treatise  is  in 
fact  notliing  more  than  an  vxpur^nUd  edition  of  Jahn's  Introduction. 
Professor  Ackcrinann  states  that  he  has  changed  the  text  of  Jahn 
in  very  many  chapters,  but  has  retained  his  order  and  his  words 
wherever  he  could.  The  editor  introduces  this  work  to  the  notice 
of  his  readers  by  a  profession  of  his  profound  submission  to  the 
Romish  church. 

6.  A  Key  to  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Apocrj-pha :  or  an 
account  of  their  several  books,  their  contents  and  authors,  and 
of  the  times  when  they  were  respectively  written.  By  Robert 
Gray,  D.D.  [now  Bishop  of  Bristol.]  London,  1790,  8vo.  Now 
edition,  1829,  8vo. 

The  very  numerous  editions  which  have  been  printed  of  this 
valuable  work,  attest  the  esiimation  in  which  it  is  deservedly  held. 
It  was  undertaken  in  imitation  of  the  late  13p.  Percy's  well-known 
and  often-printed  "  Key  to  the  New  Testament;"  but  it  is  a  much 
more  elaborate  jierformance.  Dr.  Gray  has  diligently  consulted, 
and  brought  together  a  great  mass  of  information  Irom  the  writings 
of  the  fathers,  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  historians,  and  other  origi- 
nal authorities  which  are  not  accessible  to  the  generality  of  stu- 
dents. Bp.  Mant  an<l  Dr.  D'Oyly  have  liberally  availed  themselves 
of  Dr.  G.'s  researches  in  their  commentary  on  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
The  edition  of  182'J  is  corrected  and  greatly  enlarged  and  im- 
proved. 

7.  Introduction  a  la  Lecture  des  Livres  Saints,  a  I'Usage  des 
Hommes  religieux  et  eclairt^s,  par  J.  E.  Cellehieb,  Ills.  Geneve, 
1832,  8vo. 

The  first  sketch  of  this  work  was  a  small  essay  or  discourse,  ac- 
companied wilh  notes  and  illustrations,  on  the  authenticity  and 
divine  origin  of  the  Old  Testament ;  this  was  published  in  1820. 
The  substance  of  the  proofs  and  illustrations  in  that  publication 
are  retained  in  the  present  volume,  which  the  author  has  divided 
into  throe  parts,  vi/.  Part  I.  On  the  authenticity,  integrity,  credi- 
bility, and  divine  origin  of  the  Pentateuch;  Part  11.  On  the  books 
posterior  to  the  Pentateuch,  including  the  Prophets,  the  Hagiogra- 
plm,  and  the  Apocryphal  Books  ;  Part  III.  Observations  on  the  Old 
Testament  and  its  interpretation.  An  Appendix,  of  proofs  and 
illustrations,  terminates  this  work,  in  which  the  author  has  evinced 
much  diligence  and  research  ;  but  it  must  not  be  concealed,  that 
its  value  is  greatly  diminished  by  his  evident  leaning  towards  the 
bold  and  unhallowed  speculations  of  the  continental  neolocian 
critics.  M.  Cellerier's  work  is  reviewed  at  considerable  length, 
and  with  great  severity,  in  the  first  number  of  M.M.  Haeveminck's 
and  Steiger's  Mclnmres  de  Theologie  licforniue,  published  at 
.  Geneva,  in  1833.  in  8vo 

V  oL.  II.— An-  4  B 


8.  Joh.  Gottfr.  Eichhorn  Einlcitung  in  die  Apocryphischen 
Schriften  des  Alten  Testaments.     Leipzig,  179.5,  8vo. 

9.  Geo.  Joannis  Henkii   Introductio  ad  Libros  Apocryphos 
Vcteris  Tcstamcnti.     Hate,  1718,  4to. 

10.  Notice  sur  les  Livres  Apocryjjhes  dc  I'Ancien  Testament. 
Par  C.  E.  F.  Moulinie.     Geneve,  1828,  Svo, 


SECTION  III. 

INTRODUCTIONS   TO   THE    STUDY    OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT,    IN 
PAKTICULAK. 

1.  Aw  Introduction  to  the  Reading  of  the  New  Testament, 
by  M.M.  Beaisoiire  aird  l'Enfant.  Cambridge,  1779,  1788, 
1800,  1816,  1819,  Svo. 

This  was  originally  a  preface  to  the  French  version  of  the  New 
Testament  published  by  M.M.  Bcausobre  and  ri'',iifaiit,  at  Amster- 
dam, in  1718.  It  has  been  several  times  printed,  and  is  also  to  bo 
found  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Theological  Tracts  collected  by 
Bishop  WaLson. 

2.  Commcntatio  Critica  ad  Libros  N.  T.  in  gcncre  ;  cum  praj- 
fatione  J.  Gottlob  Carpzovii.  Accuranle  J.  W.  Rumpaio. 
Lipsiaj,  1757,  4to.  2d  edit. 

Critical  questions  of  great  variety  and  importance  arc  here  briefly 
but  .satisfiictorily  discussed  by  a  reference  to  the  writers  of  tho 
greatest  credit  who  have  treated  on  each  of  them. 

3.  Jo.  Gottfr.  EicHHonx  Einlcitung  ins  Neue  Testament. — 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament.     Leipzig,  1804-15,  3  vols. 

Svo. 

The  first  volume  of  this  work  is  analyzed  in  the  Critical  Review, 
Scries  III.  vol.  x.  for  1807,  pp.  449 — 4G5. 

4.  An  Introduction  to  the  Writings  of  the  New  Testament, 
by  Dr.  John  Leonard  Hur,  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Freyburgh,  in  Brisgau,  &c.  Translated  from  the  ori- 
ginal German,  by  the  Rev.  Daniel  Guildford  Wait,  LL.D. 
London,  1827,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Professor  Hug  (who  is  in  communion  with  the  church  of  Rome) 
may  be  considered  as  the  principal  and  most  learned  writer  of  tliat 
class  which  has  opposed  itself  to  the  skepticism  and  fanciful  theo 
ries  of  some  modern  German  divines.  His  Introduction  has  long 
been  held  in  the  highest  estimation  on  the  continent,  for  the  variety 
and  importance  of  his  critical  researches  on  the  New  Testament. 
Dr.  Wait  has  added  numerous  notes,  chiefly  derived  from  Jewish 
and  oriental  antiquities ;  and  he  has  occasionally  corrected  the 
erroneous  statements  of  Hug  relative  to  some  of  the  ancient  ver- 
sions. Some  parts  of  his  work,  however,  evidently  show  that  ho 
was  not  suflicicntly  ac(|uainted  with  the  German  language.  To 
the  first  volume  he  has  prefixed  a  copious  preface,  containing  an 
ejiitomo  of  Dr.  Berlholdt's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  in 
which  many  important  topics  of  sacred  criticism  are  discussed. 

5.  An  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  by  John  David 
MiCHAELis,  late  Professor  in  the  University  of  Gottingen.  Trans- 
lated from  the  fourth  edition  of  the  German,  bv  Herbert  Mabsu, 
D.D.    8 vo.  6  vols.     Cambridge,  1802,  3d  edit.' 1818. 

The  first  edition  of  Michaclis's  inestimable  work  was  published 
in  Germany,  in  1750,  and  translated  into  English  in  1701,  4to. ;  its 
value  is  very  materially  enhanced  by  the  notes  of  Bishop  Marsh 
(which  extend  to  part  of  the  work  only),  who  has  further  added  a 
Dissertation  on  the  Origin  and  Composition  of  the  first  three  Gos- 
pels. The  Rev.  Dr.  Randolph  (who  was  subsequently  bishop  of 
London),  in  1802,  published  anonymously  some  severe  "  Remarks" 
on  the  "  Dissertation,"  by  way  of  caution  to  students  in  divinity. 
To  these  remark-s  Dr.  Marsh  replied  in  some  "  Letters,"  which  were 

Eiiblished   in  the  same  year,  in  8vo.     See  an  ample  crili(juo  on 
ishop  Marsh's  work  in  the  British  Critic  (O.  S.),  vol.  iii.  p.  COl— COS., 
and  vol.  iv.  pp.  40 — 5-1.  170 — 176. 

6.  Introduction  au  Nouveau  Testament,  par  J.  D.  Michaelis ; 
quatrieme  edition,  traduitc  sur  la  troisieme  de  Herbert  Marsh, 
eve  que  de  Peterborough,  avcc  une  partic  dc  ses  notes,  et  des 
notes  nouvelles,  par  J.  J.  Cheweviere,  pasteur  et  profcsseur  en 
thcologie  A  Geneve.     4  tomes,  Svo.     Geneve,  1822. 

7.  Essai  d'unc  Introduction  Critique  au  Nouveau  Testament, 
par  J.  E.  Cellerier,  fils.     Geneve,  1823,  Svo. 

Partly  a  translation,  and  partly  an  analysis,  of  Professor  Hug's 
German  Introduction  to  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament. 

8.  Georgii  Pritii  Introductio  ad  Lectionem  Novi  Testa- 
meiiti,  in  qua  quoe  ad  rem  criticam,  historiam,  chronologiam,  et 
geographiam  pertinent,  breviter  et  perspicue  exponuntur.  1st 
edit!  Lipsii-,  1704,  12mo. ;  4th  edit,  by  Hoffman,  in  1737,  Svo. 
and  reprinted,  with  corrections,  in  a  large  octavo  volume,  in  1764. 

"  The  service  rendered  by  Carpzov  to  the  Old  Testament  waa 
performed  by  Pritius  for  the  New.     The  iuiprovtiaenls  of  his  editor. 


72 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  HI.  Chap.  III. 


HofTman,  on  the  original,  are  so  considerable  that  vvlioever  pur- 
chases the  Introduction  of  Pritius  (and  it  deserves  to  be  purchased 
by  every  student  in  divinity)  must  be  careful  in  regard  to  the  date 
of  the  title-page."     (Bishop  Marsh.) 

9.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  New 
Testament.  By  Edward  Harwoou,  D.D.  London,  1767-1771, 
2  vols.  8vo. 

The  learned  author  designed  a  third  volume,  which  was  to  em- 
brace the  chief  critical  questions  respecting  the  New  Testament. 
This  work  "  contains  a  collection  of  dissertations,  relative  partly  to 
the  characters  of  the  sacred  writers,  partly  to  the  Jewish  history 
and  customs,  and  to  such  part  of  heathen  antiquities  as  have  refer- 
ence to  the  New  Testament.  As  these  dissertations  display  great 
erudition,  and  contain  much  information  illustrative  of  the  'New 
Testament,  Dr.  Harwood's  Introduction  is  certainly  to  be  recom- 
mended to  the  theological  student."  (Bishop  Marsh.)  Another 
experienced  divinity  tutor  (the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Williams)  has  also 
justly  remarked  that  this  work  may  be  read  with  advantage,  making 
allowance  for  the  author's  theological  sentiments  (Christian  Preach- 
er, p.  417.),  which  were  Arian.    The  writer  of  these  pages  has  de- 


rived many  useful  illustrations  from  Dr.  Harwood's  labours,  in  the 
present  volume  of  this  work.  The  value  of  Dr.  H.'s  Introduction 
would  not  have  been  diminished  if  he  had  acknowledged  his  obli- 
gations to  the  preceding  work  of  Pritius,  to  which  he  has  been 
very  considerably  indebted. 

10.  A  Key  to  the  New  Testament,  giving  an  Account  of  the 
several  Books,  their  Contents,  their  Authors,  and  of  the  Times, 
Places,  and  Occasions,  on  which  they  were  respectively  written. 
[By  Thomas  Percy,  D.D.  Bishop  of  Dromore.]  Third  and  best 
edition.     London,  1779,  12mo. 

The  multiplied  editions  of  this  valuable  little  manual  attest  the 
high  esteem  in  which  it  is  deservedly  held,  as  a  guide  for  young 
students. 

11.  Isagoge  Historico-Critica  in  libros  Novi  Foederis  sacios. 
Scripsit  Henricus  Augustus  Sciiott.     Jente,  1830,  Svo. 

12.  Antonii  Blocii  Chronotaxis  Scriptorum  Divi  Patih. 
Flensburgi  et  Lipsiae,  1782,  8vo. 


CHAPTER  III. 

TREATISES    ON    THE    SACRED    TEXT,    ITS    STYLE,    IDIOM,    AND    VERSIONS. 

SECTION  L 


TREATISES    ON    SACRED    CRITICISM    GENERALLY,    AND    ON    THE    STYLE    AND    IDIOM    OF    THE    SCRIPTURES. 


1.  Pentateuchi  Hebraeo-Samaritani  Prsestantia  in  illustrando 
et  emendando  Textu  Masorethico  ostensa.  Auctore  Alexio  a  S. 
AduiLiNO.     Heidelbergse,  1784,  Svo. 

2.  The  BiBucAL  Cabinet:  or  Hermeneutical,  Exegetical, 
and  Philological  Library.  Vols.  I. — V.  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1832-3,  small  8vo. 

This  work,  which  is  still  in  progress,  promises  to  be  of  singular 
utility  to  biblical  students.  Vols.  I.  and  IV.  comprise  a  translation 
of  Ernesti's  Institutio  Interpretis  Novi  Testamenti,  with  Notes  by 
the  Rev.  Charles  H.  Terrot,  A.M.  Vol.  II.  contains  four  valua- 
ble philological  Tracts : — 1.  On  the  Language  of  Palestine  in  the 
Age  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles.  2.  On  the  Greek  Diction  of  the 
New  Testament.  3.  On  the  Importance  of  the  Study  of  the  Old 
Testament:  and,  4.  On  the  Tropical  Language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. These  disquisitions  are  translated  from  the  Latin  and  Ger- 
man of  Professors  Pfannkuche,  Planck,  Tholuck,  and  Beckhaus. 
Vol.  III.  contains  a  translation  from  the  Latin,  by  the  Rev.  Edward 
Craig,  A.M.,  of  the  first  portion  of  Professor  Tittman's  elaborate 
Treatise  on  the  Synonymes  of  the  New  Testament.  And  Vol.  V. 
contains  the  first  volume  of  Prof  Tholuck's  Exposition  of  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  translated  from  the  German  by  the  Rev. 
Robert  Merizies. 

3.  The  Sacred  Classics  Defended  and  Illustrated,  by  Anthony 
Black  WALL.     London,  1727-31,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Blackwall  was  a  strenuous  advocate  for  the  purity  of  the  Greek 
style  of  the  New  Testament,  which  he  vindicates  in  his  first 
volume.  The  second  volume,  which  is  the  most  valuable,  contains 
many  excellent  observations  on  the  division  of  the  New  Testament 
into  chapters  and  verses,  and  also  on  various  readings.  This  work 
was  translated  into  Latin  by  Christopher  Woll,  and  published  at 
Leipsic,  in  1736,  4to. 

4.  De  Paronomasia,  finitimisque  ei  Figuris  Paulo  Apostolo 
frequentatis,  Dissertatio  Rhetorico-Exegetica.  Scripsit  Julius 
Fredericus  Buttcheh.     Lipsiae,  1824,  8vo. 

5.  Jo.  Theoph.  BustAV  Dissertatio  Historico-Critico-Exege- 
tica  de  Lingua  Originali  Evangelii  secundum  Matthsum.  Vra- 
tislaviaj,  1826,  Svo. 

6.  Horse  Biblicae ;  being  a  connected  Series  of  Miscellaneous 
Notes  on  the  Original  Text,  early  Versions,  and  printed  Editions 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  By  Charles  Butleii,  Esq. 
Oxford  and  London,  1799,  Svo. 

Tiie  first  edition  of  this  judicious  manual  of  biblical  criticism 
was  privately  printed  in  1797,  for  the  author's  friends.  It  has  since 
been  repeatedlv  printed  in  royal  Svo.  wiili  an  additional  volume, 
treating  on  the  books  accounted  sacred  by  the  Mohammedans,  Hin- 
doos, Parsees,  Chinese,  and  Scandinavians.  In  1810  M.  Boulard 
pulilished  a  French  translation  of  this  work  from  the  edition  printed 
at  Oxford,  in  1799. 

7.  Popular  Lectures  on  Biblical  Criticism  and  Interpretation, 
By  William  Cauj-ekteb.     London,  1829,  Svo. 


8.  Joh.  Gottlob  Cabpzovii  Critica  Sacra  Veteris  Testamenti. 
Lipsise,  1738,  4to. 

This  elaborate  work  consists  of  three  parts,  treating,  1.  On  the 
Divine  Origin,  Authenticity,  Divisions,  and  original  Language  of 
the  Old  Testament,  the  Masora,  Keri,  and  Ketib,  and  the  principal 
MSS.  and  Editions  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures; — 2.  On  the  different 
Versions  of  the  Old  Testament,  ancient  and  modern ;  and,  3.  A 
Vindication  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  against  the  rude  attacks  of 
Mr.  Whiston,  in  his  Essay  towards  restoring  the  true  Text  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Carpzov  adheres  to  the  high  notions  which  in  his 
time  continued  to  prevail  concerning  the  integrity  of  the  Hebrew 
text :  but  (Bp.  Marsh  remarks)  "  if  proper  allowance  be  made  on 
this  account,  it  will  be  found  to  be  a  very  useful  work,  and  replete 
with  information  on  the  subject  of  Hebrew  criticism."  (Lectures 
on  Divinity,  part  ii.  p.  133.) 

9.  An  Inquiry  into  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament.  By 
John  Cook,  D.D.     London,  1821,  Svo. 

For  an  analysis  of  this  masterly  treatise  on  Sacred  Criticism,  see 
the  Eclectic  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xvii.  pp.  310—324. 

10.  J.  A.  Dathii  Opuscula  ad  Interpretationem  et  Crisin  Ve- 
teris Testamenti.  Edidit  E.  F.  C.  Rosenmiiller.  Lipsiae,  1796, 
Svo. 

1 1.  Compendio  di  Critica  Sacra,  dei  Difetti  e  delle  Emenda- 
zioni  del  Sacro  Testo,  e  Piano  d'una  Nuova  Edizione  del  Dottore 
G.  Bernardo  De  Rossi.     Parma,  ISll. 

In  this  little  tract,  Professor  De  Rossi  has  given  a  veiy  concise 
but  interesting  sketch  of  the  state  of  the  text  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures, from  the  earliest  period  to  our  own  time ,-  and  he  has  sul> 
joined  an  outline  of  his  plan  for  a  new  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
with  select  various  readings. 

12.  Edwards  (Thomaj)  Duse  Dissertationes :  In  priore  qua- 
rum  prohatur,  Variantes  Lectiones  et  Menda,  quae  in  Sacram 
Scripturam  irrepserunt,  non  labefactare  ejus  Auctoritatem,  in 
rebus  quae  ad  fidem  et  mores  pertinent :  In  postcriore  vero,  Prae- 
destinationem  Paulinam  ad  Gentilium  vocationem  totam  spec- 
tare.     Cantabrigiae,  1768,  Svo. 

13.  Fabrict  (Gabriel)  Dcs  Titres  Primitifsde  la  Revelation  ; 
ou  Considerations  Critiques  sur  la  Purctc  et  I'lntegrite  du  Texte 
Original  des  Livres  Saints  de  i'Ancicn  Testament.  Rome,  1772, 
2  parts,  Svo. 

This  work  contains  much  curious  learning,  urged  with  a  consi- 
derable degree  of  ingenuity,  in  favour  of  the  Masoretic  system. 

14.  Nicolai  Fulleri  Miscellanea  Sacra,  cum  Apologia  con- 
tra V.  CI.  Johannem  Drusium.  Lugd.  Bat.  1622,  Svo.  edit.  opt. 
Also  in  the  last  volume  of  the  Critici  Sacri. 

15.  Institutes  of  Biblical  Criticism,  or  Heads  of  the  Course  of 
Lectures  on  that  subject,  read  in  the  University  and  King's  Col- 
lege of  Aberdeen.  By  Alexander  Gerard,  D.D.  Edinburgh, 
1808,  Svo. 


I 


Sect.  II.] 


TREATISES  ON  SACRED  CRITICISM,  &c. 


73 


"  Of  lienernl  and  c/fwrn/ary  f roalisps"  on  Barred  crilicism,  "  thnrr 
is  none  wliicli  is  inoro  |i>  lio  n-ctcunmi-ndml,  filhor  (or  jierspiriiily 
or  corrofliicss,  tliun  llio  Inslitiiles  ol°  ]iil)li<'al  Crilicism,  piihlJHlicd 
l>y  Dr.  Gerard,  Prolb.ssorol'  Oivinily  lit  Al)crdeen."     (Up.  Marwh.) 

10.  Gulieltni  (ikskmi  dc  P(^ntiit(Michi  Samaritani  Orijifino,  In- 
dole, ct  Auctoritate,  Comnicnlatio  Pliilolofjico-crilica.  Hahn, 
181.5,  4to. 

In  l)io  North  Amorirnn  Review,  vol.  xxii.  pp.  274 — 317.  ihero  if 
nn  (dal)orale  dii;(!.sl  from  the  pen  of  llio  l{ev.  Prolessor  Sloarl,  drawn 
lip  iron)  lliiw  dis.serlalion  ami  lioin  ollirr  pliilol<);,'ical  w<»rk.s  of  I'lo- 
I'essor  (iesciiiii.s,  oriilinosi  every  lliiiiif  llial  is  kimwii  coiKcrniiif;  the 
Samarilans  and  the  Sainarilan  I'cntaleiicli.  Tliis  very  valiiaMe 
disijiiisition  is  reprinted  in  the  Andover  Uiblieal  Re|)OKiiory  for 
18^2,  pp.  681—721. 

17.  (iiilielini  Gksknii  Anccdota  Oxonicnsia,  Tomu.s  Primus. 
Iiij)sia!,  1822,  4to. 

This  volume  comprises  two  fiisciculi,  the  first  of  which  contains 
the  Samarit.m  Psalms,  with  an  Araliic  version  and  notes:  in  the 
second  liisciculus,  there  is  a  dissertation  on  Syriac  LeJcic-ons,  with 
specimens  of  the  hiliierto  ineditcd  lexicons  of  Bar  Ali  and  IJar 
liahliili. 

18.  Salomonis  Gi.assit  Philoiogia  Sacra ;  qua  totins  S.  S.  Ve- 
teris  ct  Novi  Testainenti  Scriptura;  turn  Stylus  et  Litteratura,  turn 
Sensiis  ct  Uenuina;  Intcrprctationis  Ratio  et  Doctrina,  lihris  quin- 
quc  exjienditur  ac  traditur.     liipsim,  172.'),  4to.     Best  edition. 

An  "  inestimable  and  immortal  work,  ilian  which  none  can  I  c 
more  useful  for  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  as  it  throws  an  un- 
common degree  of  lij^ht  upon  the  laneuage  and  phraseology  of  the 
inspired  writers."  (Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  v.  p.  2%.)  The  first 
edition  was  printed  at  Jena  in  1()23,  and  was  followed  by  several 
others  at  the  same  place,  in  1043,  1C()3,  and  1G()8;  at  Frank(()rl,  in 
1653;  at  Leipsic,  in  1691, 1705,  1713,  and  at  Amsterdam  in  1711,  all  in 
quarto.  The  first  and  sermxl  books  treat  on  the  style  and  meaning  of 
the  sacred  writers;  the  third  and  fourth  on  Sacred  Grammar,  and  the 
fifth  on  Sacred  Rhetoric.  To  the  edition  of  1705  and  the  subsequent 
impressions  is  annexed  a  treatise,  by  Glassius,  on  Sacred  Logic,  first 
published  by  Olearius  at  Jena,  in  1704.  A  new  edition  of  this 
■work  was  published  in  8vo.  at  Leipsic,  in  1776,  17'.'5,  17'.)7,  by  the 
Professors  Dathe  and  Bauer,  entitled  Salomonis  Glassii  Philoiogia 
Sacra  his  Timpnrihus  arcommodata.  The  first  volume,  in  two  parts, 
edited  by  Dathe,  contains  the  treatises  dc  Grammatica  el  Rhttorica 
Sacra,  which  are  materially  improved  without  deb.asing  Glassius's 
pious  and  learned  expositions  of  Scripture  by  his  own  speculations. 
The  second  volume,  edited  by  Prof.  Bauer  of  Allorf,  contains  the 
Critica  Sacra.  Glassius  had  adopted  Buxtorfs  high  notions  con- 
cerning the  integrity  of  the  Hebrew  text,  which  are  properly  modi- 
fied in  Bauer's  revision  of  the  work.  The  third  volume  contains 
Glassius's  second  book,  which  treats  on  Ihc  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture :  as  it  is  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  a  detached  form,  it  is 
noticed  in  a  subsecjuent  page  of  this  Appendix,  among  the  works 
on  that  branch  of  sacred  ])hilology. 

19.  These  Critique  sur  la  Langue  Originale  dc  I'Evangile 
selon  Saint  Matlhieu,  soutenu  devant  la  Faculte  Protestante  de 
Montauban.     Par  Charles  Grawitz,  de  Paris,  1827,  8vo, 

In  this  small  tract,  the  author  ingeniously  contends  for  the  He- 
brew original  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel. 

20.  Humphredi  HonY  de  Bibliorum  Textibus  Originalibus, 
Vcrsionibus  Gra;cis,  et  Latina  Vulgata  Libri  Quatuor.  Oxonii, 
1704,  folio. 

"This  is  the  classical  work  on  the  Septuagint."  (Bp.  Marsh.) 
The  first  book  contains  Dr.  Hody's  dissertation,  with  improvements, 
against  Aristeas's  History,  which  he  had  before  published,  in  1685, 
in  opiwsition  to  Isaac  Vossius's  Disserlationesde  Sejttiiagirita  Inter- 
pretihus,  eorumque  Tralatione  et  Chronologia  :  in  which  the  latter 
ascribed  more  authorily  to  the  Greek  Version  than  to  the  original 
itself.  In  the  second  book,  the  author  treats  of  the  true  authors  of 
the  Septuagint  Version, — of  the  time  when,  and  the  rea.^ons  why, 
it  was  undertaken — and  of  the  manner  in  which  it  was  performed. 
The  third  book  contains  a  history  of  the  original  Hebrew  text  of 
the  Septuagint,  and  of  the  Vulgate  Latin  V'ersion,  showing  the 
authority  of  eivch  in  different  ages,  and  that  the  Hebrew  text  has 
always  been  most  esteemed  and  valued.  In  the  fourth  and  last 
book,  he  gives  an  account  of  the  Greek  Versions  of  Svmmachiis, 
Aqiiilo,  and  Theodotion,  and  of  Origen's  Hexapla,  and  other  ancient 
editions  ;  to  which  are  subjoined,  lists  of  the  books  of  the  Bible  at 
different  times,  which  exhibit  a  concise,  but  full  and  clear  view 
of  the  canon  of  Scripture. 

21.  The  Connection  between  the  Sacred  Writings  and  the 
Literature  of  Jewish  and  Heathen  Authors,  particularly  that  of 
the  Classical  Ages,  illustrated ;  principally  with  a  view  to  evi- 
dence in  confirmation  of  the  truth  of  Revealed  Religion.  By 
Robert  Ghat,  D.D.  [now  Bishop  of  Bristol.]  London,  1819,  in 
two  volumes,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  valuable  work,  which  is  indispens.ably 
necessary  to  the  bililical  student  who  cannot  command  access  to 
all  the  classic  authors,  appeared  in  one  volume,  8vo.  in  1817.  A 
multitude  of  passages  of  Scripture  is  illustrated,  and  their  truth 
confirmed.    Classical  literature  is  here  shown  to  be  the  handmaid 


of  sacred  literature,  in  a  style  and  manner  which  cannot  fail  to 
instruct  and  gratify  the  reailor.  Independently  ol"  the  main  object 
of  these  volumes, — the  illusiration  of  the  Scripiures, — Bj).  Gray's 
general  criticisms  on  the  classic  writers  are  such  as  must  commend 
them  to  the  stuilent.  "  The  remarks"  (it  is  truly  said  by  an  eminent 
critic  of  the  present  day)  "  are  every  where  jiisl,  always  impressed 
with  a  candid  ;ind  sincere  conviction  of  tlie  blessing  liir  which  our 
gratitude  to  (iod  is  so  eminently  due,  Ibr  his  revealed  word,  whose 
various  excellencies  rise  in  value  upon  every  view  which  the 
scholar  or  divine  can  lake,  of  what  have  been  the  best  efliirts  of 
the  hniTian  mind,  in  the  best  days  which  preceded  the  publication 
(if  ihe  (iospel.  There  is  no  one  |>ortii)n  f)f  these  volumes  that  i.t 
not  highly  valuable  on  this  account.  The  praise  is  given  which  is 
due  to  the  hap|)iest  fruits  of  human  genius;  but  a  strict  eye  is 
evermore  preserved  for  Ihc  balance  of  prcponderalion,  where  the 
Word  of  Trulh,  enhanced  by  divine  authorily,  bears  the  scale  down, 
and  furnishes  the  great  thing  wanting  to  the  sage  and  the  teacher 
of  the  heathen  world.  Their  noblest  sentiments,  and  their  obliqui- 
ties and  deviations  into  error,  are  alike  brought  to  this  test,  and 
referred  to  this  sure  standard.  The  concurrent  lines  of  prei-ept  or 
instruction,  on  this  comparative  survey,  are  such  as  establish  a 
sullicient  ground  of  evidence  that  all  moral  goodness,  a:irl  all  sound 
wisilom,  are  derived  from  one  source  and  origin,  and  find  their 
sanction  in  ihe  will  of  Him,  of  whose  perfections  and  of  whoso 
glory  they  are  the  manifest  transcripts."  British  Critic  (New  Series), 
vol.  xiii.  p.  316.,  in  which  journal  the  reader  will  find  a  copious 
and  jusi  analysis  of  Dr.  Gray's  volumes. 

21.*  Josiah  and  Cyrus,  the  two  great  objects  of  Divine  Notice 
in  the  Scheme  of  Revelation.  With  illustrations  and  confirma- 
tions of  the  trulh  of  Sacred  History,  and  of  the  Accomf)lishment 
of  Prophecy  with  respect  to  tho.se  Sovereigns,  drawn  from  the 
Accounts  of  a  Modern  Traveller.  By  the  Right  Rev.  Robert 
Ghat,  D.D.  Bishop  of  Bristol.     London,  1833,  12mo. 

22.  Bibliotheca  Critica;  Sacra;,  circa  omncs  fere  Sacrorum 
liibrorum  ditncultates,  ex  Patrum  Vcterum  traditionc  et  proba- 
liorum  intcrpretum  coUecta.  Ab  uno  ordinis  Carmelitarum  Dis- 
calceatorum  Religiose.  (F.  Cherubino  a  S.  Joseph.)  Lovanii, 
1704,  4  vols,  folio. 

In  this  very  prolix,  but  elaborate  w-ork,  every  possible  question 
relative  to  Scripture  criticism  is  discussed  and  illustrated,  from  the 
writings  of  the  fathers  and  most  eminent  divines,  principally  of  the 
church  of  Rome.  The  last  volume  contains  prefaces  to  the  tlifferent 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  exhibiting  the  time  when 
they  were  written,  their  language,  authors,  and  respective  autho- 
rity, together  with  copious  synopses  of  the  contents  of  each  book. 

23.  Commentatio,  qua  Lingua;  Aramaicae  Usus  ad  judicanda 
ct  interpretanda  Evangclia  Canonica  novis  exemplis  defcnditur. 
Auctore  Chr.  Kaiser.     Erlangte,  1823,  4to, 

24.  The  State  of  the  Printed  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment considered.  By  Benjamin  Kehnicott,  M.A.  Oxford, 
1753-1759,  2  vols.  8vo, 

These  dissertations  preceded  Dr.  Kcnnicott's  celebrated  collation 
of  Hebrew  MSS.,  and  his  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  which  i.s 
noticed  in  pp.  7,8.  of  this  Appendix.  The  first  dissertation,  in  two 
parts,  contains  a  comparison  of  1  Chron.  xi.  with  2 Sam.  v.  and  xxiii., 
and  observations  on  seventy  Hebrew  MSS.,  with  an  extract  of  mis- 
takes and  various  readings.  In  the  second,  the  Samaritan  copy  of 
the  Pentateuch  is  vindicated;  the  printed  copies  of  the  Chaldee 
Paraphrase  are  proved  to  be  corrupted  ;  the  sentimenLs  of  the  Jews 
on  the  Hebrew  text  are  ascertained  ;  an  account  is  given  of  all  the 
Hebrew  MSS.  known  to  be  extant ;  and  also  a  particular  catalogue 
of  one  hundred  Hebrew  MSS.  preserved  in  the  public  libraries  at 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  the  British  Museum.  Dr.  Kcnnicott's  first 
disserialion  was  translated  into  Latin  by  M.  Teller,  in  2  vols.  8vo. 
Lipsia;,  1756. 

25.  Benj.  Kenwicotti  Dissertatio  Generalis  in  Vctus  Testa- 
mentum  Hcbraicum.  Curavit  P.  J.  Bruns.  Brunsvici,  1783,  8vo. 

A  neat  reprint  of  Dr.  Kcnnicott's  Dissertatio  Generalis,  annexed 
to  vol.  ii.  of  his  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  noticed  in  pp.  7,8.  of 
this  Appendix. 

26.  Ignatii  Koeoler  Notitia  S.  S.  Bibliorum  Judaiorum  in 
Imperio  Sinensi.  Editio  altera.  Edidit  C,  Th.  de  Murr.  Hals, 
1800,  8vo. 

27.  Joannis  Lat^ioan  S.  Th.  D.  ct  in  Academia  Ticinensi 
Profcssoris,  Institution um  Biblicarum  Pars  prima.  Pavia  (1794). 
8vo. 

The  second  part  of  this  work  has  never  appeared  ;  nor  has  the 
writer  of  these  pages  been  able  to  obtain  the  sight  even  of  a  copy 
of  the  first  portion.  He  has  been  informed,  that  it  was  suppressed 
in  Italy.  A  short  analysis  of  the  first  part  is  given  in  the  Monthly 
Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xxii.  pp.  552 — 554. ;  where  it  is  said  (p.  555.) 
that  "  this  volume  contains  a  large  portion  of  text  matter,  well 
arranged,  and  accompanied  with  many  learned  notes,  selected  from 
the  best  critics  of  the  present  age,  together  with  a  considerable 
number  of  just  remarks  from  the  author's  own  pen." 

28.  Joannis  LF.rsDEKii  Philologus  Ebraius,  continens  Quaes- 
tioncs  Ebraicas   qua;  circa  Vctus  Tcstaraentum  Ebrseum   fere 


74 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY 
Amstelsedami, 


[Paut  n.  Chap.  HI. 


movcri  solent.    Ultrajccti,  165f5,  1672,  1695,  4to, 
16S0,  -Ito. 

29.  Joannis  Lt.ustiexii  Philologus  El)ra30-Mixtus,  una  cum 
spicilcgio  philologico,  continente  decern  qurestionuni  ct  position- 
um  prajciput;  Pliiloloirico-Ebraicarum  et  Judaicarum  centurias. 
Ultrajecti,  1G63,  1682,  1699,  4to. 

Besides  discussing  critical  questions,  this  volume  of  the  laborious 
philologer  Leusden  treats  veiy  copiously  on  Jewish  rites  and 
antiquities. 

30.  Johannis  LEtTsnF.TJii  Philologus  EbrKO-GrsEcus  generalis, 
contincns  qua;stiones  Ebrso-GrjEcas,  quae  circa  Novum  Tcsta- 
mentum  fere  moveri  solent.     Ultrajecti,  1670,  1685,  1695,  4to. 

Various  questions  relative  to  Ihe  original  language  of  the  New 
Testament,  its  editions,  versions,  divisions,  <S.'C.  are  concisely  illus- 
trated in  this  volume.  All  the  three  pre(!eding  volumes  of  Leusden 
are  valuable,  and  may  frequently  be  obtained  at  a  low  price. 

.31.  .lohannis  LKUsnENii  de  Dialectis  N.  T.,  singulatim  de 
ejus  Hebraismis,  Lihellua  singularis  iterum  editus  ab  Job.  Frider. 
Fischero.  Accessit  Joh.  Vorstii  Commentariolus  de  Adagiis  N.T. 
Hcbraicis.     Lipaia;,  1792,  8vo. 

This  publication  contains  a  reprint  of  Leusden's  critical  disqui- 
sitions on  the  Ileliraisms  of  the  New  Testament.  They  are  enriched 
with  very  numerous  philological  observations  of  the  learned  John 
Frederi(-k  Fisher,  who  first  published  them  in  a  detached  Ibrm,  in 
8vo.  in  1754. 

32.  Ant.  Aug.  Hen.  Lichtenstein  Paralipomena  Critica  circa 
Textum  Veteris  Testamenti  Codicum  Hebraicorum.  Helmstadii, 
1799,  4to. 

33.  MoLKEWBUHH  (Marcellini)  Problema,  Criticum :  Sacra 
Scriptura  Novi  Testamenti  in  quo  idiomate  originaliter  ab  Apos- 
tolis  cdita  fuit  1     Paderbornaj,  1822,  8vo. 

34.  BrjTTETiiM  (A.  J.),  Propempttcum  ad  problema  criticum, 
Sacra  Scriptura  Novi  Testamenti  in  quo  idiomate  originaliter  ab 
apostolis  edita  fucrit  ?  A  Doctore  Marco  Molkenbuhr  nuper 
propositum.     Moguntifc,  1822,  8vo. 

The  object  of  Molkenbuhr's  tract  is,  to  revive  the  absurd  and 
long  since  exploded  hypothesis,  announced  in  the  former  part  of 
the  last  century  by  father  Hardouin,  viz.  That  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment was  a  translation  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  Molkenbuhr  has 
l)een  most  satisfactorily  refuted  by  Binterim,  and  with  equal  learn- 
ing and  ability. 

35.  MoniNi  (Joannis)  Exercitationes  Biblicffi,  de  Hebrsei 
Gra;cique  Textus  Sinceritate,  germana  LXXH.  Intcrpretum 
Translatione  dignosccnda,  illius  cum  Vulgata  conciliatione,  et 
juxta  Judseos  divina  intcgritate,  totiusque  Rabbinicaj  Anti(iuitatis 
et  opcris  Masoretliici  rora,  expiicatione  et  censura.  Parisiis, 
1633,  4to. 

36.  MouTNi  (Joannis)  Exercitationes  Ecclesiastics  in  utram- 
quc  Samaritanorum  Pentatouchum.     Parisiis,  1631,  4to. 

37.  Simconis  de  Muis  Assertio  Veritatis  Hcbraica)  adversus 
Exercitationes  Ecclesiasticas  in  utrumque  Samaritanorum  Pen- 
tatouchum Joannis  Morini.     Parisiis,  1631,  12mo. 

38.  HoTTiNRERi  (Joannis  Henrici)  Exercitationes  Anti- 
Morinianffi,  do  Pcntateucho  Samaritano,  ej usque  avBivrt-u..  Ti- 
guri,  1644. 

For  an  account  of  the  controversy  between  Morin  and  his  an- 
tagonists, on  the  integrity  of  the  Hebrew  text,  &c.,  see  Wolfius's 
Bibliolheca  Ilebraica,  Part  11.  pp.  25.  270.,  and  Part  IV.  p.  7. 

39.  Brevis  Expositio  Critices  Veteris  Foederis,  auctore  Her- 
manno  Muntinghe.  Edidcrunt  B.  Nieuwold  et  C.  H.  van  Her- 
werden.     Groningte,  1827,  8vo. 

An  elegantly  written  compendium  of  the  most  vabtable  observa- 
tions of  the  most  distinguished  critics  who  have  treated  on  the  Old 
Testament.  Though  it  is  a  posthumous  publication,  the  editors 
state  that  the  author  composed  it  some  years  before  his  death.  It 
consists  of  four  chapters,  in  which  are  discussed  the  original  lan- 
guage of  the  Old  Testament,  the  History  of  the  Sacred  Text,  the 
origin  of  various  readings,  together  with  the  several  classes  into 
which  they  may  be  divided,  the  critical  aids  for  determining  various 
readings,  and  the  best  rules  to  be  employed  in  settling  them,  and 
in  correcting  the  sacred  text. 

40.  The  Veracity  of  the  Evangelists  demonstrated  by  a  com- 
parative View  of  their  Histories.  By  the  Rev.  Robert  Nares, 
A.M.  F.R.S.  &c.     London,  1815.    1818,  2d  edit.  12mo. 

41.  An  Inquiry  into  the  Integrity  of  the  Greek  Vulgate,  or 
Received  Text  of  the  New  Testament ;  in  which  the  Greek 
Manuscripts  are  newly  classed  ;  the  Integrity  of  the  Authorized 
Text  vindicated ;  and  the  Various  Readings  traced  to  their 
Origin.  By  the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolan,  LL.D.  London,  1815, 
8vo. 

"  We  trust  that  this  volume  will  command  the  attention  of  every 
scholar  throughout  the  kingdom :  and  that  it  will  find  its  way  into 


the  foreign  universities,  and  be  thoroughly  scrutinized  by  the 
learned  in  lliom.  To  the  biblical  imiuirer  it  will  jirescnt  not  only 
a  new  and  wide  Held  oi  most  curious  and  hapjiy  research,  but  a 
mine  of  the  most  valuable  infbrnmiion  :  to  the  classical  inquirer  it 
will  be  a  most  interesting  work,  as  it  involves  so  many  points,  both 
witb  respect  to  manuscripts  and  editions,  which  to  him  must  be 
highly  important.  Of  a  volume  which  displays  so  nuich  lalx)ur  in 
investigation,  so  much  originality  in  deduction,  and  so  much  sound 
principle  in  design,  we  can  in  common  justice  say  no  less  than  that, 
whatever  be  the  issue  of  the  conlrovcrsy  which  it  has,  we  think 
very  seasonably,  revived,  it  reflects  honour  on  the  age  and  nation 
in  which  it  was  produced."  (British  Critic,  N.  S.  Vol.  V.  p.  24.) 
See  an  outline  of  Dr.  Nolan's  classification  of  the  manuscripts  of 
the  New  Testament,  in  Part  I.  Chap.  ill.  Sect.  III.  ^  1.  pp.  20G— 208. 
of  the  first  volume. 

41*.  Supplement  to  an  Inquiry  into  the  Integrity  of  the  Greek 
Vulgate,  or  Received  Text  of  the  New  Testament ;  containing 
the  Vindication  of  the  Principles  employed  in  its  Defence.  By 
the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolan,  LL.D.     London,  1830,  8vo. 

42.  Critica  Sacra ;  or  a  short  Introduction  to  Hebrew  Criti- 
cism.    [By  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  Owen.]     London,  1774,  8vo. 

This  little  tract  is  not  of  common  occurrence.  Dr.  Owen  was  a 
learned  and  sober  critic,  but  no  advocate  for  the  absolute  inerrancy 
and  integrity  of  the  Hebrew  text.  His  book  was  violently  attacked 
by  Mr.  Raphael  Baruh  in  his  Critica  Sacra  Examined.  (London, 
1775,  8vo.)  Dr.  Owen  rejoined  in  a  learned  tract,  entitled  Supple- 
ment to  Critica  Sacra;  in  which  the  principles  of  that  treatise  are 
fully  confirmed,  and  the  objections  of  Mr.  Raphael  Baruh  are  clearly 
answered.     London,  1775,  8vo. 

43.  Pal/EObomatca,  or  Historical  and  Philological  Disquisi- 
tions ;  inquiring  whether  the  Hellenistic  Style  is  not  Latin 
Greek  1  Whether  the  many  new  words  in  the  Elzevir  edition  of 
the  Greek  Testament  are  not  formed  from  the  Latin  ]  And 
whether  the  Hypothesis  that  the  Greek  Text  of  many  manu- 
scripts of  the  New  Testament  is  a  translation  or  retranslation 
from  the  Latin,  seems  not  to  elucidate  numerous  passages,  to 
account  for  the  different  recensions,  and  to  explain  many  phe- 
nomena hitherto  inexplicable  to  the  Biblical  Critics  1  [By  John 
Black.]     London,  1823,  8vo. 

The  absurd  reasonings  and  mischievous  tendency  of  this  para- 
doxical publication  (which  is  noticed  here  to  put  tlie  unwary  stu- 
dent on  his  guard  against  it)  are  exposed  with  equal  learning  and 
ability  in  the  British  Critic  for  January,  February,  and  April,  1823, 
which  is  now  known  to  have  been  written  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  C. 
J.  Blomfield,  Bishop  of  London  ;  in  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Conybeare's 
"  Examination  of  certain  Arguments"  contained  in  it  (Oxford,  1823, 
8vo.) ;  in  the  Rev.  W.  G.  Broughton's  "  Examination  of  the  Hypo- 
thesis advanced  in  a  recent  publication,  entitled  '  Pateoromaica'  " 
(London,  1823,  8vo.) ;'  and  in  Bishop  Burgess's  Postscript  to  the 
second  edition  of  his  "  Vindication  of  1  John  v.  7.  from  the  objec- 
tions of  Mr.  Griesbach."  (London,  1823.)  "  The  publication  entitled 
Paloeoromaica"  (this  distinguished  prelate  has  most  justly  said)  "  is 
a  work  of  very  extensive  reading  and  research  ;  and  abounds  with 
valuable  quotations.  But  the  materials  are  as  destitute  of  selec- 
tion as  his"  [the  anonymous  author's]  "strictures  are  of  simplicity 
and  candour."  (Postscript,  p.  196.)  The  hypothesis  which  the 
author  of  Pateoromaica  endeavours  to  maintain  is  briefly  this : — 
That  the  received  text  of  the  Greek  Testament  is  a  servdc  trans- 
lation from  a  Latin  original  long  since  lost,  and  that  this  transla- 
tion was  made  by  a  writer  imperfectly  acquainted  with  one  or  pos- 
sibly with  both  of  tlie  languages  in  question.  In  support  of  this 
hypothesis  the  anonymous  writer  has  recourse  to  two  sorts  of  proof, 
direct  and  indirect. 

1.  The  direct  proof  he  finds  in  the  many  and  obvious  Latinisma 
which  he  asserts  to  exist  in  almost  every  page  of  the  Greek  text ; 
but,  besides  these,  the  anonymous  writer  has  collected  many  others, 
which  he  has  arranged  umier  several  heads  or  classes,  which  the 
nature  of  the  subject  and  the  limits  of  the  present  notice  forbid  us 
todetail.  The  reader  is  therefore  necessarily  referred  to  pp.  29 — 51. 
of  Mr.  Conybeare's  Examination,  in  which  the  anonymous  writer's 
errors  are  completely  exposed. 

2.  The  indirect  proofs  that  the  New  Testament  is  a  servile  trans- 
lation of  a  lost  Latin  original  are  twofold  :  frst,  the  existence  of 
certain  analogous  cases  of  translation  from  the  Latin,  and  particu- 
larly the  Aldine  edition  of  Uie  Greek  Simplicius  ;  and,  secondly, 
the  certainty  that  the  Latin  rather  than  the  Greek  was  the  preva- 
lent language  of  Palestine,  and  its  neighbourhood,  in  the  age  of  the 
evangelists  and  apostles. 

(1.)  Bisho))  Burgess  (Postscript,  pp.  186.  et  seq.)  and  Mr.  Cony- 
beare  (Examination,  pp.  7 — It).)  have  demonstiated  that  the  case  of 
the  Aldine  Simplicius  is  utterly  inapplicable  to  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  adduced  :  and  to  their  learned  publications  the  reader 
is  necessarily  referred.  It  must  suffice  here  to  remark  that  the  case 
of  this  Simplicius  is  very  different  from  that  of  a  book,  like  the 

>  In  reply  to  the  Bishop  of  St.  David's  and  Messrs.  Conybcare  and  Brough- 
ton,  the  author  of  ralrBoromaica  in  fS24  published  a  "supplement,"  con- 
taining many  ingenious  but  desultory  observations;  which,  however,  do 
nothing  towards  supporting  bis  untenable  liypotliesis.  This  publication 
drew  forth  an  able  "  reply"  from  Mr.  Bronghfon,  to  whom  the  author  of 
Palajoroniaica  rejoinrd ;  and  his  rejoinder  was  satisfactorily  refuted  by 
Mr.  B,  in  a  second  reply. 


Sect.  I.] 


TREATISES  ON  SACRED  CRITICISM,  &c. 


75 


New  Testament,  which  was  in  the  custody  of  tlio  whole  Christian 
chiiruii — a  Imok  in  wliich  every  part  of  thr;  clmrfh  look  a  deep  in- 
terest, ami  o(  wtiii-li  every  K(;parale  coiiKrci^alion  had  iln  eo|)y  or 
copies.  ^VIle^l  liie  yVldiiie  (ireek  vc-r«ioii  ol'  llie  barharous  Latin 
Iraiislalion,  made;  l)y  \V.  de  Moorhcka  in  ihc  ihirleeiilli  eeiitiiry, 
was  piiMislicil,  llie  (ireck  original  was  unknown,  am!  eontiiiucd  to 
he  nid<no\vn  until  it  was  discovercil  a  ffW  years  .since  hy  M.  I'cy- 
roii :  wherea.s  tlio  Greek  text  of  the  Wew  Testament  was  7itvcr 
luDt  or  missing. 

(2.)  In  full  disproof  of  the  alleged  eertainly  of  the  prevalenre  of 
the  I.,atin  language  in  Palestine  and  its  virginity,  during  llie  a|H)s- 
tolic  age,  it  will  lie  suflicient  to  refer  lo  I'arl  I.  (,'liiip.  I.  Seel.  II.  ol  llie 
first  volume,  \\liieli  riintaiiiH  some  (nidences  <if  the  general  pre- 
valence of  the  CJreek  language  that  have  escaped  llie  ri-seurelies  of 
IJishoji  Hurgess  and  of  Air.  (.'onyhearo  :  and  also  to  the  fact  that 
the  (Jid  Syriac  Version  of  lli<!  ]\'ew  ToslanienI,  made  in  the  close 
of  llic!  ;lrsl,  or  at  the  hegiiuiing  of  the  scccaid  century,  contains 
many  (lii'ek  words  iinlraiidtilid  ; — an  inconlcslaiile  proof,  this,  of 
the  prcMoiis  exi.slence  of  a  CJreek  original.  For  llie  lidlovving  addi- 
tional cviiiences  of  the  existence  of  llie  Greek  original  of  the  New 
Testament  we  are  indebted  to  that  learned  prelate.  "  If,"  s.ays  he, 
"from  the  prevalence  of  the  (Jreek  language  at  the  time  of  the 
nposlles,  we  extend  our  view  to  the  state  of  the  Chrisiian  i'hur<!h  in 
its  earliest  period,  we  shall  lind  increasing  prob.-ihilities  of  a  (ireek 
original.  All  llie  (lenlile  cliurclies  established  by  iIk!  a|«)slles  in 
the  Kast  were  (ireek  cliiirc-lics  ;  namely,  those  ol"  Anliocli,  K|>lie- 
sus,  (iaiatia,  ('orinili,  I'liilippi,  Tlies.salonica,"  Ac.  Again:  "The 
first  bishops  of  the  churcli  of  Rome  were;  either  (ireek  writers  or 
natives  of  (ircece. — According  to  Tertullian,  (Memens,  the  fellow- 
labonrer  of  St.  I'aiil,  was  the  first  bishop  of  Koine,  whose  Greek 
Kpistle  to  the  Corinthians  is  still  extant.  But  whether  Clemens  or 
liiinis  was  the  first  bishop  of  Rome,  they  were  lx)!li  (ireek  writers, 
though  probably  natives  of  Ilaly.  Anencletus  was  a  Greek,  and  so 
were  the  greater  part  of  his  successors  to  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  The  bishops  of  Jerusalem,  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jews  by  Adrian,  were  (Jreeks.  From  this  state  of  the  government 
of  the  primitive  church  by  (ireek  ministers — Greeks  by  birth  or  in 
their  writings — arises  a  high  probability  that  the  Christian  Scrip- 
tures were  in  Greek. 

"The  works"  al.so  " of  the  earliest  fathers  in  the  church,  the 
contemporaries  and  immediate  successors  of  the  aiiosiles,  were 
written  in  (ireek.  They  are  altogether  silent,  as  to  any  Jjilin  ori- 
ginal of  llie  NewTe.'^iameiil.  They  say  nolhing,  indeed,  of  a  Greek 
original  by  name.  Bui  tliiir  frequent  mention  of  rrx\xtx  »i/TiTun-x, 
wilhont  any  dislindion  of  name,  can  mean  only  Grech  originals. 

"  But  if  we  have  in  the  Greek  fathers  no  mention  of  a  Greek 
original,  we  have  the  most  express  testimony  of  Jerome  and  Au- 
gustin,  that  the  New  Testament  (with  the  exception  of  the  Gospel 
of  Saint  Matihevv,  which  some  of  ihe  fathers  supposed  to  have 
heen  written  by  its  author  in  Hebrew)  was  originally  composed  in 
Greek.  Jerome  said,  that  the  Greek  original  of  the  NewTeslament 
'  was  a  thing  not  to  be  doubted.'  " 

"  Of  all  the  [Latin]  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament  which  had  been 
seen  by  Jerome  (and  they  must  have  been  very  numerous),  the 
aiilhor  of  Pateoromaica  observes,  that  '  the  whole,  perhajis,  of  the 
Gospels  and  Epistles  might  be  versions  froin  the  Greek.'  Surely 
this  is  no  immaterial  eviden<'e  that  Greek  was  the  original  text; 
and  this  will  be  more  evident,  if  we  retrace  the  history  of  the 
Greek  text  upwards  from  the  time  of  Jerome.  The  Greek  edition 
nearest  his  time  was  that  (jf  Alhanasius.  Before  him,  and  early  in 
the  same  centurj',  Eu.sebius  published  an  edition  by  the  command 
of  Constantine.  In  the  third  century,  there  were  not  less  than  three 
Greek  editions  by  Origen,  He.syehius,  and  Lucianws.  In  the  second 
century,  alxiiit  the  year  170,  appeared  the  Dialessaron  of  Tatian, 
containing  not  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament,  but  a  harmony 
of  the  four  Gospels.  And  in  the  same  century  we  have  an  express 
appeal  of  Tertullian  to  the  aulhenticum  Graciim  of  St.  Paul,  which, 
wheilier  it  means  ihe  autograph  of  the  ajxjslle,  oran  authentic  copy 
of  it,  is,  of  itself,  a  decisive  proof  of  a  (ireek  original.  Again,  in 
the  same  century,  before  either  Tertullian  or  Tatian,  we  have, 
A.  D.  127,  the  Apostolicon  of  Marcion,  which,  though  not  an  aulhen- 
ticum Gnecnm,  was  Gnccum. 

"To  the  evidence  from  the  Greek  editions  of  the  New  Testament 
in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  centuries,  and  Tertullian's  testi- 
mony, we  m.ay  add  Ihe  language  of  those  Greek  ecclesiastical 
writings  which  were  not  admitted  into  the  sacred  canon,  but  were, 
for  the  most  part,  of  primitive  antiquity;  —  I  mean  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  the  Letter  of  Abgarus  to  Christ,  and  the  Answer  to  it;  the 
Liturgies  of  St.  James,  St-  John,  and  St.  Peter ;  the  Epistle  of  St. 
Paul  to  the  Lawliceans;  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  A:c.  These 
would  never  have  been  written  in  Greek,  if  the  apostolical  writings 
had  not  been  published  in  the  same  language."  (Postscript  to  Vin- 
dication of  1  John  V.  7.  pp.  182 — 185.) 

Lastly,  the  language  and  style  of  the  New  Testament  are  such 
OS  aflbnl  indisputable  proof  of  its  authenticity  as  an  ancient  volume, 
and,  consequently,  that  it  was  originally  written  in  Greek.  On 
this  topic  compare  Volume  I.  pp.  221,  222. 

On  all  these  grounds,  we  conclude  with  the  learned  writers 
already  cited,  that  Greek  was  and  is  the  original  language  of  the 
New  Testament,  and,  consequently,  that  there  is  no  evidence  what- 
ever to  supjxirt  the  hypothesis  that  it  is  a  translation  from  a  lost 
Latin  original. 

44.  Augusti  Pfeifferi  Critica  Sacra,  <le  Sacri  Codicis  parti- 
•  done,  ctlitionibus  variis,  lin^is  originalibus  ct  illibata  puritate 


fontium  ;  nccnon  ejusdcm  translafionc  in  ling^as  totius  universi, 
do  Ma.iora  et  Kabbala,  Talmiule  et  Alcorano.  Drcsda;,  1670, 
1G88,  1702,  1721,  8vo.  Lipsia-,  1712,  8vo.  Altorfii,  1751,  8vo. 
Also  in  the  second  volume  of  the  collective  edition  of  his  Philo- 
logical Works,  published  at  Utrecht  in  1704,  4to. 

4.5.  Rcchcrches  ('ritiqncs  ct  Ili.storirjues  sur  le  Texte  Grec  des 
Evangiles.     Par  Albert  Killif.t.     Geneve,  18.32,  8 vo. 

46.  lia  Fionda  di  David ;  ossia,  rAnlichita  ed  Autorita  dei 
Punti  Vocali  nel  Testo  Ebrco,  dimostrata  c  difesa  per  Ippolito 
RosKLLiM.  Bologna,  1823,  8vo.  Hisposta  del  niedcsimo  al 
sign.  Abate  Luigi  (Jhiarini,  rcspctto  all'  Antichita  cd  autoriti 
dei  Punti  Vocali.     Bologna,  1824,  8vo. 

These  two  publications  ilefend  the  antiquity  and  authority  of  the 
Masorelic  vowel-|K)inti<,  against  the  ol)jccli(»ns  of  Masclcf,  Iloiibi- 
gant,  and  other  Ilebraints.     (Journal  des  Savaiis  pijur  1825,  p.  384.) 

47.  Dc  la  Littcraturc  des  Hcbreux,  ou  des  Livrcs  Saints  con- 
sidercs  sous  le  Rajiport  des  Bcautcs  Littcraires.  Par  J.  B.  Sal- 
0UE8.     Paris,  1825,  8vo. 

48.  Joannis  Nepomuceni  Schs^fkh  Institutiones  Scripturlsticie 
Usui  auditorum  siiorum  accommodata.  Pars  prima,  Moguntis, 
1700.     Pars  sccunda,  Moguntix-,  1792,  8vo. 

49.  A.  B.  SriTZNKni  (Jommcntatio  Philologicade  Parcnthesi 
in  Libris  Sacris  Vetcris  ct  Novi  Testamenti.    Lipsiaj,  1773,  12mo. 

50.  A.  B.  SiMTZNERi  Vindicia;Originis  et  Auctorilates  DiviniB 
Punctorum  Vocalium  et  Acccntuum  in  libris  sacris  Veteris  Te»- 
tanicnti.     Lipsiaj,  1791,  8vo. 

51.  Histoirc  Critique  du  Vieux  Testament.  Par  le  Fere 
SiMON.  Pari.s,  1678,  4to.  Amsterdam,  1 080.  Rotterdam,  1685, 
4to.  Best  edition. 

The  first  e<lilion  was  suppressed  by  the  influence  of  the  Jesuit 
lo  Tellier;  it  is  very  inferior  to  the  siilwequcnt  impressions. 

52.  Histoire  Critique  du  Tcxte  du  Nouveau  Testament ;  oi\ 
I'on  ctablit  la  Verite  des  Actes,  sur  lcs<jnels  la  Religion  Chr^- 
ticnne  est  fondce.     Par  le  Pere  Simov.     Rotterdam,  1689,  4to. 

53.  Ilistoirc  Critiijue  des  Versions  du  Nouveau  Testament, 
ou  I'on  fait  connoitre  quel  a  etc  I'usage  dc  la  lecture  des  Livrcs 
Sacres  dans  les  principalcs  eglises  du  niondc.  Par  le  Pcre 
Sijiov.     Rotterdam,  1690,  4to. 

54.  Nouvelles  Dissertations  sur  Ic  Texte  ct  Ics  Versions  du 
Nouveau  Testament.  Par  Ic  Pure  Simox.    Rotterdam,  1695,  4to. 

All  the  works  of  fiilher  Simon  are  characterized  by  great  learn- 
ing and  research.  "The  criticism  of  the  Bible  being  at  ihat  time 
less  understood  than  at  present,  the  researches  which  were  insti- 
tuted by  Simon  soon  involved  him  in  controversy,  as  well  with 
Protestant  as  with  Catholic  writers,  jiarticul.-irly  with  the  latter; 
to  whom  he  gave  great  offence  by  the  preference  which  he  showed 
to  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts  of  the  Bible  above  that  which  is 
regarded  as  the  oracle  of  the  church  of  Rome, — the  Latin  Vulgate. 
"Though  1  would  not  be  answerable  for  every  opinion  (says  B p. 
Marsh)  advanced  by  Simon,  I  may  venture  to  assert  that  it  contains 
very  valuable  information  in  regard  to  the  criticism  both  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  and  of  the  Greek  Testament."  (Lectures,  part  i. 
p.  52.)  Walchius  has  given  an  account  of  the  various  authors  who 
attacked  Simon,  in  his  Bibliothcca  Theologica  Selecta,  vol.  iv. 
pp.  250 — 259.  The  Ilisioire  Critique  du  Vieus  Testament  was 
translated  into  English  "  by  a  person  of  quality,"  and  published  at 
London  in  1GS2,  4to.  The  translation  abound^  with  gallicisms  in 
every  page. 

55.  Johannis  Simoxis  Analy.sis  ex  Explicatio  Lectionum 
Masorcthicarum  Kcthiban  et  Karjan  Vulgo  dictaruni,  ca  formi, 
qua  ilia;  in  sacro  tcxtu  extant,  ordine  alphabetico  digcsta.  Editio 
tcrtia.     Hala;,  1823,  8vo. 

56.  VonsTii  (Johannis)  De  Hcbraismis  Novi  Testamenti 
Commentarius.  Edidit  notisque  instruxit  Johannes  Fridericos 
Fischcrus.     Lipsia;,  1778,  8vo. 

57.  Briani  Waltoxi  in  Biblia  Polyglotta  Prolegomena.  Pne- 
fatus  est  J.  A.  Dathc,  Prof.  Ling.  Heb.  Ord.     Lipsia;,  1777, 8vo. 

58.  Briani  Waltoni,  S.T.P.  in  Biblia  Polyglotta  Prolegomena 
Specialia  recognovit,  Dathianisque  et  variorum  Notis  suas  immis- 
cuit  Franciscus  WnAxcnA-M,  A.M.  S.R.S.  Clevclandia;  Archi- 
diaconus.  Cantabrigiae,  typus  ac  sumptibus  acadcmicis,  1828, 
2  tomis,  8vo. 

One  hundred  and  seventy  years  have  elapsed  since  the  publica- 
tion of  Bishop  Walton's  special  Prolegomena  to  his  Polyglott  Bible ; 
the  variety,  accuracy,  and  extent  of  the  information  contained  in 
which  have  concurred  to  give  it  a  high  place  among  standard  critical 
works  on  the  sacred  text.  In  the  long  interval  that  has  elapsed 
since  the  first  appearance  of  that  work,  many  topics  have  been 
controverted,  and  much  additional  light  ha.e  been  thrown  on  all  the 
subjects  discussed  in  Bishop  Walton's  Prolegomena  by  the  re- 
searches of  various  learned  men.     As  Professor  Dathe's  octavo 


76 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IIL 


edition  had  become  extremely  swirce,  Mr.  Archdeaeon  Wrangham 
has  conferred  no  small  obligation  on  biblical  students  by  ])rosonting 
to  them  a  new  edition  of"  the  Prolegomena,  ll  is  e.veeuted  on  the 
following  plan: — The  text  of  Walton  ha.s  been  accurately  printed, 
and  the  punctuation  amended  and  improved,  and  errors  in  numbers 
liave  been  carefully  corrected.  The  observations  which  Dalhc 
liad  collected  in  the  preface  to  his  edition,  not  in  the  best  possible 
order,  arc  here  inserted  in  the  notes,  under  the  topics  to  which 
they  referred;  and  with  ihem  Mr.  Wrangham  has  inserted  very 
numerous  ob.servations  ol'  his  own,  explaining,  confirming,  or  cor- 
recting the  text  of  Walton,  which  are  derived  from  tlie  best  critical 
sources,  both  ancient  and  modern,  besides  refe/cnces  to  the  best 
writers  who  have  treated  on  sacred  criticism.  Many  critical  canons 
of  Wet-slein,  Iloubigant,  and  other  editors  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
the  rarity  and  high  price  of  whose  works  place  them  beyond  the 
reach  of  ordinary  students,  are  here  inserted  ;  and  vvliore  particular 
subjects  required  a  more  copious  discussion,  Mr.  Wrangham  has 
treated  them  at  length  at  the  end  of  each  chapter,  in  excursus, 
after  the  plan  adopted  by  Heyne  in  his  admirable  edition  of  Virgil. 
Among  the  subjects  thus  copiously  illustrated  we  may  enumerate 
the  disquisitions  on  the  Square  Samaritan  Characters,  the  Antiquity 
of  the  Vowel  Points,  the  Matres  Lectionis  M  n  N,  the  principal 
Manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament,  particularly  the  Codex  Alcx- 
andrinus.  Various  Readings,  the  Sepluagint  Version,  Ancient  and 
Modern  Latin  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  the  Samaritans  and  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  the  Chaldee  Paraphrases  and  their  Uses, 
Editions  of  the  Syriac  Version,  the  agreement  between  the  Hebrew 
and  Arabic  dialects,  and  the  Persic  Versions. 

Fac-similes  of  eight  of  the  MSS.  of  chief  note  are  prefixed  ;  and 
in  the  course  of  the  work  there  are  inserted  alphabets  of  the  princi- 
pal modern  languages  ;  viz.  Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  with  the  rab- 
binical letters,  the  Samaritan,  Syrriac,  with  the  Nestorian  and  an- 
cient Estrangelo  letters,  Arabic,  Persic,  Ethiopic,  Armenian,  Coptic 
or  Egyptian,  Illyrian,  Dalmatian,  Georgian,  and  Gothic;  together 
with  a  specimen  of  Chinese  characters,  and  tables  of  the  dates  of 
the  principal  modern  versions  of  the  Scriptures. 

The  work  is  beautifully  executed  at  the  expense,  and  press,  of 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  by  whose  munificence  Mr.  Archdea- 
con Wrangham  is  enabled  to  offer  to  critical  students  of  the  Scrip- 
tures the  results  of  his  learned  researches  at  a  price,  for  which 
they  could  not  otherwise  be  afforded.  There  are  a  few  copies  on 
large  paper,  which  are  a  chef-d'oeuvre  of  typographical  skill. 

59.  Wetstenii  (Johannis  Jacobi)  Prolegomena  ad  Testa- 
menti  Graeci  editionem  accuratissimam,  e  vetustissimis  codicibus 
denuo  procurandam  :  in  quibus  agitur  de  codicibus  manuscriptis 
Novi  Testamenti,  Scriptoribus  qui  Novo  Testamento  usi  sunt, 
versionibus  veteribus,  editionibus  prioribus,  et  claris  interpreti- 
bus ;  et  proponuntur  animadversiones  et  cautiones,  ad  examen 
variorum  lectionera  Novi  Testamenti.     Amstelfedami,  1730,  4to. 

60.  Casparis  Wtssii  Dialectologia  Sacra,  in  qua.  per  univer- 
sum  Novi  Testamenti  contextura  in  apostolica.  et  voce  et  phrasi, 
a  communi  linguae  et  grammaticae  analogia  discrcpat,  methodo 
congrua  disponitur,  accurate  definitur,  et  omnium  Sacri  Contex- 
tiis  exemplorum  inductions  illustratur.     Tiguri,  1650,  4to. 

"  The  peculiarities  of  the  New  Testament  diction,  in  general, 
are  arranged  in  this  book  under  the  following  heads,  viz.  Dialectus, 
Attica,  lonica,  Dorica,  .iEolica,  Boeotica,  Poetica,  et  Hebraica.  This 
is  very  inconvenient,;  inasmuch  as,  in  this  way,  many  things  of  a 
light  kind  will  be  separated,  and  often  treated  of  in  four  different 
places.  Moreover,  the  author  shows,  that  his  knowledge  of  Greek 
did  not  extend  beyond  what  was  common  at  his  time ;  as  the  men- 
tion of  a  poetic  dialect  evinces,  and  as  an  examination  of  what  he 
calls  the  Attic  will  render  still  more  evident.  But  as  a  collection 
of  examples,  which  in  many  parts  is  perfectly  complete,  the  book 
is  very  useful.  In  reference,  also,  to  the  Hebraisms  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  author  showed  a  moderation  which  deserved  to  be 
imitated  by  his  contemporaries."  (Winer's  Greek  Grammar  of  the 
New  Test  p.  13.) 

61.  A  Vindication  of  the  Authenticity  of  the  Narratives  con- 
tained in  the  first  Two  Chapters  of  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Luke,  being  an  Investigation  of  Objections  urged  by  the 
Unitarian  Editors  of  the  improved  Version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, with  an  Appendix  containing  Strictures  on  the  Variations 
between  the  first  and  fourth  Editions  of  that  Work.  By  a  Lay- 
man.   [John  Betans.]     London,  1822,  8vo. 

In  this  very  elaborate  work,  the  authenticity  of  Matt.  i.  and  ii. 
and  Luke  i.  and  ii.  are  most  satisfactorily  vindicated  from  the  objec- 
tions of  the  Editors  of  the  Unitarian  Version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  whose  disingenuous  alterations  in  successive  editions  of  that 
work  are  exposed  in  the  Appendix. 


2.  Dc  Sacrfk  Poesi  Hchrscorum  Prajlectioncs  Acadcmicae.  Auc- 
tore  Roberto  Lowtu,  nupcr  Episcopo  Londinensi.  Oxonii, 
1821,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  Bishop  Lowlh's  Lectures  appeared  in  1753. 
That  of  1821  may  be  considered  as  the  best,  as  it  includes,  besides 
the  additional  oljservati(ms  of  Prof  Michaclis,  the  further  remarks 
of  Ilosenmiillcr  (whose  edition  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  1815),  Rich- 
ter,  and  Weiske.  Bp.  Lowth's  Lectures  arc  reprinted  in  the  thirty- 
first  volume  of  Ugolini's  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum. 

.3.  Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews :  translated 
from  the  Latin  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  Robert  Lowth,  D.D.  Bishop  of 
London,  by  G.  GiiERonT.  To  which  are  added  the  principal 
Notes  of  Professor  Michaclis,  and  Notes  by  the  Translator  and 
others.  London,  1787,  2  vols.  8vo.  1816,  2  vols.  8vo.  second 
edition. 

4.  Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  by  Robert 
Lowth,  D.D.  Bishop  of  London.  Translated  from  the  original 
Latin,  with  Notes,  by  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  A.M.  Andover  [Mas- 
sachusetts], 1829,  8vo. 

"  In  1815  Rosenmiiller  prepared  a  new  edition  of  Lowth's  work, 
to  which  he  added  many  notes  of  his  own,  and  corrected  the  errors 
into  which  Michaclis  had  fallen.  Besides  these  writers.  Sir  Wil- 
liam Jones,  Eichhorn,  Gesenius,  De  Wette,  and  some  others,  since 
the  time  of  Michaclis,  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  elucidation  of 
this  subject.  From  all  these  authors,  the  American  Editor  of  this 
work  has  enriched  it  with  valuable  selections.  He  has  also  added  a 
number  of  notes,  which  are  entirely  original.  He  has  displayed  in 
the  execution  of  his  task  much  sound  judgment  and  research.  All 
the  notes  he  has  selected  are  of  sterling  value  :  and  those  which 
are  the  result  of  his  own  investigation  exhibit  originality  and  re- 
search." (North  American  Review,  October,  1830,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  375.) 

5.  Sacred  Literature  ;  comprising  a  Review  of  the  Principles 
of  Composition  laid  down  by  the  late  Robert  Lowth,  D.D.  Lord 
Bishop  of  London,  in  his  Prelections  and  Isaiah,  and  an  appli- 
cation of  the  Principles  so  reviewed  to  the  illustration  of  the  New 
Testament ;  in  a  series  of  Critical  Observations  on  the  style 
and  structure  of  that  Sacred  Volume.  By  the  Rev.  John  Jebb, 
D.D.  Bishop  of  Limerick.  London,  1820,  8vo.  Second  Edi- 
tion, corrected,  1828,  8vo. 

An  analysis  of  the  system  developed  in  this  admirable  work  has 
already  been  given  in  Part  II.  Book  II.  Chap.  II.  $^  III. — V.  of  the 
first  volume. 

6.  Tactica  Sacra :  an  Attempt  to  develope,  and  to  exhibit  to 
the  eye,  by  Tabular  Arrangements,  a  general  Rule  of  Composi- 
tion prevailing  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  By  Thomas  Boys,  A.M. 
London,  1824,  4to. 

An  ingenious  attempt  to  extend  to  the  epistolary  writings  of  the 
New  Testament  the  principles  of  composition  so  ably  illustrated 
by  Bishop  Jebb.  The  work  consists  of  two  parts  :  the  first  contains 
the  necessary  explanations ;  and  the  second  comprises  four  of  the 
epistles  arranged  at  length  in  Greek  and  English  examples.  For 
specimens  of  this  work,  with  appropriate  Observations,  see  the 
British  Review,  vol.  xxii.  pp.  176--185. 

7.  J.  G.  ErcHHOHN  Commentationes  de  Prophetic^:  Poesi. 
Lipsiae,  1823,  4to. 

8.  An  Essay  on  Hebrew  Poetry,  Ancient  and  Modern.  By 
Philip  Sarchi,  LL.D.     London,  i824,  8vo. 

9.  The  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry.  By  J.  G.  Herder.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German.  By  James  Marsh.  In  two  volumes. 
Vol.  L     Burlington  [New  Jersey],  1833,  12mo. 

The  second  volume  is  announced  to  appear  as  soon  as  the  pres- 
sure of  other  duties  on  the  translator  will  permit  him  to  prepare  it 
for  the  press. 


SECTION  IL 

TREATISES    ON    HEBREW    POETRY. 

1.  Exercitatio  in  Dialectum  Poeticam  Divinorum  Carminum 
Veteris  Testamenti.  Auctore  Geo.  Joh.  Lud.  Vogel.  Helm- 
etadii,  1764,  4to. 


SECTION  III. 

TREATISES   ON  THE   QUOTATIONS    FROM    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 
IN    THE    NEW. 

1.  JoANNis  Drtjsii  Parallela  Sacra:  hoQ est, Locorum  Veteris 
Testamenti  cum  iis  quae  in  Novo  citantur  conjuncta  Commemo- 
ratio,  Ebraice  et  Graece,  cum  Notis.     Franeckerae,  1616,  4to. 

2.  Bt/^Ko;  Ku-rcthKcc-ync,  in  quo  secundum  veterum  Theologorum 
Hebraeorum  Formulas  Allegandi,  et  Modos  interpretandi,  concili- 
antur  Loca  ex  V.  in  N.  T.  allegata.  Auctore  Guilielmo  Sdeeit- 
Husro.     Amstetedami,  1713,  4to. 

This  elaborate  work  is  divided  into  four  Books.  The  first  treats 
on  the  formulae  of  citing  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New ;  the  second 
on  the  modes  of  quotation;  the  third,  on  the  methods  of  interpre- 
tation adopted  by  the  sacred  writers ;  and  the  fourth  on  the  mode 
of  explaining  and  reconciling  the  seeming  contradictions  occurring 
in  the  genealogies.  Many  very  difficult  passages  are  here  happily 
illustrated. 


Sect.  IV.] 


TREATISES  ON  MANUSCRIPTS. 


77 


3.  Immanuelis  Hoffmaivni  Dcmonstratio  Evangclica  par  !{>- 
sum  Scripturarum  cotisorisum,  in  oraculis  ex  Vet.  Tostaint'nto 
in  Novo  Allcgatis  dcclarata.  Edidil,  ol)scrvatioiiiljus  illustravit, 
Vitam  Auctoris,  cl  Coinmoiitationcin  Historico-Thcologicarn  dc 
recta  rationc  Allegata  ista  interpretandi,  pra.'inisit  Toh.  Godofre- 
dus  Hegelinaicr.     Tubinga;,  1773-79-81,  in  three  volumes,  4to. 

In  this  very  oluboratc  work,  every  quolalioii  from  tiie  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  New  is  printed  at  (iiU  iciigtii,  first  as  cited  by  the 
evangelists  and  a|K)stles,  then  in  the  original  Hebrew,  and  thirdly 
in  the  words  of  th(!  Sepinagint  Greek  Version.  Tde  learned  anilior 
then  cxuMiines  it  both  critically  and  hcrincneutieally,  and  shows 
the  perfect  harmony  snbsistiiig  between  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, llollinann's  Dcmonstratio  Kvangelica  is  extremely  scarce, 
and  very  little  known  in  this  country. 

4.  The  Prophecies  and  other  Texts  cited  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, compared  with  the  Hebrew  original,  and  with  the  Scjitua- 
gint  version.  To  which  arc  added  Notes  by  Thomas  Randolph, 
D.D.  Oxford,  1782,  4to, 

This  valuable  and  boaulifully-printed  tract  is  now  rarely  to  he 
met  with,  and  only  to  be  procured  at  seven  or  eight  times  its  original 
jirice.  The  most  material  of  this  excellent  critic's  observations  are 
inserted  in  the  notes  to  our  chanter  on  the  Quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  Now,  in  the  tirst  Volume. 

5.  The  Modes  of  Quotation,  used  by  the  Evangelical  Writers, 
explained  and  vindicated  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  Owen.  Lon- 
don, 1789,  4to. 

The  design  of  this  elaborate  work  is,  1.  To  compare  the  quota- 
tions of  the  Evangelists  with  each  other,  and  with  the  passages 
reiisrred  to  in  the  Old  Testament,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  real 
dillerences: — 2.  To  account  for  such  differences;  and  to  reconcile 
the  Evangelists  with  the  Prophets,  and  with  each  other:  —  and, 
3.  To  show  the  just  application  of  such  quotations,  and  that  they 
fully  prove  the  points  which  they  were  brought  to  establish. 

6.  A  Collation  of  the  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in 
the  New,  with  the  Septuagint.  [By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Scott.] 
8vo. 

This  important  Collation  is  inserted  in  the  ninth  and  tenth 
volumes  of  the  Christian  Observer  for  the  years  1810  and  1811; 
where  it  is  simply  designated  by  the  initials  of  the  late  venerable 
and  learned  author's  name.  Many  of  his  valuable  critical  Obser- 
vations will  be  found  in  the  notes  to  Part  I.  Chap.  IV.  Sect.  I.  of 
the  first  Volume. 

7.  Passages  cited  from  the  Old  Testament  by  the  writers  of 
the  New  Testament,  compared  with  the  Original  Hebrew  and 
the  Septuagint  Version.  Arranged  by  the  Junior  Class  in  the 
Theological  Seminary,  Andover,  and  published  at  their  request 
under  the  superintendence  of  M.  Stuart,  Associate  Professor  of 
Sacred  Literature.     Andover,  Massachusetts,  1827,  4to. 

In  this  beautifully  printed  pamphlet  the  quotations  are  arranged 
m  a  ditfercnt  order  from  that  adopted  in  Part  I.  Chap.  IV.  Sect.  I. 
of  the  first  Volume.  There,  we  have  printed  the  Hebrew,  Septua- 
gint, and  Greek  texts  of  the  New  TesUiment  in  three  parallel 
columns,  with  English  versions  of  each.  In  the  Anglo-American 
text,  the  quotations  are  given  in  three  columns,  thus  :  Septuagint, 
Hebrew  text,  and  passages  from  the  Now  Testament.  The  Hebrew 
texts  are  taken,  with  points,  from  Michaelis's  edition,  printed  in 
1720;  those  from  the  Septuagint  version  are  from  Mr.  Valpy's  edi- 
tion after  the  Vatican  exemplar;  and  those  from  the  New  Testament 
are  from  Dr.  Knappe's  second  edition.  The  formulae  of  quotation 
are  included  in  bracket.s,  in  order  that  the  eye  may  readily  seize 
them.  The  tract  concludes  with  "an  Index  of  Passages,  in  which 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  have  referred  to  the  Old,  with- 
out formally  quoting  it :"  this  is  stated  to  be  selected  from  Dr. 
Knappe's  Hccensus  Locorum,  &c.  appended  to  his  edition  of  the 
New  Testament.  There  are  no  notes  to  account  for  seeming  dis- 
crepancies in  the  quotations,  nor  are  there  any  hints  of  suggestions 
to  enable  students  to  classify  them. 


SECTION  IV. 

TREATISRS  ON  MANUSCRIPTS  AND  ON  VARIOUS  READINGS. COL- 
LATIONS OF  MANUSCRIPTS  AND  COLLECTIONS  OF  VARIOUS 
READINGS. 

§   1.    TREATISES    ON    MANUSCRIPTS. 

1.  De  Usu  Palaeographiaj  Hebraicaj  ad  explicanda  Biblia  Sacra, 
Disscrtatio.  Scripsit  Jo.  Joach.  Belleujiann.  Halm  et  Erfor- 
diffi,  1804. 

2.  Tychsen  (O.  G.)  Tentamen  de  variis  Codicum  Hcbraico- 
rum  Veteris  Testamenti  manuscriptorum  gcneribus  a  Judteis  et 
nou-Jud:cis  descriptis,  eorumquc  in  classes  certas  distributione, 
et  aiiliquilutis  et  bonitatis  charactcribus.     Rostochii,  1772,  8vo. 


3.  Caroli  Godofredi  Woinii  Notitia  Codicis  Alexandrini,  cum 
Variis  ejus  Lectionibus  omnibus.  Recudendum  curavit,  Notas- 
quc  adjecit  Gottlieb  Lebcrecht  Spohn.     Lipsise,  1790,  8vo. 

4.  J.  L.  Huo  de  Antiquitate  Vaticani  Codicis  Commentatio. 
Friburg,  1810,  4to. 

5.  De  Antiquissimo  Turicensis  Bibliothecae  Grseco  Psalmorum 
Libro,  in  Membranii  Purpurea  titulis  aureis  ac  litteris  argenteis 
exarato,  Epistola :  ad  Angeluni  Mariam  Card.  Quirinum  scripta 
a  Joanne  Jacobo  Bueiti.nueiio.     Turici,  1748,  4to, 

5.  H.  C.  Hwiin  Libellus  Criticus  de  Indole  MS.  Grjeci  Novi 
Testamenti  Vindoboncnsis  Lambecii  34.  Accessit  Textus  La- 
tinus  ante-Hieronymianus  e  Codice  Laudiano.  Havnia;,  1785, 
8vo. 

Extracts  from  this  manuscript  are  given  in  Alter's  edition  of  tho 
Greek  Testament,  vol.  ii.  pp.  415 — 458.  in  which  volume  Professor 
Alter  also  gave  extracta  from  various  MSS.  in  the  imperial  library 
at  Vienna. 

7.  Hcnr.  Phil.  Conr.  Henke  Codicis  Uflcnbachiani,  qui 
Epistola."  ad  Hcbra;os  fragmenta  continet,  Recensus  Criticus. 
Helmstadii,  1800,  4  to. 

This  dissertation  is  also  reprinted  in  Pott's  and  Rupcrti's  Sylloge 
Conimentationum  Thoologicarum,  vol.  ii.  p.  1 — 32. 

8.  Commentatio  Critica,  sistcns  duorum  Codicum  MStorum 
Biblia  Hcbraica  continentium,  <)ui  Regiomonti  Borussorum  asser- 
vantur,  prajstantissimorum  Nolitiam ;  cum  praecipuarum  Varian- 
tiuin  Lectionum  ex  utroque  codice  excerptarum  Sylloge.  Auctore 
Theod.  Christ.  Lilientiial.     Regiomonti  et  Lipsia;,  1770,  8vo. 

9.  Friderici  MiiNTEHi,  Episcopi  Selandiae,  Notitia  Codicis 
Grajci   Evangelium   Johannis   variatum   continentis.     Haunia;, 

1828,  8vo. 

"  This  little  tract  of  Bishop  Miinter  deserves  a  place  in  the  library 
of  every  critical  divine.  The  manuscript,  of  which  it  gives  an 
account,  caiuiot  however  be  of  any  ini|)ortance  except  in  the  point 
of  view  under  which  the  bishop  has  brought  it  forward.  On  ques- 
tions of  minute  criticism  its  testimony  is  evidently  of  no  value. 
Every  one  knows,  that  certain  heretics  mangled  the  Gos|)el  of  .St. 
Matthew,  while  Marcion  dismembered  St.  Luke's;  but  St.  Marks 
and  St.  John's  Gospels  were  supposed  hitherto  to  have  escaped  a 
mutilation  of  the  same  wilful  nature.  The  manuscript,  however, 
of  which  this  little  tract  contains  the  collation,  appears  to  exhibit 
a  conception  deliberately  made,  to  bring  the  latter  down  to  a  stan- 
dard of  certain  opinions.  It  is  now  in  tlie  library  of  a  Johannito 
convent  '  [the  templars  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem]'  at  Paris,  and 
appears  to  be  a  copy  of  some  more  ancient  MS.,  which  is  said  to 
exist  at  present  in  a  monastery  on  mount  Athos;  although  its  very 
existence,  or  at  any  rate  its  present  abode,  is  rather  problematical. 
The  original  manuscript  is  assigned  to  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth 
century:  but  bishop  Miinter  adjudges  both  it  and  the  Paris  copy 
of  it  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth.  It  contains  all  the  writings  of 
the  evangelist  St.  John,  but  its  chief  variations  from  the  established 
coi)ies  are  confined  to  the  gospel.  The  gospel  is  divided  into  sec- 
lions,  each  of  whicli  is  called  an  ivuyyi\ir,v.  They  eorres|)ond 
nearly  with  our  chapters.  The  bishop's  first  notion  was,  that  it 
might  be  a  corruption  of  some  of  the  Gnostic  sects.  On  closer  ex- 
amination, however,  and  comparing  it  with  what  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus,  Origen,  and  other  ecclesiastical  writers  have  related  of 
these  sects,  it  does  not  appear  to  agree  with  any  of  their  particular 
corruptions.  It  is  not,  however,  free  from  impure  Greek,  barba- 
ristns,  and  Latinisms.  It  is,  evidently,  also  accommodated  to  some 
]>eculiar  opinion.  Tlie  deductioas  drawn  by  the  bishop,  as  to  the 
doctrines  of  those  who  concocted  this  perversion  of  St.  John,  are 
the  following: — that  they  acknowledged  the  Trinity  and  the  ortho- 
dox doctrine  as  to  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  that  they  recog- 
nised the  divine  mission  of  our  Saviour,  but  attributed  his  wisdom 
and  his  jiower  to  his  instruction  in  some  Egyptian  tciuplc ;  that 
they  placed  all  our  Saviour's  merit  on  his  divine  doctrine,  and  by 
no  means  recognised  the  eflicacy  of  his  death  as  a  sacrifice  ;  that 
they  described  the  miracles,  with  the  omission  of  all  that  makes 
them  miraculous;  that  they  eject  almost  all  actual  prophecies,  all 
that  relates  to  Jewish  customs,  and  almost  all  that  has  any  tendency 
to  magnify  St.  Peter,  and  they  have  a  curious  addendum  at  xvii«  2b. 
which  ascribes  a  kind  of  supremacy  to  St.  John."  (Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review,  vol.  iv.  pp.  312,  313.)  In  all  the  topics  here  enume- 
rated, Dr.  Miinter  has  adduceil  numerous  proofs  in  his  collation  of 
the  manuscript  with  the  received  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament. 
A  collation  of  this  manuscript  with  Griesliach's  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament  is  given  by  Dr.  Thilo  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Codex 
Apocryphus  Novi  Testamenti,  noticed  in  p.  67.  of  this  Appendix. 

10.  Codicis  Manuscripti  N.  T.  Grteci  Raviani  in  Bibliothcca 
Regia  Berolinensi  Publica  asservati  Examen,  quo  ostenditur,  al- 
teram ejus  partem  majoreni  ex  Editione  Complutensi,  alteram 
minorem  ex  Editione  Rob.  Stephani  tertia  esse  descriptam,  insti- 
tuit  Georgius  Gottlieb  Pappelbaum.  Ap|)endix  exhibet,  I.  Ad- 
denda ad  Wctstenii  CoUectioncm  Lectionum  Varr.  Editionis 
Complutcnsis.  II.  Epistolani  ad  Geo.  Travis  Rev.  Anglum  jam 
1785  scriptam,  at  nondvim  editam.     Beroliiii,  1796,  8vo. 


78 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  n.  Chap.  m. 


11.  Codicem  Manuscriptum  Novi  Testamcnti  Grsecum,  Evan- 
geliorum  quatuor  partem  dimkliam  majorcm  contincntem,  in 
Bibliotheca  Regia  Berolinensi  publica  asservatum,  descripsit,  con- 
tulit,  aniinadversiones  adjecit  G.  Th.  Pappelbaum.  Berolini, 
1824,  8vo. 

12.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Ethiopic  Biblical  Manuscripts  in  the 
Royal  Library  of  Paris,  and  in  the  Library  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society ;  also  some  account  of  those  in  the  Vati- 
can Library  at  Rome,  with  Remarks  and  Extracts.  To  which 
are  added  Specimens  of  Versions  of  the  New  Testament  in  the 
modern  languages  of  Abyssinia,  and  a  Grammatical  Analysis 
of  a  chapter  in  the  Amharic  Dialect ;  with  fac-similes  of  an  Ethi- 
opic and  an  Amharic  Manuscript.  By  Thomas  Pell  Platt-,  B.A. 
Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,     London,  1823,  4to.' 

A  beautifully  executed  work,  which  is  of  considerable  interest 
to  Ethiopic  and  otlier  oriental  scholars. 

13.  Programma  Theologicum,  Notitiam  continens  de  antiquis- 
simo  Codice  Manuscripto  Latinam  quatuor  Evangcliorum  Vcr- 
sionem  complectente,  et  in  Bibliotheca  Academic  Ingolstadiensis 
adservato.  Descripsit  Codicem,  Variantes  ejusdem  a  Vulgata 
Lectiones  inde  a  Marc.  xii.  21.  usque  ad  finem  hujus  Evangclii 
cxcerpsit,  et  critice  recensuit  Sebast.  Seemiller.  Ingolstadii, 
1784,  4to. 

14.  Dissertatio  in  aureum  ac  pervetustum  SS,  Evangcliorum 
Codicem  MS.  Monastcrii  S,  Emmerani,  Ratisbonse,  Auctore  P, 
Colomanno  Sanftl.     [Ratisbonae],  1786,  4to. 

15.  Josephi  Friderici  Schellingii  Descriptio  Codicis  Manu- 
scripti  Hebraeo-Biblici,  qui  Stutgardije  in  Bibliotheca  lUustris 
Consistorii  Wirtembergici  asservatur,  cum  Variarum  Lectionum 
ex  eo  notatarum  Collectione.  Prcemissa  est  Dissertatio  de  justo 
hodierni  Stadii,  quod  in  excutiendis  Codicibus  Vet.  Testament! 
MSS.  collocalur,  Pretio  et  Moderaminc.     Stutgardia3,  1775,  8vo. 

16.  Cur£B  CriticiB  in  Historiam  Tcxtus  Evangeliorum,  Com- 
mentationibus  duabus  Bibliothecre  Regife  Parisiensis  Codices 
N.  T.  complures,  spcciatim  vero  Cyprium,  describentibus,  exhi- 
bitae  a  Joh.  M.  Augustino  Scholz,  Theologia;  Doctore,  Heidel- 
bergse,  1820,  4to. 

This  publication  consists  of  two  Dissertations,  the  first  of  which 
contains  the  results  of  Dr.  Scholz's  researches  (during  a  residence 
of  two  years)  among  forty-eight  Manuscripts  in  the  Royal  Library 
at  Paris,  seventeen  of  which  were  entirely  collated  by  him,  with 
the  greatest  care.  Nine  of  them  had  never  before  been  collated 
by  any  individual.  Dr.  Scholz  further  announces  in  this  disserta- 
tion his  first  theory  of  recensions,  of  which  an  abstract  has  been 
already  given  in  Part  1.  Chap.  III.  Sect.  III.  of  the  first  volume, 
p.  209.  note.  The  second  Dissertation  comprises  a  minute  account  of 
the  Codex  Cyprius,  a  manuscript  of  the  Four  Gospels,  of  wliich  he 
has  for  the  first  time  given  the  entire  collation. 

17.  Biblische  Critische  Reise  in  Frankreich,  der  Schweitz, 
Italien,  Palastina,  und  im  Archipel,  in  den  Jahren  1818,  1819, 
1820,  1821,  nekst  eincr  Geschichte  des  Textes  des  N.  T.  von 
Dr.  Joh.  Mart.  Augustin  Scholz.  Leipzig  und  Sorau,  1823,  8vo. 

This  work  is  comparatively  little  known  in  England.  It  con- 
tains an  account  of  Dr.  Scholz's  "  Biblico-Critical  Travels  in  France, 
Switzerland,  Italy,  Palestine,  and  the  Archipelago,  between  the 
years  1818  and  1821."  He  has  briefly  described  the  manuscripts 
which  came  under  his  observation,  and  has  extracted  the  most  in- 
teresting various  readings.  He  has  also  given  a  plate  of  fac-similes 
of  ten  of  the  most  remarkable  manuscripts.  Many  of  his  various 
readings  are  inserted  by  Dr.  Schulz  in  his  third  edition  of  Gries- 
bach's  Greek  Testament ;  and  also  by  M.  Dermout  in  the  first  part 
of  his  Collectanea  Critica  in  Novum  Testamentum.  The  most  im- 
portant part  of  Dr.  Scholz's  treatise  is  his  Outlines  towards  a  His- 
tory of  the  Text  of  the  New  Testament,  conlaining  his  second  the- 
ory of  recensions  of  MSS.,  an  abslract  of  which  has  been  given  in 
Part  I.  Chap.  111.  Sect.  III.  of  the  first  volume,  pp.  209—212. 

18.  Natalitia  Friderici  Guilielmi  IIL  Regis  [Borussix] 

rite  celebranda  Acadcmiaj  Viadrina;  Vratislaviensis  nomine  indi- 
cit  D.  Davidcs  Schulz,  Disputatur  de  Codice  IV,  Evangelio- 
rum Bibliotheca)  Rhedigcriana;,  in  quo  Vetus  Latina  Vcrsio  con- 
tinentur,     Vratislaviaj,  1814,  4to. 

An  inaccurate  account  of  the  Codex  Rhedigerianus  having  ap- 
peared in  the  year  1763  from  the  pen  of  J.  E.  Scheibel,  Dr.  Schulz 
was  induced  to  examine  the  manuscript  with  minute  atttention  : 
he  has  investigated  its  external  appearance,  critical  value,  and  age, 
at  considerable  length,  and  has  inserted  its  most  valuable  various 
readings  in  his  third  edition  of  Griesbaeh's  Greek  Testament. 

19.  Descriptio  Codicis  Manuscripti,  qui  Versioncm  Pcnta- 
tcuchi  Arabici  continet,  asservati  in  Bibliotheca  Universitatis 
Vratislaviensis  ac  nondum  editi,  cum  speciminibus  Versionis 
Arabica;.     Auctore  G.  A,  Theiner.     Vratislavise,  1823,  4to, 

The  manuscript  described  in  this  dissertation  formerly  belonged 
to  the  Convent  of  Auguatiniuns  at  Saguu:  whence  it  was  removed 


to  the  University  of  Breslau,  together  with  some  other  oriental 
manuscripts.  A  note  at  the  end  indicates  the  date  of  this  MS.  to 
be  the  year  1290.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  in  Egypt  by 
a  Christian  Copt.  (Journal  de  la  Litterature  Etrangore,  1823,  p. 
248.)  ^ 


§  2.  treatises  on  various  readings. 

1.  Ludovici  Capelli  Critica  Sacra;  sive  de  Variis,  qua;  in 
Sacris  Veteris  Testamcnti  libris  occurrunt,  Lcctionibus  Libri  sex. 
Parisiis,  1650,  folio.     Hal®,  1775-1786,  3  vols.  8vo. 

In  this  work  Cappel  attacked  the  notion,  which  at  that  time  ob- 
tained generally  among  biblical  critics,  of  the  absolute  integrity  of 
the  Hebrew  text.  So  much  were  the  French  Protestants  dis|)lca.sed 
at  it,  that  they  prevented  it  from  being  printed  either  at  Sedan, 
Geneva,  or  Leyden.  At  length  Father  Morinus,  and  .some  other 
learned  men,  in  communion  with  the  church  of  Rome,  obtained 
permission  for  its  publication  at  Paris.  It  is  nouj  admitted  that 
Cappel  has  fully  proved  his  point.  He  was,  however,  severely  at- 
tacked by  Arnold  Boolt,  in  his  Epistola  De  Ttxliis  Hchraki.  Veleris 
Testamaili  Cert'diid'aie  ct  Authenlia,  4lo.  Parisiis,  1650,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  younger  Buxtorf,  who  in  1653  printed  his  Anti-Crilica, 
sell  Vi7idici(B  Verilaiis  Ehraicae  acl versus  Ludovici  Cujielli  Criticam, 
quam  vocal.  Sacrani,  <J-c.  Basileaj,  4to. ;  in  which  Buxtorf  most  stre- 
nuously advocates  the  authority  and  absolute  integrity  of  the  He- 
brew text.  This  standard  work,  which  cost  its  learned  aullior 
thirty-six  years'  labour,  exhibits  in  six  books  the  various  readings 
which  result,  1.  From  a  juxta-position  of  different  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament;  2.  From  a  collation  of  the  parallel  passages  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament ;  3.  From  collations  of  the  Masora,  Samaritan 
version,  and  most  ancient  printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures ;  4.  From  a  collation  of  the  Septuagint  with  the  Hebrew  text , 
5.  From  collations  of  the  Hebrew  text  with  the  Chaldee  Paraphrase; 
and  the  Greek  versions  of  Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theodotion, 
with  the  Latin  Vulgate;  and  with  the  Masoretic  and  liabbinieal 
commentators  ;  6.  The  sixth  and  concluding  book  treats  on  the 
errors  which  are  to  be  attributed  to  transcribers,  and  on  the  read- 
ings derived  from  conjectural  criticism.  Tlie  best  edition  of  Cap- 
pel's  work  is  the  8vo.  one  above  noticed ;  it  contains  his  various 
defences  of  himself  against  his  bitter  antagonists,  and  was  superin- 
tended by  MM.  Vogel  and  Scharfenberg,  who  have  inserted  nu- 
merous valuable  notes,  in  which  the  arguments  and  statements  of 
Cappel  are  occasionally  examined,  corrected,  or  refuted. 

2.  Adami  Rechenbergii  Dissertatio  Critica  de  Variantibus 
Novi  Testament!  Lectionibus  Grfecis.     Lipsiaj,  1690,  4to, 

3.  Joannis  Clerici  Ars  Critica.  8vo.  Londini,  1698, 

The  first  two  sections  of  the  third  part  of  this  very  valuable  criti- 
cal work  treat  on  the  origin  and  correction  ofTalse  readings,  both  in 
profiine,  and  particularly  in  the  sacred  writers. 

4.  Christoph.  Matt.  Pfaffii  Dissertatio  Critica  de  Genuinis 
Librorum  Novi  Testamcnti  Lectionibus.  Amstelodami,  1 709,  8vo, 

5.  J,  H.  ab  Elswich  Dissertatio  de  Recentiorum  in  Novum 
Foedus  Critice,     Vitebergfe,  1711. 

6.  J.  W.  Baieri  Dissertatio  de  Variarum  Lectionum  Novi 
Testament!  usu  et  abusu.     Altdorf,  1712, 

7.  J,  L,  Frey  Commentarius  de  Variis  Lectionibus  Novi 
Testament!.     Basil,  1713. 

8.  Chr.  LuDERi  Dissertatio  do  Causis  Variantium  Lectionum 
Scriptura).     Lipsise,  1730, 

9.  Anton!!  Driessenii  Divina  Auctoritas  Coilicis  Novi  Tes- 
tament!, vindicata  a  strcpitu  Variantium  Lectionum.  Groeninga;, 
1733,  4to. 

10.  J.  A.  OsiANDRi  Oratio  de  Originibus  Variantium  Lec- 
tionum Novi  Testament!.     Tubingen,  1739,  4to. 

11.  J.  A.  OsiANBRi  Disputatio  de  PrEEcipius  Lectionibus  Va- 
riis Novi  Testament!,     Tubingen,  1747,  4to. 

12.  J,  C,  Kdemm  Principia  Criticse  Sacra)  Novi  Testamcnti. 
Tubingen,  1746,  4to. 

13.  Jo.  Geo.  RicHTKR  Exercitatio  de  Arte  Critica  Scripturoe 
Interpretc.     Ludg.  1750,  4to. 

14.  C.  B.  MrcHAELis  Tractatio  Critica  de  Variis  Lectionibus 
Novi  Testament!  caute  coUigendis  et  dijudicandis,  in  qua  cum 
de  illarum  causis  turn  de  cautclis  agitur,  simulque  de  codicibus, 
versionibus  antiquis,  et  Patribus,  partim  curiosa,  partim,  utilia, 
asseruntur.     Hals,  1749,  4to, 

This  treatise  was  the  foundation  on  which  J.  D.  Michaelis  built 
his  "  admirable  chanter"  on  tlie  various  readings  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, as  Bishop  Marsh  most  truly  terms  it.  This  chapter  forms 
by  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  first  volume  of  his  Introduction  to 
the  New  Testament.  The  Latin  treatise  of  his  father  is  of  extreme 
rarity. 

15.  Jo.  Jac.  Wetstenii  Tiibelli  ad  Crisin  atquc  Interpreta- 
tionem  Novi  Testamcnti.  Adjccta  est  Recensio  Introductionis 
Bcngclii  ad  Crisin  Nov!  Testamcnti,  atquc  Gloccstrii  liidlcy  Dis- 


Sect.  IV.  §  3.] 


COLLATIONS  OF  MANUSCRIPTS. 


79 


sertatio  de  Syriacarum  Novi  Foederis  Indole  atque  Usu.     Illustra- 
vit  Joh.  Salonio  Scinlcr.     Hala;  Magdeliurgicic,  1700,  8vo. 

The  first  109  pages  of  lliis  voliiino  coniaiii  Welsloin'H  Animnd- 
versiones  el  CaiUionis  ad  Krami-n  Varianun  Ltdio/tiun  Novi  Tr.ila- 
menli  Se.ccfxarid:,  which  vv(;r(!  (irst  priiilud  in  the  hccoikI  voliiine 
of  his  edition  of  the  tireek  'IVrttamenl,  p|).  85U — 874.  They  have 
been  consulted  for  our  ol>cervationH  on  various  readings.  VVelstein's 
rules  for  judging  of  various  readings  are  given  vvilh  great  clear- 
ness and  precision  ;  and  the  whole  voliniie  is  "  a  piihlicalioa  which 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  crilic."  (Bishop  Marsh.) 


§    3.    COLLATIONS  OP  MANUSCRIPTS  AND    COLLECTIONS    OF  VARI- 
OUS READINGS. 

*^*  Of  the  earlier  collections  of  Various  Rcadinps,  an  account  of 
may  be  seen  in  Lc  Long's  BiUiotheca  Sacra,  vol.  i.  pp.  400 — 472. 

1.  Collatio  Codicis  Cottoniana  Gcncseo.s  cum  Editione  Ro- 
man^ a  viro  clarissimo  Joanne  Krncsto  (ihaiik  olini  facta ;  nunc 
derauni  summa  cura  edita  ab  Henrico  Owen.  Londini,  1778, 
8vo. 

2.  A  Collation  of  an  Indian  copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  with 
preliminary  remarks,  containing  an  exact  description  of  the  ma- 
nuscript, and  a  notice  of  some  others,  Hebrew  and  Syriac,  col- 
lected by  the  Rev.  C.  Buchanan,  D.D.  in  the  year  1806,  and  now 
deposited  in  the  Public  Library,  Caad)rid.gc.  Also  a  collation  and 
description  of  a  manuscript  roll  of  the  book  of  Esther,  and  the 
Megillah  of  Ahasucrus,  from  the  Hebrew  copy,  originally  extant 
in  brazen  tablets  at  Goa  ;  with  an  English  Translation.  By 
Thomas  Yeates.     Cambridge,  1812,  4to. 

An  account  of  the  manuscript,  which  Mr.  Yeates  has  collated  in 
his  learued  and  valuable  publication,  is  given  in  Part  I.  Chap.  HI. 
Sect.  I.  of  the  first  volume,  pp.  219 — 221.  For  an  analysis  of  his 
work,  see  the  Christimi  01)scrver  for  the  year  1812,  pp.  172 — 174. 

3.  VarisE  Lcctioncs  Vetcris  Tcstamenti,  ex  immcnsa  MSS. 
Editorumque  Codicum  coiigcrie  hausta,  ct  ad  Samaritanum 
Textum,  ad  vetustissimas  Versioncs,  ad  accuratiores  Sacra?  Criti- 
Cffi  Pontes  ac  Leges  examinatiE  :  a  Jo.  Bern.  De  Rossi.  Parmse, 
1784-87,  4  tomis,  4to. — Ejusdem  Scholia  Critica  in  Vetus  Tcs- 
tamentum,  seu  Supplemcntum  ad  Varias  Sacri  Textiis  Lcctioncs. 
Parmas,  1799,  4to. 

This  collection  of  various  readings  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  may 
be  considered  as  an  indispensably  necessary  supplement  to  Dr.  Ken- 
nicott's  critical  edition  described  in  pages  7,  8.  of  this  Appendix. 
Four  hundred  and  seven! ij-nine  manuscripts  were  collated  for  M.  De 
Rossi's  elal>c)rato  vvt)rk,  besides  twohuiidred  and  eiglil.i/-eight  printed 
editions,  some  of  which  were  totally  unknown  belbrc,  and  others 
very  imperlcctly  known.  lie  also  consulted  several  Chaldec,  Sy- 
r^a(^  Arabic,  and  Latin  manuscripts,  together  vvilh  a  considerable 
number  of  rabbinical  commentaries.  Vol.  I.  contains  the  Prolego- 
mena of  De  Rossi,  and  the  various  readings  of  the  books  of  Genesis, 
Exodus,  and  Leviticus.  Vol.  II.  contains  those  oi'  the  books  of 
Numbers,  Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings.  Vol. 
III.  comprehends  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Kzckiel  the  twelve  minor  pro- 
phets, with  the  Song  of  Solomon,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastcs, 
and  Esther:  and  in  Vol.  IV.  are  the  various  readings  of  the  books 
of  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Chronicles. 
The  supplemental  volinne  of  Scholia  Critica,  published  at  Parma 
in  1799,  contains  the  results  of  M.  De  Rossi's  further  collations. 
His  Prolegomena  are  a  treasure  of  biblical  criticism.  The  critical 
labours  of  this  eminent  philologor  ascertain  (as  Dr.  Kennicotl's 
valuable  and  judicious  labours  had  before  done),  instead  of  invali- 
datiiig  the  integrity  of  the  sacred  text,  in  matters  of  the  greatest 
im|)orlance  ;  as  all  the  manuscripts,  notwithstanding  the  diversity 
of  their  dates,  and  of  the  places  where  they  were  transcribed,  agree 
with  respeca  to  that  which  constitutes  the  proper  es.sence  and  sub- 
stance of  divine  revelation,  viz.  its  doctrines,  moral  precej)ts,  and 
historical  relations.  M.  De  Rossi  charges  the  variations  not  merely 
on  the  copyists,  but  on  the  ignorance  and  temerity  of  the  critics, 
who  have  m  all  ages  been  too  ambitious  of  dictalnig  to  their  au- 
thors :  and  who,  instead  of  correcting  the  preleiuled  errors  of  othcre, 
frc(iuenlly  substiliUe  in  their  place  real  errors  of  their  own. 

4.  Codex  Criticus  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  wherein  van  dcr 
Hooght's  Text  is  corrected  from  the  Hebrew  Manuscripts  collated 
by  Kennicott  and  Uc  Rossi,  and  from  the  Ancient  Versions;  be- 
ing an  Attempt  to  form  a  Standard  Text  of  the  Old  Testament. 
To  which  is  prefixed  an  Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Necessity  of 
such  an  Undertaking.  By  the  Rev.  George  Hamilton,  M.A. 
London,  1821,  8vo. 

Much  as  has  been  accomplished  by  the  learned  researches  of 
Dr.  Kennicott,  Professor  De  Rossi,  and  other  distinguished  biblical 
critics,  a  standard  text  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament  is  still  a 
desideratum  in  sacred  literature,  which  Mr.  Hamilton's  work  is 
an  able  and  succesSsful  attempt  to  supply.  In  his  Codex  Criticus, 
*'  the  text  of  van  der  Hooght  is  adopted  a.s  the  basis,  being  that  to 
which  both  Kennicott  and  Do  Rossi  have  referred  their  collations. 
Every  deviation  from  this  text  is  marked  by  hollow  letters,  and  the 
word  or  words,  as  they  stand  in  van  der  lluoaht,  arc  exhibited  in 

Vot.  II.— App.  4  C 


the  outer  margin,  so  that  the  entire  of  his  text  is  printed.  The  in- 
ferior margin  contains  such  various  readings  as  were  deemed 
worthy  of  notice,  though  not  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  text ;  read- 
ings prolMblij  true  being  marked  (t),  and  those  possibly  true  ({).  In 
the  text  each  variation  is  preceded  by  a  numerical  figure,  and  fol- 
lowed by  two  inverted  commas  (")  to  mark  how  far  it  extends:  the 
figure  refers  to  a  corresponding  one  in  the  outer  margin,  if  it  bo 
prefixed  to  a  correction,  in  which  case  the  margin  exhibits  the 
rejected  reading,  or  to  one  in  the  inferior  margin,  if  it  be  but  a 
various  reading.  In  every  case  there  is  also  a  corresponding  num- 
ber in  the  iioies,  which  expresses  the  authorities  by  which  the 
reading  is  sup|M)rted,  or  on  which  the  various  reading  rests.  This 
plan  is  in  accordance  with  that  of  (iriesbach's  revision."  (Eclectic 
Review,  j\.  S.  vol.  xviii.  jip.  319,  320.)  "On  the  value  and  utility 
of  the  publicaiion  before  us,  it  is  unnecessary  for  us  to  expatiate. 
The  purity  of  the  text  of  the  Bible  is  a  subject  which  possesses 
the  highest  importance.  This  Codex  Criticus  presents  in  a  con- 
densed and  connnodious,  and,  what  is  of  no  small  consideration, 
cheap  form,  the  r(!siilts  of  Kimnicolt's  and  De  Rossi's  labours  in 
sacred  criticism."     (Ibid.  p.  32^1.) 

5.  C.  A.  Bo  HE  Pseudo-Critica  Millio-Bcngcliana,  qua  allege- 
tiones  pro  Variis  Novi  Tcstamenti  Lcctionibus  refutantur.  Haks, 
1767,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Dr.  Mill  in  his  critical  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  not  being 
sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  Oriental  Versions,  had  recourse  to 
the  Latin  translations  of  them  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  for  tho 
various  readings  of  those  versions.  Consecjuently  he  erred  when- 
ever these  were  incorrect.  Similar  mistakes  were  committed  by 
Bengel  from  tho  same  cause.  Tho  design  of  Professor  Bode  is  to 
correct  the  defects  and  mistakes  of  those  eminent  critics.  Bode  is 
considered  by  his  countrymen  as  a  man  of  most  extensive  learning, 
but  totally  destitute  of  elegance  as  a  writer. 

6.  Joannis  Albcrti  Bengelii  Apparatus  Criticus  ad  Novum 
Testamcntum,  criseos  sacra;  compendium,  limam,  supplemcntum, 
ac  fructum  exhibens.  Cura  Philippi  Davidis  Burkii.  Tubingje, 
1763,  4to. 

The  first  impression  of  this  work  appeared  in  Bengcl's  edition 
of  the  Greek  Testament,  published  at  Tubingen,  in  17.34,  4lo.  It 
was  materially  enlarged  and  corrected  by  Burkius.  Much  as  has 
been  done  by  later  critics,  the  researches  of  Bengel  and  his  collec- 
tion of  Various  Readings  are  not  superseded  by  their  learned 
labours. 

7.  Jo.  Jac.  GRTEsnAcnii  SymholjB  Criticse,  ad  supplendas  et 
corrigcndas  Variarum  N.  T.  Lectionum  collectioncs.  Accedit 
multorum  N.  T.  Codicum  Grsecorum  Descriptio,  et  Examen. 
Hala),  1785-93,  2  tomis,  8vo. 

8.  Criseos  Griesbachianaj  in  Novum  Testamentum  Synopsis. 
Edidit  Josephus  White,  S.T.P.     Oxonii,  1811,  8vo. 

This  small  volume  is  exactly  conformable  in  its  design  to  the 
beautiful  edition  of  the  New  Testament  published  by  Dr.  While  in 
1808,  and  noticed  in  \\  16.  of  this  Appendix.  It  "contains  all  the 
variations  of  any  consequence,  which  can  be  considered  as  esta- 
blished, or  even  rendered  probable,  by  the  investigation  of  Griesbach. 
The  chief  part  of  these  readings  was  given  in  the  margin  of  that 
edition,  distinguished  by  tlie  Origenian  marks.  Here  the  value  of 
each  reading  or  proposed  alteration  is  stated  in  words  at  length, 
and  therefore  cannot  bo  misapprehended.  This  book  may  there- 
fore be  considered  as  a  kind  of  sup|ilement  to  that  edition,  or  illus- 
tration of  it."     (British  Critic  (O.  S.),  vol.  xxxviii.  p.  395.) 

9.  Remarks  upon  the  Systematic  Classification  of  Manuscript.'?, 
adopted  by  Griesbach  in  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament.  By 
Richard  Laurence,  LL.D.     Oxford  and  London,  1814,  Svo. 

For  a  full  analysis  of  this  elaborate  Treatise  of  Dr.  (now  Arch- 
bishop) Laurence,  see  the  British  Crilic  (N.  S.),  vol.  i.  pp.  173— IS®. 
290 — 315.  401 — 128.,  and  the  Eclectic  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  iv.  pp. 
1—22.  173—189. 

10.  Sauberti  (Johannis)  Variaj  Lcctiones  Textus  Gncci 
Evangelii  S.  Matlha;i,  ex  plurimis  imprcssis  ac  manuscriptis 
Codicibus  collcctac;  et  cum  Vcrsionibus  partim  antiquissimis, 
partim  prastantissimis,  nee  non  Patrum  vclcris  Ecclcsix  Gra;co- 
rum  Latinorumque  Commcntariis  collata; ;  pr.Tmissa  Ei)icrisi  de 
Originc,  Auctoritiite,  et  Usu  Variarum  Novi  Tcstamenti  Lec- 
tionum frr.Tcarum  in  gpncrc.     Hclmestadii,  1072,  4 to. 

11.  ©sic  ifivssiSi)  sv  o-iffK.'.  Or,  a  ('rilical  Dissertation  upon 
1  Tim.  iii.  16.  wherein  Rules  arc  laid  down  to  distinguish,  in 
various  readings,  which  is  genuine ;  an  account  is  given  of 
above  a  hundred  Greek  Manuscripts  of  St.  Paul's  Epi.stlcs  (many 
of  them  not  heretofore  collated) ;  the  writings  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Fathers,  and  the  ancient  Versions  arc  examined ;  and  the 
common  reading  of  that  Text,  '  Gon  ivas  manifest  in  the  Flesh,' 
is  prov'd  to  be  the  true  One.  Being  the  substance  of  eight  Ser- 
mons prcach'd  at  the  Lady  Moycr's  Lecture,  in  the  years  1737 
and  1738.     By  John  Berhijman,  M.A.     London,  1741,  Svo. 

12.  Examen  Variarum  Leclionum  Joannis  MiUii  S.T.P.  in 
Novum  Testamentum.  Opera  ct  studio  Doiiiclis  Wuituy,  S.T.P. 


80 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  n.  Chap.  IIL 


In  vol.  ii.  of  Dr.  Whitby's  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament, 
folio  and  quarto. 

This  vehement  attack  on  Dr.  Mill's  Collection  of  Various  Read- 
ings, in  his  critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  was  first 
published  in  1710,  and  afterwards  annexed  to  Dr.  Whitby's  Com- 
mentary. "  His  chief  object  was,  to  defend  the  readings  of  the 
printed  text,  and  to  show  that  Mill  was  mistaken  in  frequently 

E referring  other  readings.  But,  how  frequently  soever  Mill  has 
een  guilty  of  an  error  in  judgment,  in  the  choice  of  this  or  that 
particular  reading,  yet  the  value  of  the  collection  itself  remains 
unaltered.  Whitby,  though  a  good  commentator,  was  a  bad  critic." 
(Michaelis's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  460.)  In  the  follow- 
ing page  he  severely  censures  Whitby's  Exainen. 

13.  Critical  Remarks  upon  the  Epistles,  as  they  were  published 
from  several  authentic  copies,  by  John  Bebelius,  at  Basil-,  in 
ir):31.     By  Benjamin  Dawney,  York,  1735,  8vo. 

This  tract  is  not  of  very  common  occurrence.  The  common 
reading  is  placed  first,  to  which  is  subjoined  the  text  of  Bebelius, 
from  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament  printed  at  Basil,  in  1531, 
to^'ciher  with  such  authorities  as  favour  it.  These  authorities 
(which  are  nearly  forty  in  number)  consist  of  Manuscripts,  Quota- 
tions of  the  New  Testament  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  and 
printed  copies;  and  are  taken  from  Dr.  Mill's  critical  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament,  and  other  sources. 

14.  Jacobi  Amkusfoordt  Dissertatio  Philologica  de  Variis 
Lectionibus  Holmesianis  locorum  quorumdam  Pentateuchi  Mo- 
saici.     Lugd.  Bat,  1815,  4to. 

15.  A  Collection  of  Various  Readings  for  the  New  Testament 
made  from  ancient  Greek  Manuscripts.  (In  the  third  volume 
of  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament.)  Lon- 
don, 1817,  4to. 

The  manuscript,  from  which  this  collection  of  various  readings 
is  printed,  formerly  belonged  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Mangey,  a  distin- 
guished divine  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  :  but  it 
is  not  in  his  handwriting.  Dr.  Clarke  has  minutely  described  the 
watermarks  of  the  paper  on  which  the  collection  is  written,  but  he 
is  ignorant  by  whom  it  was  made;  nor  does  he  know  what  MSS. 
have  thus  been  collated,  since  no  description  of  them  appears  He 
states  that  the  collector  of  these  various  readings  was  greatiy  at- 
tached to  the  Latin  version,  as  in  almost  every  case  he  has  preferred 
those  readings  which  agree  with  the  Vulgate.  Many  of  the  read- 
mgs  thus  preferred  are  those  which  were  adopted  by  Griesbach, 
and  received  into  the  Greek  text  of  his  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Dr.  Clarke  is  of  opinion  that  this  collection  of  various 
readings  might  have  been  made,  either  in  England  or  in  Holland, 
about  one  hundred  years  since,  in  the  reign  of  King  George  I.  It 
commences  with  Matt.  xxiv.  2.,  and  ends  with  Rev.  xxii.  7. 

16.  Collectanea  Critica  in  Novum  Testamentum.  Auctore 
Jacobo  Dermout,  Theol.  Doct.  Pars  Prior,  Lugduni  Batavo- 
rum,  1825,  8vo. 

This  volume  contains  a  collection  of  various  readings  (now  pub- 
lished for  the  first  time)  from  the  Codex  Gronovianus  131,  a  neatly 
written  MS.  of  the  four  Gospels,  and  the  Codex  Meermannianus, 
containing  the  four  Gospels,  Acts  and  Epistles,  with  some  chasms : 
both  these  MSS.  are  in  the  University  Library  at  Leyden.  He 
has  also  collated  two  other  MSS.  in  the  same  library,  the  readings 
of  which  had  been  imi)erfeclly  given  by  Wetstein,  viz.  the  Codex 
Petavii  1.,  containing  the  Acts  and  Epistles  entire,  and  the  Codex 
Sealigeri,  which  contains  various  passages  of  the  New  Testament. 
These  four  MSS.  were  collated  with  the  Textus  Receptus :  and  to 
the  readings  thus  obtained.  Dr.  Dermout  has  added  numerous  lec- 
tions from  Scholz's  Biblico-Critical  Travels,  and  from  the  Codex 
Berolinensis,  a  MS.  of  tlie  eleventh  century,  containing  fragments 
of  the  Gospels,  published  by  Pappelbaum.  All  these  readings  are 
disposed  in  the  order  of  the  several  books  and  chapters  of  the 
New  Testament  by  Dr.  Dermout,  who  promised  two  other  portions 
of  his  Collectanea  Critica,  which,  however,  have  not  yet  been 
published.  They  were  announced  to  contain  accurate  descriptions 
of  the  manuscripts  consulted  by  him,  together  with  commentaries 
on  select  passages  of  the  New  Testament,  which  have  been  or  still 
are  the  subject  of  discussion  among  the  learned. 

17.  An  Historical  Account  of  two  notable  Corruptions  of 
Scripture,  in  a  Letter  to  a  Friend,  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Lon- 
don, 1830,  8vo. 

A  very  imperfect  copy  of  this  tract,  wanting  both  the  beginning 
and  the  end,  and  erroneous  in  many  places,  was  published  at  Lon- 
don in  the  year  1754,  under  the  title  of"  Two  Letters  from  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  to  M.  Le  Clerc."  But  in  the  author's  manuscript,  which 
was  printed  for  the  first  time  entire  in  the  (ifili  volume  of  Sirlsaac 
Newton's  Works,  the  whole  is  one  continuod  discourse.  The  texts 
in  question  are  the  disputed  clauses  in  1  Tim.  iii.  16.  and  1  John 
v.  7. :  the  title  page  above  given  is  prefixed  to  "  Newton's  Letter," 
]iy  its  modern  Socinian  editors.  The  copy  in  the  possession  of  the 
author  of  this  work  is  labelled  "  Sir  Isaac  Newton  on  two  Corrup- 
tions of  Scripture."  Other  copies  (it  appears  from  Dr.  Henderson's 
learned  tract  noticed  in  the  ensuing  article,  p.  3.)  were  exposed  to 
sale  at  the  modern  Socinian  Depository,  where  this  tract  was  pub- 
lished, and  labelled  "  SIR  IS.\AC  NEWTON  on  Trinitarian  Cor- 
ruptions of  Scripture."    This  conduct  called  forth  the  following 


just  but  severe  strictures  from  the  pen  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson. 
"  They"  [the  terms  of  the  label  in  question]  "  are  obviously  designed 
to  answer  a  twofold  purpose.  First,  they  are  intended  to  imbue 
the  public  mind  with  the  belief  that  Trinitarians,  in  order  to  sup- 
port their  system,  scruple  not  to  falsify  the  records  of  divine  truth; 
and  that  this  falsification  is  not  confined  to  a  few  solitary  instances, 
but  has  been  practised  to  some  considerable  extent.  Had  there 
been  no  such  design,  why  not  candidly  state  the  whole  head  and 
front  of  their  offending,  as  alleged  in  Sir  Isaac's  impeachment? 
Why,  instead  of  announcing  '  two  corruptions,'  or,  if  deemed  pre- 
ferable, '  two  notable  corruptions  of  Scripture,'  is  it  given  indefi- 
nitely, as  if  scores  or  even  hundreds  of  passages  had  suffered  from 
the  fraudulent  hand  of  Trinitarian  corruption  ?  Secondly,  the  cele- 
brated name  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  is  put  forth  to  support  with  its 
high  sanction  the  cause  of  anli-Trinitarianism  ;  and  superficial 
thinkers,  or  such  as  may  not  possess  the  means  of  determining  what 
were  the  real  sentiments  of  the  '  first  of  j)hilosophers,'  will  natu- 
rally suppose  that  he  espoused  that  cause,  and  that  a  system  of 
opinions,  which  commanded  the  approval  of  so  mighty  a  mind,  can- 
not but  be  true."  (Ibid.) 

18.  The  Great  Mystery  of  Godliness  incontrovertible  :  or  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  and  the  Socinian  foiled  in  the  Attempt  to  prove  a 
Corruption  in  the  Text,  1  Tim.  iii.  16.  esic  idf^npo)^  h  s-ct^w, 
containing  a  Review  of  the  Charges  brought  against  the  passage ; 
an  Examination  of  the  Various  Readings;  and  a  Confirmation 
of  that  in  the  received  Text  on  Principles  of  General  and  Bibli- 
cal Criticism.     By  E.  Hendehson,  [D.D.]  London,  1830,  8vo. 

The  genuineness  of  the  controverted  clause  in  1  Tim.  iii.  16.  is 
established  beyond  doubt  in  this  ably  executed  and  impartial  trea- 
tise ;  which  his  grace  the  present  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (Dr. 
Howley)  is  stated  in  the  Andover  Biblical  Repository  (vol.  i.  p.  777.) 
to  have  characterized  as  "  a  valuable  specimen  of  critical  ability, 
successfully  exerted  in  the  investigation  and  discovery  of  truth." 
In  an  appendix.  Dr.  Henderson  has  given  a  list  of  works,  in  which 
the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause  is  discussed.  It  ought  to  be 
added,  that  his  treatise  was  not  originally  intended  for  publication  ; 
but  was  printed  in  order  to  meet  the  exigency  occasioned  by  an  at- 
tempt on  the  part  of  the  modern  Socinians,  to  persuade  the  public 
that  Sir  Isaac  Newton  had  proved  a  corruption  of  the  passage  in 
1  Tim.  iii.  16.  Dr.  Henderson's  Treatise  is  reprinted  in  the  second 
volume  of  the  Andover  Biblical  Repository,  with  some  additional 
observations  by  the  Rev.  Professor  Stuart. 

19.  Lucubratio  Critica  in  Acta  Apostolorum,  Epistolas  Ca- 
tholicas,  et  Paulinas :  in  qua  de  classibus  Librorum  manu  scrip- 
torum  Quaestio  instituitur,  Descriptio  et  Varia  Lectio  VII.  Codi- 
cum  Marcianorum  exhibetur,  atque  Observationes  ad  plurima 
ioca  cum  apostoli  turn  evangeliorum  dijudicanda  et  emendanda 
proponuntur,  a  Guil.  Frid.  Rink.  Basiliese,  1830,  8vo. 


§  4.  TREATISES  ON  THE  GENUINENESS  OF  THE  DISPUTED  CLAUSES 
IN  I  JOHN  V.  7,  8. 

*^*  As  a  copious  statement  of  the  evidence  for  and  against  the  genu- 
ineness of  the  disputed  clauses,  in  this  memorable  passage  of 
the  New  Tesfame7it,  is  given  in  Vol.  II.  pp.  366.  et  seq.  those 
puhlicnlions  or  parts  of  publications  enumerated  in  the  follow- 
ing Bibliographical  List,  which  maintain  the  SPURIOUSNESS  of 
the  clauses  in  question,  are  printed  in  Italics,  in  order  that  this 
section  may  not  be  unnecessarily  protracted.  For  particularg 
respecting  the  line  of  argument  advocated  by  their  respective 
authors,  the  reader  is  referred  to  article  46.  p.  82.  infra. 

1 .  Adnotationes  Millii,  auche  et  correctae  ex  Prolegomcnis  suis, 
Wetstenii,  Bengelii,  et  Sabaterii  ad  1  Joann.  V.  7.  una  cum 
duabus  epistolis  Richardi  Bentleii,  et  Observationibus  Joannis 
Seldeni,  Christophori  Matthias  PfafRi,  Joannis  Francisci  Bud- 
dei,  et  Christiani  Friderici  Schmidii  dc  eodem  loco.  Collcctfe  et 
editae  a  Thoma  Buiigess,  S.T.P.  Episcopo  Menevcnri  [hodie 
Sarisburiensi],  Mariduni  [Caermarthen],  1822,  8vo. 

With  the  exception  of  WctstciiCs  note  on  1  John  V.  7,  which  im- 
pugns the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause,  all  the  pieces  in  this 
volume  are  from  the  pens  of  the  most  strenuous  of  its  early  vindi- 
cators. An  appendix  contains  the  shorter  observations  of  J.  G. 
Pritius,  Frederick  Lampe,  J.  F.  Buddeus,  John  Laurence  Mosheim, 
Bishop  Fell,  Pool's  Compendium  of  the  Aruiolations  of  (ierhard 
and  ilammond,  Kiittner's  abridgmnnt  of  Griesbach's  Disquisi- 
tion on  this  clause;  and  the  concluding  remarks  of  the  learned 
editor  on  Dr.  Mill's  opinion  concerning  the  old  italic  version,  and 
on  Bengel's  interpretation  of  the  eighth  verse  and  his  transposition 
of  the  seventh  and  eighth  verses. 

2.  Dissertatio,  in  qua  Intcgritas  et  avQ-ivrict  istius  celeherrimi 
loco  1  Epist.  Joannis  cap.  V.  v.  7.  a  suppositionis  nota  vindica- 
tur.  Authore  Thoma  Smith,  S.T.P.  [In  his  Miscellanea,  pp. 
121—150.]  Londini,  1690,  8vo. 

3.  Critique  du  Passage  de  VEpistre  I  de  S.  Jean,  chap.  V. 
V.  7.  Par  Richard  Simon.  [In  his  Histoire  Critique  du  "Texte 
du  Nouveau  Testament,  Part  I.  ch.  xviii.  pp.  203 — 318.]  Rot- 
terdam, 1689,  4to. 


Sect.  IV.] 


GENUINENESS  OF  THE  DISPUTED  CLAUSES  IN  1  JOHN  V.  7,8, 


81 


4.  Dcfcnsio  snporioris  DissnrtJitionis  contra  cxccptioncs  Dn  Si- 
moiiii.  Autliorc  Thuiiui  yMiiii.  LMisccllaiica,  pp.  151 — 173.] 
Lomloiii,  1600,  Hvo. 

5.  Historia  Dicta  Johannoi  do  Sanctissima  Trinitatc,  1  Joh. 
cap.  V.  vers.  7.  per  niulta  sccula  omissi,  scculo  V.  restituti,  ct 
cxcuntc  suculo  XVI.  in  vcrsioncm  vcrnaculain  [i.  c.  Gcrinanicam 
D.  Ljtlicri]  rcccpti,  una  cum  Apologia  D.  Lutlmri,  autorc  Fridc- 
rico  Krufsto  Kktt.veko.     Fraricofurti  t-t  LipKix',  1713,  4to. 

This  niiMiciilion  was  caused  by  Simon's  atiack  on  tlie  dispnicd 
clause,  m  beliiilC  of  which  Iho  weakest  asscrlions  and  conjectures 
arc  here  hroui-ht  forward  as  irref'ragahle  arginiienls. 

fi.  ^1  Full  EiKjuiry  into  the  original  Jliithority  of  tliat  Text 
1  John  V.  7.  containing  an  ^Iccount  of  Dr.  JMilCa  Evidences 
from  Antiqtiity  for  and  against  its  being  genuine.  With  an 
Kxaminalion  of  his  .ludgment  thereupon.  [By  Thomas  Em- 
LiN.]     London,  1715  ;  171 'J,  8vo. 

7.  A  Critical  Dissertation  upon  the  seventh  Verse  of  the  fifth 
Chai)ter  of  St.  John's  First  Epistle.  Wherein  the  authenticncss 
of  this  text  is  fully  proved  against  the  olijcctions  of  Mr.  Simon 
and  the  modern  A  rians.  By  David  Ma  an  n.  Translated  from 
the  French  [whicii  was  published  in  1717],  by  Samuel  Jtun, 
M.D.     London,  1719,  8vo. 

8.  Jin  Jinstver  to  J\[r.  Martins  Critical  Dissertation  on 
1  John  V.  7.  showing  the  insufficiency  of  his  proofs  and  the 
errors  of  his  suppositions  ;  by  which  he  attempts  to  support  the 
authority  of  that  text  from  supposed  J\JSS.  Jiy  Thomas  Em- 
ivN.     London,  1718,  8vo. 

9.  An  Examination  of  Mr.  Emlyn's  Answer  to  the  Disserta- 
tion. By  David  Mautin.  Translated  from  the  French.  Lon- 
don, 1719,  8vo. 

10.  A  licply  to  JMr.  Martin's  Examination  of  the  Answer 
to  his  Dissertation.     By  Thomas  i^yiLxii.     Lojidon,  1720, Svo. 

11.  The  genuineness  of  1  John  V.  7.  demonstrated  by  Proofs 
which  are  beyond  all  exceptions.  By  David  Mautin,  London, 
1722,  8vo. 

12.  A  Vindication  of  that  celebrated  text,  1  John  V.  7.  from 
l)cing  spurious ;  and  an  Explication  of  it  upon  the  supposition 
of  its  being  genuine.  In  four  Sermons,  by  Benjamin  Calamt, 
D.D.     London,  1722. 

13.  Dissertation  sur  le  Fameux  Passage  dc  la  premiere  Epitrc 
dc  Saint  Jean,  chapitre  V.v.  7.  Par  Augustin  Calmet.  Com- 
mentaire  Littcral,  tom.  ix.  pp.  744 — 752.  Paris,  1726,  folio; 
also  in  tom.  xxiii.  pp.  536 — 551.  of  the  Bible  de  Vence.  8vo. 
Paris,  1824. 

14.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  it  is  contained  in  the 
Scriptures  explained  and  confirmed,  and  Objections  answered  : 
....  in  eighteen  Sermons  preached  at  Nottingham.  By  the 
Rev.  James  Sloss,  A.M.  London,  1734.  Second  edition,  revised 
and  corrected,  London,  1815,  8vo. 

The  fr?l  sermon  contains  a  vindication  of  the  disputed  clause. 
In  the  second  edition  some  few  obsolete  words  have  been  expunged, 
and  others  more  plain  and  intelligible  have  been  substilutea. 

15.  Joannes  Salomonis  Semleri  Vindiciae  plurium  pracipua- 
rum  Lectionum  Novi  Testamcnti,  adversus  Whistonum  atque  ab 
CO  iatas  leges  criticas.     Hala;,  1751,  8vo. 

Midiaelis  characterizes  this  treatise  as  a  profoundly  learned  and 
moderate  vindication  of  the  disputed  clause.  Seinler,  however, 
Boon  afterwards  altered  iiis  opinion,  and  wrote  what  Micliaclis  pro- 
nounces to  be  "  llie  most  imixirtant  work  on  this  subject."  (Introd. 
to  New  Test.  vol.  iv.  p.  413.) 

16.  Two  Letters  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton'  to  Mr.  Le  Clerc, 
upon  the  reading  of  the  Greek  Text  1  John  V.  7.,  and  1  Tim. 
iii.  16.     London,  1754,  Sno. 

See  a  notice  of  this  publication,  p.  80  supra. 

17.  Dissertation  concerning  the  genuineness  of  1  John  V. 
7,  8.  By  George  Bk.xsox,  D.D.  [In  his  Paraphrase  ajid  Notes 
on  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles,  pp.  631 — 646.  second  edition.] 
London,  1756,  4to. 

18.  Letters  to  Edward  Gibbon,  Esq.  in  defence  of  the  Authen- 
ticity of  the  seventh  verse  of  the  first  Epistle  of  St.  John.  By 
George  Tkavis,  M.A.  Archdeaconof  Chester,  third  and  best  edi- 
tion.    London,  1794,  8vo. 

19.  Letters  to  Mr.  Archdeacon  Travis,  »n  Answer  to  Ids 
Defence  of  the  Three  Heavenly  fi'itnesses,  1  John  V.  7.  By 
Richard  Pohson,  M.A.     London,  1790,  8vo. 

20.  Dissertation  on  1  John  V.  7.  By  John  David  Michaelis. 
[In  vol.  iv.  pp.  412 — 441.  of  his  Introduction  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, translated  from  the  German,  by  Herbert  Marsh,  D.D.] 


20.*    Letters  to  Mr.  Archdeacon  Travis,  in  Vindication  of 

ojic  of  his  J\'otes  to  ,Michaeli.i's  Introduction If'ilh 

an  Appendix,  containing  a  Jteview  of  Mr.  Travis's  Collection 
of  the  Gi-eeh  MSS.  which  he  examined  in  Paris  ;  an  Extract 
from  Mr.  I'appelbaum's  Treatise  on  the  Berlin  MS.  ;  and  an 
Essay  on  the  Origin  and  Object  of  the  I'elesiun  Headings. 
Ity  Herbert  Maiisii  [now  D.D.  and  Bishop  of  Peterborough]. 
Leipzig,  1 79.5,  8vo. 

A  volume  of  extreme  rarity. 

21.  Concerning  the  genuineness  of  1  John  V.  7.  By  John 
Hkt,  D.D.  [In  Vol.  II.  i)p.  280—291.  of  his  Lectures  in  Divi- 
nity.]    Cambridge,  1796,  8vo. 

This  little  OKsay  will  amply  repay  the  troidile  of  perusal  from  the 
candid  spirit  in  which  it  is  drawn  up.  The  learned  author  ap- 
pears to  liavc  cherished  the  hope  that  future  MSS.  might  be  disco- 
vered, containing  the  disputed  passage.  Subsequent  researches  of 
other  critics  have  shown  that  such  a  hope  must  now  be  abandoned. 

22.  Diatribe  in  Locum  1  Joann.  V.  7,  8.  Anctore  Joanne  Jo- 
cobo  GuiEsiiAcii.  [.\t  the  end  of  Vol.  II.  of  Dr.  Griesbach'a 
Critical  Edition  of  the  New  Testament.]  JIulx,  1806 ;  Londiiu, 
1810.     Editio  nova,  1818,  8vo. 

23.  A  short  Historical  Outline  of  the  Disputes  respecting  the 
Authenticity  of  the  verse  of  the  Three  Heavenly  Witnesses,  or 
1  John,  Chap.  V.  vcr.  7.  By  Charles  BuTLEn,  Esq.  [Appendix 
II.  to  his  Horffi  Biblica,  or  in  his  Miscellaneous  Works,  vol.  i. 
pp.  365 — 407].     London,  8vo. 

24.  Observations  on  the  Text  of  the  Three  Divine  Witnesses. 
By  Adam  Claiike,  LL.D.  [At  the  end  of  his  Commentary  on  the 
first  E[)i3tle  of  John,  and  also  in  his  Succession  of  Sacred  Lite- 
rature, published  at  London,  in  1807].  12mo. 

25.  The  Question  concerning  the  .Authenticity  of  1  John  V.  7. 
briefly  examined.  [By  the  Rev.  Joseph  Jowett,  LL.D.  Pro- 
fes.sor  of  Civil  Law  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.]  In  the 
sixth  volume  of  the  Christian  Observer  for  the  year  1807.    8vo. 

A  masterly  and  temperate  discussion  of  the  whole  of  the  evi- 
dence which  had  been  adduced  for  and  against  the  genuineness  of 
the  disputed  clause,  previously  to  the  year  1807. 

26.  Note  on  1  John  V.  7.  By  T.  F.  MinnLETOTT,  D-D.  [af- 
terwards Bi.shop  of  Calcutta.]  In  pp.  633 — 653.  of  his  Doctrine 
of  the  Greek  Article.     London,  1808,  8vo. 

27.  The  Critique  on  the  Eclectic  Review  [of  the  English  Ver- 
sion of  the  JVeio  Testament,  published  by  the  modern  Socinians] 
on  1  John  V.  7.  confuted  by  Martyn's  Examination  of  Emlyn's 
Answer ;  to  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Remarks 
on  Mr.  Person's  Letters  to  Archdeacon  Travis.  By  J.  Puarez. 
London,  1809,  8vo. 

28.  Observations  on  1  John  V.  7.  by  Frederick  Nolaw,  LL.D. 
In  his  "  Inquiry  into  the  Integrity  of  the  Greek  Vulgate,  pp.  293 — 
305.  540—564.     London,  1815,  8vo. 

29.  Three  Letters  addressed  to  the  Rev.  Frederick  JVolan, 
on  his  erroneous  Criticisms  and  J\Iis-statements  in  the  Chris- 
tian Remembrancer,  relative  to  the  Text  of  the  Heavenly  Wit- 
nesses. .  ,  .  By  the  Rev  John  Oxlee.     York,  1825,  8vo. 

30.  Extensive  Controversy  about  the  celebrated  Text,  1  John 
V.  7.  By  the  Rev.  William  Hales,  D.D.  In  vol.  ii.  pp.  133—226. 
of  his  Treatise  on  "  Faith  in  the  Holy  Trinity."  London,  1818, 
8vo. 

31.  Annotatio  ad  1  Epistolam  Joannis  c.ip.  V.  ver.  7,  8.  Auc- 
tore  Joanne  Nepomuceno  Albeu.  In  vol.  iii.  p.  353 — 369.  of 
his  Institutiones  Hermeneutics  Novi  Tcstamenti.  Pestini,  1818, 
8vo. 

32.  A  Vindication  of  1  John  V.  7.  from  the  Objections  of  M. 
Griesbach,  in  which  a  new  View  is  given  of  the  external  evi- 
dence, with  Greek  Authorities  for  the  Authenticity  of  the  Verse, 
not  hitherto  adduced  in  its  Defence.  By  Thomas  Burgess,  D.D., 
Bishop  of  St.  David's  [now  of  Salisbury].     London,  1821,  8vo. 

33.  Review  of  the  "  Vindication,"  lie.  in  the  Quarterly  Re- 
view for  March,  1822.  [Attributed  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  TuiiToir, 
Regius  Divinity  Professor  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.]  Lon- 
don, 1822,  8vo. 

34.  A  Vindication  of  1  John  V.  8.  &c.  Second  edition  :  to 
which  is  added  a  Preface  in  reply  to  the  Quarterly  Review,  and 
a  Postscript  in  answer  to  a  recent  publication  entitled  "  PaliEoro- 
maica."  By  Thomas  Burgess,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  St.  David's. 
London,  1823,  8vo. 

35.  Observations  on  1  John  V.  7.  by  Herbert  Marsit,  D.D., 
Bishop  of  Peterborough.  In  part  vi.  pp.  13—30.  of  his  Lec- 
tures in  Divinity.     Cambridge,  1822,  8vo. 


82 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  H.  Chap.  ID. 


36.  A  Selection  of  Tracts  and  Observations  on  1  John  V,  7. 
Part  the  First,  consisting  of  Bishop  Uarlow'.s  Letter  to  Mr.  Hunt; 
Bishop  Smallbrookc's  j^etter  to  Dr.  Bentloy;  Two  anonymous 
Letters  to  Dr.  Benlley,  with  Dr.  Bentley's  Answer;  an  Extract 
from  Martin's  Examination  of  Emlyn's  Answer  relative  to  that 
Letter  ;  together  with  Notes  of  Hammond  and  Whitby  on  the 
controverted  Verse ;  and  Dr.  Ad;.m  Clarke's  Account  of  the 
Montfort  Manuscript.  [With  a  Preface  by  the  Editor,  Thomas 
ButtGEss,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  St.  David's.]     London,  1824,  8vo. 

37.  Three  Letters  addressed  to  the  Editor  of  the  Quarterly 
Review,  in  which  is  demonstrated  the  Genuineness  of  the  Three 
Heavenly  Witnesses,  1  John  V.  7.  By  Ben  David  [John  Jones, 
LL.D.].     London,  1S25,  8vo, 

38.  A  Letter  to  the  Clergy  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  David's  on  a 
Passage  of  the  Second  Symbolum  Antiochenum  of  the  Fourth 
Century,  as  an  evidence  of  the  authenticity  of  1  John  V.  7. 
By  Thomas  Burgess,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  St.  David's.  London, 
1825,  8vo. 

39.  Review  of  the  two  preceding  Articles  iii  the  Quarterly 
Review  for  December,  1825.  London,  8vo.  [Attributed  to  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Turton.] 

40.  A  Vindication  of  the  Literary  Character  of  Professor 
Porson  from  the  Animadversions  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Bur- 
gess, D.D.,  Lord  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  in  various  publications 
on  1  John  V.  7.  By  Crito  Cantabrigiensis.  [The  Rev. 
Thomas  Turton,  D.D.,  ZJeun  of  Peterborough.]  Cambridge, 
1827,  8vo. 

41.  A  Specimen  of  an  intended  publication,  which  was  to 
have  been  entitled  A  Vindication  of  them  that  have  the  rule 
over  us,  for  their  not  having  cut  out  the  disputed  Passage,  1  John 
V.  7,  8.  from  the  authorized  Version.  Being  an  Examination 
of  the  first  six  pages  of  Professor  Porson's  IVth  Letter  to  Arch- 
deacon Travis,  of  the  MSS.  used  by  R.  Stephens.  By  Francis 
HuTSiiE.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

This  "  Examination"  was  published  after  notice  had  been  given 
in  the  Literary  Journals  that  the  '  Vindication'  of  Professor  Porson's 
character  was  in  the  press,  and  before  that  work  actually  appeared. 
"  Crito  Cantabrigiensis,"  therefore,  devoted  pp.  388 — 404.  to  a  refu- 
tation of  Mr.  H.'s  tract. 

42.  Two  Letters,  respectfully  addressed  to  the  Lord  Bishop 
of  Salisbury,  in  Defence  of  certain  Positions  of  the  Author, 
relative  to  1  Johti  V.  7. ;  i?i  which  also  the  recent  arguments 
of  his  Lordship  are  shoxvn  to  be  gromidless  Surmises  and  evi- 
dent Mistakes.    By  the  Rev.  John  OXI.T.E.    J^ondori,  1828,  8\o. 

43.  A  Letter  to  the  Rev.  Thomas  Beynon,  Archdeacon  of 
Cardigan,  in  Reply  to  a  Vindication  of  the  Literary  Character 
of  Professor  Porson,  by  Crito  Cantabrigiensis :  and  in  further 
proof  of  the  Authenticity  of  1  John  V.  7.  By  Thomas  Burgess, 
D.D.,  Bishop  of  Salisbury.     Salisbury,  1829,  8vo. 

44.  New  Criticisms  on  the  celebrated  Text,  1  John  V.  7.  A 
Synodical  Lecture,  by  Francis  Anthony  Knittel,  Counsellor  to 
the  Consistory,  and  General  Superintendent  of  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Brunswick  Liinenbourgh.  Published  at  Brunswick  in  1785. 
Translated  from  the  original  German,  by  William  Aileyn  Evan- 
son,  M.A.     London,  1829,  8vo. 

The  original  German  work  of  Knittel,  which  has  long  been 
scarce  upon  the  continent,  is  thus  characterized  by  Michaelis  : — 
"This  is  a  valuable  work,  and  much  useful  information  maybe 
derived  from  it:  but  in  the  proof  of  the  principal  point  the  author 
has  totally  failed."  (Inlrod.  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  iv.  p.  413.) 
This  opinion  has  been  confirmed  in  the  following  terms  by  a  mo- 
dem biblical  critic  : — 

"  Knittel's  '  New  Criticisms'  are  laboured  and  ingenious,  written 
in  a  very  declamatory  style,  and  calculated  by  their  plausibility  to 
produce  on  the  minds  of  novices  in  the  controversy  an  impression 
in  favotir  of  the  passage  which  he  has  taken  under  his  protection. 
They  are  always  wanting  in  the  simplicity  which  an  accomplished 
scholar  will  be  concerned  to  maintain  in  the  conduct  of  an  impor- 
tant argument,  and  are  not  less  deficient  in  the  substantial  proofs, 
and  clear  and  strong  presumptions  which  command  our  assent. 
With  the  appearance  and  pretension  of  a  methodical  arrangement 
of  his  materials,  there  is  but  little  of  it  in  the  discussions  which 
follow  :  and  we  close  the  work  without  having  acquired  any  distinct 
apprehensions  of  the  subject  on  which  we  have  been  engaged." 
(Eclectic  Review,  Third  Series,  vol.  iii.  p.  181.) 

45.  Remarks  upon  JMr.  Evanson's  Preface  to  his  Transla- 
tion of  Knittel's  JVew  Criticisms  on  1  John  V.  7.  By  Clemens 
Anglicanus  [The  Rev.  Thomas  Turton,  D.D.].  London,  1829, 
8vo. 

46.  Memoir  of  the  Controversy  respecting  the  Heavenly 
Witnesses,  1  Johi  V.  7.,  including  critical  JVotices  of  the  Prin- 


cipal  Writers  on   both   sides  of  the  Question.      By   CriticuM 
[the  late  Rev.  William  Oiime,  M.A.].     London,  1830,  12mo. 

This  work  must  have  cost  its  author  no  small  labour;  although 
it  does  not  pretend  to  exhibit  a  full  and  complete  history  of  the 
controversy,  yet  not  a  single  jiublication  of  any  note  is  omitted. 
Numerous  smaller  notices  relative  to  various  other  minor  authors, 
who  have  treated  directly  or  incidentally  on  the  subject,  are  inter- 
spersed ;  and  as  many  of  the  works  given  in  the  preceding  biblio- 
graphical list  are  novv*  become  rare  and  with  diliiculiy  to  be 
procured,  the  reader  who  is  desirous  of  investigating  the  history 
of  this  memorable  controversy,  will  be  gratified  with  the  candid 
spirit  and  diligent  research  which  pervade  every  page  of  Mr. 
Orme's  able  and  well-written  Memoir. 

47.  An  Introduction  to  the  Controversy  on  the  disputed  verse 
of  St.  John,  as  revived  by  Mr.  Gibbon.  By  Thomas  Burgess, 
D.D.,  Bishop  of  Salisbury.     Salisbury,  1833,  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  publication  is  "  to  recall  the  attention  of  the 
readers  to  that  state  of  the  inquiry  into  the  authenticity  of  the  dis- 
puted verse  of  St.  John,  in  vvliich  it  was,  prior  to  the  publication 
of  Archdeacon  Travis's  and  Mr.  Porson's  Letters,  when  it  was 
revived  by  Mr.  Gibbon's  celebrated  note  to  the  thirty-seventh 
chapter  of  his  History."  The  following  are  the  subjects  discussed 
by  the  learned  prelate.  "  Mr.  Gibbon,  an  enemy  to  Christianity, 
and  morally  incapable  of  impartiality  on  any  question  relative  to 
its  scriptures  and  doctrines: — his  falsification  of  authorities  re- 
specting the  great  doctrines  of  Christianity  ; — incorrectness  of  his 
general  positions  respecting  the  controverted  verse ; — incorrectness 
of  his  particular  objections  to  the  verse." 

48.  Dr.  Wiseman  on  1  John  V.  7,  8.  By  the  Rev.  Francis 
HuvsHE.     London,  1834,  8vo. 

An  article  thus  intituled  appeared  in  the  British  Magazine  for 
June,  1834,  advocating  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause  in 
1  John  V.  7,  8.  Mr.  Huyshe,  the  writer  of  it,  is  the  author  of  nu- 
merous communications  bearing  upon  this  question,  which  are 
inserted  in  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  volumes  of  that  Journal  (to 
which  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred),  under  the  title  of  "A 
Vindication  of  the  Early  Parisian  Press." 


SECTION  V. 

TREATISES    ON   VERSIONS    OF    THE    SCRIPTURES. 
§    1.    TREATISES    ON    ANCIENT    VERSIONS. 

1.  Novi  Testamenti  Versiones  Syriacce,  Simplex,  Philoxeniana 
et  Hierosolymitana,  denuo  examinatse,  et  ad  fidem  Codicum 
Manuscriptorum  Bibliothecarum,  Vaticanfe,  Angelicae,  Assemani- 
anse  Medicese,  Regiae  aliarumque ;  novis  Obscrvationibus  atque 
Tabulis  are  incisis  illustrata)  a  Jacobo  Georgio  Christian©  Adler. 
Hafniffi,  1789,  4to. 

2.  G.  H.  Bernstein  de  Versione  Novi  Testamenti  Syriaca 
Hcracleensi  Commentatio.     Lipsiae,  1822,  4to. 

3.  Veteris  Interpretis  cum  Beza  aliisque  Recentioribus  Col- 
latio.     Auctore  Joanne  Bois.     Londini,  1655,  4to. 

In  this  work,  wliich  is  now  of  extreme  rarity,  the  author  has 
successfully  shown  that,  in  many  places,  the  modern  translators 
had  unduly  depreciated  the  Vulgate,  and  unnecessarily  departed 
from  it. 

4.  Dissertatio  Theologico-Critica  de  Vi,  quam  antiquissimse 
Versiones  quse  extant  Latins  in  Crisin  Evangeliorum  IV  habe- 
ant,  exhibita  a  M.  C.  A.  Breyther.     Merseburgi,  1824,  8vo. 

5.  De  Nomine,  Auctore,  Emendatoribus,  et  Authentia  Vulga- 
tse  Dissertatio.     Auctore  Josepho  Brunati.  Viennae,  1827,  8vo. 

6.  De  Prophetarum  Minorum  Versionis  Syriacse,  quam  Pes- 
chito  dicunt.  Indole,  Dissertationes  Philogico-Criticse.  Disser- 
tatio I.  Scripsit  Carolus  Augustus  Credner.  Gottingae,  1827, 
8vo. 

7.  J.  A.  DoRN  De  Psalterio  ^thiopico  Commentatio.  Lip- 
siae,  1825,  4to. 

8.  J.  F.  FiscHERi  Prolusiones  de  Versionibus  Graecis  Libro- 
rum  Veteris  Testamenti.     Lipsise,  1772,  8 vo. 

9.  Jo.  Ernest.  Grabii  Epistola  ad clarissimum,  virum  Jo.  Mil- 
Hum  ;  qua  ostenditur,  Libri  Judicura  Genuinam  LXX.  Interpre- 
turn  Versionem  earn  esse,  quam  MS.  Cod.  Alexandrinus  exhibet ; 
Romanam  autem  Editionem,  quod  ad  dictum  librum,  ab  ilia 
prorsus  diversam,  atque  eandem  cum  Hesychiana  esse.  Subnexa 
sunt  tria  Novae  tZv  o  Editionis  Specimina.     Oxonii,  1705,  4to. 

In  this  tract,  which  is  not  of  common  occurrence,  Dr  Grabe  an- 
nounced and  also  gave  specimens  of  the  critical  edition  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  which  is  described  in  p.  21,  of  this  Appendix. 


Sect.  V.  §  1.] 


TREATISES  ON  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


10.  Joh.  Ernst.  (JnAnn  Dissprtatio  dc  variis  Vitiis  Soptua- 
fiinla  InK^rpreturii  Vcrsioiii  auU:  ]J.  Orijjcriis  .'I'viiin  illalis,  ct  rc- 
nieiliis  ali  ipso  in  Hfxaplari  fjusdcni  Vcrsionis  Editiont;  adhibitis, 
clwpie  luijus  cdilionis  |{('li([uii!j  tani  nianuscriplis  quam  jiruilo  cx- 
cusi.s.     Oxonii,  1710,  4 to. 

A  rare  and  valiialile  tract. 

1 1.  De  PcMitalevichi  Vorsionis  Syriac.i^  (juani  Pi'scliito  vorant, 
Indole,  (Jonniionlatio  (Jritico-Exogotica.  Scripsit  LudovtcUH 
Hiii%i':i..     Ijipsiu;,  1825,  8 vo. 

12.  Bclluin  Pa|)alc,  sivc  Concordia  Disrors  Sixti  Quinti,  cl 
('Icnienlis  Octavi,  circa  Hieronyniianam  Editioncm.  Auctorc 
'J'lioma  Jamks.     l^ondini,  IGOfi,  410.  liondini,  U)78. 

1.3.  Cominentatio  (Jritica  dc  Eplira^mo  Syro,  S,  S.  intorprctc  ; 
quii  simul  Vcrsionis  Syriaca>,  qiiain  Pcscliito  vocant.  Ijcctioncs 
variu;  ex  E[)hra!nii  coninicntariis  collccta!  cxhibentur.  Scripsit 
Ca-.sar  a.  IiKXiKiiKK.     Hala;,  1828,  4to. 

14.  Kcmarqucs  sur  la  Version  Italiijue  de  S.  Matlliieu,  qu'on 
a  docouvert  dans  de  fort  ancicns  Manuscrits.  Par  Jean  Mau- 
TiANAV.     Paris,  1695,  8vo. 

15.  .loan.  Davidis  Michaelis  CuraJ  in  Vcrsioncni  Syriacam 
Actunm  Apostolicorum.  (yiim  Conscctariis  Criticis  de  indole, 
cognationibus,  et  usu  Vcrsionis  Syriaca;  Tabularum  Novi  Fccdc- 
ris.     (iottinga;,  1755,  4to. 

16.  De  Originc  Vcrsionis  Scptuaginta  Interprctum  :  Auctorc 
S,  T.  MuECKE,  corrcctore  Lycci  Soraviensis.  Zullichovia;, 
1788,  8vo. 

Bp.  Marsh  pronounces  this  to  be  "  a  very  useful  work,  as  it  re- 
presents both  concisely  and  jierspicuously  the  several  topics  which 
suggest  themselves  ibr  consideration  on  the  origin  of  the  Septuagint 
version."     (Lectures,  part  iii.  p.  123.) 

17.  Friderici  MiJNTEii  Comnientatio  de  Indole  Versionis  Novi 
Testanienti  Sahidica;.  Acccdit  Fragniontuni  Ei)istoLi!  Paidi  ad 
Timotheuni,  ex  mcinbrano  Sahidico  Manuscripto  liorgiano, 
Velitris,     Hafnia),  1789,  4to. 

18.  An  Enquiry  into  the  present  State  of  the  Septuagint  Ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament.  By  Henry  Owen,  D.D.  London, 
1769,8vo. 

All  Dr.  Henry  Owen's  works  are  characterized  by  sound  criticism 
and  lalxirious  research.  13p.  Marsh,  wlm  says  that  lie  is  an  excellent 
critic,  oliscrves  that  his  Historical  and  Critical  Account  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint Version  "  should  be  read  l)y  every  man,  who  wishes  to  be 
iicipiaiuted  with  the  history  of  that  version.'' 

19.  A  Brief  Account,  Historical  and  (Critical,  of  the  Septua- 
gint Version  of  the  Old  Testament.  To  wliich  is  added  a  Dis- 
sertation on  the  comparative  Excellency  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Samaritan  Pentateuch.  By  Dr.  Henry  Owen,  F.li.S.,  &c. 
London,  1787,  8vo. 

"The  learned  author  of  this  piece  has  bestowed  very  laudable 
pains  u|K)n  his  subject,  and  brought  into  a  very  small  compass  many 
just  remarks,  and  much  useful  information ;  which  will  not  fail  to 
be  highly  acceptable  to  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  study  of  the 
Seriplurcs."     (Month,  llev.  (O.  S.)  vol.  Ixxviii.  p.  2GC.) 

20.  F.  V.  REiNHARni  Dissertatio  dc  Versionis  Alexandrinaj 
authoritatc  et  usu  in  constituenda  Librorura  Hebraicorum  Lec- 
tione  genuina.     Vitemherga;,  1777,  4to. 

21.  De  Syriacarum  Novi  Foederis  Versionum  Indole  atque 
Usu  Dissertatio.  Philoxenianam  cum  Simplice,  e  duobus  per- 
vetustis  Codd.  MSS.  ab  Amida  transmissis,  conferentc  Gloces- 
trio  Ridley.     Londini,  1761,  4to. 

This  very  scarce  tract  is  reprinted  at  the  end  of  Semler's  edition 
of  Welstein's  Libelli  ad  Crisin  atcjue  Interpretationcm  Novi  Tcsta- 
mcnti  (8vo.  Hala%  1766),  pp.  247 — 339.  from  a  copy  then  in  the 
library  of  the  celebrated  Michaclis. 

22.  De  Origine  et  Indole  Arabicse  Librorcm  Veteris  Testa- 
nienti Historicorum  Interpretationis  Libri  II.  Scripsit  .^milius 
RoEDiKER.  Passim  adjecta  sunt  Scholia  Tanchumi  Arabici, 
aliaque  anccdota.     Halis  Saxonum,  1829,  4to. 

The  design  of  this  publication  is,  to  show  that  the  Arabic  Version 
was  not  made  from  the  Septuagint  ;  but  that  the  greater  part  of  it 
was  executed  from  the  Syriac  Version  ;  viz.  the  books  of  Judges, 
Ruth,  Samuel,  1  Kings  i.  toxi.  2Kingsxii.  17. — xxv.  and  Nehcmiah 
ix.  28.  to  xiii. ;  that  1  Kings  xii.  to  2  Kings  xii.  16.  vvas  made  from 
the  Hebrew ;  that  Nehemiah  i.  to  ix.  27.,  though  made  from  the 
Hebrew,  has,  in  several  places,  been  interpolated  from  the  Syriac. 
M.  Roediger  is  of  opinion  that  the  author  of  the  Arabic  version  was 
a  Christian  who  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

23.  Em.  Frid.  Car.  RosEXMiJi,LEK  de  Versionc  Pentateuchi 
Persica  Commentatio.     Lipsia;,  1813,  4to. 

This  academical  disquisition  treats  on  the  author  and  editions  of 
the  Persic  version,  and  on  its  sources  and  character.  A  critical 
.  examination  of  various  passages  is  annexed. 


24.  Animadversiones,  quibus  Fragmenta  Versionum  Gneca 
rum  V.  T.  a  Bern.  Montcfalconio  collccta,  illustrantur  a  Jo. 
Uottfr.  ScHAUFfc.MiEao.     Lijisia;,  1770,  8vo. 

25.  Siiii.KLSNKiii  (.loh.  Frid.)  Opu.scula  Critica  ad  Versiones 
(ira'cas  Vctcris  Testanienti  i)ertinciitia.     Lipsioi,  1812,  8vo. 

Tiie  (irst  part  of  this  volume  ((inluins  ohsfTvalioiis  on  the  aiilho- 
rily  and  use  uf  the  (ireek  (alliers  in  scllliug  the  genuine  reading 
of  the  (Jrecrk  versions  of  the  Old  'i'eslamenl.  'I'lie  second  part 
com|)riRes  observations  and  conjectural  emendations  on  iIicric  ver- 
sions. 

26.  Til.  E.  Toepleu  dc  Pentateuchi  Interpretationis  Alexan- 
drinjD  Indole  Critici  atque  Hermeneutica  Commentatio.  Halis 
Saxonum,  1830. 

27.  UssEiiii  (Jacobi,  Armachcnsis  Archiepiscopi)  de  Graica 
Scptuaginta  Interprctum  Versionc  Syntagma.  Londini,  1665, 
4  to. 

"  It  is  divided  info  nine  chapters,  and  relates  to  the  origin  of  the 
version  according  to  the  account  of  Arisieas  (then  Rup(M(sed  to  be 
genuine),  to  the  lime  when  and  the  place  where  it  was  written,  to 
the  alterations  wliicth  wore  gradually  made  in  its  text,  to  the  eor- 
roclionsof  (JrigiMi,  to  the  modern  edilions,  and  r»ilier  subjects  with 
wliicli  lliesc  are  immediately  connected.  This  is  a  work  of  great 
merit :  it  <li»pl;iys  much  original  in(juiry  ;  and  may  be  regarded  as 
tlic  ground-work  of  later  ]>uldicatioiis  on  the  Septuagint."  (Bp. 
Marsh's  Lectures,  pari  ii.  p.  121.) 

28.  G.  B.  WiNKn  de  Onkeloso  ejusque  Paraphrasi  Chaldaica 
Dissertatio.     Lipsia;,  1820,  4to. 

29.  Wiseman  (Nicolaus)  Hone  Svriaca;,  seu  Commentationes 
et  Anccdota  Res  vcl  Litterarias  Syriacas  spcctantia.  Tomus  L 
Roma),  1828,  8vo. 

This  profoundly  learned  volume  compri.ses  collections  for  the 
Literary  History  of  the  .Syriac  versions  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
|iariiciilarly  of  the  Peschilo  or  Old  Syriac  version,  drawn  for  the 
most  part  from  original  sources.  These  are  fbllow<'(!  by  details  of 
great  value  respecting  the  Karkaphcnsian  Recension  of  the  Syriac 
version,  which  is  here  for  the  first  time  described.  To  the  whole 
is  prefixed  an  elaborate  attempt  to  uj)hoId  the  Komish  gloss  on  MatU 
xxvi.  26.,  respecting  transubsianliation,  drawn  from  Syriac  sources, 
and  containing  a  collection  of  words  for  a  supplement  to  the  Syriac 
lexicons  extant.  Dr.  Wiseman's  Syriac  quotations  have  been  sub- 
jected to  a  minute  and  critical  examination  by  Professor  Lee  in  his 
prol(!gomena  to  Mr.  Bagster's  edition  of  the  Polvglott  Bible,  p.  29. 
of  the  folio  edition,  or  pp.  41,  42.  of  the  (|iiarto  edition.  Among  the 
Syriac  writers  whom  Dr.  W.  has  quoted,  as  maintaining  tran8uiwt.an- 
tiation,  is  Dionysius  Barsalibscus  or  Barsalibi  (Horse  Syriacic,  p.  57.) : 
/)«/  he  wrote  the  treatise  cited  by  Dr.  W.  again.st  the  Franks  or  pa- 
pists towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century.  (Assemanni's  Biblio- 
theca  Orientalis,  vol.  ii.  pp.  156,  157,  <Slc.)  In  pp.  57.  and  58.  of  the 
Hone  SyriacjB,  according  to  Barsalibi  and  Maruthas,  the  l)read  and 
wine  are  called  the  l)ody  and  blood  of  Christ;  but  the  bread  is 
NEVER  said  to  be  changeii  into  the  Jlesh  of  Christ,  which.  Prof.  Lee 
remarks,  is  of  great  imjiortance.  And  Barsalibi  himself  elsewhere 
teaches  that  these  expressions  arc  taken  mystically ;  which  Dr. 
Wiseman  forgot  to  show.  In  p.  191.,  he  says  (as  Professor 
Lee  translates  him),  "  Pancm,  inipiit,  ociilo  animcB  contemplamur," 
et  (p.  159.)  "facitque  eum  corpus  divino  ct  .mvstico  modo."  That 
is,  "  We  contcmphile,  he  says,  the  bread  with  the  ei/e  of  the  soul :"  and 
in  p.  159.,  "and  he  makes  it  hish<xly  in  a  divine  and  mvstical 
MA.NNER."  Dr.  ^Viseman  having  quoted  (Ilor.  Syr.  p.  59.)  a  passage 
from  an  Arahic  translation  from  the  Syriac  of  some  very  ancient 
canons  of  the  Syrian  church  (made  in  the  three  hundred  and  eighty- 
second  year  of  the  Mohammedan  tera  of  the  Hegira,  a.d.  1004),  in 
order  to  show  that  transubstantiation  was  held  by  that  church  : — 
Professor  Lee  charges  Dr.  Wiseman  with  having  mistranslated 
the  passage  in  question,  which  ought  to  be  rendered  thus,  "  lie" 
(that  is,  Jesus  Christ)  "  gave  it"  (his  bodv)  "  to  us  for  the  remission 
of  sins,  after  that  he  had  assimilated  it  to  himself:  yta,  he  said, '  This 
is  my  body :'  but  did  not  say,  '  This  is  like  to  my  body ' — "  lllud  nobis 

dedit in  remissionem  peccatorum,  postquam  id  sibimet 

assimilaverat :  imo  dixit,  '  Hoc  est  corpus  meum,'  at  non  dixit,  'Si- 
mile est  corpori  meo.'  "  That  is,  that  the  sacrament  ought  to  be 
received  with  faith,  a-s  my  body  itself,  but  not  as  any  likeness  of  it, 
which  indeed  would  be  idolatry.  The  authorities,  therefore,  which 
Dr.  Wiseman  professes  to  quote  in  supjwrt  of  the  Romish  tenet  of 
transubstantiation,  do  not  aflc)rd  him  any  supjxirt  whatever.  Further, 
as  Dr.  Wiseman  has  professed  a  wish  for  some  philological  illustra- 
tions in  behalf  of  the  Protestant  or  true  mode  of  interpreting  Matt, 
xxvi.  26.,  Dr.  Lee  proceeds  to  gratify  his  wish ;  and  accordingly 
cites  one  p.assage  from  the  Old  Syriac  version  of  1  Kings  xxii.  11.; 
another  from  tlie  Arabic  poem,  Hamasa,  and  from  an  Arabic  scho- 
liast on  it ;  and  another  from  the  Persian  poet,  Saadi :  all  which 
abundantly  confirm  the  Protestant  mode  of  interpretation.  Pro- 
fessor Lee  has  given  the  original  passages  in  these  oriental  lan- 
guages, accompanied  with  a  Latin  translation ;  which  the  limits 
necessarily  prescribed  to  this  notice  compel  us  to  omit.  And,  final- 
ly, he  concludes  with  observing  that  there  are  not  wanting  Syriac 
authors,  of  considerable  repute,  who  testify  that  the  Lord's  supper  is 
a  mystical  and  rational  representation  of  the  unbloody  sacrifice.  For 
this  statement.  Dr.  Lee  refers  to  Assemanni's  Bibliotheca  Orienta 
tis,  torn.  i.  pp.  479 — 483.,  where  the  elements  are  called  mysteries. 


84 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  II. 


§  2.  TIIEAT18KS    ON    MOHETIN    VERSIONS    OV    TIIE    SCHIPTUHES. 

1.  A  History  of  the  Translations  which  have  hcen  made  of 
the  Scriptures  from  the  earliest  to  the  present  age,  throughout 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  By  Herbert  Marsh,  D.D. 
[Bishop  of  Peterborough].     Loudon,  1812,  8vo. 

2.  A  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Translation  and  Circulation  of 
the  Scriptures,  from  the  earliest  period  to  the  present  time.  By 
the  Rev.  W.  A.  Thomson,  and  the  Rev.  W.  Okme.  Perth,  1815, 
8vo. 

1.  An  Historical  Account  of  the  several  English  Translations 
of  the  Bible,  and  the  Opposition  they  met  with  from  the  church 
of  Rome.  By  Anthony  Jounsojt.  London,  1730,  8vo.  Also 
in  the  third  volume  of  Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Theologi- 
cal Tracts. 

2.  A  IjCtter,  showing  why  our  English  Bibles  differ  so  much 
from  the  Septuagint ;  though  both  are  translated  from  the  He- 
brew Original.   [By  Thomas  Brett,  LL.D.]   London,  1743,  8vo. 

A  second  edition  was  published  in  1760,  entitled  a  Dissertation, 
instead  of  a  letter.  It  has  been  reprinted  by  Bishop  Walson,  Tracls, 
vol.  iii. 

3.  A  History  of  the  principal  Translations  of  the  Bible.  By 
John  Lewis,  M.A.     London,  1739, 8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  valuable  work,  to  which  all  succeeding 
writers  on  the  history  of  the  English  versions  of  the  Scriptures  are 
indebted,  was  prefixed  to  Mr.  Lewis's  folio  edition  of  the  venerable 
John  Wickliffe's  English  version  of  the  New  Testament.  It  was 
reprinted  in  1818,  at  London,  with  some  unimportant  additions,  in 
one  volume,  8vo. 

4.  An  Historical  View  of  the  English  Biblical  Translations  ; 
the  expedience  of  revising  by  authority  our  present  Translation, 
and  the  means  of  executing  such  a  Revision.  By  William  New- 
come,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Waterford.     Dublin,  1792,  8vo. 

5.  A  List  of  Editions  of  the  Bible,  and  Parts  thereof  in  Eng- 
lish, from  the  years  MDV.  to  MDCCCXX.  With  an  Appendix, 
containing  Specimens  of  Translations  and  Bibliographical  De- 
scriptions. By  the  Rev.  Henry  Cotton,  D.C.L.  Oxford,  at  the 
Clarendon  Press,  1821,  8vo. 

Though  the  author  of  this  unassuming  but  very  interesting  "List" 
modestly  terms  it  "  an  Appendix"  to  the  latter  part  of  Lewis's  work, 
it  will  be  found  a  very  useful  publication  to  those  who  may  not  be 
possessed  of  Lewis's  History.  It  is  evidently  the  result  of  deep  re- 
search, and  is  drawn  up  with  great  care.  The  notes,  which  are 
not  numerous,  are  strictly  bibliographical,  and  contain  much  valua- 
ble information  for  the  collectors  of  rare  books  ;  while  considerable 
additional  interest  is  imparted  to  the  work  by  the  specimens  of 
early  translations  which  will  be  found  in  the  appendix. 

6.  Dangerous  Errors  in  several  late  printed  Bibles,  to  the 
great  scandal  and  corruption  of  sacred  and  true  Religion.  Dis- 
covered by  William  Kilburn.  Printed  at  Finsbury, anno  1659. 
8vo. 

This  very  curious  tract  points  out  numerous  "  pernicious,  erro- 
neous, and  corrupt  Erratas,  Escapes,  and  Faults  in  several  impres- 
sions of  the  Holy  Bible  and  Testament,  within  these  late  years" 
[during  the  great  rebellion]  "  commonly  vended  and  dispersed,  to 
the  great  scandal  of  religion,  but  more  particularly  in  the  impres- 
sions of  Henry  Hills  and  John  Field,  Printers.  A  copy  is  in  the 
Library  of  the  British  Museum. 

7.  The  Existing  Monopoly  an  inadequate  protection  of  the 
Authorized  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  Four  Letters  to  the  Right 
Hon.  and  Right  Rev.  the  Lord  Bishop  of  London ;  with  Speci- 
mens of  the  intentional  and  other  departures  from  the  authorized 
standard.  To  which  is  added  a  Postscript,  containing  the  Com- 
plaints of  a  London  Committee  of  Ministers  on  the  subject ;  the 
Reply  of  the  Universities ;  and  a  Report  on  the  importance  of 
the  Alterations  made.    By  Thomas  Curtis.    London,  1833,  8vo. 

8.  Mr.  Curtis's  Misrepresentations  Exposed.  By  Edward 
Cardwell,  D.D.     Oxford,  1833,  8vo. 

9.  The  Text  of  the  English  Bible  Considered.  By  Thomas 
TuRTON,  D.D.,  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  and  Dean  of  Peterborough.  Cambridge  and  Lon- 
don, 1833, 8vo.  Second  edition,  corrected  and  enlarged,  1834,  8vo. 

The  reader  will  find  a  full  account  of  Mr.  Curtis's  misrepresenta- 
tions, and  an  abstract  of  the  refutation  of  them  by  the  Rev.  Drs. 
Cardwell  and  Turton,  in  the  British  Critic  for  July,  1833,  pp.  1 — 26. 
There  is  also  an  impartial  article  on  this  subject  in  the  Eclectic 
Review  for  June,  1833  (third  series,  vol.  ix.  pp.  509 — 533).  It  may 
suffice  here  to  state,  generally,  that  Mr.  Curtis  has  altogether  failed 
in  his  attacks  upon  our  present  authorized  version,  and  upon  the  edi- 
tions of  it  printed  by  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  It 
is  proper  to  add  that  the  sub-committee  of  dissenting  ministers,  who 
were  appointed  by  the  "  London  Committee,"  mentioned  in  Mr. 
Curtis's  title-page,  caused  an  advertisement  to  be  inserted  in  the 


Times  newspaper,  of  March  26, 1833,  in  which  they  stated  that  Mr. 
Curtis  had  aclcd  without  their  concurrence,  and  Ihal  llieydid  not 
consider  themselves  responsible  for  any  statements  already  made 
by  him,  or  which  he  might  thereafter  make.  His  j)ampldet  "  seemed 
to  announce  some  very  great,  serious,  alarming,  and  crying  evil, 
calling  for  immediate  and  decisive  remedy.  Wc  apprehend,  how- 
ever, that  every  unprejudiced  reader  will  feel  that  these  evils  have 
been  exceedingly  exaggerated  ;  and  that  no  case  whatever,  as  far 
at  least  as  affects  our  universities,  has  been  established."  (Christian 
Guardian,  March,  1833,  p.  107.) 

10.  Reasons  why  a  new  Translation  of  the  Bible  should  not 
be  published,  without  a  previous  statement  and  examination  of 
all  the  material  Passages  which  may  be  supposed  to  be  n)isintcr- 
jnetcd.  [By  Thomas  Burgess,  D.D.,  now  13ishop  of  Salisbury.] 
Durham,  1816,  8vo. 

11.  Reasons  in  favour  of  a  New  Translation  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  By  Sir  James  Bland  Burges,  Bart.  London, 
1819,  8vo. 

12.  A  Vindication  of  our  authorized  Translation  and  Trans- 
lators of  the  Bible,  and  of  preceding  English  Versions  authori- 
tatively commended  to  the  Notice  of  those  Translators,  &c.  By 
the  Rev.  H.  J.  Todd,  M.A.     London,  1819,  8vo. 

13.  An  Historical  and  Critical  Inquiry  into  the  Interpretation 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  with  Remarks  on  Mr.  Bellamy's  new 
Translation.  By  J.  W.  Wuittaker,  M.A.  London,  1819,  8 vo. 
Supplement,  1820,  8vo. 

14.  VindicifE  Hebraicte ;  or  a  Defence  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures, occasioned  by  the  recent  strictures  and  innovations  of 
J.  Bellamy,  and  in  confutation  of  his  attacks  on  all  preceding 
Translations,  and  on  the  Established  Version  in  particular.  By 
Hyman  Hurwitz.     London,  1820,  8vo. 

This  author  is  a  learned  Jewish  teacher,  who,  while  he  has 
exposed  Mr.  Bellamy's  misinterpretations  with  great  learning,  has 
rendered  to  British  Christians  an  incalculable  service,  by  showing 
the  general  excellence  of  our  authorized  English  version  ;  and  has 
also,  perhaps  unwittingly,  silenced  the  Jewish  objector,  who  used 
to  deny  the  validity  of  the  Old  Testament  as  cited  from  that  ver- 
sion. 

15.  A  Letter  to  the  Rt.  Rev.  Herbert  [Marsh],  Lord  Bishop 
of  Peterborough,  on  the  Independence  of  the  authorized  Version 
of  the  Bible.     By  Henry  Walter,  B.D.     London,  1823,  8vo. 

16.  Hints  for  an  improved  Translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. By  James  Scholefield,  M.A.  Regius  Professor  of 
Greek  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  Cambridge  and  London, 
1832,  8vo. 

"  In  every  part  of  these  notes  we  observe  a  judicious  treatment 
of  the  subjects  brought  under  discussion ;  and  there  is  scarcely  an 
emendation  proposed,  to  which  we  should  be  prepared  to  hazard 
an  objection."  (Eclectic  Review,  for  April,  1833.  Third  Series, 
vol.  ix.  p.  317.) 

17.  Observations  upon  the  Expediency  of  revising  the  present 
English  Version  of  the  four  Gospels,  and  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  By  John  Stmonds,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Modern 
History  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.    1 789,  4to. 

17*.  Observations  on  the  Expediency  of  revising  the  present 
English  Version  of  the  Epistles  in  the  New  Testament.  By 
John  SiMONDs,  LL.D.     1'794,  4to. 

The  same  method  of  classification  is  pursued  in  both  these  pub- 
lications. "Of  the  observations  themselves  it  must  be  said,  that 
many  are  just  and  useful ;  but  many  also  are  minute  and  over- 
refined."    (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  iii.  p.  332.) 

18.  The  Errata  of  the  Protestant  Bible:  or  the  Truth  of  the 
English  Translation  examined.  By  Thomas  Ward.  Dublin, 
1807,  4to. 

19.  An  Analysis  of  Ward's  Errata  of  the  Protestant  Bible. 
By  Richard  Rian,  D.D.     Dublin,  1808,  8vo. 

20.  An  Answer  to  Ward's  Errata  of  the  Protestant  Bible. 
By  Richard  Grier,  D.D.     Dublin,  1812,  4to. 

21.  Observations  on  the  present  State  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
English  Bible,  addressed  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of 
Dublin ;  showing  that  it  has  never  been  edited  on  any  uniform 
plan;  that  the  principles  adopted  by  the  Rhemish  Translators 
have  been  abandoned ;  and  that  the  Censures  of  Ward's  Errata 
are  as  applicable  to  it,  as  to  the  Protestant  Bible.  By  the  Rev. 
George  Hamilton,  A.M.     Dublin,  1826,  8vo. 

22.  A  Second  Letter  to  the  most  Rev.  Dr.  Murray,  on  the 
present  State  of  the  English  Roman  Catholic  Bible,  contrasting 
the  Notes  recently  published  by  him,  with  those  to  which  he 
gave  his  sanction  before  the  Committee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. By  the  Rev.  George  Hamilton,  A.M.  Dublin,  1826,  8vo. 


Chap.  IV.] 


TREATISES  ON  THE  ORIGINAL  LANGUAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


85 


Ward's  F''rrata  of  ihfi  Protestant  BihU;,  which  contain  n  vehement 
attack  upon  our  present  aulhori/cd  version,  were  (irst  puMished 
anonymously  in  iho  rci^^u  of  James  II.,  and  were  reprinled  in  llie 
former  part  of  the  eightcenlli  century.  This  book,  after  sleeping  in 
oblivion  for  many  years,  was  re|)rinted  at  Dublin  in  1H07,  and  ex- 
tensively circulated  under  the  patronage  of  the  Komish  clergy  in 
Ireland.  This  called  forth  the  two  very  able  and  satisfactory 
rejilies  of  the  Kov.  iJrs.  tirier  and  Ityaii. 

In  cofiseijuence  of  ihe  biblical  (lisciissions  which  have  taken 
place  in  Ireland,  Mr.  Hamilton  was  induced  lo  coilale  five  editions, 
Desides  the  New  Testament  |)rintetl  at  Rheims  in  l.')82,  which  have 
been  circulated  under  the  authority  of  the  Uoniish  archbishops  of 
Duhliti.  'J'he  residt  is,  that  there  is  not  one  standard  copy  extant; 
what,  however,  is  most  gratifying  to  us  as  Protestants  is,  that  Dr. 
Murray's  edition,  printc^d  in  IH'i.'i,  conlalim  sivcral  correrliuris  of  the 
Aiiglo-liomiK/i  traiidulion  KiioM  our  authoiu/eu  Pkotiosta.nt  Vkr- 
Slo\,  which  identical  passages  had  been  denounced  by  Ward  as 
licrelicdl  mis/ran.iliitions  !  Mr.  Hamilton's  second  pamphlet  e\|)oses 
tlie  variations  which  occur  in  the  rmtes  of  five  several  editions, 
printed  between  the  years  1748  and  1826;  and  further  shows  that 
tlio  Irish  branch  of  the  self-styled  infallible  (.'hiirch  has  no  fixed 
standard  what(!ver,  cither  in  the  Bibles  i)rinted  for  adults,  or  in  the 
elementary  Catechisms  prei)ared  for  the  use  of  children. 

23.  A  Brief  History  of  the  Versions  of  the  Bible  of  the  Anglo- 
Roman  Churclies.     Dublin,  1830,  18nio. 

This  carefully  compiled  little  volume  pretends  to  no  originality 
of  information.  It  contains  the  substance  of  two  lectures  delivered 
by  a  clergyman  in  Irelanil  to  his  parishioners :  and  it  is  particularly 
valuable  as  |)rcsentiMg  in  a  small  compass  much  imiKjrIant  infor- 
mation respeitiug  thi'  (illcnilinns,  adtlilioris,  omissions,  and  varia- 
tions, which  have  been  maile  by  tho  popish  bishops  in  the  Anglo- 
Komish  versions  of  the  Bible. 

24.  An  Historical  Account  of  the  British  or  Welsh  Versions 
and  Editions  of  the  Bible.  By  Thomas  Llewellyn,  LL.D. 
London,  1768,  8vo. 

A  tract  not  of  very  frequent  occurrence.  In  an  Appendix,  the 
author  has  printed  the  dedication  which  the  translators  prefixed  to 
the  first  impressions  of  the  Welch  Bible. 

25.  A  Dissertation  on  Hans  Mikkclsen's  (or  the  first  Danish) 
Translation  of  the  New  Testament.  By  Ebenezer  HEirccusoir, 
[D.D.]     Copenhagen,  1813,  4to. 


26.  Bililical  Researches  and  Travels  in  Russia,  &c.  &c.  By 
Ebene/er  HnNnKHsuN,  [D.D.]     I^ondon,  1826,  8vo. 

This  very  interesting  volume  of 'i'ravels  has  a  claim  to  be  noticed 
in  this  place,  on  account  of  the  numerous  and  important  details 
which  Dr.  Henderson  has  connnu/iicated  respecting  the  ancient 
and  modern  Russian  versions  and  editions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
and  to  which  we  have  been  largely  indebted.  Dr.  11.  has,  in  the 
course  of  his  lengthened  tour  through  the  southern  provinces  of 
Russia,  collected  many  very  valuable  elucidations  of  Scripture 
matuiers  and  customs.  Independently  of  tlii'se  circumstances, 
which  necessardy  arrest  the  attenti(jn  of  Bible  students,  his 
volume  contains  much  valuable  statistical  information  relative  lo 
the  countries  thnjugh  which  he  travelled. 

27.  Chri.stiani  Andr.  Tki-ueiu  Tractatus  Philologico-Exege- 
ticus  de  Utilit;ite  Lingua;  Anglicana;  in  Explicatione  S.  Scrip- 
turaj,  ex  Pericopis  vulgo  Epi.stolicis  Vernacula;  Versionis  cum 
Anglicana  ct  Fontibus  collatis  demonstrata.    Lipsia;,  1733,  12mo. 

The  design  of  this  publication  is  to  shr»w  Ihe  utility  of  the  Kng- 
lish  Liinguage,  and  also,  by  actual  collation,  the  importance  of  our 
authorized  English  version  of  the  Bible  fitr  correcting  the  German 
translation.  M.  Teuber  has  adduced  several  instances  in  which 
the  latter  may  be  improved  from  our  version. 

28.  Memoir  of  a  French  Translation  of  the  New  Testament, 
in  which  the  Mass  and  Purgatory  are  found  in  the  Sacred  Text ; 
together  with  Bishop  Kidder's  Reflections  on  the  same  :  accom- 
panied by  Notes.  By  Henry  Cotton,  LL.D.  London,  1827, 8 vo. 

In  1690,  Dr.  Kidder,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  intro- 
duced to  the  notice  of  the  English  public  a  French  Translation  of 
the  New  Testament,  which  li;ul  been  printed  at  Bourdeaux  in  1686  ; 
and  he  exposed  the  numerous  falsifications  of  the  sacred  original 
which  the  translators  had  made,  in  order  to  uphold  the  erroneous 
tenets  and  superstitious  practices  of  the  church  of  Rome.  Bp.  Kid- 
der's pamphlet  having  become  extremely  rare,  Dr.  Cotton  has  ren- 
dered a  valuable  service  to  the  Protestant  cause  by  reprinting  it 
with  some  corrective  notes;  and  he  has  prefixed  an  interesting 
bibliographical  memoir  on  the  Bourdeaux  New  Testament. 

*  ,*  Many  interesting  details  relative  to  the  History  of  Modem 
Versions  of  the  Scri[)tures,  will  be  found  in  Dr.  Townley's 
'  Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,'  and  '  Introduction  to  tho 
Literary  History  of  the  Bible,'  a  notice  of  which  will  be  found 
in  page  5,  of  this  Appendix, 


CHAPTER  IV. 

TREATISES    ON    THE    ORIGINAL    LANGUAGES    OF    SCRIPTURE,    AND    GRAMMARS    AND 

LEXICONS    THEREOF. 

SECTION  L 


TREATISES,    ETC.    ON    THE    HEBREW    LANGUAGE. 
§    1.    TIIKATISES    ON     THE    STUDY    OF    THE    UEUREW    lANOCAGE,    AND    ON    THE    VOWEL    POINTS. 


1.  LiNGUK  Hcbraicac  Studium  Juventuti  Academicsc  com- 
mendatum,  Oratione  Oxonii  habita  in  schola  Linguarum,  a 
Georgio  Jchh,  S.T.P.  Lingua;  Hcbraicaj  Profcssorc.  Oxonii, 
1781,  4to. 

2.  Dissertations  on  the  Importance  and  best  Method  of  Study- 
ing the  Original  Languages  of  the  Bible,  by  Jahn,  and  others ; 
translated  from  the  Originals,  and  accompanied  with  Notes,  by 
M.  Stuaut,  Associate  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Andover.  Andover  (Massachusetts), 
1821,  8 vo. 

These  dissertations  are  three  in  number,  and  are  translated  from 
lilt!  Latin  of  Jahn  and  Wytlcnbach,  and  the  (jermaii  of  Gescnius: 
iliey  comprise  many  important  observations  on  tho  study  of  Ian. 
guages,  the  value  of  which  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  original  and 
instructive  notes  of  the  translator. 

3.  Johannis  Bi-xtorfii  Tiberia.'s,  sivc  Commcntarius  Maso- 
rethicus;  quo  primum  explicatur  quid  Masora  sit;  tum  Historia 
Masoretharuin  ex  Hebra;orum  Annalibus  excutitur ;  secundo 
clavis  Masora;  traditur;  dcnique  Analytica  Masora;  explicatio  in 
primum  caput  Geneseos  proponitur,  Basilea;  Rauracorum, 
1620,  4to. 

4.  Ludovici  Capelli,  Filii,  Arcanum  Punctationis  rcvelatum, 
sive  de  Punctorum  Vocalium  ct  Acccntuum  apud  Hcbroios  vera 
et  germana  antiquitate  Diatriba,  in  lucem  cdita  a  Thoma  Erpcnio. 

,  Lugduni  Batavoruin.  1624,  4to. 


These  two  works  almost  exhaust  the  controversy  respecting  (he 
vowel  points  of  the  Hebrew  language.  Buxlorf  maintains,  and 
Capellus  op|)oses  them,  both  with  e(|u»l  learning  and  ingenuity. 

5.  Jacobi  Altingii  Fundamenta  Punctationis  Lingua;  Sancta; ; 
acccdit  ejusdem  Synopsis  Institutionum  Chalda'arum  et  Syrarum. 
Francofurti  ad  Mccnum,  1730,  8vo. 

This  is  usually  considered  as  the  best  edition:  the  treatise  fint 
appeared  in  1692.  It  is  considered  by  critics  as  indispensable  to 
those  who  would  penetrate  the  arcana  of  the  Masoretic  punctuation. 

6.  Josephi  DonnowsKT  de  antiquis  Hebra;orum  Characteribus 
Dissertatio.     Praga;,  1783,  8vo. 

"This  tract  contains,  in  a  short  compass,  a  perspicuous  sfafement 
of  all  the  nrgumenis  lx)lh  for  and  against  the  antiquity  of  the  He- 
brew letters;  and  the  conclusion,  which  the  author  deduces,  is, 
that  not  the  Hebrew  but  the  Samaritan  was  the  ancient  alphabet 
of  the  Jews."     (Bp.  Marsh's  Divinity  Lectures,  part  ii.  p.  135.) 

7.  A.  B.  SriTZNF.ni  Vindicia;  Originis  et  Auctoritatis  Divinaa 
Punctorum  Vocalium  ct  Acccntuum  in  hbris  sacris  Veteris  Tes- 
tament!.    Lipsiffi,  1791,  8vo. 

In  this  treatise  the  author  strenuously  advocates  the  divine  origin 
and  authenticity  of  the  vowel  points. 

8.  An  Essay  on  the  Antiquity  and  Utility  of  the  Hebrew 
Vowel  Points.     By  John  MoNciixEfr.     Glasgow,  1833,  8vo. 


86 
§2. 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  IV. 


MEBUEW    GRATVIMAnS,    AND    OTHEH    TREATISES    ON    THE 
HEBREW   LANGUAGE,   WITH   I'OINTS. 


[i.]  In  the  English  Lang^iage. 


1.  An  Easy  Entrance  into  the  Sacred  Language,  containing 
the  necessary  rules  of  Hebrew  Grammar  in  English ;  with  the 
Original  Text  of  several  chapters,  select  verses,  and  useful  histo- 
ries, translated  verbatim  and  analyzed.  Likewise  some  select 
pieces  of  Hebrew  Poetry.  By  the  Rev.  CorneUus  Bayley. 
London,  1782,  8vo. 

This  "Grammar  may  be  very  useful.  Its  rules,  though  conciso, 
are  perspicuous  ;  the  analysis  and  the  examples  illustrate-  their 
principles,  and  tend  to  facilitate  the  study  of  the  Hebrew."  (Monih- 
fy  Review  (O.  S.),  vol.  Ixviii.  p.  190.)  This  Grammar  has  lately  been 
reprinted. 

2.  The  Scholar's  Instructor ;  an  Hebrew  Grammar,  by  Israel 
Ltons.  Cambridge,  1735  ;  1757,  2d  edition  ;  1810,  3d  edition; 
1829,  4th  edition,  8vo. 

3.  Hebrew  Grammar,  with  the  principal  rules  compiled  from 
some  of  the  most  considerable  Hebrew  Grammars.  By  Thomas 
Yeates.     London,  1812,  8vo.  and  various  subsequent  editions. 

These  two  Grammars  have  long  been  in  use  in  different  acade- 
mies, as  well  as  in  the  universities  ;  and  are  recommended  by  their 
brevity.  Mr.  Yeates's  Grammar  is  an  improvement  of  one  com- 
posed by  Dr.  Ashworth,  and  printed  at  Cambridge  in  1763. 

4.  A  Hebrew  Grammar  for  the  use  of  the  Students  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Dublin.  By  the  Rev.  Gerald  Fitzgerald,  D.D.,  He- 
brew Professor  in  [the]  said  University.     DubUn,  1799,  8vo. 

"  A  plain,  easy,  and  useful  introduction  to  the  Hebrew  tongue, 
in  English,  for  the  use  of  students  in  our  universities,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  university  of  Dublin."  (Monthly  Review  (N.  S.),  vol. 
xxxiv.  p.  151.)  The  author  has  pursued  an  intermediate  method 
between  adopting  all  the  Masoretic  notes  and  rejecting  them  alto- 
gether :  viz.  by  retaining  the  vowel  points  and  such  of  the  accents 
as  are  most  distinguishable  and  useful,  and  omitting  all  the  other 
accents  (the  number  of  which  is  considerable)  which  he  deems 
wholly  unnecessary  in  the  present  state  of  the  Hebrew  language. 

5.  A  Hebrew  Grammar  in  the  English  Language,  by  Joseph 
Samuel  C.  F.  Fret.  London,  1813,  8vo.  A  new  edition,  with 
corrections  and  additions,  by  George  Downes,  A.M.  London, 
1 823,  8vo. 

"The  directions  for  the  formation  of  verbs,  through  all  their 
voices,  modes,  and  tenses,  are  minutely  given ;  and  this  part  of  the 
Grammar  manifests  the  author's  critical  acquaintance  with  the  lan- 
guage which  he  professes  to  teach. — Though  we  would  not  recom- 
mend this  as  superseding  the  use  of  other  Grammars,  especially  to 
the  classical  scholar,  but  would  rather  advise  it  to  be  compared 
with  the  best  of  those  which  are  written  in  Latin,  yet  we  must 
remark  that  Mr.  Frey's  mode  of  teaching  the  Hebrew  is  very 
masterly ;  that  it  is  singularly  calculated  to  facilitate  the  student's 
intimate  knowledge  of  that  language ;  and  that  it  makes  us  ac- 
quainted with  the  process  adopted  by  the  Rabbis  in  their  education 
of  Jewish  youth.  The  Hebrew  Psalter,  or  Book  of  Psalms,  is  sub- 
joined to  this  Grammar,  which  considerably  augments  its  value." 
(Monthly  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  Iviii.  p.  55.)  The  edition  superin- 
tended by  Mr.  Downes  contains  a  glossary  of  the  first  six  psalms, 
a  compendium  of  Chaldee  Grammar,  and  other  important  additions. 

6.  Elements  of  Hebrew  Grammar.  In  two  parts.  By  J.  F. 
Gtles,  M.A.     London,  1814,  8vo. 

The  difficulties  which  opposed  his  own  progress  in  the  Hebrew 
language  originally  suggested  to  Mr.  Gyles  the  plan  of  the  present 
Grammar,  which  is  characterized  by  simplicity  of  manner,  and 
clearness  of  illustration.  His  second  part,  which  treats  on  the  struc- 
ture and  idioms  of  the  language,  contains  a  good  selection  of  rules 
and  examples,  principally  from  the  first  volume  of  Dathe's  edition 
of  Glassius's  Philologia  Sacra,  one  of  the  most  elaborate  systems  of 
Hebrew  Grammar  perhaps  that  is  extant,  and  which  is  indispensa- 
bly necessary  to  the  biblical  student,  who  is  desirous  of  fully  in- 
vestigating the  language. 

7.  A  Hebrew  Grammar,  with  a  copious  Syntax  and  Praxis. 
By  Moses  Stuart,  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature  in  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Andover.  Andover  (Massachusetts),  1821, 
8vo.  Second  edition,  1824,  8vo.  Third  edition,  1829.  Fourth 
edition,  1831.     Reprinted  at  Oxford,  1831,  8vo. 

Professor  Stuart  has,  with  great  industry,  examined  the  copious 
Hebrew  Grammars  of  the  great  Oiiental  scholars,  among  the  Ger- 
mans, and  has  chiefly  followed  the  latest  and  best,  viz.  that  of  Pro- 
fessor Gesenius  ;  whose  German  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  tongue 
is  on  the  continent  considered  as  the  complelest  system  of  He- 
brew Grammar  extant.  In  regard  to  the  plan  of  the  work,  he 
does  not  profess  to  be  a  mere  tran.slator  of  Gesenius,  whose  Gram- 
mar is  loo  large  for  common  use  ;  but  he  has  adopted  the  general 
method  of  this  writer  as  his  model,  deviating,  hovk'ever,  from  that 
eminent  Hebraist,  where  Professor  Stuart  conceives  that  he  has 
good  reason  for  differing  from  him,  and  making  some  improvements 


upon  his  grammar.  (North  American  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  iv.  pp. 
473 — 477.)  The  Oxford  edition,  which  was  undertaken  at  the  spe- 
cial recommendation  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pusey,  Regius  Hebrew  Pro- 
lessor,  is  a  repriiU  of  Mr.  Stuart's  last  American  edition.  In  prepar- 
ing it  for  press,  Mr.  S.  rewrote  nearly  the  whole  work,  and  some 
parts  of  it  were  written  seven  or  eight  times  over.  It  has  been 
materially  compressed  ;  and  various  additions,  suggested  by  his  long 
experience  as  a  teacher  of  Hebrew  Language  and  Literature,  en- 
hance the  value  of  his  grammar. 

8.  A  Hebrew  Chrestomathy.  By  Moses  Stuart.  Andover, 
1829,  8vo.     Third  Edition,  Oxford  (reprinted),  1834,  8vo. 

This  volume  consists,  1.  Of  a  Selection  of  verbs  and  noniis  of  the 
various  classes ;  2.  Of  Easy  Sentences  for  beginners  ;  and  3.  Of 
large  select  portions  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  in  prose  and  poetry. 
Copious  practical  notes  are  appended  to  the  several  parts,  with  cor- 
rect and  convenient  references  to  the  grammar. 

9.  A  Course  of  Hebrew  Study.  By  Moses  Stuart.  Ando- 
ver, 1830,  2  vols.  8vo. 

10.  Observations  on  the  Idiom  of  the  Hebrew  Language  re- 
specting the  Powers  peculiar  to  the  difli^rcnt  Tenses  of  Verbs, 
and  the  Communication  of  Power  from  governing  Verbs  to  Sub- 
ordinates connected  with  them.  By  PlulipGELL,  M.A.  London, 
1821,  8vo. 

11.  An  Easy  Method  of  acquiring  Hebrew  with  the  points, 
according  to  the  Ancient  Practice.  By  an  experienced  Teacher. 
[Mr. BoRRENSTEiN.]     Loudon,  1822,  a  folio  sheet. 

"  This  '  easy  method'  is  comprised  in  a  very  neatly  and  distinctly 
printed  table,  including  three  lessons;  ttie  first,  containing  the 
alphabet,  with  the  collateral  addition  of  the  Rabbinical,  German, 
and  Hebrew  characters ;  the  second,  the  vowel  points  with  a  few 
useful  rules;  the  third,  a  sort  of  Praxis  on  tiie  Letters  and  Points. 
A  useful  chart  is  thus  provided  for  constant  reference."  (Eclectic 
Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xvii.  p.  463.) 

12.  NugfE  Hcbraicae :  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  Elementary 
Principles  of  the  Structure  of  the  Hebrew  Language.  By  a  Mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.     London,  1825,  4to. 

13.  A  Comprehensive  Hebrew  Grammar  :  wherein  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Language  are  simply  and  briefly  explained.  By 
George  Jones,  A.M.     Dublin,  1826, 8vo. 

This  Grammar  has  been  especially  composed  fi)r  the  use  of  the 
students  at  the  University  of  Dublin.  It  has  been  the  author's  endea- 
vour to  imbody  in  clear  and  concise  rules  every  thing  essential  to 
the  radical  understanding  of  the  language.  "  In  this  design  Mr. 
Jones  has  certainly  succeeded ;  his  work  contains  a  summary  of  all 
that  is  valuable  in  the  Thesaurus  Grammaticus  of  Buxtorf,  presented 
in  a  manner  well  calculated  to  meet  the  difficulties  generally  felt 
by  beginners.  The  last  chapter,  which  is  devoted  to  Syntax,  con- 
tains a  collection  of  useful  remarks  on  the  idioms  of  the  language  ; 
the  conversive  van  is  explained  on  the  principles  of  Mr.  Gell" 
[see  No.  10.  above] ;  and  the  work  concludes  with  a  brief  stnte- 
ment  of  the  theory  of  Hebrew  poetry,  as  laid  down  by  Bishops 
Lowth  and  Jebb "  On  the  whole,  we  cheerfully  re- 
commend this  work,  as  calculated  to  teacti  the  principles  of  the 
Hebrew  language."  (Christ.  Examiner,  or  Church  of  Ireland  Maga- 
zine, February,  1827.) 

14.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  comprised  in  a 
series  of  Lectures,  compiled  from  the  best  Authorities,  and  aug- 
mented with  much  original  matter,  drawn  principally  from  Ori- 
ental Sources  ;  designed  for  the  use  of  Students  in  the  Universi- 
ties. By  the  Rev.  Samuel  Lee,  A.M.  [now  D.D.],  Professor  of 
Arabic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  London,  1827.  Second 
edition,  corrected,  1831,  8vo. 

The  following  are  the  principal  circumstances  in  which  this 
grammar  is  staled  to  difTer  from  every  preceding  work  of  the  same 
kind  ;  viz. — 1.  In  the  manner  in  which  the  system  of  vowel  points 
is  developed  ;  and  2.  In  the  mode  in  which  the  nouns  and  verbs  are 
exhibited,  so  as  to  avoid  that  perplexity  which  is  presented  to 
learners  in  many  Hebrew  grammars.  In  the  syntax,  the  character 
ofllie  language  is  investigated  according  to  the  analogy  discovera- 
ble within  itself;  and  the  conclusions  to  which  the  author  arrives 
are  confirmed  by  appeals  to  the  Arabian  grammarians.  The  cnal- 
lages  of  gender  and  number,  which  have  caused  so  much  perplexity 
to  students  in  the  grammars  that  have  been  formed  after  the  system 
of  the  celebrated  Buxtorf,  are  hero  set  aside;  and  principles  are 
laid  down,  by  which  it  is  sliown  that,  according  to  the  genius  of 
■the  Sclicmitic  dialects,  those  rules  are  groiuidiess,  which  make  it 
necessary  to  call  in  these  anomalies  to  our  aid.  To  tlie  syntax  is 
apjiended  a  short  essay  on  the  use  of  the  IJebrew  accents,  .siiowing 
in  what  way  they  are'  to  be  understood  as  a  commenlary  on  the 
l)earing  of  tiio  context.  The  whole  is  divided  into  twe.nty  lec- 
tures. 

15.  An  Analysis  of  the  History  of  Joseph,  upon  the  Princi- 
ples of  Professor  Lee's  Hebrew  Grammar.  By  Alfred  Oj.li- 
VANT,  M.A.     London,  1828.     Second  edition,  1833,  8vo. 

16.  Essentials  of  Hebrew  Grammar,  with  points,  arranged 
agreeably  to  the  plan  of  Gesenius,  for  the  use  of  Students.     By 


Sect.  I.  §  2.] 


HEi3REW  GRAMMARS,  &c 
Cambridge  and  London,   1829, 


87 


the  Rev.  J.  GnorKKn,  M.A 
8vo.     Also  on  a  folio  sheet. 

17.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  with  Points  ;  to- 
gether with  a  short  Sketch  of  the  Chaldce  Grammar.  By  Selig 
JVewma.n,  Professor  of  the  Hebrew  Language.  London,  1827, 
8vo. 

18.  The  Elements  of  Hebrew  Giammar,  with  a  Praxis  on  the 
Book  of  Jonah.  By  William  Thomas  Philipps,  B.D.  Bristol 
and  London,  1830,  8vo. 

"This  i.s  a  very  well-printed  volume.  The  author  has  adopted 
in  IhiM  work  the  plan  ol  a  grammar  published  many  years  ago  by 
Dr.  Benuct  Kvery  section  is  numbered,  and  a  praxis  ufwii  a  por- 
tion of  the  Bible  is  added,  I'rom  which  continual  references  are 
made  to  the  preceding  rules.  The  advantage  to  be  derived  from 
this  method  is,  that  the  mo.sl  necessary  rules  are  the  most  frecjuently 
referred  to,  and  coiisecjuently  make  an  impression  on  the  memory 
in  projwrtion  to  their  importance  ;  and  as  the  learner  is  nolobliged, 
in  the  first  instance,  to  make  himself  master  of  all  the  rules,  there 
can  be  no  reason  for  limiting  their  number,  or  omitting  any  thing 
which  may  be  essential  to  his  future  orogress.  The  first  part  of 
this  grammar  explains  the  elements;  tlie  second,  the  etymology; 
the  third  contains  the  syntax."  (Journal  of  Education,  July,  1833, 
p.  97.) 

19.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  in  two  parts:  L 
Orthography,  &c. ;  H.  The  Etymology  and  Syntax.  By  Hy- 
man  Huhwitz.     London,  1831,  8vo. 

20.  An  Easy  Introduction  to  the  Hebrew  Language,  on  the 
Principles  of  Pestalozzi.  By  Parens  [Mr. Synge.]  Lon- 
don, 1831. 

This  Grammar  is  divided  into  three  parts,  containing  I.  A 
Teacher's  Assistant  for  developing  the  elements  of  Hebrew,  with  a 
praxis;  II.  A  short  Hebrew  Grammar,  with  and  without  points; 
and.  III.  The  Hebrew  Roots,  arranged  in  twenty-four  tables.  "  Mr. 
Synge  does  not  intend,  in  this  excellent  elementary  work,  to  pro- 
vide for  every  |)ossible  ca.se,  and  thus  to  encumber  the  outset  with 
what  ought  to  belong  to  a  more  advanced  stage.  He  only  provides 
for  grammatical  facts  of  frequent  occurrence,  leaving  it  to  more  ela- 
borate works  to  furnish  the  explanation  of  insulated  cases."  (Jour- 
nal of  Education,  July,  1833,  p.  100.) 

21.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language.  By  Edward 
HiNCKs,  D.U.     Belfast,  1832,  8vo. 

This  Grammar  "  contains  less  learning  than  that  of  Stuart,  but 
seems  more  intelligible  for  a  beginner."  (Journal  of  Education, 
July,  1833,  p.  94.) 

22.  A  Practical  Introduction  to  Hebrew :  with  an  Appendix, 
containing  Observations  on  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Pro- 
nunciation of  tlie  Language.  By  S.  G.  Walker.  London, 
1833,  8vo. 

"  Mr.  Walker's  pamphlet  is  rather  a  strange  one.  The  preface 
contains  a  quantity  of  very  ill-judged  matter  about  Freemasonry. 
The  account  of  the  pronunciation  and  llie  nouns  is  very  good  ;  but 
what  relates  to  the  verbs  is  so  meagre,  that  it  does  not  aflbrd,  by 
any  means,  sufflcient  direction  to  a  learner.  There  is  a  very 
iiiir  praxis  on  the  first  psalm."  (British  Magazine,  May,  1833, 
p.  586.) 

23.  A  Manual  Hebrew  Grammar  for  the  use  of  Beginners. 
By  J.  Seixas.     Andover  (Massachusetts),  1833,  8vo. 

This  Grammar  is  designed  so  exclusively  for  the  author's  pupils, 
or  for  such  persons  as  may  learn  Hebrew  from  them,  as  to  be  of  no 
use  to  any  student  out  of  the  American  Union.  The  author  ac- 
knowledges his  obligations  to  Professor  Stuart's  admirable  Ilebrew 
Grammar. 

24.  Hebrew  Aids :  being,  I.  A  Digest  of  the  Principles  of  the 
Hebrew  Grammar.  II.  Paradigms  of  Verbs.  In  two  Charts. 
London,  1833. 

These  charts  are  little  more  than  a  digest  from  Professor  Geseni us 
of  Halle,  Professor  Stuart  of  Andover,  and  other  modern  and  an- 
cient grammarians  and  Hebrew  scholars. 


[ii.]   In  the  Latin,  French,  and  German  Languages. 

1.  Joannis  Buxtohffii  Thesaurus  Grammaticus  Linguffi 
Sanctae  Hebra;ae.     Basilse,  1615,  8vo. 

This  manual  is  chiefly  taken  from  the  Hebrew  Grammar  of  the 
Hebrew  Language  by  the  celebrated  rabbi  David  Kimchi,  and 
may  be  considered  as  the  standard  of  Rabbinical  Grammars. 

2.  Thoma;  Bennet,  S.T.P.  Grammatica  Hcbnea  cum  uber- 
rima praxi  in  usum  tironum,  qui  linguam  Hebrseam  absque 
preceptoris  viva  voce  (idque  in  brevissimo  temporis  compendio) 
ediscere  cupiunt.     Londini,  1726,  8vo. 

3.  Alberti  Schultexs,  Institutiones  ad  Fundamenta  Linguae 
Hcbraeae.     Lugduni  Batavorimi,  1731,  4to. 

Vol.  II.— Ajp.  4  D 


4.  Institutiones  ad  Fundamenta  Linguae  Hebrsese,  edidit  Nich. 
Guil.  ScHuoEDKR.  Editio  Tertia.  Groningae,  1810,  8vo.  Edit, 
nova.    Glasguae,  1824,  8vo. 

5.  Grammatica  liinguae  Hebrteae ;  cum  notis,et  variis  quaestioni- 
bus  philologicis,  in  quibus  pra;cipue  disscritur  de  natura  et  indole 
Linguae  Hcbraca;.  Jacobo  Robertson,  A.M.  Ling.  Orient.  Pro- 
fessore  in  Academia  Edinburgena,  auctore.  Edinburgi,  1758, 
8vo. 

This  Hebrew  Grammar,  which  has  always  been  held  in  the 
highest  estimation,  contains  the  most  useful  and  necessary  of  those 
principles  and  rudiments,  which  are  laid  down  in  the  clalx>rate 
works  of  Professor  Schulteiis  and  Schroeder.  It  is  therefore  more 
full  and  complete  than  either. 

6.  Grammatica  Hcbraeo-Harmonica  cum  Arabica  et  Aramaea, 
methodo  logico-mathematica,  etc.  ex  Altingio,  Buxtorfio,  Bcve- 
ridgio,  Buchero,  Chappelovvio,  Dantzio,  Erpenio,  Gerhordi, 
Hasa;o,  Koolhasio,  Martini,  Michaelis,  Pfeitliro,  Schickardo, 
Schultens,  Simonis,  Vriemotio,  contracta  et  emendata ;  Charta 
Lusoria,  analytice  delineata,  et  dircctorio  elucidata.  Auctore 
J.  G.  Kals.     Amstelaidami,  1758,  8vo. 

Mr.  John  William  Kals  was  for  many  years  scholar,  and  aficr- 
wards  assistant  to  the  celebrated  professor  Albert  Schultens;  and 
for  some  time  taught  Hebrew  at  Oxford.  His  work  consists  of  three 
parts.  1.  A  Hebrew  Grammar,  compiled  from  the  labours  of  pre- 
ceding writers  on  this  branch  of  sacred  philology ;  2.  A  Harmonic 
Grammar  of  the  Arabic  and  Syriac  Languages ;  3.  An  Analysis  of 
the  chief  prophecies  and  promises  concerning  the  Messiah. 

7.  Gottlob  Christiani  Storr  Observationcs  ad  Analogiam  et 
Syntaxin  Hebraicam  pertinentes.     Tubingae,  1779,  12mo. 

A  very  acute  and  accurate  work :  though  defective  in  arrange- 
ment, it  contains  a  mass  of  imjioriant  observations  on  the  genius 
and  idiom  of  the  sacred  language.  Much  as  it  has  been  resorted 
to  by  modern  Grammarians,  it  may  still  be  considered  as  a  valuable 
and  almost  indispensable  help  to  the  student  who  is  desirous  of  be- 
coming thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  Hebrew  language. 

8.  Christ.  Theo.  Waetheri  Ellipses  Hebraicae,  sive  de  Voci- 
bus  quae  in  Codice  Hebraico  per  Ellipsin  supprimuntur. . . . 
Denuo  edidit  et  Obscrvationes  Novas  adjecit  Joh.  Christ.  Frid. 
Schulz.     Hala),  1782,  12nio. 

This  work  is  on  the  plan  of  Lambert  Bos's  well-known  and  justly 
esteemed  treatise  entitled  "  Ellipses  Graecae:"  it  renders  to  the  stu- 
dent the  same  valuable  help  for  the  Hebrew  language  which  Bos 
has  aflbrded  to  students  of  the  Greek  language. 

9.  Janua  Hebraeae  Linguae  Veteris  Testamenti,  auctore  Chris- 
tiano  Reineccio.  Ex  reccnsione  I.  F.  Rehkopf.  Lipsite,  1788, 
8vo. 

10.  Grammatica  Linguae  Hebraicae.  Auctore  Joanne  Jauk. 
Viennae,  1809,  8vo. 

The  manner  in  which  the  verbs  are  treated  is  said  not  to  be  so 
perspicuous  as  in  some  other  grammars ;  but  a  learned  friend  in- 
forms the  author  of  the  present  work,  that  every  other  part  is 
excellent ;  the  syntax,  in  particular,  is  admirable  ;  and  upon  the 
whole  this  Grammar  of  Jabn  is  among  the  best  which  can  be  con- 
sulted by  those  who  have  made  some  progress  in  the  study  of  the 
Hebrew  language. 

11.  De  Radicum  Linguae  Hebraicae  Natura  nominali  Com- 
mentatio  Grammatica ;  quam  Lectionibus  suis  prjemisit  J.  Th. 
PlL-scure,  Phil.  D.  Theologite  Prof.  Extr.     Lipsiae,  1817,  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  tract  is,  to  prove  that  many  of  the  words, 
hitherto  considered  in  the  dictionaries  as  radical  verbs,  are  in  fact 
only  words  derived  from  nouns;  and,  2.  That  even  verbs  to  which 
no  root  can  be  assigned,  are  rather  to  be  regarded  as  nouns  than  as 
verbs.  (Melanges  de  Religion  et  de  Critique  Sacree,  publiees  k 
Nismes,  torn.  i.  Gazette  Litteraire,  p.  24.) 

12.  Elemens  de  la  Grammaire  Hebraquc,  par  J.  E.  Celle- 
HiER,  fils,  Pasteur  et  Professeur  de  Langues  Oricntales,  Critique, 
et  Antiquite  Sacree,  a  I'Acadcmie  de  Geneve.  Suivis  des  Prin- 
cipes  de  la  Syntaxe  HebraVque,  traduits  librement  de  TAllemand 
de  Wilhelm  Gesenius.     Geneve,  1820,  8vo. 

To  those  who  wish  to  study  Hebrew  vnlk  points,  through  the 
medium  of  the  French  language,  this  beautifully-printed  volume 
will  be  peculiarly  acceptable.  That  part  of  it  which  relates  to  the 
syntax  is  particularly  valuable,  as  it  presents  in  a  small  compass 
the  results  of  the  researches  made  by  Professor  Gesenius  (noticed 
in  page  86  No.  7.),  whose  prolixities  he  has  abridged,  while  he 
has  rendered  clear  what  was  left  obscure,  and  has  explained  what 
the  professor  had  stated  with  too  much  brevity. 

13.  Institutiones  Linguae  Hebraeae,  concinnatae  per  Joannem 
Nep.  Alber,  S.  Scripturae  Vet  Test,  et  Lingua  Hebraes  Pro- 
fessorum.     Budae,  1826,  8vo. 

It  appears  from  the  author's  preface,  that  this  is  a  new  edition  of 
a  Hebrew  Grammar,  published  by  him  in  1800.  It  is  composed 
entirely  after  the  system  of  the  Masorites.  At  the  end  there  is  a 
very  useful  grammatical  praxis  of  ninety-five  pages  upon  several 


88 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  IL  Chas.  IV. 


chapters  taken  from  various  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  which 
is  annexed  a  concise  Lexicon  of  the  Hebrew  Roots. 

14.  Narratio  de  Josepho  e  Sacro  Codice  desumpta.  Textum 
Hebraicum,  punctis  appositis  Masoreticis,  ad  Analysin  revocavit, 
notisque  philologicis  instruxit  fetephanus  Rf.at.  Oxonii,  e  Ty- 
pographeo  Clarendoniano,  1822,  8vo. 

15.  Linguse  Hebraicse  Literse,  Accentus,  Pronomina,  Conjuga- 
tiones,  Deciinationes,  Nomina  numeralia,  et  ParticuljE.  Jenae, 
1822,  folio. 

16.  Jac.  Chr.  Lixdhehg,  Chrestomathia  Hebraica  historici 
argumenti,  e  libris  Exodo,  Numeris,  et  Deuteronomio,  decerpta; 
pra!fatiuncul;\  de  accentibus  Hebraicis  et  de  nominibus  derivatis 
pra^missa.     Havniae,  1822,  8vo. 

17.  Nouvelle  Grammaire  HebraVque  Raisonnee  et  Comparee. 
Par  M.  Sarchi.     Paris,  1828,  8vo. 

This  grammar,  the  most  copious  which  is  extant  in  the  French 
language,  consists  of  six  chapters,  the  first  of  which  "  treats  of  pro- 
nunciation :  the  rules  of  this  part  of  the  grammar  are  given  with 
clearness  and  precision ;  and  the  author  has  omitted  nothing  that 
is  necessary,  nor  has  he  mentioned  any  thing  superfluous.  The 
second  chapter  is  very  large,  containing  one  hundred  and  ninety 
pages,  treating  of  lexicology  :  the  matter  contained  in  this  chapter 
is  developed  with  great  superiority  of  talent.  The  third  chapter 
treats  of  syntax,  and  contains  many  new  and  luminous  ideas,  which 
mark  a  consummate  Hebraist.  The  fourth  chapter  treats  of  pro- 
sody: in  this  chapter  the  author  has  banished  from  his  work  a 
iantaslical  vocabulary  imagined  in  the  fifteenth  century,  which  no 
one  will  regret  but  the  lovers  of  routine,  full  of  a  blind  respect  to 
superannuated  doctrines.  The  fifth  chapter  contains  rules  on 
orthography,  letters,  and  vowel-points,  &c. :  this  chapter  contains 
new  ideas  on  the  point  denominated  daguesch  (dagesh)  which  cor- 
responds in  general  with  the  tcshdid  of  the  Arabs.  Thematology 
Ibrms  the  subject  of  the  sixth  chapter,  which  contains  some  excel- 
lent observations  on  servile  and  radical  letters.  The  volume  is 
terminated  by  an  appendix  on  the  Hebrew  name  of  the  Divinity, 
called  inefllhble  by  the  Israelites,  which  they  dare  not  pronounce. 
This  dissertation  proves  the  great  erudition  of  the  author."  (Clas- 
sical Journal,  December,  1828,  p.  332.) 

18.  Compendium  Grammaticffi  Hebraicae.  Oeniponti,  1829, 
8vo. 

19.  Principes  de  Grammaire  Ht'bra'que  et  Chaldaique.  Par 
J.  B.  Glaire.     Paris,  1832,  8vo. 

This  grammar  is  divided  into  three  parts,  which  treat,  1.  On  the 
Elements  of  Hebrew  Writing ;  2.  On  the  different  parts  of  speech, 
the  conjugation  of  verbs,  &c. ;  and,  3.  On  the  syntax  of  the  Hebrew 
language.  As  the  syntax  of  the  Chaldee  language  is  nearly  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Hebrew,  M.  Glaire  has  confined  his  observa- 
tions on  it  to  the  two  first  parts,  or  the  elements  and  grammar  of 
the  Chaldee  language.  As  this  Grammar  is  strictly  elementary,  the 
author  has  studiously  avoided  all  those  scientific  and  controverted 
questions,  which  belong  to  literary  criticism,  and  which  would  only 
perplex  beginners.  This  work  is  clearly  and  methodically  written  ,• 
the  principles  are  perspicuously  and  concisely  stated,  and  in  an 
order  which  is  calculated  to  assist  the  memory.  At  the  end  of  this 
grammar  is  a  supplement,  in  which  M.  Glaire  has  explained  the 
principal  critical  signs  used  in  manuscripts  and  editions  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible.    (Journal  des  Savans,  Juin,  1832,  p.  379.) 

20.  Grammatica  Hebraea :  auctore  Tacone  Roorda.  Lugduni 
Batavorumj  1831,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  first  volume  treats  on  the  elements  and  simple  words  of  the 
Hebrew  language.  The  syntax  is  copiously  discussed  in  the 
second  volume.  Those  observations,  which,  on  a  first  perusal  of 
this  grammar,  may  be  passed  over  by  the  student,  are  printed  in 
smaller  type. 

21.  Grammatik  der  Hubraischen  Sprache  dcs  A.  T.  in  v6ll- 
slandiger  Kiirze,  neu  Ijearbeitct  von  Georg  Heinrich  August 
EwALD.     Leipzig,  1832,  8vo. 

This  is  an  abridgment,  or  rather  a  condensation  (with  considera- 
ble improvemont.s),  of  Professor  Ewald's  larger  Hebrew  grammar. 
"  An  ingenious  novelty  occurs  in  every  page.  In  scientific  ar- 
rangement and  the  explanation  of  anomalies,  he  is  perhaps  unri- 
valled. Many  fact.s,  which  are  failhfidly  and  clearly  stated 
singulatim  by  Ges'enins,  are  exhibited  by  Ewald  in  a  chain  of 
philological  relations,  which  at  once  removes  the  appearance  of 
capriciousness  from  each,  and  helps  the  memory  to  retain  them 
all."  (Philadelphia  Biblical  Repertory  for  1832,  vol.  iv.  N.  S 
p.  575.) 

22.  Josephi  Mulleu  HebraicfB  LingusB  Elementa.  Wratis- 
lavire,  1833,  8vo. 

\*  Many  important  observations  on  Hebrew  Grammar  will  be 
found  in  Glassius's  Philologia  Sacra,  noticed  in  p.  73.  supra :  from 
which,  as  well  as  from  other  sources,  Dr.  Gerard  has  digested 
much  valuable  information  in  his  Institutes  of  Biblical  Criticism, 
pp.  40—51.  290—377. 


§  3.    HEBREW  GRAMMARS  -without  POINTS. 

1.  Francisci  Masclef  Grammatica  Hebraica  a  punctis  aliisque 
inventis  Masorethicis  libera.  Accesserunt  tres  Grammaticse, 
Chaldaica,  Syriaca,  et  Samaritana  ejusdem  instituli.  Parisiis, 
1731,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Of  all  the  writers  of  Hebrew  Grammar  without  points,  Masclef 
has  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation.  A  late  eminent  divine  and 
professor  of  the  university  ol'  Cambridge  has  said  of  his  work,  "  I 
know  none  more  to  be  recommended  ;  as  it  gives  rules  for  the 
Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Samaritan,  as  well  as  for  what  is  commonly 
called  Hebrew."  (Dr.  Hey's  Norrisian  Lectures  in  Divinity,  vol.  i. 
p.  23.) — As  Masclef 's  work  is  now  extremely  scarce  and  dear.  Pro- 
fessor Hey  recommends, 

2.  Elements  of  Hebrew  Grammar;  to  which  is  prefixed  a 
Dissertation  on  the  two  modes  of  reading,  with  or  without 
points.  By  Charles  Wilson,  Professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Saint  Andrew's.  London,  1782.  Fourth  edition, 
1810,  8vo. 

See  an  analysis  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review  (O.  S.), 
vol.  Ixviii.  pp.  422 — 427. 

3.  The  Hebrew  Guide,  or  an  EngHsh  Hebrew  Grammar 
without  points ;  to  which  is  added,  a  view  of  the  Chaldaic,  and, 
for  the  further  satisfaction  of  the  inquisitive,  a  brief  Introduction 
to  the  Knowledge  of  Hebrew  Punctuation.  By  Peter  Petit, 
M.A.     London,  1752,  4to. 

Though  this  Grammar  contains  nothing  very  extraordinary,  be- 
sides what  may  be  found  in  other  productions  of  the  same  nature, 
yet  it  may  be  of  considerable  and  peculiar  use  to  learners.  The 
author  follows  the  plan  of  Masclefs  Grammar,  above  noticed  ;  but 
has  reduced  his  work  into  a  narrower  compass,  and  has  added  a 
small  praxis,  consisting  of  short  sentences,  to  illustrate  the  use  of 
the  several  conjugations.  For  the  sake  of  the  more  inquisitive 
scholar,  who  has  acquired  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  without  points,  Mr.  Petit  has  subjoined  a  brief  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Knowledge  of  Hebrew  Punctuation ;  which  he  does  not 
give  as  a  complete  system,  but  as  a  collection  of  as  many  substan- 
tials  of  the  doctrine,  as  are  generally  retained  even  by  those  who 
would  be  thought  adepts  in  that  part  of  learning.  (Monthly  Re- 
view (O.  S.),  vol.  vii.  p.  234.) 

4.  A  Methodical  Hebrew  Grammar  without  points:  adapted 
to  the  use  of  learners,  and  even  of  those  who  have  not  the  benefit 
of  a  master.  To  which  is  subjoined  the  Hebrew  Grammar  at 
one  view.     By  John  Parkhuhst,  M.A.  8vo. 

This  is  admitted  by  all  competent  judges  to  be  the  shortest  and 
most  compendious  Hebrew  Grammar  extant  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. It  is  prefixed  to  the  learned  author's  Hebrew  and  English 
Lexicon,  which  is  noticed  in  p.  91.  infra. 

5.  A  New  and  Easy  Introduction  to  the  Hebrew  Language, 
upon  the  plan  of  Grammar  in  general,  designed  to  encourage  and 
promote  the  study  of  that  language,  by  facilitating  the  acquire- 
ment of  its  principles  upon  a  plan,  which  in  no  work  of  the 
kind  has  been  hitherto  adopted.  By  the  Rev.  James  William 
Newton,  M.A.     London,  1806,  12mo. 

"  The  study  of  the  Hebrew  language  has  been  attended  with 
considerable  difficulties,  from  the  circumstance  of  there  being  no 
Grammar  of  that  language  constructed  upon  the  model  of  grammar 
in  general.  In  the  present  work  this  impediment  has  been  re- 
moved, and  the  learner  will  find  that,  in  acquiring  a  new  language, 
he  has  to  contend  with  none  of  those  embarrassments  that  proceed 
from  encountering  a  system  of  grammar  entirely  new  to  him  ;  which 
to  those  who  have  been  at  the  trouble  of  learning  the  grammar  of 
several  languages,  is  an  obstacle  which  is  not  frequently  to  be  sur- 
mounted  The  work  is  conducted  with  a  .simplicity  and  perspi- 
cuity which  afford  every  assistance  to  those  who  may  be  disposed 
to  become  acquainted  with  the  rudiments  of  the  Hebrew  tongue." 
British  Critic  (O.  S.),  vol.  xxvii.  p.  441. 

6.  A  Hebrew  Primer.  To  which  are  prefixed  tlic  opinions  of 
Mclancthon,  Luther,  and  others,  on  the  Utility,  Necessity,  and 
Easiness  of  the  Study  of  the  Hebrew  Language.  Durham  and 
London,  1808,  12mo. 

7.  Hebrew  Elements :  or  a  Practical  Introduction  to  the  Read- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.     London,  1807,  8vo. 

Both  these  publications  are  by  the  Kt.  Rev.  Dr.  Burgkss,  the  pre- 
sent learned  Bishop  of  Salisbury;  and  together  with  his  engraved 
copies  of  Hebrew  letters  and  words,  form  the  simplest  and  clearest 
introduction  to  the  reading  of  Hebrew  without  points,  which  per- 
haps has  ever  been  published. 

A  new  edition  of  the  two  preceding  articles,  neatly  printed  in  mie 
volume,  12mo.  issued  from  the  university  press,  Glasgow,  in  1823. 

8.  Extracts  from  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament;  to  which 
are  prefixed  Sketches  of  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Grammar,  for  the 
Use  of  Students  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  [By  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Brujston.]     Edinburgh,  1814,  8vo. 


I 


Sect.  II.  §  1. 


HEBREW  AND  CHALDEE  LEXICONS, 


89 


9.  An  Easy  Introduction  to  the  knowlnlge  of  the  Hebrew  Lan- 
Riiugc  without  tlic  points.  By  Jamuu  P.  Wilson,  D.D.  1818, 
«vo. 

This  Grammar  appeared  in  Norlh  America  in  1818.  Wo  have 
not  l)con  tthlo  to  obtain  u  sight  oC  it,  or  to  u.sccrtniii  liic  place  where 
il  was  printed. 

10.  An  Introduction  to  Hebrew  Orainmar;  in  which  the  Ge- 
nius of  tlic  Ijunguago  is  cx[)lained  by  a  now  and  simple  [)rinci- 
ple  of  Analysis,  applied  to  the  Iin[>r()vi'tnoiits  of  the  latest  and 
most  improved  Cirammarians  ;  and  particularly  intended  to  re- 
duce the  Irregularities  of  the  inllectcd  parts  of  speecii  to  the  com- 
mon analogy  of  the  Language,  and  to  explain  the  peculiarities 
of  the  construction  by  assimilating  it  to  the  Idiom  of  the  English. 
By  the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolan,  LL.U.     London,  1821,  12mo. 

11.  A  Hebrew  Dictionary  and  Grammar,  without  points;  to- 
gether with  a  complete  List  of  such  Chaldec  Words  as  occur  in 
the  Old  Testament,  and  a  brief  Sketch  of  Chaldce  Grammar.  By 
James  Andiikw,  LL.D.     London,  1823,  8vo. 

12.  Three  Tracts  on  the  Syntax  and  Pronunciation  of  the 
Hebrew  Tongue,  with  an  Appendix,  addressed  to  the  Hebrew 
Nation.     By  Granville  SiiAur.     London,  1804,  8vo. 

Many  very  important  rules  and  observations  are  comprised  in 
these  valuable  tracts;  of  wiiich  a  copious  analysis  appeared  in  the 
Christian  Observer  lor  the  year  180-1,  p.  415. 

§  4.    HKDREW    ORAMMABS  tvilh  AND    -without    POINTS. 

1.  A  Plain  and  Complete  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language, 
with  and  without  points.  By  Anselm  Batly,  LL.D.  London, 
1774,  8vo. 

2.  Principia  Hebraica;  comprising  a  Grammatical  Analysis 
of  .504  verses,  selected  from  the  Hebrew  Psalms,  in  which  are 
found  nearly  all  the  radical  words  in  common  use  occurring  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  To  which  is  prelixcd  a  concise  Hebrew 
Grammar,  adapted  to  the  Analysis,  and  so  arranged  as  to  illus- 
trate the  priucii)les  of  the  language,  both  with  and  without  points. 
By  T[homas]  K[eywoutii],  and  D[avid]  J[ones].  London, 
1817,  8vo. 

In  this  very  useful  work,  the  Scrviles  are  printed  in  hollow  cha- 
racters— the  root  and  radical  sense  are  pointed  out — those  rules  of 
grammar  are  refcrreil  to,  which  account  for  the  lijrm  of  each  word — 
and  a  literal  version  in  Knglish  is  interlined  with  the  Hebrew  text. 

"The  authors  have  uuiiedlv  produced  an  introduction  to  the 
reading  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  of  distinguished  excellence  and  utili- 
ty. Nothing  so  complete  of  the  kind  was  ever  before  put  into  the 
hands  of  the  English  scholar,  who  is  here  provided  with  a  guide  to 
Hebrew  reading  worthy  of  his  confidence.  In  awarding  the  high 
praise  to  which  the  authors  have  an  unquestionable  claim,  we  can- 
not omit  the  commendation  due  to  their  unassuming  manner  :  their 
learning  is  never  used  for  the  pur|x)se  of  display,  but  is  invariably 
employed  to  promote  the  .solid  improvement  of  those  persons  who 
may  choose  to  avail  themselves  of  the  means  here  provided  for 
their  correct  instruction  in  the  knowledge  of  Hebrew.  They  have 
furnished  the  student  with  every  admissible  facility  for  his  initia- 
tion and  progress  in  the  Hebrew  language.  The  w  ork  is  very  ju- 
diciously constructed  for  the  use  of  the  two  ditferent  classes  of  He- 
brew readers,  the  Punctists  and  the  Anti-punctisis  ;  it  is,  however, 
particularly  adapted  for  the  latter."     (Eclectic  Review,  Nov.  1818.) 

3.  The  Analytical  Part  of  Principia  Hebraica.  By  Thomas 
Kf.yworth.     London,  1825,  Svo. 

This  publication  is  a  much  improved  impression  of  part  of  the 
preceding  work,  separate  from  the  grammar  which  originally  ac- 
companied it.  "  In  this  new  edition,  which  contains  a  compendium 
and  a  key,  the  entire  Helirow  text,  of  vvhicli  the  Analysis  is  ex- 
planatory, is  printed  by  itself  without  remark,  and  is  distributed 
mto  lessons,  comprising  examples  of  nouns  and  verbs,  the  usage  of 
servile  letters  and  points,  wiiich  arc  explained  in  the  corrcs|X)uding 
portions  of  the  Analytical  Part.  These  short  lessons  are  followed 
by  a  selection  of  upwards  of  two  hundred  words;  intended  to  fa- 
miliarize the  learner  with  the  pronunciation  and  forms  of  words ; 
and  the  remaining  part  of  the  compendium  includes  three  hundred 
verses  from  the  Psalms,  arranged  in  classes,  and  forming  a  series 
of  connected  subjects.  The  second  or  analytical  part  of  the  work 
is  a  complete  and  very  minute  explanation  of  the  words,  vowels, 
and  various  forms  and  modifications  contained  in  the  compendium; 
the  whole  of  the  text  is  here  reprinted,  the  serviles  in  hollow  cha- 
racters, and  the  places  of  the  dropped  radicals  supplied  by  small 
letters,  accompanied  by  a  literal  interlineary  version.  The  whole 
work  may  be  used  with  any  grammar,  and  will  be  found  a  most 
valuable  assistant  to  every  student  of  the  Hebrew  language,  who 
will  find  in  its  pages  the  means  of  satisfying  himself  in  respect  to 
almost  every  difficulty  which  may  occur  to  a  learner."  (Eclectic 
Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xxv.  p.  439.) 

4.  Rudiments  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  with  and  without 
points.     By  James  Noble,  A.M.     Glasgow,  1832,  Svo. 

For  an  analysis  of  this  Grammar  see  the  Journal  of  Education  for 
July,  1833,  pp.  75—80. 


*,*  So  great  a  number  of  Hebrew  Grammars  (considerably 
more  than  six  hundred,  we  believe)  has  been  published  by  dis- 
tinguished Hebraists,  at  didcrcnt  times,  that  it  is  diflicult  to  de- 
termine which  is  preferably  to  be  adopted.  An  experienced  tutor 
will  be  the  best  guide,  in  this  case,  to  the  Hebrew  student.  In 
the  |)receding  pages,  therefore,  those  only  have  been  specified 
which  have  some  pretensions  to  notice  for  their  utility  and  sim- 
plicity of  method. 

§  5.  ciialuee  grammars. 

1.  A  .short  Chaldce  Grammar,  without  points,  designed  for  the 
use  of  those  who  already  understand  Hebrew.  [By  the  Rev.  J. 
Parkhurst,  M.A.] 

This  is  subjoined  to  Mr.  P.'s  Grammar,  which  is  prefixed  to  his 
Hebrew  Lexicon.  A  Compendium  of  Chaldee  Grammar  is  given 
in  the  second  volume  of  Musdcl's  Granuiiatira  Hebraica. 

2.  J.  D.  MiciiAELis  Grammatica  Chaldaica.  Gottinga;,  1771, 
Svo. 

3.  An  Introduction  to  Chaldce  Grammar ;  in  which  the  Ge- 
nius of  the  language  is  explained  by  a  new  and  simjile  Principle 
of  Analysis.  By  the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolan.  London,  1821, 12mo. 

4.  Elements  of  the  Chaldec  Language  ;  intended  as  a  Supple- 
ment to  the  Hebrew  Grammar,  and  as  a  General  Introduction 
to  the  Araniffian  Dialects.  By  the  Rev.  W.  Harris,  LL.D.  Lon- 
don, 1822,  8vo. 

5.  De  Chaldaismi  Biblici  Origine  et  Auctoritate  Critica  Coni- 
mentatio.     Scripsit  Ludovicus  Hikgelius.     Lipsia;,  1830,  4to. 

6.  A  Manual  of  the  Chaldee  Language;  containing  a  Chaldee 
Grammar,  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Professor  G.  B.  Winer;  a 
Chrestomathy,  consisting  of  selections  from  the  Targums,  and 
including  the  whole  of  the  Biblical  Chaldee,  with  Notes  ;  and  a 
Vocabulary,  adapted  to  the  Chrestomathy.  With  an  Appernlix 
on  the  Rabbinical  character  and  style.  By  Elias  Riggs,  M.A. 
Boston  [Massachusetts],  1832,  Svo. 

Tliis  beautifully  printed  volume  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired  by 
the  student  of  Chaldee  literature.  The  plan  and  execution  of  the 
work  throughout  has  received  the  high  commendation  of  Professor 
Stuart,  of  Audover,  who  further  says: — "The  Grammar  is  brief, 
but  quite  copious  enough  for  the  student  who  is  well  versed  in 
Hebrew.  In  the  text,  notes,  and  lexicon  of  the  Chrestomathy,  will 
be  found  all  that  is  needful  in  an  introduction  to  the  Chaldce  Lan- 
guage."   (Pref.  p.  V.) 


SECTION  n. 

HEBREW   AND  CHALDEE   LEXICOlfS. 
§   1.     HEBREW    LEXICOirS    -with    POINTS. 

1.  JoANNis  BuxTORFFii  Lcxicon  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaicum. 
Basilese,  1634,  1645,  1675,  1720,  or  1735,  Svo.  Glasgus,  1824, 
Svo. 

2.  Joannis  Bcxtorffii  Lexicon  Chaldaicum,  Talmudiciun  et 
Rabbinicum.     Basilese,  1639,  folio. 

3.  Petri  Guarini  Lexicon  Hebraicum  et  Chaldso-Biblicum. 
Parisiis,  1746,  2  vols.  4to. 

4.  Christiani  Stockii  Clavis  Lingute  Sancts  Veteris  Testa- 
mcnti.     JensE,  1739,  1743,  1753  (best  edit.),  Svo. 

5.  Lexicon  et  Commentarius  Sermonis  Hebraici  et  Chaldaici, 
post  J.  Cocceium  et  J.  H.  Maium,  longe  quam  antehac  correc- 
tius  et  emendatius  edidit  Joh.  Ch.  Fried,  Schulz.  Lipsise,  1777, 
2  vols.  Svo. 

Cocceius's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Dictionary  was  very  highly 
esteemed  in  the  former  part  of  the  last  century.  M.  Schulz,  in 
preparing  his  edition  for  the  press,  omitted  all  the  superfluous 
Dutch  and  German  words;  and,  in  determining  the  signification 
of  each  Hebrew  word,  previously  consulted  the  equivalent  term 
in  the  Arabic  and  other  Oriental  langu.iges.  He  al.so  restored  to 
their  true  places  several  scattered  roots,  together  with  their  deri- 
vatives. The  work  is  neatly  and  correctly  printed  ;  and  may  fre- 
quently he  obtained  at  a  reasonable  price. 

6.  Lexicon  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaeo-Biblicum,  ordine  alpha- 
betico  tam  primigenia  quam  derivata  Veteris  Testamenti  Hebraica 
et  Chaldaica,  et  Latinos  eorumdem  Interpretationes  ex  Johannis 
Buxtorfii  aliorumque  eruditissimorum  Virorum  operibus  excerp- 
tas,  exhibens,  Digessit,  multisque  auxit  atque  illustravit  Jose- 
phus  MoNTALDi,  RomiE  in  CoUegio  Germanico  Controversiarum 
Fidei  et  Hebra-as  Lingua  Professor.     Romae,  1789,  4  tomis,  Svo. 


90 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IV. 


7.  Johannis  Simoxis  Lexicon  Manuale  Hcbraicum  et  Chaldai- 
c.um  online  etymologico  digestum:  post  J.  Gothofr.  Eichhomii 
curas  denuo  recensuit,  enicndavit,  auxit  Dr.  Geo.  Ben.  Winer. 
Editio  quarta.     Lipsite,  1826,  8vo. 

Dr.  Winer  has  so  greally  altered,  corrected,  and  improved  this 
Lexicon  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  new  work,  rather  than  a  new 
edition  of  Simonis's  Hebrew  Lexicon. 

8.  The  Smaller  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  of  Professor 
Simonis,  translated  and  improved  from  his  second  edition  (pub- 
li.shed  at  Halle  in  1766).  By  Charles  Seager,  M.A.  London, 
1832,  12mo. 

9.  Philipp.  Ulric.  Mosf.h  Lexicon  Manuale  Hebraicum  et 
Chaldaicum,  in  quo  omnium  Tcxtiis  Sacri  Vet.  Test.  Vocabu- 
lorum  Hebraicorum  ct  Chaldaicorum  significatio  explicatur,  cum 
Indice  Latino  copiosissimo.  Pra;fatus  est  D.  Gottlob  Christian 
Storr.     UlmiB,  1795,  8vo. 

10.  Joannis  Dindorfii  Novum  Lexicon  Linguce  Hebraico- 
Chaldaicae.     Lipsiae,  1802,  2  vols.  8vo. 

11.  Lexicon  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaicum  Manuale,  in  Codicem 
sacrum  Veteris  Testamenti,  cura  Everardi  ScHEinii  et  Joannis 
GnoEXEWOEi).     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1805-10,  2  vols.  8vo. 

12.  A  Hebrew,  Latin,  and  English  Dictionary;    containing, 

1.  All  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  words  used  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, including  the  proper  names,  arranged  under  one  alphabet, 
with  the  derivatives  referred  to  their  proper  roots,  and  the  signi- 
fication in  Latin  and  English,  according  to  the  best  authorities. 

2.  The  principal  words  in  the  Latin  and  English  languages, 
with  those  which  correspond  to  them  in  Hebrew.  By  Joseph 
Samuel  C.  F.  Fret.     London,  1816,  2  vols.  8vo. 

A  book  of  more  promise  than  performance,  and  now  entirely 
superseded  by  the  valuable  Lexicons  of  Gesenius,  which  are  noticed 
below. 

13.  E.  F.  C.  RosENMULLERT  Vocabularium  Veteris  Testa- 
menti HebrsBO-Chaldaicum.  Halse  (Libraria  Orphanotrophei), 
1822,  8vo. 

14.  A  Hebrew  Lexicon  to  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament; 
including  the  Geographical  Names  and  Ohaldaic  Words  in 
Daniel,  Ezra,  &c.  By  D.  Wilhelm  Gesenius,  Doctor  and  Pro- 
fessor of  Theology  at  the  University  of  Halle.  Translated  from 
the  German  by  Christopher  Leo,  Teacher  of  Hebrew  and  Ger- 
man in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  late  Professor  of 
German  at  the  Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst.  Cambridge, 
at  the  University  Press,  1825-28.     In  two  vols,  royal  4to. 

This  very  beautifully  printed  work  is  a  valuable  translation  of 
the  first  edition  of  Professor  Gesenius's  Hebrew  and  German  Lexi- 
con which  was  published  at  Leipzig  in  1810-12,  in  two  thick  octavo 
volumes,  alphabetically  arranged.  "  The  intrinsic  value  of  a  criti- 
cal lexicon  consists  chiefly  in  the  viewsof  lexicography  held  by  the 
author.  The  leading  trait  of  Gesenius,  in  this  respect,  is  judgment. 
He  makes  a  sober  and  temperate  use  of  the  various  means  for  de- 
termining the  signification  of  a  Hebrew  word.  His  reasoning  from 
grammatical  analogy,  from  the  usage  of  the  Hebrew  language, 
from  the  context,  from  the  kindred  dialects,  and  from  the  ancient 
versions,  spontaneously  commends  itself  to  the  understanding.  It 
is  not  sufficient  to  say  that  he  has  rejected  all  mystical  derivations. 
He  has  also  avoided  the  error,  nearly  as  dangerous,  into  which  some 
modem  lexicographers  have  run,  in  their  extravagant  use  of  Arabic 
derivations,  in  disregard  of  the  fact,  that  the  Hebrew  is  a  distinct 
dialect,  and  as  such  has  its  peculiarities.  But  although  Gesenius 
has  restricted  himself  in  this  particular;  yet  his  accurate  know- 
ledge of  the  oriental  languages,  especially  of  their  constructions  and 
inflections,  sheds  a  constant  and  powerful  light  on  Hebrew  criticism. 
Much,  too,  depends  on  the  arrangement  of  the  various  significations. 
Here  Gesenius  has  been  very  successful  in  seizing  hold  of  the  pri- 
mary physical  acceptation  of  a  word.  This  he  has  placed  first ; 
and  the  other  significations  in  the  order  in  which  they  might  be 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  primary.  Each  signification  and 
each  construction  is  supported  by  pertinent  citations  ;  which,  when 
attended  with  any  peculiar  difficulty,  are  written  out  and  accom- 
panied with  a  literal  translation."  The  diflferent  shades  of  mean- 
ing, it  is  truly  observed  in  the  preface,  can  never  be  set  in  a  clearer 
light  than  by  citing  the  passage  which  presents  the  word  in  its  most 
distinguished  situation,  with  relation  to  other  words.  "  Such  a  view 
of  the  different  meanings  of  a  word  is  the  best  commentary  on  all 
the  passages  cited.  Where  the  diflferent  significations  of  a  root  ap- 
pear to  have  no  logical  connection,  they  are  distinguished  by  Roman 
numerals ;  in  other  cases  only  by  Arabic  numerals.  Gesenius  has 
introduced  into  his  lexicon  many  things  which  other  lexicographers 
either  wholly  or  partially  omit ;  as  (1.)  A  full  account  of  the  con- 
struction of  verbs  with  diflferent  prepositions  and  particles.  This 
is  the  more  necessary,  as  the  Hebrews  have  no  composite  verbs, 
but  vary  the  signification  of  the  verb  by  means  of  the  preposition 
following,  as  in  other  languages  by  the  preposition  in  composition. 
(2.)  A  full  explanation  of  phrases  and  idioms, — a  very  important 
part  of  a  good  lexicon.  (3.)  A  notice  of  poetical  words  and  inflec- 
tions, with  the  corresponding  prosaic  expression.    (4.)  A  notice  of 


the  peculiarities  of  the  more  modem  Hebrew,  in  distinction  from 
the  more  ancient.  (5.)  An  account  of  those  words  which  are  defec- 
tive in  some  of  their  forms,  which  are  therelbre  borrowed  from 
some  other  word,  like  the  anomalous  verbs  in  Greek.  Gesenius 
first  attended  lo  this  class  of  words  in  the  Hebrew."  In  preparing 
his  translation  for  the  press,  Professor  Leo  has  not  confined  himself' 
to  merely  rendering  the  Hebrew  and  German  into  the  English  lan- 
guage, but  has  made  various  improvements,  which  render  this 
Lexicon  preferable  to  every  other.  First,  he  has  retained  the  origi- 
nal preface  of  Gesenius,  in  which  reasons  are  assigned  for  retaining 
an  old  expression,  or  adopting  a  new  one.  Further,  in  order  to 
afford  beginners  an  opportunity  of  becoming  more  readily  acquainted 
with  the  various  forms  of  the  conjugations  of  the  verbs,  he  haa 
added  to  each  root  of  them  the  number  of  conjugations  in  which  it 
occurs  in  the  Bible.  He  has  also  verified  all  the  citations  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  with  Van  der  Hooghi's  edition,  and  has  thus 
tacitly  corrected  many  errors  which  had  escaped  the  critical  eye 
of  Gesenius.  In  this  respect  the  translation  has  an  advantage  over 
the  original.  Lastly,  Mr.  Leo,  having  compared  Gesenius's  Ger- 
man abridgment  of  his  lexicon  with  his  own  translation,  and  dis- 
covered several  additions  and  improvements,  he  has  interwoven 
them  in  his  work ;  and  has  subjoined  an  appendix,  containing 
an  alphabet  of  such  anomalous  words  as  present  more  than  ordinary 
difficulty  to  students. 

15.  Guilielmi  Gesejtii  Thesaurus  Philologico-Criticus Lingua 
Hebraeae  et  Chaldsese  Veteris  Testamenti.  Editio  altera  secundum 
radices  digesta,  priore  Germanica  longe  auctior  et  emendatior. 
Pars  I.     Lipsise,  1827,  4to. ;  also  on  large  paper  in  folio. 

Professor  Gesenius,  after  making  preparations,  for  several  years, 
for  a  full  and  complete  Thesaurus  of  the  Hebrew  language,  in  He- 
brew and  Latin,  printed  the  first  portion  of  it  so  long  since  as  the 
year  1827 ;  but  proceeded  no  further  with  this  work.  But  in  the 
mean  time  he  has  brought  out  two  manual  editions  in  German  and 
Hebrew,  which  are  the  basis  of  Mr.  Gibbs's  Hebrew  and  English 
Lexicon,  noticed  in  the  next  paragraph.  The  following  are  the 
leading  characteristics  of  this  Thesaurus  : — (1.)  Being  intended  for 
scholars,  and  not  for  beginners,  the  work  is  arranged  in  etymologi- 
cal order,  while  the  Manuals  are  in  alphabetical  order.  (2.)  All  the 
proper  names  are  included  and  illustrated.  (3.)  In  quoting  a  pas- 
sage in  which  a  word  is  found,  in  general  all  such  passages  are 
given,  unless  where  the  number  is  great,  and  the  citation  of  them 
would  be  unimportant.  (4.)  When  the  author  differs  from  the  re- 
ceived opinions  or  sometimes  from  himself,  the  reasons  are  given  at 
length,  in  order  to  avoid  the  charge  of  rashness.  (5  )  In  the  citation 
of  authorities,  reference  is  more  frequently  had  to  the  older  inter- 
preters, and  every  where,  as  much  as  possible,  to  the  ultimate 
sources.  (Andover  Biblical  Repository,  vol.  i.  p.  188.)  The  portion 
already  published  comprises  the  first  three  letters  of  the  alphabet ; 
the  work  is  lo  be  completed  in  three  more  parts  or  numbers.  There 
are  copies  on  thick  folio  paper,  the  typographical  execution  of 
which  is  truly  beautiful. 

16.  A  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  Old  Testament, 
including  the  Biblical  Chaldee,  from  the  German  Works  of  Prof. 
W.  Gesenius.  By  Josiah  W.  Gibbs,  A.M.  Andover  (North 
America),  1824,  royal  8vo.  London,  1827,  8vo.  Second  edi- 
tion, 1832,  8vo. 

This  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  new  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon. 
Its  basis  is  the  German  abridgment  or  smaller  Lexicon  of  Prof. 
Gesenius,  which  was  published  at  Leipsic,  in  1815,  in  8vo. ;  but 
Mr.  Gibbs  has  throughout  consulted  the  Thesaurus  or  larger  Lexi- 
con, and  has  also  made  some  corrections  from  Gesenius's  later  phi- 
lological works,  especially  his  (German)  Commentary  on  the  Pro- 
phecy of  Isaiah,  which  was  published  in  1820-21.  Still  further 
to  improve  his  Lexicon,  Mr.  Gibbs  has  not  only  corrected  many 
errors  and  oversights  which  had  crept  into  the  original  works  of 
Gesenius,  but  has  also  commodiously  broken  the  articles  into  para- 
graphs ;  making  each  signification  of  a  word  to  commence  a  new 
paragraph ;  and  he  has,  in  addition,  mentioned  under  each  noun, 
which  is  found  inflected  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  declension  to 
which  it  belongs,  as  given  in  Prof.  Stuart's  Hebrew  Grammar, 
which  is  noticed  in  p.  86. 

The  first  London  reprint  was  edited  by  the  Rev.  Lancelot 
Sharpe,  M.A.,  who  omitted  the  references  to  Prof  Stuart's  Gram- 
mar, in  order  to  render  it  more  generally  useful.  Further,  to 
insure  greater  correctness,  the  Hebrew  words  were  printed  from 
the  second  edition  of  Gesenius's  "  Neues  Hebraisches  Handworler- 
buch,"  which  appeared  at  Leipsic,  in  1825.  The  second  Londonj 
edition  was  superintended  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson.  Both 
prints  are  very  neatly  executed. 

17.  Lexicon  Manuale  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaicum  in  Veter 
Testamenti  libros.  Latine  elaboravit,  multisque  modis  retract 
vit  et  auxit  Guil.  Gesenius,     Lipsiae,  1833,  8vo, 

The  third  edition  of  Gesenius's  Hebrew  and  German  Lexicon  i^ 
the  basis  of  this  work,  which  has  been  greally  enlarged  and  in 
proved.    It  is  formed  upon  the  plan  of  the  Thesaurus  described  : 
No.  15.  supra. 

18.  A  Manual  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon,  including  til 
Biblical  Chaldee,  abridged  with  the  latest  Improvements  froB 
the  Works  of  Professor  W,  Gesenius,  and  designed  particularlj 
for  the  Use  of  Students,     By  Josiah  W.  Gibbs,  A.M.     Ando 


Sect.  in.  §  1.] 


GRAMMARS  AND  LEXICONS  FOR  THE  GREEK  TESTAMENT. 


91 


Second  edition,  revised    and 
Rcprjaled  at  London,  1833, 


▼er  [Massachusetts],  1828,  8vo. 
enlarged.  New  Haven,  1832,  8vo. 
8vo. 

This  manual  Lexicon  is  inlended  to  embrace,  in  a  condensed 
form,  all  llie  re s nils  (if  ihc  prerediiii;  lari^cr  Hebrew  and  Knf,'liHh 
Li-xl<r<m.  It  is  specially  dcsij^iied  li)r  Ilie  use  of  studeiils  in  the 
liigiier  schools  and  colleges,  and  for  all  in  llie  (irst  slaves  oC  llieir 
study.  All  8ii|i|HiMitiiioiis  meanings,  resting  only  on  inlerence  and 
analogy,  arc  excludfui,  as  well  as  tiie  quoting  and  commenting  on 
[lassages  of  llie  Bible.  Phrases  and  idioms  are  introduced  only 
sparingly;  and  the  more  didicult  and  anomalous  (()rms  are  omitted. 
Professor  (iibbs  has  announced  his  int(Milion  of  su|)plying  this  last 
deli^ct  by  an  alpliabiuical  vocabulary  of  dillicull  and  anomalous 
forms,  accompanied  with  a  liill  analysis.  Tin;  second  edition  was 
very  carefully  revised  and  corrected  throughout,  and  the  defini- 
tions of  many  words  were  im|)roved.  This  Marnial  is  (juife  suffi- 
cient  lor  all  common  purposes  of  the  Hebrew  student.  'I'he  study 
of  the  Hebrew  language  is  nnich  flicilitated  by  this  work.  "So 
cheap  and  manageable  a  Lexicon  will  be  reckoned  a  great  ac(|ui- 
sition  by  all  students,  and  especially  by  those  who  have  used  (iese- 
nins's  or  Stuart's  granmiar,  as  it  contains  references  to  them  in  the 
declension  of  nouns."  (British  Magazine,  May,  1833,  p.  58G.)  The 
Loudon  reprint  is  very  neatly  executed. 

19.  Lexicon  Hebrajo-Chaldaicum,  in  quo  omncs  voces  He- 
brffijE  et  Chald.-cffi  Jjinguce,  qum  in  Veteris  Testainenti  libris 
occurrunt,  exhibentur,  adjectis  ubique  genuinis  signilicationibus 
Latinis.  Accurante  Clir.  Rkinkccio.  Iterum  editum,  emenda- 
tum,  auctum  per  J.  Fr.  Rkiikopp,  denuo  edidit,  emendavit,  auxit, 
atquc  in  ordinem  redegit  alpliabcticum,  A.  Ph.  L.  Sauekweut, 
Hannovcrte,  1828,  8vo. 

20.  Lexicon  Manuale  Hcbraico-Latiniim  et  Chaldaso-Biblicmn: 
auctore  J.  E.  Stadlkh.     Landishuti,  1831,  8vo. 

21.  Lexicon  Manuale  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaicum :  auctore 
J.  B.  Glaike.     Paris,  1831,  8vo. 

22.  Lexicon  Hebraicum  ct  Chaldaicum  in  Libros  Veteris 
Testamenti,  ordine  etyniologico  com[)ositum.  Edidit  Erncstus 
rrid(!ricus  Lkopolu.      Lipsiie,  1832,  12mo. 

This  manual  Lexicon  is  compiled  expressly  for  the  use  of  schools, 
and  those  who  are  commencing  their  studies  in  Hebrew  literature. 
It  is  concise,  yet  comprehensive :  it  is  very  neatly  printed,  and  is 
the  cheapest  Hebrew  Lexicon  which  has  issued  I'rom  the  press. 

23.  Thesauri  Linguaj  Hebraicae,  e  Mischna  angendi,  Parti- 
cula  L  H.  HL  Auctore  Ant.  Theod.  Haut.maxn.  Rostochii, 
1825-26,  4to. 

*»*  Those  who  are  commencing  their  Hebrew  studies  vviih  the 
book  of  (ienesis,  will  find  Leusden's  Clatis  Hv/iraica  Vclcris  Tesla- 
minli  (Utrecht,  1(JH3,  4lo.).  and  Robertson's  Clavis  Peiilatcurhi 
(Kdinl)urgh,  1770,  Norvici,  1824,  Bvo.),  to  be  very  useful  manuals, 
tts  Bythner's  Lijra  I'rophi;lica,noUvdi  in  page  9,  of  this  .Appendix, 
and  Messrs.  Keyworth  and  Jones's  Principia  Hrbraica  (noticed  in 
p.  89.),  are  to  those  who  begin  with  the  book  of  Psalms.  Of  J.  H. 
Mkisner's  Nova  Vflrris  Tcsiamciiti  Cltivls,  only  two  volumes  have 
appeared  (Li|isiie,  1809,  8vo.) :  it  is  executed  on  the  plan  of  Leus- 
den's or  Robert.son's  works,  but  docs  not  go  through  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Its  value  is  enhanced  by  the  addition  of  the  significations 
of  Hebrew  words  from  the  Septuagint  version;  the  differences  of 
which  from  the  Hebrew  are  often  examined  and  accounted  for 
with  much  critical  acumen. 


§  2.  Hkbhew  Lexicoit  -without  Points. 

An  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon  without  Points ;  in  which 
the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Words  of  the  Old  Testament  are  ex- 
plained in  their  leading  and  derived  Senses;  the  Derivative 
Words  are  ranged  under  their  respective  Primitives,  and  the 
Meanings  assigned  to  each,  authorized  by  References  to  Pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  and  frequently  illustrated  and  confirmed  by 
Citations  from  various  Authors.  By  John  Parkhcrst,  M.A. 
London,  1792,  4to.     Other  editions  in  royal  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  (the  value  of  which  is  sufficiently 
attested  by  the  repeated  impressions  it  has  undergone)  appeared  in 
1762;  the  second  in  1778;  and  the  third  in  1792;  all  in  quarto. 
The  third  is  reputed  to  be  the  best  edition,  as  being  the  last  which 
was  corrected  by  the  learned  author  himself,  who  closed  a  long  life 
of  study  and  of  piety  in  1797.  But  the  later  genuine  London  edi- 
tions, in  royal  8vo.,  being  printed  under  the  critical  eye  of  Mr. 
Parkhurst's  accomplished  daughter,  are  more  easy  of  purchase,  and 
iustly  claim  a  place  in  the  library  of  every  student.  The  Hebrew 
and  Chaldee  Grammars  above  noticed  are  prefixed  to  this  Lexi- 
con. 


SECTION  III. 

GRAMMARS    AND    LEXICONS    FOR    THE    GREEK    TESTAMENT,    AND 
KOK    THE    SEKIUAGINT    VERSION. 

§    1.  GRAMMARS    AXn    OTHER    TREATISES    ON    TIIE    LANGUAGE  OF 
TIIE    NEW    TESTA.ML.NT. 

A  Plain  and  Easy  Greek  Grammar,  adapted  to  the  use  of 
Learners,  and  of  those  who  understand  no  other  Language  than 
English.     By  John  Parkhl-ust,  M.A.     4to.  and  8vo. 

This  (Irammar  is  prefixed  to  the  learned  author's  Greek  and 
English  Lexicon  ;  which  is  noticed  in  p.   93.  in/ra. 

2.  De  Vera  Natura  atquc  Indole  Orationis  Grascte  Novi  Tes- 
tamenti. Auctore  Henrico  1'lanck.  Gottinga;,  1810.  [Also 
in  the  first  volume  of  Rosenmiiller's  Commentationes  I'heolo- 
gica;.] 

"  The  little  tract  of  Professor  Planck  first  opened  the  way  fully  to 
a  correct  estimate  of  the  character  of  the  style  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment;  and  unfiildcd  those  philological  princ-iples  of  which  the 
works  of  VVahl  and  Winer  were  intended  to  exhibit  the  practical 
application.  Though  of  small  dimensions,  it  is  full  of  large  views; 
and  has  exerted  a  wi<lcr  influence  in  the  critical  world  than  all  the 
ponderous  tomes  produced  during  the  centuries  of  the  Attic  (,'on- 
troversv"  respecting  the  style  of  the  New  Testament.  (North  Ame- 
rican Keview,  fiir  July,  1826,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  106.)  Two  Knglish 
translations  of  this  treatise  have  appeared  ;  one,  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  .Andover  Biblical  Repository,  the  other,  in  the  second  volume 
of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet. 

3.  Grammatik  des  Neutcstaraentlichen  Sprachidioms,  als  sic- 
herc  Grundlage  der  Neutcstamcntlichen  Exegese,  bcarbeilet  von 
Dr.  Georg.  Benedict  Winer.     Dritte  Auflage.     Leipzig,  1830. 

The  first  edition  of  this  most  valuable  (Grammar  appeared  at  Leip- 
sic  in  1822,  and  was  translated  into  English  at  Andover  (Massa- 
chusetts) in  1825.  [See  the  next  article.]  In  1826  the  author  pub- 
lished a  second  edition,  which  was  soon  followed  by  a  second  vo- 
lume of  excursus  on  some  of  the  more  irnporianMopics  of  the  work. 
In  1830  the  present  (or  third)  edition  was  published,  in  wliich  the 
fitrnier  volumes  are  united,  and  the  sulyects  are  reduced  to  their 
pro])er  order.  Ujxm  the  elementary  materials  collected  by  F'lanck, 
and  augmented  by  his  own  long-continued  researches,  Dr.  Winer 
has  erected  a  grammatical  system  of  the  later  Greek  as  exhibited 
in  the  New  Testament,  including  the  deviations  as  to  form  and 
flexions  of  words,  but  having  regard  chiefly  to  the  syntax,  or  at 
least  to  the  use  of  words  in  connection,  as  well  as  to  the  structure  of 
sentences.  "In  this,"  third  edition,  "  the  author  has  also  given  the 
further  results  of  his  continued  studies;  and  especially  those  flow- 
ing from  an  attentive  and  systematic  j)erusal  of  all  the  later  Greek 
writers.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  the  labours  of  Planck  and 
Winer  have  produced  an  entire  revolution  of  opinion  in  regard  to 
the  language  of  the  New  Testament ;  and  have  placed  the  charac- 
ter of  it  in  a  light  so  strong  and  definite,  that  its  general  features  can 
be  no  longer  mistaken  or  perverted."  (Andover  Biblical  Reposi- 
tory, vol.  i.  p.  640.) 

4.  A  Greek  Grammar  of  the  New  Testament  translated  from 
the  German  of  George  Benedict  Winer,  Professor  of 'J'heology 
at  Erlangen.  By  Moses  Stuart,  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature 
in  the  Theol.  Seminary,  Andover,  and  Edward  Robinson,  Assis- 
tant Instructor  in  the  same  Department.  Andover,  1825.  Large 
8vo. 

This  is  a  translation  of  the  first  edition  of  the  preceding  work. 
The  Anglo-American  translators  have  greatly  increased  the  value 
of  this  Grammar  by  verifying  all  the  references  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  by  the  addition  of  numerous  learned  notes,  which  are 
designated  by  the  initials  of  their  respective  names. 

5.  Grammatica  Lingus  Graeca;  qua  N.  T.  Scriptores  usi  sunt, 
composita  a  Joanne  Carolo  Guilelmo  Alt.  Halis  Saxonum, 
1829,  8vo. 

A  valuable  grammar  of  the  Greek  Language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment The  author  professes  to  have  availed  himself  of  the  labours 
of  Winer,  so  far  as  they  had  been  published. 

6.  De  Modorum  Usu  in  Novo  Testamento :  Qusestionis  Gram- 
maticffi  Pars  prima,  Indicativi  Usum  explicans.  Scripsit  Ctuolus 
Henricus  Adclbert  Lipsius.     Lipsi»,  1827,  8 vo. 

7.  Remarks  on  the  Uses  of  the  Definitive  Article  in  the  Greek 
Text  of  the  New  Testament :  containing  many  new  Proofs  of 
the  Divinity  of  Christ,  from  Passages  which  are  wrongly  trans- 
lated in  the  common  English  Version.  By  Granville  Sharp. 
Second  edition.     Durham  and  London,  1803,  12mo. 

8.  Six  Letters  to  Granville  Sharp,  Esq.  respecting  his  Re- 
marks on  the  Uses  of  the  Definitive  Article  in  the  Greek  Text  of 
the  New  Testament.  By  Christopher  Wordsworth  [now  D.D.]. 
London,  1802,  8vo. 


92 


SACKED  rHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  II.  Chap.  IV. 


9.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article  applied  to  the  Criticism 
and  Illustration  of  the  New  Testament.  By  T.  F.  Midjilkton, 
D.D.  [late  Bishop  of  Calcutta.]  London,  1808.  Second  Edi- 
tion, Cambridge  and  London,  1828,  Third  Edition,  London, 
1833,  8vo. 

The  value  of  Bishop  Middleton's  treatise  has  been  too  long  and 
too  well  known,  lo  rcciuire  any  adtiitional  testimony  to  its  merits  in 
this  place.  The  opposers  of  the  doctrine  of  our  Saviour's  supreme 
divinity  cavilled  at,  but  could  not  fairly  relute,  the  convincing  phi- 
lological proofs  accumulated  by  Bp.  M.  The  seroiid  impression 
was  very  carefully  edited  by  the  Rev.  James  Scholefikld,  A.M. 
Regius  Professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  the 
third  by  the  Rev.  Hugh  James  Rosk,  B.D.,  who  added  many  valu- 
able remarks  and  illustrations.  An  Abstract  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Greek  Article,  chiefly  derived  from  Bishop  Middleton's  treatise,  is 
prefixed  to  the  first  volume  of  Mr.  Valpy's  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament  with  English  notes,  printed  in  1831. 

10.  Joannis  van  Voorst  Animadversiones  de  Usu  Verborum 
cum  PrfEpositionihus  compositorum.  Pars  L  Lugduni  Batavo- 
rum,  1818.     Pars  IL  1822,  8vo. 

It  is  an  important  philological  question,  whether  the  prepositions, 
which  the  sacred  writers  of  the  New  Testament  have  prefixed  to 
the  verbs  employed  by  them,  are  useless  (as  Prof  Fischer  asserted), 
or  are  designed  to  determine,  strengthen,  or  restrain  the  sense  of  a 
word,  and  whether  in  consequence  they  ought  to  be  taken  specially 
into  consideration.  M.  van  Voorst  establishes  this  last  opinion ; 
and  in  the  second  part  of  his  disquisition  he  has  happily  illustrated 
the  fore*  and  meaning  of  several  words  occurring  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. (Melanges  de  Religion,  torn.  vi.  pp.  242,  243.  Nisraes, 
1822.) 

11.  Christian!  Abrahami  Wahl  Commentatio  de  Particulje  E< 
ct  Prsepositionis  E/c  apud  N.  T.  Scriptores  Usu  et  Potestate. 
Lipsia;,  1827,  8vo. 

12.  Joh.  Aug.  Henr.  Tittmanni  de  Synonymis  in  NovoTes- 
tamento  Liber  Primus.  Adjecta  sunt  alia  cjusdcm  argument!, 
LipsifE,  1829. — Ejusdem,  Liber  secund us.  Post  mortem  auctoris 
edidit,  alia  opuscula  exegetici  argument!  adjccit,  Guilielmus  Be- 
cher,  A.M.  Lipsiae,  1832,  8vo. 

12*.  Remarks  on  the  Synonyms  of  the  New  Testament  by 
John  Henry  Tittmann,  D.D.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  Edward 
Craig,  M.A.     Edinburgh,  1833-34,  2  vols,  small  8vo. 

The  object  of  Dr.  Tittmann  was,  to  investigate  the  comparative 
force  of  those  words  in  the  New  Testament,  which  appear  to  be 
synonymous,  that  is,  which  range  under  a  common  genus,  as  hav- 
ing one  generic  idea  in  common;  but  each  of  which  have,  in  addi- 
tion, a  specific  difference  of  meaning.  Of  these  he  has  given  an 
extensive  list,  which  will  be  of  great  service  to  future  lexicogra- 
phers of  the  New  Testament ;  and  the  present  work  consists  of  en- 
larged observations  upon  some  of  these  synonyms.  They  exhibit 
tlie  result  of  deep  erudition.  The  work  is  well  translated,  and  is 
enriched  with  some  valuable  notes  by  the  author  of  the  transla- 
tion, which  forms  part  of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet. 


§    2.    GLOSSARIES  AND  LEXICONS  TO  TIIE   GHEEK  TESTAMENT. 

Numerous  Lexicons  to  the  Greek  Testament  have  been  pub- 
lished at  different  times,  a  list  of  which  is  given  by  Schleusner, 
at  the  end  of  the  preface  to  his  Lexicon  ;  and  the  defects  of  which 
are  considered  by  J.  F.  Fischeh  in  his  "  Prolusiones  de  vitiis 
Lexicorum  Nov!  Testament!,  Lipsise,  1791,"  8vo.  The  causes 
why  the  lexicography  of  the  New  Testament,  until  of  late  years, 
has  not  been  studied  in  proportion  to  its  importance,  together 
with  a  statement  of  the  requisites  of  a  good  Lexicon,  are  speci- 
fied by  J.  Br<>chner  in  his  "  Idea  Lexicographic  Nov!  Testa- 
ment!. Haunise,  1833,"  8vo.  The  following  are  those  most 
deserving  of  attention  : — 

1.  Glossarium  Gra3cum  in  Sacros  Nov!  Foederis  Libros,  ex 
MSS.  primus  edidit,  notisque  inlustravit  Joannes  Alberti. 
Ludg.  Bat.  1735,  8vo. 

2.  Glossne  Sacrae  Hesychii,  Greece.  Ex  universo  illius  Opere 
in  Usum  Interpretationis  Libr.  Sacr.  excerpsit,  emendavit,  notis- 
que illustravit  Jo.  Chr.  Gottlieb  Ernest!.  Accesserunt  Glossae 
Gra3CEe  !n  Psalmos,  ex  Catalogo  Manuscriptorum  Bibliothecae 
Taurinensis  denuo  edit®.     Lipsiae,  1785,  8vo. 

3.  Suid;e  et  Phavortni  Glossje  Sacrse  Greece,  cum  spicilegio 
Gloss.  SS.  Hesychii  et  Etymologic!  Magni :  congessit,  emenda- 
vit, et  notis  illustravit,  J.  C.  G.  Ernest!.     Lipsiae,  1786,  8vo. 

Schleusner  has  extracted  the  most  valuable  matter  from  these 
works,  and  inserted  it  in  his  well-known  and  excellent  Greek  Lex- 
icon to  the  New  Testament. 

4.  Critica  Sacra :  containing  Observations  on  all  the  Radices 
of  the  Hebrew  Words  of  the  Old,  and  the  Greek  of  the  New  Tes- 


tament.    By  Edward  Leiob,  Esq.     London,  1CC2,  folio,  with 
Supplement. 

This  work  was  first  published  in  1G39  and  1646,  in  4to.  The 
folio  impression  of  1662  is  the  best  English  edition.  The  Critica 
Sacra  was  translated  into  Latin  and  printed  at  ."Vmsterdam,  with 
additional  observations  by  John  Heeser,  1696,  in  iblio.  Mr.  Leigh 
was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time,  and  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Archbishop  Usher.  His  work  is  a  very  valuable  help 
to  the  understanding  of  the  original  languages  of  the  sacred  writ- 
ings; and  as  it  may  frequently  be  obtained  at  a  low  price,  it  may 
be  substituted  for  either  of  the  following  works,  which  a  student 
may  not  perhaps  be  able  to  purchase.  The  Critica  Sacra  not  only 
gives  the  literal  sense  of  every  word  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, but  enriches  almost  every  definition  with  philological  and 
theological  notes,  drawn  from  the  publications  of  the  best  gramma- 
rians and  critics  then  extant.  To  this  work  most  succeeding  lexi- 
cographers on  the  Old  and  New  Testament  have  been  greatly  in- 
debted. 

5.  Joannis  Knollii  Vocabularium  Biblicum  Nov!  Testament!, 
ita  secundum  seriem  capitum  atque  versuum  adornatum,  ut  in 
lectione  sacrorum  Nov!  Testament!  Gra;ci  Librorum  usum  prag- 
bere  possit  extemporalem.  Editio  nova,  auctior  et  emendatior, 
additis  subinde  praeter  Analysin  Grammaticum  Vocumque  The- 
mata  Locorum  difficiliorum  explicationibus.     Lipsiae,  1777,  8vo. 

6.  Novum  Lexicon  Grasco-Latinum  in  Novum  Testamentum 
congessit  et  variis  observationibus  philologicis  illustravit  Johannes 
Friedericus  Schleusner.  Lipsiae,  1819.  4  parts  in  2  vols.  8vo. 
Glasguce,  1824.     4to.  and  also  in  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  is  the  fourth  and  best  edition  of  an  invaluable  work  ;  the 
first  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  1791 ;  the  second  in  1801 ;  and  the  third 
in  1808.  An  elegant  reprint  of  this  Lexicon  was  executed  at  the 
University  press,  Edinburgh,  in  1814,  in  two  vols.  8vo. :  the  German 
quotations  introduced  by  Schleusner  are  in  this  edition  translated 
into  English  by  the  editors,  Messrs.  Smith,  Strauchon,  and  Dicken- 
son. Another  reprint  of  this  Lexicon  issued  from  the  Glasgow 
press  in  1817,  also  in  two  volumes,  8vo.  The  fourth  Leipsic  edi- 
tion contains  many  additional  words,  and  new  observations,  which 
are  interspersed  through  the  work.  The  Prefiice  contains  a  severe 
philippic  against  the  two  reprints  just  noticed.  The  Glasgow  edi- 
tions of  1824  are  elegantly  printed  both  in  one  volume,  4lo.  and  in 
two  vols.  8vo.' 

7.  Lexicon  Graeco-Latinum  in  Novum  Testamentum.  Con- 
gessit Joh.  Frieder.  Schleusner ;  !n  compendium  redegit  Joannes 
Caret,  LL.D.     London,  1826,  8vo. 

"  The  main  principle  of  this  volume  is  that  it  contains  all  Schleus 
ner's  Lexicographical  interpretatioias,  together  with  his  Scriiiture 
references,  and  this  without  abridgment;  while  nothing  is  sacri- 
ficed but  what,  in  a  majority  of  instances,  may  be  advantageously 

dispensed  with Dr.  Carey's  name  is  a  guarantee  {or  correct 

impressions."      (Eclectic  Review,  vol.  xxvi.  N.  S.  p.  180.)      This 
manual  Lexicon  is  very  neatly  printed. 

8.  Christian!  Schoetgenii  Novum  Lexicon  Graeco-Latinum 
in  Novum  Testamentum  :  post  J.  T.  Krebsium  recensuit,  et  var!!s 
observationibus,  philologicis  et  criticis,  locupletavit  G.  L.  Spohn. 
Lipsiae,  1790,  8vo.' 

The  first  edition  of  Schoetgenius's  Lexicon  was  published  at 
Leipsic,  in  1746:  Kreb's  corrected  and  enlarged  edition  appeared 
also  at  Leipsic,  in  1765,  both  in  8vo.  Previously  to  the  appearance 
of  Schleusner's  work,  Spohn's  third  edition  was  justly  considered 
as  the  best  Greek  and  Latin  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  for 
which  it  may  be  substituted  by  those  who  cannot  afibrd  to  purchase 
Schleusner's  volumes. 

9.  A  Greek  and  English  Manual  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, with  Examples  of  all  the  irregular  and  more  difHcuIt  In- 
flections. ByJ.  H.  Bass.  London,  1820  ;  second  edition,  1829, 
18mo. 

This  little  volume  is  confessedly  a  manual  Lexicon  for  young 
students  of  the  Greek  Testament.  Its  author  has  carefully  abridged 
the  more  diffuse  explanations  of  other  Lexicons  ;  but  it  is  noticed 
here  principally  because  it  contains  nearly  ffty  articles  commonly 
omitted  in  other  Lexicons  of  the  New  Testament,  and  which  are 
supplied  from  the  fourth  edition  of  Schleusner  above  noticed.  The 
second  edition  is  much  enlarged,  and  so  materially  improved,  that 
it  may  almost  be  regarded  as  a  new  work.    The  definitions  have 

«  Indispensable  as  the  Lexicons  of  Schleusner  and  Spohn  are  to  biblical 
students,  the  author  cannot  omit  the  following  salutary  advice  of  Uishop 
Jebb  : — "  I  would,"  he  says,  "  earnestly  exliort  those  biblical  students  who 
may  happen  to  use  (as  trith  proper  caution,  all  advanced  students  will  find 
it  their  advantage  to  use)  the  Lexicons  of  Spohn  and  Schleusner  for  the 
New  Testament,  and  those  of  Schleusner  and  Bretschneider  for  the  Sep- 
tuagint  and  Apocrypha,  to  be  particularly  on  their  guard  against  alleged 
identity  of  meaning,  in  words  whose  ordinary  signification  is  any  thing  but 
synonymous.  In  such  cases  let  the  cited  passages  be  carefully  examined  : 
and  I  venture  to  affirm  that,  instead  of  synonymous,  there  will  almost  uni- 
versally be  found  an  important  variation  of  meaning  between  the  related 
members  :  commonly  a  progress  in  the  sense,  but  always  such  a  variation, 
as  will  quite  supersede  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  an  unusual,  much  less 
an  unprecedented,  acceptation  of  the  terms  employed."  Bp.  Jebb's  Sacred 
Literature,  p.  51. 


Sect.  III.  §  3.] 


LEXICONS  TO  THE  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION. 


93 


been  amplified  ;  references  ore  made  to  pasnaRcs  in  which  wohIh 
arc  used  in  peculiar  accrplalioiis  ;  and  exani|)leH  arc  (jiioted  of 
unuHual  foinhiiialionH  of  l:iii^ua{,'o.  While  every  thing  ha«  hoen 
retained  which  adapted  tiiis  Lexicon  to  the  v\ant.s  of  ihe  mere 
learner,  the  author  han  aimed  to  accornnKjdatc  it  alHO  (as  (iir  as  its 
limits  would  permit)  lo  the  use  of  those  whoso  perusal  of  the  sacred 
volume  is  more  critical  and  discriminating. 

10.  A  New  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  in  which  the  quantity  of  all  the  douhtful  Vowels  is  care- 
fully marked,  and  Genealogical  Tahles  connected  with  the  Sa- 
cred History  arc  annexed.  By  the  Kcv.  Henry  Laino,  LL.D. 
London,  1821,  8vo. 

"  It  is  a  convenient  work  for  all  who  wish  to  read  the  New  Tes- 
tament in  ihe  Original,  without  making  any  further  progress  in  the 
language."     (British  Review,  vol.  xxii.  pp.  409,  410.) 

11.  Clavis  Philologica  Novi  Tcstamcnti,  auctorc  Cliristophoro 
Abrahamo  Waul.  Lipsinj,  1822,  2  toniis,  8vo.  Editio  sccunda, 
auctior  et  emendatior.     Lipsias,  1829,  2  toniis,  8vo. 

This  truly  valimhle  Greek  and  Latin  Lexic(m  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  expressly  designed  fi)r  those  who  cainiot  alUird  to  purchase 
Scrhlousner's  Lexicon.  It  is  founded  on  the  philological  principles 
first  developed  by  Professor  Planck,  in  his  elaborate  dissertation 
*  /><■  Vera  Nnliira  alqiie  Indole  Urationis  Graica:  Novi  Testamenli," 
noticed  in  page  91.  xupra.  "It  was  the  object  of  the  author  to 
bring  into  a  moderate  compass  the  results  of  the  latest  and  most 
oxiended  investigations  into  both  the  philology  and  interpretation 
of  the  sacred  volume;  so  that  they  might  be  made  universally  ac- 
cessible, and  be  adapted  to  the  daily  convenience,  and  habitual 
nse,  of  every  student.  The  work  was  intended  to  embrace  simi)ly 
ihc  renidts,  without  the /^rocMscf,  of  investigation  ;  with  references 
to  authorities  sufficient  to  verify  those  results,  should  the  student 
wish  lo  prosecute  his  inquiries  further.  That  such  is  the  plan  best 
suited  to  the  purpose  which  the  author  had  in  view,  there  can  be 
little  doulit;  nor  can  we  hesitate  to  say  that  he  has  successfidly 
accom|ilishcd  that  purpose.  The  object  of  a  lexicon  is  not  a  com- 
meiilari/ — not  the  exhibition  of  a  system  of  theology:  it  is  designed 
simply  as  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  student,  by  whicli  he 
is  to  aid  himself  in  ascertaining  the  sense  of  a  writer,  and  making 
out  practically,  if  not  formally,  a  commentary  for  himself  To  do 
this  fully  he  must  of  course  go  back  to  the  same  sources  of  informa- 
tion from  which  the  lexicon  itself  was  drawn.  In  a  work  of  this 
kind,  moreover,  a  great  deal  of  the  merit  must  necessarily  depend 
on  the  power  which  the  writer  may  possess  of  condensing  his 
thoughts,  and  expressing  them  in  terms  at  once  concise  and  per- 
spicuous. In  this  respect  we  think  that  a  high  rank  must  bo  as- 
signed lo  Wahl ;  and  that  ho  is  far  removed  both  from  the  diflusc- 
ness  of  Parkhurst,  and  from  that  prolixity  and  unnecessary  copious- 
ness ibr  which  Schleusner  is  distinguished."  (North  American 
Review  lor  Jidy,  1H2C,  vol.  xxiii.  pp.  lOG,  107.)  In  the  first  volume 
of  the  Andover  Biblical  Re|)osilory  (pp.  554 — 508.)  there  is  an  elabo- 
rate coniparalive  critic-ism,  by  Professor  Tholuck,  of  Halle,  on  the 
respective  merits  of  Wahl's  Lexicon  and  of  that  by  Dr.  Bretschnei- 
der.  No.  14.  i?ifra. 

12.  Clavis  Novi  Testamenti  Philologica  usibus  Scholarum  et 
Juvenum  Theologia;  s?ludiosorum  accommodata.  Auctorc  Cliris- 
tophoro Abrahamo  Wahi..     Editio  minor.     Lipsiaj,  1831,  4to. 

This  abridgment  of  Dr.  Wahl's  second  edition  of  his  larger  Lexi- 
con fills  343  clo.sely  i)rinted  pages  in  large  4lo.  Profes.sor  Tholuck, 
of  Halle,  states  that  it  "  is  very  well  done,  although,  viewed  in  the 
light  of  a  truly  Christian  theology,  it  leaves  much  lo  be  desired. 
The  Spirit  of  God  moves  not  upon  the  waters."  (Andover  Biblical 
Repository  for  1832,  vol.  ii.  p.  208.) 

13.  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  from 
the  Clavis  Philologica  of  Christ.  Abraham  Wahl.  By  Edward 
RoiiiNsox,  A.M.,  Assistant  Instructor  in  the  Department  of  Sa- 
cred Literature,  Thcol.  Scm.  Andover.  Andover  [Massachusetts], 
182.'),  royal  8vo. 

Though  modestly  announced  as  a  translation  from  Wahl's  Clavis, 
this  beautifully  and  correctly  printed  work  is,  in  fact,  a  new  Lexi- 
con lo  the  New  Testament,  conijiosed  with  groat  care  and  accuracy. 
The  U'xis  cited  by  Wahl  have  all  been  verified  and  corrected  ;  and 
not  a  few  of  the  references  to  classic  authors  have  been  corrected, 
whore  Mr.  Robinson  could  have  access  lo  the  editions  consulted  by 
Wahl.  Mauyof  the  definitions  have  been  framed  de  novo  from  the 
New  Testament,  rather  than  from  the  very  general  Latin  defini- 
tions either  of  Wahl  or  Schleusner;  and  where  any  important  re- 
mark or  illusiration  could  be  derived  from  Schleusner  or  from  other 
sourtres,  Mr.  R.  has  carefully  introduced  it.  But,  besides  the  labour 
of  a  general  revision,  he  has  introduced  various  improvements, 
which  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  his  Lexicon.  Wahl  had  par- 
tialli/  given  the  various  constructions  of  verbs  and  adjectives  with 
their  cases:  Mr.  Robinson  has  done  this  in  every  instance  through- 
out :  he  has  further  endeavoured  to  make  each  article,  as  far  as  was 
possible,  include  a  reference  to  every  passage  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment where  the  word  is  found  :  the  result  is,  that  his  Lexicon  is, 
to  a  very  considerable  extent,  a  concordance  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment. The  last  improvement  which  deserves  to  be  noticed  relates 
to  the  mode  of  priming.  In  the  original  Clavis  of  Wahl,  Ihe  arti- 
cles are  printed  in  a  solid  form,  without  any  divisions  whatever, 
.  and  on  an  inferior  i>aper,  which  renders  the  book  by  no  means 


pleasant  lo  read.  Mr.  Robinson  has  caused  them  to  be  printed  in 
double  columns,  and  has  broken  llicm  into  convenient  paragraphs. 
The  sludeut  who  can  afJord  to  purchase  this  Lexicon,  in  addition 
lo  Mr.  Parkhurst's  valuable  work  (which  contains  a  greater  num- 
ber, at  length,  of  illustrations  from  classic  authors  as  well  as  from 
modern  writers),  will  posseso  a  rich  treasure  of  sacred  i)hilology. 

14.  Lexicon  Manuale  Grsico-Latinuin  in  Lihros  Novi  Testii- 
menti,  auctore  Carolo  Gottlieb  Buktschnkiiiku.  Lipsia;,  1824; 
Editio  secunda,  auctior  ct  emendatior,  Lipsice,  1829,  2  tomis, 
8V0.I 

This  manual  Lexicon  exhibits  a  less  strict  adherence  to  the  philo- 
logical principles  develojied  by  Planck  and  W.ahl,  alxtvo  noticed. 
The  illuslrations  arc  drawn  more  frcfjuciilly  from  the  Septuagiiit 
and  the  apo<-ryplial  books,  anil  also  from  the  a|H)cryphal  gospels 
|)ublishcd  by  Fabricius,  with  which  he  is  intimately  acquainted  ; 
and  it  is  this  <:ircumstanco  which  imjiarts  the  chief  value  to  Ur. 
Brctschneider's  work. 

in,  A  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament  : 
in  which  the  Words  and  Phra.ses  occurring  in  those  Sacred 
Books  are  distinctly  explained,  and  the  meanings  a.ssigned  to 
each,  authorized  by  References  to  Passages  of  Scripture,  and  fre- 
quently illustrated  and  confirmed  by  Citations  from  the  (JId  Tes- 
tament and  from  the  Greek  Writers.  To  this  Work  is  prefixed 
a  plain  and  ea-sy  Greek  Grammar,  adapted  to  the  Use  of  Learn- 
ers, and  those  who  understand  no  other  Language  than  English. 
By  John  Paukuliist,  M.A.  A  new  Edition,  comprising  the 
more  valuable  Parts  of  the  Works  of  some  later  Writers.  By 
Hugh  James  Rose,  B.D.     London,  1829,  royal  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  well-known  and  admirable  lexicon  lo 
the  Greek  Testament  appeared  in  1769,  the  second  in  1794,  Ujth  in 
quarto;  the  third  in  royal  octavo,  with  the  learned  auihor's  last 
corrections,  and  with  large  additions,  in  1798.  These  have  Itcim 
retained  in  the  numerous  impressi<jns  which  have  su)>sci|uently 
a])peared.  In  the  course  of  Ihe  thirty  years  which  have  elapsed 
since  the  publication  of  Mr.  Parkhurst's  third  and  last  edition, 
sacred  philology  has  received  great  accessions;  and,  a  new  edition 
being  rciiuired,  the  proprietors  of  this  work  confided  it  to  the  Rev. 
Hugh  James  Rose,  B.D.,  who  has  conferred  a  high  obligation  on 
biblical  students  liy  tlie  manner  in  which  he  has  revised  and 
edited  the  work.     The  following  is  the  plan  adojited  by  him  : — 

1.  As  Mr.  Parkhurst  was  at  least  a  great  admirer  of  the  peculiar 
cosmological  opinions  of  Mr.  Hutchinson,  and  had  inlro<luc<'d  many 
etymologies  which  were  in  the  highest  degree  fanciful  and  uncer- 
tain, these  etymologies,  and  the  philosophical  opinions  of  the 
Ilutchinsonian  school,  have  been  omitted. 

2.  Valuable  as  Mr.  Parkhurst's  work  confessedly  was,  it  was 
defective  in  accurate  discrimination  between  the  various  senses 
of  the  same  word.  Great  inconvenience  had  also  arisen  from  the 
|)aucity  of  instances  givjin  under  each  head,  and  the  looseness  of 
the  references  to  profane  authors.  These  defects  had  altogether 
banished  Mr.  P.'s  Lexicon  from  Ihe  shelves  of  the  critical  reader, 
who  had  supplied  its  place  by  the  labours  of  recent  German  lexi- 
cographers, especially  those  of  Schleusner,  Bretschneider,  and 
Wahl.  Mr.  Rose  has  supplied  both  tliese  defects,  partly  from  his 
own  researches,  but  principally  from  the  valuable  works  of  the 
scholars  just  named. 

3.  Various  imiwrtant  additions  have  been  made  to  Mr.  Park- 
hurst's comprehensive  Greek  Grammar  to  the  Now  Testament 
from  the  general  Greek  Grammars  of  the  Professors  Buttman  and 
Matthise. 

4.  For  the  convenience  of  those  students  who  are  attending  to  the 
style  of  the  NewTestameul,  he  has  distinguished,  by  a  convenient 
mark,  those  words  which  do  not  occur  in  the  Scptuagint  version 
of  the  Old  :  and  he  has  added  in  such  cases  examples  from  the 
a])ocr}'phal  writings  where  such  instances  are  found. 

Mr.  Rose's  additions  lo  the  jiresent  edition  are  enclased  within 
square  brackets  [  ];  and,  by  enlarging  the  i)ages  (which  exceed  the 
number  in  the  former  editions  liy  more  than  two  hundred),  by 
omitting  altogether  the  most  fanciful  etymologies  of  Parkhurst,  as 
well  as  by  throwing  much  less  important  matter  into  notes,  and 
entirely  rewriting  many  articles,  Mr.  Rose  has  added  at  least  one 
third  of  new  matter  to  this  work;  which,  in  its  present  greatly 
improved  state,  is  indispensably  necessary  lo  every  one  who  is 
desirous  of  acquiring  a  critical  and  correct  knowledge  of  the  New 
Testament. 

16.  A  Greek-English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  trans- 
lated from  the  Greek-Latin  Lexicon  of  John  Dawson,  .\.B.,  and 
considerably  enlarged  :  to  which  is  prefixed  an  Outline  of  Greek 
Grammar,  for  tlic  Use  of  Biblical  Students  who  have  not  re- 
ceived a  Classical  Education.  By  W.  C.  Tatlor,  A.M.  Lon- 
don, 1831,  8vo. 

§  3.  Lexicons  to  the  Septcagixt  VEnsiox. 

1.  Jo.  Chrtstiani  Biel  Novus  Thesaurus  Philologicus ;  sive 
Lexicon  in  LXX.  et  alios  Interpretes  et  Scriptores  Apocryphos 
Veteris  Tcstamcnti.  Ex  Autoris  MScto  e^lidit  ac  pra;fatus  est 
E.  H.  Mutzcnbcchcr.     Haga;  Comitum,  1779-80,  3  tomis,  8vo. 

«  See  the  note  ia  p.  92. 


94 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  IV. 


Lexici  in  Intcrpretes  Gracos  V.  T.  maxiine  Scriptores 
Apocryphos  Spicilegium  I.  el  IL  Post  Bielium  congessit  et 
edidit  Jo.  Fried.  Schleusxeh.     Lipsiae,  1784-86. 

Lexici  in  Interpretes  Grsecos  V.  T.  maxime  Scriptores 
Apocryphos  Spicilegia.  Post  Bielium  et  Schlcusnerum  con- 
gessit et  edidit  C.  G.  BnExscHNEiDEii.     Lipsise,  1805,  Bvo. 

2.  Nevus  Thesaurus  Philologico-Criticus,  sive  Lexicon  in 
LXX.  et  reliquos  Interpretes  Grajcos,  ac  Scriptores  Apocryphos 
Veteris  Testamenti ;  post  Bielium  et  alios  viros  doctos  congessit 
et  edidit  Johannes Friedericus  Schleusner.  Lipsiaj,  1820,  1821 ; 
in  5  parts  or  vols.  8vo.  Glasguse  et  Londini,  1822.  In  three 
thick,  volumes,  8vo. 

On  the  basis  of  Bid's  Lexicon  and  his  continuators,  Schleusner 
has  produced  a  Lexicon  for  the  Septuagint  Greek  version,  which, 
for  philological  research,  is  surpassed  only  by  his  Lexicon  lor  the 
New  Testament.  . 

The  edition  which  in  1822  issued  from  the  University  Press  at 
Glasgow,  reflects  great  credit  on  the  printers,  Messrs.  A.  and  J.  M. 
Duncan,  as  well  as  on  the  publisher  (Mr.  R.  Priestley),  at  whose 
expense  it  was  undertaken:  it  is  very  beautifully  executed.  In 
this  edition,  many  typographical  errors,  particularly  in  the  Greek 
and  Hebrew  quotations,  have  been  corrected  ;  and  the  references 
to  the  chapters  and  verses,  which  in  the  foreign  edition  are  said 
to  be  very  inaccurate,  have  been  carefully  amended.  Professor 
Schleusner's  German  explanations  of  particular  words  uniformly 
have  EngUnh  translations  attached  to  them;  and  to  the  third 
volume  there  is  appended  an  index  of  all  the  Hebrew  words  occur- 
ring in  the  work,  together  with  a  collation  of  verses  and  chapters, 
as  set  out  respectively  in  the  editions  of  the  Greek  Septuagint 
superintended  by  Wechel  and  Bos.  The  former  of  these  will  in  a 
great  measure  supply  the  want  of  a  Hebrew  Lexicon.  This  Ap- 
pendix, which  fills  nearly  three  hundred  pages,  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  Leipsic  edition. 

3.  E.  G.  A.  B  JCKEL  Novae  Clavis  in  Graecos  Interpretes  Vete- 
ris Testamenti,  Scriptoresque  Apocryphos,  ita  adornatae  ut  etiam 
Lexici  in  Novi  Foederis  Libros  usum  praebere  possit,  atque  Edi- 
tionis  LXX.  Interpretum  Hexaplaris,  Specimina,  4to.  Lipsiae, 
1820. 

This  work  was  never  completed.  In  the  fourth  volume  of  the 
Commentationes  Theologicae  (pp.  195—263.),  edited  by  MM.  Vel- 
thusen,  Kuinijel,  and  Ruperti,  there  is  a  specimen  of  a  Clavis  Reli- 
quiarum  Versionwm  Grcecarum  V.  T.  by  John  Frederick  Fischer: 
It  contains  only  the  letter  A.  Both  these  intended  publications  are 
superseded  by  Schleusner's  elaborate  Lexicon  to  the  Septuagint 
just  noticed. 

4.  A  Greek  and  English  Lexicon,  originally  a  Scripture  Lexi- 
con, and  now  adapted  to  the  Classics,  with  a  Greek  Grammar 
prefixed.    By  Greville  Ewing.    Glasgow  and  London,  1827,  8vo. 

The  third  edition,  greatly  improved,  of  a  truly  valuable  Lexicon; 
the  first  edition  appeared  at  Glasgow  in  1801,  and  the  second  in 
1812.  "  From  its  size,  cheapness,  and  laudable  brevity  (in  most 
respects),  this  book  is  capable  of  becoming  generally  useful."  (Bri- 
tish Critic  and  Theological  Review,  vol.  iii.  p.  326.)  The  Gram- 
mar is  sold  separately :  besides  being  a  general  introduction  to  the 
study  of  the  Greek  language,  it  contains  maTiy  valuable  observa- 
tions on  the  style  of  the  Septuagint  and  New  Testament. 


SECTION  IV. 

GRAMMARS    AND    LEXICONS    OF   THE    COGNATE    OR    KINDRED 
LANGUAGES. 

§    1.    GENERAL    TREATIS    S    AND    POLTGLOTT    GRAMMARS  OF  THE 
COGNATE  LANGUAGES. 

I.  Introductio  ad  Lectionem  Linguarum  Orientalium : 
Hebraicse.  Syriacae.  EthiopicEB. 

Chaldaicae.  Arabicae.  Armena;. 

Samaritanae.  Persicaj.  Coptse. 

Consilium  de  earum  studio  foeliciter  instituendo,   et  de   Libris 

quos   in  hunc  finem  sibi  comparare  debent  studiosi Per 

IJrianum  Walton,  S.T.D.     Londini,  1655,  12mo. 

"  This  little  tract,"  says  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  "  is  really  well  writ- 
ten, and  must  have  been  very  useful  at  the  time  it  was  published. 
It  does  not  contain  grammars  of  the  different  languages  mentioned 
in  the  title,  but  only  the  different  alphabets,  and  directions  how  to 
read  them.  At  the  end  of  his  exposition  of  the  alphabet  of  each 
language  is  a  specimen  in  the  proper  character,  each  line  of  which 
is  included  between  two  others  ;  the  first  of  which  is  a  literal  Latin 
version  of  the  original,  and  the  second,  the  letters  of  the  original 
expressed  by  italics.  Short  as  these  examples  are,  they  are  of  great 
utility  to  a  learner."  (Bibliogr.  Diet.  vol.  ii.  p.  11.)  As  the  copy  in 
the  Library  of  H.  R.  H.  the  Duke  of  Sussex  is  designated  as  edilio 


secitnrla,  priori  emendalior,  1655,  it  should  seem  that  two  editions 
of  this  treatise  were  printed  in  the  same  year.  (Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  1. 
part  ii.  p.  74.) 

2.  Briani  Waltoni  Dissertatio,  in  qua  de  Lingnis  Orientali- 
bus,  Hebraica,  Chaldaica,  Saniaritana,  Syriaca,  Arabica,  Persica, 
Armena,  et  Copta  :  et  de  Textuum  et  Versionum,  quae  in  Complu- 
tensibus,  Regiis,  Parisiensibus,  et  Anglicanis  Polyglottis  Bibliis, 
habcntur,  antiquitate,  authoritate,  et  usu,  breviter  disseritur.  Ac- 
cessit  Johannis  Wouweri  Syntagma  de  Graeca  et  Latina  Biblio- 
rum  Interpretatione.     Daventris,  1658,  12mo. 

This  dissertation  is  sometimes,  erroneously,  confounded  with  the 
preceding  work,  but  it  "  is  entirely  of  a  different  character,  it 
displays,  like  all  the  other  productions  of  the  learned  author,  much 
sound  knowledge  and  learning."    (Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  li.  p.  74.) 

3.  Joh.  Henrici  Hottingeri  Grammatica  quatuor  Lingua- 
rum,  Hebraicae,  Chaldaicae,  Syriacae,  et  Arabicse.  Accedit  Tech- 
nologia  Linguae  Arabicse  Theologico-historica.  Heidelbergse, 
1659,  4to. 

4.  Stephani  Morini  Oratio  Inauguralis  de  Linguarum  Orien- 
talium ad  intelligentiam  Sacra  Scripturae  utilitate.  Lugduni 
Batavorum,  1686,  Svo. 

5.  SimonisOcKLEii  Introductio  ad  LinguasOrientales.  Can- 
tabrigiae,  1706,  12mo. 

6.  Gulielmi  Gesenii  et  J.  A.  Hoffmanni  Rudimenta  Orien- 
talia  :  seu  Tabulae  Verborum,  Nominum,  et  Pronominum,  Hebr. 
et  Chald.  Syr.  Samar.  Rabbin,  ^thiop.  cum  brevi  Institutions 
Grammatica.  Pars  I.  Dialectos  Aramsas  cum  Hebraea  com- 
plectens.     Lipsiae,  1825,  4to. 


§  2.   POLTGLOTT  lexicons  or  the  KINnRED  langcages. 

1.  Lexicon  Heptaglotton,  Hebraicum,  Chaldaicum,  Syriacum, 
Samaritanum,  Ethiopicum,  Arabicum,  conjunctim ;  et  Persicum 
separatim.  In  quo  omnes  voces  Hebraeae,  Chaldaeae,  Syrae,  Sama- 
ritanae, Ethiopicae,  Arabicae,  et  Persicae,  tam  Manuscriptis,  quam 
impressis  libris,  cum  primis  autem  in  Bibliis  Polyglottis,  adjectis 
hinc  inde  Armenis,  Turcicis,  Indis,  Japonicis,  &c.  ordine  Alpha- 
betico,  sub  singulis  Radicibus  digestae,  continentur,  &c.  Cui 
accessit  brevis  et  harmonica  (quantum  fieri  potuit)  Grammaticae 
omnium  prtecedentium  Linguarum  Delineatio.  Authore  Ed- 
mundo  Castello,  S.T.D.  Regias  M.  a  sacris  :  Lingu«  Arabicae 
apud  Cantabrigienses  Professore,  &c.  Londini,  imprimebat 
Thomas  Roycroft,  LL.  Orientalium  Typographus  Regius,  1669, 
2  vols,  folio. 

This  work,  which  forms  the  companion  to  Bp.  Walton's  Polyglott 
Bible  noticed  in  pages  20,  21  of  this  Appendix,  is  perhaps  the 
greatest  and  most  perfect  undertaking  of  the  kind  hitherto  per- 
formed by  human  industry  and  learning.  "  Dr.  Castell  expended 
both  his  fortune  and  his  life  in  this  immense  undertaking.  It  is 
true  he  had  help  from  several  learned  men.  Dr.  Murray  lent  him 
assistance  in  the  Arabic  ;  Mr.  (afterwards  Bishop)  Beveridge,  in  the 
Syriac  ;  and  Dr.  Wansleb,  in  the  ^thiopic.  But  the  person  to  whom 
he  was  most  indebted  was  the  celebrated  Dr.  Lightfoot,  a  man  who, 
for  ihe  amiableness  of  his  disposition,  the  purity  of  his  manners, 
and  the  extent  and  depth  of  his  literary  knowledge,  had,  even  in 
that  age  of  profound  learning,  no  superior,  and  since  no  equal.  So 
implicitly  did  Dr.  Castell  depend  on  his  judgment,  that  when  he 
began  that  work,  in  1657,  he  wrote  to  him  for  direction  and  advice, 
promising  either  to  proceed  in  or  suppress  it,  as  he  should  determine. 
Dr.  Lightfoot  not  only  helped  on  this  immortal  work  by  his  coun- 
sels, corrections,  &c.,  but  he  also  contributed  money,  and  procured 
subscriptions,  so  that  Dr.  Castell  acknowledged  that  there  was  no 
man  in  the  three  kingdoms  to  whom  he  owed  so  much.  When  Dr. 
Castell  sent  him  his  Lexicon,  he  acknowledged  that  it  owed  a  great 
part  of  its  perfection  to  his  learning  and  industry,  and  thought  his 
name  should  occupy  a  distinguished  place  in  the  title-page.  The 
Persic  Lexicon  is  the  fruit  of  the  joint  labour  of  himself  and  Golius. 
This  part  of  Dr.  Castell's  work  has  been  undervalued  by  such  as 
either  did  not  or  could  not  consult  it ;  but  it  is  an  excellent  work ; 
and  to  it  even  Meninski  and  Richardson  are  indebted  for  a  multi- 
tude of  articles.  Its  chief  fault  is  want  of  distinct  arrangement; 
rhe  words  are  sadly  intermixed,  and  many  Persian  words  are  prints 
ed  with  Hebrew  types,  probably  because  they  had  but  few  Persian 
characters.  Dr.  Castell  laboured  at  this  work  for  seventeen  years, 
during  which  time  he  maintained  in  his  own  house,  at  his  own 
cost,  seven  Englishmen  and  seven  f()reigners,  as  writers,  all  of  wliom 
died  before  the  work  was  finished.  The  names  of  those  respectable 
literary  drudges  I  have  not  been  able  to  find.  Besides  the  12,000Z.  of 
his  own  property,  which  this  great  man  expended  on  this  work,  he 
was  obliged  to  borrow  1800?.  more  ;  and  not  being  able  to  make  up 
this  money,  he  was  constrained  to  make  application  to  King  Charles 
II.  and  entreat  him,  ne  career  esset  pra-.minm  tot  laborum  et  sumpluum 
— that  a  prison  might  not  be  the  reward  of  so  many  labours  and  so 
much  expense.  This  produced  a  letter  from  the  king,  in  1660,  to 
all  the  archbishops,  bishops,  dukes,  lords,  and  nobles  of  the  realra. 


Skct.  IV.  §  2.] 


SYRIAC  AND  ARABIC  GRAMMARS  AND  LEXICONS. 


95 


reconimcnding  the  work,  and  earnestly  soliciting  pecuniary  assist- 
nnce  in  bolialf  of  its  dlHtrcsHod  and  cmbarrasssed  author;  which 
was  followed,  three  years  after,  by  one  from  the  Archbishoj)  of 
Canterbury,  directed  to  all  the  clergy,  on  the  same  behalf;  and, 
afterwards,  by  another  from  twenty-nine  English  and  Irish  prelates, 
earnestly  enlroating  the  public  not  to  |)erniit  this  great  man  to  sink 
under  his  labours,  and  the  pfH'uniary  embarrassments,  brought  oti 
him  by  a  work,  which  he  had  un<lcrlaken  fiir  the  honour  oi'  (jod, 
the  promotion  of  religion  and  leariniig,  and  conN<'<(ucnlly  the  good 
of  mankind.  Is  it  not  strange-,  that  when  the  king  and  the  clergy 
laid  this  so  nnicli  to  heart,  and  recommended  it  so  warmly,  the  au- 
thor's embarrassments  should  still  continue  ?  The  reason  seems  to 
have  been  this — the  nation  was  impoverished,  and  the  exchequer 
itself  emptied,  l)y  the  late  civil  wars. 

"  At  the  end  of  tlie  third  page  of  his  preface,  he  makes  the  fol- 
lowing complaint,  whi<-h  no  .scholar  can  read  without  |)ain  of  heart : 
— '  Socios  (|iiid(Mn  hal)ui  in  hoc  opere,  sed  [jerexiguo  tempore  me- 
cum  in  illo  commoranles,  nescio  an  dicatn,  inunensitate  lalwris  plane 
exlerrilos.  Per  plures  aiuios,  jam  wtato  provectus,  et  una  cum 
patrimoniu  satis  compelenti,  cxhaustis  cliam  animi  viribus,  oculis 
caligantibus,  cor|)oris  variis  in  hoc  opere  confractis,  et  dislocatis 
membris,  relictus  sum  solus,  sine  amaiuicnsi,  aut  vcl  correctore 
uUo.'  He  died  in  IfiHo.  Some  copies  of  this  Lexicon  have  in  the 
title,  '  Londini,  Scott,  108G;'  but  this  i)roves  nothing  more  than  a 
re-impression  of  the  title;  (()r  there  never  was  a  secoiul  edition  of 
the  work."  (Clarke's  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  vol.  i.  pp.  268 — 
270.)  F'or  other  interesting  particulars  concerning  this  distniguish- 
ed  but  ill-requited  scholar,  see  Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary, 
vol.  viii.  pp.  398—400.) 

2.  y.  SciiiNnLEHi  Lexicon  Pentaglotton,  Hebraicum,  Chal- 
daicum,  Syriacum,  Talmudico-Rabbinicum,  et  Arabicura.  Haiio- 
viffi,  1612,  folio. 


§    3.    STUIAC  ORAMMARS  AND  LEXICONS. 

*^*  Profegsor  Hoffman  has  given  a  Catalogue  of  all  the  Si/riac 
Grammars  and  Lexicons  extant,  up  to  the  year  1823,  both  ancient  and 
modern,  interspersed  with  bihliographical  and  critical  remarlis.  The 
modern  grammarians  are  fifty-four  in  number;  and  the  lexicogra- 
phers, sixteen.  (Grammat.  Syriac.  pp.  3G — 59.)  Those  only  are  here 
noticed  which  are  most  easily  procurable,  and,  in  his  judgment,  most 
deserving  of  attention. 

1.  Theophili  Philippi  Christiani  Kaiser  Cominentarius,  quo 
LingujE  Aramaics  Usus  adjudicanda  ct  interpretanda  plura  Novi 
Testatnenti  loca,  ea  maxinie  quae  parallela  sunt,  novis  exemplis 
defenditur.     Norimbergse,  1831,  8vo. 

2.  Caroli  Schaaf  Opus  Aramicum,  complectensGrammaticam 
Chalddicam  et  Syriacam,  Selccta  ex  Targumim,  cum  versione 
Latina,  nemon  Lexicon  Chaldaicum,  &c.  Lugduni  Batavorum, 
1686,  i2ino. 

The  S^Tiac  letters  are  expressed  in  Hebrew  characters,  and  the 
work  aflords  mcve  assistance  to  the  Chaldee  than  to  the  Syriac 
student.     (Hoflinanni  Gram.  Syr.  p.  52.) 

3.  Christ.  Benedicti  Michaelis  Syriasmus ;  id  est,  Gramma- 
tica  Lingus  Syriacse,  cum  fundamentis  necessariis,  turn  paradig- 
mattbus  penioribus,  tum  denique  ubere  syntaxi,  et  idiomatibus 
lingusE,  instructa.     Halae  Magdeburgica;,  1741,  4to. 

This  Grammar,  Prof.  Iloflman  states,  was  compiled  by  the  elder 
Michaelis  with  singular  industry  and  learning  from  the  Syriac  Ver- 
sion of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  ;  and  is  better  arranged,  as  well 
as  better  furnished  with  examples,  than  any  other  previous  gram- 
mar of  the  Syriac  language.     (Iloffmanni  Gram.  Syr.  p.  53.) 

4.  J.  D.  Michaelis  Grammatica  Syriaca.     Halae,  1784,  4to. 

This  is  nearly  a  reprint  of  the  preceding  work,  with  a  few  addi- 
tions and  alterations. 

5.  Joannis  Jahn  Elementa  Arama'cse,  seu  Chaldseo-SyriactE 
IjingujB.  Latine  rcddita,  et  nonnullts  accessionibus  aucta,  ab 
Andr.  Fr.  Oberleitner.     Vienna,  1820,  8vo. 

Professor  Jahn's  Grammar  of  the  Aramaean  Language  was  first 
published,  in  German,  in  the  year  1793.  An  imperial  edict  having 
enacted  that  the  Latin  language  should  exclusively  be  used  in  all 
schools  and  academies  within  the  Austrian  dominions.  Dr.  Ober- 
leitner  translated  Jahn's  treatise  into  Latin,  and  made  various  im- 
portant additions.  This  grammar  is  perspicuously  written,  and 
very  neatly  printed. 

6.  A  Syriac  Grammar,  principally  adapted  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  that  Language.  By  Thomas  Yeates.  London,  1821, 
8vo. 

7.  An  Introduction  to  the  Syriac  Language ;  in  which  the 
Genius  of  the  Language  is  explained  by  a  new  and  simple  Prin- 
ciple of  Analysis.  By  the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolan,  LL.D.  Lon- 
don, 1821,  12mo. 

8.  Andrese  Theophili  Hoffmanni  Grammaticse  Syriac®  Libri 
III.  cum  tribus  Tabulis  varia  Scriptura;  Aramaicae  genera  exhi- 
bentibus.     4to.  Halae,  1827. 

Vol.  II.— App.  4  E 


This  is  the  most  copious  as  well  as  the  most  elaborate  treatise  on 
Syriac  Grammar  which  is  extant.  Prof  Hoffinann  has  availed  him- 
self of  every  previous  accessible  help.  The  prolegomena  contain 
a  history  of  llie  Syrians,  as  well  as  of  their  language,  together  with 
a  review  of  the  labours  of  his  predeces.sors  m  this  department  of 
sacred  literature,  and  the  history  and  mode  of  writing  which  has 
obtained  at  diilerent  times.  The  first  of  the  three  books  into  which 
this  Grammar  is  divided  treats  on  the  elements  or  characters  of  the 
Syriac  language  ;  in  the  second  are  discussed  the  diHl-rent  parisof 
speech  ;  and  the  third  is  appropriated  to  the  syntax,  which  is  illus- 
trated with  a  great  number  of  exaniftles.  The  notes,  which  are 
very  numerous,  refer  to  the  best  authorities  ancient  and  modern, 
on  every  topic  of  Syriac  Grammar  ;  and  the  work  concludes  with  a 
coi)ious  Index. 

9.  Martini  Thostii  Lexicon  Syriacum  ex  inductione  omnium 
exemplorum  N.  T.  Syriaci  adornatum  ;  adjccta  singulorum  vo- 
cabulorum  significationc  Latina  et  Germanica  cum  Indice  tri- 
plici.     Colhenis  Anhaltinorum,  1623,  4to. 

Although  the  pronouns  and  particles  are  wanting  in  this  Lexicon 
(as  they  are  in  all  llie  older  Lexicons  which  preceded  it),  yet  Tros- 
tins  has  done  much  in  accurately  investigating  the  genuine  mean- 
ing of  every  word,     (llotlmanni  Grarnm.  Syr.  p.  57.) 

10.  .iEgidii  GuTninii  Lexicon  Syriacum,  continens  omnes 
N.  T.  Syriaci  dictiones  et  particulas.     Hamburgi,  1667,  12mo. 

11.  Caroli  Schaaf  Lexicon  Syriacum  Concordantiale,  omnea 
Novi  Testament!  Syriaci  voces,  et  ad  harum  illustrationem  mul- 
tas  alias  Syriacas,  et  linguarum  atlinium  dictiones  complectens, 
cum  necessariis  indicibus,  Syriaco  et  Latino,  ut  et  catalogo  nomi- 
num  propriorum  et  Gentilium  N.  T.  Syr.  Lugduni  Batavorum, 
1709,  4to. 

This  Lexicon  fully  answers  the  profession  made  in  the  title-page ; 
and  the  reader  of  the  Syriac  l\ew  Testament,  who  may  consult  it, 
will  rarely  be  disappointed.  (HoHinanni  Gram.  Syr.  p.  59.)  The  work 
was  published  as  a  companion  to  the  beautiful  edition  of  the  Syriac 
Testament  printed  at  Leyden  in  the  same  year.  In  his  preface, 
Schaaf  makes  honourable  mention  of  the  previous  labours  of  Tros- 
tius,  Gutbirius,  and  especially  of  the  Syriac  Lexicon  contained  in 
the  Heptaglolt  Lexicon  of  our  learneu  countryman  Edmund  Cos- 
tell.' 

12.  Lexicon  Syriacum  ab  Antonio  Zanolini  coUectum,  voces 
omnes  quae  in  N.  T.  translatione  SyriacsB  inveniuntur  complec- 
tens. Accedit  ejusdem  auctoris  Disputatio  de  Lingua  Syriaci, 
Versionibus  Syriacis  et  de  Maronitis,  quibus  praecipue  nunc  Lin- 
gua Syriaca  in  usu  est.     Patavii,  1742,  4to. 

This  work  was  composed  by  Dr.  Zanolini  for  the  use  of  the  stu- 
dents in  the  seminary  at  Padua,  where  he  was  Professor  of  Orien- 
tal languages.  Dr.  Z.  has  not  specified  what  authorities  he  con- 
sulted. Prof  Hoffrnann  states  that  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
made  any  use  of  Schaaf 's  Lexicon.    (Gramm.  Syr.  p.  59.) 

§    4.    ARABIC  GRAMMARS  AND  LEXICONS. 

1.  Philippi  GuADAGNOLt  Breves  Arabicae  Linguae  Institu- 
tiones.     Romse,  1642,  4to. 

2.  Thomae  Ehpenii  Grammatica  Arabica.  Cum  fabulis  Lok- 
mani,  et  excerptis  anthologiae  veterum  Arabiae  poetarum,  Ara- 
bice  et  Latine.  Interprete  Alberto  Scbultens.  Lugduni  Bata- 
vorum, 1748,  1767,  4to. 

The  first  edition  of  Erpenius's  Arabic  Grammar  appeared  in  1636, 
in  4to.     Those  of  1748  and  1767  are  considered  the  best. 

3.  Thoma;  Erpenii  Rudimenta  Linguae  Arabicae.  Florile- 
gium  sententiarum  et  Clavem  dialectorum  adjecit  Albertus  Schul- 
tens.     Lugduni  Batovorum,  1770,  4to.     Best  edition. 

4.  A  Grammar  of  the  Arabic  Language,  in  which  the  Rules 
are  illustrated  by  Authorities  from  the  best  Writers.  By  John 
Richardson.     London,  1776,  4to. 

5.  Grammaire  Arabe,  par  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  Paris,  1810, 
2  tomes,  8vo.  Seconde  Edition,  corrig^e  et  augmentee.  Paris, 
1831,  2  tomes,  8vo. 

"  An  immortal  work,  which  consigns  to  obscurity,  by  its  stiperior 
lustre,  all  previous  works  of  the  same  nature  :  and  which  has  thrown 
more  light  upon  the  forms  of  words,  the  idiom,  and  the  syntax  of 
the  Shemitish  languages,  than  has  been  cast  before  for  many  cen- 
turies. By  this  work,  which  contains  462  pages  of  syntax,  Gesenius 
has  been  substantially  aided  in  the  compilation  of  his  Hebrew 
Grammar  ;  and  a  multitude  of  things  pertaining  to  the  grammar 
and  idiom  of  the  Hebrew  (though  they  may  be  learned  by  the  dili- 
gent student  w  ithout  the  aid  of  this  work,  so  as  to  be  useful  to  him), 
are  seen,  without  a  knowledge  of  De  Sacy's  Arabic  Syntax,  only 
as  through  a  glass,  darkly.  De  Sacy  has  placed  them  in  the  meri- 
dian sun.  That  a  work,  which  was  not  designed  to  have  the  most 
remote  bearing  upon  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  should  be  thus  made 
to  contribute  in  a  signal  manner  to  their  illustration,  ought  surely 
to  be  a  matter  of  gratitude  to  the  Great  Disposer  of  events,  who 

■  Castell's  Syriac  Lexicon  was  reprinted  at  Gottin  en  in  1788,  in  two 
I  parts,  forming  one  volume,  small  Ho. 


96 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  IV. 


can  overrule  the  designs  of  men  to  the  accomplishment  of  his  own 
purposes."  (Stuart's  Dissertations  on  studying  the  original  Lan- 
guages of  the  Bible,  p.  84.)  The  second  volume  of  the  second  edi- 
tion is  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  nearly  fifty  pages,  on  the  subject 
of  the  Prosody  and  Versification  of  the  Arabs.  This  dissertation 
was  announced  lor  sale,  apart  from  the  work,  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  purchasers  of  the  first  edition. 

6.  Institutiones  GrammaticiE  Arabicte,  auctore  Antonio  Abtda. 
Viiidobon®,  1813,  4to. 

7.  Institutiones  ad  Fundamenta  Linguse  ArabiciE  :  accedunt 
SontentiiE  et  Narrationes  Arabics,  una  cum  Glossario  Arabico- 
Latino.  Auctore  Em.  Frid.  Car.  RosEXMiJLLuiio,  Theol.  Doct. 
et  in  Acadcmia  Lipsiensi  Prof,  ordinario.     Lipsite,  1818,  4to. 

Of  the  very  numerous  grammars  of  the  Arabic  language  which 
liavc  been  published  in  the  Latin  language,  this  of  Professor  Ro- 
seimviiller  is  considered  the  best.  The  author  has  made  great  use 
of  Sacy's  Grammaire  Arabe ;  and  the  Chrestomathy,  or  selection 
of  passages  from  Arabic  writei-s,  enhances  the  value  of  his  publi- 
cation. 

8.  J.  A.  VcLLERS  Grammaticae  Arabicae  Elcmenta  et  Forma- 
rnm  Doctrina,  per  Tabulas  descripta.  In  usum  praelectionum. 
Bonnae,  1832,  4to. 

9.  Antonii  Giggf.ii  Thesaurus  Linguae  Arabicae ;  seu  Lexi- 
con Arabicum  Latinum.     Mediolani,  1632,  4  vols,  folio. 

This  is  a  very  valuable  work,  though  greatly  inferior  in  point 
of  correctness  to  the  following  Lexicon  of  Golius. 

10.  Jacobi  GoLii  Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum,  contextum  ex 
probatioribus  orientes  Lexicographis.  Accedit  Index  Latinus 
copiosissimus,  qui  Lexici  Latino-Arabici  vicem  explere  possit. 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1653,  folio. 

"  This  is  an  invaluable  work,  and  the  best  on  the  subject  ever 
published.  It  is  in  every  respect  well  edited.  The  arrangement 
of  the  words,  the  definitions  given,  the  paper,  types,  and  typogra- 
phical e.tecution — are  all  in  the  first  style  of  accuracy  and  elegance." 
(Bibliog.  Diet.  vol.  iv.  p.  7.)  A  new  edition  of  this  Lexicon  has 
been  announced,  with  very  important  additions  and  corrections,  by 
Professor  Freytag,  of  Bonn,  whose  edition  is  expected  to  form  two 
large  volumes  in  quarto. 

11.  Jacobi  ScHEiDii  Glossarium  Arabico-Latinum  Manuale. 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1769,  4to. 

12.  Johannis  J AHN  Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum,  Chrestomathiae 
Arabicae  accommodatum,  et  Chrestomathia  Arabica.  Vindobonae, 
1802,  2  vols.  8vo. 

For  a  full  account  of  Arabic  Grammars  and  Lexicons,  the  reader 
K  referred  to  Schnurrer's  Bibliotheca  Arabica,  in  which  their  dates, 
&c.  are  particularly  specified. 


§   5.    EGTPTIAN    GRAMMARS    AND    LEXICONS. 

1.  Lexicon  .lEgyptiaco-Latinum,  ex  veteribus  illius  Linguae 
monumentis  summo  studio  collectum  a  Maturino  Veyssiere  La 
Croze.  Edenlibus  Christiano  Scholtz  et  Carolo  Godofredo  Woide. 
Oxonii  e  Typographeo  Clarendoniano,  1775,  4to. 

2.  Christiani  Scholtz  Grammatica  ^gyptiaca  utriusque  dia- 
lect!:  quam  breviavit,  illustravit,  edidit  Carolus  Godofredus 
Woide.     Oxonii  e  Typographeo  Clarendoniano,  1778,  4to. 

These  publications  are  not  of  common  occurrence,  and  have 
acquired  additional  value  since  various  fragments  of  the  ancient 
Coptic  and  Sahidic  versions  of  the  New  Testament  have  been  pub- 
lished. Previously  to  the  seventeenth  century,  Egyptian  literature 
was  but  slightly  regarded  in  Europe,  and  might  possibly  have  been 
still  disregarded,  if  the  celebrated  oriental  traveller  Bartolomeo  De 
la  Valle  had  not  brought  to  Rome,  from  Egypt,  among  other  curi- 
osities, some  Coptic  or  Egyptian  manuscripis,  of  which  he  gave  the 
perusal  to  Athanasius  Kircher,  a  voluminous  but  very  indifferent 
writer  in  regard  to  solidity  and  fidelity.  Kircher,  however,  has  the 
merit  of  being  the  first  who  published  a  book  relating  to  the  Egyp- 
tian language,  under  the  title  Lingua  Aia;ypliaca  ResUtiUa  (Romae, 
1643,  4lo.),  which  was,  in  fact,  nothing  but  the  manuscript  dic- 
tionary or  vocabulary  of  De  la  Valle.  Theodore  Petreeus,  who  had 
been  in  Egypt  in  the  same  century,  enriched  Europe  with  several 
valuable  manuscripts;  and  he,  well  understanding  the  Egyptian 
tongue,  would  have  proved  a  restorer  of  Egypti.in  literature,  had 
he  met  with  proper  encouragement;  but  he  could  nowhere  find  it, 
not  even  in  London,  where  he  printed  the  first  psalm  as  a  specimen 
of  the  Egyptian  language.  Happily  his  manuscripts  were  sold  to 
tlie  elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  placed  in  his  library  at  Berlin. 
Dr.  Wilkins,  a  German,  and  La  Croze,  a  Frenchman,  distinguished 
themselves,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  by  their 
eultivation  of  the  Egyptian  tongue.  The  former  met  with  encou- 
ragement and  preferment  in  England,  and  printed  at  Oxford,  in 
1716,  the  Egyptian  New  Testament  in  the  Coptic  or  Lower  Egyp- 
tian dialect.  He  also  printed  the  Pentateuch,  at  London,  in  1731. 
But  being  unacquainted  with  the  Sahidic  or  tipper  Egyptian  dia- 


lect, he  mistook  the  Sahidic  or  Thebaidic  manuscripts,  in  the  Bod- 
leian library,  for  faulty  Coptic  ones.  La  Croze,  being  librarian  to 
the  king  of  Prussia  at  Berlin,  and  having  free  access  to  the  Egyp- 
tian manuscripts  of  Peti-seus  in  that  library,  compiled  from  these 
and  some  other  manuscripts  a  valuable  dictionary,  which  he 
finished  in  1722.  He  was  much  assisted  in  this  undertaking  by 
Dr.  Jablonski,  a  learned  professor  at  Frankfort,  who  collected  seve- 
ral materials  for  him  in  the  Bodleian  library,  and  that  of  the  king 
of  France,  at  Paris.  Dr.  Jablonski  gave  La  Croze  the  first  hint  that, 
besides  the  Coptic  dialect,  there  was  anotherof  Upper  Egypt,  which 
is  now  commonly  called  the  Sahidic  or  Thebaidic  dialect.  He  sent 
him  likewise  a  transcript  of  a  manuscript  of  this  kind  (No.  393. 
Huntington  in  the  Bodleian  library),  De  Mysteriis  Literarum  Gra- 
caritm,  from  which  La  Croze  took  CoUeclionem  vocum  qiiarundam 
Sahidicarum,  which  is  annexed  to  his  Dictionary.  Jablonski,  who 
on  his  travels  had  copied  several  Egyptian  manuscripts,  communi- 
cated them  to  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Scholtz,  chaplain  in  ordinary 
to  the  king  of  Prussia;  who  being  furnished  with  the  manuscripis 
at  Berlin,  and  the  Dictionary  of  La  Croze,  w  rote,  in  1750,  an  Egyp- 
tian Grammar  of  both  dialects,  in  two  vols.  4to.  Several  learned 
men  wished  that  both  the  Dictionary  and  the  Grammar  might  be 
published,  but  they  could  not  find  a  printer  furnished  with  Egyp- 
tian types,  or  who  would  hazard  the  undertaking  ;  till,  at  last,  the 
university  of  Oxford,  on  a  noble  principle  of  public  spirit,  deter- 
mined to  take  the  business  in  hand.  When  the  Dictionary  was 
printing.  Dr.  Woide  was  desired  to  make  some  additions  to  it ;  but 
this  not  being  proposed  to  him  till  more  than  half  the  work  was 
printed  off,  he  could  extend  his  remarks  to  three  letters  only ;  and, 
to  render  the  undertaking  more  useful,  he  added  an  index. 

It  was  intended  to  print  the  Grammar  of  Mr.  Scholtz,  in  two  4to. 
vols,  immediately  after  the  Dictionary,  but  it  being  found  too  volu- 
minous. Dr.  Woide  very  properly  abridged  it ;  and  the  work,  so  far 
from  losing  by  its  abridgment,  has  gained  very  considerably ;  for 
Dr.  W.  has  carefully  examined,  corrected,  and  improved  the  Gram- 
mar by  means  of  manuscripts  unknown  to  Mr.  Scholtz,  of  which  he 
gives  an  account  in  the  preface  prefixed  to  the  Grammar.  The 
Sahidic  part,  which  is  now  to  be  found  in  this  Grammar,  was  en- 
tirely supplied  by  Dr.  Woide. 

Two  circumstances  must  particularly  recommend  this  Grammar; 
first,  that  the  rules  laid  down  are  illustrated  and  supported  by  ex- 
amples, quoted  from  the  above-mentioned  manuscripts ;  secondly, 
that  it  exhibits  both  dialects,  to  one  of  which  we  have  hitherto 
been  entire  strangers.  (Monthly  Review  (O.  S.),  vol.  Ix.  p.  1. 
Nichols's  Anecdotes  of  Bowyer,  vol.  ix.  pp.  9 — 11.) 

3.  Pauli  Ernesti  Jablonskii  Collectio  et  Explicatio  Vocum 
^gyptiacarum,  quarum  mentio  apud  Scriptores  Veteres  occurrit. 
Apud  Jablonskii  Opuscula,  Tom.  I.  Lugduni  Batavorum,  1804, 
8vo. 

Jablonski  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  scholars  in  Egyptian  lite- 
rature, in  the  eighteenth  century.  Besides  various  disquisitions 
which  are  collected  in  his  Opuscula  (of  which  an  account  will  be 
found  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  Appendix),  he  laboured  for  many 
years  at  an  Egyptian  Glossary,  in  which  he  collected  in  alphabeti- 
cal order,  and  explained,  by  the  aid  of  the  Coptic  Dialect,  all  the 
Egyptian  words  dispersed  in  the  writings  of  Greek  and  Latin  au- 
thors, and  also  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament.  (The 
latter  are  about  fifty  in  number.)  On  his  death,  corrected  copies 
of  many  of  his  dissertations  and  some  of  his  MSS.  were  sent  to  the 
celebrated  critic  Ruhnkenius,  at  Leyden ;  where,  after  various 
impediments,  they  were  at  length  published  by  Prof  Te  Water,  in 
four  volumes,  8vo.  between  the  years  1804  and  1813. 

This  Egyptian  Glossary,  which  forms  the  entire  first  volume  of 
Jablonski's  Opuscula,  is  pronounced  by  M.  Quatremere  (the  most 
competent  judge  in  Europe  of  such  subjects)  to  be  the  completest 
work  in  this  department  of  literature,  and  to  evince  the  most  pro- 
found erudition;  though,  in  some  instances,  he  seems  to  have  been 
rather  too  desirous  of  displaying  his  Coptic  learning,  and  has 
hazarded  many  improbable  etymologies.  Important  as  this  Glos- 
sary is  in  itself,  its  value  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  editorial 
labours  of  Prof  Te  Water;  who,  in  addition  to  a  prefate  contain- 
ing many  interesting  details  respecting  Jablonski's  life  and  writings, 
and  especially  concerning  the  Glossary,  has  contributed  numerous 
very  learned  notes,  together  witb  a  supplement  containing  such 
Egyptian  words  as  had  escaped  the  researches  of  Jablonski.  (Qua- 
tremere, Recherches  sur  la  Langue  et  Lilterature  de  I'Egypte, 
pp.  87,  88.) 

Mr.  Tattam  has  also  announced  a  new  edition  of  the  Egyptian 
Lexicon  by  La  Croze,  Scholtz,  and  Woide  above  noticed,  which  had 
become  extremely  rare  ;  incorporating  the  results  of  all  the  most 
recent  discoveries  in  Egyptian  Literature. 

4.  Fr.  A.  Guil.  Spokn  de  Lingua  et  Literis  Veterum  JGgypti- 
orum.  Accedunt  Grammatica  atque  Glossarium  JGgyptiacum. 
Edidit  et  absolvit  G.  Seytfarth.     Lipsiae,  1825,  4to. 

5.  A  compendious  Grammar  of  the  Egyptian  Language,  as 
contained  in  the  Coptic  and  Sahidic  Dialects  ;  with  Observations 
on  the  Bashmuric  :  together  with  Alphabets  and  Numerals  ia 
the  Hieroglyphic  and  Enchorial  Characters ;  and  a  few  explana- 
tory Observations.  By  the  Rev.  Henry  Tattam,  M.A.  With 
an  Appendix  consisting  of  the  Rudiments  of  a  Dictionary  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  Language,  in  the  Enchorial  Character.  By 
Thomas  Young,  M.D.     London,  1830,  8vo. 


Sect.  I.  ^  1.] 


TREATISES  ON  THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE, 


97 


§  6.  ETiiiopic  onAM.MAn  AN-n  lexicons. 

1.  Jobi  LuDOLnii  Gramniatica  Linguaj  Ainliarica}  (vel  ^thio- 
picae),  qiite  vcrnacula  est  Hcbessiiiorum.  Francofurti  ad  Moe- 
nuni,  1698,  folio  ;  1702,  folio.     Best  edition. 

2.  Jobi  LuDOLi'iii  Lexicon  Amharico-Latinum.  Francofurti 
ad  Mtcnum,  1098,  folio. 

This  in  fomniorily  bound  up  with  the  first  edition  of  Ludolph's 
Aiiiliarif  Griiuiinur. 

3.  Jobi  liinioLPUi  Lexicon  ^thiopico-Latinum.  Franco- 
furti ad  Mocnuni,  1698,  folio. 

§     7.    PEHSIAX   GHAMMAnS   AND   LEXICONS. 

1.  Ludovici  DE  DiEU  Rudimcnta  Lingua;  Pcrsica; :  acccdunt 
duo  priora  capita  Gencseos  ex  Persica  translationc  Jacobi  Tawusi. 
Lugduni  Balavorum,  1639,  4to, 

2.  Angeli  a  S.  Joseph  Gazophylacium  Lingua;  Pcrsarum. 
Amstelodaini,  1684,  folio. 

3.  A  Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language.  By  Sir  William 
JoxEs.     London,  1809, 4to.     Seventh  edition. 

The  first  eililion  of  ibis  (Jrammar  appeared  in  1775,  in  4lo. :  in 
thai  of  1809  llio  orlbograpliy  is  adapteci  to  llio  mode  of  npclling 
adopted  by  Dr.  VVilkms  in  liis  im|)r<)Vod  edition  of  Richardson's 
Persian  Dictionary.  Sir  W.  Jones's  Grammar  forms  the  fifth  vo- 
lume of  the  octavo  edition  of  his  works. 

4.  Francisci  dc  Dombay  Grammatica  Lingua;  Persicse;  acce- 
dunt  dialogi,  historia;,  sententite,  et  narrationes  Persicse.  Viennse, 
1804,  4to. 

.5.  A  Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language.  By  M.  Lumsde.v, 
LL.D.     London,  1811,  2  vols.  Small  folio. 


6.  Francisci  Wilken  In.stitutiones  ad  Fundamenta  Tiinguse 
Pcrsarum,  cum  Clirestomatliia  et  Auctario  ad  Chrcstoinathiain. 
Lipsia;,  180.5  ;  two  parts,  forming  1  vol.  8vo. 

7.  A  Dictionary,  Persian,  Arabic,  and  English  ;  with  a  Dis- 
sertation on  the;  Languages,  Literature,  and  Manners  of  Eastern 
Nations.  By  Jolin  Ricjiakhson,  E.-,q.  F.S.A.  A  new  Edition, 
with  numerous  A<lditions  and  Improvcment-s,  by  diaries  Wilkins, 
LL.D.  F.R.S.     London,  1806-1810,  2  vols,  royal  4to. 

The  first  edition  of  this  great  and  elaborate  work  appeared  atOx- 
fonl  and  I»iid(in  in  1777,  in  one  large  lolio  volume.  Dr.  Wilkitis 
has  revised  it  ibroiigboiil,  corrected  the  orthography  ofevcrv  word, 
and  eidarged  it  to  a  great  extent,  with  very  numerous  adrbtiona, 
which  his  long  residence  in  India  and  profound  knowledge  of  the 
Persian  language  peculiarly  qualified  him  to  make.  As  tlio  bulk 
and  price  of  this  work  rendered  it  accessible  to  comparatively  few 
studciiLs  of  Persian,  Mr.  Hopkins  compiled  from  it  an  abridi^ment, 
entitled  a  Vord/ntlari/,  Persian,  Arabic,  and  English,  which  was 
primed  at  Lotidoii  in  1810,  in  8vo. 

8.  Outlines  of  Persian  Grammar,  with  Extracts.  Edinburgh, 
1822,  8vo. 

These  outlines  were  originally  published  for  the  use  of  students  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  The  author's  "view  has  evidently 
been,  to  simplify,  as  much  as  possible,  the  elements  of  the  language. 
No  extraneous  matter  has  been  introduced  for  a  show  merely  of  eru- 
dition ;  when,  in  reality,  it  can  be  of  use  fur  nothing,  but  to  distract 
and  impede  the  learner."  (Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor  fur  May, 
1822,  p.  329.) 

The  reader,  who  is  desirous  of  further  information  respecting 
elementary  works  on  Oriental  Literature,  is  referred  to  Profes- 
sor Lee's  Sylloffe  JJbrorum  Orientulium,  r/uibns  JJnguaruni 
BihUcarum  Sludiosi  maximo  cum  fructtt  nti  f/iifant.  ((Jantabri- 
gire,  1821,8vo.)  In  this  manual.  Prof.  Lee  has  particularly  specific  J 
those  treatises  which  are  most  worthy  of  the  student's  attention. 


CHAPTER  V. 


COMMENTATORS,    INTERPRETERS,    AND    PARAPHRASTS    ON    THE    SCRIPTURES. 


A  coMPLT.TE  History  of  Commentators  would  require  a  vo- 
lume of  no  ordinary  dimensions.  The  present  list  is  therefore 
necessarily  restricted  to  an  account  of  the  Priiici/xd  Commenta- 
ries and  Critical  Works  illustrating  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The 
reader,  who  may  be  desirous  of  prosecuting  this  subject  more  at 
length,  will  find  much  interesting  information  in  the  elaborate 
works  of  RosenmiiUer,  Dorscheus,  and  Simon,  noticed  below. 
Father  Simon's  Histoire  Critique  du  Vieux  Testament  (pp.  416 
— 466,  4to.  1680)  also  contains  many  valuable  strictures  on  the 
Expositors  of  the  Old  Testament.  "The  merits  and  demerits  of 
commentators  are  likewise  discussed  in  Walchius's  Bibliotheca 
Theologica  Selecta,  vol.  iv.  pp.  369 — 931.;  in  Emesti's  Institu- 
tio  Interpretis  Novi  Testamenti,  part  iii.  cap.  ix.  pp.  278 — 311. ; 
in  Morus's  Acroases  AcademicjB,  vol.  ii.  pp.  204 — 340. ;  by  Mr. 
Orme  in  his  Bibliotheca  Biblica  (Edinburgh,  1824,  8vo.)  ;  by 
Rambach,  in  his  Institutioncs  Hcrmeneutica;,  pp.  663 — 726. ;  by 
Professor  Keil,  in  his  Elementa  Hermcneutices  Novi  Testamenti 
(8vo.  Leipsic,  1811),  p.  159.  et  seq. ;  and  by  Professor  Beck,  in 
his  Monogrammata  Hermcneutices  Librorum  Novi  Foederis  (8vo, 
Lipsia;,  1803),  part  i.  p.  168.  et  seq. 

1.  Jo.  Georg.  RosEXMiiLLEni  Historia  Interpretationis  Libro- 
rum Sacrorum  in  Ecclesia  Christiana;  ab  Apostolorum  a;tate  ad 
Literarum  Instaurationem.  Hildburghu.sse  ct  Lipsia;,  1795—1814, 
5  parts,  8vo. 

2.  Job.  Georg.  Dorschei  Bihlia  Numcrata,  scu  Index  Speci- 
alis  in  Vetus  Testamentum  ad  singula  omnium  Librorum  Capi- 
ta, et  Commata.     Francofurti,  1674,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  work  contains  a  list  of  commentators  (four  hundred  and 
ninety-one  in  number),  with  references  to  their  several  books,  chap- 
ters, and  pages,  in  which  they  have  illustrated  any  book,  chapter, 
or  verse,  and  even  every  word,  which  has  been  the  subject  of  con- 
troversy. The  word  "  Elohim,"  for  instance,  has  not  fewer  than 
sixty  references.  An  edition  of  the  Biblia  Enumerata  was  pub- 
lished at  Frankfort,  in  1694,  with  numerous  adtlitious,  by  J.  Graram, 
son-in-law  of  the  original  author.  (Biogr.  Universelle,  torn.  xi. 
p.  598.) 

3.  Histoire  Critique  des  Principaux  Commentateurs  du  Nou- 
veau  Testament,  depuis  le  Commencement  du  Christianisme 
jusqucs  a  notre  Terns.  Par  le  Perc  Simox.  Rotterdam,  1693, 
4to. 


SECTION  I. 

ON  THE    INTERPRETATION    OF    SCRIPTURE. 

§    1.    GENERAL    TREATISES    OW    THE    UfTERPRETATIOX    OF 
SCRIPTURE. 

1.  AnicHTii  (Jo.  Georg.)  Ars  distincte  Legendi  et  Interprc- 
tandi  Scripturam  Sacram  Veteris  Testamenti.    Lipsise,  1710,  8vo. 

2.  Hcrmeneutica  Biblica  Generalis,  Usibus  Academicis  accom- 
modata  ab  Antonio  Auioler.     Viennse,  1813,  8vo. 

A  learned  epitome  of  the  general  principles  of  interpretation. 
This  author,  as  well  as  Jahn,  was  a  Romanist  professor,  at  Vienna  ; 
and  the  works  of  both  have  been  prohibited  within  the  dominions 
of  the  emperor  of  Austria. 

3.  Bexner  (Joh.  Herm.)  Sylloge  Thesium,  Hermcneuticffi 
SacrjB  inservientium.     Francofurti  et  Giessae,  1753,  12mo. 

4.  Joh.  Bencdicti  Carpzov  Prima;  Lineae  Hermeneuticae  et 
Philologiae  Sacrse  cum  Veteris,  turn  Novi  Testamenti,  brcvibus 
aphorismis  comprehensae.     Helmstadii,  1790,  8vo. 

5.  CiiLADENii  (Martini)  Institutioncs  Exegetica;.  Witte- 
bergse,  1725,  8vo. 

6.  DAxnAUERi  (Joh.  Conradi)  Hcrmeneutica;  Sacra,  sive 
Methodus  exponendarum  Sacrarum  Literarum.  Argentorati, 
1684,  8vo. 

7.  Sinopsi  della  Ermeneutica  Sacra,  o  dell'  Arte  di  ben  inter- 
pretare  la  Sacra  Scrittura,  del  Professore  G.  Bernardo  De  Rossi. 
Parma,  1819,  8vo. 

8.  EnxESTi  (Jo.  Aug.)  Institutio  Interpretis  Novi  Testamenti, 
8vo.     Lipsiffi,  1761,  1809,  8vo. 

The  edition  of  1809  is  generally  considered  as  the  best  of  Er- 
nesti's  admirable  little  manual ;  but  the  prefatory  remarks  and 
some  of  the  notes  of  Dr.  Ammon  must  be  read  with  great  caution, 
as  they  are  too  frequently  destitute  of  those  primary  and  indispen- 
sable characteristics  of  a  good  interpreter,  sobriety  and  discretion. 
Two  volumes  of  Supplementary  Remarks,  by  Professor  Morus,  en- 
titled ''Acroases  super  Hcrmeneutica  Novi  Testamenti,"  were  pub- 
lished at  Leipsic  between  1795  and  1797,  in  8vo. ;  they  relate  only 
to  part  of  Ernesti's  volume,  and  they  contain  much  valuable  matter 
respecting  the  criticism  and  interpretation  of  the  New  Testament. 


98 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  IL  Chap.  V. 


An  accurate  English  translation  of  the  whole  of  Krnosli's  Institiilio, 
with  valuable  corrective  notes,  by  the  Rev.  C.  H.  Tkiihot,  M.A., 
was  publislied  at  K(linl)urgli  in  18:^2-33,  in  two  volumes,  small  «vo. 
forming  part  of  the  Edinburgh  "  Biblical  Cabinet." 

9.  Elementu  of  Interpretation,  translated  from  the  Latin  of  J 
A.  Ernesti,  accoinpatiied  with  Notes.  By  Moses  Stuart,  Pro- 
fessor of  Sacred  Literature  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
Andover.  l3mo.  Andover  (Massachusetts),  1822.  London, 
1827,  12mo. 

A  translation  of  ;;a;-<  of  the  preceding  treatise.  The  work  of 
.Ernesti,  in  passing  through  the  liaiids  of  its  translator,  has  under- 
gone some  alterations.  Some  things  have  been  omitted  ;  notes  have 
been  added  where  the  subject  appeared  to  require  further  elucida- 
tion ;  and  copious  extracts  are  translated  from  Morus's  Acroases, 
as  well  as  from  Beck's,Monogrammata  Ilermeneutices  Novi  Testa- 
menti,  and  Keil's  Eleraenta  Ilermeneutices  Novi  Testamenti,  no- 
ticed below.  The  London  reprint  was  edited  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Henderson,  who  has  iiK;reased  the  utility  of  this  little  manual  by 
adding  some  valuable  observations,  the  result  of  his  own  reading. 

10.  MatthisB  Flacii  Illyrici  Clavis  Scripturse  Sacrae,  seu  de 
Sermone  Sacrarum  Literarum.     Jense,  1674,  folio. 

This  work  was  one  of  the  best  of  the  early  Protestant  treatises 
on  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture.  Various  editions  of  it  were 
printed  at  Basle  between  the  years  1567  and  1629:  it  was  also 
printed  at  Leipsic,  in  1695,  and  at  Erfurt,  in  1719;  but  Walchius 
states  the  Jena  edition  of  1674  to  be  the  best.  The  "Clavis"  of 
Flacius  consists  of  two  parts.  The  first  is  in  the  form  of  a  Dic- 
tionary, in  which  all  the  words  and  forms  of  expression,  occurring 
in  the  Bible,  are  explained.  The  second  contains  numerous  rules 
of  interpretation,  and  a  series  of  tracts  on  the  style  of  Scripture 
difficulties,  and  mode  of  surmounting  them,  &c. 

11.  Fhanckii  (Aug.  Herm.)  Prselectiones  Hermeneutiese  ad 
viam  dextre  indagandi  et  exponendi  Sensum  Scripturae  Sacrse.  , .  , 
Adjecta  est  in  fine  Brevis  et  Luculenta  Scripturam  Sacram  cum 
fructu  legend!  Institutio.     Halse,  1717,  8vo. 

12.  Fbanckii  (Aug.  Herm.)  Commentatio  de  Scope  Libro- 
rum  Veteris  et  Novi  I'estamenti.     Halae,  1724,  Bvo. 

13.  Fbanckii  (Aug.  Herm.)  Christus  S.  Scripturae  Nucleus. 
Accedunt  tres  Meditationes  cognati  Argumenti.  Ex  Germanico 
in  Latinum  Sermonem  vertit  Henricus  Grischovius.  Halae,  1724, 
8vo, 

14.  Franzii  (Wolfgang!)  Tractatus  Theologicus  nevus  et 
perspicuus  de  Interpretatioiie  Sacrarum  Literarum.  Wittebergae, 
1619,  4to.  1708,  8vo.  (best  edition.) 

15.  Glassii  (Salomonis)  Philologia  Sacra,  his  temporibus 
accommodata.  ,  Post  primum  volumen  Dathii  in  lucem  emissum, 
nunc  continuata,  et  in  novi  plane  operis  forinam  redacta  a  Gcorg. 
Laurent.  Bauero.  Tomi  sccundi,  sectio  posterior. — Hermeneu- 
tica  Sacra.     Lipsise,  1797,  8vo. 

This  volume,  as  already  noticed  in  page  73.  is  a  corrected  edi- 
tion of  that  part  of  Glass's  Philologia  Sacra  which  relates  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  It  is  sometimes  to  be  met  with  as 
a  distinct  work,  with  a  separate  title-page  :  and  such  in  effect  it  is, 
the  alterations  and  additions  being  so  numerous  as  to  render  it  a 
new  publication.  It  is  unquestionably  of  great  value,  and  has  fur- 
nished the  writer  of  these  pages  with  many  important  observations 
and  explanations  of  Scripture  ;  but  it  is  at  the  same  time  so  strongly 
characterized  by  that  licentiousness  of  interpretation  which  so 
eminently  marks  many  of  the  modern  divines  of  Germany,  that  the 
student  cannot  be  put  too  much  on  his  guard  with  respect  to  Pro- 
fessor Bauer's  volume. 

16.  Enchiridion  Hermeneutiese  Generalis  Tabularum  Veteris 
et  Nevi  Foederis.    Authore  Johanna  Jahn.    Viennae,  1812,  8ve. 

17.  Appendix  Hermeneutiese,  seu  Exercitationes  Exegeticae. 
Auctere  Johanne  Jahn.  Fasciculi  II.  Vaticinia  de  MessiS. 
Viennae,  1813-15,  8ve. 

18.  Institutiones  Hermeneuticae  Scripturae  Sacrse  Veteris  Tes- 
tamenti, quas  Joannes  Nepomucenus  Alber,  juxta  Systema 
Theelegiae  novissime  prascriptum  concinnatas,  tertium  edidit. 
Pestini  [Pest,  in  Hungary],  1827,  3  temis,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  1807.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  system  of  theology  which  is  taught  in  the  University 
of  Vienna  having  been  introduced  into  that  of  Pest,  Professor  Alber 
re-modelled  and  revised  his  work,  in  order  to  render  it  conformable 
to  that  system.  The  first  volume  contains  a  summary  of  Biblical 
Archasology  ;  the  second,  an  introduction  to  the  several  books  of 
the  Old  Testament;  and  the  third,  the  principles  of  interpretation, 
and  an  exegetical  elucidation  of  various  difficult  passages  of  the 
Old  Testament. 

19.  Institutiones  Hermeneuticae  Scripturae  Sacrae  Novi  Testa- 
menti, quas  Joannes  Nep.  Alber,  juxta  Systema  Theologiae 
novissime  praescriptum  concinnatas,  edidit.  Pestini,  1818,  3 
tomib,  8vo. 


The  first  volume  contains  general  rules  of  interpretation,  a  gene- 
ral introdiiciion  to  the  writings  of  the  Now  Testament,  and  an 
apology  for  iheiii  ;  the  second  and  third  volumes  comprise  a  special 
introduction  to  the  various  books,  and  an  exegetical  exposition  of 
the  most  difficult  and  important  passages. 

Throughout  both  this  and  the  preceding  work,  Professor  Alber 
evinces  himself  to  be  an  able  and  vehement  adversary  of  the  mo- 
dern school  of  German  neologists. 

20.  Thomae  Hunt  de  Usu  Dialectorum,  ac  praecipue  Arabicse, 
in  Hebraico  Codice  interpretando,  Oratio.     Oxonii,  1748,  4to. 

21.  Monogrammata  Hermcneutices  Librorum  Novi  Fcederis. 
Scripsit  Christianus  Daniel  Bkckiu.s.  Pars  Prima.  Hermeueu- 
tice  N.  T.  universa.     Lipsiae,  1803,  8ve. 

This  work  was  never  completed.  An  English  translation  of  it, 
so  far  as  it  has  been  publislied,  is  given  in  the  first  volume  of  Dr. 
Hodge's  "  Biblical  Repertory,"  Princeton  (New  Jersey),  1825,  8vo, 

22.  Keilii  (Car.  Aug.  Theoph.)  Elementa  Hermcneutices 
Novi  Testamenti,  Latine  reddita  a  Christ.  Aug.  Gedefr.  Emmer- 
ling.      Lipsiae,  1811,  8ve. 

23.  Hierolexicon,  sive  Sacrum  Dictienarium  Variorum  Sacrae 
Scripturae  Sensuum,  cum  Locorum,  in  quibus  hos  patiuntur, 
Annotatione,  Opera  et  studio  Francisci  Philippi  L'Alouettb. 
Lutetiae  Parisiorum,  1694,  8vo. 

A  book  not  of  common  occurrence.  It  consists,  in  fact,  of  three 
parts.  In  the  first  are  delivered  rules  for  interpreting  the  Bible ; 
the  second  contains  a  summary  of  the  contents  of  the  several  books 
of  Scripture,  in  Latin  hexameter  verses  ;  and  the  last  part  of  the 
volume  contains  an  alphabetical  index  of  the  various  senses  of 
Scripture,  with  references  to  passages  which,  in  the  author's  judg- 
ment, admit  ef  those  senses.  Some  of  his  interpretations  are  rather 
fanciful. 

24.  Langii  (Joachimi)  Hermeneutica  Sacra,  exhibens  pri- 
mum Genuinae  Interpretationis  Leges  de  Sensu  Litterali  et  Em- 
phatico  investigando ;  deinde  Idiomata  Sermonis  Mosaici,  Da- 
vidici,  et  Prophetici,  necnon  Apostolici  et  Apocalyptici ;  cum 
uberiori  ipsius  Praxeos  Exegeticte  appendice.     Halae,  1 733,  8vo. 

25.  Six  Sermons  on  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  their      M 
Nature,  Interpretation,  and  some  of  their  most  Important  Doc-      1 
trines,  preached  before  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  the  years 
1827-8.     To  which  are  annexed  two  Dissertations  ;  the  first  on 

the  Reasonableness  ef  the  Orthodox  Views  ef  Christianity  as 
opposed  to  the  Rationalism  of  Germany  ;  the  second  on  the  In- 
terpretation of  Prophecy  generally,  with  an  Original  Exposition 
of  the  Book  of  Revelation,  showing  that  the  whole  of  that  re- 
markable Prophecy  has.  long  age  been  fulfilled.  By  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Lee,  B.D.  [now  D.D.],  Regius  Professor  of  Hebrew  in 
the  University  of  Cambridge.     London,  1830,  8vo. 

26.  LoEscHER  (Val.  Em.)  Breviarium  Theologiae  Exegeticae, 
Legitimam  Scripturae  Sacrae  Interpretationeiu  tradems.  Witte- 
bergae, 1719,  8vo. 

27.  MoNspEROER  (Josephi  Juliani,  in  Universitate  Vindobo- 
nensi  P.  O.)  Institutiones  Hermeneuticae  V.  T.  Praelectionibus 
Academicis  accemniodatae.     Lovanii,  1787,  2  vols.  8vo. 

28.  Institutio  Interpretis  Veteris  Testamenti,  auctere  Joanne 
Henrico  Pareac,  Litterarum  Orientalium  Professore  in  Acade- 
mia  Rheno-Trajectina.     Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1822,  8vo. 

A  very  valuable  compendium  of  the  principles  of  Sacred  Her- 
meneutics. 

29.  Disputatie  de  Mythica  Sacri  Codicis  Interprctatione.  Auc- 
tere Joanne  Henrico  Pareau.  Editio  altera,  additamente  et 
indicibus  aucta.     Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1824,  8ve. 

This  treatise  contains  a  masterly  investigation  and  refutation  of 
the  notion  advocated  by  the  modern  school  of  German  neologists. 
It  was  originally  a  prize  essay,  published  in  1814  in  the  transac- 
tions of  the  Teylerian  Society,  with  a  Dutch  translation.  In  this 
new  edition  the  learned  author  has  revised  and  corrected  his  trea- 
tise, and  has  enlarged  it  with  valuable  additions  at  the  end,  and 
with  a  copious  index. 

30.  Pfeifferi  (Augusti)  Hermeneutica  Sacra,  sive  Tractatio 
luculenta  de  Interprctatione  Sacrarum  Literarum.  Dresdae,  1684, 
8ve.  LipsijB,  1690,  4to. ;  also  in  the  second  volume  of  the  col- 
lective edition  of  his  philological  works. 

31.  Pfeifferi  (Joach.  Ehrenfrid.)  Institutiones  Hermeneu- 
ticae Sacrae,  veterum  atque  recentiorum  et  propria  quaedam  prae-  | 
cepta  complexa.     Erlangae,  1771,  8vo. 

32.  De  Usu  Philenis  in  Interprctatione  Nevi  Testamenti.  j 
Scripsit  Gulielmus  Scheffer.     Marburgi,  1831,  8ve. 

33.  The  Literal  Interpretation  of  Scripture  exposed.  By  T. 
Pell  Platt,  Esq.     London,  1831,  8ve. 

"  This  pamphlet  is  little  more  than  an  attack  on  some  expositions  ] 
contained  in  the  excellent  volume  of  Sermons  on  the  Divine  Au-  ' 


Sbct.  I.  §  2.] 


TREATISES  ON  THE  FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


99 


thorily  and  Porpeliiity  of  the  I^jrd'B  Day,  published  by  tlio  Rev. 
DniiinI  Wilson  [l>.0.,  now  Bislioji  of'(,':ihiillnJ,  and  an  Kiifomium 
on  the  ModeM  of  Intorprolation  ailoptcd  liy  (•«;rliiin  divim'H,  and  a 
reconimendalion  of  the  soi-dimtnt  StU(h'nIs  of  I'ropheey,  as  those 
who  have  called  men  hack  lo  th(!  lileral  lnler|prelalion  of  Scri])- 
ture." — Congrrgaliunal  Magazine,  May,  IHIU,  \ol.  xiv.  p.  314.) 

34.  RAMHAi'nii  (Johatinis  Jacobi^  Inslitutioiies  Hermcneu- 
tiroB  Sacrffi,  varii.s  ohservaiionibus  copio.sissiniisinic  exem|)liH  hibli- 
ci.s  illustrate.  Cum  pra:fatioric  Jo.  Francisci  Buddei.  Jena;,  1723, 
8vo. 

3.5.  Skkmii.lkhi  (Sebastiaiii)  Iiistilutioncs  ad  Inter[)retdtiorioin 
Saiicla!  Scripturac,  seu  llerineuculica  Sacra.  Augsburgi,  1771, 
8vo. 

35*.  Sacred  Hermcneutics,  or  the  Art  of  Biblical  Interpreta- 
tion :  containing  Principles  and  Rules  for  expounding  the  Scrij)- 
tures  of  the  Old  and  New  'J'cstament.  translated  from  the  (ier- 
man  of  ffeorge  Frederick  SF.ii.rcn.by  the  Rev.  William  Wright, 
Lli.D.,  with  the  comments  of  the  Dutch  Professor  Jodocus  He- 
ringa,  and  additional  notes  by  the  Translator.   London,  1834,  8vo. 

3().  Skmlkim  (Jo.  Sal.)  Apparatus  ad  Lilieralem  Vctcris  Tes- 
tamenti  Interpretationem.     Halai  Magdehurgica;,  1773,  8vo. 

37.  Skmlkui  (Jo.  Sal.)  Apparatus  ad  Liberalem  Novi  Testa- 
menti  Inter|)retationem.  Illustrationis  exem|)la  midta  ex  epi.-slola 
ad  Romanos  j)etita  sunt.     Haluj  Magdeburgic.-c,  17G7,  8vo. 

"  Llhvral,  indeed,  with  a  vengeance;  if  it  be  deemed  liberality 
to  give  up  all  material  points  to  those  who  impugn  the  autheniiciiy 
of  the  sacred  books." — Such  is  the  severe  but  just  censure  of  Bisbo]) 
nionilield  (Diss,  on  the  Tradit.  Knovvl.  of  a  Promised  Redeemer, 
p.  1'2H.)  on  the  first  of  these  works  o;'  Sender,  which  is  efjually  appli- 
cable to  the  second.  On  the  value  of  iliis  heterodox  Cierman 
rriiic's  labours,  see  Conybearc's  Bampton  Lectures  lor  1825,  pp. 
277—279. 

38.  TiTnnnTiNi  (Joan.  Alphonsi)  De  Sacrm  Scripturse  Inter- 
pretanda;  methodo,  Tractatus  bipartitus.  Trajecti  Thuriorum, 
1728,  small  8 vo.  Francofurti  ad  Viadrum,  1776,  8vo.  Also  in 
Vol.  11.  of  the  quarto  edition  of  his  collective  works,  with  the 
author's  last  corrections. 

The  edition  of  177f>  is  cmntiderfd  the  best;  it  professes  to  be 
"  restilutus  et  auctus,"  by  William  Abraham  Teller,  some  of  whose 
remarks  are  certainly  valuable  ;  but  others  convey  doctrinal  iiuer- 
prelatioris  which  Tiirrelini  (or  Turretin  as  he  is  most  usually  termed) 
held  in  utter  abhorrence.  The  edition  of  1728  is  tlierefore  to  be 
preferred,  when  his  collective  works  cannot  be  consulted. 

39.  Hermcncutica  Biblica  Gcneralis  juxta  Formam  Studii 
Theologici  in  Imperio  Austriaco  prffiscriptam,  edita  a  Gaspare 
U?rTF.iiKiucHEa.     CEniponti,  1831,  8vo. 

The  basis  of  this  work  is  Arigler's  Ilermeneutica  Biblica,  No.  2. 
p.  y?.,  supra,  with  which  the  editor  has  made  very  free,  altering 
some  things,  omitting  others,  and  adding  many  more,  in  order  to 
adapt  it  to  the  modern  standard  of  Romish  orthodoxy  established  in 
the  Austrian  dominions. 

40.  An  Inquiry  into  the  General  Principles  of  Scripture  Inter- 
pretation, in  Eight  Sermons  preached  before  the  University  of 
Oxford  in  the  year  1814,  as  the  Lecture  founded  by  the  late 
Rev.  John  Bampton,  M.A.  By  the  Rev.  William  VANMiLDznT, 
D.D.  [now  Bishop  of  Durham].     O.xford,  1815,  8vo. 

41.  Dissertatio  de  SS.  Scripturarum  Interpretatione,  secundum 
Patrum  commentarios.  Auctore  Danicle  Whitdt.  Londini, 
1714,  8vo. 

42.  G.  B.  WiNF.n  Oratio  de  Emendanda  Interpretatione  Novi 
Testamenti.     Lipsise,  1823,  8vo. 


§  2.  TREATISES  ON  THE  ITfTERPllETATIOX  OF  TtlE  FIOURA- 
TITE  LANGUAGE,  AND  ON  THE  SPIIHTUAL  AND  TYPICAI. 
INTEHPUETATION    OF    SCRIPTUKE. 

1.  Rambaciiii  (Johannis  Jacobi)  Commentatio  Hermeneutica 
de  Sensiis  Mystici  Criteriis,  ex  genuinis  principiis  deducta,  ne- 
cessariisque  cautelis  circumscripta.     Jena;,  1728  ;   1731,  8vo. 

2.  The  Bampton  Lectures  for  the  year  1824.  Being  an  At- 
tempt to  trace  the  History,  and  to  ascertain  the  Limits  of  the 
Secondary  and  Spiritual  Interpretation  of  Scripture.  Bp.  J.  J. 
CoNTBKARE,  M.A.     Oxford,  1824,  8vo.     Price  10s,  6rf. 

3.  A  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Figurative  Language  of  Holy 
Scripture,  and  the  Interpretation  of  it  from  the  Scripture  itself. 
To  which  are  added,  four  Lectures  on  the  Relation  between  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  as  it  is  set  forth  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.  By  the  Rev.  William  Jones,  M.A.  London,  1786, 
8vo.  and  various  subsequent  editions. 

These  valuable  and  pious  lectures  were  delivered  in  the  learned 
author's  parish  church  of  Nayland,  in  Suffolk :  they  are  also  to  be 


(()und  in  the  fourth  volume  of  Mr.  Jones's  Theological,  Philosophi- 
cal, and  Miscellaneous  Works. 

4.  On  the  Historical  Types  contained  in  the  Old  Testament. 
Twenty  Discourses  preached  before  {\w.  University  of  Cambridge 
in  the  year  1826,  at  the  Lci-tiire  founded  by  the  Rev.  John 
Hnlse.     By  the  Rev.  Temple  Chevallikii,  M.A.     Cambridge, 

1826,  8vo. 

The  subject  chosen  is  impf)rtant  and  inierestinp,  and  has  been 
illustrated   with  ability   and  judgment.      (Uniisli  Critic,  October, 

1827,  p.  442.) 

5.  The  Nature  and  Use  of  a  Type.  By  George  Lavisotox 
[D.D.  and  afterwards  Bishop  of  Exeter].     London,  1724,  8vo. 

6.  A  Brief  View  of  the  Figures,  and  Explication  of  the  Meta- 
|)hors  contjiiiied  in  Scripture.  By  the  latt?  Rev.  John  Brown. 
Edinburgh,  1803,  12mo.  Also  in  the  first  volume  of  the  au- 
thor's collected  smaller  works. 

7.  A  Key  to  ojien  the  Scripture  Metaphors  and  Types;  to 
which  are  jircfixed  Arguments  to  prove  the  Divine  Autliorily  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  By  Benjamin  Kcacii.  London,  1779, 
folio. 

This  is  usually  considered  as  the  best  edition  :  the  work  was  first 
published  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Many  of 
the  Mntai)liors  and  Types  are  spiritualized  almost  lo  absurdity  :  still 
the  work  contains  good  materials,  which  persons  ol' sober  jiKlgment 
may  employ  to  advantage.  The  Introduction  was  translated  fnjia 
Classiiis's  Treatise  de  Typis  el  Metaphoris,  in  his  I'liilologia  Sacra. 

8.  A  Treatise  on  the  Nature  and  Use  of  the  Tropes  of  the 
Holy  Scripture.     By  J,  Wooii.      Bri.stol,  1831,  12mo. 

This  little  volume  is  extracted  principally  from  the  introduction 
to  the  preceding  work  of  Keach. 

9.  Moyse  Devoile,  ou  I'ExpIication  des  Types  et  Figures  du 
Vieux  Testament.     Par  Jacob  Gin  a  iiii.     Geneve,  1670,  8vo. 

10.  Moses  and  Aaron;  or,  the  Types  and  Shadows  of  our 
Saviour  in  the  Old  Testament  opened  and  explained.  By  T. 
Taylou,  D.D.     London,  1653,  4to. 

This  iHJok  was  repeatedly  printed  in  the  course  of  the  seventeenth 
century  ;  a  circumstance  that  marks  the  estimation  in  which  it  was 
hold.  It  was  also  translated  into  Latin,  and  several  times  printed 
in  Gcrmanv.  It  contains  many  fanciful  analogies  ;  a  remark  which 
is  applicable  to  the  two  following  works. 

11.  The  Figures  or  Types  of  tlie  Old  Testament,  by  which 
Christ  and  the  Heavenly  Things  of  the  Gosjiel  were  preached 
and  shadowed  to  the  People  of  God  of  old ;  explained  and  im- 
proved in  sundry  Sermons.  By  Samuel  Matiier.  Dublin, 
1673,  4to. 

11*.  The  Gospel  of  the  Old  Testament  :  an  Explanation  of 
the  Types  and  Figures,  by  which  Christ  was  exhibited  under 
the  Legal  Dispensation.  Re-written  from  the  work  of  Samuel 
Mather.  By  [Mrs.  Caroline  Wilson  (late  Fry)]  the  Author  of 
the  "Listener,"  &c.     London,  1833,  2  vols.  12mo. 

12.  Grace  and  Truth ;  or,  the  Glory  and  Fulness  of  the  Re- 
deemer displayed  in  an  Attempt  to  explain  the  most  Remarkable 
of  the  Types,  Figures,  and  Allegories  of  the  Old  Testament. 
By  William  Mac  Ewen.  Edinburgh,  1763,  12mo.  and  various 
subsequent  editions. 

13.  A  Popular  Inquiry  into  the  Doctrine  of  Scripture  Types. 
By  John  Wilson.     Edinburgh,  1823,  8vo. 

■  14.  De  Symbolis  ac  Typis  Scripturse  Sacrse  Dissertatio.    Auc- 
tore S.  RcDELBACH.     Hauuia;,  1824,  8vo. 

The  author  does  not  stop  to  copy  his  predecessors  ;  he  endeavours 
t«  give  a  solid  foundation  to  his  discussion.  After  fixing  the  general 
nature  of  a  Symbol  and  Type,  and  determining  the  meaniiifj  of  the 
figurative  diction  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  relation  subsisting  in 
this  respect  between  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  he  proceeds  to 
apply  it  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Symbols  and  Types.  He  allows 
those  prophetic  images  only  to  be  real  Types,  which  have  been 
fulfilled  in  the  life,  passion,  and  death  of  Christ,  and  in  the  ulterior 
state  of  the  Church ;  and  requires  that  such  fulfilment  be  indicated 
in  express  terms  in  the  New  Testament.  (Revue  Encyclopedique, 
Novembre,  1826,  p.  410.) 

15.  The  Character  and  Offices  of  Christ  illustrated  by  a 
Comparison  with  the  Typical  Characters  of  the  Old  Testament 
In  a  Series  of  Discourses  by  John  Crombie,  A.M.  London, 
1827,  8vo. 

16.  Typical  Instruction  considered  and  illustrated,  and  shown 
to  be  suited  to  all,  but  particularly  to  the  early  ages  of  the  church. 
By  John  Peers,  A.M.     London,  1828,  8vo. 


100 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  II.  Chap,   V. 


§  3.    TREATISES    ON    THE    INTERPRETATION    OF    SCRIPTURE 
PARABLES,    PROVERBS,    AND    PROMISES. 

1.  G.  A.  Van  Limburg  Brouwer  de  Parabolis  Jesu  Christi. 
Lugduni  Batavoruni,  1825,  8vo. 

2.  Wesselii  Scholten  Diatribe  de  Parabolis  Jesu  Christi. 
Delphis  Batavorum.  1827,  8vo. 

The  order  pursued  in  each  of  these  treatises  is  similar,  but  the 
mode  of  discussing  the  particular  topics  is  somewhat  different. 
Each  consists  of  two  parts,  in  the  first  of  which  are  considered  the 
nature  of  a  parable,  and  the  diHisrent  classes  into  which  the  pa- 
raliles  of  Jesus  Christ  may  be  divided.  The  second  part  discusses 
the  interpretation  of  parables ;  and  each  treatise  contains  many 
ingenious  remarivs  peculiar  to  itself 

3.  De  Parabolis  Jesu  Christi  Indole  Poetica  Commentatio. 
Auctore  A.  H.  A.  Schultze.     Gottingae,  1827,  4to. 

4.  De  Parabolarum  Natura,  Interpretatione,  Usu.  Juvenibus 
potis.sinium  Theologiae  cultoribus  aperuit  Augustus  Fridericus 
Unger.     Lipsise,  1828,  8vo. 

.5.  Martini  Delrii  Adagialia  Veteris  ac  Novi  Testamenti. 
Lugduni,  1614-18,  2  tomes,  4to. 

6.  Joannis  Drusii  Adagia  Hebraica.  Apud  Crit.  Sacr.  tom. 
viii.  folio. 

7.  AndresE  Schotti  Adagialia  Sacra  Novi  Testamenti  Graeco- 
Latina,  sclecta  atque  exposita.     Antverpije,  1629,  4to. 

8.  Joannis  Vorstii  Diatribe  de  Adagiis  Novi  Testamenti. 
In  Crenii  Opusculorum  Fasciculo  III.  Roterodami,  18mo.  Also 
in  Fischer's  second  edition  of  Leusden,  de  Dialectis  Nov.  Test, 
pp.  168 — 252. 

9.  The  Wells  of  Salvation  opened  ;  or,  a  Treatise  discovering 
the  Nature,  Preciousness,  and  Usefulness  of  Gospel  Promises, 
and  Rules  for  the  Application  of  them.  By  William  Spurstowe. 
London,  1655,  8vo.     Reprinted  at  London,  1814,  12mo. 


§  4.    treatises   on    the    interpretation   of    SCRIPTUR3 
PROPHECIES. 

1.  The  Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy,  in  the  several  Ages  of 
the  World.  To  which  are  added  four  Dissertations.  1.  The 
Authority  of  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter ;  2.  The  Sense  of  the 
Ancients  before  Christ,  upon  the  Circumstances  and  Conse- 
quences of  the  Fall ;  3.  The  Blessing  of  Judah,  Gen.  xlix. ;  4. 
Christ's  Entry  into  Jerusalem.  By  Thomas  Sherlock,  D.D., 
Bishop  of  London.     Fourth  edition.     London,  1744,  8vo. 

2.  Campegii  ViTRiNG.aE  Typus  Doctrinae  Propheticse.  Fra- 
neckerffi,  1708,  8vo. 

3.  Aug.  Herm.  Franckii  Introductio  ad  Lectionem  Prophe- 
tarum,  I.  Generalis,  II.  Specialis  ad  Lectionem  Jonae,  quaj  in  re- 
liquis  exemplo  esse  possit :  Utraque  directa  ad  comparandam  e 
prophetis  agnitionem  Jesu  Christi.     Halae,  1724,  8vo. 

4.  Christiani  August!  Crush  Hypomnemata  ad  Theologiam 
Propheticam.     Lipsise,  1764-71-78,  3  parts,  8vo. 

A  work  very  little  known  in  this  country.  The  first  part  or  vo- 
lume comprises  a  general  introduction  to  the  study  of  Prophecy  : 
the  other  two  volumes  contain  illustrations  of  the  principal  pre- 
dictions in  the  Old  Testament,  from  the  Book  of  Genesis  to  the  Pro- 
phecies of  Isaiah,  inclusive.  A  copy  of  this  work  is  in  the  library 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge. 

5.  Hermanni  Venema  Prffilectiones  de  Methodo  Prophetica, 
seu  de  Argumento  Prophetiarum  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti  ac 
utriusque  periodis.  Quibus  accedunt  Sermones  Academic!  qua- 
tuor.     Leovardise,  1775,  4to. 

6.  The  Divine  Origin  of  Prophecy  illustrated  and  defended,  in 
a  Course  of  Eight  Sermons,  preached  before  the  University  of 
Oxford,  at  the  Lecture  founded  by  the  Rev.  John  Bampton,  M.A. 
By  George  Richards,  [D.D.]     Oxford,  1800,  8vo. 

7.  A  Key  to  the  Language  of  Prophecy,  with  References  to 
Texts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  By  the  Rev.  William 
Jones,  M.A.  In  Vol.  XI.  of  his  Theological,  Philosophical,  and 
Miscellaneous  Works. 

8.  The  Fulfilling  of  the  Scriptures.  By  Robert  Fleming. 
London,  1726,  foho. 

9.  Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies  which  have  been  remark- 
ably fulfilled,  and  at  this  time  are  fulfilling  in  the  World.  By 
Thomas  Newton,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Bristol.  London,  1759  or 
1766,  3  vols.  8vo.  Various  subsequent  editions  in  2  vols.  8vo. 
and  12mo. ;  also  in  one  volume,  8vo. 

10.  History  the  Interpreter  of  Prophecy.    By  the  Rev.  Henry 


Kett,  B.D.      Oxford,  1799,  3  vols.  12mo.  and  various  subse- 
quent editions  in  2  vols.  8vo. 

11.  A  Key  to  the  Prophecies  :  or,  a  Concise  View  of  the  Pre- 
dictions contained  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  By  the 
Rev.  David  Simpson,  M.A.  Macclesfield,  1795  ;  and  numerous 
subsequent  editions. 

A  valuable  compendium  of  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy,  worthy 
the  attention  of  students  who  may  not  be  able  to  procure  larger  or 
more  expensive  works  on  this  subject. 

12.  Lectures  on  Scripture  Prophecy.  By  William  Bengo 
CoLLTER,  D.D.     London,  1811,  8vo. 

13.  A  Manual  of  Prophecy  ;  or,  a  Short  Comparative  View  of 
Prophecies  contained  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  the  Events  by 
which  they  were  fulfilled.  In  which  are  introduced  several  new 
Observations  on  several  of  them,  and  particularly  on  difficult 
Passages  in  Isaiah  and  Daniel.  By  the  Rev.  Peter  Roberts, 
A.M.     London,  1818. 

14.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Prophecies  that  have  been  fullfiled> 
are  now  fulfilling,  or  will  hereafter  be  fulfilled,  relative  to  the 
great  Period  of  1260  Years  ;  the  Papal  and  Mohammedan  Apos- 
tacies  ;  the  Reign  of  Antichrist ;  and  the  Restoration  of  the  Jews. 
By  George  Stanley  Faber,  B.D.  Fifth  edition.  London, 
1814-18,  3  vols.  8vo. 

15.  The  Sacred  Calendar  of  Prophecy.  By  George  Stanley 
Faber,  B.D.     London,   1830,  3  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  (the  learned  author  has  announced)  is  designed  to 
supersede  entirely  the  preceding  treatise.  Mr.  Faber  has  endea- 
voured to  combine  together  the  Various  prophecies  both  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  which  treat  of  the  grand  double  period  of 
seven  times;  a  period  coinciding  with  tiiose  times  of  the  Gentiles, 
which  are  styled  by  Mr.  Mede  "  the  Sacred  Calendar  of  Prophecy." 
In  the  present  more  extensive  work,  the  author  has  rectified  vari- 
ous errors  in  his  preceding  publications  on  Prophecy.  For  an 
analysis  of  it,  see  the  British  Critic  for  April,  1833,  vol.  vii.  pp.  328 
—343. 

16.  Evidence  of  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion,  derived 
from  the  literal  fulfilment  of  Prophecy  ;  particularly  as  illustrated 
by  the  History  of  the  Jews,  and  by  the  Discoveries  of  recent  Tra- 
vellers. By  the  Rev.  Alexander  Keith.  Sixth  edition,  enlarged. 
Edinburgli,  1832,  12mo.     Also  a  handsome  edition,  in  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  treatise  is  to  give  a  general  and  concise  sketch 
of  such  of  the  prophecies  as  have  been  distinctly  foretold  and  clearly 
fulfilled,  and  as  may  be  deemed  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  truth  of 
Christianity.  Very  many  illustrations  are  derived  from  the  disco- 
veries of  recent  voyagers  and  travellers.  The  subjects  discussed 
are,  Prophecies  concerning  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion,— the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem, — the  Jews, — the  land  of  Ju- 
daea and  the  circumjacent  countries, — and  predictions  relative  to 
the  Macedonian,  Tyrian,  Egyptian,  and  Roman  Empires,  the  sub- 
version of  the  Jewish  State,  &c., — long  continued  spiritual  tyranny 
of  the  papacy,  and  the  Turkish  empire.  This  beautifully  printed 
volume  contains  a  large  mass  of  valuable  information,  condensed 
into  a  comparatively  small  compass,  and  at  a  moderate  price.  The 
multiplied  editions,  which  have  been  required  within  a  very  few 
years,  sufficiently  attest  the  high  estimation  in  which  Mr.  Keith's 
work  is  deservedly  held. 

17.  The  Signs  of  the  Times,  as  denoted  by  the  Fulfilment  of 
Historical  Predictions,  traced  down  from  the  Babylonish  Capti- 
vity to  the  present  Time.  By  Alexander  Keith,  D.D.  Edin- 
burgh, 1832,  2  vols.  12mo.,  and  various  subsequent  editions. 

The  portions  of  prophecy  illustrated  in  this  work  are,  Daniel's 
Visions  of  the  great  Images  and  of  the  Four  Beasts,  interpreted 
kingdoms,  and  of  the  Ram  and  He-Goat,  and  his  literal  prophecy  of 
the  things  noted  in  the  Scripture  of  Truth.  These  are  followed  by 
an  original  exposition  of  the  prophecies  contained  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse. In  many  parts  of  his  work.  Dr.  Keith  has  with  great  felicity 
applied  the  history  of  the  infidel  Gibbon  to  the  fulfilment  of  pro- 
phecy. "  Among  the  expounders  of  prophecy,  we  are  inclined  lo 
assign  Mr.  [Dr.]  Keith  a  high  place.  It  is  perfectly  true  that  in 
some  of  his  views  we  are  unable  to  go  along  with  him,  and  dissent 
from  some  of  his  conclusions.  But  it  is  refreshing  to  meet  with  a 
writer,  who  treats  such  a  subject  in  a  cautious  and  reverent  man- 
mer.  There  is  no  presumptuous  attempting  to  penetrate  into  what 
is  hidden,  no  rash  anticipation  of  future  history,  no  arrogant  assump- 
tion of  the  prophetic  character,  and  no  impious  denunciation  of  ven- 
geance on  those  who  acquiesce  not  in  his  views,  or  deny  his  divine 
mission.  He  writes  every  where  in  the  very  best  spirit,  and  if  he 
does  not  always  command  our  convictions,  he  uniformly  secures 
our  respect."     (Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor,  Sept.  1832,  p.  638.) 

18.  The  Scheme  and  Completion  of  Prophecy,  wherein  its 
Design  and  Use,  together  with  its  Sense  and  Application  as  the 
grand  fundamental  Proof  of  Religion,  specially  adapted  to  all 
Periods  of  the  World,  and  all  Stages  of  the  Church,  are  consi- 
dered and  explained ;  together  with  an  Inquiry  into  the  Shekinah 


Sect.  II.  §  1.] 


JEWISH  WRITERS  AND  COMMENTATORS. 


101 


and  Cherubim  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  the  Visions  of  the  Pro- 
phets.    13y  the  Rev.  John  Whitley,  D.D.     London,  18.30,  8vo. 

19.  Les  Caracteres  du  Messie  v^-rifK^s  en  Jesus  de  Nazareth. 
[Par  M.  Clemenck.]     Rouen,  1776,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

"The  author  determines  ihe  cliaraclerislicul  marks  of  the  Mes- 
siah with  |)recision  and  accuraiy  ;  |M)iiils  out  in  lonsequcnce  of 
those  characters  (which  are  drawn  from  the  cU-arest  predictions) 
the  prophecies  that,  lukcn  in  a  literal  sense,  regard  the  Messiah  ; 
and,  by  a  comparison  of  tlicso  prophecies  willi  the  events,  sets  the 
divine  mission  of  ("hrist  in  tlie  most  striking  iiglit.  There  is  a  great 
deal  of  good  erudition  and  sound  judgment  in  this  work"  (Monthly 
Review,  O.  S.  vol.  Ivi.  p.  218.),  whicli  is  now  both  scarce  and  dear. 

20.  Prophcties  concernant  Jesus  ('hrist  et  I'Eglise,  epar.sea 
dans  les  Livres  Saints,  avcc  dca  ExpUcationes  ct  Notes.  [Par 
M.  le  President  Agieh.]     Paris,  1819,  Svo. 

A  concise  and  valuable  little  manual  of  Scripture  Prophecies 
relative  to  Jesus  Christ. 

Warburtonian  Lectures  on  Prophecy, 

•,•  These  Lectures  were  founded  by  Dr.  William  Warbur- 
ton,  Bishop  of  Gloucester  (each  course  consisting  of  twelve  Ser- 
mons, to  be  preached  in  Lincoln's  Inn  chapel),  for  the  purpose 
of  i)roving  "  the  truth  of  Revealed  Religion  in  general,  and  of  the 
Christian  in  particular,  from  the  completion  of  the  Prophecies 
of  the  Old  and  JVeiv  Testament,  which  relate  to  the  Christian 
Clmrch,  and  especially  to  the  apostacy  of  Papal  Rome."  The 
following  portions  of  these  Lectures  arc  all  that  have  been  pub- 
Ushed. 

Besides  illustrating  the  completion  of  the  prophecies,  in  con- 
formity with  the  founder's  design,  most  of  the  lecturers  have 
treated,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  upon  the  Symbolical  Lan- 
guage of- Scripture  Prophecy. 

1.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Prophecies  concerning 
the  Christian  Church,  and  in  particular  concerning  the  Church 
of  Papal  Rome.  By  Richard  Hunn,  D.D.  [afterwards  Bishop 
of  Worcester].     London,  1772,  Svo. 

This  elegantly  written  and  learned  volume  has  long  been  known 
and  duly  appreciated  by  the  public.  The  subject  of  Prophecy  is 
here  opened  in  the  most  masterly  and  instructive  manner  by  Bishop 
Hurd  ;  who  "  discussed,  in  the  (irst  place,  the  true  idea  of  |)rophccy, 
and  the  general  argument  dcducible  from  it;  then  specified  some 
prophecies  of  primary  importance,  and  more  particularly  those 
■which  relate  to  the  rise  of  Antichrist.  In  relation  to  this  subject, 
he  combated  the  prejudices  most  generally  entertained  against  the 
doctrine;  he  considered  and  explained  the  prophetic  style;  and 
after  opening  the  style  and  method  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  the  pro- 
phetic characters  of  Antichrist,  he  concluded  by  pointing  out  dis- 
tinctly the  uses  of  the  whole  inquiry."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol. 
xxvii.  pp.  G52,  653.) 

2.  Twelve  Sermons  on  the  Prophecies  concerning  the  Chris- 
tian Church  :  and,  in  particular,  concerning  the  Church  of  Papal 
Rome.  By  Samuel  Halifax,  D.D.  [afterwards  Bishop  of 
Gloucester].     London,  1776,  Svo. 

"  Bishop  Halifax  paid  his  primary  attention  to  the  Prophecies  of 
Daniel,  and  next  to  those  of  Saint  Paul  concerning  the  man  of  sin; 
and  he  concluded  by  establishing  the  canon  and  authority  of  the 
Apocalyjise,  and  by  giving  a  clear  and  able  view  of  its  visions. 
His  two  concluding  discourses  contain  a  history  of  the  corruptions 
of  Popery,  and  a  just  and  luminous  vindication  of  the  Relbrmation." 
(British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxvii.  p.  653.) 

3.  Twelve  Discourses  on  the  Prophecies,  concerning  the  first 
Establishment  and  subsequent  History  of  Christianity.  By  Lewis 
Bagot,  LL.D.  [afterwards  Bishop  of  Norwich].  London,  1780, 
Svo. 

"  Bishop  Bagot  opened  his  Lectures  by  preliminary  observations 
on  the  nature  and  value  of  the  evidences  drawn  from  prophecies; 
includini;  some  pointed  remarks  on  L»)rd  Monboddo  and  Mr.  Gib- 
bon. The  subjects  of  his  subsequent  discourses  were,  the  promise 
of  a  second  dispensation  under  the  first;  the  progressive  nature  of 
the  kingdom  ol  God  ;  the  distinctive  characters  of  the  Messiah,  and 
the  nature  of  his  kingdom;  the  time  limited  by  the  prophets,  and 
the  proots  of  its  fullilment ;  the  conformity  of  the  life  of  Christ  and 
of  his  kingdom  to  the  predictions;  the  prophecies  concerning  the 
latter  times;  and  the  general  recapitulation  of  the  whole  subject." 
(British  Critic,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  653.) 

4.  Discourses  on  Prophecy.  By  East  Apthohp,  D.D.  Lon- 
don, 1786,  2  vols.  Svo. 

"  Dr.  Apthorp  began  by  giving  the  history  of  Prophecy.  He  then 
carefully  laid  down  the  canons  of  interpretation :  after  which  he 
proceeded  to  the  prophecies  relating  to  the  birth,  time,  and  theolo- 
gical characters  of  tlie  Messiah.  The  prophecies  of  the  death  of 
Christ  are  next  distinctly  handled,  and  those  which  relate  to  his 
earthly  kingdom.  Finally,  he  traces  the  characters  of  Antichrist, 
gives  a  view  of  the  mystic  Tyre,  and  concludes  by  the  prophecies 


which  he  considers  as  announcing  the  Reformation.  Though  somo 
of  this  author's  ajjplicalions  will  to  most  readers  appear  liarsb,  and 
some  (jucstionable,  yet  his  books  disjilay  allogellier  much  know- 
ledge of  the  subject,  much  learning,  and  no  small  share  of  inge- 
nuity."    (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxvii.  p.  653.) 

5.  A  Connected  and  Chronological  View  of  the  Prophecies 
relating  to  the  Ciiristian  Church.  By  Robert  Nakes,  A.M., 
Archdeacon  of  Stafford.     London,  1805,  Svo. 

These  Lectures  are  divided  into  two  parts,  viz.  I.  The  Prophe- 
cies which  relate  to  our  Saviour  as  the  Author  and  perpetual  Head 
of  the  Christian  Church  ;  and,  II.  Those  which  ioretcll  the  (iite  of 
his  disciples,  whether  adverse  or  prosperous,  from  the  lime  of  his 
departure  from  them  to  that  of  liis  last  most  solemn  advent. 

6.  Twelve  Lectures  on  the  subject  of  the  Prophecies  relating 
to  the  Christian  Church.  By  Edward  Pearson,  D.D.  London, 
1811,  Svo. 

The  design  of  Prophecy, — the  progress  of  Christianity  as  pre- 
dicted in  the  Scriptures, — the  state  of  the  Christian  Church  as  sup- 
posed to  be  predicted  in  the  ajioslolic  epistles, — the  corruptions  of 
the  Christian  tiiith  as  predicted  by  Daniel,  and  the  various  f(>rtune8 
of  the  Ciiristian  Church,  from  her  first  foundation  to  the  end  of  the 
world,  as  foretold  in  the  Apocalypse, — are  the  subjects  discussed 
in  these  lectures  :  a  copious  analysis  of"  which  is  given  in  the  Bri- 
tish Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xl.  pp.  238—248.  467—479. 

7.  Twelve  Lectures  on  the  Prophecies  relating  to  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  and  especially  to  the  Apostacy  of  Papal  Rome.  By 
Philip  Allwood,  B.D.     London,  1815,  2  vols.  Svo. 

The  first  six  of  these  Lectures  discuss  the  predictions  relative  to 
Jesus  Christ;  and  the  remaining  Lectures  are  devoted  to  an  expo- 
sition of  the  Apocalypse,  particularly  with  reference  to  the  apos- 
tacy of  the  Romish  Church.  See  an  analysis  of  them  in  the  British 
Critic,  N.  S.  vol.  ix.  pp.  44 — 65. 

S.  Discourses  on  Projihecy,  in  which  are  considered  its  Struc- 
ture, Use,  and  Inspiration  :  being  the  Substance  of  Twelve  Ser- 
mons preached  by  John  Davihson,  B.D.     London,  1824,  Svo. 

The  firstof  these  Discourses  is  employed  in  treating  of  the  Chris- 
tian Evidences  in  general,  and  the  connection  of  Prophecy  with  the 
rest;  and  the  second,  in  considering  the  contents  ol  the  |)rophetic 
volume  as  distinguished  from  its  |)redictions.  The  next  four  dis- 
cuss the  structure  of  prophecy  and  the  cause  of  its  dispensation  : 
and  in  the  last  six,  its  inspiration  and  divine  prescience  are  exa- 
mined. "  The  subject  of  the  work  is  one  of  very  general  import- 
ance, and  wliich  will  excite  an  interest  with  every  reader  of 
Scripture.  More  especially  must  value  attach  to  every  part  of  the 
inquiry,  from  the  admirable  practical  tendency  which  is  every 
where  given  to  it;  so  that,  while  the  student  is  carried  forward  by 
llie  interest  of  critical  research,  and  his  understanding  enlightened 
by  the  wide  and  clear  views  opened  to  him,  his  piety  will  not  fail 
to  be  warmed,  his  faith  strengthened,  and  his  best  aflections  exalted 
and  improved."     (British  Critic,  N.  S.  vol.  xxii.  p.  389.) 

Besides  the  preceding  valuable  Lectures,  the  subject  of  Prophecy 
is  discussed  at  considerable  length  in  tlie  great  Collection  of  the 
Boyle  Lectures,  published  in  1739,  in  three  vols,  folio. 


SECTION  II. 

JEWISH  WRITERS    AND   COMMENTATORS,  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS  OP 
THE    SCRIPTURES    DERIVED    FROM    JEWISH    SOURCES. 

§    1.    JEWISH    WRITERS    AND    COMMENTATORS. 

1.  PiiiLONis  JuD.T.i,  quffi  reperiri  potuerunt,  omnia.  Textum 
cum  MSS.  contulit ;  ([uamplurima  e  codd.  Vaticano,  Mediceo,  et 
Bodleiano,  scriptoribus  item  vetustis,  necnon  catenis  Grsecis  in- 
editis,  adjecit;  interprctationemque  emendavit;  universa  notis  ct 
ohservationihus  illustravit  Thomas  Maxget,  S.T.P.  Canonicus 
Dunelmensis.     Londini,  1742,  2  tomis,  folio. 

This  is  a  noble  edition,  equally  creditable  to  the  editor,  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Mangey,  and  to  the  printer,  the  celebrated  William 
Bowyer.  Dr.  M.  revised  the  works  of  Philo,  whi<h  he  rollaled 
with  thirteen  manuscripts,  and  corrected  the  Latin  version  of  them, 
w  hich  had  been  made  by  Sigismund  Gesenius,  Moreli.  anil  others. 
The  different  treatises  are  arranged  in  a  much  belter  order  than  that 
which  appears  in  preceding  editions,  and  many  ofwcure  and  diffi- 
cult passages  are  excellently  corrected  and  illustrated. 

2.  Philoxis  Jrn.Bi  Opera  omnia.  Grajcc  et  Latine,  ad  edi- 
tionem  Th.  Mangey,  collatis  aliquot  MSS.  Edenda  curavit  Aug. 
Frider.  Pfeiffeh.     Svo.  Vols.  I.— V.     Erlangaj,  1785-1792. 

The  text  of  Dr.  Mangey  is  adopted  in  this  valuable  edition,  which 
has  never  been  completed,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  the 
learned  editor,  whose  critical  materials  for  the  sixth  and  concluding 
volume  are  reported  to  be  still  preserved.  Pfeifler  collated  three 
Bavarian  manuscripts,  and  retained  only  such  of  Mangey 's  notes  as 
contain  either  some  new  information,  or  some  emendation  of  the 
text ;  to  which  he  added  observations  of  his  own,  chiefly  settling 
the  various  lections. 


202 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


3.  Philoktis  JuDffii  Opera  omnia,  Graece.  Textum  ad  fidem 
optimarum  editionum  edidit  Carolus  Ernestus  Ricutkb.     Lipsise, 

1828-29,  8  tomis,  12mo. 

The  most  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Philo.  In  preparing 
it  ibr  the  press,  tiie  editor  ibllovved  tlie  text  of  Dr.  Mangey's  edition 
(No.  1.),  Willi  wliich  he  collated  Pfcitler's  edition  (No.  2.),  and  ano- 
ther, printed  at  Paris  in  1C40.  To  the  previously  published  trea- 
tises of  Philo,  M.  Richter  has  added  two  others,  viz.  1.  De  Ftsto 
Cophini,  and  2.  De  FareiUibiis  colendls,  which  were  discovered  by 
Signor  Mai  in  the  Medicean  Library  at  Florence,  and  published  for 
the  first  time  at  Milan,  in  1818,  with  a  Latin  version  and  notes. 
The  last  volume  contains  copious  indexes  of  matters,  and  of  the 
texts  of  Scripture  explained  by  Philo. 

3*.  Qusestiones  Philonffie.  L  De  Fontibus  et  Auctoritate  The- 
ologiae  Philonis.  Quaestionis  primse  Parlicula  prima.  IL  De 
Aoja  Philonis.  Quaestio  altera.  Scripsit  C.  G.  L.  Ghossmann. 
Lipsia;,  1829,  4to. 

4.  Flavii  Josephi  Opera,  quae  reperiri  potuerunt,  omnia.  Ad 
codices  fere  omnes,  cum  impresses  tum  manuscriptos,  diligenter 
recensuit,  nova  versione  donavit,  et  notis  illustravit  Johannes 
Hudsonus.     Oxonii,  e  Theatro  Sheldoniano,  1720,  2  vols,  folio. 

Those  distinguished  bibliographers,  Fabricius,  Harwood,  Harles, 
and  Oberihiir,  are  unanimous  in  their  commendations  of  this  elegant 
and  most  valuable  edition.  The  learned  editor.  Dr.  Hudson,  died 
the  year  before  its  publication,  but,  fortunately,  not  till  he  had  ac- 
quired almost  every  thing  requisite  for  a  perfect  edition  of  his 
author.  "  He  seems  to  have  consulted  every  known  manuscript 
and  edition.  The  correctness  of  the  Greek  text,  the  judgment  dis- 
played in  the  annotations,  the  utility  of  the  indexes,  and  the  con- 
summate knowledge  which  is  evinced  of  the  history  and  antiqui- 
ties of  the  time,  render  this  work  deserving  of  every  thing  said  in 
commendation  of  it.  Copies  on  large  paper  are  very  rare  and  dear, 
as  well  as  magnificent."     Dibdin  on  the  Classics,  vol.  ii.  p.  11. 

5.  Flavii  Josephi,  quae  repiriri  potuerunt,  Opera  omnia,  Graece 
et  Latine,  ex  nova  versione,  et  cum  notis  Joannis  Hudsoni. 
Accedunt  Notse  Edwardi  Beinardi,  Jacobi  Gronovii,  Fr.  Combe- 
fisii,  Ezechielis  Spanhemii,  Adriani  Relandi,  et  aliorum,  tarn 
editae  quam  ineditae.  Post  recensionem  Joannis  Hudsoni  denuo 
recognita,  et  notis  ac  indicibus  illustrata,  studio  et  labors  Sigeberti 
Havercampi.     Amstelodami,  1726,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  is  usually  considered  the  editlo  optima,  becanse  it  contains 
much  more  than  Dr.  Hudson's  edition.  The  Greek  text  is  very 
carelessly  printed,  especially  that  of  Josephus's  seven  books  on  the 
wars  of  the  Jews  with  the  Romans.  Havercamp  collated  two  ma- 
nuscripts in  the  library  of  the  university  at  Leyden  ,-  and,  besides 
the  annotations  mentioned  in  the  title,  he  added  some  observations 
by  Vossius  and  Cocceius,  which  he  found  in  the  margin  of  the  edi- 
tio  princeps,  printed  at  Basil,  in  1644,  folio.  The  typographical 
execution  of  Havercamp's  edition  is  very  beautiful. 

6.  Flavii  Josephi  Opera,  Graece  et  Latine,  excusa  ad  editio- 
nem  Lugduno-Batavam  Sigeberti  Havercampi  cum  Oxoniensi 
Joamnis  Hudsoni  collatam.  Curavit  Franciscus  Oberthiir.  Lip- 
siae,  1782-1785.     Vols.  L— HI.  8vo. 

This  very  valuable  edition,  which  has  never  been  completed, 
comprises  only  the  Greek  text  of  Josephus.  The  succeeding  volumes 
were  to  contain  the  critical  and  philological  observations  of  the 
editor,  who  has  prefixed  to  the  first  volume  an  excellent  critical 
notice  of  all  the  preceding  editions  of  Josephus.  "  The  venerable 
Oberthiir  is  allowed  to  have  taken  more  pains  in  ascertaining  the 
correct  text  of  his  author,  in  collating  every  known  MS.,  in  examin- 
ing every  previous  edition,  and  in  availing  himself  of  the  labours 
of  his  predecessors,  than  have  yet  been  shown  by  any  editor  of  Jo- 
sephus." It  is  therefore  deeply  to  be  regretted  that  such  a  valua- 
ble edition  as  the  present  should  have  been  discontinued  by  an 
editor  so  fully  competent  to  finish  the  arduous  task  which  he  has 
begun.     (Dibdin  on  the  Classics,  vol.  ii.  p.  13.  3d  edition.) 

7.  Flavii  Josephi  Judaji  Opera  omnia  [Grsece].  Textum  edi- 
dit Carol.  Ernest.  Richter.     Lipsiae,  1826,  6  tomis,  12mo. 

A  very  neatly  printed  edition:  it  forms  the  first  portion,  as  the 
works  of  Philo  form  the  second  part,  of  a  Bibliotheca  Patrum, 
which  is  to  be  edited  by  M.  Richter. 

Several  English  translations  of  Josephus  have  been  published  by 
Court,  L'Estrange,  and  others  ;  but  the  best  is  that  of  Mr.  Whiston, 
folio,  London,  1737,  after  Havercamp's  edition  ;  to  which  are  pre- 
fixed a  good  map  of  Palestine,  and  seven  dissertations  by  the  trans- 
lator, who  has  also  added  many  valuable  notes,  correcting  and 
illustrating  the  Jewish  historian.  Whiston's  translation  has  been 
repeatedly  printed  in  various  sizes. 

8.  Mischna :  sive  Totius  Hebraeorum  Juris,  Rituum,  Anti- 
quitatum  ac  Legum  Oralium,  Systema :  cum  clarissimorum 
Rabbinorum  Maimonidis  et  Bartenorae  Commentariis  integris 
Hebraice  et  Latine.  Notis  illustravit  Gul.  Sukenhusius.  Am- 
stelodami, 1698,  6  tomis,  folio. 

"This  is  a  very  beautiful  and  correct  work,  necessary  to  the  li- 
brary of  every  biblical  critic  and  divine.  He  who  has  it,  need  be 
solicitous  for  nolhing  more  on  this  subject."  (Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Suc- 
cession of  Sacred  Literature,  p.  56.) 


[PaitH.  Chap.  V 
Berolini  et 


9.  Talmud   Babylonicum   Integrum   Hebraice. 
Francofurti,  1715,  12  tomis,  folio. 

10.  Talmud  Hierosolymitanum.  Hebraice.  Amstelodami, 
1710,.  folio. 

A  few  only  of  the  Jewish  Rabbins  have  illustrated  every  indi- 
vidual book  of  the  Old  Testament :  those  only  are  specified 
which  are  held  in  the  highest  estimation  by  the  Jews.' 

10*.  Rabbi  Solomon  Jarchi,  Ben  Isaiac,  usually  cited  as 
Ra.schi  from  the  contraction  of  his  names,  was  a  native  of  Troyes 
in  Champagne  ;  he  wrote  commentaries  on  the  entire  Bible,  as 
well  as  the  chief  part  of  the  Talmud,  and  from  his  extensive 
learning  is  accounted  one  of  the  most  eminent  Jewish  expositors. 
His  style,  however,  is  so  exceedingly  obscure  as  to  require  an 
ample  comment  to  make  it  intelligible.  He  died  a. n.  1180.  Many 
of  his  commentaries  have  been  printed  in  Hebrew,  and  some 
have  been  translated  into  Latin  by  Christians;  as  that  on  Esther 
by  Philip  Daquin,  that  on  Joel  by  Genebrard,  and  those  on  Oba- 
diah,  Jonah,  and  Zephaniah,  by  Pontac. 

11.  Rabbi  Abraham  Aben  Ezra  was  a  native  of  Spain,  and 
flourished  in  the  twelfth  century  ;  his  Commentaries  on  the 
Scriptures,  written  in  an  elegant  stylo,  are  much  esteemed  both 
by  Jews  and  Christians. 

12.  Rabbi  David  Kimchi  was  also  a  native  of  Spain,  and 
flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  ;  he  wrote 
Commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament,  which  are  highly  valued, 
particularly  that  on  the  prophet  Isaiah. 

13.  Rabbi  Levi  Ben  Gershom,  a  Spanish  Jew,  was  contem- 
porary with  Kimchi :  his  Commentaries  on  the  Scripture,  espe- 
cially on  the  Pentateuch,  are  much  esteemed.  He  accounted  for 
the  miracles  from  natural  causes. 

14.  Rabbi  Aaron  Ben  Elihu  was  an  eminent  Jewish  teacher, 
who  flourished  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He  left  a  Commen- 
tary on  the  Pentateuch. 

15.  Rabbi  Isaac  Abarbenel,  or  Abravanel  (as  he  is  some- 
times called),  a  Portuguese  Jew,  flourished  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  wrote  Commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch,  the  whole  of 
the  Prophets,  and  some  other  books  of  Scripture :  notwithstand- 
ing his  inveterate  enmity  against  Christianity,  his  writings  are 
much  valued  by  Christians,  and  are  highly  extolled  by  the  Jews. 

16.  Rabbi  Solomon  Abenmelech,  a  native  of  Spain,  flourish- 
ed in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  wrote  Scholia  on  the  whole  of 
the  Old  Testament,  in  which  he  has  interspersed  the  best  of 
Kimchi's  Grammatical  Observations. 

The  Commentaries  of  these  Rabbins  are  inserted  in  the  Billia 
Rabbinica,  published  by  Bomberg  at  Venice,  in  4  vols,  folio,  1518, 
and  again  in  1525  and  1526,  and  in  Buxtorf's  edition,  printed  at 
Basle,  1618,  in  4  vols,  folio. 

17.  Rabbi  Moses  Ben  Haimon,  usually  called  Maimonides, 
though  not  a  commentator  on  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament, 
ought  not  to  be  omitted,  on  account  of  his  JMoreh  JVevochim,  or 
Teacher  of  the  Perplexed,  a  valuable  work,  that  explains  difficult 
phrases,  passages,  parables,  and  allegories.  The  best  edition  of 
this  work  is  that  of  Basil,  1629,  4to.  An  English  translation  of 
this  treatise  was  published  in  1827  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Townley, 
entitled  "  The  Reasons  of  the  Laws  of  Moses."  Dr.  T.  has  en- 
riched his  translation  with  a  life  of  Maimonides,  and  with  nume- 
rous valuable  notes  and  dissertations.  The  Porta  JMosis  of 
Maimonides  was  edited  by  Pococke  (in  Arabic  and  Latin)  at 
Oxford,  1645,  4to.,  and  his  treatises  De  Jure  Pauptris,  ^c. 
(Heb.  and  Lat.)  by  Prideaux,  Oxford,  1679;  and  Be  Sacrifi- 
ciis,  4to.  London,  1683. 

Several  parts  of  the  works  of  the  above-mentioned  Rabbins 
have  been  printed  in  a  separate  form  ;  viz. : — 

1.  Aaron  the  Karaite. — Libri  Coronae  Legis,  id  est,  Commen- 
tarii  Karaitici  inedili,  ab  Aarone  ben  Elihu  seculo  decimo  quarto ' 
conscripti,  Particulam  ex  duobus  codicibus  manuscriptis,  alter©  I 
Jenensi,  altero  Lugdunensi,  edidit,  in  Latinum  transtulit,  atque 
illustravit  J.  G.  L.  Kosegarten.     Jenae,  1823,  4to. 

2.  Abarbenel. — Commentarius  in  Pentateuchum,  curaHen- 
rici  Van  Bashuisen.     Hanoverae,  1710,  folio. 

'  In  this  account  of  the  Jewish  Expositors,  we  have  chiefly  foUowfl 
Carpzov,  in  his  Introductiu  ad  Librus  Carxmiros  Veleris  Teslnmcnti,  p.  a 
et  seq.,  and  De  Rossi's  scarce  work,  entitled  Bibliotheca  Judiaca  Ani^ 
Christiana,  quaeditil  le  ivediti  Jvdaornni  Libri  recensetur.  Royal  8v 
Panna,  1800.  Woltiiis  has  also  treated  on  the  Jewish  Coniinentalors 
his  Bihliutheca  Hchrma,  torn.  ii.  p.  -3(58.  et  pas.siin.  For  an  account  of  tit 
Chaldcc  Paraphrases,  see  Part  I.  Chap.  II.  Sect.  I.  pp.  198—20-3.  of  the  firfj 
Volume. 


Sjjct.  III.  §  1.] 


CHRISTIAN  COMMENTATORS,  &c. 


103 


Ejusdcm,  Commcntarius  in  Prophetas  priores,  curi  August! 
Pfeifler.     Lipsia;,  1686,  folio. 

Ejusdem,  Commcntarius  in  Hoseam,  Latine,  cum  notis  Fr.  ab 
Uuscn.     Lugd.  Bat.  1686. 

Ejusdcm,  Commcntarius  in  Nahum,  curi  J.  D.  Sprecheri. 
Hclmstadii,  1703,  4to. 

3.  AnENMF.LEcii. — Ex  Michlal  Jophi  scu  Commcntario  R. 
Salom.  Abenmelcch  in  Vcteris  Tcstamcnti  Lil)ros,  una  cum 
spicilegio  R.  Jac.  Abcndana;,  Particula,  complectcns  prophetiam 
Jona;.  Hub.  et  Lat.  edente  Ernest.  Christ.  Kabricio.  Gotlingcn, 
1792,  8vo. 

4.  JAnciiT. — R.  Sal.  Jarchii  Commcntarius  in  omncs  Veteris 
Tcstamcnti  I.ibros,  versus  et  illustratus  a  Jo.  Frid.  Brcithaupto, 
3  vols.  4  to.     Gotha),  1713. 

5.  KiMciii. — R.  D.  Kimchii  Commcntarius  in  Jcsaiam,  Latine 
versus  a  Cajsare  Malamineo.     Florentia;,  1774,  4to. 

6.  Malaciiias,  cum  Commcntariis  Abcn  Ezra;,  Jarchii  ct 
Kimchii  disputationibus.    Curii  Sam.  Uohl.    Rostochii,  1637,  4to. 

7.  HnsKAs,  illustratus  Chaldaica  Vcrsionc  ct  philologicis  cclc- 
brium  Rabbinorum  Raschi,  Aben  Ezrse,  et  Kimchii  Commcntariis. 
Hclmstadii,  1702,  4to.     Reprinted  at  Gottingen,  1780. 

8.  Joel  et  Giiadiah,  cum  Paraphrasi  Chaldaica,  Masora,  et 
Commcntariis  trium  Rabbinorum.  Heb.  ct  Lat.  cura  Jo.  Leus- 
i)EN.     Utrecht,  16.57,  4to. 

9.  Johannis  MEncr.ui  Commcntarii  in  Vates  quinque  priores, 
quibus  adjuncti  sunt  R.  Sal.  Jarchii,  Aben  Ezra;,  ct  Dav.  Kimchii 
Commcntarii,  ab  ipso  Latinitate  donati.  Editio  altera,  cura  G. 
C.  Biirklini.     Gissa;,  1695. 

10.  J.  B.  Caupzovii  Collegium  Rabbinico-Biblicum  in  libel- 
lum  Ruth.  Heb.  et  Lat.     Lipsia;,  1703,  4to. 

This  work  conlains  the  Hobrcw  text  of  the  book  of  Ruth,  the 
Targum,  tiic  great  and  little  Masora,  and  four  Rabbinical  Commen- 
taries, together  with  Latin  versions,  and  copious  notes  by  the  editor, 
J.  B.  Carpzov.  Calmet  slates,  tiiat  this  book  will  be  found  of  great 
service  to  those  who  are  learning  Hebrew,  and  will  also  serve  as 
an  iutruduction  to  the  reading  of  the  rabbinical  writers. 


§  2.  ILtUSTRATIOXS  OF  THE  HOLT  SCIlIPTUnES,  DEBITED  FnOM 
JEWISH   SOURCES. 

1.  Georgii  Johannis  Hestkii  Disscrtatio  de  Usu  Librorum 
Apocryphorum  Veteris  Tcstamcnti  in  Novo  Testamcnto.  Hala;, 
1711,  4to. 

2.  Christ.  Thcophili  Kui:v")EL  Obscrvationes  ad  Novum  Tes- 
tamentum  ex  Libris  Apocryphis  Veteris  Tcstamcnti.  Lipsiaj, 
1794,  8vo. 

3.  Joh.  Bencdicti  Catipzotii  Exercitaliones  in  S.  Pauli  Epis- 
tolam  ad  Hebra;os  ex  Philone  Alcxandrino.  Prajfixa  sunt  Philo- 
niana  Prolegomena,  in  quibus  de  non  adeo  contemnenda  Philonis 
cruditione  Hebraica,  de  convenientia  stili  Philonis  cum  illo  D. 
Pauli  in  Epistola  ad  Hebra^os,  et  de  aliis  nonnuUis  varii  argu- 
menti  cx])onitur.     Hclmstadii,  1750,  8vo. 

4.  J.  B.  Carpzovii  Strictur.'E  TheologicjB  in  Epistolam  Pauli 
ad  Roinanos.  Adspersi  subinde  sunt  Florcs  Philoniani.  Hclm- 
stadii, 1758,  8vo. 

This  is  the  second  and  best  edition  of  Carpzov's  Observations 
on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans  ;  they  originally  appeared  in 
detached  portions,  at  Ilelmstadt,  in  quarto,  between  the  years  1752 
and  1756. 

5.  Christophori  Frederici  Loesxeri  Obscrvationes  ad  Novum 
Testamentum  c  Philone  Alcxandrino.     8vo.  Lipsiaj,  1777. 

This  work  was  preceded  by  a  quarto  tract  of  Loesner's,  entitled 
Lcctionum  P/iilonianantm  Specimen,  published  at  Leipsic,  in  1758. 
The  force  and  meaning  of  words  are  particularly  illustrated,  to- 
gether with  points  of  antiquity  and  the  readings  of  Philo's  text. 
The  light  thrown  upon  the  New  Testament,  by  the  writings  of 
Philo,  is  admirably  elucidated  by  Loesner;  to  complete  whose 
work  there  should  be  added  Adamt  Frid.  Kunxii  Spicilcgium  Loes- 
neri  Ohservalionum  ad  N.  T.  e  Philone  Alcxandrino.  Sorau,  1783, 
4to. ;  2d  ed.  Pfortxe,  1785,  8vo.    The  second  is  the  best  edition. 

6.  Jo.  Baptist®  Ottii  Spicilegium,  sive  Excerpta  e  Flavio 
Joscpho  ad  Novi  Tcstamcnti  Illustralionem.  Curd  Sigeberti 
Havercampi.     Lug.  Bat.  1741,  Svo. 

7.  Jo.  Tobiaj  KnEBsii  Obscrvationes  in  Novum  Testamentum 
e  Flavio  Joscpho.     Lipsia;,  1755,  Svo. 

Both  these  works  are  necessary  to  the  Biblical  Student,  as  Krebs 
•     Vol.  II.— Ai'p.  4  F 


has  illustrated  a  great  number  of  pas-sages  in  the  New  Testament, 
from  Josephus,  which  are  not  noticed  in  Ott's  Sjiicilegium.  In  pp. 
527 — 612.  of  the  latter  publication,  there  is  a  curious  collection  of 
sixly-cighl  articles,  omitted  by  Joscphiis,  of  which  he  could  not 
have  been  ignorant ;  and  to  this  is  annexed  an  interesting  disserta- 
tion of  C.  Bos,  on  the  genuineness  of  tho  celebrated  passage  con- 
cerning Jesus  Christ. 

8.  Mellificium  Hebraicum,  sive  Oliscrvatloncs  ex  HcbrjEorum 
Antiquiorum  monumentis  desumpta;,  unde  plurima  cum  Vcteris, 
tum  Novi  Tcstamcnti,  loca  cxplicantur  vcl  illustrantur.  Autore 
Christophoro  Cahtwhiouto.  In  the  eighth  volume  of  tho 
Critici  Sacri,  pp.  1271—1426. 

To  our  learned  countryman  Cartwright  belongs  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  who  applied  the  more  ancient  writings  of  the  Jewa 
to  the  illustration  of  tho  Bible.  Ho  was  lijllowed  in  the  same  path 
of  literature  hy  Drusius,  whose  Pratcrila  sive  Annolutione.s  in  Tu' 
turn  Jcsu  Chrisfi  Tcslamcnlum  (,\\o.  Franequenn,  1612)  contain  many 
valuable  illustrations  of  the  New  Testament.  S<jmc  additions  wero 
subsequently  made  to  his  work  by  Italthasar  Scheidius,  whose  Pra- 
lerila  Pralcrilorum  are  included  in  the  publication  of  Mcuschen, 
noticed  in  No.  11.  below. 

9.  The  Works  of  the  Rev.  John  Lightfoot,  D.D.,  Master  of 
Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge.  Edited  by  the  Rev.  J.  R,  Pitnam, 
A.M.     London,  1822-25,  13  vols.  8vo. 

The  writings  of  Dr.  Lightfoot  arc  an  invaluable  treasure  to  tho 
Biblical  Student.  By  his  deep  researches  into  the  Rabbinical  writ- 
ings, he  has  done  more  to  illustrate  the  phraseology  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  to  explain  the  various  customs,  &c.  therein  alluded 
to,  particularly  in  the  New  Testament,  than  any  other  author  be- 
fore or  since.  Two  editions  of  this  learned  Divine's  works  wero 
published  previously  to  that  now  under  consideration,  viz.  1.  The 
English  edition  of  Dr.  G.  Bright,  in  two  folio  volumes,  London, 
1684 ;  and,  2.  A  Latin  edition,  published  at  Rotterdam,  in  2  vols, 
folio,  1686,  entitled  Joannis  Lighlfooti  Opera  Omnia,  and  again  at 
Franekcr  in  three  folio  volumes,  which  were  superintended  by  tho 
celebrated  critic,  Leusden.  These  foreign  editions  are  taken  from 
the  English  one,  the  English  parts  being  translated  into  Latin  :  tho 
third  volume  in  Leusden's  edition  is  composed  chiefly  of  several 
pieces,  which  Lightfoot  had  left  unfinished,  but  which  were  too 
valuable  to  be  altogether  omitted.  They  were  communicated  by 
Mr.  Strype,  who  in  1700  published  "Some  genuine  Remains  of  the 
late  pious  and  learned  John  Lightfoot,  D.D."  in  Svo.  In  preparing 
his  edition,  Mr.  Pitman  has  adopted  lor  his  basis  the  London  edition 
of  1684,  and  Strype's  supplemental  volume,  incorporating  the  addi- 
tional matter  in  Leusden's  edition ;  and,  by  indefatigable  researches, 
he  has  succeeded  in  recovering  some  pieces  of  Lightfoot's  which 
were  never  before  published.  New  Indexes  and  other  facilities 
of  reference,  are  given  in  the  concluding  volume  of  this  edition. 
It  is  but  justice  to  add  that  they  are  neatly  and  correctly  printed, 
and  from  their  reasonable  price,  demand  a  place  in  every  biblical 
library.  In  order  to  complete  Dr.  Lightfoot's  Horw  Ilchraicm  et 
Talmudica,  or  Hebrew  and  Talmudical  Exercitalions  on  the  New 
Testament,  which  proceed  no  further  than  the  first  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  Christian  SciiOETGENius  published 

10.  Hora;  Hebraicae  et  Talmudica;  in  Universum  Novum  Tes- 
tamentum, quibus  Horse  Jo.  Lightfooti  in  libris  historicis  sup- 
plentur,  epistolae  et  apocalypsis  codem  mode  illustrantur.  Dres- 
dffi,  1733,  2  tomis,  4to. 

In  this  elaborate  work,  Schoetgeniua  passes  over  the  same  books 
on  which  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  treated,  as  a  supplement,  without 
touching  the  topics  already  produced  in  the  English  work;  and 
then  continues  the  latter  to  the  end  of  the  New  Testament.  Copies 
in  good  condition  generally  sell  at  from  two  to  three  guineas. 

11.  Novum  Testamentum  ex  Talmudc  et  Antiquitatibus  He- 
bra!orum  illustratimi,  a  Johanne  Gcrhardo  Meuschenio.  Lipsis, 
1736,  4to. 

In  this  work  are  inserted  various  treatises  by  Danzius,  Rhenford, 
Scheidius,  and  others,  who  have  applied  themselves  to  the  illustra- 
tion of  the  New  Testament  from  the  Jewish  writings. 


SECTION  III. 

CHRISTIAN    COMMENTATORS,  INTERPRETERS,  AND   PARAPHRAST3 
ON    THE    SCRIPTURES. 

§  1.  COMMEITTAniES  BY  THE  FATHERS,  AND  OTHER  DIVIXES 
OF  THE  CHRISTIAX  CHURCH,  PREVIOUSLT  TO  THE  REFOR- 
MATIOX. 

The  foUowhig  are  the  principal  commentators  on  the  sacred 
writings,  who  arc  to  be  found  among  the  Primitive  Fathers 
OF  THE  Christian  Church  :  but,  in  consulting  their  writings, 
the  best  editions  only  should  be  referred  to,  especially  those  by 
Protestants;   as  the  editions  superintended  by  divines  of  the 


104 


SACKED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


Romish  Church  arc  not  only  frequently  corrupted,  but  spurious 
writings  are  also  often  ascribed  to  the  fathers,  in  order  to  support 
the  anti-scriptural  dogmas  of  that  church.' 

[i.]   Greek  Fathers. 

Origenis  in  Scripturas  Sacras  Commentaria,  qusecunque 
Grsece  reperiri  potuerunt.  Edidit,  partim  Latine  vertit,  et  uni- 
versa  notis  et  observationibus  illustravit  Pctrus  Daniel  Huetius. 
Rothomagi,  1608,  2  tomis,  folio. 

Origkn  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  second  and  through 
the  first  half  of  the  third  century;  and  was  distinguished  not  more 
by  his  learning  than  by  his  piety  and  eloquence.  He  wrote  Com- 
menlarks  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  the  greater  pajrt  of 
which  is  now  lost :  the  best  separate  edition  of  what  has  been  pre- 
served is  this  oi  Huet.  He  also  wrote  Scholia  or  short  notes  ex- 
planatory of  difficult  passages  of  Scripture,  in  which  he  chiefly 
attended  to  the  literal  sense.  Of  these  Scholia  some  extracts  only 
are  preserved  in  the  collection  made  by  Gregory  Nazianzen  and 
Basil  the  Great,  entitled  Philocalia,  and  publislied  at  Paris,  in  1618, 
4lo.  His  Homilies,  in  which  he  addressed  himself  to  the  capacities 
of  the  people,  as  well  as  his  numerous  other  works,  both  practical 
and  controversial,  our  limits  permit  us  not  to  detail ;  and  his  cri- 
tical labours  on  the  sacred  writings  are  noticed  in  another  part  of 
this  work.2  In  the  Commentaries  above  mentioned,  Origen  gave 
full  scope  to  his  learning  and  imagination,  in  what  appeared  to  him 
to  be  the  historical,  literal,  niyslical,  and  moral  sense  of  the  Bible.^ 
Grigen's  grand  fault  is  that  of^allegorizing  the  Scriptures  too  much  ; 
and  this  method  of  interpretation  he  adopted  from  the  Alexandrian 
philosophers,  in  the  hope  of  establishing  an  union  between  heathen 
philosophy  and  Christian  doctrine.  His  fundamental  canon  of 
criticism  was,  that,  wherever  the  literal  sense  of  Scripture  was  not 
obvious,  or  not  clearly  consistent  with  his  peculiar  tenets,  the  words 
were  to  be  understood  in  a  spiritual  and  mystical  sense;  a  rule  by 
which  he  could  easily  incorporate  any  fancies,  whether  original  or 
borrowed,  with  the  Christian  creed.  Mosheim  has  justly  charac- 
terized this  father  as  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  writers  of  the 
third  century,  who  distinguished  themselves  by  their  learned  and 
pious  productions;  and  as  "  a  man  of  vast  and  uncommon  abilities, 
the  greatest  luminary  of  the  Christian  world  that  this  age  exhibited 
to  view.  Had  the  justness  of  his  judgment  been  equal  to  the  im- 
mensity of  his  genius,  the  fervour  of  his  piety,  his  indefatigable 
patience,  his  extensive  erudition,  and  his  other  eminent  and  supe- 
rior talents,  all  encomiums  must  have  fallen  short  of  his  merit. 
Yet,  such  as  he  was,  his  virtues  and  his  labours  deserve  the  admi- 
ration of  all  ages ;  and  his  name  will  be  transmitted  with  honour 
through  the  annals  of  time,  as  long  as  learning  and  genius  shall  be 
esteemed  among  men."-* — The  expository  writings  of  Origen  are  to 
be  found  in  the  collective  editions  of  his  works:  the  most  complete 
is  the  edition  published  by  M.  de  la  Rue,  in  four  vols,  folio,  Paris, 
1733-59 ;  reprinted  by  M.  Oberthiir  at  Wurceburg,  in  15  vols.  8vo. 
1780  and  following  years. 

2.  Joannis  Chrtsostomi  Sermoncs  tres  in  Genesim ; — Quatuor 
Homilise  in  Psalmos ; — Expositio  perpetua  in  Novum  Jesu 
Christi  Testamentum ;  folio.  In  the  various  editions  of  his 
collective  works. 

John  Chrysostom,  who  flourished  in  the  fourth  century,  was  a 
pupil  of  Diodorus  of  Tarsus,  who  had  himself  been  a  disciple  of 
Origen's.  He  wrote  homilies  on  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  on  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Catholic  epistles.  His  homilies  on  the  New  Testament  are 
every  way  preferable  to  those  on  the  Old.  Ernesti  is  of  opinion  that 
none  of  the  productions  of  the  fathers  are  equal  to  those  of  Chrysos- 
tom on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  ;  and  that  all  subsequent  Greek  commen- 
tators on  them  have  exclusively  followed  him.  On  the  historical 
books,  his  commentary  on  St.  Matthew  is  incomparably  the  best  and 
most  copious,  and  is  particularly  worthy  of  being  perused.  Chry- 
Bostom's  manner  of  expounding  is  this :  he  first  takes  a  verse  of 
Scripture,  which  he  explains;  and  then  investigates  and  elucidates 
the  meaning  of  particular  words,  pointing  out  the  scope  of  the 
sacred  author,  whose  style  and  genius  he  examines,  and  rendering 
all  Hebraisms  by  equivalent  intelligible  Greek  expressions.  He 
throughout  adlieres  to  Iho  literal  sense,  which  he  maintained  to  be 
the  true  one.  The  homilies  are  found  in  the  beautiful  Editio  Prin- 
ceps  of  his  works  published  by  Sir  Henry  Saville,  in  8  vols.  Iblio, 
Eton,  1612;  and  in  Montfaucon's  edition,  which  is  the  best,  pub- 
lished at  Paris,  in  13  vols,  folio,  1718-1738.  An  admirable  French 
translation  of  a  selection  from  Chrysostom's  Homilies,  and  other 
works,  was  printed  by  Auger,  at  Paris,  1785,  in  4  vols.  8vo.    In 

'  See  numerous  proofs  of  tliis  remark  in  .famcs's  Treatise  of  the  Corrup- 
tion of  Scripture  Councils  and  Fathers  by  tlie  prelates,  &c.  of  the  church 
oi  Rome,  for  maintenance  of  popery,  pp.  1 — 271.    London,  1638,  8vo. 

»  See  Vol.  I.  Part  I.  pp.  267,  268. 

3  .lahn's  Enchiridion  Henneneuticse  Generalis,  pp.  163,  164.  A  further 
account  of  Origen's  e.xpository  labours  may  be  seen  in  Ernesti's  Institutio 
Iiiterpretis  Novi  Testamenti,  pp.  286,  287.  and  in  Morus's  Acroases  super 
Hernieneutica  Novi  Foederis,  tom.  ii.  pp.  230—236.  ;  in  RosenniUller's  His- 
lorialnterpretationis  LibrorumSacrorum,  tom.  iii.  pp.  17 — 156.  and  Simon's 
Hist.  Crit.  du  Vieux  Test.  liv.  iii.  ch.  ix.  pp.  439—442. 

*  Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  i,  p.  270.  edit.  1806.  On  the  merits  of  Origen 
as  an  interpreter  of  Holy  Writ,  sec  Coiiybearc's  Bimii)ton  Lectures  for 
1824,  pp.  131—113. 


1807,  MatthifE  published  fifty-two  of  his  homilies  at  Moscow,  in 
8vo.  with  various  readings,  a  commentary  and  index.* 

3.  Theodoreti,  Episcopi  Cyrensis,  Explanationes  in  Pauli 
Epistolas  omnes.  Inter  Opera,  Parisiis,  1608,  2  tomis,  folio. 
Parisiis,  1642,  4  tomis,  folio.     Hala;,  1769-74,  5  tomis,  8vo. 

Theodoret,  Bishop  of  Cyrus,  or  Cyropolis,  in  Syria,  wrote  in  the 
fifth  century  :  though  he  chiefly  follows  Chrysostom  in  his  com- 
mentary on  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  he  has  added  many  new  and  striking 
observations  of  his  own,  and  has  successfully  vindicated  many 
passages  against  the  Arians  and  other  sectaries  of  his  time.  The 
critical  merits  of  Theodoret  as  an  expositor  of  Scripture,  were 
investigated  by  M.  Richter  in  a  treatise  entitled  Do  Theodoreio 
Epistolarum  Paulinarum  Inlerprete  Commentarius  Ilislorico-Exe- 
geticus.    Lipsias,  1822,  8vo. 

4.  NoxNi  Panopolitae  Metaphrasis  Evangelii  Joannci.  Recen- 
suit,  Lectionumque  varietate  instruxit  Franciscus  Passovius. 
Accessit  Evangeliura  Joannis.  Defuncto  Passovio  editionem 
curavit  Nicolaus  Bachius.     Lipsise,  1833,  8vo. 

NoNNUs,  of  Panopolis  in  Egypt,  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  His  paraphrase  on  St.  John's  Gospel,  which  is 
written  in  Greek  verse,  contains  some  various  readings  which  have 
been  noticed  by  Mill,  Bengel,  Wetstein,  Griesbach,  and  Scholz,  in 
their  several  critical  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament.  Passow's 
edition  of  Nonnus  is  the  best  that  has  ever  been  published. 


[ii.]  Latin  Fathers. 

1.  HiERONYMi  Qusestiones  Hebraicae  in  Genesin  ; — Ejusdem 
Commentarii  in  Ecclesiasten  ;  duse  in  Canticum  Canticorum 
Homiliffi,  ex  Grjeco  Origenis  ; — Commentarii  in  lesaiam  ; — Ho- 
milise  novem  in  Visiones  IsaiaB,  ex  GriECO  Origenis ; — Commen- 
tarius in  Jeremiam ; — Commentarii  in  Ezechielem  Libri  XIV. ; 
— Commentarius  in  Danielem.  HomilioB  Origenis  XXVIII., 
Explanationes  in  Jeremiam  et  Ezechielem  continentes ; — Com- 
mentarii in  XII  Prophetas  Minores ;  Commentarii  in  Matthaeura 
Libri  IV. ; — Commentarii  in  Pauli  Epistolas  ad  Galatas,  Ephe- 
sios,  Titum,  et  Philemonem,  folio.  In  the  different  editions  of  his 
works. 

Jerome,  of  all  the  Latin  fathers,  has  rendered  the  most  impor- 
tant services  to  the  Christian  world,  by  his  elaborate  Commentary 
on  the  Scriptures,  and  his  prefaces  to  the  diflferent  books.  His 
commentary  on  the  Prophets  is  reckoned  the  best  part  of  his  works  ; 
his  valuable  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures  has  been  noticed  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  first  volume.  The  principal  editions  of  this  emi- 
nently learned  father's  works  are  those  of  Paris,  1693 — 1706,  in  five 
vols.  Iblio)  and  of  Verona,  1734-1742,  in  eleven  vols,  folio. 

2.  HiLARii  Commentarius  in  Psalmos  et  in  Evangelium 
Matthffii,  folio,  in  the  various  editions  of  his  works. 

Hilary,  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  in  the  fourth  century,  wrote  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Psalms,  and  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  which 
consist  more  of  what  he  borrowed  irom  Origen  than  of  the  results 
of  his  own  Studies :  and  on  this  account  Morus  is  of  opinion,  that 
little  assistance  can  be  derived  from  consulting  them.  This  au- 
thor must  not  be  confounded  with  Hilary,  surnamed  the  Deacon, 
from  the  office  which  he  filled  in  the  Church  at  Rome  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourth  century  :  and  who  wrote  a  Commentary  on  St. 
Paul's  Epistles,  which  is  printed  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Bene- 
dictine edition  of  Ambrose's  works  (Paris,  1686-1690,  2  vols,  folio), 
to  whom  they  are  erroneously  ascribed. 

3.  Aurelii  Augustini  Commentarii  tam  in  Vetus  quam  in 
Novum  Testamentum,  ex  omnibus  ejusdem  lucubrationibus  col- 
lects Studio  et  labore  Joannis  Gastii.  Venetiis,  1543,  2  vols.  4to, 

Augustine,  the  celebrated  Bishop  of  Hippo  in  Africa,  in  the 
fourth  century,  wrote  several  Treatises  on  the  Scriptures,  and  par- 
ticularly Commentaries  on  the  Psalms,  neither  of  which  are  now 
held  in  much  estimation,  notwithstanding  the  high  rank  he  holds 
in  ecclesiastical  history.  His  piety,  indefatigable  application,  sub- 
lime genius,  unwearied  pursuit  of  truth,  and  the  acuteness  of  his 
wit,  are  universally  allowed.  "It  is  however  certain,"  says  Mo- 
sheim, "  that  the  accuracy  and  solidity  of  his  judgment  were  by  no 
means  proportionable  to  the  eminent  talents  now  mentioned  ;  and 
that  upon  many  ocoa.sions,  he  was  more  guided  by  the  violent  im- 
pulse of  a  warm  imagination,  than  by  the  cool  dictates  of  reason  and 
prudence.  Hence  that  ambiguity  which  appears  in  his  writings, 
and  which  has  sometimes  rendered  the  most  attentive  readers  un- 
certain with  respect  to  his  real  sentiments  ;  and  hence  also  the  just 
complaints  which  many  have  made  of  the  contradictions  that  are  so 
frequent  in  his  work,  and  of  the  levity  and  precipitation  with  which 
he  set  himself  to  write  upon  a  variety  of  subjects,  before  he  had 
examined  them  with  a  sufficient  degree  of  attention  and  diligence. "^ 
Jahn  has  remarked  that  the  genius  of  Augustine  resembled  that  of 
Origen  rather  than  that  of  Jerome,  to  both  of  whom  he  was  greatly 

s  Several  editions  of  Chrysostom's  Homilies  are  ennmer.ifcd  by  Harles, 
in  his  Brevior  Notilia  Literatura;  Grfecre,  pp.  739 — 741. ;  to  which  worlc,  as 
well  as  to  those  of  Ernesli  and  Morus,  above  referred  to,  we  are  chiefly 
indebted  for  the  following  notices  of  the  Couimcnlariesof  the  Greek  fathers. 

«  iMoshchu's  Ecclesiastical  History,  vol.  i.  p.  363. 


Sect.  III.  §  1.] 


CHRISTIAN  COMMENTATORS,  &c. 


105 


inferior  ia  learning,  being  tolnlly  it^norant  of  Hebrew,  nnd  but  mo- 
derately versed  in  fJreek.'  Uis  Trealises  on  tlie  Seri|)tiireH  form 
the  third,  un<l  his  Coinmenlnries  on  the  I'.salms  llie  foiirlh  volume 
of  the  IJeiiedictine  edition  of  hi«  vvoilw.  lit?  aciommodales  tlio 
Scriptures  more  frequi^ully  to  his  own  ideas  than  lie  aeeommodales 
these  lo  the  li)rnier,  and  is  pcirpelually  hiinlimr  out  mvslcrieB,  csjje- 
cially  in  numbers.^  Such  was  the  authority  in  whicli  the  \vritin;,'s 
oi  Aujjustino  were  lield,  that  his  expositions  continued  to  be  fol- 
low<!d  by  all  F/ilin  iiilerprelers  from  his  lime  iitilil  iho  Kefi)rniii- 
tion ;  who  have  selected  ex]Kwiti(>ns  not  oidy  from  his  proli;'ssedly 
hiblieni  labours,  but  also  from  his  oiIkt  pr:iclic;d  and  controversial 
wrilinjjs.  Among  the  |)rincipal  compilations  of  this  kind  is  the 
GloHs,  or  short  interprcluliun  of  Strabo,  which  is  mentioned  ia  the 
next  column,  JVu.  1. 


[iii.]  Later  Divines  of  the  Greek-  and  Latin  Churches. 

Of  the  Doctors,  or  Divines  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches, 
who  flourished  between  the  sixth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  the 
following  arc  reputed  to  be  the  most  judicious  conuiicntators. 


Greek  ITrilers. 

1.  TiiEOPiiYLACTi  Archiepiscopi  Bulgaria?  Enarrationes,  sive 
Commcntarii  in  IV.  Evangclia,  Grascc,  Roma;,  1.542,  folio; 
GriL-ce  et  Latine,  Parisiis,  1G31,  folio. — Ejusdem  Explicationcs 
in  Acta  Apostolorum,  Gra;ce  ct  Latine,  Colonitc,  1.567,  folio. — 
Ejustlem  Commcntarii  in  D.  Pauli  Epistolas,  Gra;ce  ct  Latine, 
Londini,  1636,  folio. — Ejusdem  Coinmcntarii  in  Epistolas  et  in 
aliquot  Prophetas  Minores,  Latine,  Parisiis,  1542,  foho. 

Theophylact,  metropolitan  of  Bidgaria,  flourished  in  the  11th 
century  :  his  Scholia  on  the  principal  books  of  .Scripture  are  chiefly 
abridged  from  Chrysostom.  Those  on  the  Gospels,  Acts,  and  St. 
Paul's  Epistles,  are  particularly  valuable.  Professor  Stuart,  cha- 
racterizing the  Greek  Commentators  on  the  Kpistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
observes  that  "  Theophylact  is  by  far  the  most  agreeable,  especially 
for  beginners  in  the  study  of  Greek  Commentary.  He  comprises  all 
that  is  valuable  in  Chrysostom,  and,  tor  the  most  part,  nearly  in 
Chrysostom's  words ;  while  at  the  same  time  he  has  given  to  the 
whole  more  ease,  simplicity,  and  compactness.  Seldom  docs  he 
venture  upon  any  new  opinion  of  his  own  ;  and  when  he  does,  it  is 
with  great  deference  to  his  predecessors."  (Commentary  on  the 
Hebrews,  vol.  i.  p.  345.)  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  pub- 
lished at  Venice,  1754-1763,  in  4  vols,  lolio. 

2.  CEtuMENii  Commentaria  in  Acta  Apostolorum,  in  omncs 
Pauli  Epistolas,  et  in  Epistolas  Catholicas  omnes.  Acccsserunt 
Arcthoe,  CappadociiE  Episcopi,  Explanationes  in  Apocalypsin. 
GriEce  et  Latine,  cura  Fred.  Morelli.  Parisiis,  1631,  2  tomis, 
folio. 

(EcUMENins,  Bishop  of  Tricca  in  Thessaly,  towards  the  close  of 
the  tenth  century,  wrote  Commentaries  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles, and  the  whole  of  the  Epistle.s.  His  work  is  a  judicious  com- 
pilation from  Origcn,  Chrysostom,  Eusebius,  and  others.  It  is  wor- 
thy of  observation,  that  the  controverted  clause  in  St.  John's  First 
Epistle  (1  John  v.  7.)  was  not  known  to  this  writer.  The  best  edi- 
tion is  that  of  Paris,  1631,  in  2  vols,  folio. 

3.  Very  similar  to  the  works  of  Theophylact  and  fficumenius 
above  noticed,  are  the  Catex^ts,  or  Commentaries  on  the  Scrip- 
tures, consisting  of  several  passages  or  interpretations  of  the 
fathers,  reduced  to  the  order  of  chapters  and  verses  of  the  books  ; 
they  are  denominated  Caten.'c,  because  as  a  chain  is  composed  of 
several  links  connected  together,  so  these  compilations  consist  of 
numerous  dilferent  passages,  or  the  sentences  and  expositions  of 
dilTcrcnt  writers,  so  connected  together  as  to  form  one  continued 
work. 

The  earliest  compiler  of  a  Catena  was  Procopius  of  Gaza, 
whose  entire  w'ork  on  the  Scriptures  has  never  been  printed ; 
though  particular  portions  have  been  published,  as  his  Catena  on 
the  Octateuch,  or  eight  first  books,  in  Latin,  Tiguri  (Zurich),  1555, 
folio  :  on  the  two  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles,  Gr.  Lai.  4to.  Lug. 
Bat  1620 ;  a  specimen  of  his  Catena  on  the  Heptateuch,  or  seven 
first  books,  and  on  the  Song  of  Solomon,  edited  by  Ernesti,  Leipsic, 
1785,  4to. ;  on  Isaiah,  edited  by  Courtier,  folio,  Taris,  1580.  Pro- 
copius was  followed  by  Olympiodorus,  who  is  supfwsed  to  have 
flourished  in  the  seventh  century  ;  his  Catena  on  the  book  of  Job 
was  published  at  Venice  in  1.587,  4to.  A  Catena  on  Job,  Psalms, 
Matthew,  and  John,  was  printed  by  Plantinat  Antwerp,  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  in  seven  vols,  folio,  1630,  and  following  years.  One  of 
the  most  valuable  w-orks  of  this  kind  is  the  Catena  of  Nicephorus 
on  the  Octateuch,  the  two  books  of  Samuel,  and  the  two  books  of 
Kings  ;  it  is  a  compilation  from  fifty-one  writers,  and  was  published 
in  Greek,  in  2  vols,  folio,  at  Leipsic,  1792.  Possin  and  Corderius 
published  a  Catena  in  Greek  and  Latin,  on  the  four  Evangelists,  in 
1628,  1630,  1646,  and  1647,  at  Antwerp  and  Thoulouse,  in  four 
large  folio  volumes ;  and  a  Greek  Catena  of  Victor,  a  presbyter  of 

■«  Jahn,  Enchiridion  ITcrmcneiiiica:  Generalis,  p.  167. 
.  .  »  Bambacliii  Instil.  Herm.  p.  079. 


Antioch,  and  other  fathers,  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark,  was  edited 
by  Malihiei,  at  Moscow,  1775,  in  2  vols.  Svo.^ 

4.  Eltiitmii  Zigabcni  Monachi  Coinmentarii  in  Psalmos, 
Grajce  et  Latine;  apud  Thcophylucti  Operuin  Tom.  IV.  Vcne 
tiis,  17G3,  folio. 

Euthymii  Zigabcni  Cominentarius  in  quatuor  Evangelia, 
Grx'cc  et  Latine.  Textum  Gnccuni  iuin(|uam  antra  edituin  ad 
fidem  duoruni  Codieum  Mcnibranaceoruin  Dibliethecaruin  S.  S. 
Synodi  Mos(|ucnsis  auctoris  a,'late  scriptorum,  diligentiir  recen- 
suit,  ct  repetila  Vcrsione  Latiiiu  Joaiinis  Ilentenii  suisijue  ad- 
jectis  anitnadversionibus  cdldit  Chribtianus  Fridcr.  Matthai. 
Lipsiie,  1792,  3  tomis,  8vo. 

EiJTiiv.Mius  Zi<i'AnE.vi;s,  n  monk  of  Constantinople,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  twelfih  century,  wrote  commentaries  on  diflerent  parts 
of  the  Hihle,  the  whole  of  whicli  have  not  been  printed,  llis  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  coinmeutary  on  the  (bur  (iospelc,  [Miblished  by 
Matlhici  al  Leipsic,  in  1792,  in  3  vols.  8vo.  The  hitherto  inediled 
Greek  text  is  diligently  revised  from  two  MSS.  in  the  library  of  the 
Holy  Synod  at  Mosf:ow,  written  in  the  time  of  the  author.  \'ol.  L 
contaiii.s  the  prefaces  and  G().**pel  of  St.  Matthew  ;  Vol.  II.  the  (Iiw- 
(lela  of  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  ;  Vol.  III.  the  Gospel  of  St.  John, 
with  Ilenlenius's  Latin  version  of  the  whole  of  I^itliymius's  Com- 
mentary, his  Critical  Remarks,  and  thofiC  of  the  learned  editor. 
Eulhymius's  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  was  published  with  the 
works  of  Theojjhylact. 

Latin  IVriters, 
I.  Biblia  Sacra  cum  Glossa  Ordinaria  a  Walafrido  Straho; 
et  Postilla  Nicolai  Ltuani,  necnon  additionibus  Pauli  Burgcn- 
sis  Episcopi,  et  Matthise  Doringi  replicis.     Duaii,  1617,  0  tomis, 
folio. 

Wor.AFRiDus  Strabo  or  Strabus,  who  flourished  in  the  ninth 
century,  composed  a  work  on  the  whole  Bible,  which  was  called 
Glossa  Ordinaria  or  marginalis ;  because  the  entire  margin,  at  the 
top  and  bottom,  as  well  as  on  each  side  of  the  page,  was  filled  with 
annotations.  His  work  is,  in  fact,  a  catena  or  collection  of  com- 
ments from  all  the  Latin  fathers  who  preceded  him,  and  particu- 
larly from  Augustine  and  Ilabanus  Maurus,  whose  pupil  Strabo 
was,  and  who  wrote  a  voluminous  catena  on  the  Gospel  of  Si.  Mat- 
thew, and  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  besides  an  entire  comment  on  the 
Bible,  which  is  still  in  manuscript.  Strabo  endeavours  to  show 
the  literal,  historical,  and  moral  sense  of  the  Scriptures,  but  not 
always  with  success.  For  many  years  the  lalwurs  of  Slra!x>  con- 
tinued to  be  received  as  the  sole  authorized  interpretation  of  the 
Bible.  The  best  edition  of  his  work  is  that  of  Antwerp,  1634, 
folio.i 

Nicholas  de  Lyra  or  Lyraxus,  so  called  from  the  place  of  his 
nativity.  Lire,  a  small  tow-n  in  Normandy,  is  reputed  to  have  been 
a  Jew  by  descent,  but  having  embraced  Christianity,  he  entered 
into  the  religious  society  of  Friars  Minors  at  Verneuil.  He  flourish- 
ed towards  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  and  deserv- 
edly holds  a  distinguished  rank  among  commentators,  his  explana- 
tions of  the  Scriptures  being  far  superior  to  the  manner  and  spirit 
of  the  age  in  which  ho  flourished.  His  compendious  expositions 
of  the  Bible  were  called  poslilis,  from  his  manner  of  placing  them, 
viz.  first  exhibiting  the  sacred  text,  and  post  ilia  (after  the  words 
of  the  text)  offering  his  own  explication.  They  were  repeatedly 
printed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  and  in  the  early  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century  ;  and  (as  in  the  edition  above  noticed)  were 
sometimes  printed  in  conjunction  with  the  gloss  of  Strabo.  In  hia 
posiils,  Lyra  shows  a  greater  acquaintance  with  the  literal  sense  of 
Scripture  than  any  preceding  commentator,  and  has  availed  him- 
self of  his  intimate  knowledge  of  Hebrew  to  select  the  best  com- 
ments of  the  most  learned  Ha'obins,  particularly  Jarchi.  Being, 
however,  less  intimately  acquainted  with  the  Greek  than  with  the 
Hebrew,  he  is  less  happy  in  his  expositions  of  the  New  Testament 
than  in  those  of  the  01(1.  His  notes  are  allowed  to  be  very  judi- 
cious, and  he  principally  attends  to  the  literal  sense,  with  which, 
however,  he  occasionally  intermingles  the  subtilties  of  the  school- 
men. "  It  is  no  inconsiderable  praise  that,  by  the  general  sound- 
ness and  justness  of  his  expositions,  he  attracted  the  admiration, 
and  contributed  probably  in  some  measure  to  the  instruction  of 
Luther  and  of  his  great  coadjutors  in  the  work  of  reformation." 
The  best  edition  of^ Lyra's  commentary  is  that  of  Antwerp,  1634, 
in  6  vols,  folio  ;  it  is  also  found  in  the  Bihlica  Maxima,  edited  by 
Father  de  la  Haye,  in  19  vols,  folio.  Lyra  was  also  the  author  of 
Moralia,  or  Moral  Commentaries  upon  the  Scriptures.* 

»  Morus  (torn.  ii.  p.  253.)  has  enumerated  several  catenfe  on  particular 
parts  of  the  New  Testament.  The  best  account  of  these  compilations  is  to 
l)e  found  in  Ittieius's  Tractatus  de  Catenas  Palrum,  Leipsic,  17(/7,  8vo.  ; 
and  ia  Noessell's  Obaerrationes  de  Calenis  Palrum  Groicorum  in  Novum, 
Teslamentum,  Halae,  1762,  4to.  See  also  Walchii  Bibliolheca  Theologies, 
vol.  iv.  pp.  388—391. 

«  Much  curious  information  relative  to  the  Biblia  Glostata,  or  Glosses 
on  the  Scriptures,  is  contained  in  Masch's  edition  of  Le  Long's  Bihliotheca 
Sacr.i,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  cap.  ii.  sect.  iii.  p.  3o3.  et  seq. 

s  M.isch's  edition  of  I.e  Long's  Biblioitieca  Sacra,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  357 — 
3G2.  Conybeare's  Bampton  Lectures  for  1821,  pp.  210—215.  Lyra's  Com- 
mentaries were  attacked  by  Paul,  Bishop  of  Burgos  (Paulus  Burgensis), 
a  converted  Jew,  and  were  defended  by  Matthias  Doring.  Ibid.  pp.  363, 
264.    Walchii  Bibliotheca  Theologies,  vol.  iv.  pp.  396,  397. 


106 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Cuap.  IV. 


2.  Thomae  AauiNATis,  Doctoris  Angclici,  Commentaria  in 
quosduiii  libros  Vetcris  ot  Novi  Tcslamenti ;  scilicet,  in  Job  ; 
Prima  Quiaquagena  Davidis  ;  Canticum  Canlicorum  ;  Esaiam  : 
Jeremiam,  et  Lainentationes;  in  Evangclia  secundum  Matthceum 
ct  Joannem  ;  Catena  Aurea  in  quatuor  Evangclia;  ex  dictis  Pa- 
trum  connexa  ;  Commentaria  in  omnes  D.  Pauli  Apostoli  Epis- 
tolas  ;  folio,  inter  operum  Tonios  xiii-xvi.  Venitiis,  1593-4, 
besides  numerous  editions  of  detached  portions  in  various  sizes. 

Thomas  Aquinas,  a  celebrated  scholastic  doctor  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  compiled  a  Catena  oa  the  lour  Gospels,  from  up- 
wards of  eighty  Greek  and  Latin  fathers,  whose  words  he  chiefly 
gives,  rather  than  their  meaning,  and  quotes  the  Greek  fathers  from 
Latin  versions  of  their  works.  His  comment  long  held  q.  distin- 
guished place  in  the  Western  Church. 

There  were  however  a  few,  though  but  few,  interpreters  of 
better  note,  who  flourished  during  the  period  now  under  con- 
sideration, and  who  followed  a  better  mode  of  interpretation. 
We  shall  briefly  enumerate  them. 

3.  Bkde  Ex^jositio  in  Libros  Historicos  Veteris  Testamenti, 
in  librum  Tobise,  Jobum,  Parabolas  Salomonis,  et  Cantica  Can- 
ticoram :  Expositio  in  Novum  Testamentum,  Retractationes  et 
Quaestiones  in  Acta  Apostolorum,  folio.     In  his  works. 

The  venerable  Bede,  who  lived  in  the  eighth  century,  composed 
a  Catena  on  nearly  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament,  from  the 
writings  of  tlie  fathers,  in  which  he  interspersed  but  few  remarks 
of  his  own.  Deeply  versed  in  Greek  literature,  he  has  the  pecu- 
liar praise  of  drawing  from  original  sources. 

4.  Alccin,  the  countryman  and  contemporary  of  Bede,  com- 
piled a  commentary  on  some  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  in  which  he 
made  selections  from  Jerome,  Chrysostom,  Augustine,  Bede, 
and  other  writers ;  not  always  with  the  best  judgment.  His 
biblical  labours  are  contained  in  the  editions  of  his  collected 
works,  printed  at  Paris  in  1617,  and  at  Ratisbon  in  1777,  in  2 
volumes,  folio. 

§  2.    SCH0I(IA    ON    THE    ETTTIKE  BIBLE,  OR    THE  GREATER    PART 
THEREOF. 

1.  Joannis  MARrAif;E  Scholia  in  Vetus  et  Novum  Testamen- 
tum.    Paris,  1620,  folio. 

2.  HcGONis  Grotii  Annotationes  ad  Vetus  et  Novum  Testa- 
mentum. 

The  Scholia  on  the  Old  Testament  were  first  published  at  Paris, 
;n  1G44  :  and  those  on  the  New  Testament  at  the  same  place,  in 
Ihrce  volumes,  in  1641,  1G46,  and  1650.  They  are  also  to  be  found 
in  the  fourth  volume  of  his  Opera  Theologica  (Basil,  1732,  folio),  as 
well  as  in  the  Crilici  Sacri,  and  in  Calovius's  Biblia  lllustrata. 
'i'hey  were  republished  in  4to.,  with  numerous  corrections  by  Vo- 
gel,  vol.  i.  Halte,  1775  ;  vol.  ii.  and  vol.  iii.  were  p\iblished  in  1776 
by  Docderlein,  who,  in  1779,  published  an  Auctarium,  also  in  4to., 
which  was  separately  sold  under  the  title  of  Scholia  in  Libros  Fo- 
eticos  Veleris  Testame?iti.  An  edition  of  them  was  published  by 
Mr.  Moody,  in  two  vols.  4to.,  London,  1727;  and  his  Scholia  on  the 
New  Testament  were  reprinted  at  Erlang  in  1755  and  following 
years,  in  4to.  In  1830  a  very  neat  edition  of  the  Scholia  on  the 
New  Testament  appeared  at  Groningen,  in  8  vols.  8vo.,  the  anony- 
motis  editor  of  which  professes  that  he  carefully  corrected  the  nu- 
merous errors  which  had  crept  into  preceding  impressions.  We 
have  been  thus  minute  in  stating  the  editions  of  Grotius's  Scholia, 
on  account  of  their  intrinsic  value.  Father  Calmet  has  criticised 
many  parts  of  them  with  great  severity,  particularly  his  preface  to 
and  explanation  of  the  Canticles.  "  Grotius,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge, 
"  has  done  more  to  illustrate  the  Scriptures,  by  what  is  generally 
called  profane  learning,  than  perhaps  almost  all  the  other  commen- 
tators put  together  ;  nevertheless  he  too  often  gives  up  prophecies 
which,  in  their  original  sense,  relate  to  the  Messiah.  His  notes  on 
some  texts  are  large  and  learned  dissertations,  which  might  have 
profitably  been  published  by  themselves."  "  His  learning,"  says 
an  eminent  biblical  critic  of  the  present  day,  "  was  very  extensive  ; 
his  erudition  profound  ;  and  his  moderation  on  subjects  of  contro- 
versy highly  praiseworthy.  No  man  possessed  a  more  extensive 
and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers ;  and  no 
man  more  successfully  applied  them  to  the  illustration  of  the  sacred 
writings.  He  is,  perhaps  justly,  suspected  of  Socinian  sentiments  ; 
and  is,  in  general,  so  intent  upon  the  literal  meaning  of  the  Scrip- 
tures,  as  to  lose  sight  of  the  spiritual."  (Dr.  A.  Clarke).!  On  the 
New  Testament  Grotius  is  particularly  valuable  for  understanding 
the  history  and  Hebraisms.  The  character  of  Grotius,  as  a  com- 
mentator, is  both  fairly  and  ably  estimated  by  Mr.  Conybeare  in 
his  Bampton  Lectures  for  1824,  pp.  259-263. 

.3.  DioDATi  (John)  Annotations  on  the  Bible,  translated  from 
the  Italian.     London,  1664,  folio. 

»  The  references  above,  as  well  as  in  the  following  pages,  to  Drs.  Dod- 
dridge and  Adam  Clarke,  are  to  the  "  Lectures  on  Preaching"  of  the  former, 
inserted  in  the  fifth  volume  of  his  detached  Works,  printed  at  Leeds,  1801, 
p.  471.  et  seq.,  and  to  the  "  General  Preface"  of  the  latter,  prcdxed  to 
vol.  i.  of  his  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  which  is  noticed  in  a  subsequent 
page. 


Diodati  was  an  eminent  Italian  divine  and  reformer  in  the  early 
part  of  the  17lh  ceiilury;  iiis  annotations  are  properly  Scholia, 
rather  practical  than  critical,  but  conlauiiiig  many  useful  hints;  a 
considerable  portion  of  them  was  introduced  into  the  "  Assembly's 
Annolalions,"  noliccd  in  p.  109.  No.  4. 

4.  Jo.  Christ.  Frid.  Schulzii  et  Geo.  Laur.  Batjeri  Scholia 
in  Vetus  Testamentum.  Norimbergce,  1783 — 1797,  10  vols.  8vo. 

The  three  first  volumes  only  of  the.se  learned  Scholia  were 
oslensilly  written  by  Professor  Schulze,^  who  states  in  liis  preface, 
ihat,  in  imitation  of  Rosenmiiller's  Scholia  on  the  New  Testament, 
he  undertook  similar  short  notes  on  the  Old  Testament,  for  this 
purpose,  he  has  made  extracts  from  the  best  philological  and  criti- 
cal Scholia,  chiefly  from  German  works  which  are  not  readily  ac- 
cessible or  intelligible  by  foreigners  ;  this  is  no  small  advantage ; 
and,  independently  of  it,  Schulze  has  added  numerous  critical  notes 
of  his  own,  besides  the  contributions  of  his  learned  friends.  (Maty 'a 
Review,  vol.  v.  pp.  406 — 412.)  On  the  death  of  Schulze,  Professor 
Bauer  continued  the  work,  and  published  the  remaining  seven 
volumes  on  the  same  plan. 

5.  Ernest.  Frid.  Car.  Rosenmui.i.eri  Scholia  in  Vetas  Testa- 
mentum.    Lipsioe,  1795 — 1826,  18  vols.  8vo.  1823-34. 

The  Scholia  of  the  younger  Rosenmiiller  have  long  enjoyed  a 
high  reputation  on  the  Continent.  When  he  began  to  publish  the 
first  edition  of  his  work,  he  was  a  neologian  of  the  lowest  class. 
In  the  new  edition,  he  has  given  up  many  of  these  offensive  tenets. 
Ho  now  admits  the  Pentateuch  to  be  the  composition  of  Moses, 
and  finds  predictions  concerning  the  Messiah  almost  as  often  as 
one  could  desire;  although  some  few  of  the  psalms  he  still  con- 
siders as  not  referring  to  the  Messiah.  But  now  and  then  the  wary 
reader  will  plainly  see  that,  as  to  any  belief  in  inspiration,  he  is 
still  as  much  a  rationalist  as  ever  he  was.  The  student  will  find  in 
most  of  his  works  very  important  treasures,  if  he  knows  how  to 
make  a  right  use  of  them.  (Andover  Biblical  Repository  for  Jan. 
1832,  pp.  213 — 215)  The  new  edition  of  Rosenmiiller's  larger 
Scholia  appeared  at  Leipzic  in  the  following  order: — 

Parts  I.  and  II.  comprising  the  Pentateuch.  Vol.  I.  Genesis, 
1821 ;  Vol.  II.  Exodus,  1822 ;  Vol.  III.  Leviticus,  Numbers, 
Deuteronomy. 

Part  III.  Isaiah,  3  vols.  8vo.  1818—1829—1833. 

Part  IV.  The  book  of  Psalms,  3  vols.  1821—1823. 

Part  V.  The  book  of  Job,  1824. 

Part  VI.  Ezekiel,  2  vols.  8vo.  1826. 

Part  VII.  The  Minor  Prophets;  Vol.  I.  Hosea  and  Joel,  1827; 
Vol.  II.  Amos,  Obadiah,  and  Jonah,  1827  ;  Vol.  III.  Nahum. 
Micah,  and  Habakkuk ;  Vol.  IV.  Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zecha- 
riah,  and  Malachi. 

Part  VIII.  Jeremiah,  2  vols.  1826-27. 

Part  IX.  The  Writings  of  Solomon,  Vols.  L  and  II.,  1829. 

Part  X.  Daniel,  1833. 

Part  XI.  The  Historical  Books.    Vol.  L  Joshua,  1832. 

6.  Em.  Frid.  Car.  RosENiwiiLiERi  Scholia  in  V.  T.  in  Com- 
pendium redacta.     Vols.  I.  III.     Lip-sis,  1828 — 1833,  8vo. 

"In  a  brief  preface  to  the  first  volume,  the  author  states  that  he 
had  frequently  been  solicited  to  publish  an  abridged  edition  of  his 
copious  original  work,  which  amounts  to  [upwards  of]  twenty 
volumes ;  and  several  others  are  yet  to  be  added,  in  order  to  com- 
plete his  design.  The  price  of  this  is  so  high,  even  in  Germany, 
that  many  who  wish  for  the  work  are  unable  to  purchase  it.  Prin- 
cipally with  a  view  to  accommodate  persons  of  this  class,  the  au- 
thor has  undertaken  to  publish  a  compendium  of  his  original  work. 
This  labour  he  performs  in  the  main  by  proxy.  The  gentleman, 
who  actually  executes  the  task,  is  named  John  Christopher  Sigis- 
mund  Lechner,  and  is  evening  preacher  at  St.  Paul's  church  in 
Leipzic.  The  professor  speaks  of  him  as  '  vir  clarissimus,  in  sacra- 
rum  literarum  dextre  versato.'  His  commission  is,  to  select  from 
the  larger  commentary  whatever  pertains  to  the  explanation  of  the 
meaning  and  forms  of  words  in  which  there  is  any  difTiculty ;  also, 
whatever  is  requisite  in  order  to  give  a  correct  understanding  of 
facts  and  events,  ancient  rites,  the  names  of  persons  and  places, 
and  other  things  of  a  similar  nature.  In  passages  of  special  diffi- 
culty, some  account  of  the  views  of  other  critics  is  given.  Various 
readings  that  are  important,  are  also  noticed.  Tlie  commission  be- 
ing executed,  the  whole  is  reviewed  by  Rosenmiiller  himself;  cor- 
rections are  made  of  his  former  opinions  where  he  deems  them 
necessary  ;  now  and  then  new  matter  is  added  ;  and  a  reference  is 
made  to  important  works  on  various  subjects  pertaining  to  sacred 
criticism,  which  have  been  published  since  the  last  edition  of  the 
larger  Commentary.  Such  is  the  plan  of  the  Compendium  ;  a  work 
which,  in  many  respects,  will  be  welcome  to  all  the  friends  of  sacred 
literature.    Mr.  Lechner  appears  to  have  executed  his  task  with 

a  Jahn  affirms  that  they  were  not  written  by  Schulze  himself,  but  bv 
Schoeder  under  his  name  :  and  he  further  adds,  that,  in  general,  on  difficult 
passages,  an  ancient  and  a  modern  interpretation  is  given,  and  the  decision 
between  them  is  left  {o  the  reader's  judgment.  (Jalm,  Enchiridion  Iler- 
meneuticae  Generalis,  p.  173.)  Whether  Schoeder  or  Schulze  wrote  the 
first  three  volumes,  is  not  material  now  to  know  :  useful  as  the  v.-ork  un- 
questionably is,  the  reader  should  be  informed  that  the  author  has  adopted 
the  fashiona/)le  hypothesis  of  many  German  divines,  that  Moses  was  a 
clever  mythologue,  who  compiled  his  history  from  certain  mythi  or  tradi- 
tional narratives  !  This  hypothesis  is  also  adopted  by  Dathe  ;  and  it  was 
embraced  by  the  late  Dr.  Geddes  in  his  version  of  the  Bible.  See  it  ex- 
amined, and  (we  trust  satisfactorily)  refuted,  supra,  Vol.  lI-  Part  V.  Chap.  I, 
Sect.  II. 


Sect.  III.  §  3.] 


FOREIGN  COMMENTATORS  ON  THE  WHOLE  I2IELE. 


107 


gj-cat  (liligonco  nml  cure.  IIo  remnins  true  lo  his  original  ihrongli- 
oiil,  K(i  (ill-  as  1  liiive  Ih'I'M  al)l(!  Id  make  llii'  comiiarisoii.  'I'ho 
slight  ditlin-MH-oH,  that  now  ami  ihoii  occur  Ix'lwocn  Ihc  ahridgrnciit 
and  the  original,  I  [ircsnnic,  arc  lo  he  atlrihiilcd  lo  liie  author  him- 
self, and  not  lo  ihc  vvnlcr  of  the  Coinpeiid."  (I'rolchsor  Stnarl,  in 
the  Andovc-r  Bililical  Coiniiioiilary  for  lH:i"2,  vol    ii.  p.  211.) 

The  voliinics  hilhcrlo  |>Mhlishcd  conlain  the  following  15ooks  of 
the  Old  'I'cKlaini  nl,  viz.  Vol.  1.  the  I'cMlalcnch  ;  [Vol.  II.  will  con- 
min  l.saiahl;  Vol.  III.  the  I'salins;  Vol.  IV.  the  hook  of  Joh  ;  Vol. 
V.  the  hook  of  M/ckicd.  JJcnkIcs  the  al)riilt;nicnl  of  Kii.scniniillcr'M 
Scholia,  tiuH  volume  compribCis  a  literal  i^alin  lrall^^lalion  of  the 
fortieth.  f<)rly-lirMt,  and  Ibrty-second  cliii|)ters  of  Ezckiel'M  J'rophe- 
eies)  (illuHlraled  hy  three  engravings  representing  the  [ilan  of  the 
temple  as  descrihed  hy  Kzekiel),  executed  hy  Julius  l''rederick 
Boettchcr,  who  has  endeavoured  to  elucidate  that  very  difficult 
portion  of  till!  j)ro|)het's  writings. 

7.  J.  G.  KosKNMi'Li.KHi  Scholla  in  Novum  Te.stamcntum. 
Edit.  Novo,  Norimhergas,  1801—1808.  Edilio  sexta,  1827  et 
annis  se(|ueiilihus.  ."j  vols.  Svo. 

'I'he.se  Scholia  on  the  New  Testament  are  vvriilcn  liy  the  father 
of  the  author  of  the  preceding  Scholia.  His  work  is  rharactcrized 
by  Professor  Stuart  a.s  "a  very  neal  specimen  of  the  second  or<l<!r 
of  ronunentary,  that  is,  an  explanation  of  words  and  phrases.  He 
is  almost  every  where  a  /<«■«/  investigator;  and  scarcely  ever  docs 
he  take  a  stand,  from  wiiich  he  looks  out  and  surveys  the  whole 
field  in  which  he  is  lahouring.  His  philology,  in  the  main,  is  sali;, 
and  worthy  of  credit  :  hut  he  is  one  of  those  cominentaiors  who 
are  more  successful  in  explaining  cngi/  than  diflicull  things.  Where 
you  most  need  aid,  you  find  yourself  often  deserted The  .stu- 
dent must  not  exp(u-t  lo  find  in  UosenmiiUer  those  high  and  com- 
manding views,  which  such  a  man  as  Calvin  was  cai)ahlc  of  taking. 
The  devolo])menl  of  ratiocination,  tlesign,  and  great  ohject,  are  not 
his  province.  A  secondary,  hut  a  pleasant,  and  generally  aecuralo 
nnnolalor  on  the  philology  of  particular  passages  and  (expressions,  ho 

will  find  in  hin> Much  of  llosciiniiiller's  commentary  is  like 

the  production  of  the  poet,  whom  Horace  introduces: — Treceiilos 

in   horu  versus stuns  pide  in  nun.     It  might  he  written,  and 

douhtlcs.s  was  written,  ofl-hand.  It  is  none  the  worse  lor  this,  so 
far  as  it  rcspecis  tiic  heginner  in  the  study  of  exegesis.  But  he  must 
not  exi)eel  to  ohtain  from  it  the  higher  and  ultimate  ends  of  com- 
mentary of  the  first  order;  lo  meet  and  to  solve  lormidahle  diflicul- 
ties ;  to  throw  strong  light  on  the  general  cause  of  thought  and 
reasoning;  to  compare  with  other  writers,  and  educe  a  harmonious 
sentiment  from  the  whole  ;  to  render  prominent  the  great  doctrines 

which  are  urged His  hook  was  designed,  as  it  seems  lo  me, 

for  tyros  ;  and,  as  such,  it  remains,  for  philological  tyros,  still  a  very 
valuahle  hook."  (Andover  Hildical  Repository  for  January,  1833, 
\o\.  iii.  p.  153.)  The  sixth  edition  was  revised  and  edited  by  John 
Christopher  Sigismund  Li:cii.\EU. 

8.  Kk.kvks. — The  Holy  Bihic,  containing  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  New,  translated  out  of  the  Original  Tongues,  and  with 
tiie  former  translations  diligently  compared  and  rcvi.scd.  London, 
printed  for  John  Kkeves,  Esq.,  one  of  the  Patentees  of  the  oflicc 
of  King'.s  I'rinter,  9  vols,  royal  4to.  9  vols,  royal  Svo.  9  or  10 
vols,  crown  Svo. 

Although  the  heautiful  editions  of  the  Bible  here  noticed  do  not 
profes-s  to  be  commentaries,  yet,  as  they  are  accompanied  by  short 
explanatory  and  philological  Scholia,  it  would  he  injustice  towards 
Mr.  Reeves's  splendid  and  public-spirited  eflorts  to  render  the 
Scriptures  attractive  to  the  higher  cla.sses,  were  we  to  pass  them 
in  silence.  On  this  account  Mr.  Reeves's  editions  may  justly  claim 
a  place  in  ihe  present  list  of  Scholia  on  the  Bible.  His  Scholia  are 
selected  from  the  labours  of  Bishop  Patrick,  Lowth,  Whitby,  and 
others;  and  his  mode  of  printing  the  text  is  admirable.  The  his- 
torical parts,  which  are  in  prose,  are  printed  in  continuous  para- 
graphs :  and  the  poetical  parts  are  divided  into  verses.  Each  book 
18  divided  into  sections,  conformable  to  the  natural  divisions  of  the 
several  subjects ;  and,  to  facilitate  reference,  the  chapters  and 
verses  are  distinctly  luintcd  out  in  the  margin.  There  is  a  learned 
preface  to  all  the  editions.  In  our  analysis  of  the  different  books 
of  Scripture,  particularly  of  the  Old  Testament,  we  have  frequently 
adopted  Mr.  Reeves's  sectional  divisions,  which  are  for  the  most 
part  very  judiciously  made.  It  may  be  proper  to  add,  that  the 
printing  of  Mr.  Reeves's  editions  was  executed  by  Messrs.  Bulmer 
&  Co.,  and  by  Mr.  Bensley,  and  may  safely  challenge  competition 
with  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  British  typography.  There 
are  some  copies  extant  in  four  volumes,  8vo.,  without  the  Scholia. 


§  3.    THE    PRIXCIPAI,    COMMENTATORS    OX    THE    SCIIIFTCRE3 
OENERAI.LZ    SINCE    TU£    REFORMATION. 

[i.]  Foreign  Commentators  on  the  -whole  Bible. 

1.  The  illustrious  reformer,  Martiit  Luther,  wrote  Com- 
mentaries on  most  of  the  books  of  Scripture.  A  collection  of 
them  was  published  at  Wittenberg,  in  four  volumes,  folio,  1549  ; 
and  an  octavo  edition  of  them  appeared  at  Erlang  in  1829  and 
following  years.  All  the  writings  of  this  great  man  are  deserv- 
edly held  in  the  highest  estimation  in  Germany,  especially  his 


Commentaries  on  Genesis  and  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Ro- 
mans and  (liilatians.  His  Commentary  on  tlie  Galatians  is  best 
ki.own  in  this  country  by  a  translation,  which  was  first  printed 
in  l.'iHO,  in  4to.  and  Kiilisc(|iicnt!y  in  folio,  Kvo.  and  in  two  vols. 
12mo.  Ill  1821,  was  puhli.-.hed,  in  Hvo.  a  translation  of  Luther's 
"Commentary  on  the  Psalms  called  Psalms  of  IJcgrees ;  in 
which,  among  many  other  valuahle  Discourses  on  Individual, 
Household,  and  (Jivil  All'airs,  the  Scri|)lural  Doctrine  respecting 
tlie  divinely  instituted  and  honourable  Estate  of  Matrimony  is 
ex]ilainc(l  and  defended  against  the  Popish  Perversion  of  en- 
forced Celibacy,  Mona.stic  Vows,  Orders,  &c.  «&c.  'J'o  which  is 
jirelixed.  An  Historical  Account  of  the  .Monastic  Life,  particu- 
larly of  the  Monasteries  of  England." 

2.  The  biblical  writings  of  Joiix  Cai.vi.v,  another  illustrious 
reforiner,  consists  of  Coinmi'ntaries,  Homilies,  and  Ticctures  on 
almost  the  whole  of  the  Scrijiturcs:  they  are  to  lu-  found  in  the 
folio  edition  of  his  works,  printed  at  Amsli-rdain,  in  1071,  in 
nine  volumes.  His  Harmony  of  the  la.st  four  Books  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch has  been  much  and  deservedly  admired  for  its  ingenuity. 
Tlie  history  contained  in  them  forms  a  distinct  part.  The  rest 
is  comprised  under  t\w  following  divisions  : — I.  Those  passages 
which  assert  the  excellence  of  the  lav\',  by  way  oi  preface  ; — 
2.  The  7V«  Commutulments,  under  each  of  which  are  compre- 
hended all  those  parts  of  the  law  which  relate  to  the  same  sub- 
ject, antl  this  forms  the  great  body  of  the  harmony ; — 3.  The 
S^tm  of  tlie  Laiv,  containing  those  pa.ssages  which  enjoin  love  to 
God,  and  love  to  our  neighbour; — i.  The  Use  of  the  Jmiv ; 
and,  lastly,  its  Sanctions  of  proini.ses  and  threats.  The  Com- 
mentaries and  other  expository  writings  of  this  great  man  have 
always  been  deservedly  celebrated  and  admired  ;  though  it  has 
been  the  fashion  with  .some  modern  divines  to  dcpre(  iate  them, 
on  account  of  those  peculiar  dogmas  which  Calvin  deduced  from 
the  Sacred  Writing.s.  "  Calvin's  Commentaries,"  says  the  learned 
Matthew  Poole,  in  the  preface  to  the  "  Synopsis  Oiticorum 
Sacrorum,"  noticed  below,  "abound  in  solid  discussions  of  theo- 
logical subjects,  and  in  practical  imiirovements  of  them.  Sub- 
sequent writers  have  borrowed  most  of  their  materials  from  Cal- 
vin ;  and  his  interpretations  adorn  the  books  even  of  those  who 
rej)aY  their  obligation  by  reproaching  their  master."  The  great 
critic  Scaliger  said  that  no  commentator  had  better  hit  the  sense 
of  the  prophets  than  Calvin  ;  and  another  eminent  critic  of  our 
own  time  (Koiscnmiiller)  has  remarked,  that  although  Calvin 
was  not  deeply  versed  in  Hebrew,  yet  as  he  possessed  an  acute 
and  subtle  genius,  his  interpretations  of  Isaiah  in  j)articular  con- 
tain many  things  which  are  exceedingly  useful  for  understanding 
the  prophet's  meaning.  Nothing,  indeed,  can  more  satisfactorily 
evince  the  high  estimation  to  which  the  commentaries  of  Calvin 
are  still  entitled  from  the  biblical  student,  than  the  following 
eulogium  of  one  of  the  most  learned  prelates  that  ever  adorned 
the  Anglican  church — Bishop  Horslf.y.  "I  hold,"  says  he, 
"  the  memory  of  Calvin  in  high  veneration  ;  his  works  have  a 
place  in  my  library  ;  and  in  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  he 
is  one  of  the  Commentators  whom  I  most  frequently  consult." 
To  this  testimony  may  be  added  that  of  another  accomiilishcd 
scholar  lately  deceased,  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Coxtueare.  The  Com- 
mentaries of  Calvin,  he  says,  "  though  in  the  exercise  of  our 
Christian  liberty  we  may  freely  question  and  dissent  from  many 
points,  both  of  doctrine  and  discipline,  maintained  by  their  illus- 
trious author,  arc  yet  never  to  be  perused  without  admiration  or 
instruction."'  The  writer  of  these  pages  has  not  often  had  occa- 
sion to  refer  to  the  writings  of  Calvin  in  the  prosecution  of  this 
work ;  yet  he  has  never  consulted  them  but  with  advantage  and 
with  pleasure. 

3.  VicTOHiNus  Strigelics  was  nearly  contemporary  with 
Luther  and  Calvin,  and  wrote  arguments  and  notes  to  the  whole 
of  the  Bible,  which  were  published  at  different  times  between  the 
years  1565  and  1586,  and  in  various  sizes.^  They  are  much 
admired  for  their  exactness,  particularly  his  'r^j^vdjuar*  on  the 
New  Testament,  which  are  noticed  in  a  subsequent  page. 

4.  LcDOTici  De  Dieu  Critica  Sacra,  sive  Animadversiones 
in  Loca  quscdam  difliciliora  Veteris  et  Novi  Testament!.  Am^ 
stelodami,  1693,  folio. 

«  Conybeare's  Hampton  Lectures  for  18!M,  p.  237.  In  the  Andover  Bibli- 
cal Repository  for  1832  (vol  ii.  pp.  511— 56S.),  there  is  an  elaborate  essay 
on  the  merits  of  Calvin  as  an  interpreter,  translated  from  the  German  of 
Professor  Tliolucit,  of  Halle  ;  under  whose  auspices  (aided  by  funds  fur- 
nished by  some  friends  to  sacred  literature  in  England)  a  new,  very  neat, 
and  cheap  edition  of  Calvin's  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament  was 
published  in  small  Svo.  volumes,  hotwcen  the  years  1831  and  13S1. 

a  Masch  has  given  the  titles  and  dates  of  their  respective  publications ; 
vol.  iii.  pp.  421— 427. 


t08 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Pabt  rt.  Chap.  V. 


A  work  ofarknowlcdged  character:  "  Porliaps  no  man  ever  pos- 
sessed a  more  consummate  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  languages 
than  de  Dieu,  nor  employed  his  knowledge  to  more  useful  pur- 
poses."    (Bibliog.  Diet.  vol.  iii.  p.  123.) 

5.  SKB.iSTiANi  ScHMiDii  Commcntarii  in  Genesin,  Josuani; 
Ruth,  Rcges,  Samuclem,  Jobum,  Psalinos,  Ecclesiastcn,  lesaiam, 
Jereniiani,  Hoseam,  Evangelium  Johannis,  et  Epistolas  Pauli  ad 
Romanos,  Galatas,  et  Hebrajos.  Argentorati,  1687,  et  annis 
scquentihus.  4to. 

Sebastian  Schmidt  was  at  least  the  most  laborious  and  volumi- 
nous commentator  of  his  age  (the  seventeenth  century).  Mosheim's 
Eccles.  ilist.  vol.  V.  p.  295. 

6.  Chitici  Sacri  :  sive  Annotata  doctissimorum  Virorum  in 
Vetus  ac  Novum  Testamentum  ;  quibus  accedunt  Tractatus  yarii, 
Theologico-Philoiogici,  9  tomis  in  12  voluminibus.  Amsteio- 
dami,  1698,  folio. 

This  great  work,  first  published  at  London  in  IGGO,  in  9  vols, 
folio,  under  the  direction  of  Bishop  Pearson,  John  Pearson,  Anthony 
Scattergood,  and  Francis  Gouldman,  is  considerably  augmented  in 
the  above  second  and  best  edition.  The  notes  of  Grotius,  Vatablus, 
and  Drusius,  Munster,  Castalio,  Clarius,  Junius,  and  Tremellius, 
are  to  be  found  in  this  collection,  besides  a  multitude  of  commen- 
tators on  particular  books,  and  numerous  valuable  disquisitions  on 
particular  subjects,  which  are  enumerated  by  Dr.  A.  Clarke  in  the 
general  preface  to  his  Commentary,  vol.  i.  p.  xiii.  To  complete  this 
great  work,  there  were  published  at  Amsterdam,  in  1701,  Thesau- 
rus Theologico-Philologicus,  in  2  vols,  folio,  and  in  1732,  in  two 
folio  volumes  also.  Thesaurus  Novus  Theologico-Philologicus, — 
two  valuable  collections  of  critical  and  philological  dissertations 
by  the  most  eminent  biblical  critics  of  that  day.  These  are  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  Crilici  Sacri ;  of  which  great  work  an  admi- 
rable abridgment  has  been  published  under  the  title  of, 

7.  Matth;ei  Poli  Synopsis  criticorum  aliorumque  SS.  Inter- 
pretum.  London,  1669 — 1674,  5  vols,  folio.  Utrecht,  5  vols, 
folio,  1684 ;  also  Frankfort,  1712,  5  vols,  folio,  and  1694,  5  vols, 
large  4to. 

On  this  most  elaborate  work  the  learned  author  spent  fen  years ; 
it  consolidates  with  great  skill  and  conciseness  all  the  Critici  Sacri 
of  the  London  edition  into  one  continued  comment,  besides  many 
valuable  additions  from  other  authors  of  note,  Hammond,  &c.  and 
his  own  corrections  and  decisions  in  several  places.  It  has  many 
advantages  over  the  Critici  Sacri,  not  only  in  point  of  size,  but  also 
in  its  admirable  arrangement  and  concentration  of  evidence,  and 
in  the  author's  remarks  ;  and  it  furnishes  a  most  complete  material 
index  to  the  Critici  Sacri.  (Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology, 
vol.  ii.  preface,  p.  xviii.)  Of  the  various  editions  above  noticed, 
that  edited  at  Utrecht  by  Professor  Leusden,  is  by  far  the  best  and 
most  correct.  The  folio  Frankfort  edition  is  not  worth  purchasing, 
on  account  of  its  incorrectness.  The  4to.  edition,  which  is  some- 
what better,  is  nevertheless  very  inaccurate  :  it  is  badly  printed, 
and  sells  at  a  very  low  price. 

8.  Biblia  Sacra  Vulgatae  Editionis,  Sixti  V.  et  Clementis  VIII. 
Pont.  Max.  auctoritate  recognita,  una.  cum  selectis  Annotationi- 
bus  ex  optimis  quibusque  Interpretibus  excerptis,  Prolegomenis, 
novis  Tabulis  Chronologicis,  Historicis,  et  Geographicis  illustrata, 
Indiceque  Epistolarum  et  Evangeliorum  aucta.  Auctore  J.  B. 
Du  Hamei,.     Parisiis,  1706,  2  tomis,  folio. 

The  Prolegomena  treat  briefly  on  the  canon  and  inspiration  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  on  their  transmission  to  our  times,  incor- 
rupt; on  the  authority  and  various  editions  of  the  Hebrew  text  and 
ancient  Versions ;  and  on  the  exposition  of  the  Bible,  including  its 
style,  figurative  language,  and  spiritual  sense.  A  short  Chronolo- 
gical and  Geographical  Appendix  is  subjoined,  in  which  the  weights, 
measures,  and  money  of  the  Hebrews  are  discussed. 

9.  La  Sainte  Bible,  expliquee  par  David  Martin.  Am- 
sterdam, 1707,  2  vols,  folio. 

M.  Martin  revised  the  Geneva  version  of  the  French  Bible,  and 
corrected  it  so  materially,  that  it  is  frequently  considered  as  a  new 
translation.  The  short  notes,  which  he  has  annexed,  contain  much 
good  sense,  learning,  and  piety. 

10.  JoANNis  Clehici  Translatio  Librorum  Veteris  Testamenti, 
cum  ejusdem  Paraphrasi  perpetua,  Commentario  Philologico, 
Dissertationibus  Criticis,  Tabulisque  Chronologicis  et  Geographi- 
cis, folio,  4  vols.  Amstelodami,  1708,  1710,  1713. — Ejusdem, 
Translatio  ex  Anglica  Lingua  Henrici  Hammondi  Paraphrasis 
et  Adnotationum  in  Novum  Testamentum,  Animadversionibus 
suis  illustrata.     Francofurti,  1714,  2  vols,  folio. 

Le  Clerc's  Translation  and  Commentary  are  highly  commended 
by  Bishop  Watson :  of  Dr.  Hammond's  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on 
the  New  Testament,  some  account  is  given  below.  Many  of  Le 
Clerc's  observations  throw  great  light  on  the  Scriptures ;  in  others 
he  has  indulged  his  own  fancy,  and,  what  is  most  to  be  regretted, 
has  completely  frittered  away  the  meaning  of  the  Prophecies  con- 
cerning our  Saviour.  He  considers  miracles  as  effects  of  nature. 
His  commentaries  on  the  Prophets  and  on  the  Hagiographa  are 
greatly  inferior  to  those  on  the  Pentateuch.   John  Justus  vonEinem 


published  a  volume  of  Animadversiones  ad  Joamiis  Clerici  Com- 
mentarios,  at  Magdeburg,  1735,  8vo. 

11.  OsTETivALn  (Jean-Frederic)  La  Sainte  Bible,  avec  Ics 
Argumens  et  Reflexions.     Neufchatel,  1772,  folio. 

M.  Ostcrvald  was  an  eminent  divine  of  the  French  Protestant 
church.  The  French  text  of  the  Bible  is  that  of  the  Geneva  ver- 
sion, revised  and  corrected  by  himself;  whence  it  is  ofien  considered 
as  a  new  version.  Oslervald's  arguments  and  reflections  are  very 
valuable,  and  have  been  liberally  consulted  by  later  commentators. 
A  detached  translation  of  them,  in  three  vols.  8vo.,  was  published 
by  Mr.  Chamberlayne  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
at  the  request  and  under  the  patronage  of  the  Society  for  promoting 
Christian  Knowledge :  the  latter  editions  of  this  translation  are  in 
two  volumes,  8vo. 

12.  JoANifis  CoccEii  Commentarii  in  Sacras  Scriptuias,  in 
ejus  Operibus.     Amstelodami,  10  vols,  folio. 

The  Commentaries  of  Cocceius  are  also  extant  in  quarto  and  folio, 
under  different  dates  as  they  were  published.  It  is  the  fault  of  this 
learned  man,  that  he  has  in  the  Old  Testament  spiritualized  every 
thing  to  the  utmost ;  his  commentaries,  however,  particularly  on 
the  New  Testament,  abound  with  valuable  illustrations,  and  will 
amply  repay  the  trouble  of  perusal.  He  is  "  a  commentator  from 
whom  a  judicious  expositor  may  derive  much  assistance.  Often 
fanciful,  and  even  fanatical,  he  is  learned,  pious,  and  far  more  dis- 
cerning in  the  true  scope  of  prophecy  than  many  who  succeeded 
him."     (Dr.  Apthorpe's  Disc,  on  Prophecy,  vol.  i.  p.  106.) 

13.  Calmet. — Commentaire  Litteral  sur  tous  les  Livres  de 
I'Ancien  et  du  Nouveau  Testament,  par  Augustin  Calmet. 
Paris,  1719—1726,  8  tomis,  in  9  vols,  folio. 

It  contains  the  Latin  text  of  the  Vulgate,  and  a  French  version 
in  collateral  columns,  with  the  notes  at  the  bottom  of  each  page. 
It  has  a  vast  apparatus  of  prefaces  and  dissertations,  in  which  im- 
mense learning,  good  sense,  sound  judgment,  and  deep  piety  are 
invariably  displayed.  "  This  is  without  exception  the  best  comment 
on  the  Sacred  Writings  ever  published,  either  by  Catholics  or  Pro- 
testants." (Dr.  A.  Clarke.)  Walchius  (Bibl.  Theol.  vol.  iv.  p.  433.) 
has  pronounced  an  equally  strong  but  well-deserved  eulogium  on 
this  valuable  work,  to  which  we  have  been  largely  indebted  in  the 
course  of  these  volumes. 

14.  La  Sainte  Bible  de  Vence,  en  Latin  et  en  Franc  ais,  avec 
des  Notes  Litteraires,  Critiques  et  Historiques,  des  Prefaces,  et 
Dissertations,  tirees  du  Commentaire  de  Dom  Calmet,  Abbe  de 
Senones,  de  I'Abbe  de  Vence,  et  des  autres  auteurs  les  plus  cele- 
bres,  pour  faciliter  I'intelligence  de  I'Ecriture  Sainte;  enrichie 
d'un  Atlas  et  de  Cartes  Geographiques.  Cinquieme  edition, 
soigneusement  revue  et  augmentee  d'un  grand  nombre  de  Notes 
par  M.  Dhach,  Rabbin  converti,  et  enrichie  de  nouvelles  Disser- 
tations.    Paris,  1827 — 1834,  27  tomes,  8vo.  Avec  Atlas. 

This  was,  originally,  a  reprint  of  the  Bible  published  in  Latin  and 
French  by  L.  E.  Rondet,  first  in  1748  in  fourteen  volumes,  quarto, 
and,  a  second  time,  between  the  years  1767  and  1774.  The  date 
of  the  third  edition  we  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain.  The 
French  translation,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  corrections,  is  that 
of  father  Carrieres.  Besides  the  Latin  Vulgate  and  French  version, 
this  work  contains  prefaces  to  the  several  books,  notes,  and  disser- 
tations, chiefly  taken  from  Calmet,  but  abridged  in  some  places,  and 
in  others  altered  or  enlarged :  most  of  the  alterations  are  pointed 
out.  There  are  also  notes,  and  several  dissertations  from  the  Abbe 
DE  Vence,  and  the  fathers  Houbigant  and  Carrieres,  with  many 
additions  by  Rondet  ;  though  these  last  are  not  very  distinctly 
specified.  The  critical  and  historical  dissertations,  which  are  one 
hundred  and  seventy  in  number,  treat  on  various  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture and  biblical  subjects.  There  are  seven  large  indexes  relative 
to  Scripture  chronology  and  geography,  to  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee, 
Syriac,  and  Greek  names,  and  in  general  to  the  contents  of  the  text, 
prefaces,  dissertations,  notes,  &c.  The  Atlas  contains  thirty-eight 
maps  and  engravings.  There  is  an  edition  of  this  Bible  printed  at 
Nismes,  in  seventeen  volumes.  8vo.  (Peignot.  Manuel  du  Bibliophile, 
tom.  ii.  p.  134.  Month.  Rev.  6.  S.  vol.  Iii.  p.  344.)  The  fourtli  edi- 
tion was  published  at  Paris  in  1820 — 1824,  in  twenty-five  volumes, 
8vo. 

The  superintendence  of  the  fifth  edition  was  confided  to  M. 
Drach,  formerly  a  Jewish  rabbi,  who  embraced  Christianity  in  the 
form  professed  by  the  Romish  church.  This  edition  was  intended, 
at  first,  to  be  a  mere  reprint  of  the  Bible  de  Vence,  revised  and 
accompanied  with  additional  notes.  But,  with  the  seventh  volume, 
the  editor  entirely  changed  the  plan  which  he  had  adopted  at  the 
commencement  of  the  undertaking,  and  instead  of  revising  the 
French  version  of  father  Carrieres,  he  has  so  altered  the  latter  in 
the  seventh,  and  following  volumes,  as  to  render  it  a  new  translation. 
M.  Brunet  states  that  these  alterations,  which  were  made  in  order 
to  please  the  then  dominant  party  in  the  Romish  Church  in  France, 
were  by  no  means  satisfactory  to  divines.  (Supplement  au  Manuel 
du  Libraire,  tom.  i.  p.  152.)  Besides  the  correction  of  typographi- 
cal errors,  this  edition  contains  the  following  among  other  improve, 
ments :  viz.  1.  New  Dissertations  relative  to  alleged  difficulties 
drawn  from  geology,  astronomy,  chronology,  the  zodiac  of  Dendera, 
&c.  &c.  by  various  distinguished  scholars,  especially  the  Abbe  Hal- 
ma  ; — 2.  R.eferences  to  the  best  authors  who  have  refuted,  indetaiL  ■ 
the  objections  of  modern  infidels;  —  3.   Numerous  notes  by  M. 


Sect.  III.  §  .3.] 


BRITISH  COMMENTATORS  ON  THE  WHOLE  BIBLE. 


109 


Drach ; — 4.  A  new  and  corrected  Alias,  on  thirty-seven  plates,  con- 
Bisting  of  maps  and  other  engravings,  to  illuNiratc  llie  Srripliire 
History; — antJ,  5.  A  notice  oC  tlie  best  works  treating  on  the  Bihie 
generally,  and  on  eacli  book  in  parliciihir.  And  us  M.  Oraeh  in  his 
notesoftcn  refers  tohis  "  Letters  d'nn  1^-ibbin  Converti  aux  Israelites 
ses  Frcres"  (Paris,  182.') — 1H27,  Hvo.),  it  will  be  dcssirablo  to  add 
those  letters  to  the  work  itself.  An  Italian  translation  of  M.  Orach's 
edition  of  the  Bible  du  Vence  was  published  ut  Milan  in  1U3U  and 
following  years. 

1.5.  CiiAis. — La  Sainte  Bible,  avec  un  Commentaire  Litteral, 
el  des  Notes  choisies,  tirccs  do  divers  Auteurs  Anglois,  &c.,  par 
Charles  Chais.     Hague,  1743 — 17'J0,  7  vols.  4to. 

Besides  a  P'ronnh  translation,  which  in  general  is  judirioiis,  this 
learned  and  eluboralf!  work  contains  a  valuable  coinincnt  on  the; 
Old  Testament  as  iiir  as  the  end  of  the  historical  books,  'i'lie 
seventh  volume  was  |Hjsthunious,  and  was  edited  by  the  late  Rev. 
Dr.  Maclaine.  "  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  learned  and 
pious  author  di<l  not  complete  the  whole.  What  he  has  published 
nowever,  at  long  intervals,  is  excellent.  His  nr)tes  are  chiefly 
taken,  as  he  professes,  from  the  best  English  conmienlators,  to  whom 
he  gives  a  decided  preference  above  the  foreign,  Houbigant,  Cal- 
met,  (fee. ;  nil  of  whom  he  appears  to  have  carefully  studiiul.  It  may 
therefore  be  justly  considered  as  a  considerable  and  valuable  im- 
provement upon  his  predecessors,  of  every  description,  as  far  as  it 
goes,"     (Dr.  Hales.) 

16.  HounioANT. — Caroli  Francisci  HonnioAJTTii  Notaj  Cri- 
ticsB  in  Universes  Vetcris  Tcstamenti  Lihros,  cum  Hcbriacc,  tum 
Grtecc  scriptos.  Cum  inlcgris  ejusdcm  Prolegomciiis.  Franco- 
furti  ad  Mcenum,  1777,  2tomis,  4to. 

A  neat  reprint  of  the  Prolegomena  and  notes  annexed  by  Houbi- 
gant to  his  Criti('al  Edition  and  Version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
which  has  already  been  noticed  in  p.  3G.   of  this  Appendix. 

17.  Jo.  Aug.  Datiiii  Libri  Vcteris  Testament!,  ex  Rcccnsionc 
Tcxtiis  Hebraji  et  Vcrsionum  Antiquarum,  Latine  vcrsi,  notis  plii- 
lologicis  et  criticis  illustrati.     Halse,  1773 — 1789,  6  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  is  in  high  repute  on  the  Continent:  see  a  notice  of 
Dathe's  Latin  version  in  p.  32.  of  this  A))peiidix.  The  difficult  and 
obscure  passages  are  illustrated  by  notes  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  page.  After  M.  Dathe's  decease,  liosenmiiller  edited  a  collec- 
tion of  his  Opiisciila  ad  Crisin  et  Inlcrpretalionem  Veleris  Tcsta- 
menti spectantia,  8vo.  Lipsiag,  1705.  These  should  be  added  to  the 
above  work,  as  they  contain  critical  disquisitions  on  some  ancient 
versions,  &c. 

18.  Intcrpretatio  Sacra;  ScripturtD  per  omnes  Vcteris  ct  Novi 
Tcstamenti  Libros,  ab  Joanne  Nep.  Aluku,  Clerico  Rcgulari  e 
Scholis  Piis,  S.  Theologise  Doctore,  Linguarum  Oriontalium  et 
SacriE  Scriptura;  in  Archicpiscopali  Lyceo  Professore.  Pesthini 
[Pesth,  in  Hungary],  1801 — 1804,  16  large  vols.  8vo. 

Though  published  upwards  of  thirty  years  since,  this  exposition 
was  unknown. in  England  until  the  year  1827,  when  a  few  copies 
were  im|)orted.  Professor  Alber  dedicated  it  to  the  clergy  of  the 
Romish  church  in  Hungary,  for  whose  use  he  undertook  its  compi- 
lation. There  are  three  maps,  and  to  each  volume  there  is  a  list 
of  numerous  errata,  besides  a  copious  supplementary  list  in  the  last 
volume,  all  of  which  ought  to  be  corrected  before  the  work  can  be 
consulted.  To  the  first  volume  are  prefixed  about  fifty  pages  of 
preliminary  observations  on  the  various  aids  for  the  interpretation 
of  Scripture,  which  are  not  characterized  either  by  novelty  or  depth 
of  information.  The  following  is  the  method  pursued  by  the  au- 
thor. At  the  begirming  of  each  lK)ok  are  placed  a  short  preface, 
treating  on  its  author,  and  a  synopsis  of  its  contents.  The  text  of 
the  Latin  Vulgate  is  then  inserted  :  and  when  any  passage  occurs 
which  appears  to  be  either  difficult  or  obscure,  he  endeavours  to 
elucidate  it, — more  in  the  way  of  exposition  than  of  concise  critical 
annotations.  Dr.  Alber  professes  to  have  consulted  the  various  exe- 
getical  lalxjurs,  Iwth  of  Protestants  and  Romanists  ;  and  that  .he  has 
endeavoured  to  state  the  various  |x>ints  of  diflerence  between  them 
without  asperity  and  with  Christian  candour.  In  this  endeavour, 
truth  requires  it  to  be  stated,  that  the  author  has  succeeded.  Wher- 
ever an  occasion  presents  itself,  he  fails  not  to  impugn  and  to  refute 
the  notions  of  the  antisiipernatiiralist  divines  of  Germany,  as  well 
as  of  the  enemies  of  divine  revelation.  The  prolbundest  reverence 
to  the  opinions  of  the  fathers  of  the  Christian  church,  and  to  the 
doctrinal  decisions  and  decrees  of  the  Romish  church,  pervades 
this  ex|)osition. 

1 9.  liibri  Sacri  Antiqui  Foederis  ex  Sertnone  Hebrajo  in  Lati- 
nuin  translati ;  notatione  brevi  prscipuiE  Leclionuin  ct  Interpre- 
tationuin  diversitatis  addita.  Auctoribus  D.  Henrico  Augusto 
ScHOTT  et  Julio  Friederico  Winzeh.  Volumcn  primum.  AI- 
tona;  et  Lipsiie,  1816,  8vo. 

This  volume  comprises  the  Pentateuch  only.  With  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, the  version  is  said  to  be  close  ;  and  the  annotations,  which 
are  very  brief,  are  strictly  confined  to  the  indication  of  the  princi- 
pal various  lections,  and  of  the  different  interpretations  proixised 
by  eminent  biblical  critics.  The  three  first  books  were  translated 
by  Dr.  Schoti,  and  the  last  two  by  M.  Wnizcr.  This  work  has  not 
been  continued. 


20.  Commcntarius  Grammaticus,  in  Vctus  Testamentum  in 
usum  inaxime  Gymnasioruin  et  .\c.-idciniaruin  adornatus.  Scrip- 
sit  Franc.  Jos.  Valent.  Doininicus  Maiiiku.  3  Fasciculi  form- 
ing one  volume.     Lipsia;,  1833-1834,  8vo. 

This  is  strictly  a  grammatical  commentary,  the  author  of  which 
has  a  strong  leaning  in  favour  of  those  ne'ologian  interpretations 
which  explain  the  Messianic  Prophecies  of  any  one  rather  th.-m  the 
Messiah  himself  Dr.  Maurer  has  so  perpetually  referred  his  rea- 
ders to  the  valuable  Hebrew  Grammars  of  (iesenius  and  Ewald 
(expressly  in  order  that  they  may  familiarize  themsidves  with  them), 
that  his  work  is  of  comparatively  littlo  use,  except  to  those  who 
may  hap()en  to  possess  those  Grammars. 

21.  La  Sainte  Bible,  en  Latin  et  en  Francois,  suivie  d'un  Dic- 
tionnairc  Etyniologique,  Geographique,  et  Archcologique.  Paris, 
1828-1834,  13  tomes,  Hvo. 

The  [irincipal  recommendation  of  this  beautifully  printed  but 
costly  c<lition  of  the  J'rench  Version  of  the  .Scriptures,  is  the  Etymo- 
logical, Geographical,  and  Archa;ological  Dic'tionary,  which  was 
announced  as  being  compiled  by  M.  Barbier  du  Bocage,  under 
whose  direction  an  Atlas,  possessing  more  than  ordinary  claims  to 
attention  on  account  of  its  accuracy,  was  to  be  designed  and  en- 
graved. The  version  is  that  of  De  Sacy,  which  is  printed  in 
columns,  and  below  it  is  given  in  smaller  characters  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate. The  first  volume  contains  a  Dissertation  on  the  Authenticity 
of  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament;  and  to  eai-h  iKJok  of  Scripture 
is  prefixed  a  short  preface  explanatory  of  its  contents.  The  work 
is  adorned  with  sixty-four  engravings,  executed  by  the  most  distin- 
guished French  artists,  after  the  designs  of  Devcria.  The  thirteenth 
volume  contains  the  Chronology  of  the  Bible,  together  with  an  in- 
dex of  the  matters  contained  in  the  Scriptures,  an  exjilanatory  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Greek  names  occur- 
ring therein,  and  an  archicological  and  philological  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible.  This  last  is  fiir  the  most  part  derived  from  Calmei's  well- 
known  Dictionary:  those  articles,  which  arc  not  designated  by  his 
name,  iiavc  been  compiled  from  the  most  recent  authorities. 


[ii.]   British  Commentators  on  the  -whole  Bible. 

1.  The  Rrfoumkii's  Bible. — The  Holy  Bible,  containing 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  according  to  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sion ;  with  short  Notes  by  .several  learned  and  j)ious  Reformers, 
as  printed  by  Royal  .Authority  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
with  additional  Notes  and  Dissertations.     London,  1810,  4to. 

The  notes  on  the  Old  Testament  in  this  edition  are  reprinted 
from  those  appended  to  the  English  version  of  the  Bible,  published 
at  Geneva  by  Coverdale,  Sampson,  and  other  reformers,  who  fled 
to  that  city  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary :  whence  tlieir  trans- 
lation is  generally  known  by  the  appellation  of  the  Geneva  Bible. 
An  account  of  this  is  given  in  p.  3b.  of  this  Appendix.  The  anno- 
tations on  the  New  Testament  are  translated  from  the  Latin  of 
Theodore  Beza.  Although  in  this  edition  the  orthography  is  mo- 
dernized, and  the  style  has  in  some  few  instances  been  itnproved, 
the  editor  (the  Rev.  Thomas  Webster,  B.D.)  states  that  the  utmost 
caution  has  been  observed,  that  no  alteration  should  be  made  in  the 
sentiments  of  the  reformers,  whose  "  notes  and  illustrations"  the 
late  eminent  Bishop  Ilorsley  (no  mean  judge  of  biblical  literature) 
has  pronounced  to  be  "  vcri/  edifying,  except  that  in  many  points 
they  savour  too  much  of  Calvinism."  The  notes  on  the  Ajxjca- 
lypse  are  selected  by  the  editor  from  various  commentators :  he  has 
also  occasionally  supplied  arguments  to  the  diflcrent  books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments:  his  dissertations  on  which,  though  concise, 
are  sufficiently  comprehensive  for  those  readers  who  have  not  lei- 
sure to  consult  more  expensive  commentaries.  A  few  useful  maps 
and  tables  accompany  the  work,  which  is  further  ornamented  with 
some  neatly  executed  vignette  engravings. 

2.  Hall  (Bishop). — Contemplations  on  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.     London,  1808,  2  vols.  Svo. 

These  have  been  reprinted  at  various  times  and  in  dififerent 
forms ;  the  edition  now  noticed  was  published  by  the  Rev.  Josinh 
Pratt,  B.D.,  and  is  very  correctly  printed.  Bishop  Hall's  Contem- 
plations "  arc  incom|)arably  valuable  for  language,  criticism,  and 
devotion."  (Dr.  Doddridge.)  The  Bishop  also  wrote  a  "Paraphras- 
tic Exposition  of  hard  Texts,"  which  forms  the  .3d  and  4ili  vols,  of 
Mr.  Pratt's  edition  of  his  whole  works.  These  expository  notes  Dr. 
D.  pronoimces  to  be  "very  valuable,  especially  tor  showing  the 
spirit  and  force  of  many  expressions  that  occur."  They  do  not, 
however,  contain  much  learned  criticism.  Most  of  them,  if  not  all, 
are  inserted  in  the  valuable  Commentary  of  Bp.  Maul  and  Dr. 
D'Oyly,  noticed  below. 

3.  Mater. — .\  Commentary  upon  the  Bible;  wherein  the 
Divers  Translations  and  Expositions,  Literall  and  Mysticall,  of 
the  most  famous  Commentators,  both  ancient  and  modern,  are 
propounded  and  examined,  by  John  Mateii,  London,  1653, 
.5  vols,  folio. 

4.  Annotations  upon  all  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament: this  third,  above  the  first  and  second  edition.s,  so  enlarged, 
as  they  make  an  entire  Commentary  on  the  Sacred  Scripture; 


no 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V 


the  like  never  before  published  in  English.  Wherein  the  text 
is  explained,  doubts  resolved,  Scriptures  paralleled,  and  various 
readings  observed  ;  by  the  labour  of  certain  learned  divines  there- 
unto appointed,  and  therein  employed,  as  is  expressed  in  the 
preface.     London,  1657,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  valuable  work  (for  valuable  and  learned  it  is,  considering 
the  time  when  it  was  composed),  is  usually  called  the  "  Asskmbly's 
Annotations;"  from  the  circumstance  of  its  having  been  composed 
by  members  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  who  sat  at  Westmnister 
during  the  great  rebellion.  The  reader  will  find  an  account  of  Us 
authors  in  Dr.  Calamy's  Life  of  Mr.  Baxter,  p.  86.  et  seq. 

5.  Poole. — Annotations  upon  the  Holy  Bible,  wherein  the 
sacred  text  is  inserted,  and  various  readings  annexed ;  together 
with  the  parallel  Scriptures.  The  more  difRcult  terms  are  ex- 
plained ;  seeming  contradictions  reconciled  ;  doubts  resolved,  and 
the  whole  text  opened.  By  the  Rev.  Matthew  Poole.  London, 
1683,  2  vols,  folio.     Edinburgh,  1803,  4  vols.  4to. 

The  Annotations  are  mingled  with  the  text,  and  are  allowed  to 
be  very  judicious  ;  the  author  (who  was  an  eminent  non-conformist 
divine)  wrote  them  only  as  far  as  the  58th  chapter  of  Isaiah  ;  the 
remainder  of  the  notes  was  compiled  after  the  same  manner,  by 
several  eminent  dissenting  ministers. 

6.  Clarke. — The  Old  and  New  Testament,  with  Annota- 
tions and  parallel  Scriptures.  By  Samuel  Clarke,  A.M.  Lon- 
don, 1690,  folio. 

The  selection  of  parallel  texts  is  admirable ;  and  the  notes,  though 
very  brief,  are  written  with  great  judgment.  The  work  was  com- 
mended in  very  high  terms  by  Drs.  Owen  and  Bates,  as  well  as  by 
Mr.  Baxter  and  Mr.  Howe.  "  It  has  been  an  excellent  fund  for 
some  modern  commentators,  who  have  republished  a  great  part  of 
it  with  very  little  alteration."  (Chalmers's  Biog.  Diet.  vol.  ix. 
p.  403.)  This  work,  notwithstanding  the  learned  author  was  a 
non-conformist,  is  inserted  in  the  list  of  books  recommended  by 
Bishop  Cleaver  to  the  attention  of  the  younger  clergy.  It  is  unfor- 
tunately very  scarce  and  dear.  The  purchaser  must  be  careful 
that  he  be  not  misled  by  another  Bible  published  also  in  otie  vol. 
folio,  in  1811,  in  the  name  of  S.  Clarke,  in  numbers ;  and  which  is 
a  very  indifferent  compilation  by  some  anonymous  editor  from 
various  commentators,  all  of  whom  lived  long  after  the  time  of 
Mr.  Clarke. 

7.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Edward  Wells  published  a  Help  for  the 
Right  Understanding  of  the  Scripture,  in  various  parts,  between 
the  years  1709  and  1728.  As  this  useful  work  is  not  often  to  be 
met  with  complete,  the  following  bibliographical  notice  of  it  is 
copied  from  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cotton's  List  of  Editions  of  the  Bible 
and  of  parts  thereof.     (Appendix,  pp.  163 — 165.) 

Wells's  Paraphrase  of  the  Old  Testameiit. 

Part  I.  The  Title,  "  An  Help  for  the  more  easy  and  clear 
understanding  of  the  Holy  Scriptures :  being  the  book  of  Gene- 
sis explained  after  the  following  method :  viz.  The  common 
English  Translation  rendered  more  agreeable  to  the  original.  A 
paraphrase.  Annotations."  Oxford,  printed  at  the  Theatre, 
1724.  "A  preface  to  the  reader,"  5  pages.  "  The  general  pre- 
face," XV  pages.  "  A  discourse  of  the  year,  &c,  in  use  among 
the  Jews,"  p.  1 — 91.  "A  Chronological  Account,"  &c.  23  pages, 
not  numbered.  Additional  notes,  6  pages,  not  numbered.  The 
text,  p.  I — 277.     A  synopsis  to  the  Pentateuch,  2  pages. 

Part  II.  Title,  "An  Help,"  &c.  as  before:  containing  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy,  printed  1725.  "  A  pre- 
face to  the  reader,"  p.  i — xi.  Errata,  1  leaf,  not  numbered. 
Exodus,  p.  1 — 149.  Leviticus,  p.  1 — 86.  Numbers  and  Deu- 
teronomy, p.  1 — 236. 

Part  III.  Title,  "  An  Help,"  <fec.  containing  Joshua,  Judges, 
and  Ruth :  printed  1725.  A  preface  to  the  reader,  11  pages. 
Joshua,  p.  1 — 84.  Synopsis,  1  leaf,  not  numbered.  Judges  and 
Ruth,  p.  1—102. 

Part  IV.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  two  books  of  Samuel, 
and  two  of  Kings  :  printed  1736.  Preface,  p.  i — vi.  Samuel  to 
1  Kings,  chapter  i.  p.  1 — 182.     Errata,   1  leaf,  not  numbered. 

1  Kings,  chapter  ii.  <Stc.  p.  1 — 148. 

Part  V.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehe- 
miah,  and  Esther :  printed  1727.  Preface  to  the  reader,  p.  i — v. 
Chronicles,  p.  1 — 136.  Ezra,  Nehcmiah,  and  Esther,  p.  1 — 80. 
a  continuation  of  Jewish  history,  p.  81 — 109.  Chronological 
tables,  2  pages. 

Part  VI.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  and  Canticles:  printed  1727.     Preface  to  the  reader, 

2  pages.  Job  to  Psalm  Ix.  p.  1 — 160.  Psalm  Ixi — cl.  p.  1 — 115. 
Preface  to  Proverbs,  &c.  4  pages,  unnumbered.  Proverbs,  &c. 
p.  1—116. 

Part  VII.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and 


Lamentations:  printed  1728.  A  general  discourse,  p.  i — xvi. 
Isaiah,  p.  1 — 162.     Jeremiah  and  Lamentations,  p.  1 — 168. 

Part  VIII.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  Ezechiel :  printed 
1728.     The  text  of  Ezechiel,  p.  1—178. 

Part  IX.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  Daniel :  printed  1716. 
Dedication,  4  pages,  not  numbered.  General  preface,  with  a 
table,  p.  1 — 10.  Discourse,  with  four  tables,  p.  11 — 44.  Daniel, 
p.  1 — 134.  Synopsis,  1  leaf.  Various  readings,  p.  137 — 170. 
N.  B.  This  edition  of  Daniel  was  published  with  the  New  Tes- 
tament: a  second  was  printed  1728. 

Part  X.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  the  twelve  Minor  Pro- 
phets: printed  1723.  General  preface,  p.  i — v.  Preface  to 
Hosea,  p.  i — vi.  Hosea  to  Obadiah,  p.  1 — 121.  Jonah  to 
Zephaniah,  p.  1 — 88.  Haggai  to  the  end,  p.  1 — 77.  N.  B.  A 
second  edition  was  published  in  1729,  containing  a  preface, 
2  pages.     Text,  p.  1 — 244. 

Paraphrase  of  the  JVew  Testament. 

Part  I.  "  An  Help,"  <&c.  containing  the  Gospels  and  Acts. 
Oxford,  at  the  Theatre,  1718.  General  preface,  p.  i — iv.  Two 
discourses,  p.  v — xx.  Chronological  tables,  p.  xxi — xxxv.  The 
contents  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  5  pages,  not  numbered. 
Then  follows  a  second  title,  "  An  Help,"  «fec.  containing  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  dated  1717.  The  text, 
p.  3— 411. 

Part  II.  "An  Help,"  &c.  containing  St,  Luke  and  the  Acts : 
dated  1719.  Advertisement,  &c.  6  pages.  St.  Luke,  p.  1 — 225. 
Acts,  p.  1—209. 

Part  III.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  St.  John's  Gospel :  dated 
1719.     Advertisement,  &c.  4  pages.     Text,  p.  1 — 195. 

Part  IV.  A  treatise  on  the  harmony  of  the  four  Gospels,  with 
a  table.     Preface,  2  pages.     The  treatise,  p.  1 — 83. 

Part  V.  "  The  second  part  of  an  Help,"  &c.  containing  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans:  dated  1711.  Preface,  2  pages.  Prooe- 
mial  discourse,  p.  1 — 24.  Text,  p.  1 — 125.  A  second  edition 
was  published  in  1715,  with  a  title  professing  the  part  to  contain 
all  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  General  preface,  synopsis,  and  lists  of 
books  written  by  Dr.  E.  Wells,  6  pages,  not  numbered.  Adver- 
tisement, &c.  2  pages.  Prooemial  discourse,  p.  1 — 20.  Text, 
p.  21—145. 

Part  VI.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  the  Epistles  to  the 
Corinthians:  printed  1714.     Errata,  1  leaf.     Text,  p.  1 — 171. 

Part  VII.  "An  Help,"  &c.  containing  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephe- 
sians,  Philippians,  Colossians,  Timothy,  Titus,  and  Philemon : 
printed  1715.     The  text,  p.  1—173. 

Part  VIII.  "  A  specimen  of  an  Help,"  &c.  being  the  Epistles 
to  the  Thessalonians  and  Galatians :  printed  1709.  Dedication, 
2  pages.  Preface,  5  pages.  Text,  p.  1—76.  N.  B.  In  1716 
was  published  a  second  edition ;  tlie  contents  and  pages  the  same. 

Part  IX.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  the  Epistle  to  the  H&. 
brews :  printed  1713.     Preface,  2  pages.     Text,  p.  1 — 95. 

Part  X.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  being  the  Catholic  Epistles  :  printed 
1715.     Advertisement,  &c.  2  pages.     Text,  p.  1 — 149. 

Part  XI.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  being  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  : 
printed  1717.  Dedication,  2  pages.  Preface,  3  pages.  Table 
and  Explanation.     Text,  p.  1 — 184. 

8.  Patrick,  Lowth,  Wuitbt,  and  Arnald's  Commentary 
on  the  Bible.  London,  1727-1760,  7  vols,  folio.  London,  1809, 
8  vols.  4to.    1821,  7  vols.  4to. 

Bishop  Patrick  wrote  the  commentary  on  the  historical  and  poe- 
tical books  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  2  vols. ;  Mr.  W.  Lowtu  (father 
of  Bishop  Lowlh)  that  on  the  Prophets,  in  one  vol. ;  Dr.  Wuitby 
that  on  the  New  Testament,  in  2  vol.*. ;  and  Mr.  Aiinald  the  com- 
mentary on  the  Apocryphal  books.  Tlie  four  volumes  of  Patrick, 
Lowth,  and  Arnald,  arc  justly  valued,  as  containing  one  of  the  best 
commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament  and  Apocrypha  which  we  have 
in  the  English  language.  As  Dr.  Whitby's  w'ork  on  the  New  Tes- 
tament is  very  fre<iuently  found  separate  from  the  above  commen- 
tators, the  reader  will  find  some  account  of  it,  infra,  in  the  list  of 
commentators  on  the  New  Testament. 

9.  Henry. — An  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
by  the  Rev.  Matthew  Hknrt,  folio,  5  vols.  4to.  6  vols,  various 
Editions;  also  in  6  vols.  4to.  London,  1827,  3  vols,  imperial 
8vo.     London,  1828. 

More  than  a  century  has  elapsed  since  this  Exposition  was  first 
published.  It  is  chiefly  practical ;  yet,  without  any  parade  of  learn- 
ing, it  frequently  contains  good  explanations  of  difficidt  passages. 
The  numerous  editions  through  which  it  has  passed  sutficiently 
attest  the  great  estimation  in  wliich  it  has  been  held.  It  is  perhaps 
the  only  commentary,  "  so  large,  that  deserves  to  be  entirely  and 
attentively  rcatl  through.  The  remarkable  passages  should  be 
marked  :  there  is  much  to  be  learned  in  this  work  in  a  s^jeculative. 


Sect.  III.  §  3.] 


BRITISH  COMMENTATORS  ON  THE  WHOLE  BIBLE. 


Ill 


and  Miill  iiiDre  in  a  practical  way."  (Dr.  Doddridge.)  The  London 
<)ii.Trlo  edition  oClHIl  was  Mniicrintondcd  \>y  the  Ki;v.  Mc.s.sr».  Bnr- 
dcr  and  lliif^lics,  and  is  very  correct.  'I'lic  text  of  itiis  inipros-sion 
lia.s  l)eon  fiillowcd  in  tlic  bcauliriiily  printed  edition  of  lcSi!7,  to 
wliicli  is  pre/ixcd  an  Introductory  ICstsay  by  the  Rev.  Kdvvard  Bick- 
orstclli.  Tiie  imperial  octavo  edition  in  also  heautii'ully  printed  : 
to  the  first  volume  is  prclixcd  a  Liie  uf  the  Author,  by  Mr.  J.  B. 
Williams. 

10.  Gill. — An  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
in  which  the  .sense  of  the  sacred  text  is  given  ;  doctrinal  and 
practical  trutlis  arc  set  in  a  plain  and  easy  light ;  dillicult  pas- 
sages explained  ;  seeming  contradictions  reconciled  ;  a;id  what- 
ever is  material  in  the  various  readings,  and  the  several  Oriental 
versions,  is  observed,  'i'lie  whole  illustrated  by  notes  from  the 
most  ancient  .lewish  writinirs.  By  John  Gill,  D.D.  London, 
1748— I7(i3,  9  vols,  folio.     London,  1809,  9  vols.  4to. 

In  rabbinical  literature  Dr.  Gill  had  no  equal,  and  he  has  hence 
been  enabled  to  iljnslrato  many  ini|)ortant  passages  of  Scripture. 
But  he  has  often  s|)irituali/.ed  his  text  to  absurdity.  "The  massy 
volumes  of  Dr.  (Jill  might  almo.st  fijrin  a  class  of  their  own,  as  they 
roiiipreliend  every  method  ol  inlc^rpretation  ;  and  sometimes,  by 
giving  to  the  same  passage  too  great  a  variety  of  meanings,  they 
leave  the  weak  reader  to  doubt  whether  that  book  can  have  any 
certain  meaning,  wliicli  an  ingenious  expositor  can  interpret,  or 
rather /or/wrc  in  so  many  ditlerenl  ways."  An  occasional  reference 
to  this  learned  work  is  all,  perhaps,  thai  can  be  recommended. 

11.  PriivKn. — A  New  and  Literal  Translation  of  all  the 
Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  Notes  critical 
and  explanatory.  By  Antony  ruiivuR.  London,  1764,  2  vols, 
folio. 

The  author  of  tliis  translation  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends  or  (iuakers  ;  who,  un<ler  very  considerable  disadvantages, 
acfpiired  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental 
languages,  and  also  of  the  Circek.  His  work  was  published  at  the 
expense  of  Dr.  J.  Fothcrgill.  Although  it  contains  many  improved 
renderings  an<l  useful  notes,  it  "  has  never  been  highly  valued,  and 
is  much  less  literal  and  much  less  sim|)le  than  the  habits  of  the 
man,  and  those  of  the  religious  community  to  which  he  belonged, 
might  authorize  one  to  expect."  (Dr.  A.  Clarke.)  See  a  further 
account  in  the  Monthly  Review  (O.  S.),  vol.  xxxii.  pp.  194 — 205. 

12.  Wkslkt. — Notes  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  by  the 
Rev.  J.  Wkslet,  M.A.     Bristol,  1704,  4  vols.  4to. 

In  consef|ucnce  of  the  author  being  obliged  to  retrench  his 
notes,  in  order  to  comprise  the  work  within  the  prescribed  limits 
of  four  volumes,  "  the  notes  on  the  Old  Test.iment  are  allowed  on 
all  hands  to  be  meagre  and  unsatisfactory.  The  noJes  on  the  New 
Testament,  which  have  gone  through  several  editions,  are  of  a 
widely  different  description;  though  short,  they  are  always  judi- 
cious, accurate,  spiritual,  terse,  ami  impressive,  and  possess  the 
happy  and  rare  (jualily  of  leading  the  reader  immedialely  to  (Jod  and 
his  own  heart."  (Dr.  A.  ('iarke.)  The  Rev.  Dr.  Hales  pronounces 
these  notes  to  be  "  commendable  for  their  conciseness,  and  acutely 
pointed  to  the  hearts  and  consciencrsof  his  readers;"  and  he  men- 
tions the  notes  on  the  Apocalypse,  which  are  chiefly  abridged  from 
the  critical  and  expository  writings  of  Bengcl,  as  being  the  most 
valuable  part  of  Mr.  Wesley's  work.  (Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol. 
ii.  pp.  1287,  1288.)  The  text  is  inserted  in  continuous  paragraphs, 
l)ie  verses  being  thrown  in;o  the  margin,  and  it  contains  several 
happy  corrections  of  the  received  version,  which  are  frequently 
cited  by  Mr.  Granville  Sharp  and  Dr.  Hales. 

13.  The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
according  to  the  present  authorized  English  Version,  with  Notes, 
critical,  explanatory,  and  practical ;  all  the  marginal  readings  of 
the  most  approved  printed  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  with  such 
others  as  appear  to  be  countenanced  by  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
originals;  a  copious  collection  of  references  to  parallel  texts; 
summaries  of  the  contents  of  each  book  and  chapter,  and  the  date 
of  every  transaction  and  event  recorded  in  the  Sacred  Oracles, 
agreeably  to  the  calculation  of  the  most  correct  chronologers. 
By  the  Rev.  Joseph  Bk.nsox.  London,  1811—1818,  5  vols.  4to. 
Various  subsequent  editions,  also  in  five  volumes,  quarto. 

An  elaborate  and  very  useful  commentary  on  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
lures,  which  (independently  of  its  practical  tendency)  possesses  the 
merii  of  compressing  into  a  comparatively  small  compass  the  sub- 
stance of  what  the  piety  and  learning  of  former  ages  have  advanced, 
in  order  to  liieilitale  the  study  of  the  Bible.  Its  late  learned  author 
w.as  particularly  distingiiisheil  lor  his  critical  and  exact  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Greek  Testament. 

14.  CnunEN. — The  Complete  Family  Bible:  or  a  Spiritual 
Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament;  wherein  each  chap- 
ter is  summed  up  in  its  context,  and  the  sacred  text  inserted  at 
large,  with  Notes,  spiritual,  practical,  and  explanatory.  By  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Chudkn.     London,  1770,  2  vols,  folio. 

The  compiler  of  this  indiflerently  executed  commentary  is  not 
to  lie  contbunded  with  Mr.  Alexander  Cruden,  author  of  the  well- 
known  Concordance  to  the  Holy  Scriptures.     It  apjicars  to  have 

Vol.  II. — Arp.  4  G 


been  originally  published  in  numbers,  which  circumstance  may 
account  lijr  the  jiaucity  of  copies  now  to  be  met  with. 

1.5.  Doitn. — A  Commentary  on  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  in  which  are  inserted  the  Notes  and  Collections  of 
John  Locke,  E.sq.,  Daniel  Waterland,  U.D.,  and  the  Right  Hon. 
Edward  Earl  of  Clarendon,  and  other  learned  jwrsons,  with 
practical  improvements.  By  W.  Douii,  LL.U.  London,  1770, 
3  vols,  folio. 

In  the  compilation  of  this  work.  Dr.  Dodd  availed  himself  libe- 
rally of  the  lalxjurs  of  Calmet,  Cliais,  and  lloiibigant,  besides  the 
most  eminent  commentators  of  our  own  country,  and  the  manuscript 
collections  mentioned  above.  The  purchaser  should  see  that  vol.  i. 
contains  a  Dissertation  on  the  Pentateuch,  and  vol.  iii.  another  on 
the  Inspiration  of  the  New  Testament ;  which  arc  not  unfrequently 
wanting,  cspcfually  the  first,  probably  from  the  work  being  origi- 
nally published  in  numbers.  Dr.  Dodd's  Commentary  was  reprinted 
a  few  years  since  by  the  Rev.  Dr. Coke,  with  several  retrenchments 
and  some  unim|Mjrtant  additions,  in  six  handsome  volumes,  quarlu. 

16.  GoAnnY. — An  Illustration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  by  Notes 
and  Explications  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.   3  vols,  folio. 

The  publication  of  this  work  commenced  in  the  year  1759,  and 
it  has  been  frequently  reprinted.  It  was  edited  by  Mr.  GoAnuv  of 
Sherborne;  "it  contains  many  judicious  notes:  but  "while  it 
xeems  to  be  orthodox,  is  written  entirely  on  the  Arinii  hyiwlhesis." 
(Dr.  A.  Clarke.)  The  false  and  erroneous  interpretations  contained 
in  this  work  were  forcibly  and  ably  exposed  by  the  Rev.  Walter 
Sellon,  in  his  "  Remarks  upon  certain  passages  in  a  work  entitled 
an  Illustration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures."     London,  17G5,  12mo. 

17.  Hawkis. — The  Evangelical  Expositor;  or  a  Commentary 
on  the  Holy  Bible  wherein  the  Sacred  Text  is  inserted  at  large, 
the  sense  explained,  and  dilTercnt  passages  elucidated,  with  prac- 
tical observations,  «&c.  By  T.  Haweis,  LL.B.  M.D.  London, 
1765,  2  vols,  folio. 

18.  Wilsox  (Bishop).  —  The  Holy  Bible;  contaiming  the 
Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  carefully  printed  from 
the  first  edition  (compared  with  others)  of  the  present  transla- 
tion:  with  notes  by  Thomas  Wilsox,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Sodor 
and  Man,  and  various  renderings,  collected  from  other  transla- 
tions, by  the  Rev.  Clement  Crutwell,  editor.  London,  1785,  3 
vols.  4  to. 

This  edition  contains  a  translation  of  the  apocryphal  third  book 
of  Maccabees,  which  has  not  appeared  in  any  Knglish  Bibles  since 
Beeke's  edition  of  1551.  The  text  and  marginal  references  are 
printed  with  c(iual  beauty  and  correctness.  "  The  editor  has 
greatly  increased  the  value  of  this  edition  by  inserting  in  the  mar- 
gin different  renderings  of  the  same  pa.ssage,  from  all  the  transla- 
tions he  could  procure.  He  also  prefixed  a  particular  account  of 
the  several  English  translations  of  the  Bible,  and  of  their  authors. 
The  bishop's  notes  arc  only  to  be  considered  as  brief  hints  either 
for  the  explanation  or  the  practical  improvement  of  particular  pas- 
sages. As  illustrations  of  the  text,  their  value  is  inconsiderable. 
(Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  Ixxiv.  p.  297.) 

19.  YosGE. — A  Practical  and  Explanatory  Commentary  on 
the  Holy  Bible,  taking  the  whole  in  one  point  of  view,  from  the 
Creation  to  the  End  of  the  World.  By  I.  Yoxge.  London, 
1787,  4to. 

"The  point  of  view  in  which  the  Scriptures  arc  here  considered, 
is  their  reference  to  the  redemption  of  the  world  by  Jesus  Christ; 
which  great  event  is  traced  through  the  historical  and  prophetical 
writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  narrative  and  epistolary 
records  of  the  New,  to  show  that  the  whole  has  one  leading  object 
and  design.  This  work  is  rather  intended  as  a  practical  help  to  the 
meditations  of  the  pious  Christian,  than  as  a  critical  elucidation  of 
the  sacred  writings."     (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  Ixxviii.  p.  173.) 

20.  ScoTT. — The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments ;  with  original  notes,  practical  observations,  and  co- 
pious marginal  references.  By  Thomas  Scott,  Rector  of  Aston 
Sandford.  London,  1822,  6  vols.  4to.  I'ifth  and  best  edition, 
with  the  author's  last  corrections.  Also  in  1830,  in  3  vols,  im- 
perial Svo. 

The  fiist  edition  of  this  work  (the  constant  and  increasing  sale  of 
which  proves  the  high  estimation  in  which  il  is  deservedly  held), 
begun  in  1788,  and  published  in  numbers,  consisted  of  five  thousand 
copies;  the  second,  in  1805,  of  two  thousand  ;  the  third,  in  1810, 
of  two  ihousiuid  ;  the  fourth,  in  1812,  of  three  thousand  ;  and  the 
fifth  and  latest  edition,  completed  and  published  in  1822,  is  shrfo- 
ti/pid — the  largest  work  ever  submitted  to  that  process.  Besides 
these,  eight  other  editions,  consisting  altogether  of  twenty-five 
thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  copies,  were  prinled  in  the  Lnited 
Slates  of  America  from  1808  to  1819;  where  the  local  and  tem|X»- 
rary  prejudices,  from  which  the  writer  could  not  escape  in  his  own 
country,  having  less  force,  its  value  seems  to  have  been  at  once 
acknowledged.  On  the  last  edition  of  this  Commentary  its  learned 
author  was  engaged  at  the  time  of  his  death,  and  bestowed  the  tit- 
most  pains  upon  its  revision,  .so  a.s  to  render  it  as  accurate  as  possi- 
ble.   More  particularly,  1.  As  smidry  small  variations  have,  during 


112 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  1L  Chap.  V, 


the  lapse  of  two  centuries,  crept  into  our  cnmmon  Bibles,  consider- 
able pains  have  been  taken,  by  Ih.e  collation  of  different  editions, 
to  exhibit  an  accurate  copy  of  the  sacred  text  according  to  the 
authorized  version.— 2.  Not  only  have  the  marginal  references 
througliout  been  revised  with  the  utmost  care,  but  it  will  be  found 
that  the  author  has  inserted,  in  the  notes,  and  practical  observa- 
tions, frequent  references  to  other  parts  of  his  Commentary.  To 
this  improvement  he  attached  considerable  importance  :  and  its 
value  will,  no  doubt,  be  felt  by  those  readers  who  may  bestow  suf- 
ficient pains  upon  the  subject  to  enter  into  his  design.  The  student 
may  be  advantageously  referred  to  the  hook  of  Proverbs  for  a  spe- 
cimen of  this  addition  to  the  work. — 3.  But  the  most  important  im- 
provement which  it  has  received,  consists  in  the  copious  critical 
remarks  which  have  been  introduced.  Many  of  these  occur  in 
the  Old  Testament,  in  all  which  the  original  words  iri  Hebrew 
characters,  pointed,  have  been  substituted  for  the  English  letters, 
by  which  they  had  been  before  expressed,  wherever  any  thing  of 
tiie  kind  occurred.  In  the  New  Testament  these  remarks  are  nu- 
merous. Here  also  new  authorities  are  adduced  in  support  of  the 
criticisms  which  had  been  previously  made,  particularly  from 
Schleusner,  to  whose  valuable  Lexicon  of  the  Greek  Testament 
the  author  was  indebted  for  much  assistance.  The  critical  re- 
marks, it  is  also  to  be  observed,  are  now  uniformly  carried  to  the 
end  of  the  note,  instead  of  being  interspersed  in  the  body  of  it. — 
4.  Mr.  Scott  had  finished  the  actual  revision  of  this  great  work 
nearly  to  the  end  of  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy.  The  last  pas- 
sage to  which  he  put  his  hand  was  that  striking  declaration  of  St. 
Paul  (2  Tim.  iii.  1,  2.)  so  applicable  to  the  present  times.  Although 
several  alterations  (and  some  of  ihem  of  considerable  importance) 
liave  been  made  in  the  fifth  edition,  subsequent  to  the  verse  just 
named  ;  yet  these  have  not  been  introduced  without  authority,  but 
are  taken,  according  to  the  author's  directions,  from  a  copy  of  the 
fourth  edition,  which  he  read  over  soon  after  its  publication,  mak- 
ing such  corrections  as  occurred.  The  critical  remarks  also,  con- 
tained in  the  former  edition,  have  been,  to  the  close,  arranged,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  according  to  the  plan  adopted  in  the  preceding 
parts  of  the  work. 

"  The  capital  excellency  of  this  valuable  and  immense  under- 
taking, perhaps,  consists  in  following,  more  closely  than  any  other, 
the  fair  and  adequate  meaning  of  every  part  of  Scripture,  without 
regard  to  the  niceties  of  human  systems  :  it  is,  in  every  sense  of  the 
expression,  a  scriptural  comment.  It  has  likewise  a  further  and  a 
strong  recommendation  in  its  originality.  Every  part  of  it  is 
thought  out  by  the  author  for  himself,  not  borrowed  from  others. 
The  later  editions,  indeed,  are  enriched  with  brief  and  valuable 
quotations  from  several  writers  of  credit — but  the  substance  of  the 
work  is  entirely  his  own.  It  is  not  a  compilation,  it  is  an  original 
production,  in  which  you  have  the  deliberate  judgment  of  a  mas- 
culine and  independent  mind  on  all  the  parts  of  Holy  Scripture. 
Every  student  will  understand  the  value  of  such  a  work.  Further, 
it  is  the  comment  of  our  age,  presenting  many  of  the  last  lights 
which  history  casts  on  the  interpretation  of  prophecy,  giving  seve- 
ral of  the  remarks  which  sound  criticism  has  accumulated  from  the 
different  branches  of  sacred  literature,  obviating  the  chief  objec- 
tions which  modern  annotators  have  advanced  against  some  of  the 
distinguishing  doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  and  adapting  the  instruc- 
tions of  Scripture  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  times  in 
which  we  live.  I  may  observe,  also,  that  the  faults  of  method  and 
style,  which  considerably  detract  from  the  merit  of  some  of  his 
other  writings,  are  less  apparent  here,  where  he  had  only  to  follow 
the  order  of  thought  in  the  sacred  book  itself;  whilst  all  his  pow- 
ers and  attainments  had  their  full  scope.  It  was  the  very  under- 
taking which  required,  less  than  any  other,  the  qualifications  which 
he  did  not  possess,  and  demanded,  more  than  any  other,  those  in 
which  he  excelled.  It  required  matured  knowledge  of  Scripture, 
skill  as  a  textuary,  sterling  honesty,  a  firm  grasp  of  truth,  unfeigned 
submission  of  mind  to  every  part  of  the  inspired  records,  a  holy 
temper  of  heart,  unparalleled  diligence  and  perseverance  :  and 
these  were  the  very  characteristics  of  the  man.  When  to  these 
particulars  it  is  added  that  he  lived  to  superintend  four  editions, 
each  enriched  with  much  new  and  important  matter,  and  had  been 
engaged  above  three  years  in  a  new  one,  in  which  for  the  fifth 
time  he  had  nearly  completed  a  most  laborious  revision  of  the 
whole  work,  we  must  at  least  allow  the  extent  and  importance  of 
the  author's  exertions.  Accordingly  the  success  of  the  work  has 
been  rapidly  and  steadily  increasing  from  the  first,  not  only  in  our 
own  country,  but  wherever  the  English  language  is  known.  It 
will  soon  be  in  the  hands  of  most  careful  students  of  the  holy 
volume,  whether,  in  the  first  instance,  they  agree  with  the  author's 
chief  sentiments  or  not.  Nor  is  the  time  distant  when,  the  passing 
controversies  of  the  day  having  been  forgotten,  this  prodigious 
work  will  generally  be  confessed,  in  the  Protestant  Churches,  to 
be  one  of  the  most  sound  and  instructive  commentaries  produced 
in  our  own  or  any  other  age." — (The  Bishop  of  Calcutta's  Sermons, 
occasioned  by  the  death  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Scott,  pp.  33—35.  98. 
3d  edition.)  To  the  preceding  just  character  of  this  elaborate  com- 
mentary, the  writer  of  these  pages  (who  does  not  view  all  topics 
precisely  in  the  same  point  of  view  with  its  late  learned  author) 
deems  it  an  act  of  bare  justice  to  state  that  he  has  never  consulted 
it  in  vain  on  difficult  passages  of  the  Scriptures.  While  occupied 
in  considering  the  various  objections  of  modern  infidels,  he  for  his 
itwn  satisfaction  thought  out  every  answer  (if  he  may  be  allowed 
the  expression)  for  himself:  referring  oidy  to  commentaries  in 
questions  of  more  than  ordinary  diinculty.  And  in  every  instance — 
especially  on  the  Pentateuch- he  found,  in  Mr.  Scott's  Commen- 


tary, brief  but  solid  refutations  of  alleged  contradictions,  which  he 
could  find  in  no  other  similar  work  extant  in  the  English  language. 
The  edition  in  imperial  8vo.  was  superintended  by  tlie  Rev.  Messrs. 
Josiah  Pratt  (sen.  and  jun.),  upon  the  following  plan  : — the  Practi- 
cal Observations,  as  found  in  the  stereotyped  quarto  editions,  are 
divided  according  to  the  portions  of  the  text  to  which  tiiey  belong; 
and  are  printed,  not  as  in  those  editions,  at  the  foot  of  the  page, 
but  immediately  after  their  respective  portions  of  the  text.  Head- 
lines of  Contents  are  prefixed  to  the  respective  columns.  The 
Marginal  References  and  Renderings  are  omitted  ;  such  excepted 
as  appear  to  be  of  considerable  importance,  and  these  are  inter- 
woven with  the  notes;  various  passages  more  strictly  philological, 
and  involving  Hebrew  or  Greek  criticism,  are  likewise  omitted. 
Some  remarks  in  the  notes,  of  a  more  practical  nature,  have  been 
removed,  and  introduced,  in  their  proper  places,  into  the  Practical 
Observations.  Tlie  high  estimation  in  which  this  commentary  is 
held  in  France,  caused  it  to  be  translated  into  French.  Three  por- 
tions have  appeared,  comprising  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Romans. 

21.  Macrae. — A  revised  Translation  and  Interpretation  of 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  after  the  Eastern  manner,  from  concur- 
rent authorities  of  critics,  interpreters,  and  commentators,  copies, 
and  versions;  showing  that  the  inspired  writings  contain  the 
seeds  of  the  valuable  sciences,  being  the  source  whence  the  an- 
cient philosophers  derived  them,  also  the  most  ancient  histories 
and  greatest  antiquities,  and  are  the  most  entertaining  as  well 
as  instructing  to  both  the  curious  and  serious.  [By  David  Ma- 
crae.] Glasgow,  1799,  Bvo.  Second  edition,  1815,  4to. ;  also 
in  3  vols.  Bvo. 

We  have  transcribed  the  long  title  of  this  work,  in  which  the 
author  has  certainly  succeeded  in  introducing  very  many  approved 
renderings ;  but  in  which  he  has  also  marred  exceedingly  that  ve- 
nerable simplicity  and  dignity  which  are  so  eminently  conspicuous 
in  the  authorized  version.  His  explanations  of  different  passages 
are  included  in  short  paraphrases,  comprehended  between  paren- 
theses. No  sober  student  or  critic,  however,  can  approve  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  author  has  attempted  to  elucidate  "  Solomon's 
Allegoric  Song"  (as  he  terms  it)  "  on  the  mutual  love  of  Christ 
and  the  church,  written  twenty  years  after  his  Egyptian  nuptials." 
As  this  work  is  very  little  known,  we  transcribe  the  first  seven 
verses  of  the  twelfth  chapter  of  Ecclesiastes,  containing  Solomon's 
admirable  portraiture  of  old  age,  by  way  of  specimen  : — 

"  1.  Remember  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  youth,  before  the  days  of 
affliction  come,  and  the  years  of  old  age  approacli,  when  thou  shalt 
say,  I  have  no  pleasure  in  them.  2.  Before  the  sun,  and  the  light, 
and  the  moon,  and  the  stars,  become  dark  to  thee,  and  the  clouds 
return  after  rain,  or  one  trouble  come  upon  another.  3.  When  (the 
arms)  the  keepers  of  the  (corporeal)  house  shall  shake,  and  the 
strong  ones  (the  limbs)  be  feeble,  and  (the  teeth)  the  grinders  shall 
cease,  as  being  few  (and  unfit  for  use) ;  and  they  that  look  out  at  the 
windows  (the  optic  nerves  of  the  eyes)  become  dim  ;  4.  And  the 
doors  be  shut  in  the  streets  (the  lips  fall  in,  the  teeth  being  gone), 
and  the  sounding  of  the  grinding  (in  eating)  be  low  ;  and  they  shall 
rise  up  at  the  sound  of  the  bird  (sleep  being  diminished,  and  easily 
broken) ;  and  all  the  daughters  of  music  (the  accents  of  the  voice, 
and  acuteness  of  the  ear)  fail.  6.  They  shall  also  be  afraid  of  (as- 
cending) the  place  which  is  high  (being  weak  and  breathless) ; 
and  fears  (of  stumbling)  shall  be  in  the  way  ;  and  (grey  hairs  like) 
the  almond  tree's  leaves  shall  flourish ;  and  the  grasshopper  shall 
be  a  burden  (small  matters  being  troublesome,  as  being  crooked 
and  fretful) ;  and  the  desire  of  enjoyment  shall  fail ;  for  man  goeth 
to  his  long  home,  and  the  mourners  go  about  the  streets.  6.  Before 
the  silver  cord  (the  marrow  of  the  backbone,  with  its  root  and 
branches)  be  contracted  ;  or  the  golden  vial  (the  brain's  membranes) 
be  cracked,  or  the  pitcher  be  broken  at  the  fountain  (the  cavities 
and  conveyers  of  the  blood  from  the  heart),  or  the  wheel  be  broken 
at  the  cistern  (the  returners  of  it  from  the  lungs,  liver,  head,  hands, 
and  feel) ;  the  double,  yea,  quadruple,  circulation  (galal  and  ruts), 
being  repeated,  be  interrupted  and  cease.  7.  Then  shall  the  dust 
return  to  the  earth  as  it  was  ;  and  the  spirit  shall  return  to  God 
who  gave  it." 

22.  BuLKLET. — Notes  on  the  Bible,  by  the  late  Rev.  Charles 
BcLKLET,  published  from  the  author's  manuscript  by  Joshua 
TouLMiN,  D.D.     London,  1802,  3  vols.  8vo. 

"  These  notes  are  not  so  much  of  a  philological  as  of  an  explana- 
tory nature.  They  are  filled  with  what  the  author  considers  paral- 
lel passages  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  classics,  in  which  the  same 
moral  precepts  and  sentiments  occur.  Sometimes  the  coincidence 
appears  to  be  striking  ;  at  other  times,  the  correspondence  is  far 
from  marked.  There  is  a  great  mass  of  quotation,  which  would 
seem  to  answer  no  valuable  purpose,  unless  to  produce  the  belief, 
that  a  book  nearly  as  good  as  the  Bible  might  be  compiled  from  the 
writings  of  the  poets  and  philosophers  of  Greece  and  Rome." 
(Orme's  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  p.  64.) 

23.  PniESTLET  (Dr.) — Notes  on  all  the  Books  of  Scripture,  for 
the  use  of  the  Pulpit  and  of  Private  Families,  by  Joseph  Priest- 
let,  LL.D.  F.R.S.  Northumberland  (N.  Am.),  1803,  4  vols. 
8vo. 

These  notes  are  well  viorthy  of  being  consulted  by  the  advanced 
biblical  student ;  for,  though  the  author  "  keeps  his  own  creed" 


Sect.  III.  §  3.] 


BRITISH  COMMENTATORS  ON  THE  WHOLE  BIBLE. 


113 


[moilorn  socinianism]  "  rontiniinlly  in  vinvv,  pspopially  when  ron- 
fiiiloriiig  tlioKO  lexlH  vvlii<li  other  r(>li{,'i()iis  |)Oi»|)l(!  ailduco  in  ravniir 
of  thoire,  yet  his  work  cimiuiiis  many  invaiiiuhle  nolos  and  oh.ser- 
vatiotiM,  parlicuhiriy  cm  liii;  piiilosojihy,  natural  hinlory,  geograpliy, 
and  rhronoloKy  of  iho  Scripliires:  and  l«  ihcKC  suhjects  few  men 
in  Kiirop(!  w«to  hetler  tjiialilied  to  do  justice."  (IJr.  A.  Clarke, 
(-'onniKMilary  on  tlic  Hibh;,  vol.  i.  p.  xi.) 

'M.  TiiiMMKii  (Mrs.) — A  Holj)  to  the  Unlearned  in  the  Study 
of  the  Holy  Scrijnurcs ;  heing  an  attempt  to  explain  the  Bihle  in 
a  familiar  way,  adapted  to  common  ajjprehensions,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  o{)inioris  of  approved  Commentators.  By  Mrs.  TiiiM- 
MKii.     London,  IBO.'J,  8vo.     Also  in  2  vols.  I'imo. 

The  hencvolent  authoress  of  this  work  was  well  known  by  lier 
unwearied  assiduity  in  |)ronioliiii»  the  vvcKiiro  of  the  rising  genera- 
tion. Novelty  of  inlijrmation  she  did  not  j)relend  to  oiler;  hut  with 
out  approving  of  fiicr^  sentiment  asserted  m  her  work,  it  is  but  just 
to  say,  that  it  is  a  most  useful  help  to  the  unlearned,  and  that  the 
object  aniiouneed  in  her  |)refiicc  has  been  fully  aecomjilishcd ;  viz. 
— To  render  "the  study  of  the  Bihle  easy  and  protiiable  to  those 
who  have  but  little  leisure,  or  who  may  not  be  able  to  understand 
expositions  of  Scripture,  in  which  more  learning  is  disjilayed.  The 
endeavour  of  the  com|)iler  has  been  to  explain  what  is  dillicult,  as 
far  as  is  necessary  l()r  ("hristians  in  general  to  imdersland  it ;  and  to 
direct  the  attention  of  the  ]5ible  student  to  such  passages  and  texts 
as  require  particular  consitieration,  in  order  to  produce  a  rational 
faith,  and  a  right  practice,  ibunded  immediately  upon  the  word  of 
God." 

25.  BunnF.n. — The  Scripture  Expositor  ;  a  new  Commentary, 
Critical  and  Practical,  on  the  Holy  I3ible.  By  the  Rev.  Samuel 
BuiiDER,  A.M.     London,  1809,  2  vols,  in  4  parts,  4to. 

One  prominent  object  of  this  work,  which  is  both  critical  and 
practical,  is,  to  illustrate  the  Scriptures  by  the  assistance  of 
Eastern  customs.  The  author  is  advantageously  known  by  his 
Oriental  Ciisluvix  and  Orienlal  Literature,  which  publications  are 
noticed  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this  Appendix. 

26.  Fawcf.tt. — The  Devotional  Family  Bible  ;  containing  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  copious  notes  and  illustrations, 
partly  original,  and  partly  selected  from  the  most  approved  Com- 
mentators, both  ancient  and  modern.  With  a  devotional  exer- 
cise or  aspiration  at  the  close  of  every  chapter,  by  way  of  improve- 
ment. By  John  Fawcett,  D.D.  London,  1811,  2  vols,  royal 
4to. 

This  work  is  wholly  designed  for  family  use;  but  the  marginal 
renderings  and  parallel  texts  have  been  entirely  omitted.  The  ab- 
sence of  these  is  inexcusable  in  any  edition  of  the  Bible  above  the 
size  of  a  duodecimo  volume. 

27.  Hewlett. — The  Holy  Bihle,  containing  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  with  the  Apocrypha,  with  critical,  philological, 
and  Explanatory  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  John  Hewlett,  B.D. 
London,  1812,  3  vols.  4to. 

The  typographical  execution  of  this  variorum  edition  of  the  Scrip- 
tures is  singularly  correct  and  beautiful ;  the  parallel  texts  and 
marginal  renderings  are  put  at  the  foot  of  the  text,  and  above  the 
notes,  which  are  selected  with  great  industry.  To  the  first  volume 
are  prefixed  very  copious  prolegomena,  containing  every  requisite 
information  relative  to  the  authenticity  and  inspiration  of  the  Scrip- 
tures; the  formation  of  the  sacred  Canon,  M.SS.  and  editions  of  the 
Bible,  sects,  &c.,  with  a  variety  of  useful  tables ;  and  to  the  third 
volume  is  prefixed  a  compendious  history  of  the  Jews,  from  their 
restoration  to  Juda!a,  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Romans  ;  the  whole  forming  a  connection  between  the  history  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament ;  and  the  work  is  terminated  by  three 
useful  indexes.  There  are,  however,  some  discrepancies  in  the 
notes,  which  are  stated  and  animadverted  upon  in  an  ably  con- 
ducted critical  journal.  (See  British  Critic,  New  Series,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
339.  et  «£•(/.)  Several  of  Mr.  Hewlett's  notes  are  elaborate  critical 
disquisitions  on  imixjrlant  topics.  Copies  of  this  work  may  be  pur- 
chased with  maps,  and  numerous  well  executed  engravings,  after 
pictures  by  the  most  celebrated  painters.  In  18U),  an  edition  of 
the  notes,  &c.  was  published  without  the  text,  entitled  "  Commen- 
taries and  Disquisitions  on  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  in  5  vols.  8vo., 
which  may  frequently  be  obtained  at  a  very  low  price. 

28.  D'Otlt  and  Mant. — The  Holy  Bible  according  to  the 
Authorized  Version,  with  Notes  explanatory  and  practical ;  taken 
principally  from  the  most  eminent  writers  of  the  United  Church 
of  England  and  Ireland  ;  together  with  appropriate  introductions, 
tables,  indexes,  maps,  and  plans,  prepared  and  arranged  by  the 
Rev.  G.  D'Otlt,  B.D.  (now  D.D.),  and  the  Rev.  Richard  Mant, 
D.D.  (now  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor).  Oxford  and  London. 
1814,  3  vols.  4to.,  and  various  subsequent  editions  printed  at 
Cambridge  and  Oxford.     New  York,  1818-20,  2  vols.  4to. 

This  work,  which  is  published  under  the  sanction  of  the  vene- 
rable Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  professes  to 
coraraunicate  only  the  result  of  the  critical  inquiries  of  learned 
men,  without  giving  a  detailed  exiwsition  of  the  inquiries  them- 
selves. These  results,  however,  are  selected  with  great  judgment, 
60  that  the  reader  who  may  consult  them  on  difficult  passages  will 


rarely  be  disappointed.  Of  the  lalwnr  attending  this  pnblirafion 
some  idea  may  be  lijrmed,  when  it  is  slated  that  the  works  of 
upwards  of  one  hundred  and  sixly  authors  have  been  consulted  lor 
It,  amounting  to  several  hundred  \<jluines.  On  the  fundamental 
articles  of  Christian  verily, — ihe  Deity  and  alniu'mcnt  of  Josiis 
Christ,  and  the  personality  and  oflices  of  the  lioly  Spirit, — this 
work  may  be  pronounced  to  bo  a  library  of  divinity.  'I'he  maps 
and  engravings,  though  only  outlines,  are  executed  vviili  much 
s|)irit.  An  index  of  matters  is  subjoined.  There  is  a  useful  eon- 
cordiince  in  -llo.,  edited  by  the  Rev.  T.  VV.  Bellamy,  H.l).,  \\lii<h  is 
usually  bound  iij)  with  this  commentary  :  and  in  Itie  year  1H18,  ihe 
Rev.  Dr.  Wilson  jmblished  another  index,  wliieh  is  imiuIi  more 
complete  than  that  annexed  to  the  work;  and  the  student  who  run 
meet  with  it  will  do  well  to  purchase  it.  The  reprint  at  New 
York,  which  is  very  neatly  executed  in  two  large  (piarto  volumes, 
was  edited  by  the  III.  Rev.  John  Henry  llobart,  D.D.,  Bishop  otiho 
Proteslant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  Stale  of  New  York;  who  has 
greatly  enhanced  the  value  of  this  work  by  numerous  additional 
notes,  selected  from  the  writings  of  upwards  of  thirty  ol"  the  mo.st 
eminent  divines  (not  noticed  by  the  Drs.  Mant  and  DOyly),  whose 
names  are  a  siinicient  pledge  for  the  orthodoxy  of  the  annotations 
taken  from  their  writings.  Among  the  authors  thus  consulted  are 
Bishops  Brown.  Law,  Long,  Mant,  Middleion,  and  Van  Mildert, of 
tlie  Anglic.Tii  Church  ;  Bp.  (ileig,  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church  ; 
and  Bjis.  Sesibiiry  and  VVhito,  of'  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
ill  Ihe  I'niled  Stiites  of  America;  Archdeacons  Pott  and  Daiibeny, 
Kev.  Drs.  Nott,  Ronnel,  Willitim  Sherlock,  Spry,  Wordsworth, 
A.  Clarke,  .Scott,  Allestrce  and  Bisse,  A:c.  <fec.  Many  other  notes 
are  likewise  selected  from  several  of  the  authors  cited  by  Bp.  Mant 
and  Dr.  D'Oyly.  Bji.  Ilobari's  additional  notes  are  twofold  ;  1.  Cri- 
tical and  Explanatory;  and,  2.  Practical.  The  latter  are  most 
numerous,  and  are  calculated  greatly  to  increase  the  value  of  thi« 
Commentary  as  a  Family  Biblk. 

28*.  The  Plain  Reader's  Help  in  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures ;  consisting  of  Notes,  explanatory  and  illustrative,  chiefly 
selected  or  abridged  from  the  Family  Bihle  published  by  the 
Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  By  the  Rev. 
William  Thomas  Buee,  M.A.  Coventry,  1821-22.  In  two 
parts,  forming  one  volume  in  small  quarto. 

Although  the  greater  part  of  the  present  volume  is  extracted  or 
abridged  from  the  preceding  work,  the  editor  has  not  confined  him- 
self exclusively  to  it.  He  has  given  some  notes,  which,  though  they 
do  not  occur  in  the  Family  Bible,  are  yet  extracted  from  the  same 
authors  to  whom  Bp.  Mant  and  Dr.  D'Oyly  had  recourse  in  their 
compilation.  Besides  these,  the  editor  has  occasionally  added  a 
few  notes  of  his  own  ;  and  he  has  further  availed  himself  of  such 
notes  in  Sir  John  Bailey's  edition  of  the  book  of  Common  Prayer, 
as  suited  his  purpose.  The  editor's  aim  has  been,  to  comprise 
within  the  space  of  a  cheap  and  moderately  sized  volume  a  collec- 
tion of  notes  on  the  Holy  Scriptures,  adapted  to  the  capacity  of 
ordinary  readers,  and  designed  for  the  benefit  of  such  as  have  it 
not  in  their  power  to  procure  or  consult  larger  works.  This  cheap 
and  unpretending  work,  which  is  very  little  known,  is  neatly 
printed  on  tw-o  sorts  of  paper,  in  order  to  accommodate  every  clas* 
of  purchasers. 

29.  CtAHKE  (Dr.  A.)— -The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments :  the  Text  carefully  printed  from  the  most 
correct  copies  of  the  present  authorized  translation,  including  the 
marginal  readings  and  parallel  texts ;  with  a  Commentary  and 
Critical  Notes,  designed  as  a  help  to  a  better  understanding  of 
the  Sacred  Writings.  By  Adam  Clarke,  LL.D.  F.A.S.  Lon- 
don, 1810-1826,  8  vols.  4to.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  in*- 
proved,  183.3-34,  in  five  volumes,  royal  8vo.  also  in  quarto. 

The  commentary  on  the  New  Testament  fills  three  volumes  of 
this  elaborate  work :  the  remainder  is  devoted  to  the  elucidation 
of  the  Old  Testament.  In  this  comment.iry,  Dr.  Clarke  stales,  that 
the  whole  of  the  text  has  been  collated  with  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
originals,  and  all  the  ancient  versions:  "the  most  dilficull  words 
are  analyzed  and  explained  ;  the  most  important  rendivgs  in  Ihe  col- 
lertioiis  of  Kennicolt  and  Dc  Rossi  on  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  those 
of  Mill,  Wetstcin,  and  Grieshach,  on  the  New,  are  noticed  ;  the  date 
of  every  transaction,  as  far  as  it  has  been  ascertained  by  the  best 
chronologers,  is  marked;  the  peculiar  customs  of  the  Jews  and 
neighbouring  nations,  so  frequently  alluded  to  by  the  prophets, 
evangelists,  and  apostles,  are  explained  from  the  best  Asiatic  au- 
thorities ;  the  great  doctrines  of^  the  Law  and  Gospel  of  God  are 
defined,  illustrated,  and  defended  ;  and  the  whole  is  applied  to  the 
im|X)rtant  purposes  of  practical  Christianity."  The  work  concludes 
with  a  copious  index,  and  a  selection  of  important  various  Readings 
of  the  New  Testament,  from  ten  ancient  MSS.  The  literary  world 
in  general,  and  biblical  students  in  particular,  are  greatly  indebted 
to  Dr.  Clarke  for  the  light  he  h.as  thrown  on  many  very  difficult 
passages.  The  royal  8vo.  edition  was  revised  throughout,  and  pre- 
pared by  the  learned  author  for  the  press,  before  his  decease.  It  is 
a  cheap  and  very  beautifully  printed  work. 

30.  TiioMsoy. — The  Old  Covenant,  commonly  called  the  Old 
Testament,  translated  from  the  Septuagint. — The  New  Cove- 
nant, commonly  called  the  New  Testament,  translated  from  the 
Greek.  By  Charles  Thomson,  late  Secretary  to  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States.     Philadelphia,  1808,  4  vols.  8vo. 


114 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


This  translation  is,  upon  the  whole,  faitlifiilly  execuled,  thoutrh 
that  of  the  Old  Tcstainoiil,  beins^  a  version  of  a  version,  can  hardly 
aflbrd  much  assistance  to  lh6  biblical  student.  The  translation  ol' 
the  New  Teslameiii  is  nuicli  nnproved  in  the  punctuation,  and  also 
in  the  arrangement  ol'the  objecuons  and  replies  thai  occasion  such 
frequent  transitions  in  Si.  Paul's  Kpistles.  The  notes  which  accom- 
pany this  work  are  very  brief,  but  satisfactory  as  far  as  iliey  go. 
Very  few  copies  of  Mr.  Thomson's  work  have  reached  England  ; 
and  even  in  America  it  has  become  very  scarce  and  dear. 

31.  Bellamy. — The  Holy  Bible,  newly  translated  from  the 
original  Hebrew,  with  Notes,  critical  and  explanatory.  By  John 
Bellami,     London,  1818-21,  4to. 

Three  parts  only  of  this  new  translation  have  been  published. 
The  arrogant  claims  of  the  author  and  his  extravagancies  of.inler- 
pretation  have  been  exposed  in  the  Quarterly  Review,  vols..xix. 
pp.  250 — 280.  and  xxiii.  pp.  290 — 325.;  in  the  Eclectic  Review, 
vol.  X.  N.  S.  pp.  1—20.  130—150.  280—299. ;  in  the  Anti-jacobin 
Review,  vol.  liv.  pp.  97—103.  193—207.  305—316. ;  in  Mr.  Whitta- 
ker's  Historical  and  Critical  Inquiry  into  the  Interpretation  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  Supplement  to  it,  8vo.,  Cambridge,  1819, 
1820 ;  in  Professor  Lee's  Letter  to  Mr.  Bellamy,  Cambridge,  1821 ; 
and  last,  though  not  least  in  value,  in  Mr.  Hyman  Hurwitz's  "  Vin- 
diciiE  Hebiaica3,"  London,  1821,  8vo. 

32.  BooTnnorr. — A  new  Family  Bible,  and  improved  Ver- 
sion, from  corrected  Texts  of  the  Originals,  with  Notes,  critical 
and  explanatory  ;  and  short  Practical  Reflections  on  each  Chap- 
ter. By  the  Rev.  B.  BooTHRorn,  LL.D.  Poatcfract  and  Lon- 
don, 1818,  1821,  1823,   3  vols.  4to. 

The  Rev.  Dr.  Boothroyd  has  long  been  advantageously  known  as 
the  editor  of  the  critical  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  with  philo- 
logical notes,  of  which  we  have  given  an  account  in  page  8.  of 
this  Appendix.  His  improved  English  Version  of  the  Bible  will  be 
found  a  valuable  help  to  the  critical  underetanding  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures.  Where  any  reading  in  the  original  is  supported  by  the 
authority  of  ancient  MSS.  and  Versions,  Dr.  B.  has  availed  himself 
of  it,  and  has  inserted  it  in  the  text;  always  apprizing  his  readers 
of  such  changes,  which  (as  we  have  had  occasion  to  remark  in  our 
chapter  on  various  readings)  are  not  unfrequently  real  improve- 
ments. The  Historical  Books  are  printed  in  continuous  paragraphs, 
the  Poetical  Books  being  printed  in  single  lines.  The  first  two 
volumes  contain  the  Old  Testament;  the  third,  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  numbers  of  the  different  verses  are  judiciously  thrown 
into  the  margin  ;  and  the  notes,  which  are  placed  at  the  foot  of  each 
page,  possess  the  rare  merit  of  condensing  much  important  critical 
and  explanatory  matter  in  comparatively  a  small  compass.  To  the 
whole,  Dr.  B.  has  prefixed  a  well-executed  abiidgraent  of  Micliae- 
lis's  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  Moses. 

33.  Williams. — The  Cottage  Bible  and  Family  Expositor; 
containing  the  Authorized  Translation  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments, with  Practical  Reflections  and  short  Explanatory  Notes, 
calculated  to  elucidate  difhcult  and  obscure  Passages.  By  Tho- 
mas Williams.     London,  1825-27,  3  vols.  8vo. 

This  unassuming  but  cheap  and  useful  commentary  on  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  though  professedly  designed  for  persons  and  families  in 
the  humbler  walks  of  lile,  is  not  unworthy  the  attention  of  students 
of  a  higher  class,  who  may  not  be  able  to  purchase  more  bulky  or 
more  expensive  commentaries ;  and  on  this  account  it  is  here 
noticed.  The  work  is  dedicated  by  permission  to  the  learned  and 
venerable  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  The  first  volume  contains  the 
whole  of  the  Historical  Books,  and  also  the  Book  of  Job:  the 
second  volume  comprises  the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament,  The 
New  Testament  forms  the  third  volume.  The  following  is  the 
plan  of  publication :  The  authorized  Version  is  neatly  and  clearly 
printed.  Long  chapters  are  broken  into  paragraphs  of  a  suitable 
length,  regulated  by  the  subject-matter  of  them  ;  and  the  Genealo- 
gies, Enumerations  of  the  Tribes,  and  certain  Ceremonial  Laws  of 
the  Jews,  which  are  not  suitable  for  reading  in  families  or  schools, 
are  printed  in  a  smalhr  type,  and  are  so  distinguished  that  they 
may  be  omitted  in  reading,  without  difliculty  or  confusion.  A  few 
words,  which  are  not  in  strict  accordance  with  modern  European 
ideas  of  propriety,  are  exchanged  for  others  ;  and  to  each  chapter 
is  given  a  concise  practical  exposition,  compiled  from  various 
sources,  together  with  brief  critical  notes  (in  which  are  interwoven 
the  principal  marginal  readings  and  reiisrences)  on  difficult  and 
obscure  passages,  especially  such  as  have  been  alleged  to  be  con- 
tradictory. The  editor  has  carefully  indicated  the  sources  whence 
he  has  drawn  hi.s  annotations ; — a  practice  which,  it  were  to  be 
wished,  had  been  followed  by  the  anonymous  compilers  of  some 
commentaries  now  circulating  in  numbers,  as  also  in  volumes,  who 
have  contrived  to  comprehend  the  most  valuable  remarks  of  others 
without  any  acknowledgment  of  the  authors  to  whose  labours  they 
are  indebted.  Mr.  Williams  has  also  paid  a  laudable  attention  to 
those  passages  against  which  objections  have  been  taken  by  modern 
skeptics;  for  which  portion  of  his  work  he  was  well  qualified  by 
his  former  very  useful  publications  in  reply  to  the  cavils  and  objec- 
tions of  Paine  and  other  infidels  of  the  last  century.  A  concise 
Introduction  is  prefixed,  vindicating  the  divine  authority  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  and  the  learning  and  fidelity  of  the  translators  of 
our  authorized  English  Version,  and  also  pointing  out  the  sources 
of  Scripture  difficulties,  together  with  the  means  of  their  removal. 
The  fine  paper  copies  are  handsome  library  books. 


31.  Devotional  Comments  :  being  a  Scries  of  Scriptural  Ex- 
positions, with  a  Prayer  annexed  to  each  subject.  By  Mrs.  Ste- 
VK.vs.     Knaresborough  and  London,  1823-31,  20  vols.  8vo. 

35.  The  Comprehensive  Bible  ;  containing  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  according  to  the  authorized  Version,  with  the  various 
readings  and  marginal  notes  usually  printed  therewith  :  a  gene- 
ral introduction,  containing  disquisitions  on  the  genuineness, 
authenticity,  and  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, — various 
divisions  and  marks  of  distinction  in  the  sacred  writings, — 
ancient  versions, — coins,  weights,  and  mca.sures, — various  sects 
among  the  Jews :  introductions  and  concluding  remarks  to  each 
book :  the  parallel  passages  contained  in  the  Rev.  J.  Scott's 
Commentary,  Canne's  Bible,  Rev.  J.  Brown's  Self-Interpreting 
Bible,  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary,  and  the  English  Version  of 
the  Polj'glott  Bible  [noticed  in  p.  21.  of  this  Appendix],  sys- 
tematically arranged  ;  philological  and  explanatory  notes.  With 
chronological  and  other  indexes.  [By  William  Gueexfield.] 
London,  1827,  crown  4to.  demy  4to.  and  royal  4to. 

36.  A  Commentary  on  the  Holy  Bible,  from  Henry  and  Scott. 
With  occasional  observations  and  notes  from  other  writers.  Vols. 
I. — III. — V.  [comprising  Genesis  to  Solomon's  Songs,  and  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  By  George 
Stokes.]     1831-34,  royal  12mo.  or  crown  8vo. 

The  object  of  this  work  is,  to  provide  a  commentary  on  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  compact  in  size  and  moderate  in  price,  which  may  be 
useful  to  those  whose  opportunities  for  reading,  or  whose  means  of 
purchasing,  render  such  a  publication  desirable  ;  while  the  con- 
tents are  suited  for  Christians  of  every  station,  rank,  and  denomina- 
tion. The  valuable  Commentaries  of  Henry  and  Scott  have  prin- 
cipally supplied  the  materials  for  the  present  publication.  Their 
most  important  observations  are  condensed  and  blended  together, 
so  as  to  form  a  continuous  exposition.  The  editions  used,  are  Hen- 
ry's Exposition,  edited  by  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Burder  and  Hughes ; 
and  the  first  edition  of  Scott's  Commentary.  Numerous  extracts 
from  other  authors  (one  hundred  in  number)  have  been  inserted, 
where  they  appeared  needful,  and  explanatory  notes  upon  some 
passages  have  been  added,  most  of  which  are  designed  to  meet  the 
misrepresentations  of  infidels.  Due  acknowledgment  is  made  to 
the  authors  from  whom  the  additional  paragraphs  are  taken.  This 
commentary,  which  is  published  at  the  expense  of  the  Religious 
Tract  Society,  is  beautifully  and  correctly  printed  with  a  new  type. 
As  the  text  is  not  inserted,  it  may  be  used  with  any  edition  of  the 
authorized  English  version  of  the  Bible  :  but,  in  size,  it  is  princi- 
pally adapted  to  the  beautifully  printed  Oxford  ruby  Bible  in  small 
8vo.  published  in  1827. 

37.  The  Christian  Expositor ;  or,  Practical  Guide  to  the  Study 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  intended  for  the  use  of  General  Readers. 
By  the  Rev.  George  Hold  ex,  A.M.  London,  1824^30,  3  vols. 
12mo. 

Although  many  expositions  of  the  Bible,  of  great  and  deserved 
celebrity,  are  happily  extant  in  our  language,  a  commentary  suffi- 
ciently short  to  be  read  by  those  who  have  not  leisure  to  consult 
learned  and  extensive  works,  yet  sufficiently  comprehensive  to 
serve  as  a  guide  to  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  for  general 
readers,  is  a  desideratum.  To  supply  this  deficiency  is  the  object 
of  the  present  beautifully  printed,  cheap,  and  truly  valuable  work  ; 
which,  though  '  intended  for  the  use  of  general  readers,'  comprises 
so  much  and  such  various  information  in  a  condensed  form,  express- 
ed in  neat  and  perspicuous  language,  that  not  only  general  readers, 
but  also  critical  students,  may  gladly,  profitably,  and  safely  avail 
themselves  of  Mr.  Hoklen's  labours,  without  any  apprehension  of 
having  imposed  upon  them  the  neologian  interpretations  of  modern 
German  critics  and  commentatoi-s.  Every  page  indicates  Mr.  Hol- 
den's  intimate  acquaintance  with  all  the  best  exegetical  works  on 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  both  British  and  Foreign.  Vols.  I.  and  II.  ap- 
peared in  1834,  Vol.  III.,  containing  the  New  Testament,  was 
published  as  a  separate  work  in  1830.  See  a  notice  of  it  in  '^  G. 
No.  46.  p.  130.  infra. 


§  4.  principal  commextators  ox  the  old  testament  akd 
os  detached  books  thereof. 

[i.]    Commentators  on  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  RicHAnnsoN  (Bishop). — Choice  Observations  and  Expla 
nations  upon  the  Old  Testament,  containing  in  them  manj 
remarkable  matters,  either  not  taken  notice  of,  or  mistaken  byj 
most:  which  are  additionals  to  the  large  annotations  made  b;j 
some  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  :  to  which  are  added  sor 
further  and  larger  Observations  on  the  whole  book  of  Genesia 
By  John  Richardsox,  Bishop  of  Ardagh.  London,  1C65,  folio 
Bishop  Richardson  has  been  characterized  by  his  contemporarie 
as  a  man  of  profound  learning,  well  versed  in  the  Scriptures,  an 
of  exact  knowledge  in  sacred  chronology.  His  Harmony  of  th 
I  FourGosjiels,  in  which  he  led  the  way  to  a  more  exact  arrangcmen 


Sect.  III.  §  4.]         COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  COOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


115 


of  ihe  riarrnlivcs  of  llic  four  evangnlisis,  in  priiilod  in  Arclihisliop 
Usher'H  Aiirial.s.  IJisliup  liiclianlMin's  AniiDtalions  were  |)iil)liMlii'il 
nfliT  Ills  (li-alli  :  as  ilu-y  soil  al  a  low  (iiiir,  llicy  arc  iiol  iiinvorlliy 
of  llie  NliideiilH  atlciilion. 

2.  PvLK.-  A  Paraphrase  with  sliort  antl  Useful  Notes  on  tlic 
Books  of  the  Old  'I'cstament.  By  the  Rev. 'I'hoiiias  Pitlk,  M.A. 
London,  1717—1725,  i  vols.  8vo. 

These  vohiiiies  exieiid  lo  all  the  iiislorical  hooks  of  llie  Olil  Tes- 
lanieiil.  Dr.  Doiiilridne  <'alls  it  "an  eh^^aiit  and  jiidicioUH  conlrac- 
tion"  of  Bisliop  Patrick's  work,  noticed  in  p  110  supra  ;  and  adds, 
ihal  it  is  "  vastly  to  he  preferred  to  his  Paraphrase  on  the  Kpislles," 
which  is  mentioned  \i\,  p.  131.  infra. 

3.  M.411CIIANT. — An  Kxposition  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tnment,  extracted  from  the  Writings  of  the  hest  Authors,  ancient 
and  modern.     By  John  Maiiciiant.     I^ondon,  l/'l.'),  folio. 

4.  OiiTON. — A  short  and  plain  Exposition  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, with  devotional  and  practical  l{elIcctions  fur  the  use  of 
families,  suhjoined  to  each  chapter,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of 
Dr.  Doddridge's  Family  Expositor.  By  the  late  Ivev.  .loh  Oiiton. 
6  vols.  8vo.  1788 — 1791  ;  second  edition.  London,  1822,  G  vols. 
8vo. 

Tho  work  w"ns  piililisliod  nfler  the  anllior's  dealh  hy  Mr.  Gentle- 
man of  Ki(ld(!rminsler  :  it  contains  notes  chielly  collected  from 
modern  expositors,  of  which  "  it  cannot  he  said  that  lliey  are  emi- 
nently crilieal  ;  hut  they  oilen  convey  valuahle  iiislru<-tion,  and 
the  re/lections  are  admiraMy  adapted  to  pr(»molo  the  niirimses  of 
serious  rcliL,'ion."  (Rioiiraphia  I5rilamiie;i,  2d  edit.  vol.  v.  p.  311. 
See  also  IMoritli.  Rev.  ().  S.  vol.  Ixxix.  p.  32'.>.)  To  fi)rm  a  compleie 
(ytiniiicnt  on  tlie  Scriptures,  I\Ir.  Orton's  paraphrase  may  he  joined 
with  Mr.  Palmer's  ahridgmcnt  of  Dr.  Uoddndge,  noticed  in  page 
P29.  infra. 

5.  GnnnKS. — The  Holy  Bihle,  or  the  Books  accmtnted  sacred, 
otherwise  called  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Covenants, 
faithfully  translated  from  the  corrected  Texts  of  the  Originals, 
with  various  readings,  exiilanatory  notes,  and  critical  remarks. 
By  Alexander  (iKiiitEs,  IjL.D.  4to.  Ijondon,  vol.  i.  17!)2,  vol.  ii. 
1797.  Critical  Remarks  on  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  4to.  London, 
1800,  vol.  i.  on  the  Pentateuch. 

Tho  two  volumes  of  Dr.  Geddcs's  version  include  the  historical 
books  from  (Jenesis  to  Chronicles,  and  the  hook  of  Ruth.  Of  the 
doctor's  heterodox  connnentarics  ami  versions,  the  reader  may  see 
an  ample  examinalioii  and  rel'iitalion  in  the  lih.  1  llh,  l'.)ih,  and  2l)th 
volumes  ol'  the  British  t-'ritie,  old  series.  The  learned  doctor's 
work  is  here  noticed,  lest  the  author  shoiild  be  charged  with 
designedly  omitting  it. 


[ii.]  Commentators  on  detached  Books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

O.V  THE   PEXTATEUCII. 

1.  Horaj  MosaicjD ;  or  a  Dissertation  on  the  Credibility  and 
'J'heology  of  the  Pentateuch.  By  George  Stanley  Fab  eh,  B.D. 
Second  Edition.     London,  1818,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  elat)orate  Treatise  contains  the  sul)stance  of  the  eight  Bamp- 
ton  Lectures  delivered  by  Mr.  Faber  befi)re  Ihe  University  of  Ox- 
ford, and  publislied  in  1801.  "Those  wlio  have  not  the  moans  or 
leisure  to  consult  the  very  valuable  works  of  Mr.  Bryant,  Mr.  Mau- 
rice, and  Sir  W.Jones,  in  this  line,  will  find  in  these  volumes  many 
of  the  most  striking  facts  brought  together,  and  so  arranged  as 
jointly  to  corroborate  and  confirm  the  events  recorded  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch. The  references  to  other  authors  arc  numerous  ;  nor  are 
these  confined  solely  to  the  ancients.  Additional  notes  and  illustra- 
tions are  lo  be  f()und  at  the  end  of  eadi  volume."  (Brit.  Grit.  vol. 
xix.  O.  S.  pp.  .182.  388.)  The  second  edition,  published  in  1818,  is 
very  materially  enlarged  and  greatly  improved  by  its  learned 
author. 

I*.  Principles  for  the  Proper  Understanding  of  the  Mosaic 
Writings  stated  and  applied.  By  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Blunt,  B.D. 
London,  1833,  8vo. 

2.  The  Character  of  Moses  cstahlished  for  Veracity  as  an 
Historian,  recording  Events  from  the  Creation  to  the  Deluge. 
By  the  Rev.  Joseph  Townsexd,  M.A.  Vol.  L  London,  1813  ; 
Vol.  n.  Bath,  1815,  4to. 

For  an  analysis  of  this  work,  see  the  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  xiv. 
pp.  9(3 — 112.  and  the  Eclectic  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  x.  pp.  32 — 49. 

3.  Annotations  upon  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  the  Book  of 
Psalms,  and  the  Song  of  Songs  or  Canticles.  By  Henry  Ains- 
worth,     London,  1639,  folio. 

This  work  "  is  a  good  book,  full  of  very  valuable  Jewish  learn- 
ing ;  and  his  translation  is  in  many  places  to  be  preferred  to  our 
own,  especially  on  the  Psalms."  (Dr.  Doddridge.)  It  was  trans- 
lated into  Dutch  in  lf>90,  and  is  highly  esteemed  on  the  continent. 

4.  A  Commentary  on  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  with  a  Dis- 
eertation  concerning  the  Author  or  Writer  of  the  said  Books, 


and  a  general  argument  to  each  of  them.     By  Richard  Kiddeii, 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells.      London,  lf)91,  2  vols.  8vo. 

A  learned  and  valuable  work,  though  now  not  often  to  be  met 
with. 

5.  Johannis  Mahckii  in  prfccipuas  quasdam  partes  Penta- 
teuchi  Commentarius  :  scu  ultiinorum  .Licobi,  rcliiiuorum  liilha- 
mi,  et  novissimoruin  Mosi.s,  <pia;  leguiitur  Genes,  xlvii.  9.  Numcr. 
xxii. — xxiv.  et  Deut.  xxix. — xxxiii.  Analysis  Exegetica,  Lugd. 
Bat.  1713,  4to. 

6.  A  Critical  and  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Pentateuch; 
with  Notes,  theological,  moral,  critical,  philosophical  and  histo- 
rical, 'j'o  which  are  subjoined  two  Dissertations  : — 1.  On  the 
Mosaic  history  of  the  creation,  and  2.  On  the  destruction  of  the 
seven  nations  of  Canaan.     London,  1748,  folio. 

This  F.xposition  is  compiled  with  considerable  industry  from  the 
labours  of  the  best  interprelers  ancienl  and  mo<lern.  It  w.as  origi- 
iiully  published  in  numbers,  and  was  deKigned  to  liavc  been  a  com- 
plete commentary  on  the  entire  Bible:  but  not  meeting  v\iih  siifli- 
cient  eiiconrngement,  the  author  (a  Mr.  Jajikson)  proceeded  no 
further  than  the  I'tiilateucli.     ll  is  not  ol'cominon  occurrence. 

7.  A  New  and  Literal  Translation,  from  the  original  Hebrew, 
of  the  IVntatcuch  of  Moses,  and  of  the  Historical  Books  of  the 
Old  Testament  to  the  end  of  the  second  book  of  Kings;  with 
Notes,  critical  and  explanatory.  By  the  late  Rev,  Julius  Bate. 
London,  1773,  4to. 

"  It  is  most  certainly  a  new  translation,  and  so  very  literal  as  to 
be  reallv  unintelligible  lo  a  i)lain  English  reader."  (Monthly  Re- 
view, ().  S.  vol.  I.  p.  10(>.) 

8.  The  Pentateuch,  or  the  Five  Books  of  Mo.ses  illu.strated 
being  an  Explication  of  the  Phraseology  incorporated  with  the 
text,  for  the  use  of  Families  and  Schools.     By  the  Rev.  S,  Clip- 
ham.     London,  1818,  12mo. 

"  As  a  substitute  for  expensive  commentaries  on  the  B!ble,  and 
as  the  means  of  providing  in  many  interesting  respects  liir  Ihe  in- 
struction and  edification  of  those  per.-.ons  w  ho  mav  riot  have  leisure 
to  procure  more  (((jiious  volumes,  the  iiresent  work  will  be  aceepla- 
hle.  The  plan  of  it  is  judicious,  and  the  execution  is  on  the  whole 
respectable,  and  must  have  cost  tho  editor  no  inconsiderable  ex- 
pense of  labour."     (Fclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xiii.  p.  74.) 

9.  An  Analytical  Exposition  of  the  whole  First  Book  of 
Mose.s,  called  Gencsi.j,  and  of  x.xiii.  chai)lers  of  his  Second  Book, 
called  Exodus.  Wherein  the  various  readings  are  observed ; 
the  original  text  exidaincd  ;  doubts  resolved  ;  Scriptures  paral- 
leled ;  the  Scripture  Chronology  from  the  Creation  of  the  World 
to  the  giving  of  the  I>aw  at  Mount  Sinai  cleared  ;  and  the 
whoh-  illustrated  by  doctrines  collected  from  the  text.  Delivered 
in  a  Morning  Exercise  on  the  Lord's  Day.  By  George  HroHKs, 
B.D.,  late  Minister  of  the  Gospel  in  Plymouth.  (Plymouth), 
1672,  folio. 

A  very  elaborate  and  curious  work  ;  it  is  not  of  common  occur- 
rence. 

10.  The  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Parallel  Prophecies  of  Jacob 
and  Moses,  relative  to  the  Twelve  'i'ribes,  with  a  translation  and 
notes,  and  the  various  lections  of  near  forty  MSS.,  &c.  &c.  By 
D.  DuiiELL,  D.D.,  Principal  of  Hertford  College,  Oxford,  1764, 
4to. 

GENESIS. 

11.  Joannis  Merceri  Commentarius  in  Genesin.  GenevjB, 
1598,  folio. 

12.  Hexapla  in  Genesin  :  that  is,  a  Sixfold  Commentary  upon 
Genesis,  wherein  six  several  translations  are  compared,  where 
they  differ,  with  the  Originall  Hebrew,  and  Pagnine  and  Monta- 
nus'  Interlinearie  Interpretation.  Together  with  a  sixfold  use 
of  every  chapter,  showing  1.  The  Method  or  Argument ;  2.  The 
Divers  Readings ;  3.  The  Explanation  of  Dilficult  Questions, 
and  Doubtfull  Places ;  4.  The  Places  of  Doctrine  ;  5.  Places  of 
Confutation ;  6.  Morall  Observations.  By  Andrew  Willet. 
London,  1608,  folio. 

13.  A  Few  and  New  Observations  upon  the  Book  of  Genesis; 
also  a  Handful  of  Gleanings  out  of  the  Book  of  Exodus.  By 
John  LioiiTFooT,  D.D.  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  698.  London^  1684, 
folio. 

14.  A  Specimen  of  an  Universal  View  of  all  the  Eminent 
Writers  on  the  Holy  Scriptures  :  being  a  Collection  of  the  Dis- 
sertations, Explications,  and  Opinions  of  the  learned  Men,  in  all 
ages,  concerning  the  Difficult  Passages  and  Obscure  Texts  of 
the  Bible ;  and  of  whatever  is  to  be  met  with  in  profane  authors 
which  may  contribute  to  the  better  understanding  of  them.  By 
the  Rev.  Jonathan  Smedlet,  Dean  of  Clogher.     1728,  foUo. 

This  Specimen  contains  only  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis ;  the 
work  which  it  atmounces  never  having  been  published.     The 


116 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  n.  Chap.   V. 


proposed,  1.  To  cxliibit  at  length  the  vvorils  of  the  inspired 
s ;  2.  To  quote  the  chief  conunenlalors  in  Pool's  Synopsis,  on 


author 

authors ,  _    _     ,  .      . 

every  subject,  as  they  are  ranged  by  him  ;  3.  To  set  down  the  judg- 
ment of  ancient  historians,  piiilosophers,  poels,  &c. ;  and  to  reserve 
the  last  place  for  moderns,  especiallv  English  and  French  Divines. 
A  copy  of  this  specimen  is  in  the  library  of  the  British  Museum. 

15.  A  New  English  Translation,  from  the  original  Hebrew, 
of  the  First  Three  Chapters  of  Genesis,  with  marginal  illustra- 
tions, and  notes,  critical  and  explanatory.  By  Abraham  Daw- 
son, M.A.     London,  1763,  4to. 

16.  A  Fourth  and  Fifth  Chapter  of  Genesis,  tran.slated  from 
the  original  Hebrew.  By  Abraham  Dawson,  M.A.  London, 
1 772,  4to. 

17.  The  Sixth,  and  Eleven  following  Chapters  of  Genesis, 
translated  from  the  original  Hebrew,  &c.  &c.  By  Abraham 
Dawson,  M.A.     London,  1786,  4lo. 

For  an  account  of  these  publications  see  the  Monthly  Review, 
Old  Series,  vol.  xxix.  pp.  293—299. ;  vol.  xlvii.  pp.  1—7. ;  and  vol. 
Ixxvii.  pp.  140—147. 

18.  Annotations  upon  Genesis,  with  Observations,  doctrinal 
and  practical.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Harwood.  London,  1789, 
8vo. 

This  is  a  compilation  from  various  authors,  "  which,  if  not  a 
brilliant,  may  in  some  degree  be  considered  as  a  useful  perform- 
ance."    (Month.  Rev.  New  Series,  vol.  iv.  p.  106.) 

19.  Sacred  Literature,  or  Remarks  on  the  Book  of  Genesis, 
corrected  and  arranged  to  promote  the  knowledge  and  evince  the 
excellency  of  the  Scriptures.  By  James  Franks,  A.M.  Lon- 
don, 1802,  8vo. 

This  work  is  nearly  similar  in  design  and  execution  to  the  pre- 
ceding ;  it  consists  principally  of  extracts  from  other  books.  The 
author  "has  contented  himself  with  forming  the  arrangement, 
which  is  clear  and  good,  and  inserting  short  passages  to  serve  for 
connection  and  elucidation.  The  volume  begins  with  general  re- 
marks on  the  Scriptures,  and  then  proceeds  through  the  book  of 
Genesis  in  the  order  of  the  chapters  ;  containing  in  the  whole 
three  hundred  and  fifteen  remarks  upon  that  book,  illustrative  of 
the  matter  contained  in  it,  and  collected  from  the  best  authors  of 
all  descriptions."    (Brit.  Grit.  O.  S.  vol.  xxi.  pp.  680,  681.) 

20.  Hermanni  Venema  Dissertationes  Selects  ad  Sacram 
Scripturam  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti :  quarum  Tom.  I.  Pars 
I.  continet  Dissertationes  quinque  ad  Librum  Geneseos  :  Pars  H. 
continet  Commentarium  ad  Gen.  xlix.  1 — 27.  Leovardise,  1747- 
50,  4to. 

21.  Critical  and  Explanatory  Notes  on  Genesis,  Exodus, 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  and  the  Minor  Prophets ;  to- 
gether with  some  Dissertations  on  several  difficult  Passages  of 
Scripture,  &c.  &c.  By  the  Rev.  Henry  Dimock.  Gloucester, 
1804,  4to. 

22.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Fall  of  Man ;  in  which  the  Literal 
Sense  of  the  Mosaic  Account  of  that  Event  is  asserted  and 
vindicated.  By  the  Rev.  George  Holden,  M.A.  London,  1823, 
8vo. 

The  Scripture  History  of  the  Fall  of  Man  has  met  with  many 
strenuous  adversaries,  who  have  endeavoured  to  explain  it  away 
in  various  ways ;  while  it  is  utterly  rejected  by  many  of  those  who 
have  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement.  In  the  second  volume 
of  this  work  (Chap.  I.  Sec.  II.  pp.  205,  206.),  the  literal  sense  of 
the  first  three  chapters  of  Genesis  is  briefly  vindicated  ;  but  it  has 
been  reserved  for  Mr.  Holden  to  consider  the  subject  most  fully 
and  distinctly.  All  the  efforts  of  perverted  criticism  to  reduce  the 
Mosaic  History  of  the  Fall  of  Man  to  allegory,  fable,  or  mythos,  are 
here  examined  in  detail ;  and  the  objections  of  its  adversaries  to 
the  literal  sense  of  that  history  are  minutely  and  satisfactorily 
refuted. 

23.  Two  Dissertations: — 1.  On  the  Tree  of  Life  in  Paradise, 
with  some  Observations  on  the  Fall  of  Man.  2.  On  the  Obla- 
tions of  Cain  and  Abel,  By  Benjamin  Kennicott,  M.A. 
Oxford,  1747,  8vo. 

24.  An  Essay  towards  a  Vindication  of  the  vulgar  Exposition 
of  the  Mosaic  History  of  the  Fall  of  Man.  By  John  Witty. 
London,  1705,  8vo. 

25.  The  Historical  Sense  of  the  Mosaic  Account  of  the  Fall, 
proved  and  vindicated.  By  William  Wokthington.  London, 
1751,  8vo. 

26.  The  Defence  of  the  Veracity  of  Moses,  in  his  Records  of 
the  Creation  and  General  Deluge  ;  illustrated  by  Observations 
in  the  Caverns  of  the  Peak  of  Derby.  By  Philobiblos  [Thomas 
Rodd].     London,  1820,  8vo. 

27.  Stahelin  (J.  J.)  Animadversiones  quisdem  in  Jacobi 
Vaticinium,  Genes,  cap.  xlix.    Basilese,  1827,  4to. 


28.  Brief  Observations  upon  some  of  the  first  Chapters  of  the 
Book  of  Genesis.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

29.  Libri  Geneseos  secundum  Pontes  rite  dignoscendos  Adum- 
bratio  nova.  In  usum  Pnelectionum  scripsit  Dr.  C.  P.  W. 
Gramberg,  Lipsice,  1828,  8vo. 

This  writer  adopts  the  hypothesis  of  some  modem  German  critics, 
that  the  book  of  Genesis  is  a  compilation  by  a  third  person  from  two 
primary  documents,  which  he  designates  by  the  terms  "  Jehovista" 
and  "  Elohista,"  from  the  appellation  of  Jehovah  and  Elohim  given 
to  the  Almighty.  He  adopts  the  untenable  notion  that  the  history 
of  the  creation  and  Fall  of  Man  is  a  philosophical  and  poetical 
mythos,  or  fable. 

30.  T.  P.  C.  Kaiser  Commentarius  in  priora  Geneseos  Ca- 
pita, quatenus  universae  populorum  mythologia;  claves  exhibent. 
Norimbergae,  1829,  8vo. 

31.  An  Essay  on  the  Book  of  Genesis  ;  being  an  attempt  to 
reconcile  the  Incongruities  in  the  Mosaical  Account  of  the  Crea- 
tion of  the  World.     DubHn,  1830,  12mo. 

31*.  The  Worship  of  the  Serpent  traced  throughout  the  world, 
and  its  Traditions  referred  to  the  Events  in  Paradise  ;  proving 
the  Temptation  and  Fall  of  Man  by  the  Instrumentality  of  a 
Serpent  Tempter.  By  the  Rev.  John  Bathurst  Deane,  M.A. 
London,  1830,  8vo.     Second  Edition,  1833,  8vo. 

Though  not  a  commentary  on  the  book  of  Genesis,  "  The  Mosaic 
History  of  the  Creation  of  the  World,  illustrated  by  Discoveries 
and  Experiments  derived  from  the  present  State  of  Science,  by 
Thomas  Wood"  (8vo.  London,  1818),  deserves  a  notice  in  this  place, 
as  a  very  elaborate  illustration  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis. 
Science  is  here  rendered  the  handmaid  of  Revelation.  To  the 
work  is  prefixed  a  view  of  the  cosmogony  of  the  ancients,  which 
exhibits  very  considerable  research.  The  religious  improvements 
are  both  natural  and  scriptural :  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  here 
scripturally  defended,  and  its  authorities  are  clearly  adduced.  A 
philosophical  exposition  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  is  attempted 
in  "  The  Ancient  Principles  of  the  True  and  Sacred  Philosophy,  as 
lately  explained  by  John  Hutchinson,  Esq.  Originally  published 
in  Latin  by  A.  S.  Catcott.  Translated  with  Notes,  and  a  Prelimi- 
nary Dissertation  on  the  Character  and  Writings  of  Moses.  By 
Alexander  Maxwell."    London,  1822,  8vo. 


32.  Hexapla  in  Exodum  :  that  is,  a  sixfold  Commentary  upon 
the  Book  of  Exodus,  according  to  the  Method  propounded  in 
Hexapla  upon  Genesis.  By  Andrew  Willet.  London,  1608, 
folio. 

33.  Exodus ;  a  corrected  Translation,  with  notes,  critical  and 
explanatory.     By  William  Hopkins,  B.A.     London,  1784,  4to. 

The  translator  has,  in  general,  executed  his  task  with  fidelity ; 
and,  "  where  it  could  be  done  with  propriety  (or  where  the  read- 
ings of  the  Samaritan  copy  would  permit  it)  '  he  has  adopted,' 
he  says,  '  the  English  vulgar  translation,  in  order  to  prevent  any 
prejudices  that  might  be  infused  into  the  minds  of  the  common 
people  by  uncharitable  bigots.'  In  the  notes  we  meet  with  little 
that  can  gratify  the  taste  of  curious  and  critical  readers  ;  and  his 
severe  reflections  on  the  articles  and  liturgy  of  the  Church  of 
England  might  well  have  been  spared  in  a  work  of  this  nature." 
(Monthly  Rev.  O.  S.  vol.  Ixxii.  p.  412.) 

JOSHUA  AND  THE  OTHER  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 

34.  Josu;e  Imperatoris  Historia,  illustrata  atque  explicata  ab 
Andrea  Masio.  Antwerp,  1574,  folio;  and  also  in  the  Critici 
Sacri. 

A  work  of  very  considerable  value,  on  account  of  its  containing 
the  readings  of  the  Syriac  Hexaplar  version,  the  manuscript  of 
which  Masius  possessed.  This  manuscript  is  said  to  have  been 
written  in  the  year  606,  and  is  the  only  one  that  preserves  the 
readings  of  Joshua,  as  given  by  Origen. 

35.  C.  H.  van  Herwerden  Disputatio  de  Libro  Josuse,  sive 
de  diversis  ex  quibus  constat  Josuae  Liber  monumentis,  deque 
setate  qua  eorum  vixerunt  auctores.     Groningje,  1828,  8vo. 

36.  Historia  Ruth,  ex  Ebrseo  Latine  conversa  et  Commenta- 
rio  explicata.  Ejusdem  Historiae  Translatio  Graeca  ad  Exemplar 
Complutense,  et  Notae  in  eandera.  Opera  ac  Studio  Joanniaj 
Drusii.     Amsterdam!,  1632,  4to. 

37.  A  Comment  on  Ruth  by  T[homas]  F[ulleh],  B.D^ 
London,  1654,  8vo. 

38.  John  Henr.  Michaelis,  Chr.  Ben.  Michaelis,  et  Joh>l 
Jac.  Rambachii,  Notae  Uberiores  in  Hagioghapha.  HalsBj] 
1735—1751,  3  vols.4to. 

Of  this  work,  the  elder  Michaelis  wrote  the  annotations  on  the 
first  book  of  Chronicles,  the  Psalms,  book  of  Job,  and  Song  of 
Solomon ;  C.  B.  Michaelis  was  the  author  of  those  on  Proverb»1 


Sect.  III.  §  4.] 


COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


117 


the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  Prophet  Daniel  ;  and  the 
notes  on  the  second  txjok  of  ChronicIeH,  Kiitli,  Estlier,  Nehemiah, 
and  Ecclesiastcs,  were  written  by  llarnbacli. 

39.  J.  D.  Daiileh,  de  Librorum  PAiiALiPOMExonuM  auctori- 
tate  atque  fide  historica.  8vo.  LipniiB,  1819. 

40.  Grey  (Richard)  The  Last  Words  of  David,  divided  ac- 
cording to  the  Metre,  with  Notes  critical  and  explanatory.  Lon- 
don, 1749,  4to. 

41.  Commentatio  ad  Elegiam  Davidis  in  Saulum  et  Jonathancm. 
Auctore  Antonio  Henrico  Paheau.     GroningtB,  1829,  4to. 

This  dissertation  consists  of  three  parts.  In  the  first  is  given  a 
critical  examination  of  David's  exqiiiHitely  beautiful  elegy  on  the 
death  of  Saul  and  of  Jonathan;  in  the  second  we  have  an  exegeti- 
cal  interpretation  of  it ;  and  the  third  contains  an  ingenious  com- 
parison of  it  with  the  oilier  elegiac  productions  of  the  Hebrew 
Sacred  Poets,  and  with  those  of  other  Oriental  |)oet.s  and  of  the 
Greeks.  The  result  of  this  collation  establishes  more  satisfactorily 
the  infinite  superiority  of  David's  elegy  over  every  similar  comj)0- 
sition,  sacred  or  profane. 

42.  A.  G.  F.  ScinKMEii,  Observationes  Excgctico-Criticaj  in 
Librum  Esdiijj.     Vratislavite,  1820,  4to. 

ON    THE    POETICAL    BOOKS    OENERALLT. 

43.  The  Annotations  of  Michaelis  above  noticed,  in  No.  38. 

44.  A  Paraphrase  on  the  Books  of  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  and 
Ecclesiastes,  with  notes,  critical,  historical,  and  practical.  By 
Lawrence  Holuen,  1764,  4  vols.  8vo. 

"  To  what  class  of  readers  this  performance  will  be  useful  or 
agreeable,  we  really  know  not ;  but  this  we  verily  believe,  that 
persons  of  taste,  learning,  or  judgment,  w^ill  find  very  little  in  it  to 
engage  their  attention."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  xxxi.  p.  73.) 
The  public  opinion  seems  to  have  been  in  unison  with  that  of  the 
Monthly  Reviewers;  the  book  has  never  been  popular,  and  it  is  to 
be  purchased  at  a  very  low  price  ;  on  which  account,  this  notice 
is  inserted  as  a  caution  to  the  student  who  may  be  inexperienced 
in  the  real  value  of  books. 

4.5.  Critical  Remarks  on  the  Books  of  Job,.  Proverbs,  Psalms, 
Ecclesiastcs,  and  Canticles.  By  D.  Durell,  D.D.  London, 
1772,  4to. 

See  an  analysis  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
xlvii.  pp.  119—129. 

46.  Joh.  Chr.  DoEnEiiLEiiT  Scholia  in  Libros  Veteris  Testa- 
menti  Poeticos.     Hala;,  1779,  4to. 

47.  The  Poetical  Parts  of  the  Old  Testament  newly  translated 
from  the  Hebrew,  with  notes  critical  and  explanatory.  By 
Wilham  Green,  M.A.     London,  1781,  4to. 

For  an  account  of  this  work,  see  the  Monthly  Review.  O.  S. 
vol.  Ixviii.  pp.  1 — 9. 


48.  Friderici  SpANiiEMii  Filii  Historia  Jobi.  Genevse,  1670, 
4 to.  Also  in  the  second  volume  of  the  folio  edition  of  his  col- 
lective works  pubUshed  at  Ley  den,  in  1701-3,  in  3  volumes, 
folio. 

49.  A  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Job,  with  annotations,  argu- 
ments, and  dialogues  on  each  chapter,  is  given  in  the  second 
tome  or  part  of  the  celebrated  Hugh  Broughton's  works, 
pp.  246—294. 

50.  An  T3xposition,  with  Practical  Observations  on  the  Book 
of  Job.     By  Joseph  Cartl.     London,  1676,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  work  was  originally  published  in  six  volumes,  4to.  at  dif- 
ferent times.  1  have  never  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  it; 
but  Wachi  eulogizes  it  in  very  high  terms.  (Bibhoth.  Theol.  vol.  iv. 

E.  487.)     It  is  now  very  little  read  or  even  consulted,  few  readers 
eing  able  to  wade  through  two  large  folio  volumes. 

51.  Francisci  Vavassoris  Jobus,  brevi  Commentauio  etMeta- 
phrasi  Poetica  illustratus.     Paris,  1679,  8vo. 

52.  Dissertationcs  in  Librum  Jobi.  Autore  Samuele  Wesley. 
Londini,  1736,  folio. 

This  volume  contains  fifty-three  elaborate  Dissertations,  which 
embrace  almost  every  critical  question  or  difficulty  that  is  to  be 
found  in  the  book  of  Job.  The  learned  author  collated  all  the 
copies  which  he  could  procure,  both  of  the  original  Hebrew,  and 
also  of  the  Greek  and  other  versions. 

53.  Liber  Jobi,  cum  nova  versionc  et  commentario  perpetuo. 
Edidit  Albertus  Schultens.     Lug.  Bat.  1737,  2  vols.  4to. 

Of  this  learned  and  elaborate  work,  an  abridgment  was  printed 
at  Halle,  in  1773.  by  Prof  V'ogel,  entitled  Alberli  Schnllensii  Com- 
mentarius  in  Jobinn,  in  compendium  redactus,  cum  obscrvationibus 
criticis  et  exegeticis.    2  vols.  8vo. 


54.  Liber  Jobi  in  versiculos  metrice  divisus,  cum  Versione 
Latiiia  Alberti  Schultcns,  Notisque  ex  ejus  Commentario  ex- 
ccrpsit  atque  adnotationes  suas  adjecit  Ricardus  Grei.  Lon- 
dini, 1742. 

A  learned  and  valuable  work.  Mr.  [afierwards  Bp.]  Warburlon 
having  attacked  Dr.  (irey,  the  latter  dcrcnded  liimself  in  "An 
Answer  to  Mr.  VVarburton's  Rcnuirks  so  far  as  llioy  concern  the 
Preface  to  a  late  edition  of  the  Book  of  Job."     I^ondon,  1741,  8vo. 

55.  Some  Observations  tending  to  illustrate  the  Hook  of  Job, 
and  particularly  Job  xix.25.  By  the  Rev.  Charles  Costard,  M.A. 
London,  1747,  8vo. 

56.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Job,  its  Nature,  Argument, 
Age,  and  Author.  Wherein  the  celebrated  Text,  ch.  xix.  25.  is 
occasionally  considered  and  discussed.  To  which  is  prefixed  an 
Introductory  Discourse,  with  a  short  Analysis  of  the  whole  Book. 
Ry  John  Gahnett,  B.D.  [afterwards  Bishop  of  Clogher].  Lon- 
don, 1751.     Second  edition,  1754,  4to. 

57.  Observationes  Miscellanea)  in  Librum  Jobi.  [Auctore 
D.  R.  BouLLiER.]     Amsterdami,  1758,  8vo. 

This  work  is  an  attack  on  the  labours  of  Professor  Schultens, 
whose  system  of  explaining  Hebrew  words  and  idionw,  chiefly 
by  the  aid  of  the  Arabic,  is  here  severely  criticised. 

58.  Elihu,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  principal  Scope  and  Design 
of  the  Book  of  Job.  By  Walter  Hodges,  D.D.  London,  1750, 
4to. 

This  work  is  written  on  the  Hutchinsonian  system,  and  is  de- 
signed to  show  that  Elihu  was  no  other  personage  than  the  Son  of 
Ciod  himself!  See  Monthly  Review,  (0.  S.),  vol.  ii.  pp.  219—225. 
347—352. 

59.  A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job,  in  which  are  inserted 
the  Hebrew  text  and  English  translation,  <fec.  By  Leonard 
Chappf.low,  B.D.,  Arabic  Professor  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge.    1752,  2  vols.  4to. 

See  an  account  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review  (O.  S.), 
vol.  vii.  pp.  197—205. 

60.  An  Essay  towards  a  New  English  Version  of  the  Book 
of  Job,  from  the  original  Hebrew,  with  a  Commentary,  and  some 
account  of  his  Life.  By  Edward  Heath,  Esq.  London,  1756, 
4to. 

"  It  is  but  justice  to  this  new  Essay  upon  Job,  to  observe,  that  the 
translation  is  in  many  places  very  different  from  that  in  common 
use ;  and  that,  in  the  notes,  there  are  many  observations  entirely 
new — all  of  them  ingenious,  and  many  of  them  true."  (Month. 
Rev.  O.  S.  vol.  xiv.  p.  150.) 

61.  A  Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Job.  By  Charles 
Peters,  A.M.     Second  edition.     London,  1757,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  appeared  in  1751.  (See  Month. 
Rev.  O.  S.  vol.  iv.  pp.  401 — 409.)  In  it,  the  author  particularly 
considers  Bishop  VVarburton's  account  of  the  Book  of  Job,  vindi- 
cates its  antiquity,  and  shows  that  the  ancient  Jews  did  believe  ia 
a  future  state. 

62.  The  Book  of  Job  in  English  verse,  translated  from  the 
original  Hebrew  ;  with  remarks,  historical,  critical,  and  explana- 
tory.    By  T.  Scott.     London,  1773,  8vo. 

A  close  and  exact  translation,  as  far  as  a  metrical  version  can  be. 
The  notes  display  much  research  and  good  sense. 

63.  An  Improved  Version  attempted  of  the  Book  of  Joh,  with 
a  preliminary  Dissertation  and  Notes,  critical,  historical,  and 
explanatory      By  Charles  Garden,  D.D.     London,   1796,  8vo. 

A  book  of  great  pretensions,  but  indifTerent  execution.  See  an 
analysis  of  it  in  the  British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  ix.  pp.  11)8 — 175. 

64.  Jo.  Jac.  Reiske  Conjcctura;  in  Jobum  et  Provcrhia,  cum 
ejusdem  oratione  de  studio  Arabicae  LinguiE.    Lipsiae,  1779,  8vo. 

65.  Jobi  antiquissimi  Carininis  Hebraici  Natura  atque  Virtu- 
tes.     Scripsit  Carolus  David  Ilgen.     Lipsia;,  1789,  8vo. 

66.  Animadvcrsiones  in  Librum  Job ;  scripsit  Jac.  Christ.  Rud. 
EcKERMANN.     Lubeca;,  1779,  Svo. 

67.  Joannis  Henrici  Parkau  Commentatio  de  Immortalitatis 
ac  VitiD  Futura:  Notitiis  ab  antiquissimo  Jobi  scriptore  in  suos 
usus  adhibitis.  Acccdit  Sermo  Jobi  de  Sapicntia  mortuis  magis 
cognita  quam  vivis  ;  sive  Jobcidis  caput  xxviii.  pliilologice  et 
critice  illustratum.     Daventrii,  1807,  8vo. 

68.  The  Book  of  Job,  metrically  arranged  according  to  the 
Masora,  and  newly  translated  into  English  ;  with  Notes,  critical 
and  explanatory,  accompanied,  on  the  opposite  page,  by  the  au- 
thorized English  version.  By  the  Right  Rev.  Joseph  Stock, 
D.D.,  Bishop  of  Killala.     Bath,  1805,  4to. 

This  translation  was  executed  in  the  short  space  of  six  weeks. 
Many  of  the  author's  opinions  and  conjectural  emendations  were 


118 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


severely  criticised  by  Arelibishop  Magee,  who  has  shown  that  his 
objections  to  the  antiijuity  of  tiie  Book  of  Job  were  unfounded. 
(On  the  Atonement,  vol.  i.  pp.  35  J — 42'2.) 

G9.  'J'he  Book  of  Job,  translated  from  the  Hebrew,  by  the 
late  Miss  Elizabeth  Smith  :  with  a  preface  and  annotations,  by 
the  Rev,  T.  Randolph,  D.D.     London,  1810,  8vo. 

This  was  a  posthumous  publication  of  an  amiable  and  accom- 
plished young  lady. — "Considering  the  age  of  Miss  Smith,  and  the 
circumsuinces  under  which  she  studied  the  Helirew  language,  her 
translation  of  the  Book  of  Job  may  certainly  be  deemed  a  very  sur- 
prising work ;  and  had  it  not  been  characterized  in  the  extrava- 
gant terms  of  commendation  with  which  Dr.  Randolph  has  intro- 
duced it  to  the  public,  it  might  have  borne  generally  a  more 
favourable  report  than  it  will  gain  from  that  scrutiny  whi(?h  his 
eulogium  seems  to  challenge.  It  was  evidently  left  in  an  unfinish- 
ed state  ;  and  the  editor  felt  himself  bound  in  honour  not  to  make 
the  smallest  correction.  We  have  it,  therefore,  just  as  Miss  Smith 
wrote  it;  and  we  receive  it  as  a  monument  of  her  industry  and 
genius,  though  we  cannot  regard  it  as  having  effected  much  to- 
wards the  elucidation  of  the  Book  of  Job."  (Month.  Rev.  N.  S. 
vol.  Ixv.  p.  152.)  See  also  a  similar  critique  in  the  Eclectic  Review, 
vol.  vi.  part  ii.  p.  780. 

70.  The  Book  of  Job,  literally  translated  from  the  original 
Hebrew,  and  restored  to  its  natural  arrangement,  with  Notes, 
critical  and  illustrative,  and  an  Introductory  Dissertation  on  its 
scene,  scope,  language,  author,  and  object.  By  John  Mason 
Good,  M.D.  F.R.S.  &c.     London,  1812,  8vo. 

"  On  the  whole,  we  regard  this  work  as  a  valuable  accession 
to  our  stock  of  sacred  literature;  and  we  can  recommend  it  with 
confidence  to  the  biblical  student,  as  containing  a  great  mass  of 
useful  information  and  valuable  criticism."  (Christian  Observer, 
vol.  xii.  p.  306.) 

71.  Henr.  MinnELnoRFF  Curse  Hexaplares  in  Jobum,  e  Co- 
dice  Syriaco-Hcxaplari  Ambrosiano  Mediolanensi.  4to.  Vratisla- 
vias,  1817. 

72.  Le  Livre  de  Job,  nouvellement  traduit  d'apres  le  texte 
original  non  ponctue  et  les  anciennes  versions,  notamment 
I'Arabe  etla  Syriaque  ;  par  J.  Louis  Bridel,  Professeur  de  Lan- 
gucs  Orieiatales,  et  de  1' interpretation  des  Livres  Saints,  dans 
1' Academic  de  Lausanne.     Paris,  1818,  8vo. 

73.  The  Book  of  Job,  translated  from  the  Hebrew  by  George 
Hunt.     Bath,  1825,  8vo. 

74.  Le  Livre  de  Job,  traduit  en  Vers  Francais,  avec  le  Texte 
de  la  Vulgate  en  regard ;  suivi  de  Notes  Explicatives,  ainsi  que 
de  Variantes,  tirees  de  plus  celebres  Interpretes  de  la  Bible. 
Par  B.  M.  F.  Levavasseuh.     Paris,  1826,  8vo. 

75.  A  New  Translation  and  Exposition  of  the  very  ancient 
Book  of  Job  ;  with  Notes,  explanatory  and  philological.  By  the 
Rev.  John  Fkt,  B.A.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

76.  An  Amended  Version  of  the  Book  of  Job,  with  an  Intro- 
duction, and  Notes,  chiefly  explanatory.  By  George  R.  Notes. 
Cambridge  [North  America],  1827,  8vo. 

*'  Mr.  Noyes,  in  the  present  translation,  has  aimed  at  combining 
the  fruits  of  the  labours  of  the  learned  in  sacred  literature,  as  far 
as  they  relate  or  can  be  applied  to  the  book  of  Job.  He  has  pre- 
sented the  public  with  a  version  of  this  highly  interesting  portion 
of  Scripture,  the  basis  of  which  is  laid  in  the  former  received" 
[our  authorized]  "  translation  ;  but  into  which  have  been  incorpo- 
rated, with  a  judicious  selection,  the  most  important  suggestions 
of  the  critics,  lexicographers,  and  divines,  which  have  been  made 

since  the  received  version  of  the  Bible  was  promulgated To 

the  general  ability,  fidelity,  good  sense,  and  good  taste,  with  which 
he  has  executed  his  task,  we  bear  willing  and  ample  testimony." 
(United  States'  Review  and  Literary  Gazette,  vol.  ii.  p.  343.) 

77.  The  Book  of  Job,  in  the  words  of  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sion, arranged  and  pointed  in  general  conformity  with  the  Maso- 
retical  Text.     Dublin,  1828,  8vo. 

"  The  principal  feature  in  this  work  is  the  adoption  of  what  the 
editor  calls  a  half -pause  in  each  line  of  every  verse,  which  he  has 
marked  by  a  dot,  placed,  like  the  Greek  colon,  at  the  top  of  the 
last  Idler  of  the  word  to  which  it  is  aflixed.  In  the  determination 
of  this  pause  he  has  been  directed  by  the  Masoretical  punctuation, 
which  not  only  divides  the  respective  verses  into  couplets  or  tri- 
plets, but  every  line  into  two  distinct  parts.  The  editor  has  not 
followed  Bushop  Lowth  and  others  in  printing  each  line  separately, 
but  has  retained  the  usual  form  of  the  verse,  as  in  the  authorized 
version,  and  as  established  by  the  Masorets.  The  words  also  of 
the  English  translation  have  been  retained  throughout,  except 
where  a  slight  alteration  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  change  in 
their  collocation,  in  which  the  order  of  the  Hebrew  is  followed 
as  closely  as  the  difference  of  language  will  permit.  By  this 
means  the  majestic  simplicity  of  the  original  is  materially  preserv- 
ed ;  and,  in  many  instances,  the  sense  of  a  passage  more  accurately 
developed."     (Christian  Remembrancer,  vol.  x.  pp.  41)2,493.) 

78.  Conjectures  concerning  the  identity  of  the  Patriarch  Job, 
his  Family,  the  Time  when  he  lived,  and  the  Locality  of  the 


[Part  II.  Chap.  V. 
Oxford  and 


Land  of  Uz.     By  the  Rev.  Samuel  Lrsoxs,  B.A. 
London,  1832,  8vo. 

79.  J.  G.  SncKEL  Commentatio  Historico-philologico-critica 
in  Jobi  locum  ccleberrimuin,  cap.  XIX.  25 — 27.  de  Gv  cle.    Jente, 

1832,  8vo 


80.  Gregorii  Bariierh.'bi  Scholia  in  Psalmum  quintnm  et 
decimum  octavum,  e  Codicis  Bibliotheca;  Bodleiame  Apographo 
Bernstcniano  edidit,  intcrpretatus  est,  et  aiinotationibus  ]in)Iego- 
menisque  instruxit  Joannes  Theophilus  Guiliclmus  Hiinicus 
Rhoue.     Vratislavice,  1832,  8vo. 

81.  Annotations  upon  the  Book  of  Psalms.  By  Henry  Ains- 
woRTH.     See  p.  115,   No.  3.  supra. 

82.  Marci  Marini,  Brixiani,  Annotationes  Literalcs  in  Psal- 
mos,  Nova  Versione  ab  ipsomet  illustrates.  Edit®  opera  et 
studio  Joannis  Aloysii  Mingarelli.   Bononia;,  1748-50,  2  vols.  4to. 

A  learned  and  useful  work,  the  author  of  which  died  in  1594. 
To  his  profound  knowledge  of  Hebrew  literature  the  younger  Bux- 
torf,  Le  Long,  Turretini,  and  other  eminent  philologists  of  the  se- 
venteenth century,  have  borne  ample  testimony.  These  Annota- 
tions are  strictly  literal ;  and  to  them  is  prefixed  the  original  Hebrew 
text  of  the  Psalms,  together  with  the  Vulgate  Latin  version,  and  a 
new  translation  of  them  by  Marco  Marini. 

83.  A  brief  Explication  of  the  Psalms.  By  David  Dicksott, 
Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  College  of  Edinburgh.  London, 
1653-54,  3  vols.  8vo.  Glasgow  and  London,  1834,  12  vols. 
12mo. 

This  work  was  very  popular  during  the  latter  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  Glasgow  reprint  is  very  neatly  executed,  and 
is  enlarged  with  a  memoir  of  the  author,  by  the  Rev.  Robert  Wod- 
row. 

84.  Paraphrases  and  Annotations  upon  the  Book  of  Psalms 
By  Henry  Hammond,  D.D.     London,  1659,  folio. 

Dr.  Hammond's  notes  are  exceedingly  valuable,  and  contain 
many  learned  observations  that  had  escaped  preceding  commenta- 
tors on  the  Book  of  Psalms.  They  are  also  lo  be  found  in  tiie  fourth 
volume  of  his  collected  works,  published  at  London  in  1684,  in  folio. 

85.  David's  Harp  Strung  and  Tuned :  or  an  Easie  Analysis 
of  the  whole  Book  of  Psalms,  cast  into  such  a  method  that  the 
Summe  of  every  Psalm  may  be  quickly  collected  and  remem- 
bered. With  a  Devout  Meditation  or  Prayer  at  the  end  of  every 
Psalm,  framed  for  the  most  part  out  of  the  words  of  the  Psalm,  and 
fitted  for  several  Occasions.  By  William  [Nicholson],  Bishop 
of  Gloucester.     London,  1662,  folio. 

In  this  work  every  verse  of  the  Psalms  is  divided  and  subdivided 
with  great  minuteness;  it  is  wholly  practical  and  explanatory.  In 
his  explications,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Author  steers  between  the  two  ex- 
tremes of  literal  and  spiritual  interpretation.  The  prayers  at  the 
end  of  each  Psalm  are  expressed  nearly  in  the  very  words  of  the 
inspired  authors.  Though  the  quaint  and  scholastic  mode  which 
obtains  in  this  work  is  somewhat  repulsive,  it  may  nevertheless  be 
consulted  with  advantage  by  those  who  cannot  command  other 
and  more  critical  commentaries  ;  especially  as  the  book  may  be 
occasionally  met  with  at  a  low  price.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  has  inserted 
Bishop  Nicholson's  Analysis  in  his  commentary  on  the  Psalms, 
omitting  his  prayers. 

86.  Martini  Geieri  Commentarius  in  Psalmos  Davidis,  fon- 
tium  EbrsEorum  mentem,  et  vim  vocum  phrasiumque  sacrarum 
sensumque  adeo  genuinum,  adductis  copiose  locis  parallclis,  col- 
latis  etiam  (uhi  opus)  versionibus  intcrpretumquc  scntcntiis,  et 
enodatis  difficultatibus,  cum  cura  eruens.  Lipsia),  1681  ;  1697; 
Amstelodami,  1685;  Dresdfe,  1709,  folio. 

Geier  was  an  eminently  learned  divine  of  the  Lutheran  church, 
and  Professor  of  Hebrew  at  Leipsic,  where  the  substance  of  his 
commentary  on  the  Psalms  was  delivered  in  lectui-es  to  the  students. 
It  is  very  little  known  in  this  country  ;  but  on  the  continent  it  is 
very  highly  esteemed  for  its  erudition  and  piety.  (Walchius,  vol. 
iv.  p.  495.) 

87.  The  Book  of  Psalms,  with  the  argument  of  each  psalm, 
and  a  preface  giving  some  general  rules  for  the  interpretation  of 
this  sacred  book.  By  a  Divine  of  the  Church  of  England.  [Peter 
Allix,  D.D.]     London,  1701,  Rvo. 

88.  An  Essay  towards  a  New  English  Version  of  the  Book 
of  Psalms,  from  the  original  Hebrew.  By  Z.  Muogk.  London, 
1744,  4to. 

The  learned  author  of  this  work,  which  is  now  of  rare  occurrence, 
professes  to  give  a  plain  literal  version,  without  ofTci-ing  to  dtiviate 
into  any  affected  ornaraenls.  The  transitions  of  persons  and  scenes, 
which  are  frequent  in  the  Psalms,  are  carefully  indicated ;  and 
the  numerous,  though  brief,  notes  are  designed  partly  to  point 
out  the  critical  meaning  of  each  psrdm,  and  partly  to  acco!inl  to 
the  reader  lor  the  changes  made  in  the  version.  Some  of  thnse 
notes,  however,  are  more  iagoiiiouij  than  solid.    How  highly  Mr. 


Sect.  III.  §  4.]  COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


119 


Mudge  was  esteemed  liy  Dr.  Johnson,  may  be  seen,  in  tlio  charac- 
ter (jT  him  rlrawn  by  Uie  latter,  in  HosvvcH's  Life  of  Dr.  Juhnxon, 
vol.  iv.  pp.  BO— 84. 

89.  A  new  English  Translation  of  the  Psalms,  from  the  origi- 
nal Hebrew,  reduced  to  Metre  by  the  late  Bishop  Hare ;  with 
Notes  critical  and  ex[)lanatory  ;  Illustrations  of  many  pa.ssages 
drawn  from  the  classics  ;  and  a  preliminary  Di.s.scrtation,  in  which 
the  truth  and  certainty  of  that  learned  prelate's  happy  di.scovery 
is  stated  and  {jrovcd  at  large.  By  Thomas  Ehwakus,  A.M. 
London,  1755,  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  learned  work  w'as  "  to  make  Bifdiop  Hare's 
discovery  of  the  Hebrew  metro  better  known;  to  show  it.s  truth 
and  certainty;  and  to  jirove  that,  by  a  judicious  application  of  it, 
great  light  may  be  thrown  u|K(n  the  poetical  parts  of  the  Holy 
Scrijitures."  (Nloiitbly  Kevicw,  ().  S.  vol.  xii.  pp.  485 — 487.)  Mr. 
Edwards  was  of  opiiuon  that  Dr.  Hare's  hypothesis  was  rejected 
by  many  persons,  partly  from  an  overhasly  determination,  and  |)artly 
from  loo  scrupulous  a  veneration  lor  the  Hebrew  text.  Of  Dr.  Hare  s 
system,  a  short  account  is  given. 

90.  The  Psalter,  in  its  original  form ;  or  the  Book  of  P.salm.s 
reduced  to  lines,  in  an  ea.sy  juid  familiar  style,  and  a  kind  of 
blank  verse  of  unequal  measures,  answering  for  the  most  part  to 
the  original  lines,  with  arguments  pointing  out  the  general  de- 
sign of  each  Psalm,  and  notes,  accounting  for  some  passages  in 
the  translation  ;  opening  and  explaining  also,  in  some  places,  the 
prophetical  views,  &c.  [By  the  Rev.  George  Fexwick,  B.D.] 
London,  1759,  8vo. 

The  object  of  this  publication  is,  to  show  that  the  Psalms  were 
written  in  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  with  a  special  and  direct  reference 
to  Christ  and  his  church,  in  the  difFcront  ages  and  periods  of  the 
Christian  dispensation.  Writing  ou  this  hypothesis,  Mr.  Fenwick 
is  often  fanciful  in  his  interpretations.  He  has,  however,  many 
happy  renderings. 

91.  Phil.  Davidis  Bchkii  Gnomon  Psalmorum.  Stutgardiae, 
17  GO,  2  vols.  4  to. 

This  work  "  is  written  in  a  pure  strain  of  piety,  but  rather  too 
much  in  a  technical  Ibrm."     (Dr.  Clarke.) 

92.  A  New  Translation  of  the  Psalms  from  the  Hebrew 
Original,  with  Notes  critical  and  explanatory  ;  to  which  is  added 
a  Dissertation  on  the  last  prophetic  words  of  Noah.  By  William 
GiiKKN,  M.A.     1762,  8vo. 

This  work  contains  "  some  judicious  alterations  in  the  version, 
and  valuable  criticisms  in  the  notes;  which  throw  considerable 
light  on  many  obscure  passages  in  the  Psalms,  and  will  cause  those 
excellent  compositions,  which  have  been  the  admiration  and  delight 
of  pious  minds  through  so  many  ages,  to  be  read  with  still  more 
pleasure  and  advantage."  But  "  the  language  of  the  translation, 
(hough  correct,  has  neither  that  force  nor  harmony  which  we  find 
in  the  common  version  in  our  Bibles."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
xxviii.  p.  207.) 

93.  Hcrmanni  Vejtf.ma  Commcntarius  ad  Psalmos :  quo  sin- 
gulorum  Argumentum.Tenipus  et  Hypothesis  explicandi  studiose 
iiKjuiritur,  corumquc  Partes  continua  Paraphrasi  et  selcctis  Ob- 
scrvatiouibus  illustrantur.     Leovardije,  1762-67,  6  tomis,  4to. 

"  Through  its  great  scarcity,  the  work  is  little  known  in  Great 
Britain.  What  was  said  by  David  of  Goliath's  sword,  may  be  justly 
said  of  V'cucma's  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Psalms  —  There  is 
none  like  it."  (Dr.  Clarke.)  It  is  held  in  the  highest  esteem  abroad, 
particularly  in  Holland. 

94.  Franci-sci  V.vTAnLi  Annotationes  in  Psalmos,  subjunctis 
Hugonis  Grotii  Notis,  quibus  Observationes  suas  adspcrsit  G.  J. 
L.  Vogel.     Haloe,  1767,  8vo. 

95.  Annotations  on  the  Psalms.  By  James  Mebbick,  M.A. 
Reading,  17C8,  4to. 

This  volume  is  adapted  to  Mr.  Merrick's  Poetical  Version  of  the 
Psalms,  published  in  1765,  in  4to.  and  justly  considered  as  the  best 
English  poetical  translation  extant.  In  the  compilation  of  these 
notes  he  was  assisted  l)y  Bishop  Lowth  (then  Bishop  of  Oxford)  and 
Archbishop  Seeker.  "  A  large  part  of  them  jclate  to  the  read- 
ings of  the  ancient  versions,  and  projxjse  the  conjectural  emenda- 
tions of  various  writers.  Many  of  them  abound  with  passages, 
principally  from  the  Greek  authors,  which  justify  the  modes  of 
expression  used  by  the  Psalmist  ;  and  for  this  part  of  his  design 
Mr.  Merrick  was  admirably  qualified,  by  his  extensive  and  uncom- 
mon ac(|uaintance  with  Grecian  literature.  Some  of  the  notes, 
which  are  the  most  curious  and  entertaining,  arc  those  which  treat 
upon  the  plants,  trees,  and  animals  menlioned  in  the  Psalms." 
(Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  xl.  p.  374.) 

96.  Mosis  Amyralhi  Paraphrasis  in  Psalmos  Davidis,  una 
cum  Annotationibus  et  Argumentis.  Editio  altera,  emendatior 
et  auctior,  nova  Prsefatione  Jac.  Cremcri.  Traj.  ad  Rhenum, 
1672,  4to. 

97.  A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Psalms ;  in  which  the 
literal  or  historical  sense,  as  thev  relate  to  King  David  and  the 

Vol.  II.— App.  4  H 


People  of  Israel,  is  illustrated  ;  and  their  application  to  the  Mes- 
siah, to  the  church,  and  to  individuals  as  members  thereof,  is 
pointed  out.  By  George  Houxk,  D.D.  [late  Bishop  of  Norwich], 
4to.  2  vols.  Oxford,  1771  ;  also  in  one  and  two  volumes,  8vo. ; 
12mo.  3  vols. ;  and  ISmo.  2  vols.  They  also  form  vols.  ii.  and 
iii.  of  the  collective  edition  of  his  works  in  6  vols.  8vo. 

The  variety  and  number  of  the  editions  of  this  learned  and  pious 
work  sufficiently  attest  the  very  high  estimation  in  which  it  is  held  : 
the  critics  of  the  day,  however,  when  it  first  appeared,  were  of 
opinion  that  Bishop  llorne  applied  loo  many  of  the  Psalms  to  tho 
Messiah.  A  judicious  "  Selection"  from  this  work  was  published 
by  Mr.  Lindlcy  Murray,  in  12mo.  1812,  comprising  the  most  strik- 
ing, pathetic,  and  instructive  parts  of  the  commentary. 

98.  Davidis  aliorumquc  Poctarum  Hcbracorum  Carminum  Li- 
bri  quinque,  e  Codd.  M-SS.  et  Antiquis  Versionibus  recensuit  et 
Commcntariis  illustravit  Jo.  Aug.  Staiik.  Bvo.  vol.  i.  pars  1.  et  2. 
Rcgiomonti,  1776. 

These  two  parts  contain  only  an  introduction  to  tho  Psalms  ;  tho 
work  was  never  continued. 

99.  A  new  Literal  Version  of  the  Book  of  Psalms,  with  a 
Preface  and  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Stephen  Stueet,  M.A.  Lon- 
don, 1790,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  atiihor's  object  in  this  work  is  to  give  a  close  literal  transla- 
tion of  the  Psalms.  In  several  instances,  the  Monthly  Reviewers 
state  that  this  version  "  is  an  improvement  of  those  which  have 
preceded  it;  that  in  some  the  alterations  are  doubtful,  and  that  in 
many  others  they  are  unnecessary,  if  not  mistaken  ;  yet  that  all 
are  worthy  of  attention,  and  may  open  the  way  to  further  amend- 
ments. We  consider  this  work  as  a  useful  addition  to  this  branch 
of  learning.  The  author  may,  perhaps,  be  t<x)  ready  in  advancing 
conjectures;  but  he  always  gives  notice  when  he  does  it,  and  he 
never  dogmatically  affirms."  (Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  viii. 
p.  50.) 

100.  Notes  on  the  Books  of  Psalms  and  Proverbs.  By  the 
Rev.  H.  DiMocK.     Gloucester,  1791,  4to. 

101.  J.  F.  Stance  Anticritica  in  Locos  Psalmorum  varies. 
Lipsia3  et  Hate,  1791  —  1795,  2  vols.  8vo. 

102.  A  New  and  Liberal  Version  of  the  Psalms  into  Modem 
Language,  according  to  the  Liturgy  Translation,  with  copious 
Notes  and  Illustrations,  partly  original,  and  partly  selected  from 
the  best  Commentators,  calculated  to  render  the  Book  of  Psalms 
intelligible  to  every  capacity.  By  the  Rev.  W.  Wake.  Bath, 
1793,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  alterations  in  this  version  are  by  no  means  such  as  to  render 
it  intelligible  to  every  capacity.  "  This  fault  pervades  the  book, 
which  in  other  respects  is  well  executed.  The  arguments  in  gene- 
ral are  well  drawn  up,  and  the  notes  appear  to  be  judicious.  Tho 
translation  of  the  Psalms  contained  in  the  liturgy  is  by  many  con- 
sidered to  be  the  best,  though  the  most  ancient.  At  all  events,  as 
it  is  used  so  much,  it  ought  to  be  duly  explained.  This  book  will, 
we  doubt  not,  be  well  received  among  persons  of  some  education." 
(British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  iv.  p.  311.) 

103.  An  Attempt  to  render  the  Daily  Reading  of  the  Psalmg 
more  intelligible  to  the  Unlearned,  with  a  Paraphrase  selected 
from  the  best  Commentators,  and  illustrated  with  occasional 
Notes.     By  F.  T.  Travell,  A.M.     Oxford,  1794,  8vo, 

The  design  of  the  work  is  "  to  make  the  daily  reading  of  the 
Psalms  more  easy  and  pleasant  to  those  serious  and  unlearned 
Christians  who  make  it  a  point  of  conscience  to  attend  the  public 
worship  of  God,  and  are  desirous  of  joining  in  his  praises  with  un- 
derslanding."  (Preface,  p.  xi.)  "  Mr.Travell  appears  to  have  studied 
carefiilly,  and  explained  judiciously,  the  scope  of  the  several  psalms, 
and  the  sense  of  their  distinct  parts.  A  plain  Christian,  who  takes 
up  this  book  with  the  best  of  all  purposes,  that  of  being  made  better 
by  it,  can  hardly  fail  of  success."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  vi.  pp. 
625.  627,  628.) 

104.  Psalmi,  ex  rcccnsione  Textus  Hebrsei  ot  Versionum  An- 
tiquarum  Latine  versi,  noti.«que  criticis  et  philologicis  illustrati 
[a  N.  M.  Btni-is].     Upsalia;,  1805,  8vo. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  Latin  versions  of  the  Psalms  that 
has  appeared  in  modern  times;  it  is  faithfully  executed,  without 
being  servilely  literal.  The  notes,  though  brief,  are  sufficiently 
explicit,  and  are  designed  to  explain  obscure  passages  ;  to  elucidate, 
by  a  short  paraphrase,  peculiar  expressions  fliat  could  not  be  ren- 
dered in  the  text  by  a  single  word  ;  to  point  out  the  principal 
various  readings  worthy  of  note;  to  state  briefly  those  arguments 
for  the  rcnderingsof  particular  words,  concerning  which  interpreters 
are  by  no  means  agreed,  with  references  to  philological  works  in 
which  those  arguments  are  more  copiously  discussed;  .and  to  sug- 
gest probable  meanings  to  words  of  doubtful  interpretation,  which 
are  submitted  to  the  reader's  judgment. 

105.  A  New  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  from  the 
Original  Hebrew,  with  various  Readings  and  Notes.  By  the 
late  Alexander  Geddes,  LL.D.     London,  1807,  8vo. 


120 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


Tliis  is  a  posthumous  piiblicntion  of  Dr.  Gcddes,  ediled  by  Dr. 
Disney  and  Cliarlcs  Butler,  Esq.  The  doctor's  version  extends 
only  to  the  eleventh  verse  of  Psalm  cxviii. ;  the  rest  is  added  from 
un  interleaved  copy  of  Bishop  Wilson's  Bible,  corrected  by  Dr.  G., 
who  professes  to  have  confined  himself  to  the  direct  and  literal 
meaning  of  the  inspired  authors,  leaving  secondary  applications  to 
professed  commentators.  "  Though  many  things  have  displeased 
us  in  the  perusal  of  this  work,  we  ore  not  prepared  to  say  that  the 
learned  editors  should  have  altogether  withheld  this  new  version 
from  the  public.  Dr.  Geddes  was  undoubtedly  a  considerable 
scholar,  and  his  lucubrations  may  be  turned  by  olKer  scholars  to 
cood  account,  though  they  cannot  be  implicitly  adopted."  (British 
Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xx.\iii.  p.  358.) 

106.  Psaumes  nouvellement  traduits  sur  I'Hcbreu,  et  mis  en 
leur  ordre  naturel,  avec  des  Explications  et  Notes  Critiques. 
[Par  le  President  Agier.]     Paris,  1809,  2  tomes,  8vo. 

106*.  An  entire  New  Version  of  the  Book  of  Psalms;  in 
which  an  attempt  is  made  to  accommodate  them  to  the  worship 
of  the  Christian  Church,  with  original  Prefaces,  and  Notes  criti- 
cal and  explanatory.  By  the  Rev.  Wm.  Goode,  M.A.  London, 
1811,  2  vols.  8vo. 

A  useful  help  to  the  devotional  understanding  of  the  Psalms, 
which  are  here  translated  into  English  verse,  and  in  various  metres. 

107.  The  Book  of  Psalms,  translated  from  the  Hebrew,  with 
Notes  explanatory  and  critical.  By  Samuel  Horsley,  LL.D., 
late  Lord  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph.     London,  1815,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  was  a  posthumous  work  of  Bishop  Horsley,  mariy  of  whose 
applications  of  the  psalms  to  the  Messiah  are  fanciful.  For  a 
copious  critique  on  it,  see  the  British  Review,  vol.  xi.  pp.  1 — 25. 

108.  Lyra  Davidis ;  or,  a  New  Translation  and  Exposition  of 
the  Psalms.    By  the  Rev.  John  Put,  B.A.    London,  1819,  8vo. 

This  work  is  avowedly  grounded  on  the  principles  adopted  in  the 
posthumous  work  of  the  late  Bishop  Horsley  ;  viz.  that  these  sacred 
oracles  have  for  the  most  part  an  immediate  reference  to  Christ, 
and  to  the  events  of  his  first  and  second  advent.  Of  course  it  is 
subject  to  the  same  defects  which  characterize  all  those  interpreters 
of  the  Book  of  Psalms  who  expound  them  wholly  of  the  Messiah. 

109.  Practical  Reflections  on  the  Psalms.  To  which  is  added 
a  Prayer  adapted  to  each  Psalm.  By  Mrs.  Sheriffe.  London, 
1821,  2  vols.  12mo. 

110.  The  Book  of  Psalms  in  an  English  Metrical  Version 
founded  on  the  Basis  of  the  English  Bible  Translation,  and 
compared  with  the  original  Hebrew  ;  with  Notes  critical  and 
illustrative.  By  Richard  Mant,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Down  and  Con- 
nor.    London,  1824,  8vo. 

The  notes  of  Bishop  Mant  are  always  interesting,  and  are  particu- 
larly valuable  for  pointing  out  the  poetical  beauties  of  the  psalms. 
His  work  is  much  less  known  than  it  deserves. 

111.  A  Key  to  the  Book  of  Psalms.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas 
BoTS,  M.A.     London,  1825,  8vo. 

An  ingenious  application  of  Bp.  Jebb's  system  of  Poetical  Paral- 
lelisms to  the  Interpretation  of  the  Book  of  Psalms.  "If  w^e  have 
not  felt  ourselves  at  liberty  to  award  to  Mr.  Boys's  labours  the  full 
measure  of  value  which  he  claims  for  them,  still  we  cannot  but 
consider  them  as  well  employed  ;  and  we  may  safely  recommend 
the  present  work  to  the  attention  of  every  biblical  student,  as  de- 
serving of  a  careful  examination,  and  as  entitling  the  author  to  his 
thanks  for  the  curious  and  interesting  discussions  which  it  com- 
prises."   (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxvi.  p.  25.) 

112.  A  Literal  Translation  of  the  Psalms  of  David,  solely 
upon  the  Authority  of  the  Rev.  J.  Paukrurst,  M.A.  London, 
1825,  8vo. 

1 13.  A  Practical  Illustration  of  the  Book  of  Psalms.  By  the 
Author  of  the  Family  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament. 
[Mrs. Thomso.x.]     York,  1826,  2  vols.  12mo. 

114.  Psalms  according  to  the  Authorized  Version  ;  with  Pre- 
fatory Titles,  and  Tabular  Index  of  Scriptural  References,  from 
the  Port  Royal  Authors,  marking  the  Circumstances  and  Chrono- 
logic Order  of  their  Composition.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay 
upon  the  Psalms,  and  their  Spiritual  Application.  By  Mary 
Ann  ScHiMMELPENNiNCK.     Loiidon,  182.5,  12mo. 

115.  The  Psalter  ;  or  Psalms  of  David  according  to  the  Ver- 
sion of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  :  illustrated,  explained,  and 
adapted  to  general  use,  in  public  and  private  worship  :  with  Pre- 
liminary Dissertations  and  accompanying  Notes.  By  the  Rev. 
Richard  Warner.     London,  1828,  8vo. 

116.  A  New  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  from  the 
Original  Hebrew,  with  explanatory  Notes.  By  William  French, 
D.D.  and  George  Skinner,  M.A.  Cambridge  and  London, 
1830,  8vo. 

The  text,  taken  for  their  standard  by  the  translators  (whose 
labours  have  not  been  appreciated  according  to  their  value)  is  that 


of  Vander  Hooght;  from  which,  utterly  disregarding  all  conjectural 
emendations,  they  have  rarely  departed  without  the  authority  of 
manuscripts.  Their  aim  has  been  to  produce  an  accurate  and  faith- 
ful version  :  and  in  no  case  have  they  intentionally  departed  from 
the  literal  meaning  of  the  text,  further  than  the  difJereiice  between 
the  English  and  the  Hebrew  idioms  seemed  absolutely  to  require. 
The  notes,  though  concise,  are  judicious,  and  strictly  explanatory 
of  the  Psalms  of  David. 

117.  A  New  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Psalms,  with  an  In- 
troduction. By  George  R.  Notes.  Boston  [Massachusetts], 
1831,  12mo. 

In  this  publication  "  Mr.  Noyes  has  admitted  no  unnecessary 
changes.  The  language  of  our  authorized  version,  which  in  many 
of  the  best  psalms  has  become,  by  its  beauty  and  expressiveness, 
the  favourite  language  of  devotion,  is  retained,  whenever  a  true 
interpretation  will  admit.  The  translator  has  been  too  faithful  to 
his  work,  to  multiply  corrections  merely  for  the  sake  of  correction." 
(Christian  Register,  Boston,  1831.)  The  Introduction  is  chiefly  de- 
rived from  RosenmiiUer's  elaborate  preface  to  his  Commentary  oa 
the  Book  of  Psalms. 

118.  An  Explanation  of  the  Psalms  as  read  in  the  Liturgy  of 
the  Church.  By  the  Rev.  James  Slade,  M.A.  London,  1832, 
12mo. 

119.  A  Plain  and  Familiar  Explanation  of  the  most  difficult 
Passages  in  the  Book  of  Psalms,  interwoven  with  the  Text.  By 
the  Rev.  J.  A.  Gower.     London,  1831,  12mo. 

120.  A  Commentary  on  the  Second  Psalm.  By  John  Hii- 
DRop,  M.A.     London,  1742,  8vo. 

121.  Specimen  Academicum  inaugurale,  exhibens  Commenta- 

rium  in  Psalmum  XVI.      Quam publico  examini  submittit 

Marius  Antonius  Gisbertus  Vorstman.  Hagse  Comitum,  1829, 
4to. 

122.  Hassler  (C.  D.)  Commentatio  Critica  de  Psalmis  Mac- 
cabaicis  quos  ferunt.     Peu-ticula  I.     Ulmae,  1827,  4to. 

123.  Psalmi  Quindecem  Hainmaiiloth,  philologice  et  critice 
illustrati ;  a  Theodoro  Adriano  Clarisse,  Theol.  Doct.  Lug- 
duni  Batavorum,  1819,  8vo. 

An  ingenious  and  useful  commen  ary  on  Psalms  cxx.— cxxxv. 
which  are  usually  called  Psalms  of  Degrees. 

124.  C.  G.  Friedrichii  Symbolae  Philologico-criticse,  et  Lec- 
tionis  Varietatem  continentes,  ad  interpretationem  Psalmi  Cen- 
tesimi.     Lipsise,  1814,  4to. 

125.  The  Hundred  and  Ninth,  commonly  called  the  Impre- 
cating Psalm,  considered  on  a  Principle  by  which  the  Psalm  ex- 
plains itself.  [A  Sermon.]  By  the  Rev.  William  Keate,  M.A. 
London,  1794,  4to. 

125.  The  Hundred  and  Ninth  Psalm  explained  and  vindi- 
cated, in  a  Sermon,  by  Samuel  Partridge,  M.A.  London, 
1798,  8vo. 

The  principle  established  by  Mr.  Keate  is,  that  the  imprecations 
introduced  in  the  hundred  and  ninth  psalm  are  not  the  impreca- 
tions of  David  against  his  enemies,  but  those  of  his  enemies  against 
him,  which  he  recites  in  order  to  show  their  malice.  This  princi- 
ple is  adopted  by  Mr.  Partridge,  who  has  successfully  obviated 
some  little  difficulties  which  remained  after  the  researches  of  Mr. 
Keate.  (See  the  Analysis  of  these  two  publications  in  the  British 
Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  v.  pp.  157—159.  and  vol.  xii.  p.  429.) 

126.  Commentatio  in  Psalmum  Centesimum  Deciinum.  Auc- 
tore  Johanne  Theodoro  Bergman.     Lug.  Bat.  1819,  4to. 

Many  valuable  critical  illustrations  of  the  Psalms  will  be  found 
in  Dr.  Kennicdtt's  "  Remarks  on  several  Passages  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment."   London,  1777,  8vo. 

THE    WRITINGS    OF    SOLOMON    COLLECTIVELY. 

127.  Salomonis  Regis  et  Sapientis,  quae  supersunt  ej  usque 
esse  perhibentur.  Omnia  ex  Ebrseo  Latine  vertit.  Notasque,  ubi 
opus  esse  visum  est,  adjecit  Josephus  Fridericus  Schelling. 
Stuttgardiae,  1806,  8vo. 

PROVERBS. 

128.  Cartwrighti  (Thomae)  Commentarii  succincti  et  di- 
lucidi  in  Proverbia  Salomonis.     Amstelodami,  1638,  4to. 

129.  Proverhia  Regum  et  sapientissimi  Salomonis,  cum  cura 
enucleata  a  Martino  Geiero.     Lipsise,  1669,  1725,  4to. 

This  work  is  executed  on  the  same  plan,  and  with  the  same 
ability,  as  Geier's  Commentary  on  the  Psalms,  already  noticed  in 
p.  118. 

130.  Proverbia  Salomonis  :  Versionem  integram,  ad  Hebrseura 
fontem  expressit,  atque  Commentarium  adjecit,  Albertus  Schdl- 
TENS.     Lugd.  Bat.  1648,  large  8vo.  (sometimes  called  4to.) 

An  abridgment  of  this  elaliorate  work  was  printed  at  Haloe  in 
8vo.  1769,  by  Professor  Vogel,  who  added  some  critical  remarks. 


Skct.III.  §4] 


COMMENTARIEa  ON  DETACHED  BOOXS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


121 


The  profaco  was  written  by  Semler,  and  an  aiiclarium  waa  furnished 
by  'IVlior. 

1:31.  Cornelii  Dk  Witt  Trias  Dissertation um  ad  Clariorom 
Proverliioruui 'Siilonionis  Elucidutioncin.  Amslciodiiiiii,  1702. — 
Ejusdoin  I'critas  Dissrrtationinn  ad  Proverijioniin  Salomonis  Rlu- 
cidationcm.  Anisldodaini,  \7C)(i. — Ejusdcm  Visscrtalioniini  Trias 
altera,  qiiii  Pr<)vi'rl>ii)riiin  Diviiiitas,  ca^teraquc  coruin  Allriliuta 
asserunlur.     Ainstrludanii,  1770,  8vo. 

i;)2.  (Jbsprvations  on  several  Passatjes  in  the  Rook  of  Pro- 
vprl)H:  with  'J'wo  Sermons.  By  Thomas  Hunt,  D.D.,  Kegius 
Professor  of  Hi'brcw,  &c.     Oxford,  1775,  4to. 

These  observations  arc  Iwi^iily-six  in  number.  "  They  display 
in  a  very  advanta^eoiiH  light  lliu  critical  acumen  of  iIk^  aulli(;r,  and 
liis  oxtonsive  ac(|uuinlan<;e  wilii  the  eastern  languages."  (Monthly 
Review,  O.  S.  vol.  liii.  p.  302.,  wiiere  the  result  of  Dr.  Hunt's  ela- 
borate criticisms  is  given,  lirsl  in  the  words  of  tiic  authorized  trans- 
lation, and  then  in  the  version  proposed  by  him.)  .As  the  lK)ok  is 
neither  very  scarce  nor  very  dear,  it  will  be  worth  the  student's 
while  to  procure  it. 

133.  Joannis  Jacobi  Rkikkk  Conjccturaj  in  Jobum  ct  Prover- 
bia  Salomonis.     Lipsia;,  1779,  8vo. 

134.  The  Proverbs  of  Solomon  ;  translated  from  the  Hebrew, 
with  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Bern.  Hodgson,  LL.D.,  Principal  of 
Hertford  College.     Oxford,  1788,  4to. 

"The  notes  are  not  numerous,  and,  we  must  say,  not  very  im- 
porlunt.  Tiiey  arc  intended  ciiicliy  to  cxjilain,  or  to  justify,  the 
version,  where  it  departs  from  the  usual  mode  of  translating.  On 
the  whole,  though  we  do  not  tliink  that  Dr.  II.  has  been  singularly 
happy  as  a  translator,  yet  we  cannot  frerjucntly  charge  him  vvilli 
wanton  deviations  from  the  common  version  :  he  has  not  often 
changed  merely  for  tlie  sake  of  changing."  (Monthly  Review, 
N.  S.  vol.  v.  p.  294.) 

135.  Observations  in  Proverbiorum  Salomonis  Versionem 
Alcxandrinam,  scripsit  Jo.  Gottliebb  Jaegeh.  Meldorpi  et  Lip- 
siaj,  1788,  8vo. 

136.  Commentarii  Novi  Critici  in  Versioncs  Vcteres  Prover- 
biorum Salomonis,  a  J.  F.  ScuLEusxEno.     Gocttingaj,  1794,  8vo, 

137.  An  Attempt  towards  an  improved  Translation  of  the  Pro- 
verbs of  Solomon,  from  the  original  Hebrew ;  with  Notes,  criti- 
cal and  explanatory,  and  a  Preliminary  Dissertation.  By  the 
Rev.  George  Holuen,  M.A.     London,  1819,  8vo. 

This  is  the  most  valuable  help  to  the  critical  understanding  of 
the  Book  of  Proverbs  extant  in  our  language.  The  translation  is, 
in  substance,  the  same  as  that  in  general  use,  with  such  alterations 
only  as  appear  to  be  warranted  by  a  critical  interpretation  of  the 
original  Hebrew,  and  to  be  demanded  by  evident  necessity.  In 
those  passages  where  the  author  has  deemed  it  right  to  desert  the 
authorized  translation,  he  has  laudably  endeavoured  to  assimilate 
his  version  to  its  style  and  manner  of  expression.  The  notes  ac- 
companying Mr.  Iloldcn's  version,  and  which  are  in  no  case  unne- 
cessarily prolix,  are  partly  critical,  and  partly  explanatory.  The 
former  are  designed  to  ascertain  the  full  meaning  of  the  sacred 
text,  by  a  philological  inquiry  into  the  signification  of  words  and 
phrases.  In  the  latter  the  author  has  explained  the  allusions  to 
ancient  facts  and  customs ;  has  introduced  such  observations  as 
may  serve  to  illustrate  the  original ;  and  has  occasionally  presented, 
in  a  short  paraphra.se,  an  exposition  of  the  meaning  intended  by  the 
inspired  autiior  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  The  notes  on  the  eighth 
chapter  will  be  read  with  peculiar  interest  by  the  Christian  stu- 
dent. Mr.  Ilofden  expounds  the  attributes  there  given  to  Heavenly 
Wisdom,  of  the  second  Pereon  in  the  Holy  Trinity :  and  he  has 
supported  this  ex|w)sition  by  proofs  and  argtmients  not  easily  to  be 
refuted,  which  he  has  drawn  from  Scripture,  and  from  the  fiithers 
of  the  church  during  the  first  three  centuries,  as  well  as  from  the 
ancient  Jewish  writers. 

139.  A  New  Translation  of  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  from 
the  original  Hebrew,  with  explanatory  Notes.  By  William 
FiiF.Ncii,  D.D.  and  George  Skixseh,  M.A.  Cambridge  and 
London,  1831,  8vo. 

This  translation  is  executed  on  the  same  principles  as  the  version 
of  the  Psalms  noticed  in  No.  llfi.  p.  120.  supra. 

140.  A  Commentary  on  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon.  By  R.  J. 
Case.     London,  1822,  12mo. 

T.CCLESIASTES. 

141.  Martini  Geif.tii  Commentarius  in  Salomonis  Ecclesias- 
ten.     Lipsise,  1711,  best  edition,  8vo. 

142.  A  Philosophical  and  Critical  Essay  on  Ecclesiastes, 
wherein  the  author's  design  is  stated  ;  his  doctrine  vindicated  ; 
his  method  explained  in  an  analytical  Paraphrase  annexed  to  a 
new  version  of  the  Text  from  the  Hebrew ;  and  the  differences 
between  that  new  translation  and  the  received  version  accounted 
for,  in  philological  Observations.  By  A.  V.  Desveux.  London, 
1762,  4to. 


In  this  work  "  the  author  has  shown  very  considerable  abilities 
as  a  critic,  and  ajipcars  in  tlic  character  of  a  candid  and  judieioua 
writer.  He  has  taken  infinite  pains  to  render  his  work  us  perfect 
as  [lossible  ;  and  those  wlio  are  ac(juainled  with  the  licbrew  lan- 
guage will  find  in  his  philological  obscr\alic)ns  many  new,  and 
some  |)ertinent  remarks."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  xxvii.  p.  485.) 
Mr.  OesV(Bu\'H  elaborate  essay  was  translated  into  German,  and 
|)ul)!i>hcd  at  llallc,  in  1704,  4lo. 

143.  Ecclesiastes  translati'd,  with  a  Paraphrase  and  Notes. 
By  Stephen  Gkkknaway,  A.B.     Leicester,  1781,  8vo. 

This  singularly  executed  volume  consists  of  three  jiart.s,  ihe  two 
fijriner  of  which  (originally  sold  for  one  p<!nny  and  ihrec-pence) 
are  rarely  lo  be  m(^t  with.  Besides  I'^cclesiasles,  it  conlaiiis  trans- 
lations of  2  Samuel  xxiii.  ver.  1.  to  7.  Isaiah  vii.  20,  21,  22.  and  ix. 
1.  lo  5. ;  also  Psal.  xxvii.  in  prose  and  verse.  (Dr.  Cotton's  List  of 
Kditions  of  the  Bible,  p.  40.) 

144.  Ecclesiastes  :  a  New  Translation  from  the  original  He- 
brew, by  Bernard  Hodoson,  LL.D.,  Principal  of  Hertford  Col- 
lege, Oxford.     London,  1791,  4to. 

The  same  remarks  which  have  been  ofIc>red  on  this  author's  ver- 
sion of  the  Book  of  l*roveri)s,  are  nearly  applicalde  to  his  trans- 
lation of  Kcclesiasles.     Sec  Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  ix.  p.  .59. 

146.  An  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes.  By  Edward 
RfiiffOLns,  D.D.  Bishop  of  Norwich.  Revised  and  corrected 
by  the  Rev.  Daniel  Washbournc.     London,  1811,  Svo. 

Tliis  work  originally  formed  part  of  the  collection  of  notes  on 
the  Bible,  usually  called  the  Assembly's  Annotations,  noticed  in 
p.  109.  supra.  The  editor  of  this  impression  slates  that  the  whole 
of  the  commentary  has  been  carefiiily  transcribed  ;  and  that  the 
author's  ideas  are  slriclly  and  fully  retained;  he  has  however 
"deemed  it  necessary  lo  alter  the  construction  of  most  of  the  sen- 
tences, frequently  to  exchange  obsolete  words  for  those  now  in  use, 
and  in  a  few  instances  lo  omit  redundant  paragraphs."  Bishop 
Reynolds's  work  concludes  with  important  practical  reflections. 

147.  An  attempt  to  illustrate  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes.  By 
the  Rev.  George  Holdex,  M.A.     London,  1822,  Svo. 

Of  the  various  publications  w'hich  have  been  issued  from  the 
press  relative  to  this,  in  many  respects,  difficult  book,  this  "  At- 
tempt" (as  its  author  modestly  terms  it)  is  Ihe  best  that  has  fallen 
undt;r  the  notice  of  the  writer  of  the  present  work.  It  is  a  kind  of 
Paraphrase  (similar  to  that  in  Dr.  Doddridge's  F'amily  K\\)ObiXot)  ; 
in  wliich  the  expressions  of  the  Hebrew  author  are  interwoven 
with  a  commentary.  Mr.  Holden  has  taken  the  authorized  version 
as  his  basis,  from  which  he  has  departed  only  where  a  departure 
appeared  to  him  aljsolutely  necessary,  and  8up[X)ried  upon  the 
soundest  principles  of  critici.sm.  The  reasons  of  these  deviations 
arc  stated  in  distinct  notes.  The  work  is  further  accompanied  by 
useful  notes,  establishing  the  scope  and  design  of  the  Book  of  Ec- 
clesiastes, and  imbodying  such  observations  as  seem  proper  to 
enforce  and  elucidate  the  whole.  We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Ilolden's 
labours  for  ttie  excellent  view  of  the  Scope  and  Synopsis  of  the 
Book  of  Ecclesiastes,  given  in  the  second  volume  of  this  work- 

SONG    OF    SOLOMON. 

148.  Caroli  Maria  de  Veil  Explicatio  Litteralis  Cantici  Can- 
ticorum,  ex  ipsis  Scripturarum  fontibus,  Ebrseorum  ritihus  et 
idiomatis,  veterum  et  recentiorum  monimentis  eruta.  London, 
1679,  8vo. 

A  rare  and  valuable  work :  the  author  confines  himself  to  the 
explication  of  the  literal  sense. 

149.  Joannis  Marckii  in  Canticum  Schclomonis  Commenta- 
rius, sive  Analysis  Exegetica.     Amsterdam,  1703,  4to. 

150.  Cantici  Salomonis  Paraphrasis  Gemina,  Notis  Criticis  ct 
P*hilologicis  illustrata.  Auctore  Joanne  Ker.  Edinburgh,  1727, 
12mo. 

This  illustration  of  Solomon's  Song  is  not  of  common  occurrence. 
Mr.  Orme  says  that  it  "  is  a  very  beaulilid  little  work.  It  is  dedi- 
cated, in  a  poetical  epistle,  to  the  marquis  of  Bowmont,  son  of  the 
duke  of  Roxburgh,  the  head  of  the  family  of  Ker.  There  is  then 
a  long  preface,  giving  some  account  of  the  opinions  entertained  of 
the  Song,  of  the  attempts  which  had  been  made  to  translate  and 
explain  it,  and  of  the  origin  of  Mr.  Ker's  translation.  Then  fol- 
low^ the  two  versions:  the  first,  a  kind  of  irregular  verse;  the 
second,  in  sapphic  numbers.  The  notes,  w'hich  are  partly  philo- 
logical and  partly  explanatory,  are  inserted  at  the  foot  of  the  page 
of  both  versions.  The  poem  is  dramatically  divided  and  arranged." 
(Orme's  Biblioth.  Biblica,  pp.  271,  272.) 

151.  An  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Solomon's  Song,  com- 
monly called  Canticles ;  wherein  the  divine  authority  of  it  is 
established ;  several  versions  compared  with  the  original  Text ; 
the  difTerent  senses  both  of  Jewish  and  Christian  interpreters 
considered ;  and  the  whole  opened  and  explained.  By  John 
GiLt,  D.D.  1728,  1751,  folio,  4to.;  and  again  in  1767.  In 
2  vols.  Svo.   1805. 

This  work  is  frequently  mistaken  for  an  extract  from  Dr.  Gill's 
commentary  on  the  Bible,  noticed  in  p.  111.  fupra,  whereas  it  pre- 


122 


SACRED  rHILOLOGY. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  V. 


ceded  the  lalter  by  more  than  twenty  years.     It  is  highly  allegori- 
cal in  iis  inicri)reialion. 

1 52.  A  Dissertation  concerning  the  Song  of  Solomon ;  with 
the  original  Text  divided  according  to  the  metre,  and  a  Poetical 
Version.     [By  Mr.  Giffokd.]     London,  1751,  8vo. 

153.  The  Song  of  Solomon,  newly  translated  from  the  ori- 
ginal Hebrew;  with  a  Commentary  and  Annotations.  [By 
Thomas  PjiHcr,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Dromore.]  London,  1764,  12mo. 

The  elegance  of  this  version,  and  of  its  accompanying  criticisms. 
has  caused  it  to  be  held  in  the  liigliest  esteem  ;  and  all  subsequent 
commentators  have  diligently  availed  themselves  of  it.  It  is  now 
exceedingly  scarce,  and  extravagantly  dear. 

154.  Outlines  of  a  new  Commentary  on  Solomon's  Song, 
drawn  by  the  Help  of  Instruction.s  from  the  East :  containing, 
1.  Remarks  on  its  general  nature;  2.  Observations  on  detached 
places  of  it ;  3.  Queries  concerning  the  rest  of  the  Poem.  By 
the  author  of  Observations  on  divers  Passages  of  Scripture. 
London,  1768;  second  edition,  1775,  8vo, 

For  this  valuable  work,  Bible  students  are  indebted  to  the  Rev- 
Thomas  IIarmer,  whose  Observations  on  divers  Passages  of  Scrip- 
ture are  noticed  in  a  subsequent  page  of  this  appendix :  in  it  very 
many  difficult  passages  of  Solomon's  Song  are  happily  elucidated, 
and  hints  are  otTered,  of  which  subsequent  commentators  have  not 
failed  to  avail  themselves.     It  bears  a  high  price. 

155.  A  Poetical  Translation  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  from  the 
Original  Hebrew ;  with  a  Preliminary  Discourse,  and  Notes, 
historical,  critical,  and  explanatory.  By  Anne  Fkancis.  Lon- 
don, 1781,  4to. 

The  translatress  has  chiefly  followed  the  plan  and  illustrations 
of  Mr.  Harmer.     Her  version  is  elegantly  executed. 

156.  Solomon's  Song,  translated  from  the  Hebrew.  By  the 
Rev.  Bernard  Hodgson,  LL.D.     Oxford,  1785,  4to. 

In  this  work  the  literal  meanivg  only  of  Solomon's  Song  is  illus- 
trated, there  being  not  the  slightest  allusion  to  its  mystical  meanirtg. 
An  account  of  it,  with  extracts,  may  be  seen  in  the  Monthly  Re- 
view (O.  S.),  vol.  Ixxvi.  pp.  26—29. 

154*.  The  Song  of  Songs,  which  is  Solomon's.  A  new  Trans- 
lation, with  a  Commentary  and  Notes.  By  Thomas  Williams, 
London,  1801,  8vo. 

This  version  is  as  literal  as  our  language  will  admit,  and  is  ren- 
dered in  conformity  with  the  authorized  translation  whenever  it 
was  practicable.  The  notes  are  for  the  most  part  judiciously 
selected  from  the  labours  of  all  preceding  commentators,  and  give 
a  sober  but  practical  and  evangelical  exposition  of  the  allegory. 
Two  dissertations  are  prefixed  :  1.  On  the  origin  of  language,  par- 
ticularly figurative  and  allegorical  language,  and  on  Hebrew  poetry 
and  music :  and,  2.  On  the  nature,  design,  and  authority  of  Solo- 
mon's Song.  In  pp.  100 — 109.  is  given  an  interesting  account  of 
nearly  40  expositors  and  commentators  on  this  book.  See  a  further 
account  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xlvii. 
pp.  302—310. 

155*.  Song  of  Songs,  or  Sacred  Idyls.  Translated  from  the 
original  Hebrew,  with  Notes  critical  and  explanatory.  By  John 
Mason  Good.     London,  1803,  8vo. 

"  The  present  work  offers  two  versions  of  the  original ;  the  one 
in  prose,  marked  with  the  divisions  of  the  Bible  version;  the  other 
in  couplet  verses,  of  no  inferior  construction  Each  idyl  is  illus- 
trated with  notes,  in  which  very  various  learning  is  displayed,  with 
much  taste  in  the  selection  of  beautiful  parallelisms  from  a  great 
variety  of  authors. — So  much  elegant  learning  and  successful  illus- 
tration we  have  seldom  seen  within  so  small  a  compass  as  the  pre- 
sent volume."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxvi.  pp.  454,  455.)  See 
also  Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xlvii.  pp.  302—312. 

156*.  Canticles,  or  Song  of  Solomon :  a  new  Translation,  with 
Notes,  and  an  attempt  to  interpret  the  Sacred  Allegories  contained 
in  that  book.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay  on  the  name  and 
character  of  the  Redeemer.  By  the  Rev.  John  Fry,  A.B.  Lon- 
don, 1811,  8vo.  2d  edit.  1825,  Svo. 

In  this  publication  the  author's  plan  is,  first  to  give  an  accurate 
translation  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,  and  \a  show  the  nature  and 
design  of  the  book.  He  has  availed  himself  of  the  labours  of  pre- 
vious translators,  especially  Bishop  Percy  and  Dr.  J.  M.  Good  ;  after 
the  latter  of  whom  he  considers  the  Song  of  Solomon  as  a  collection 
of  idyls  or  little  poems,  which  are  designed  for  instruction  and  edi- 
fication in  the  mysteries  of  our  holy  religion.  Though  the  translator 
has  taken  much  pains  in  consultmg  other  writers,  his  work  bears 
ample  testimony  that  he  has  not  servilely  followed  them,  but  has 
evidently  thought  for  himself. 

157.  Canticum  Canticorura  illustratum  ex  Hierographia  Orien- 
talium,  a  J.  H.  Kistemakeh.     Miinster,  1818,  Svo. 

158.  A  Brief  Outline  of  an  Examination  of  the  Song  of  Solo- 
mon; in  which  many  beautiful  Prophecies  contained  in  that 
inspired  Book  of  Holy  Scripture  arc  considered  and  explained. 


with  Remarks  critical  and  expository.     By  William  Davidsox, 

Loudon,  1817,  Svo. 

The  author  of  lliis  work  considers  the  Canticles  as  an  inspired 
song  wliolly  referring  to  the  spiritual  Solomon,  or  Christ  and  his 
true  spiritual  church,  and  particularly  to  their  espousals;  and  as 
giving  a  general  proplieiic  outline  of  her  history,  from  the  preach- 
nig  of  John  the  Baptist,  the  baptism  of  our  Lord,  to  the  conversion 
of  the  Jews,  and  that  of  the  wild  Arabians,  and  their  union  with 
the  Christian  church.  And  while  her  panicular,  often  invisible, 
progressive  state  here  on  earth  is  mentioned,  and  lier  duties  are 
pointed  out,  her  outward  state,  trials,  and  persecutions  do  not  pass 
unnoticed.  Mr.  David.son  has  consulted  liie  previous  labours  of 
most  of  the  commentators  on  this  poem;  and  at  the  end  of  his 
volume  he  has  divided  it  into  hcmistichs  according  to  Dr.  Kcnni- 
cott's  mode  of  printing  the  poetical  parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

159.  Canticum  Canticorum.  Prajfatione,  Versione  Latina,  et 
Commentario  cxegetico-critico,  instruxit  M.  F.  Uhlemann .  Lip- 
sia;,  1821,  Svo. 

ox    THE   PEOPHETS,  GENEHALLY. 

160.  Hcnrici  Arentii  Hamaker  Commcntatio  in  Libellum  de 
Vita  et  Morte  Prophetarum,  qui  Graice  circumfertur :  sive  Dis- 
putatio  Historico-Chorographica  de  Locis,  ubi  Prophetae  Hebraj- 
orum  nati  et  sepulti  esse  dicuntur.     Amstclodami,  1833,  4to. 

161.  A  Summary  View  and  Explanation  of  the  Writings  of 
the  Prophets.  By  John  Smith,  D.D.  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1787,  12mo. 

This  work  is  a  judicious  abstract  of  all  that  is  valuable  in  the 
writings  of  Bishop  Lowth,  Archbishop  Newcome,  Bishop  Newton, 
and  Drs.  Kennicott  and  Blayney  :  it  was  originally  compiled  to  ac- 
company a  Gaelic  version  of  the  Prophets,  and  was  subsequently 
translated  into  English  by  the  author  himself.  The  writer  of  this 
account  was  informed  many  years  since  by  one  of  the  original  Lon- 
don publishers  (Mr.  Kay,  of  the  firm  of  Elliott  and  Kay,  in  the 
Strand),  that  Dr.  Moore,  at  that  time  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
held  this  little  work  in  great  estimation,  and  was  in  the  habit  of 
purchasing  copies  for  gratuitous  distribution  among  students  and 
others  who  could  not  afford  to  buy  many  books. 

162.  Les  Prophetes,  nouvellement  traduits  sur  I'Hebreu,  avee 
des  Explications  et  Notes  Critiques.  [Par  le  President  Agieh.] 
viz. 

Isa-e.     Paris,  1820,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

Jer^mte,  avec  une  Appendice.     Paris,  1S21,  2  parties,  Svo, 

The  appendix  to  this  Version  of  the  Predictions  of  Jeremiah 
contains  the  Lamentations,  and  the  Apociyphal  book  of 
Baruch. 

Ezechiel.     Paris,  1821,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

Daniel.     Paris,  1822,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

Petits  Prophetes.     Paris,  1822,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

163.  A  Commentary  on  the  Prophecies  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  with  an  Epitome  of  Ancient  History,  Sacred  and  Profane, 
by  way  of  Prelude.  Printed  with  the  Text.  By  John  Webb 
Cole.     London,  1826,  2  vols.  Svo. 

164.  A  New  Translation  of  the  Hebrew  Prophets,  arranged 
in  Chronological  Order.  By  George  R.  No  yes.  Vol.  I.  con- 
taining Joel,  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  Micah.  Boston  [Massa- 
chusetts], 1833,  Svo. 

Mr.  Noyes  has  here  followed  the  same  judicious  plan  which  he 
adopted  in  his  new  Translation  of  the  Psalms  (see  No.  117.  p.  120. 
of  this  Appendix).  He  has  diligently  availed  himself  of  all  the 
best  critical  aids.  The  volume  is  terminated  by  thirty-six  pages 
of  concise  but  useful  explanatory  notes.  Mr.  N.  expects  to  complete 
his  undertaking  in  two  more  volumes. 


165.  A   Commentary   on    the   Prophet  Isaiah,  wherein    the      J 
Literal  Sense  of  his  Prophecies  is  briefly  explained.    By  Samuel 
White.     London,  1709, 4to. 

166.  Campegii  Vitrixg;r  Commcntarius  in  Librum  Prpphe- 
tiaruni  Jesaice.     Leovardise,  1714,  and  1720,  2  vols,  folio. 

In  this  most  elaborate  Commentary  on  the  "  Evangelical  Prophet," 
to  which  all  subsequent  expositors  have  been  deeply  indebted,  the 
literal  sense  is  carefully  investigated  ;  the  different  interpretations 
of  the  prophetic  visions  are  examined  ;  and  the  interpretation  which 
Vitringa  has  deduced  from  them  is  confirmed  and  illustrated  by 
historical  documents.  Copious  prolegomena  are  prefixed,  treating 
of  the  prophet's  personal  history,  the  argument  of  his  prophecy,  his 
style,  time  of  writing,  and  canonical  authority.  The  value  of  the 
work  is  further  augmented  by  the  geographical  and  historical 
notices  interspersed  throughout,  concerning  the  Babylonians,  Phi- 
listines, Moabites,  Syrians  of  Damascus,  Egyptians,  Tyrians,  and 
other  Gentile  nations ;  by  which  not  only  Isaiah,  but  also  very 
many  other  passages  of^  Scripture,  are  admirably  elucidated. 

1 67.  Isaiah :  a  New  Translation  with  a  preliminary  Disserta- 
tion, and   Notes  critical,   philological,   and   explanatory.      By 


I 


Sect.  III.  §  4.] 


COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


12a 


llobcrt  TiOWTii,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  liOiidon,  4to.  London,  1778, 
2  voLs.  8vo. 

(3f  lliis  siildiino  nnil  admirably  cxoculci]  vrrsioii,  a  flcnnnn  iranx- 
lalion  was  |)iil)l:sheil  by  M.  Koppo,  al  (iiitliii<,'on,  1779 — 17K1,  in  1 
voIh.  8vo.  The  proliniinary  dis.scrlation  ik  invaliial)l('  (or  llie  liglil 
il  llirovvs  on  tlie  gfiiius  and  slnictiirc  ol'  propliclic  |K)csy.  The 
MH-rius  of  this  uork  are  ably  apprecialod  in  the  Hrilish  Criiic,  O.  S. 
vol.  xxix.  pp.  141 — 1(().,  and  the  inlcgrily  oC  the  liebrcvv  U-xl  was 
asserted  against  soiiii;  of  the  biNho|>'t«  i-orrcclions  in  a  tract  that  is 
now  of  rare  orciirrenco,  by  Koei-her  in  his  Viniliciir  Sticri  Texlus 
HehrtJ-i  Kna'ue  iiih'ir.iiis  Jjurlhii  l'rill<am,H\o.  Ht-rn,  17HC,  rcprinlcd 
at  'J'ubiniicn  in  17yo.  'I'Ik'  rarily  of  Kofchor's  book,  hokvcver,  is 
no  great  loss  to  the  sludcnl  ;  li>r  the  late  eminent  learned  oriental i.st, 
the  professor  Henry  Albert  .Sehiillens  (of  ],ey(ien),  speaking  of  his 
liook.says: — "  Il  violates  IIk^  bounds  of  liiiKleratioii  and  decency  by 
llie  nsscrlion  that  the  text  of  Isaiah  would  not  gain  any  thing  by 
Dr.  l/>wth's  conjectures.  I  am  of  a  very  dillereiit  o|)inion.  When 
in  Oxford  and  London,  /  wis  iiiliinuliltj  arniiaiiitrd  with  Bishop 
Ix>W'lh,  and  h.-i<l  an  opportunity  of  know  ing  his  excellent  dis|)osi- 
tioii  ;  tiiiil  am  llicnforv  iiiuch  vexed  that  Koecherus,  from  his  iiory 
7.eal  against  iiiuovations,  should  have  bi'en  induced  to  treat  him 
with  severity,  as  if  the  bishop  had  been  a  rash  and  poliilant  critic." 
(Letter  of  Professor  Schiillelis  to  the  late  Dr.  I'inlay  of  Cilasgow, 
filed  in  the  Monthly  Keview,  IN.  S.  vol.  xv.  p.  iAVi.)  Uishop  I/)Wlh's 
version  was  nllacked  by  the  late  Mr.  Dodsoii,  in  his  si/j/j)liiinitlari/ 
notes  to  his  "  New  'I'lunstdliDii  tif  Ixiiiah"  (8vo.  London,  i7".H)),  willi 
eonsiderable  asj)erity.  The  bishop  was  ably  vindicated  by  the 
Uev.  Dr.  Sturges,  in  ".Short  Remarks  on  n  New  Translation  of 
Isaiah"  (8vo.  London,  17'.M)) :  to  these  Mr.  Dodson  rejilied  in  1791, 
in  a  "  I^tlir  lo  the  liiv.  Dr.  Slurfxts,"  in  which  he  jusii/ies  the 
free<iom  with  which  he  ha<l  censured  Bishop  Lovvth's  mistakes 
and  delects.  Mr.  D.'s  version  and  notes  were  I'ranied  in  support  of 
modern  So<'iiiian  tenets,  and  were  published  by  the  (Sociniaii) 
"Society  for  promoting  the  Knowledge  of  the  Scriptures."  Some 
further  "  Remarks  on  the  Principles  adopte<l  by  Bisiiop  Lovvth  in 
correcting  the  Text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible"  were  published  by  the 
Rev.  J.  RooKRS,  M.A.  at  Oxford,  in  1832,  12mo. 

1G8.  Esaias  ex  Rccensione  Textus  Hebra;i,  ad  fidem  quorun- 
dain  Codd.  MSS.  et  Verss.  Latine,  vcrtit,  Notasque  varii  argu- 
nicnli  subjecit,  J.  C.  Dokdeklicin.  Noriinbcrgic,  1781),  3d  edi- 
tion, 8vo. 

The  first  edition  was  published  at  Altdorf,  in  8vo.  1780;  the 
critical  Notes  are  excellent. 

169.  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  in  Hebrew  and  Eng- 
lish, The  Hebrew  Text  metrically  arranged  ;  the  Translation 
altered  from  that  of  Bisliop  Lovvth.  By  the  Right  Rev.  Joseph 
Stock,  D.D.,  Bi.•^hop  of  Killala.     1804,  4to. 

"The  right  reverend  translator  had  conceived  a  wish  to  see  the 
original  language  of  Isaiah  reduced  to  a  metri<'al  arrangement,  and 
to  have  this  accompanied  with  the  version  of  Bishop  Lowth,  re- 
serving to  himself  the  liberty  of  adding  such  corrections  as  later 
critics,  or  his  own  investigations,  might  supply.  These  corrections 
multiplied  to  such  a  degree  as  lo  assume  almost  the  form  of  a  new 
version.  There  is  al.«o  a  variety  of  notes,  critical  and  explanatory, 
supplied  parlly  by  the  translator,  and  partly  by  others.  Many  of 
these  are  very  valuable  for  their  uncommon  depth  and  acuteness, 
and  leikl  lo  elucidate,  in  a  high  degree,  the  subject  matter  of  these 
prophecies."  (British  Critic,  vol.  xxviii.O.  S.  p.  4G0.)  "  BLshop  Stock's 
version  is  by  no  means  to  be  considered  as  an  attempt  to  rival  or 
to  supersede  thai  of  Dr.  I>owlh.  Both  versions  exhibit  a  close,  ner- 
vous, and  manly  style.  That  of  Dr.  Lowth  may  by  every  class  of 
readers  be  perused  with  (irolit  Superadded  to  this,  Dr.  Stock  in- 
vites the  Hebrew  scholar  lo  investigate  and  to  compare,  l)y  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Lnglish  meeting  the  eye  in  the  same  page  ;  and 
may  tempt  even  the  careless  to  know  something  of  that  language 
in  whicli  the  oracles  of  CJod  were  originally  conveyed."  (British 
Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxix.  p.  14G.  See  also  the  Monthly  Review,  N.  S. 
vol.  xlix.  p.  25:j — 2t55.) 

170.  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah.  Translated  from  the 
Hebrew  Text  of  Vander  Hooght.  By  the  Rev.  John  Joxes, 
M.A.     Oxford  and  London,  1830,  12mo. 

This  version  is  made  from  the  Hebrew  text  of  Vander  Ilooghl's 
edition  of  the  Bible,  which  may  now  be  regarded  as  the  received 
Hebrew  text.  In  the  eluc-idation  of  obscurities,  ihe  translator  has 
diligently  compared  the  versions  and  illustrations  of  Schmidt,  De 
Dieu,  Vitringa,  Bishops  Lowth  and  Slock,  Dalhe,  Rosenmiiller, 
Gesenius,  and  others  ;  and  he  states  that  he  is  indebted  to  the  late 
distinguished  orientalist,  the  Rev.  Dr.  NicoU,  tor  his  kind  and  able 
assistance.  IS'o  notes  or  criticisms  accompany  this  translation.  "  On 
the  whole,  we  consider  it  to  be  a  valuable  specimen  of  translation. 
The  language  of  our  authorized  version  is  retained,  where  no 
change  was  absolutely  required  ;  the  style  is  spirited  and  fluent 
throughout,  and  numerous  passages,  w^hich  have  either  been  mis- 
conceived, or  badly  expressed,  by  former  translations,  are  here  pre- 
sented to  the  view'  in  harmony  with  the  circumstances  of  the  con- 
nection in  which  they  occur,  and  adapted  to  easy  and  general 
comprehension.  Comparing  the  two  versions  together"  [the  pre- 
sent and  that  of  Mr.  Jenour]  "  we  consider  that  of  Mr.  Jones  to  be 
decidedly  the  better  on  the  whole;  but  are  nevertheless  of  opinion 
that  Mr.  Jenour  generally  gives  the  meaning  of  the  original  with 
fidelity  and  success."    (Congregational  Magazine,  vol.  xlv.  p.  357.) 


171.  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  translated  from  the 
Hebrew,  with  ("ritical  and  Practical  Remarks  :  to  which  is  pre- 
fixed a  Preliminary  Dissertation  on  the  Nature  and  Use  of  Pro- 
phecy.    By  the  Rev.  Alfred  Ji,.\oin.    London,  1831,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  object  of  Mr.  Jenour  is  to  render  the  i)re(l;ctions  of  Isaiah 
mr)re  generally  inleresting  than  they  ordinarily  prove  to  the  Kiig- 
lish  re ::der.  \\'ilh  this  view  ho  has  endeavoured  lo  combine  the 
advantages  of  a  critical  and  devotional  comnienlary  together  with 
a  new  version  and  a  metrical  arrangement.  His  work  is  divided 
into  sections,  lo  each  of  which  is  prefixed  a  summary  of  its  con- 
tents ;  then  follow  the  version  and  explanalory  nole.",  the  practical 
rem.-irks  and  the  critical  notes.  Oc<-asionally  the  sections  are  di- 
vided into  interlocutory  parts.  "What  constitutes  ihc  most  valua- 
ble  part  of  the  work,  are  the  explaimtory  and  prat^iical  remarks 

with    which   each   section    is  accompanied While   the   author 

throws  light  on  nuiiierouH  passages  oi'  this  ancient  Ixjok,  which  re- 
late lo  peo|)le  and  places  that  have  long  simre  vanished  from  the 
theatre  of  human  afliiirs,  he  brings  fbrwanl  much  import:ini  mailer, 
calculated  lo  rouse  the  eoiiscienco,  and  lo  |)urify,  console,  aiitl 
strongihen  the  heart."  (Congregational  Magazine,  June,  1831,  vol. 
xiv.  p.  3.5.').)  "  We  cordially  recommend  the  work  to  all  of  our  read 
ers  who  may  wish  lo  possess  the  inspired  productions  of  the  great- 
est of  the  ancient  prophets,  excellently  Iranslaled,  and  accompanied 
with  a  judicious  and  instructive  conuiicntary."  (Lclectic  Review, 
November,  1831,  p.  421.) 

172.  Prophiities  d'lsa'e,  traduites  on  Francais,  avee  des  Notes. 
[Par  M.  Pklnf.llk  hk  Likki;.]     Paris,  1823,  8vo. 

173.  Caroli  Ludovici  Hoiikiselii  Obsorvationcs  Philoiogico- 
Exegcticaj :  quibus  nonnulla  SuTt'.inx  Esaia;  loca,  ex  indole  lin- 
gua; sanct^,  ex  acccntuatione  Ebrajoruni,  et  anticjuitatibus,  illus- 
trantur  et  cxponuntur,  aliorumque  versiones  et  interpretationes 
niodestc  cxaminantur.     Gedani,  1729,  8vo. 

174.  A  Commentary  on  the  Fifty-third  Chapter  of  Isaiah, 
By  S.  Hauuis,  D.D.     London,  1739,  4to. 

17.5.  Aniinadvcrsioncs  Philologico-Criticrc  in  Loca  difficiliora 
Jesaia; ;  quibus  pnestantissimorum  Interpreturn  Sententias  expo- 
nit,  suain  novamque  proponit  Josephus  Fridericus  Sciiellino. 
LipsiiD  [1797],  8vo. 

176.  Critical  Disquisitions  on  the  Eighteenth  Chapter  of 
Isaiah,  in  a  Letter  to  Edward  King,  Es().,  F.R.S.  A.S.  By  Sa- 
muel [HoiisLK.r],  Lord  Bishop  of  Rochester,  F.R.S.  A.S.  Lon- 
don, 1801,  4to. 

177.  N.  G.  ScHuoEnr.ni  Commentarius  Philologico-Criticus 
de  Vcstitu  Mulierum  Hcbra'arum,  ad  Jesai.  III.  v.  16 — 24.,  quo 
vocabulorum  abstrusiorum  tenebras,  ad  facem  dialectorum,  dis- 
cutere  conatus  est.     Lug.  Bat.  1  74.5,  4to. 

178.  Everhardi  ScHEinii  Dissertatio  Philologico-Exegetica  ad 
Canticuin  Hiskiis,  Jes.  xxxvii.  9 — 20.     Lug.  Bat.  1769,  8vo. 

JEHEMIAH,  ANn  LAMEXTATIOXS. 

179.  A  Translation  of  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  stccom- 
panicd  by  short  notes,  is  given  in  the  second  tome  or  part  of  the 
works  of  Mr.  Hugh  Biioughtox,  pp.  317 — 323,  folio. 

180.  Hcrnianni  Venema  Commentarius  ad  Librum  Propheti- 
arum  JeremiaB.  Quo  Conciones  rite  distinguuntur ;  Scopus, 
Nexus,  et  Series  Sermonis  accurate  investigatur;  perpetua  Para- 
phrasi  cxponitur ;  et  selectis  Observatis  Voces  ac  Phrases  illus- 
trantur,  ac  Implemcnti  demon.'^tratione,  ubi  opus  fuerit,  confirin- 
antur.     Leovardise,  1765,  2  parts,  4to. 

181.  Jeremiah,  and  Lamentations:  a  new  translation,  with 
Notes,  critical,  philological,  and  explanatory.  By  Benjamin 
Blatxey,  D.D.     Oxford,  1784,  4to.     Edinburgh,  1810,  8vo. 

This  work  is  executed  on  the  same  plan  as  Bishop  Lowih's  ver- 
sion of  Isaiah  ;  "  and,  though  not  with  equal  success,  yet  with  much 
credit  to  Ihe  author,  both  as  a  translator  and  a  critic.  His  subject 
is  not  of  equal  eminence  with  that  which  was  undertaken  by  the 
bishop.  It  has  less  variety  in  the  matter,  and  contains  a  less  fund 
for  curious  inquiry  and  critical  illustration.  The  translation  is 
very  exact,  and  preserves  the  tone  and  majesty  of  sacred  writing. 
The  notes  are  very  copious.  Many  of  them  are  very  useful,  and 
some  discover  much  critical  knowledge  in  the  Hebrew  language 
and  a  good  acquaintance  with  ancient  history.  The  various  read 
ings  are  noticed  with  the  most  scrupulous  exactness:  conjectural 
emendation  is  sometimes  hazarded,  but  not  rashly  or  injudiciously." 
(Monthly  Review.  O.  S.  vol.  Ixxi.  pp.  162, 163.)  Besides  a  valuable 
preliminary  discourse,  there  is  an  appendix,  comprising  a  selection 
from  Archbishop  Seeker's  manuscript  notes  (now  deposited  in  the 
archiepiscopal  library  at  Lambeth),  relative  to  the  prophecy  and 
lamentations  of  Jeremiah. 

182.  J.  D.  MicHAELis  Observationes  Philologicie  et  Critica 
in  Jcremia;  Vaticinia  et  Threnos.  Edidit,  multisque  animadver- 
sionibus  anxit,  Joh.  Frid.  Schlecsxer.    Gottingen,  1793.  4to. 

These  observations  were  collected  from  the  loose  papers  of  that 
late  emiDent  scholar,  J.  D.  Micbaelis,  by  Professor  Schleuaner, 


124 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IV. 


with  many  aiMitional  remarks  by  Ihe  latter.  M.  Sclileusncr,  in  the 
same  year  published,  at  Tubingen,  in  4t().  Disserlaliones  Tres,  quaj 
cunlineal  Observationes  ad  Vaticinia  Jeremias. 

183.  Jcremias  Vates,  e  Vcrsione  Judajoriim  AlexanJrinorum, 
ac  reliqiioruin  Interprctum  Gra;coruni  emcndatus,  Noiisquc 
criticis  illustratus  a  G.  L.  SroiiN.  Vol.  I.  Lipsiaj,  1794.  Vol.  II. 
Lipsiaj,  1828.  Bvo. 

A  continuation  of  the  first  volume  of  these  illustrations  of  Jere- 
miah is  given  in  Poti's  and  Uupcrii's  Sylloge  Cominentationum 
Theologicarum.  These  are  enlarged  and  completed  in  the  second 
volume,  which  was  published,  after  the  author's  death,  by  his  son, 
F.  A.  W.  Spohn. 

184.  Jeremie,  traduit  sur  le  Texte  Original,  accompagne  des 
Notes  explicatives,  historiques,  et  critiques.  Par  Jean-G*eorge 
Dahleh.     Strasbourgh,  1825,  8vo. 

Professor  Dahler  has  conferred  a  considerable  service  on  bibli- 
cal literature  by  this  translation  of  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah. 
The  historical  parts  are  printed  as  prose ;  the  poetical  parts  are  in 
hemistichs,  as  in  the  original  Hebrew.  The  introduction  and  notes 
are  very  judicious.  Dr.  D.  announces  a  second  volume  (in  the 
event  of  this  first  volume  being  favourably  received),  which  will 
be  particularly  designed  for  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  and  those  who 
are  studying  lor  the  sacred  office. 

185.  Commentarii  in  aliquot  Jeremiffl  Loca.  Auctore  T. 
RoonDA.     GroningsE,  1825,  8vo. 

186.  Threni  JeremiiE  philologice  et  critice  illustrati  a  Joh. 
Henr.  Pakeau.    Lugd.  Bat.  1793,  8vo, 

187.  Threnos  Jeremiae  et  Vaticinium  Nahumi  metrice  red- 
didit, Notisque  Philologicis  illustravit,  C.  A.  Biokn.  Hauniae, 
1814,  8vo. 

187*.  Curse  Exegetico-Criticae  in  Jeremice  Threnos;  auctore 
Fr.  Eudmann.     Rostochii,  1819.  8vo. 


188.  Hieronymi  Pradi  et  Jo.  Baptistse  Villalpanbi  in 
Ezechielem  Explanationes,  et  Apparatus  Urbis  ac  Templi  Hie- 
rosolymit.  Commentariis  illustratus.  Romae,  1596 — 1603,  3 
vols,  folio. 

This  is  a  work  of  extreme  rarity,  and  the  best  commentary  on 
the  prophet  Ezekiel  that  ever  was  written.  An  extract  of  Villal- 
pandi's  comment  on  Ezekiel,  c.  xlii.  xli.  xl.  and  xlvi.,  illustrating  the 
prophetic  vision  of  the  temple,  is  to  be  found  in  the  first  volume 
of  Bishop  Walton's  edition  of  the  Polyglott  Bible.  Mr.  Lowth 
made  great  use  of  this  work  in  his  learned  commentary  on 
Ezekiel. 

189.  An  Exposition  of  the  Prophecy  of  Ezekiel.  By  George 
Greenhii.l.    London,  1645,  and  following  years,  5  vols.  4to. 

This  work  is  seldom  to  be  found  complete ;  the  fifth  volume  is 
particularly  scarce.  A  second  edition  of  vol.  i.  appeared  in  1649. 
The  author  was  one  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines ; 
and  his  exposition  was  originally  delivered  in  lectures  to  his  con- 
gregation. "  Like  all  the  productions  of  the  Puritans,  it  is  evan- 
gelical, and  stored  with  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures ;  but, 
like  most  of  them,  it  is  distinguished  by  its  sound  doctrinal  and 
practical  views,  rather  than  by  the  elegance  of  the  composition, 
or  the  critical  acumen  of  the  reasonings  and  illustrations."  (Orme's 
Bibiioth.  Bibl.  p.  217.) 

190.  Scholae  Propheticae,  ex  Praelectionibus  Georgii  Calixti 
in  Jesaiam,  Jeremiam,  et  Ezechielem,  collectae.  Quedlinburgi, 
1715,  4to. 

191.  J.  Fr.  Starckii  Commentarii  in  Ezechielem.  Franco- 
furti  ad  Moenum,  1731,  4to. 

192.  Hermanni  Venema  Lectiones  Academicae  ad  Ezechie- 
lem. Edidit  et  praefatus  est  Johannes  Henricus  Verschuir. 
Leovardiae,  1790,  2  parts,  4to. 

193.  An  Attempt  towards  an  Improved  Version,  a  Metrical 
Arrangement,  and  an  Explanation  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel.  By 
William  Newcome,  D.D.  (Bishop  of  "Waterford,  afterwards 
Archbishop  of  Armagh).     Dublin,  1788,  4to. 

This  work  is  executed  on  the  same  plan  as  the  version  of  the 
minor  prophets  noticed  in  p.  125.  "  The  numerous  admirers  of  that 
valuable  production  will  find  not  less  to  commend  in  the  present 
work.  They  will  observe  with  pleasure,  that  the  right  reverend 
author  not  only  pursues  the  path  which  he  had  before  so  wisely 
chosen,  but  that,  instead  of  treading  only  the  smoothest  and  most 
flowery  parts  of  it,  he  surmounts,  with  a  firm,  though  cautious 
step,  difficulties  which  the  boldest  traveller  might  shun  without 
disgrace.  Instead  of  lavishmg  most  explanation  on  what  is  most 
intelligible,  and  betraying  the  pride  of  erudition  where  erudition 
is  least  necessary,  he  successfully  employs  his  solid  judgment  and 
effectual  learning  in  the  elucidation  of  a  writer  who  has  been 
called  the  ^schylus  of  Hebrew  poetry."  (Monthly  Review,  N.  S. 
vol.  iv.  p.  1.) 


194.  Roi-Loci  (Roberti)  Commcntarius  in  Librum  Danielis 
Prophetae.     Edinburgi,  1591,  4to. 

195.  Hexapla,  or  a  Sixfold  Commentary  on  Daniel.  By  An- 
drew WiLLET.     Cambridge,  1610,  folio. 

This  "is  a  work  of  much  information,  as  it  contains  the  opinions 
of  many  authors  on  each  point  of  difficidty."  The  same  "author 
has  written  comments  on  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Samuel, 
Romans,  Judo,  and  some  detached  parts  of  books;  but  in  none 
does  he  discover  more  skill  and  judgment  than  in  the  present 
work."     (Dr.  William's  Christian  Preaclier,  p.  431.) 

196.  A  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  with  a  Commen- 
tary in  English  and  in  Latin,  is  in  the  first  tome  or  part  of  the 
learned  but  eccentric  Hugh  Bhodguton's  Works,  pp.  164 — 337. 

197.  Martini  Geieri  Praelectiones  Academicte  in  Danielcm 
Prophetam.     Leipsic,  1702,  4to,  best  edition. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  Geier's  expository  works. 

198.  Prodromus  Danielicus,  sive  Novi  Conatus  Historic!, 
Critici,  in  celeberrimas  difficultates  Historiae  Veteris  Testamenti, 
Monarchiarum  Asiag,  &c.  ac  prtecipue  in  Danielem  Prophetam. 
Auctore  Gerardo  Kerkherdehe.     Lovanii,  1710,  8vo. 

199.  Observations  upon  the  Prophecies  of  Daniel,  and  the 
Apocalypse  of  St.  John.  By  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  London, 
1733,  4to. 

A  Latin  version  of  this  well-known  and  elaborate  work  was 
published  by  M.  Sudemann,  in  4to.,  at  Amsterdam,  1737.  All  sub- 
sequent commentators  are  largely  indebted  to  the  labours  of  Sir 
Isaac  Newton. 

200.  Hermanni  Venemjb  Dissertationes  ad  Vaticinia  Danielis 
Cap.  II.  Tir.  et  viii.  Leovardiae,  1745,  4to. — Ejusdem,  Com- 
mcntarius ad  Danielis  Cap.  xi.  4. — xii.  3.  Leovardiae,  1752, 4to. 

201.  Daniel:  an  Improved  Version  attempted:  with  Notes, 
critical,  historical,  and  explanatory.  By  Thomas  Wintle,  B.D. 
London,  1807,  4to. 

A  very  valuable  translation,  executed  on  the  same  plan  as 
Bishop  Lowth's  version  of  Isaiah,  and  Dr.  Blayney's  of  Jeremiah. 
In  the  fourth  sermon  of  his  Bampton  Lectures  (8vo.  Oxford,  1795.), 
Mr.  W.  has  some  excellent  remarks  on  the  predictions  of  Haggai, 
Malachi,  and  Daniel.  See  an  analysis  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly 
Review,  N.  S.  vol.  x.  pp.  245—250. 

202.  An  Essay  towards  an  Interpretation  of  the  Prophecies 
of  Daniel,  with  occasional  remarks  upon  some  of  the  most  cele- 
brated Commentators  on  them.  By  Richard  Amneh.  London, 
1776,  8vo. 

The  author  adopts  the  exploded  and  untenable  hypothesis  of 
Grotius  (who  has  been  followed  by  Le  Clerc  and  others),  that  all 
the  prophecies  of  Daniel  terminated  in  the  persecution  of  the  Jews 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  This  work  (which  is  noticed  only  to  put 
the  unwary  reader  on  his  guard  against  it)  was  reprinted  m  1798, 
with  some  other  tracts,  tending  to  show  that  certain  passages  of 
Scripture,  which  clearly  announce  a  future  resurrection,  relate  to 
nothing  more  than  a  mere  temporal  deliverance !  An  exposure  of 
some  of  this  aTithor's  erroneous  notions  may  be  seen  in  the  British., 
Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xiii.  pp.  290—295. 

203.  Observations  on  the  Visions  of  Daniel,  and  on  part  oj 
the  Book  of  the  Revelation  of  St.  John.  With  an  appendix  [on 
the  Twenty-fourth  Clvpter  of  St.  Matthew,  &c.]  By  the  Rev. 
William  Girdlestone,  A.B.     Oxford,  1820,  8vo. 

204.  Horae  Propheticae  ;  or  Dissertations  on-  the  Book  of  the 
Prophet  Daniel.    By  Joseph  Wilson,  A.M.    Oundle,  1824,  8vo. 

Numerous  disquisitions  relative  to  particular  prophecies  of 
Daniel  have  been  published,  particularly  concerning  the  seventy 
weeks:  the  following  are  the  most  worthy  of  note. 

205.  A(JJiana  Kluit  Vaticinium  de  Messia  Duce  Primarium, 
sive  Explicatio  LXX.  Hebdomad  um  Danielis.  Medioburgi,  1744, 
8vo. 

206.  Joannis  Davidis  Michaelis  Epistolae  de  LXX.  Hebd< 
madibus  Danielis  ad  D.  Joannem  Pringle,  Baronetum.     London^ 
1773,  8vo. 

For  an  account  of  these  highly  curious  letters,  see  the  Monthly 
Review,  O.  S.  vol.  xlix.  pp.  263—267. 

207.  A  Dissertation,  by  way  of  Inquiry,  into  the  true  Import 
and  Application  of  the  Vision  related  Dan.  ix.  20.  to  the  erul, 
usually  called  Daniel's  Prophecy  of  Seventy  Weeks,  &c.  By 
Benjamin  Blatnet,  B.D.     Oxford,  1775,  4to. 

Dr.  Blayney  controverts  some  points  of  Professor  Michaelis's 
opinion,  which  our  limits  permit  us  not  to  notice.  The  reader  will 
find  an  account  of  this  learned  tract  in  the  Monthly  Review,  O.  S. 
vol.  Hi.  pp.  487—491. 

208.  XX,  Hebdomadum,  quas  Gabriel  ad  Danielem  detulerat, 


f 

i 


Sect.  III.  §  4.]         COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


125 


Interpretatio,  Paraphrasis,  Computalio,  cum  Vocabulorum  Diffi- 
ciliorum  Explicationc,  &c.  Auctorc  Johannc  Uiii.  Oxonii, 
1788,  Svo. 

209.  A  Dissertation  on  Daniel's  Prophecy  of  the  Seventy 
Weeks,     By  George  Stanley  Faukk,  B.D.     London,  181 1,  8 vo. 

210.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Seventy  Weeks  of  Daniel  the 
Prophet.    By  the  Kev.  John  Stonaui),  D.D.    London,  1826,  8 vo. 

"The  Dissertation  is  exfcedinRly  elaborate,  and  for  the  distribu- 
lion  of  ibc  materials  of  which  it  is  com|ioNed,  and  the  ordc^r  and 
fitness  of  the  discussion  which  it  includes,  is  entitled  to  high  priiiso 

as  the  work  of  a  s(tholar." "On  the  whole,  w^e  feel  bound, 

lK>th  on  account  of  the  interest,  importance,  and  difliiuiltics  of  the 
subject  to  which  it  relates,  and  of  the  niaiiiier  in  which  it  is  exe- 
cuted, to  recommend  it  to  our  theological  riwulcrs,  as  highly  deserv- 
ing of  iheir  attention."  (Eclectic  Review,  JN.  S.  vol.  xxvi.  pp.  244. 
257.) 

211.  A  Dissertation  concerning  the  Chronological  Numbers 
recorded  in  the  Prophecies  of  Daniel,  as  compared  with  those  in 
Uie  Revelation  of  St.  John.  By  the  Rev.  Philip  Alwood,  B.D. 
London,  1833,  8vo. 

COMMENTARIES  OV  ALL  OH  MOST  OF  THE  MINOR  PROPHETS. 

212.  Victorini  Strhjklii  Argumcnta  et  Scholia  in  Duodecim 
Prophetas  Minores.     LipsiaJ,  1561,  Svo. 

213.  Joannis  Mkrceri  Commcntarii  Locupleli.ssimi  in  Pro- 
phetas Quinque  Minores,  inter  eos  qui  Minores  vocantur.  Qui- 
l)us  adjuncti  sunt  aliorum,  ctiam  ct  veterum  (in  quibus  sunt 
Hebrtei)  et  recentium  Commentarii.     Sine  anno  et  loco. 

214.  Lamhcrti  Dan-bi  Commcntarius  in  Joelcm,  Amos,  Mi- 
cham,  Habacuc,  Sophoniam,  Hagga;um,  Zachariam,  et  Malachiam. 
Genevm,  1578,  Svo.  Also  with  commentaries  on  the  other  four 
minor  prophets,  in  Svo.     Geneva,  1586,  1594. 

215.  A  Fruitfull  Commentarie  upon  the  Twelve  Small  Pro- 
phets, briefe,  plaine,  and  easie,  going  over  the  same,  verse  by 
verse With  very  ncccssarie  fore-notes  for  the  under- 
standing both  of  these  and  also  all  the  other  Prophets.  Written 
in  Latin  by  Lambertus  Dan ;Eus,  and  newly  turned  into  English 
by  John  Stockwood.     London,  1594,  4to. 

216.  Johannis  Drish  Commentarius  in  Prophetas  Minores. 
Amstelodami,  1627,  4to. 

These  commentaries  were  originally  published  at  diiferent  times, 
between  the  years  1595  and  1627.  They  are  also  to  be  found  in 
the  third  volume  of  the  Critici  Sacri. 

217.  As  Fatidicus,  sive  Duodecim  Prophetas  Minores,  Latina 
Metaphrasi  Poetica  expositi,  partim  a  Jacobo  Augusto  Thuano, 
partim  a  Cunrado  Rittershusio.     Ambergae,  1604,  Svo. 

This  is  a  work  of  rare  occurrence.  The  younger  Rosenmiiller 
pronounces  the  paraphrases  of  the  celebrated  president  De  Thou, 
and  his  coadjutor  Ritlershusius,  to  be  executed  with  great  elegance. 
Besides  the  arguments  to  the  prophecies,  and  the  summaries  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  Ritlershusius  from  the  Greek  of  Hesychius,  a 
presbyter  of  the  churehof  Jerusalem,  this  volume  contains,  1.  Three 
Latin  paraphrases  of  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  by  De  Thou, 
Joachim  Camerarius,  and  Adam  Siberus  ; — 2.  A  poetical  paraphrase 
of  the  first  chapter  of  Isuiah,  by  an  anonymous  French  author  ; — 
3.  A  paraphrase  of  the  third  chapter  of  the  same  prophet,  by  Henry 
Meibomius; — ^1.  A  poetical  paraphrase  of  chapters  xxxvi. — xxxviii. 
of  Lsaiah,  by  John  Conrad  Rumellius  ; — 5.  Daniel  preserved  among 
the  lions,  by  Rittcrshusius ; — and,  6.  Nine  of  the  Psalms  of  David 
translated  into  Greek  hexameters,  also  by  Ritlershusius.  Rosen- 
miiller has  frequently  cited  this  work  in  his  Scholia  on  the  Minor 
Prophets. 

218.  A  Paraphrastical  Explication  of  the  Twelve  Minor  Pro- 
phets.    By  David  Stokes.     London,  1659,  Svo. 

219.  Caroli  Maria;  de  Veil  Expositio  Littcralis  Duodecim 
Prophetarura  Minorum,  ex  ipsis  Scripturarum  fontibus,  Ebra-o- 
rum  ritihus  et  idiomatis,  veterum  ct  reccntiorum  monimentis. 
Londini,  1680,  8vo. 

220.  Joannis  Tarxovii  in  Prophctis  Minores  Commcntarius, 
in  quo  Textus  Analysi  perspicua  illustratur,  ex  fontc  Hehnco  ex- 
plicatur,  locis  SS.  parallelis  confirmatur,  a  pravis  cxpositionibus 
vindicatur  ;  usus  vcro  in  locis  communibus  ex  ipsa  Scriptura 
natis  ct  probatis  indicatur,  cum  Pnefatione  Jo.  Bcnedicti  Carp- 
zovii.     Francofurti  ct  Lipsia;,  1688,  1706,  4to. 

Tarnovius  was  justly  considered  as  one  of  the  most  learned  and 
eminent  divines  of  his  day.  Ilis  commentaries  on  the  several  pro- 
phets were  i)ublished  at  different  times  in  a  detached  form,  and 
were  first  collected  together  by  the  elder  Carpzov. 

221.  Commentaries  on  the  Prophecies  of  Hosea,  Joel,  Micah, 
and  Malachi.     By  Edward  Pococke,  D.D. 

These  learned  commentaries  were  published  at  several  times 
between  the  years  16(>7  and  IC91.  Tliev  are  also  extant  in  the 
collective  edition  of  his  "Theological  VVorks,"  published  by  Dr. 
Twells,  in  2  vols,  folio.     London,  1740. 


222.  Joannis  Marckii  Commentarius  in  Prophetas  Minores, 
sen  Analysis  Exegetica,  qua  Hubra^us  Textus  cum  Vcrsionibus 
vctcribus  confertur,  vocum  ct  phrasiiim  vis  indagatur,  rerum 
nexus  nionstratur ;  et  in  scnsuni  gcnuinum,  cum  examine  varia- 
ruin  intcrpretationum,  inquiiitur.  Amstelodami,  1696 — 1701 
4  vols.  4to. 

These  commentaries  are  much  esteemed  :  they  were  reprinted 
in  1731,  at  Tubingen,  in  two  lidio  volumes,  under  the  care  of  Pro- 
fessor I'falf,  who  prefixed  an  account  of  the  lilc  and  writings  of 
MarckiuH. 

223.  Phil.  Davidis  Bitrkii  Gnomon  in  Duodecim  Prophetas 
Minores,  in  quo,  ex  nativa  verborum  vi,  simplicitas,  profunditas, 
concinnitas,  salubritas  sensuum  coelestium  indicatur.  Heilbron, 
1753,  4to. 

The  remark  already  offered  on  Burkius's  Gnomon  Psalmorum 
(p.  120.  Kupru)  is  equally  applicable  to  his  work  on  the  minor 
propliets. 

224.  Vaticinia  Chabacuci  et  Nachumi,  itemque  nonnulla  Jesaix, 
Michea;,  ct  Ezechielis  Oracula,  observationihus  historico-philolo- 
gicis  ex  historia  Diodori  Siculi  circa  res  Sardanajiali  illustrata. 
Auctorc  R.  T.  Gottlieb  Kalissky.     Vratislavia;,  1748,  4to. 

A  work  of  rare  occurrence  in  this  country  :  it  is  in  the  list  of 
biblical  treatises  recommended  to  students  by  the  late  Bishop  of 
Llandaff  (Dr.  Watson). 

225.  An  Attempt  towards  an  Improved  Version,  a  Metrical 
Arrangement,  and  an  Explanation  of  the  Twelve  Minor  Pro- 
phets. By  W.  Newcome,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Waterford.  Lon- 
don, 1785,  4to.     Pontefract,  1809,  Svo. 

"The  notes  are  copious  and  pertinent,  untainted  by  an  ostenta- 
tious display  of  erudition,  and  abounding  with  such  illustrations  of 
eastern  manners  and  customs  as  are  best  collected  from  modern 
travellers.  As  a  commentator,  the  learned  prelate  has  shown  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  best  critics,  ancient  and  modern. 
His  own  observations  are  learned  and  ingenious.  It  is,  moreover, 
not  the  least  merit  of  his  criticisms,  that  they  are  continually  en- 
livened by  the  introduction  of  cla.ssical  quotations — an  expedient 
by  which  the  taidiiim  of  grammatical  disquisition  is  happily  reliev- 
ed, the  taste  of  the  commentator  displayed,  and  the  text,  in  some 
instances,  more  successfully  explained,  than  in  diffuse  and  laborious 
modes  of  instruction."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  Ixxvi.  p.  58.) — 
The  Svo.  edition  above  noticed  is  a  reprint  of  the  4to.  edition,  en- 
riched with  the  addition  of  the  most  important  of  Bishop  Ilorslcy's 
criticisms  on  Ilosea,  and  those  of  Dr.  Blayney  on  Zechariah.  It  is 
neatly  printed,  and  of  easy  purchase,  but  there  are  numerous  errata 
in  the  Hebrew  words. 

226.  ProphetiB  Minores  perpetua  annotatione  illustrati  a  D™. 
Pctro  Fouerio  Ackermann.     Vienna;,  1830,  Svo. 

A  valuable  commentary  on  the  Minor  Prophets.  The  author,  who 
does  not  lay  claim  to  much  originality,  ollisrs  it  as  a  compilation 
from  the  works  of  preceding  commentators,  which  are  not  accessible 
to  every  one :  and  he  especially  cites  the  more  ancient  expositors, 
for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  they  were  not  quite  so  ignorant  of 
the  principles  of  Ilermcneutics  as  some  modern  critics  affect  to 
suppo.se.  Dr.  Ackermann  has  made  considerable  use  of  the  cog- 
nate dialects,  for  the  more  difficult  forms  of  Hebrew  words,  as 
well  as  of  the  Septuagint  Greek,  and  the  Latin  Vulgate  versions, 
and  the  best  modern  commentators.  He  has  further  added  his  own 
philological  observations,  where  they  appeared  to  be  necessary. 
Critical  discussions  respecting  the  authors,  genuineness,  and  cano- 
nical authority,  of  the  several  Iwoks  are  designedly  omitted  ;  as 
Dr.  Ackermann  refers,  for  these  topics,  to  his  "Iniroduclio  ad  Libros 
Canonicos  Veleris  Foederis,"  of  which  a  notice  has  been  given  in 
p.  171.  supra. 

227.  A  Literal  Translation  from  the  Hebrew  of  the  Twelve 
Minor  Prophets  ;  with  some  Notes  from  Jonathan's  Paraphrase 
in  the  Chaldcc,  and  Critical  Remarks  from  R.  S.  Yarchi,  Aben- 
czra,  D.  Kiinchi,  and  Abarbencl.  By  A.  Pick.  London,  1833, 
Svo. 

The  author  of  this  version  is  a  Jew,  who,  many  years  since,  em- 
braced the  faith  of  the  (Jospel,  from  the  full  conviction  that  the 
Ijord  Jesus  is  indeed  "tiik  Messiah,  the  Son  of  the  living  God." 
The  design  of  his  version  is,  not  to  supersede  our  venerable  autho- 
rized translation,  but  to  act  as  an  assistant  to  it,  by  directing  the 
reader  to  the  plain  grammatical  sense  of  the  original  ;  in  order  that 
he  may  be  enabled  to  enter  more  siinplv  into  the  mind  of  the  Spirit, 
unshackled  by  the  views  of  men.  The  notes  are  strictly  gram- 
matical and  explanatory. 

228.  Observationes  Philologicse  atque  Critica;  ad  qusdam 
Prophctarum  Minorum  Loca,  subjuncta  vernacula  Chabacuci 
Interpretatione.  Auctore  J.  Ch.  Daul.  Neo-StrelitisE  (New 
Strelitz),  1798,  Svo. 

HOSEA. 

229.  An  Exposition,  with  practical  Observations,  on  the  Pro- 
phecy of  HosEA  ;  first  delivered  in  several  Lectures  at  St. 
Michael's,  Cornhill.  By  Jcremiali  Burkovghes.  London,  1643 
—1650,  Svo. 


126 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


230.  The  Prophecies  of  Hosea,  translated,  with  a  Commen- 
tary and  Notes.    By  James  Neale,  A.M.     London,  1771,  8vo. 

231.  Samuelis  Henrici  Mankeri  Commentarius  in  Librum 
Propheticum  HosciB.     Campis,  1782,  4to. 

232.  Hose®  Oracula,  Hebraice  et  Latine,  perpetua  annotatione 
illustravit  Ch.  Fr.  Kuinoel.     Lipsiaj,  1792,  8vo. 

Prof.  Kuinoel  has  applied  Ileyne's  mode  of  illustrating  Virgil  to 
the  elucidation  of  the  prophecy  of  Ilosea.  The  text  rarely  varies 
from  the  Masora. 

233.  Hosea:  translated  from  the  Hebrew,  with  Notes  explana- 
tory and  critical.  By  Samuel  Horslet,  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph. 
2d  edition.     London,  1804,  4to. 

This  edition  contains  additional  notes  and  corrections :  th'e  first 
edition  appeared  in  1801  ;  the  preface  contains  a  treasure  of  bibli- 
cal criticism.  "  This  translation,  with  its  notes,  forms  a  most  valu- 
able accession  to  sacred  learning ;  and  evinces  at  once  the  best 
qualities  of  the  scholar  and  tiie  divine,  supported  by  sagacity  and 
a  powerful  judgment."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xix.  p.  176.)  A 
new  edition  of  this  valuable  work,  with  the  learned  author's  last 
corrections  and  alterations,  Ibrms  part  of  the  third  and  fourth 
volumes  of  his  "  Biblical  Criticism,"  which  is  noticed  ivfra. 

234.  Hoseas  Propheta.  Introductioncm  prsemisit,  vertit,  com- 
mcntatus  est  Joannes  Christianas  Stuck.     Lipsiae,  1828,  8vo, 

A  valuable  help  to  the  study  of  the  writings  of  Hosea.  The  In- 
troduction contains  a  history  of  the  prophet,  and  of  the  lime  when 
he  lived  ;  disquisitions  on  the  genius  and  argument  of  his  prophecy, 
and  on  some  particular  portions  of  it ;  philological  observations  on 
the  prophet's  style,  and  the  history  of  his  predictions,  which  are 
divided  by  Dr.  Stuck  into  nineteen  sections.  He  professes  to  liave 
consulted  the  labours  of  preceding  commentators  and  critics,  espe- 
cially Eichhorn,  Kuinoel,  Boeckhel,  RosenmiiUer,  Gesenius,  and 
Dr.  Weite. 


235.  A  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on  the  Prophecy  of  Joel. 
By  Samuel  Chandler.     London,  1735,  4to. 

230.  Joel,  Latine  versus,  et  notis  philologicis  illustratus,  ab 
A.  SvANBouG,  Lingg.  00.  Professoris  in  Academia  Upsaliensi. 
Upsal.  1806,  4to. 

AMOS. 

237.  Amos  Propheta,  expositus,  interpretatione  nova  Latina 
instructus,  amplissimo  commentario  ex  theologia  Ebraea  ac  Isra- 
elitica  illustratus,  cum  quatuor  appendicibus.  Cura  et  studio  J. 
Ch.  Harenbergh.     Lugd.  Bat.  1763,  4to. 

238.  Oracula  Amosi.  Textum,  et  Hebraicum,  et  Graecum 
Versionis  Alexandrinae,  notis  criticis  et  exegeticis  instruxit,  ad- 
junctaque  versione  vernacula  [i.  e.  Gerraanica]  edidit  Joannes 
Severinus  Vater.     Halae,  1810,  4to. 

239.  Disputatio  Academica  de  Amoso.     Quam publico 

examini   submittit  Theodorus  Gulielmus  Johannes  Jutnboll. 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1828,  4to, 


240.  Aug.  Pfeifferi  PrEelectiones  in  Prophetiam  Jona;,  re- 
cognitae  et  in  justum  commentarium  rcdactse,  quibus  emphases 
vocum  eruuntur,  verus  sacrae  Scripturag  sensus  exponitur,  sen- 
tentiae  varise  et  Juda;orum  et  Christianorum  adducuntur,  falsae 
refelluntur,  et  qusBstiones  dubiae  resolvuntur.  Wittebergae,  1671, 
1706  ;  Lipsiae,  1686,  4to. 

This  commentary  is  also  extant  in  the  collective  edition  of  Pfeif- 
fer's  works,  printed  at  Utrecht,  in  two  volumes,  4to.  in  1704.  See 
torn.  ii.  pp.  1131 — 1165. 

241.  Jonah  :  a  faithful  translation  from  the  original,  with 
philological  and  explanatory  Notes ;  to  which  is  prefixed  a  pre- 
liminary discourse,  proving  the  genuineness,  the  authenticity, 
and  the  integrity  of  the  present  text.  By  George  Benjoin. 
Cambridge,  1796,  4to. 

Literally  good  for  nothing.  —  In  proof  of  this  remark,  see  the 
British  Critic,  vol.  x.  O.  S.  pp.  493— 50G.  022—036. 

MICAH. 

242.  Johannis  Tarnovii  in  Prophetam  Micham  Commenta- 
rius.    Rostochii,  1632,  4to. 

NAHUM  and  habakkuk. 

243.  Adami  Wildtx  Meditationes  Sacrae  in  Prophetam 
Nahum.     Francofurti,  1712,  4to. 

A  learned  and  elaborate  work,  which  contributes  greatly  to  the 
elucidation  of  the  prophet  Nahum.     (Walchius.) 

264.  Symbola;  Criticae  ad  Interpretationem  Vaticiniorum  Ha- 
bacuci,  etc.  Auctorc  Henr.  Car.  Alex.  Haenlein.  Erlang, 
1795,  8vo. 


245.  Chabacuci  Vaticinium  Commentario  Critico  atque  Exe- 
gctico  illustratum.     Edidit  B.  P.  Kofod.     Gijttingae,  1792,  8vo. 

246.  Prolusio  ad  Interpretationem  tertii  capitis  Habacuci, 
Auctore  Joanne  Gustavo  Stickel.     Neostadii,  1828,  8vo. 

haggai. 

247.  Haggeus,  the  Prophet ;  whereunto  is  added  a  most  plen- 
tiful Commentary,  gathered  out  of  the  Publique  Lectures  of  Dr. 
J.  J.  Gryneus,  faithfully  translated  by  Christopher  Feather- 
stone.     London,  1586,  12mo. 

248.  An  Exposition  upon  the  Prophet  Aggeus.  By  .lames 
PiLKiNGTON,  Master  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Lon- 
don, 1560,  8vo. 

ZEPHAXIAH. 

219.  Spicilcgium  Observationum  Excgetico-criticarum  ad  Ze- 
phaniae  Vaticinia.    Auctore  Dan.  a  Coelin.    Breslau,  1818,  4to. 

250.  Hermann!  Venema  Sermoncs  Academici,  vice  Com- 
mentarii  ad  Librum  Prophetiarum  Zachariae.  Lcovardia;,  1787, 
4to, 

ZECHARIAH. 

251.  Zechariah:  a  New  Translation,  with  Notes,  critical,  phi- 
lological, and  explanatory,  etc.  By  Benjamin  Beayney,  D.D., 
Regius  Professor  of  Hebrew.     London,  1797,  4to. 

This  work  is  executed  on  the  same  plan  as  the  aiuhor's  version  of 
Jeremiah,  already  noticed  in  p.  123.  supra.  "  We  think  it  our  duty  to 
say  that  Dr.  Blayney  has  produced  a  valuable  illustration  of  Zecha- 
riah, and  afibrded  great  assistance  to  the  biblical  student."  (British 
Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xiii.  p.  655.)  See  also  the  Monthly  Review,  N.S. 
vol.  xxviii.  pp.  26 — 28. 

252.  F.  B.  KoESTER  Meletemata  Critica  et  Exegetica  in  Za- 
chariaB  Prophetae  partem  posteriorem,  cap.  ix. — xiv.  pro  tuenda 
ejus  authentia.     G.^ttingse,  1818,  8vo. 

253.  A  Commentary  on  the  Vision  of  Zacl>ariah  the  Prophet, 
with  a  corrected  Translation,  and  Critical  Notes.  By  John  Sto- 
NARr,  D.D.     London,  1824,  8vo. 

"The  specimens  we  have  given  will  sufTuiently  recommend  the 
volume  to  the  perusal  of  our  readers,  as  highly  deserving  of  their 
most  careful  perusal,  and  as  entitling  the  learned  author  to  the  cor- 
dial thanks  of  every  biblical  student."  (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S. 
vol.  xxiii.  p.  416.  See  also  the  Quarterly  Theological  Review,  vol. 
i.  pp.  329—347.) 

254.  An  Amicable  Controversy  with  a  Jewish  Rabbi  on  the 
Messiah's  Coming.  With  a  New  Exposition  of  Zechariah  on 
the  Messiah's  Kingdom.  By  J.R.Pahk,  M.D.  London,  1832,  Svo. 

MAEACHI. 

255.  A  Commentary  upon  the  whole  Prophcsye  of  Malachy. 
By  Richard  Stock.     London,  1641,  folio. 

This  work  was  recommended  by  Bishop  Wilkins  as  the  best  ex 
tant  in  his  day  on  the  prophet  Malachi. 

256.  A  Brief  and  Plain  Commentary,  with  Notes  not  more 
useful  than  seasonable,  upon  the  whole  Prophecie  of  Malachy  ; 
delivered  sermonwise  divers  years  since  at  Pitminster  in  Sum- 
merset.    By  William  Sclater,  D.D.     London,  1650,  4to. 

257.  Salomonis  Van  Til  Malachias  Illustratus.  Lugd.  Bat. 
1701,  4to, 

258.  Hermanni  Venema  Commentarius  ad  Librum  Elench- 
tico-Propheticum  Malachiae ;  quo  variis  simul  aliis  Scripturse 
Sacrae  locis  nova  lux  infunditur.     Leovardiae,  1759,  4to. 

259.  C.  F.  Bahrdt  Commentarius  in  Malachiam,  cum  Ex- 
amine Critico  Versionum  Veterum,  et  Lectionum  Variarum 
Houbigantii.  Accedit  Specimen  Bibliorum  Polyglottorum.  Lip- 
siae, 1768,  Svo. 

§   5.    commentators    on    the    ArOCRTPHAL   BOOKS  OF    THE  OLD 

testament. 

1.  A  Critical  Commentary  on  such  Books  of  the  Apocrypha 
as  are  appointed  to  be  read  in  Churches  :  viz.  Wisdom,  Eccle- 
siasticus,  'i'ohit,  Judith,  Baruch,  History  of  Susannah,  and  Bel 
and  the  Dragon.  With  two  Dissertations  on  the  Books  of  Mac- 
cabees and  Esdras.  By  Richard  Arnalp,  B.D.  Second  edition, 
corrected.     London,  1760,  folio;  also  various  editions  in  4to. 

This  valuable  Commentary  on  the  Apocryphal  Books  originally 
appeared  at  different  times:  it  is  frequently  bound  up  with  the 
Commentaries  of  Patrick,  Lovvlh,  and  Wlmby  on  the  Canonical 
Books  of  Scripture,  and  is  deservedly  held  in  high  estimation. 

2.  Jo.  Phil.  BAtTETiMEisTERi  Commcntarius  in  Sapientiam 
Salomonis,  Librum  Vetcris  Testamenti  Apocryphum.  GCttingae, 
1828,  Svo. 

*,,,*  Some  Commentaries,  annexed  to  critical  editions  of  particular 
Apocryphal  Books,  will  be  found  in  p.  163.  of  this  Appendix. 


Skct.  III.  ^  6.] 


COMMENTATORS  ON  THE  ENTIRE  NEW  TESTAMENT 


127 


§  6.    pniNCIPAL    COMMEJJTATOnS    ON    THE    WEW    TESTAMENT, 
AND    ON    IIKTACHEI)     BOOKS    TIIEIIEOF. 

[i.]    Commentators  on  the  entire  J^ew  Testament. 

1.  Laurcntii  VALta?  Annotationcs  in  Novum  Testamentum, 
ex  divcrsorum  utriusquc  lingua;,  Groics  ct  Latina:,  codicum  col- 
latione.     Parisiis,  1505,  8vo. 

Valla  held  a  distinjuishrd  rank  among  the  revivers  of  literature, 
and  was  one  of  the  (irst  who  considfred  the  sense  of  llic  JV'ew  Tes- 
luiiient  as  a  critic  rather  than  as  a  divine  ;  whence  he  was  led  to 
make  many  corrections  in  the  Latin  Vulcate  translation.  ilis 
annotations  wore  first  edited  by  Krasmus  :  they  are  also  to  be  found 
in  the  Critici  Sacri. 

2.  Desiderii  Erasmi  Paraphrasis  in  Novum  Testamentum. 
Basilcffi,  1524,  folio. 

"  Not  inferior  to  any  of  the  old  commentators  in  sensible  and  in- 
genious remarks."  (Ur.  Ilarwood.)  An  edition  of  Erasmus's  I'ara- 
|)hrase  was  printed  at  Berlin,  1777-17HO,  in  3  vols.  Hvo.  Erasmus 
was  also  author  of  a  Latin  version  of  the  J\evv  Testament,  which, 
together  with  his  annotations,  is  (>rinted  in  the  sixth  volume  of  Le 
Clerc's  edition  of  his  works,  in  10  vols,  fijlio.  Loydon,  1703.  The 
notes  are  chielly  grammatical,  and  designed  to  excite  his  contem- 
poraries to  the  study  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  original  Greek. 

3.  Auguslini  Maulohati  Novi  Tcstamcnti  Catholica  Expo- 
eitio  Ecclesiastica  :  sivc  Bihliotheca  Expo.sitionuin  Novi  Testa- 
menti,  id  est,  Expositio  ex  probatis  omnibus  Theologis  collccla, 
ct  in  unum  corpus  singulari  arlilicio  conflata,  quaj  instar  biblio- 
thccffi  muitis  cxpositoribus  refertaj  esse  posset,  Apud  Hcnricum 
STErHANi-M,  15C1,  15G4,  1570.  Geneva;,  1583,  1585,  1593, 
1596,  1620.     Heidelberga;,  1G04,  folio. 

The  multiplicity  of  editions,  through  which  this  work  passed, 
attests  the  high  and  deserved  estimation  in  which  it  was  formerly 
held,  though  it  is  now-  but  little  known.  It  contains  Erasmus's 
Latin  version  of  the  New  Testament,  together  with  various  expo- 
sitions, collected  from  the  writings  of  the  fathers  of  the  church  as 
well  as  from  later  interpreters,  whether  of  the  reformed  or  Lu- 
thcnin  Communions,  with  which  the  author  has  intermixed  his 
own  observations. 

4.  'TTTOfjLWfxiTJ.  in  omncs  Libros  Novi  Testamcnti,  in  quibus 
et  genus  sermonis  explicatur,  ct  series  concionum  monstratur, 
et  nativa  sententia  tcstimoniis  pia;  antiquitatis  confirmata.  Edita 
a  Victorino  Stkigelio.     Lipsia;,  1565,  2  vols.  8vo. 

"  This  is  another  of  the  most  valuable  books  of  sacred  criticism. 
The  observations  are  neat,  and  the  critical  judgment  of  Victorinus 
Strigelius  is  excellent."     (Dr.  Ilarw'ood.) 

5.  Jesu  Christi  Domini  Nostri  Novum  Testamentum,  cujus 
Gra;co  contcxtui  respondent  intcrprctationes  dua;;  una,  vctus; 
altera  Theodori  Bozje;  cum  ejusdem  Theod.  6kz.=b  annota- 
tionibus.  Acccssit  etiam  Joachimi  Camerarii  in  Novum  Fcsdus 
Comraentarius,  in  quo  et  Figura;  Sermonis,  et  Vcrborum  Signi- 
ficatio,  et  Orationis  Sententia,  ad  illius  Fa?deris  intelligentiam 
certiorem,  tractantur.     Cantabrigise,  1642,  folio. 

The  best  edition  of  a  most  valuable  work.  "  Beza  is  undoubtedly 
the  best  critic  on  the  Greek  language  of  any  commentator  we 
have.  There  is  no  translation  that  1  know  ot  equal  to  his :  and 
his  remarks  on  Erasmus  and  the  vulgar  Latin  are  wrought  up  to 
the  utmost  degree  of  exactness.  On  the  whole,  it  is  an  invaluable 
treasure,  and  deserves  to  be  read  with  the  utmost  attention." 
(Dr.  Doddridge.)  The  Commentaries  of  Joachim  Camerarius, 
vvliich  form  a  part  of  this  work,  are  very  useful :  in  them,  the 
learned  author  expounds  the  text  in  a  grammatical  and  critical 
manner  only,  according  to  the  genius  of  the  original  languages, 
and  without  entering  into  any  disputed  points  of  doctrine.  They 
are  a  reprint  of  Camerarius 's  Nolafio  fiffurariim  sermonis  in  W/ris 
qualnor  evangvliorum,  vl  indicata  vernoriim  significalio  el  orationis 
sentfulia,  ad  illorum  scrijitorum  intcUigenliam  certiorem.  LipsiiB, 
1572,  2  vols.  4to. 

6.  LucjB  BnuoE:«^sis  Commcntanus  in  Quatuor  Jesu  Christi 
Evangelia.     Antwerp,  1606,  3  vols,  folio. 

'•  A  licaiitifully  printed  book,  very  scarce  and  valuable."  (Dr. 
Ilarwood.) 

7.  Joannis  Malponati  Commentarii  in  Quatuor  Evangelia. 
Paris,  1617,  folio. 

"  A  very  ingenious  commentator,  distinguished  for  his  elegant 
and  neat  Latinity."     (Dr.  Ilarwood.) 

8.  Martini  Chemxitii  Harmonia  Quatuor  Evangelistarum. 
Hamburg.   1704,  best  edition,  folio. 

See  a  notice  of  this  work  in  p.  159.  of  this  Appendix. 

9.  Joannis  PaiciEi  Commentarii  in  varies  Novi  Testamenti 
Libros.     Londini,  1660,  folio. 

These  notes  are  inserted  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  Critici 
Sacri:  they  are  greatly  valued  as  containing  "many  valuable 
observations,  particularly  illustrating  the  modes  of  diction  which 
occur  in  the  sacred  classics,  from  profaue  writers."  (Dr.  Ilar- 
wood.) 

Vol.  II.— Arp.  4  I 


10.  Job.  Christoph.  Wolfii  Curte  Philologica;  in  Novum 
Testamentum.     Basil,  1741 ;  the  best  edition,  5  vols.  4to. 

This  is  a  very  valuable  compilation;  as  "  Wolfius  does  not 
simply  relate  the  senliraents  of  others,  but  frequently  animadverts 
upon  them  with  great  critical  discernment."  (Dr.  Wdliams.)  A 
continuation  of  this  work  was  published  by  John  Christopher 
Koechor,  entitled  "  Analecia  Piiilologica  el  Exegotica  in  Quatuor 
Evangelia."     Altenburg,  17GG,  4lo. 

11.  Le  Nouveau  Testament  dc  N.  S.  Jesus  Christ,  traduit  en 
Frangois,  sur  I'Uriginal  Grec,  avcc  des  notes  litlc rales,  pour 
(Jclaircir  le  texte :  par  Messieurs  de  Beacsoube  ct  l'Enfant. 
Amst.  1741,  best  edition,  4to. 

To  complete  this  excellent  work,  there  should  be  added,  "  7?e- 
mari/iies  historii/ues,  critiipies,  et  philnlogiijucs  sur  le  Nouveau  Tis- 
tament,  par  M.  Jieausobre,  'ilo.  a  la  Ilai/e,  1742."  Though  a  post- 
humous work,  it  is  very  valuable,  and  contains  many  judicious 
observations  briefly  expressed,  but  which  noverthele.ss  comprise 
the  substance  of  remarks  offered  by  the  best  interpreters.  An 
English  translation  of  St.  Matthew-  s  Gospel  from  this  French 
version,  was  printeil  in  4to.  several  years  since,  which  was  rej)ub- 
lishcd  in  8vo.   London,  1816. 

12.  Novum  Testamentum  Grsecum  editionis  rcceptaj  cum 
Lectionibus  variantibus  Codicum  manuscriptorum,  Edilionum 
aliarum,  Versionum,  et  Patrum,  necnon  commentario  plcniore 
ex  Scriptoribus  vcteribus  Hcbrasis,  Graicis,  et  Latinis,  historiara 
et  vim  verborum  illustrante.  Opera  et  studio  Joan.  Jacobi 
Wetstesii.  Amstclaedami,  1751,  17.52,  2  vols,  folio.  Editio 
altera,  aucta  ct  emendata,  curante  J.  A.  Lotzc.  Tom.  i.  Quatuor 
Evangelia  complectcns.     Roterodami,  1832,  large  quarto. 

The  critical  merits  of  these  editions  of  the  New  Testament  are 
considered  in  p.  12.  of  this  Appendix.  As  a.  merely  critical  comment, 
this  of  Wetstein  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  most  valuable: 
"almost  every  peculiar  form  of  speech  in  the  sacred  text  he  has 
illustrated  by  quotations  from  Jewish,  Greek,  and  Roman  writers." 
(Dr.  A.  Clarke.)  Almost  every  modern  commentator  of  note  has 
largely  availed  himself  of  the  previous  labours  of  Wetstein. 

13.  Joannis  Benrelii  Gn  mon  Novi  Testamenti,  in  quo,  ex 
nativa  Verborum  Vi,  Simplicitas,  Profundifas,  Concinnitas,  et 
Salubritas  sensuum  coelestium,  indicatur.  Ulmte,  1763,  4to.  best 
edition. 

"This  work  contains  an  instructive  preface,  a  perspicuous 
analysis  of  each  book,  with  short  notes,  in  the  true  taste  of  judi- 
cious criticism.  His  plan  is  a  perfect  contrast  to  that  of  Wolfius. 
Simplicem  fere  verilalcm,  sine  sylva  multarum  opinionum,  propono." 
(Dr.  Williams.)  Bengel's  Gnomon  is  a  very  valuable  substitute 
for  the  more  expensive  critical  commentaries  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment; he  excels  in  showing  the  connection  and  harmony  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  how  Scripture  is  to  be  interpreted  by  Scripture.  The 
generally  cheap  price  of  this  book  greatly  enhances  its  value. 

14.  'H  KAlNH  A1A0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum  Domini 
nostri  Jesu  Christi,  cum  Scholiis  theologicis  ct  philologicLs.  8vo. 
2  vols.     Londini,  1768:  2d  edit.  1776;  3d  edit.  1820. 

The  editor  of  this  work  was  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hardy.  "  It  was  a 
very  useful  companion  to  every  biblical  student,  and  has  gone 
through  two  editions  (the  second  in  1776),  the  first  of  which  is  the 
best ;  but  it  must  be  acluiowledeed  that  the  Greek  text  in  both  is 
inexcusably  incorrect."  (Dr.  Clarke.)  The  third  edition  of  this 
work  is  the  most  correct:  it  is  beautifiilly  printed.  The  notes  are 
chiefly  extracted  from  Poole's  Synopsis. 

15.  Christ.  Gottfr.  KiJTTNEni  Hypomncmata  in  Novum  Tes- 
tamentum, quibus  Graecitas  ejus  explicatur,  et  Scholiis,  quae  ex 
Scriptis  reccntiorum  quorundam  magni  nominis  philologorum 
excerpta  sunt,  illustratur,     Lipsise,  1780,  8vo. 

16.  Novum  Testamentum  Gncce,  pcrpctua  Annotatione  illus- 
tratum.  Editio  Koppiana.  Vols.  III. — X.  Gottinga;,  1778 — 
1826,  8vo. 

G.  B.  KopPE  (from  whom  this  edition  derives  its  distinctive 
appellation),  a  man  of  extensive  learning  and  uncommon  critical 
acumen,  in  the  year  1778,  published  a  plan  of  a  new  edition  of 
the  New  Testament,  with  a  corrected  text,  .-^hort  critical  notes,  and 
some  excursus,  or  somewhat  more  extended  philological  ones  on 
particular  passages ;  and  at  the  same  time  gave  a  specimen  in  the 
epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Galalians,  Epiiesians,  and  Thessaloniaus. 
A  second  edition  of  this  specimen  appeared  in  1791.  and  a  third 
in  1823,  corrected  and  enlarged  by  Professor  T.  C.  Tychsen,  which 
in  the  title-page  is  called  Vol.  VI.  of  the  projecicd  work.  Koppe 
lived  only  to  add  another  volume,  numbered  IV.,  on  the  epistle  to 
the  Romans,  which  was  published  in  1783.  A  third  edition  of 
this  volume,  with  additional  notes  and  philological  excursus,  by 
Dr.  C.  F.  Ammon,  appeared  in  1825.  Sim-e  the  year  1783,  at  very 
irregular  intervals,  L.  II.  Ileinrichs  has  published  Vol.  III.  in  two 

f>arts,  containing  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (which  is  more  particu- 
arly  noticed  in  p.  131.  infra),  in  1809:  Vol.  VII.  in  two  parts, 
1792,  containing  the  epistles  to  the  Colossians,  Philippians,  Timo- 
thy, Titus,  and  Philemon  ;  Vol.  VIII.,  containing  the  epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  by  Ileinrichs,  who  published  a  second  edition  of  it  in 
1823,  and  the  Apocalypse  in  two  parts,  forming  Vol.  X.,  1821.  Of 
the  Catholic  Epistles,  which  are  to  form  Vol.  IX.,  D.  J.  Pott  has 


128 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chip.  V. 


publislied  two  fasciculi,  the  first  containing  the  epislle  of  James, 
and  the  second  containing  the  two  epistles  of  Peter.  The  third 
fasciculus,  which  is  to  contain  the  epistles  of  John  and  Jiide,  has 
not  yet  appeared.  In  1826,  Pott  published  the  first  part  of  Vol.  V., 
which  is  to  comprise  the  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians.  Vols.  I. 
and  II.,  containing  the  four  Gospels,  are  undertaken  by  persons, 
whom  Ileinrichs  declares  to  be  every  way  competent  to  the  task. 
The  plan  of  this  work  appears  to  be  excellent.  There  is,  first 
of  all,  at  the  head  of  the  page,  a  corrected  text,  agreeing  for  the 
most  part  with  that  of  Griesbach's  edition,  with  a  punctuation  en- 
tirely new,  and  divided  into  paragraphs  according  to  the  sense, 
while  the  ordinary  notation  of  chapters  and  verstcs  is  given  in  the 
margin.  Then  follow  brief  notes,  strictly  critical,  assigning  the 
reasons  for  the  variations  from  the  textus  receptus;  and  below  these, 
at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  there  are  notes  of  a  philological  nature, 
of  considerable  extent.  These  notes  are  precisely  of  the  kind  Which 
are  to  be.found  in  the  best  critical  editions  of  the  classics.  Their 
sole  object  is  to  enable  the  reader  distinctly  and  accurately  to  ap- 
prehend the  meaning  of  the  original  writers.  To  illustrate  a  phrase 
of  doubtful  meaning,  first  of  all  are  brought  forward  the  passages 
where  the  writer  uses  thesameor  a  similar  mode  of  expression;  then 
other  New  Testament  writers  are  appealed  to ;  then  the  Greek  trans- 
lators of  tlie  Old  Testament  are  cited  ;  then  the  Apocryphal  writers; 
and  also  Josephus  and  Philo  ;  and,  last  of  all,  the  classical  authors 
are  referred  to.  All  doctrinal  discussions  are  carefully  avoided. 
To  each  book  are  prefixed  prolegomena,  in  which  questions  relat- 
ing to  their  author's  authenticity,  &c.  are  discussed  :  and  to  each 
book  also  are  subjoined  short  excursus,  or  disquisitions,  on  passages 
of  extraordinary  obscurity,  or  on  plirases  of  frequent  occurrence,  or 
wliich  are  used  in  a  particular  sense  by  the  sacred  writers.  With 
regard  to  the  execution  of  the  plan  thus  detailed  ; — Koppe's  two 
volumes  are  by  far  the  best  of  the  series  :  he  is  a  remarkably  cau- 
tious critic  and  judicious  interpreter.  But  the  second  edition  of  his 
commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  contains  some  very  ex- 
ceptionable notes  by  Professor  Ammon  :  they  are,  however,  care- 
fully distinguished  from  those  of  Koppe.  Both  Heinrichs  and  Potts 
are,  unhappily,  tainted  with  that  lax  system  of  interpretation  and 
excess  of  philological  speculation  which  are  the  characteristics  of 
ihe  modern  theologians  and  biblical  critics  of  Germany."  (Chris- 
tian Monitor,  vol.  ii.  pp.  642 — 644.    Edinburgh,  1822,  8vo.) 

17.  G.  F.  Hezel  Novi  Fcfideris  Volumina  Sacra,  Virorum 
Clarissimorum  opera  ac  studio,  e  Scriptoribus  Grsecis,  illustrata. 
HaliE,  1788,  8vo. 

This  work,  which  has  never  been  completed,  contains  the  Gos- 
pels of  Matt  hew  and  Mark,  cum  Notts  Variorum,  and  imbodies  the 
labours  of  Wetstein,  Raphelius,  Palairet,  Kypke,  Alberti,  Bos,  and 
others. 

18.  Conjectures,  with  short  Comments  and  Illustrations  of 
various  Passages  in  the  New  Testament,  particularly  in  the  Gos- 
pel of  St.  Matthew.  To  which  is  added  a  Specimen  of  Notes 
on  the  Old  Testament.  By  Stephen  Weston,  B.D.  London, 
1795,  4to. 

19.  Selecta  e  Scholis  Lud.  Casp.  Valckexarii  in  Libros 
quosdam  Novi  Testamenti,  Editore  Discipulo  E.  Van  Wassen- 
bergh,  qui  Dissertationem  prsemisit  de  Glossis  Novi  Testamenti, 
Amst.  1815-17,2  vols.  8vo. 

Valckenaer  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  critics  of  the  last 
century.  These  extracts  from  his  Scholia  are  wholly  philological. 
To  the  first  volume  M.  Wassenberg  has  prefixed  a  dissertation  on 
those  pa.ssages  which  he  thinks  were  originally  glosses,  written  in 
the  margin  of  manuscripts,  but  which  in  the  lapse  of  ages  have 
become  incorporated  with  the  text.  To  the  second  volume  he  has 
also  prefixed  a  Dissertation  respecting  the  Trajections  often  neces- 
sary in  the  New  Testament.  Some  of  these  Trajections  or  trans- 
positions are  arbitrary  enough.  Bishop  Jebb  has  given  a  specimen 
of  them,  with  some  just  castigatory  remarks,  in  his  Sacred  Litera- 
ture, pp.  128—130. 

20.  "^H  KAINH  A1A0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum,  cum  No- 
tis  Theologicis  et  Philologicis.  Londini,  in  aedibus  typographicis 
A.  J.  Valpy,  1816,  3  vols.  8vo. 

A  work  executed  with  equal  correctness  and  elegance :  there 
aj-e  a  few  copies  on  large  paper,  which  are  truly  beautiful.  The 
Greek  is  that  of  the  received  text,  with  the  exception  of  some  few 
passages,  in  which  the  editor  acknowledges  that  he  has  followed 
Griesbach  ;  and  the  Scholia  are  arranged  in  a  similar  order  with 
those  of  Hardy's  edition,  noticed  in  p.  278.  They  are  chiefly  se- 
lected from  Grolius,  Eisner,  Raphelius,  Bos,  Palairet,  Kypke,  and 
Rosenmiiller.  To  each  book  is  prefixed  a  sliort  account  of  its  au- 
thor, occasion,  and  object,  drawn  up  in  pure  and  elegant  Latinity. 
For  this  valuable  auxiliary  to  sacred  studies,  the  biblical  student  is 
indebted  to  the  Rev.  Edward  Valpv,  B.D.  It  is  no  mean  com- 
mendation of  this  commodious  and  valuable  edition  of  the  New 
Testament,  that  a  late  eminent  prelate  of  the  Anglican  Church 
(Bishop  lluntingford),  who  examined  it,  signified  his  approbation 
of  every  passage  on  which  any  controversy  was  likely  to  be  occa- 
sioned ;  and  staled  that,  had  he  edited  it,  it  would  have  been  simi- 
larly edited. 

21.  'H  KAINH  AIA0HKH.  The  New  Testament  with  Eng- 
lish Notes,  critical,  philological,  and  explanatory.     [By  tlie  Rev. 


Edward  Valpt,  B.D.]     A  new  edition.     London,  1826,  3  yoIs. 

8vo. 

A  new  and  greatly  improved  edition  of  the  preceding  work  :  as 
it  is  now  accompanied  with  various  readings,  the  reader  will  find 
a  more  particular  account  of  it,  as  well  as  of  the  editions  of  the 
New  Testament,  with  various  readings  and  philological  notes,  by 
the  Rev.  Drs.  Burton  and  Bi.omfielu,  among  the  critical  editions 
of  the  New  Testament,  in  p.  19.    of  this  Appendix. 

22.  Testamentum  Novum  Grsece.  Cum  animadversionibus  Cri- 
ticis,  &c.  a  Joanne  Severino  Vater.     Halse  Saxon um,  1824,  8vo. 

See  the  title  at  length,  and  an  account  of  the  Notes,  &c.  of  this 
edition  of  the  New  Testament,  in  p.  10.  of  this  Appendix. 

23.  A  Commentary  or  Exposition  on  the  New  Testament ; 
with  a  Decad  of  Common  Places.  By  John  Thapp.  London, 
1647,  2  vols.  4to. 

A  work  containing  many  judicious  observations,  collected  from 
various  sources,  but  for  the  most  part  expressed  in  uncouth  lan- 
guage.    It  is  both  scarce  and  dear. 

24.  A  Paraphrase  and  Annotations  on  the  New  Testament, 
by  Henry  Hammond,  D.D.     London,  1702,  folio,  best  edition. 

The  first  edition  of  this  valuable  work  appeared  in  1653  :  it  is 
in  great  and  growing  reputation.  There  are  many  good  criticisms, 
but  many  that  are  much  mistaken.  Dr.  Hammond  "  finds  the 
Gnostics  every  where,  which  is  his  principal  fault :  many  of  Le 
Clerc's  animadversions  upon  those  places  are  very  good  ;  and  his 
edition  of  his  book  in  Latin  I  think  much  preferable  to  the  origi- 
nal."   (Dr.  Doddridge.) 

25.  A  Paraphrase  on  the  New  Testament,  with  Notes,  doc- 
trinal and  practical.  By  the  Rev.  Richard  Baxter.  London, 
1695,  8vo. — Reprinted  at  London,  1810,  8vo. 

The  paraphrase  is  inserted  between  the  verses  of  the  text,  and 
in  a  smaller  type.  The  annotations  are  at  the  end  of  the  chapters. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  very  short,  and  contain  much  sound 
sense  and  piety.  Mr.  Baxter's  '•  practical  writings,"  said  Dr.  Bar- 
row, "were  never  mended,  and  his  controversial  ones  seldom  re- 
futed." 

26.  A  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament; 
to  which  is  added  a  Chronology  of  the  New  Testament,  and  an 
Alphabetical  Table  of  Places  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 
By  Daniel  Whitby,  D.D.  London,  1761,  2  vols,  folio:  also 
1833,  in  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  is  considered  as  the  best.edition :  the  work  was  first  pub- 
lished in  1703  :  and  the  10th  edition,  in  4to.  appeared  in  1807. 
Divines  of  every  denomination  concur  in  pronouncing  Dr.  Whit- 
by's commentary  to  be,  upon  the  whole,  the  best  upon  the  New 
Testament  that  is  extant  in  the  English  language.  It  is  inserted 
in  almost  every  list  of  books  that  we  have  seen  recommended  to 
students. 

27.  Expository  Notes,  with  Practical  Observations  on  the 
New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ ;  wherein 
the  Sacred  Text  is  at  large  recited,  the  Sense  explained,  &c.  &c. 
By  William  Burkitt,  M.A.  London,  1814, 4to.;  also  1833, 
in  2  vola.  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  deservedly  popular  work  was  printed 
early  in  the  last  century  ;  and  its  practical  utility  has  caused  it  to 
be  several  times  reprinted  in  folio,  besides  the  above-noticed  edi- 
tion in  4to.  It  does  not  profess  to  discuss  critical  questions,  but  is 
very  useful  for  the  inferences  it  deduces  from  the  sacred  text. 
Burkitt  (says  Dr.  Doddridge)  "  has  many  schemes  of  old  sermons  : 
his  sentiments  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  work,  as  the  authors 
from  whom  he  took  his  materials  were  orthodox  or  not."  The  Re- 
verend Dr.  Glasse  published  an  edition  of  this  work,  a  few  years 
since,  in  2  vols.  4to. ;  which  was  soon  afterwards  followed  by  an 
abridgment,  in  one  thick  volume,  8vo.  for  the  use  of  the  poor. 

28.  The  Practical  Expositor;  or,  an  Exposition  of  the  New 
Testament  in  the  Form  of  a  Paraphrase,  with  occasional  Notes, 
and  serious  Recollections  at  the  end  of  each  Chapter.  By  John 
Gutse,  D.D.  London,  1739-52,  3  vols.  4to.  Various  editions 
are  extant,  in  6  vols.  8vo. 

Dr.  Guyse  was  an  eminent  dissenting  divine  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  in  his  religious  principles  Calvinistic.  His  paraphrase 
has  never  been  very  popular,  though  it  "  is  said  to  display  a  sound 
judgment,  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  original,  and  considera- 
ble critical  powers."  (Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary,  vol. 
xvi.  p.  490.) 

29.  An  Exposition  on  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament, 
extracted  from  the  Writings  of  the  best  Authors,  ancient  and 
modern.     By  John  Marchant.     London,  1743,  folio. 

30.  The  Primitive  New  Testament.  Part  I.  contaming  the 
Four  Gospels,  with  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Part  II.  containing 
XIV.  Epistles  of  Paul.  Part  III.  containing  the  seven  Catholic 
Epistles.  Part  TV.  containing  the  Revelation  of  John  [translated, 
with  a  few  Notes,  by  William  Whiston].  8vo.   Stamford,  1745. 


Sect.  III.  §  G.] 


COMMENTARIES  ON  THE  ENTIRE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


129 


A  book  not  of  vory  common  ocrnrrence :  to  render  it  completo, 
there  hIioiiIiJ  be  |)re(ix(;(l  a  liarmoiiy  "of  the  Itcsnrrection  of  Jesus 
Clirist,  according  to  Ik'za's  double  copy  of  llie  Four  Gospels  and 
Afis  of  the  AiMJSlles." 

The  first  part  is  translated  "according  to  the  Greek  part  of  the 
MS.  of  Brzii,  iho  iniporfections  of  vvliich  ore  HU|iplicd  from  the  Vul- 
gar Latin;"  the  second  part  is  •' accordi/n;  to  llie  (ircok  of  the 
Clermont  manuscript;"  th(!  thinl  and  (i>iirlh  parts  are  said  lobe 
"all  accordiirLf  to  Iho  (ircek  Alexandrian  MS.,  according  lo  liu^ 
collation  in  Ur.  Mills,  corrected."  The  modern  diHtinclions  ol' 
chapters  and  v(irses  are  retained. 

31.  The  Family  Expositor:  or  a  Paraplirasc  and  Version  of 
the  New  Testament,  with  Critical  Noti's,  and  a  Practical  Im- 
provement of  each  Section.  By  Pliili[)  DoiinitiixiK,  D.D.  Lon- 
don, 17G0-G2,  «  vols.  4to.  Also  in  4  vol.-!.  4lo.  London,  1808; 
and  various  editions  in  6  vols.  Svo. :  also  in  one  volume,  super- 
royal  8vo.     London,  1825. 

The  late  Bishop  of  Durham  (Dr.  Harrington),  in  addressing  his 
clergy  on  the  choice  of  books,  <'haraclerizcs  this  masterly  work  in 
the  following  terms: — "In  reading  the  New  Testament,  I  recom- 
mend Doddridge's  Family  Ex|)osilor,  as  an  impartial  inlerpreler  and 
faithful  monilor.  Oilier  expositions  and  commentaries  might  be 
mentioned,  greatly  lo  the  honour  of  their  res|)ective  authors,  for 
their  several  excellencies;  such  as,  elegance  of  exposition,  acuto- 
ness  of  illustration,  and  copiousness  of  erudition:  but  1  know  of 
no  expositor  who  unites  so  many  advantages  as  Doddridge;  whether 
you  regard  the  fidelity  of  his  version,  the  fulness  and  perspicuity 
of  his  composition,  the  utility  of  his  general  and  historical  infor- 
mation, the  impartiality  of  his  doctrinal  comments,  or,  lastly,  the 
piety  and  pastoral  earnestness  of  his  moral  and  religious  applica- 
tions. He  has  made,  as  he  professes  lo  have  done,  ample  use  of 
the  commentators  that  preceded  him  ;  and  in  the  explanation  of 
grammatical  difficulties,  he  has  profited  much  more  from  the  philo- 
logical writers  on  the  Greek  Testament  than  could  almost  have 
been  expected  in  so  multifarious  an  undertaking  as  the  Faini I ij  Ex- 
positor. Indeed,  for  all  the  most  valuable  purposes  of  a  Commen- 
tary on  the  New  Testament,  the  Family  Expositor  cannot  fall  too 
early  into  the  hands  of  those  intended  for  holy  orders."  (Sermons 
and  Tracts,  p.  150.)  This  admirable  commentary  is  in  the  lists  of 
books  recommended  by  Bishops  Watson  and  Tomline,  and  almost 
every  other  theological  tutor. 

An  abridgment  of  the  Family  Expositor,  upon  a  plan  suggested 
by  Dr.  Doddridge  himself,  was  published  a  few  years  since  by  the 
Rev.  S.  Palmer,  entitled  "  The  Family  Expositor  abridged,  according 
to  the  plan  of  its  author ;  containing  his  version,  and  the  most  use- 
ful explanatory  notes,  with  practical  reflections  at  the  end  of  each 
section  entire."  2  vols.  Svo.  It  forms  a  convenient  companion  to 
Mr.  Orton's  Exposition  of  the  Old  Testament,  noticed  in  p.  115.  of 
this  Appendix. 

32.  The  New  Testament,  carefully  collated  with  the  Greek, 
and  corrected ;  divided  and  pointed  according  to  the  various  sub- 
jects treated  of  by  the  Inspired  Writers,  with  the  common  divi- 
sion into  chapters  and  verses  in  the  margin  ;  and  illustrated  with 
Notes  critical  and  explanatory.  By  Richard  Wtxne,  A.M. 
London,  1764,  2  vols.  Svo. 

"  Mr.  Wynne  seems  to  have  made  his  divisions  into  chapters  and 
verses,  with  a  good  deal  of  attention  and  judgment.  As  to  the 
translation  and  many  of  the  notes,  they  are  so  much  taken  from 
the  Family  Expositor  of  llie  late  Reverend  Dr.  Doddridge,  that  the 
duty  we  owe  the  public  obliges  us  to  say,  they  are  more  the  pro- 
perty of  that  learned  critic  than  of  our  editor."  (Monthly  Review, 
O.  S.  vol.  xxxi.  pp.  406,  407.)  The  book,  however,  is  useful,  and 
not  dear. 

33.  The  New  Testament  or  New  Covenant  of  our  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  translated  from  the  Greek,  according  to  the 
present  idiom  of  the  English  tongue.  With  Notes  and  Refer- 
ences.    By  John  Wousley.     London,  1770,  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  version  is  to  depart  as  little  as  possible  from 
the  authorized  translation,  while  the  author  h.is  endeavoured  (and 
with  .some  degree  of  success)  to  bring  it  nearer  to  the  original,  and 
to  make  the  form  of  expression  more  suited  to  our  present  language. 
He  professes  to  have  paid  especial  attention  to  the  correct  render- 
ing of  the  portirles,  mony  ol^  which,  it  is  well  known,  are  omitted 
in  the  authorised  version.  The  notes  are  very  brief,  and  princi- 
pally intended  to  confirm  and  illustrate  tlie  more  literal  or  various 
renderings  at  the  bottom  of  each  page.  "  This  work  may  be  very 
usefully  consulted;  ond  persons  who  are  unacquainted  with  the 
original,  may  be  able  from  hence  to  form  their  judgment  concern- 
ing the  translation  in  common  use  among  us,  and  to  improve  their 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures."     (Month.  Rev.,  O.  S.  vol.  xliii.  p.  12.) 

34.  The  Christian  Expositor :  being  a  brief  Explanation  of 
the  New  Testament,  whereby  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  rendered 
easy  to  be  understood  by  the  meanest  capacities.  By  the  Rev. 
James  Ashtojt.     London,  1774,  Svo. 

"  We  think  Mr.  Ashton  seems  to  have  assumed  rather  too  much 
in  his  title-page.  We  have  looked  over  the  volume,  and  find  several 
pertinent  illustrations;  but  we  apprehend  that  this  well-intended 
work  will  admit  of  a  great  deal  of  improvement."  (Monthly  Re- 
view, O.  S.  vol.  lii.  p.  366.) 


35.  An  Exposition  of  the  New  Testament,  intended  as  an 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Scriptures,  by  pointing  out  the 
leading  sense  and  connexion  of  the  Sacred  Writers.  By  Wm. 
GiLi'fN,  M.A.     2  vol-!.  Svo. 

This  jiiHlly-admircd  and  ably-execuled  work  has  pone  through 
s(!ver;il  editions:  it  first  apjicared  in  one  volume,  4!o.  170;>.  "The 
plan  of  the  author  is,  to  give  the  whole  sub.slanci"  of  ihe  Now  Tes- 
lainent,  verse  by  verso,  in  such  a  kind  of  paraphrase  as  may  make 
ihtViistorical  parts  run  on  in  a  pleasing  style  of  narrative,  aiid  con- 
voy the  doctrinal  parLs  with  such  connection  of  the  argument  and 
illustration  of  the  sense,  as  may  induce  even  the  idle  to  read  the 
whole  with  |)leasurc.  Sentences  are  occa.«ionaliy  thrown  in  for 
sake  of  explanation  ;  but  of  this  and  every  deviation  from  the  np- 
|)arent  literal  sense  of  the  context,  due  notice  is  given  in  the  noies; 
which  are  numenjus,  learned,  and  saiifaclory.  We  have  not  seen 
any  f)lan  inf)re  likely  to  attract  all  kinds  of  readers  to  this  best  of 
studios;  anil  wo  are  happy  to  bear  testimony  tliat  the  plan  is  exe- 
cuted wiih  g(M)d  sense  and  without  affectation."  (British  Critic, 
O.  S.  vol.  iv.  p.  122.) 

3G.  A  Translation  of  the  New  Testament.  By  Gilbert  Wake - 
FiKLi),   B.A.     Second  edition,  with  improvements.      London, 

1795,  2  vols.  Svo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  three  volumes, 
Svo.  17'J2.  For  an  account  of  the  merits  and  defects  of  this  ver- 
sion, see  the  Monthly  Review,  New  Scries,  vol.  viii.  pp.  241 — 247. 
and  vol.  xx.  p.  22.5.  It  was  preceded,  first,  by  A  New  Translation 
of  the  Gospel  of  Sairit  Matthew,  with  iXotes  critical,  philolof^iral,  and 
explanatory.  4lo.  London,  1782,  of  which  a  severe  account  is  given 
in  the  same  journal,  vol.  Ixix.  Old  Series,  pp.  48 — 59. ;  and,  secondly, 
by  A  New  franslation  of  those  Parts  only  of  the  New  Testament 
vihirh  are  v)rongly  translated  in  our  common  version,  Svo.  London, 
1789.  This  is  a  small  volume,  but  more  valuable  for  reference 
than  the  work  above  noticed  ;  as  it  consists  simply  of  corrections 
of  passages  mistranslated,  without  any  comment  or  oliservations. 

37.  A  Translation  of  the  New  Testament,  from  the  original 
Greek.  Humbly  attempted  by  Nathaniel  Scaiilktt,  assisted  by 
men  of  piety  and  literature.    With  Notes.    London,  1798,  Svo. 

This  translation  is  executed  in  conformity  with  the  tenets  of  tho 
Universalists.  "  It  is  with  sincere  regret  that  we  see  so  much  piety 
and  good  intention  so  very  expensively  misemployed  as  in  the  pre- 
sent volume.  Nothing  can  be  more  injudicious  than  the  whole  plan 
and  form  of  the  work.     What  advantage  can  possibly  be  expected 

from  printing  the  historical  parts  of  the  Testament  like  a  plai/? 

"It  will  hardly  be  credible  to  those  who  do  not  see  the  book,  that 
this  strange  method  is  employed  throughout,  whenever  it  is  practi- 
cable."    (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xiii.  p.  435.) 

38.  An  Attempt  towards  revising  our  English  Translation  of 
the  Greek  Scriptures,  or  the  New  Covenant  of  Jesus  Christ,  anil 
towards  illustrating  the  Sense  by  philological  and  explanatory 
Notes.     By  William  Newcome,  D.D.,  Archbishop  of  Armagh. 

1 796,  2  vols,  royal  Svo. 

This  work,  though  printed  so  long  ago  as  1796,  was  not  published 
till  some  time  after  the  right  reverend  author's  decease  in  1800. 
In  his  preface  it  is  stated  that  his  original  intention  extended  no 
further  than  to  improve  our  authorized  translation  of  the  Greek 
Scriptures,  following  the  text  of  Griesbach's  critical  edition,  except 
in  a  few  instances.  Finding,  however,  that  his  plan  would  be  de- 
fective without  a  comment  on  the  text  of  such  a  difTicult  book,  he 
proceeded  to  add  a  selection  of  annotations  from  a  body  of  notes 
which  he  had  formed  or  compiled,  with  occasional  additions  sup- 
plied by  able  commentators,  or  by  his  own  study  of  the  sacred 
writings.  This  version  was  (much  to  the  mortification  of  some 
of  the  archbishop's  relatives)  made  the  basis  of  the  following 
work,  which  is  here  noticed,  merely  lest  the  author  of  these  pages 
should  be  charged  with  designedly  omitting  it. 

39.  The  New  Testament  in  an  Improved  Veusion^,  upon 
the  basis  of  Archbishop  Newcome's  New  Translation :  with  a 
corrected  Text,  and  Notes  critical  and  explanatory,  &.c.  &c.  &c. 
London,  180S,  Svo. 

This  version  is  avowedly  made  to  support  the  Unitarian  scheme; 
for  though  the  late  learned  Archbishop  Newcome's  name  is  speci- 
fied in  the  title-page,  as  a  kind  of  model,  his  authority  is  disre- 
garded whenever  it  militates  against  the  creed  of  the  anonymous 
editors.  The  errors  and  perversions  of  this  translation  have  been 
most  ably  exposed  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Nares,  in  his  "Remarks  on  the 
Version  of  the  New"  Testament,  lately  edited  by  the  Unitarians," 
&c.  &c.  Svo.  London,  1808  (2d  edit.  1814);  by  the  Rev.  T.  Ren- 
nell,  in  his  "  Animadversions  on  the  Unitarian  Translation  by  a 
Student  in  Divinity,"  Svo.  London,  1811;  and  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Laurence  (now  Arc"hbishop  of  Cashel),  in  his  "  Critical  Reflections 
on  some  important  Misrepresentations  contained  in  the  Unitarian 
Version  of  the  New  Testament,"  8vo.  Oxford  and  London,  1811  ; 
and  especially  in  the  "  Vindication  of  the  Authenticity  of  the 
Narratives  contained  in  the  first  two  chapters  of  the  Gospels  of  St. 
Matthew  and  St  Luke,"  by  a  Layman.  London,  1822,  8vo.  The 
three  lost-mentioned  treatises  discuss  various  topics,  which  it  did 
not  fall  within  Dr.  Nares's  plan  to  notice.  Two  short  but  very  able 
critiques  on  the  Unitarian  Version  may  also  be  seen  in  the  Quar- 
terly Review,  vol.  i.  pp.  315 — 3.36.,  and  the  Eclectic  Review  for 
1809,  vol.  V.  pp.  24—39.,  236—251. 


130 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  IV. 


40.  The  New  Testament,  translated  from  the  Greek;  and 
the  Four  Gospels  arranged  in  Harmony,  where  the  parts  of  each 
are  introduced  according  to  the  Natural  Order  of  the  Narrative, 
and  the  Exact  Order  of  Time.  With  some  Preliminary  Obser- 
vations, and  Notes  critical  and  explanatory.  By  William 
Thompson,  A.M.    Kilmarnock,  1816,  3  vols.  8vo 

This  work  the  writer  of  these  pa^es  has  never  been  able  to  pro- 
cure :  it  is  thus  characterized  by  Mr.  Orme ;—"  Mr.  Thompson  is 
entitled  to  respect,  for  his  attempt  to  translate  the  New  Testament, 
■whatever  opinion  may  be  i'ormed  of  his  success.  If  a  profound 
acquainlance  with  classical  and  biblical  Greek,  solidity  of  judg- 
ment, great  nicety  of  taste,  and  acutcness  of  discernment,  together 
with  a  command  of  pure  and  easy  phraseology  in  our  native 
totigue,  be  essential  to  a  good  translation  of  the  Bible,  this_work 
will  not  stand  the  test.  The  author's  attainmenis  in  all  these 
respects  were  very  moderate.  The  version  is  '  studiously  made  as 
literal  as  possible.  Tlie  English  idiom  is  continually  sacrificed  to 
the  Greek,  so  that  grammatical  propriety  is  often  violated  ;  and 
the  desire  to  render  the  translation  very  faithful,  and  very  clear, 
has  often  made  it  obscure  and  incorrect.  He  never  departs  from 
the  received  text  in  a  single  instance ;  so  that,  for  him.  Mill  and 
Wetstein  and  Griesbach  have  all  laboured  in  vain.  The  prelimi- 
nary observations  contain  some  feeble  criticism  on  Dr.  Campbell's 
Dissertations.  The  notes  to  the  work  are  numerous,  and  sometimes 
long;  but  they  rarely  discover  much  ability.  The  piety  of  the 
author,  and  his  attacinnent  to  the  leading  doctrines  of  the  Gospel, 
are  very  apparent;  and,  with  all  its  defects,  some  of  the  ren- 
derings are  good,  and  many  remarks  occur  which  are  worthy  of 
attention."    (Orme's  Biblioth.  Biblica,  p.  430.) 

41.  Recensio  Synoptica  Annotationis  Sacrse,  heing  a  Critical 
Digest  and  Synoptical  Arrangement  of  the  most  important  An- 
notations on  the  New  Testament,  exegetical,  philological,  and 
doctrinal ;  carefully  collected  and  condensed  from  the  best  Com- 
mentators, both  Ancient  and  Modern,  and  so  digested  as  to  form 
one  consistent  body  of  Annotation,  in  which  each  portion  is  sys- 
tematically attributed  to  its  respective  author,  and  the  foreign 
matter  translated  into  English.  The  whole  interspersed  with  a 
copious  body  of  original  Annotations.  By  the  Rev.  S.  T. 
Bloomfield,  M.A.  [now  D.D.]  London,  1827,  8  very  large 
volumes,  8vo. 

Copious  as  is  the  title-page  of  this  elaborate  work,  it  barely  ex- 
presses the  nature  of  its  various  contents.  Purposely  avoiding  to 
treat  on  those  subjects  which  are  discussed  in  the  Commentaries 
of  Bp  Main  and  Dr.  D'Oyly,  of  Dr.  A.  Clarke  and  of  Mr.  Hewlett, 
the  aimotations  of  Messrs.  Elsley  and  Slade,  the  treatises  of  Bps. 
Tomline  and  Marsh,  Michaelis's  Introduction,  and  also  in  this 
•work.  Dr.  Bloomfield  has  derived  his  exegetical  and  doctrinal  an- 
notations from  the  Scholiasts  and  Glossographers,  as  well  as  from 
Theophylact,  Theodoret,  Euthymius,  and  other  ancient  fathers  of 
the  church,  especially  the  eloquent  and  erudite  Chrysostom ; 
while  Eisner,  Raphelius,  Kypke,  Wetstein,  Koppe,  Rosenmiiller, 
Tittmann,  Kuinoel,  Whitby,  Macknight,  Doddridge,  and  numerous 
other  critics  and  commentators,  both  British  and  foreign,  have 
largely  contributed  to  his  phdological  illustrations.  Nor  has  he 
omitted  to  avail  himself  of  the  valuable  aids  for  the  elucidation  of 
the  Scriptures  which  are  contained  in  the  works  of  Cartwright, 
Buxtorf,  Lightfoot,  Pococke,  Surenhusius,  Schoettgenius,  Meuschen, 
and  others.  Those  only  who  have  been  engaged  in  similar  studies 
can  appreciate  the  labour  of  Dr  Bloomfield's  undertaking,  to 
which  he  has  devoted  many  years  of  patient  research,  amid  the 
conflicting  opinions  of  critics  and  theologians.  There  is  scarcely 
a  single  diificult  passage  which  is  not  elucidated ;  while  the 
genuineness  of  some  important  texts,  which  had  been  impugned, 
is  ably  vindicated  and  established.  Avoiding  minor  topics,  on 
which  real  Christians  may  agree  to  differ  in  opinion,  Dr.  B.  has 
laudably  applied  his  learning  to  the  defence  of  these  cardinal 
doctrines  of  the  New  Testament, — the  Deity  and  vicarious  Atone- 
ment of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  Deity  and  Personality  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  To  those  who  have  not  the  means  of  procurmg  the  costly 
and  voluminous  publications  of  foreign  commentators,  these 
volumes  will  be  most  acceptable ;  while  such  as  may  possess  them 
will  here  find  a  convenient  manual  of  reference  for  their  opinions 
on  various  topics.  The  value  of  Dr.  Bloomfield's  work  is  enhanced 
by  the  numerous  glossarial  notes  which  he  has  introduced  on 
diflicult  words  of  rare  or  infrequent  occurrence.  The  first  part, 
which  consists  of  three  volumes,  is  appropriated  to  the  elucid.ation 
of  the  four  Gospels;  the  second,  which  is  in  five  volumes,  treats 
on  the  Acts  and  Epistles.  Altogether,  this  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant works  in  sacred  literature  which  has  been  offered  to  the 
attention  of  Bible  students  for  many  years. 

42.  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ;  translated  out  of  the  original  Greek,  and  with  the 
former  Translations  diligently  compared  and  revised.  Arranged 
in  Paragraphs,  such  as  the  sense  requires;  the  divisions  of 
Chapters  and  Verses  being  noted  in  the  margin ;  with  various 
tables,  &c.     By  James  Nourse.     New  York,  1827,  8vo. 

The  common  (or  authorized)  translation  remains  unaltered  ;  the 
paragraphs  are  generally  copied  from  those  in  Knapp's  critical 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  noticed  in  p.  IG.  of  this  Appendix ; 
though  sometimes  the  paragraphs  of  Bengel's  eaition  are  preferred. 


A  critical  analysis  of  the  contents  is  placed  at  the  head  of  each 
page.  A  few  notes  are  given  on  tbc  punctuation  of  several 
passages,  together  with  a  short  Introduction,  on  the  origin  and 
proper  use  of  the  Divisions  into  Chapters  and  Versos  ;  an  outline 
of  a  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  arranged  from  Arclibishop  New- 
come's  ;  u  Table  of  the  Order  and  Date  of  the  Books  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  an  Index  of  Quoiaiions  from  the  Old  Testament. 

43.  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ.  With  an  Introduction  and  Notes.  By  J.  A.  Ccmihinks. 
Second  edition,  revised  and  improved.     Boston,  1827,  I2mo. 

44.  The  New  Testament:  with  a  Plain  Exposition  for  the 
use  of  Families.  By  the  Rev..  Thomas  Boss,  M.A.  London, 
1827,  4to. 

45.  Analecta  Theologica.  A  digested  and  arranged  Com- 
pendium of  the  most  approved  Commentaries  upon  the  New 
Testament.  By  the  Rev.  William  Trolloi-e,  M.A.  London, 
1829-34,  2  large  vols.  8vo. 

The  object  of  this  laborious  and  comprehensive  work  is,  to  com- 
press into  as  condensed  a  lijrm  as  is  consistent  with  perspicuity^ 
the  opinions,  illustrations,  and  expositions  of  the  principal  theolo- 
gians and  biblical  critics.  The  several  arguments  are  digested  and 
arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the  merits  of  any  question  may  be 
seen  at  one  view,  without  reference  to  the  authors  themselves  ; 
the  bulk  and  high  price  of  many  of  whose  works  place  them 
beyond  the  reach  of  jimior  biblical  students,  for  whose  use  Mr. 
Trollope's  ptiblication  is  especially  designed.  Those  writers,  who 
have  taken  different  sides  in  certain  questions,  are  distinctly 
marked  ;  and  the  student  is  directed  to  that  interpretation  of  the 
several  disputed  texts  which  seems  to  be  best  supporte<i,  and  most 
generally  approved.  It  is  a  primary  and  very  important  feature  of 
this  work,  that  it  gives  the  whole  of  the  arguments  on  any  con- 
tested topic  in  a  conspicuous  and  connected  form :  whereas  in 
some  of  those  collections  of  notes  which  are  much  in  use  among 
junior  students,  the  heads  of  such  arguments  only  are  given, 
leaving  the  inexperienced  reader  in  a  maze  of  conflicting  opinions, 
and  unable  to  form  his  own  judgment  without  cons'ulting  the 
writers  themselves ;  whose  works  in  many  cases  he  may  not  have 
the  opportunity  or  the  means  of  procuring. 

46.  The  Christian  Expositor,  or  Practical  Guide  to  the  Study 
of  the  New  Testament,  intended  for  the  Use  of  General  Readers. 
By  the  Rev.  George  HoLDEN,  M.A.  London,  1830,  12mo.  Price 
10s.  6d. 

This  volume  also  forms  a  part  of  Mr.  Holden's  commentary  on 
the  entire  Bible,  the  plan  of  which  is  stated  in  page  114.  No.  57. 
supra.  "  In  the  prosecution  of  his  undertaking  the  author  has 
given  an  explanation  of  every  verse,  and  even  of  every  phrase  in 
the  New  Testament,  which  appeared  liable  to  be  misunderstood  ; 
first,  by  a  critical  examination  of  the  sacred  text  itself,  and  then 
by  consulting  the  most  eminent  commentators  and  biblical  critics, 
both  British  and  foreign.  Without  any  parade  of  sacred  philology, 
he  has  concisely  given  the  results  of  his  investigation;  and  the 
reader,  wiio  has  recourse  to  his  pages  for  the  interpretation  of 
really  difficult  passages,  vi'ill  rarely,  if  ever,  be  disappointed." 
(Christian  Remembrancer,  August,  1830,  p.  480.)  "  As  a  practical 
expositor  of  the  New  Testament,  convenient  for  ready,  and,  we 
may  add,  satisfactory  reference,  this  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
works  that  has  for  some  time  appeared,  connected  with  biblical 
literature.  Mr.  Holden  gives  us,  instead  of  philology,  the  results 
of  philology,  two  extremely  different  things ;  and  such  words  and 
passages  only,  as  admit  of  ambiguity,  are  selected  for  explanation. 
The  task  is  accomplished  with  great  intelligence  and  learning." 
(Monthly  Review,  July,  1830,  pp.  468,  4G9.) 

47.  The  Devotional  Testament,  containing  Reflections  and 
Meditations  on  the  different  Paragraphs  of  the  New  Testament 
of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ ;  intended  as  a  Help  for 
the  Closet  and  for  domestic  Worship.  By  the  Rev.  Richard 
Marks.     London,  1830.  4to. 

48.  Explanatory  Notes  upon  the  New  Testament,  with  occa- 
sional Remarks,  critical  and  practical.  By  the  Rev.  G.  Bliss. 
London,  1832,  12mo. 

49.  A  New  and  Corrected  Version  of  the  New  Testament ;  or, 
a  Minute  Revision  and  professed  Translation  of  the  original 
Histories,  Memoirs,  Letters,  Prophecies,  and  other  productions 
of  the  Evangelists  and  Apostles.  To  which  are  subjoined  a 
few  generally  brief,  critical,  explanatory,  and  practical  Notes. 
By  Rodolphus  Dickinson.  Boston  [Massachusetts],  1833,  royal 
8vo. 

"  Mr.  Dickinson  has  reformed  the  titles  of  the  several  books  of 
the  New  Testament,  substituting  for  those  generally  received  such 
as  the  following.  History  bij  Malthnw  ;  Luke's  History  of  Apostolic 
and  Ecclesiastical  Transactions  ;  John's  General  Address  to  Chris- 
tians ;  John's  Letter  to  an  eminent  Christian  Woman  ;  John's  Jitters 
VisioTis,  ayid  Prophecies.  Whether  there  is  not  a  ridiculous  affec- 
tation in  all  this,  let  our  readers  judge.  This  work  is  aimouneed 
on  the  title-page  as  a  professed  translation.  By  this  we  are,  it  is 
presumed,  to  understand,  that  it  is  not  an  actual  translation,  but  a 
concoction  of  materials  in  the  vernacular  tongue,  designed  to  pass 
as  a  new  translation.    And  we  are  very  willing  to  believe  it  a  pro- 


Skct.  III.  §  6.]         COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


131 


fossed  Iranslnlion  ;  for  a  pretty  thoroufjh  cxaminaTion  1ms  (iiilod  to 
nhovv  us  llie  iiiinlcst  traces  of  a  ctjIji's  liaiid.  VVIicro  ill-cliospn 
mid  ill-:irrangc;d  iilira.se<)li)f;y  lias  iiol  iriad(:  iIk;  work  iitlcrly  miiii- 
lellii;ilile,  llio  KC'iise  iw  generally  (he  f.iiw  vvilli  dial  oC  ihe  recoived 
version,  willi  here  and  llierea  niodificalion  borrow  cd  Iroin  (-'aiiipbell 

or  Mackniglit Aparl  from  its  literary  cxeiulion,  this  y>rfy(«w</ 

translation  has  no  distinctive  charaeler:  and,  as  llie  anllior  (in  his 
preface)  pluees  his  chief  reliance  on  the  rlielorieal  cnihellishnientii 
with  which  he  lias  adorned  the  sacred  text,  we  are  constrained  to 
award  a  verdict  of  iini|iiali(ied  condemnation. 

"The  notes  which  (iirni  the  Ap|)endix  to  this  volume  are  prinei- 
j)ally   seliKied    from    Kiif^lish   and    American    writers.      They   are 

ex(!erpteil  indini-'renlly  from  writers  of  widely  varying  creeds 

He  has  introduced  many  annotations  from  works  not  professedly 
critical,  lie  has  elevated  some  men  to  th<^  rank  of  commentators 
Oil  Scripture,  who  surely  never  aniicipaled  thai  honour,  lie  gives 
us  on  the  Logos  a  \\o\v.  from  Jeffi.Tson,  and  several  of  the  largest 
notes  arc  credited  to  such  men  as  J.  (J.  Adams,  (^liancellor  Kent, 
and  Wirt.  The  Frc(!  luiipiirer,  an  inftild  jkijk  r  pulilished  at  IS'ew 
York,  furnishes  several  short  remarks.  And  there  are  some 
original  notes,  tinged  with  the  translator's  iisn.al  grandilixjiience." 
(American  Monthly  Kcvievv  lor  March,  WSi,  vol.  iii.  i)p.  ^21,  222, 
223.) 

60.  The  Village  Testament,  according  to  the  authorized  ver- 
sion, with  Notes,  Original  and  Selected:  likewise  Introductions 
and  ronchiding  Remarks  to  each  book,  Polyglott  IveferenccH, 
and  Marginal  Readings,  fieograi)hiciil  Index,  Chronological  and 
other  'J'ahles  [and  two  Ma|)s].  IJy  the  Rev.  W'illiani  I'attox. 
New  Y'ork,  18;j;J,  second  edition,  liS;M,  IKnio. 

A  commodious  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  and  neatly  printed, 
with  a  minute  but  very  distinct  type.  The  notes  have  been  com- 
piled with  much  industry  :  a  considerable  portion  of  thcin  is 
original. 

.51.  The  Pocket  Commentary,  consisting  of  Critical  Notes  on 
the  New  Testament ;  original  and  selected  from  the  most  cele- 
brated Biblical  Critics  and  Commentators.  By  David  Davidson. 
Second  Edition.     Edinburgh,  1834,  ISmo. 

52.  A  Pocket  Expositor  of  the  New  Testament.  By  Thomas 
Kevwoutii.     London,  1834,  18mo. 


[ii.]    Commentators  on  detached  Books  of  the  JVe^o  Testament, 

COMMF.XTATOnS   ON  THE  IIISTOniCAL    BOOKS. 

1.  Novi  Tcstamenti  Libri  Ilistorici,  Gra-ci  et  liatini,  perpetuo 
Commentario  illustiati,  a  Baldvino  Wal.uo.  Lugd.  Bat.  1653; 
et  Amstel.  16G2,  4to. 

This  may,  with  great  propriety,  be  termed  an  edition  of  the  four 
Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Aposlles,  cum  notis  variorum.  The  notes 
of  Bcza,  (irolius,  Drusius,  Heinsius,  and  others,  are  here  inserted  in 
regular  order,  the  reader  being  left  to  decide  for  himself,  which 
interpretation  he  will  prefer.  As  the  book  sells  at  an  easy  price, 
it  may  be  advantageously  substituted  for  the  larger  editions  of 
those  eminent  critics,  where  they  cannot  be  conveniently  referred 
to,  or  procured. 

2.  A  Paraphrase  on  the  Four  Evangelists.  By  Samuel 
Claiikk,  D.D.     London,  2  vols.^Svo. 

To  (()rm  a  complete  |)araphrase  on  the  New  Testament,  there  are 
usually  associated  with  this  valuable  work  of  Dr.  Clarke,  a  "  Para- 
phrase on  the  Acts  and  Epistles,"  2  vols.  8vo.  and  a  "  Paraphrase 
on  the  Revelations,"  in  one  volume,  8vo.  by  T.  Pyle,  M.A.  Their 
deserved  popularity  has  caused  them  to  pass  through  repeated  edi- 
tions. "  Dr.  Clarke's  paraphrase  on  the  F.vangelists  deserves  an 
attentive  reading  ;  he  narrates  a  story  in  handsome  language,  and 
connects  the  parts  well  together ;  but  fails  much  in  emphasis,  and 
seems  to  mistake  the  order  of  the  histories."  (Dr.  Doddridge.) 
Pyle's  Paraphrase  on  the  Epistles  Dr.  D.  considered  to  be  inferior 
in  ability  to  that  on  the  Old  Testament  already  noticed. 

3.  Samuclis  Fridcrici  Bucheui  Antiquitatcs  Biblicffi  ex  Novo 
Testamcnto  selccta;,  consuetudines,  ritus,  formulas  veterum  ex- 
aminantcs.     Vitemberga;  et  Lipsia;,  1729,  4to. 

A  collection  of  notes — some  of  which  are  sufficiently  prolix^-on 
the  four  Gospels,  elucidating  them  principally  from  the  rabbinical 
writers. 

4.  Explanatory  Notes  upon  the  Four  Gospels  in  a  new  method, 
for  the  use  of  all,  but  especially  the  unlearned  English  reader ; 
in  two  parts ;  to  which  are  prefixed  three  Discourses.  By  Joseph 
Thapp,  D.D.     London,  1748.     Oxford,  1805,  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  very  useful  work  is  to  take  notice  only  of 
difficult  texts,  to  correct  the  authorized  version,  and  explain  the 
diction  of  the  sacred  writings,  but  chiefly  to  reconcile  apparently 
contradictory  passages.  The  three  discourses  prefixed  explain  with 
much  perspicuity  many  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  that  are 
cited  in  the  New.  The  numerous  impressions  which  this  work  has 
undergone  sufficiently  attest  the  high  estimation  in  which  it  is 
deservedly  held. 


5.  A  Commentary,  with  Notes,  on  the  Four  Evangclist.s  an'l 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles;  together  with  a  New  Translation  of 
Saint  Paul's  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  with  a  Paraphrase 
and  Notes,  to  which  are  added  other  'I'heological  Pieces.  By 
Zachary  Pkahck,  D.D.,  late  Uishop  of  Rochester.  London,  1777, 
2  vols.  4to. 

"On  the  whole.  Dr.  Pearce  deserves  to  be  ranked  with  other 
writers  of  eminence  who  have  employed  their  pliihjiogical  learning 
in  illustrating  the  sacred  writings."  (Monthly  Re\iew,0.  S.  vol. 
hi.  p.  205.)  " 'J'o  Dr.  Z.  Pcan-e,  Bishop  of  Rochcsier,  we  ar(!  in- 
debted for  an  invaluable  commentary  and  notes  on  the  l<)ur  Gos- 
pels," Ac.  "The  de<:p  learning  and  jiidgmeiu  displayed  in  these 
notes  are  really  beyond  all  praise."     (Dr.  A.  Clarke.) 

6.  Pericopa;  Evangelica;.  Illustravit  Christ.  Theoph.  Kcinuel. 
Lipsiie,  1796,  17'J7,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  contains  critical  and  expository  annotations  on  the 
Gosi)els  for  every  Sunday  in  the  year,  according  to  the  ritual  of 
the  Lutheran  church,  in  which  these  portions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment usually  form  the  subjects  of  the  preacher's  discourse.  The 
pa.ssages  selected  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  Liturgy 
of  the  Anglican  church.  The  notes  in  this  work  are  much  enlarged 
and  corrected  in  the  ensuing  article. 

7.  D.  Christiani  Thcophili  Kuinof.i.  Commontarius  in  Libros 
Novi  Tcstamenti  llistoriios.  Vols.  I. — III.  Lipsia;,  1K08 — 1812; 
Vol.  IV.  Lij)sia;,  1818,  and  various  subsequent  editions,  all  in 
8vo.     Londini,  1828,  3  tomis,  8vo. 

This  is  one  of  the  heal  philological  commentaries  on  the  histori- 
cal books  of  the  New  Testament.  "  As  a  |)hiloIogist,  Kuiiioel  has 
exhibited  a  great  deal  of  labour  and  care  in  the  investigation  of 

words  and  phrases In  general,  he  is  a  sober,  judicious  critic, 

as  to  idiom,  dc.  Oftentimes  he  makes  remarks  with  respect  to  the 
connection  and  scope  of  discourse  that  are  valuable  and  important 
In  all  these  points  of  view  he  may  be  strongly  commended  to  the 
student,  who  still  should  not  be  rcatly  to  give  implicit  credit  to 
every  thing  which  is  said.  By  long  and  patient  labour  he  has 
attained  to  making  a  summary  of  much  importatit  knowledge  in 
his  work."  (Professor  Stuart,  m  the  Andover  Biblical  Ilc|>ository 
for  January,  1833,  vol.  iii.  p.  133.)  But  there  are  some  points  on 
which  the  student  cannot  be  too  much  uf)on  his  guard.  Although 
now  and  then  Kuiniiel  has  successfully  vindicated  some  imiMtrtant 
controverted  passage  from  a  neological  interpretation  ;  yet,  in  Kome 
cases,  where  there  is  apparently  something  of  a  miraculous  nature 
which  lies  on  the  surface  of  the  evangelical  narration,  he  makes  a 
shift,  but  with  no  great  dexterity,  to  sieer  between  the  neologians 
and  the  orthodox,  in  order,  as  it  would  seem,  to  avoid  giving  of- 
fence to  either.  Professor  Stuart  (ibid.  pp.  1.55 — 15'J.)  has  given 
several  exam|)les  of  these  trimming  inicrpretalions,  which  we  have 
not  room  to  insert ;  and,  with  regard  to  the  triuitarian  controversy, 
he  has  shown  that  Kuiniiel  is  what  has  been  termed  a  high  Arian. 
The  Greek  text  is  not  inserted  in  the  Leipzig  edition  of  this  com- 
mentary. Vol.  i.  contains  the  commentary  on  Saint  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel; vol.  ii.  those  on  the  Gospels  of  Saint  Mark  and  Saint  Luke; 
vol.  iii.  that  on  Saint  John  ;  and  vol.  iv.  that  on  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  To  each  book  are  prefixed  well-compiled  prolegomena, 
in  which  the  author's  life,  the  authenticity  of  his  narrative,  the 
time-,  place,  and  the  language  in  which  he  wrote,  as  well  as  his 
style  and  manner  of  writing,  are  fully  discussed.  The  lA>ndon 
reprint,  from  the  press  of  Mr.  Richard  Watts,  is  preferable  to  the 
editions  jirinted  in  Germany,  not  only  for  the  beauty  of  the  typo- 
graphy, but  also  for  the  reasonableness  of  its  price.  The  various 
readings  of  Griesbach  are  subjoined  to  the  textus  receplus  of  the 
historical  books  of  the  New  Testament. 

8.  The  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels.  By  J.  Macknight, 
D.D.  4to.  2  vols,  1756;  2d  edit.  1763;  3d  edit.  Svo.  2  vols. 
Edinburgh,  1804. 

See  a  notice  of  this  excellent  work  in  p.  16.  No.  13.  of  this 
Appendix. 

9.  The  Four  Gospels  translated  from  the  Greek ;  with  Preli- 
minary Dissertations  and  Notes.  By  George  Campbell,  D.D. 
F.R.S.  Edinburgh  ;  Principal  of  Marischal  College,  Alierdeen. 
4to.  2  vols.  London,  1790;  2  vols,  Svo.  Edinburgh,  1807:  3d 
edit.  London,  in  3  vols.  Svo. 

The  extensive  circulation  of  this  valuable  work,  which  has  placed 
the  author  high  in  the  rank  of  biblical  critics,  sufliciently  attests 
the  esteem  in  which  it  is  held.  Although  his  version  has  not  alto- 
gether answered  the  expectations  entertained  of  it,  yet  the  notes 
w'liich  accompany  it  form  an  excellent  philological  commentary  on 
the  four  Evangelists;  and  the  dissertations  are  a  treasure  of  sacred 
criticism.  The  narratives  of  the  sacred  writers  are  arranged  in 
sections,  regulated  by  the  subject  matter,  and  the  divisions  of  chap- 
ters and  verses  are  retained  in  the  margin.  Professor  Campbell's 
work  is  in  Bishop  Tomline's  list  of  books  for  students. 

10.  Annotations  on  the  Four  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  Compiled  and  abridged  for  the  use  of  Students.  %X 
etht.  London,  1812,  3  vols.  Svo. 

Though  published  anonymously,  this  work  is  knowTi  to  be  the 
production  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Elslev,  vicar  of  Burenston  near  Be- 
dale  ;  by  whom  the  annotations  on  the  Gospels  only  were  first  pub- 


132 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  U.  Chap.  V. 


lished  in  2  vols.  8vo.  1799.  "  Altogether,  we  say,  without  the  small- 
est reserve,  we  never  saw  a  bo<jk  more  admirably  adapted  lor  the 
use  of  students,  more  creditable  to  an  author's  sagacity,  diligence, 
and  erudition,  or  more  Idiely  to  make  the  investigation  of  the  New 
Testament  easy  and  agreeable."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xvi.  p. 
236.  Sec  also  Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxx.  p.  441.,  and  vol. 
Ixxvi.  p.  381.) 

11.  Quatuor  Novi  Testament?,  Evangclia  rccensuit  et  cum 
Commentariis  perpetais  edidit  Car.  Fredcr.  Augustus  Fritsche. 
Tomus  I.  Evangelium  Matthtei  complectcns.  LipsiiE,  1825,  Svo. 
Tom.  IL  Evangclia  Marei  et  Lucse.     LipsiiE,  1830,  Svo. 

The  grammatical  meaning  of  words  is  admirably  investigated  in 
this  work  ;  but  the  theological  interpretations  are  m  the  very  worst 
style  of  the  neologian  school  of  Germany. 

12.  Annotations  on  the  Historical  Books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment By  M.  Blanb,  D.D.  Vols.  L  and  H.  [comprising  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark.]  Cambridge  and  Lon- 
don, 1828-29,  Svo. 

These  annotations  are  designed  for  the  use  of  students  at  the 
university,  and  of  candidates  for  holy  orders :  and  by  them  these 
volumes  may  be  profitably  consulted.  Dr.  Bland  has  drawn  his 
materials  from  the  stores  of  our  best  old  English  divines,  and  has 
occasionally  illustrated  and  confirmed  his  interpretations  of  particu- 
lar passages  by  apposite  quotations  from  the  fathers  of  the  Christian 
church,  and  other  ecclesiastical  vi  riters. 

12*.  An  Exposition  of  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Mark,  and  of  some  other  detached  parts  of  Holy  Scripture.  By 
the  Rev.  Richard  Watson.     London,  1833,  royal  Svo. 

The  sole  object  of  this  learned  and  original  work  is  the  elucida- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  ;  and  by  this  means  to  lay  the  foundation, 
rather  than  suggest  those  practical  and  pious  uses  to  which  they 
must  be  applied,  if  they  make  us  "  wise  unto  salvation."  The 
author  has  aimed  to  aflbrd  help  to  the  attentive  general  reader, 
whenever  he  should  come  to  a  term,  phrase,  or  a  whole  passage, 
the  meaning  of  which  is  not  obvious,  and  to  exhibit  the  true  theo- 
logy of  the  sacred  volume.  The  notes,  therefore,  are  brief  upon 
the  plainer  passages,  and  most  copious  where  explication  appeared 
necessary.  No  real  diffwuUy  has  been  evaded.  The  author  had 
contemplated  the  writing  of  expository  notes  on  the  entire  New 
Testament,'  but  lived  only  to  complete  his  commentary  on  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  and  on  Luke  i. — xiii.  15.  and 
Rora.  i. — iii.  21. 

SAIKT    MATTHEW    AND    SAINT    MARK. 

13.  Caroli  Mariae  de  Veil  Explicatio  Litteralis  Evangelii  se- 
cundum Matthffium  et  Marcum,  ex  ipsis  Scripturarum  fontibus, 
Ebraeorum  ritibus  et  idiomatis,  veterum  et  recentiorum  monu- 
mentis,  eruta.     Londini,  1678,  Svo. 

14.  Jacobi  Elsneri  Commentarius  in  Evangelia  Matthiei  et 
Marci.     ZwolliE,  1767,  et  annis  sequentibus.     3  vols.  4to. 

SAINT    MATTHEW. 

15.  A  New  Version  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel,  with  Select 
Notes ;  wherein  the  version  is  vindicated,  and  the  sense  and 
purity  of  several  words  and  expressions  in  the  Original  Greek 
are  settled  and  illustrated.  By  Daniel  Scott,  J.U.D.  London, 
1741,  4to. 

16.  Gottfridi  Oleahii  Observationes  ad  Evangelium  Matthsei. 
Lipsise,  1743,  4to. 

Professor  J.  B.  Carpzov  mentions  this  as  an  excellent  commenta- 
ry on  St.  Matthew's  Gospel. 

17.  J.  C.  Pores  Commentarius  in  Sanctum  Jesu  Christi 
Evangelium  secundum  Matthaeum,  etiam  coUatum  cum  evange- 
lic Marci,  Lucse,  et  Joannis,  in  iis  quae  habent  communia,  necnon 
in  sanctum  Jesu  Christi  Evangelium  secundum  Marcum,  Lucam. 
et  Joannem.     Mechliniae,  1823,  12mo. 

18.  Eccardi  Leichnehi  de  tempore  Magorum,  hoc  est,  quo 
Magi  ex  oriente  recens  natum  Christum  Bethlehemi  adorarint, 
Commentatio  Analytica.     Amsteti.  1655,  12mo. 

19.  Commentatio  de  Vi  et  Momento  Infanticidii  Herodiani 
in  Historia  Jesu  Christi.    Auctore  T.  L.  Danz.    Jense,  1823, 4to. 

20.  H.  P.  T.  Verhoeten  Disputatio  Theologica  de  Preca- 
tione  Dominica.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1829,  4to. 

21.  Commentatio  de  Solenni  Jesu  Christi  in  Urbem  Hieroso- 
lymitaram  Introitu.  Auctore  T.  P.  C.  Hcydecopeh.  Trajecti 
ad  Rhenum,  1829,  Svo. 

22.  F.  G.  Nicolai  Suringar  Commentatio  de  Sensu  Loci 
Matt.  xxii.  37 — 40.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1822,  4to. 

23.  De  Consilio  et  Causis  Proditionis  Judse  Dissertatio.  Auc- 
tore Josepho  Ferenczt.     Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1829,  Svo. 

saint  mark. 

24.  Georgii  Friderici  Heupeiii  Commentarius  in  Evangeliiun 
Marci.    Argentorati  (Strasburg),  1716,  Svo. 


Carpzov  has  indicated  this  Commentary  as  being  an  excellent 
one ;  we  have  never  seen  it. 

SAINT  iCKE. 

25.  A  Critical  Essay  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  by  Dr 
Frederick  Schlf.iermacher.  With  an  Introduction  by  the 
Translator  [the  Rev.  Connop  Thirlwall,  M.A.],  containing  an 
account  of  the  Controversy  respecting  the  Origin  of  the  Three 
first  Gospels  since  Bishop  Marsh's  Dissertation.  London,  1825, 
Svo. 

Dr.  Schleicrmacher  is  justly  considered  as  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished Greek  scholars  in  Germany;  of  tliis  work  the  reader  will 
iind  a  copious  account,  together  with  a  refutation  of  Dr.  S.'s  hypo- 
thesis respecting  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  in  the  British  Critic  and 
Theological  Review  for  October,  1827,  pp.  342—398.  The  transla- 
tor's Introduction  is  an  admirable  disquisition  for  the  variety  of 
important  information  which  it  condenses  into  a  small  compass. 

26.  Sam.  Frid.  Nath.  Mori  Prcelectiones  in  Lucae  Evangelium, 
edidit  C.  A.  Donat.     Lipsiae,  1795,  Svo. 

27.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  with  English  Notes.  By  the 
Rev.  J.  R.  Major,  A.M.     London,  1S26,  Svo. 

This  work  is  avowedly  designed  for  students,  who  maj'  not  have 
access  to  more  bulky  or  more  expensive  publications.  Mr.  Major 
has  availed  himself  of  every  accessible  source  for  the  elucidation 
of  the  evangelist ;  and  has  succeeded  in  comprising  within  the 
compass  of  a  single  volume  that  information,  which  the  inexperi- 
enced student  could  not  otherwise  obtain  without  great  research 
and  expense.  The  notes  have  been  compiled  principally  with  a 
view  to  the  divinity  examinations  in  the  university  of  Cambridge. 
The  volume  is  beautifully  printed. 

28.  Scholia  in  Lucse  Evangelium,  ad  supplendos  reliquorum 
Interpretum  Commentarios,  scripsit  Fridericus  Augustus  Borne- 
MANN.  Accesserunt  curae  secundae  ad  Actorum  cap.  XIX.  sqq. 
et  de  Glossematis  Novi  Testamenti  caute  dijudicandis  Dissertatio. 
Lipsise,  1830,  Svo. 

These  annotations  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  are  strictly  philolo- 
gical, and  illustrate  numerous  passages  which  preceding  commen- 
tators had  passed  by.  The  dissertation  on  the  Gospels,  which  some 
critics  imagine  to  have  crept  into  the  text  of  the  New  Testament, 
is  particularly  valuable. 

29.  Adriani  Leonard!  Vander  Boon  Mesch  Interpretatio 
Hymni  Zachariae,  quam  Lucas  servavit,  Evang.  I.  67 — 79.  Lug- 
duni Batavorum,  1S17,  4to. 

30.  Dissertatio    Theologica   inauguralis   de  Hymno  Mariae, 

quam publico  examini  submittit  Nicolaus  Henricus  Tatum 

ZuBLi.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1829,  Svo. 

The  first  part  of  this  dissertation  contains  a  grammatical  inter- 
pretation of  the  Hymn  of  Mary  (Luke  i.  46 — 55.) ;  and  the  second 
part  investigates  its  sources,  poetical  structure,  and  the  doctrine 
which  it  teaches,  viz.,  the  acknowledgment  and  celebration  of  the 
providence  of  God,  and  the  advent  of  the  Messiah  who  was  pro- 
mised to  the  patriarchs. 

31.  De  Procuratore,  Parabola  Jesu  Christi  ex  Re  Provinciali 
Romanorum  illustrata,  Commentatio  Historico-Exegetica  ad  Luc. 
XVI.  1 — 9.    Auctore  C.  G.  L.  Grossmann.    Lipsiae,  1824,  4to. 

32.  Chr.  God.  Klinckhardt,  super  Parabola  Jesu  Christi  de 
Homine  Divite  et  Lazaro  in  Evangelio  Lucae,  cap.  XVI.  19 — 31. 
consignata,  Commentatio.     Lipsiae,  1831,  4to. 

saint  JOHN. 

33.  Caroli  Wilhelmi  Stronck  Specimen  Hermeneutico-Theo- 
logicum  de  Doctrina  et  Dictione  Johannis  Apostoli.  Trajecti  ad 
Rhenum,  1797. 

34.  Joannis  Cearisse,  Pro  Evangelii  Joannei  ATQENTEIA 
Dissertatio  Critico-Theologica.     Harderovici,  1806,  Svo. 

35.  Caroli  Gottlieb  Bretschneider  Probabilia  de  Evangelii 
et  Epistolarum  Joannis  Apostoli  Indole  et  Origine.  Lipsis, 
1820,  Svo. 

36.  Caroli  Gulielmi  Stein,  Authentia  Evangelii  Joannis  con- 
tra Bretschneideri  Objectiones  defensa.  Additur  Specimen  Novi 
Lexici  Joannei.     Brandenburgi,  1821,  Svo. 

This  publication  contains  a  satisfactory  vindication  of  the  genu- 
ineness of  the  writings  of  Saint  John,  against  the  objections  of  Dr. 
Bretschneider ;  who,  in  his  'Probabilia,'  had  asserted,  contrary  to 
all  evidence,  that  the  writings  which  bear  that  apostle's  name  were 
compiled  after  his  decease  by  some  Gentile  Christian  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  century,  who  passed  himself  for  the  apostle ! ' 

»In  the  Jena  Literary  Gazette  for  January,  1827  (Supplt.  No.  1.),  it  is 
stated  that  Dr.  Bretschneider,  in  the  preface  to  the  2d  edition  of  his  Hand- 
bnch  der  Dograatik  (Manual  of  Dogmatic  Theology),  declares,  that  in  his 
biblical  criticisms  he  has,  without  any  hesitation,  used  as  genuine  sources 
the  writings  of  St.  John;  because  the  doubts  respecting  the  genuineness 
of  those  writings,  which  he  some  time  since  laid  before  the  public,  were 
regarded  by  him  merely  as  suggestions  which  inight  give  occasion  to  a 


Sect.  III.  §  6.]        COMMEx\TATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


133 


The  six  following  publications  wore  also  occaaioned  by  Dr.  Bret- 
schneidor's  Probabilia. 

37.  H.  A,  SciioTT  Programma,  quo  examinantur  dubitationes 
quffidam  de  authentia  Evangclii  Joannis  nuperrimc  ex  prioribuH 
quatuor  capitibus  a  Brelschneidero  cxcilalffi.     Jena;,  1820,  4to. 

38.  Th.  Ph.  Ch.  Kaiskii  Commcntationos  HI.  de  a|)oIogcticis 
Evangelii  Joannci  consiliis  authentiam  ejus  cooiiuonbtrantibus. 
Erlangae,  1821-24-25,  4to. 

39.  A.  F.  G.  M.  GLA.sKn  Dissertatio  Exegetico-Historica  de 
Johannc  apostolo,  Evangelii,  quod  ejus  noinen  praj  so  fert,  vero 
auctore,  respectu  receiitioruin  quarundam  dubitationum  atquc 
criminationum.     Helin.stadii,  1823, 4to. 

40.  A.  Th.  CALMiiF.nn,  De  anticjuissimis  Patrum  pro  Evan- 
gelii Joannui  Audivriia.  Tcstimoniw.  Lipsia;  ct  Hamburgi,  1823, 
♦olio. 

41.  Michaolis  Webkhi  Authentia  Capitis  Ultimi  Evangelii 
Johannis,  huju.squc  Evangelii  totius,  ct  Primaj  Johannis  Epistolie, 
Argumentorum  Internorum  Usu  vindicata.     Halis,  1823,  8vo. 

42.  Lconardi  Usterii  Commentatio  Critica,  in  qua  Johannis 
Evangelium  genuinam  esse,  ex  comparatis  IV.  Evangcliorum  de 
c(£na  ultima  et  de  passione  Jesu  Christi  narrationibus,  ostenditur. 
Turici,  1823,  8vo. 

43.  De  Authentia  Capitis  XXI.  Evangclii  Joannei,  c  sola 
orationis  indole  judicanda.  Scripsit  J.  C.  L.  Hanuscke.  Lip- 
siiB,  1818,  8vo, 

44.  An  Exposition  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  according 
to  John.  By  George  Hctciiksox,  Minister  of  the  Gospel  at 
Edinburgh.     London,  1657,  folio. 

A  Iwok  not  of  common  occurrence :  it  contains  many  valuable 
observiilions. 

45.  Commcntarius  Analytico-Excgcticus,  tarn  literalis  quam 
realis,  Evangclii  secundum  Johannem.  Authore  Fred.  Adol. 
Lampe.     Amstela;dami,  1724 — 1726,  3  vols.  4to. 

This  is  unquestionably  the  most  valuable  work  on  Saint  John's 
Gospel  that  was  ever  published  ;  every  thing  which  the  learned 
author  could  jwssibly  collect,  in  order  to  illustrate  the  evangelist, 
being  here  concentrated.  It  is,  however,  a  work  better  adapted  to 
the  mature  scholar  than  to  the  student  in  divinity,  who  may  not 
always  be  able  to  select  with  judgment  from  these  ample  tomes. 
Lampe  also  composed  two  quarto  volumes  of  Dissertationes  Philo- 
logico-Thcologicse,  on  Saint  John's  Gospel,  which  were  published 
in  1737,  by  Dr.  Gerdes.     They  are  replete  with  solid  erudition. 

45*.  Paraphrasis  Evangelii  Johannis,  cum  Notis  et  Canta- 
brigiensis  Codicis  Latino  Textu,  a  Joanne  Salomone  Semlero. 
HalsB,  1771,  8vo. 

Semler  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  biblical  critics  of  Ger- 
many, during  the  last  century:  his  writings,  which  illustrate  with 
great  ability  many  philological  difficulties,  bear  a  high  price;  but 
he  espoused  such  rational  dogmas,  in  certain  points  of  doctrine, 
which  are  of  fundamental  importance,  that  the  student  cannot  be 
too  much  on  his  guard  against  ihem. 

46.  Sam.  Frid.  Nathan.  Mom  Recitationes  in  Evangelium 
Joannis  ;  animadversiones  subjecit  Tho.  Imm.  Dindorf.  Praga;, 
1795,  8vo.     Lipsia;,  1808,  8vo. 

47.  Notes,  Critical  and  Dissertatory,  on  the  Gospel  and 
Epistles  of  Saint  John.  By  the  Kcv.  K.  SiiEPiiEHi),  D.D.  F.R.S. 
London,  1796,  4to. 

Though  bearing  the  date  of  1796,  this  volume  was  not  published 
until  the  year  1801.  See  an  analysis  of  it  in  the  Monthly  Review, 
N.  S.  vol.  xxxviii.  pp.  145 — 150. 

48.  Caroli  Tittmaxxi  Mcletemata  Sacra,  sive  Commentarius 
Exegetico-Critico-Dogmaticus  in  Evangelium  Joannis.  Lipsise, 
1816,  8vo. 

The  author  of  this  work  W'as  superintendent  of  the  Diocese  of 
Dresden.  Without  vouching  for  cvcnj  opinion  Dr.  Tittmann  has 
ottered,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  his  work  is,  upon  the 
whole,  the  most  valuable  commentary  on  Saint  John's  Gospel 
extant  in  the  compass  of  a  single  8vo.  volume;  and  though  it  does 
not  render  Lampe's  expensive  work  unnecessary,  it  may  be 
advantageously  substituted  for  this,  where  the  student  cannot 
obtain  access  to  it. 

49.  Symbols!  ad  Interpretalionem  Evangelii  Johannis  ex  Mar- 
moribus  et  Numis,  maxime  Graicis.  Auctore  Fr.  Mcxteh. 
HauniDB,  1826,  4to. 

50.  Disputatio  Theologica  inauguralis  de  Pretio,  statuendo 
Precationi  Jesu,  qua;  continetur  Cap.  XVII.  Evangelio  Johannis, 

more  minute  and  fundamental  invPsti<iation  of  the  proofs  of  such  genuine- 
ness, which  proofs  at  that  time  had  appeared  lo  hiin  to  be  still  i[icnm]>l(>le ; 
and  also  because  he  trusted  that  this  uiquiry  would  be  fully  accnmplished 
by  the  publications  respecting  il  that  have  already  appeared,  as  well  as  by 
lllose  which  were  announced  as  preparing  lor  publication. 


quam  publico    examini    submittit    Nicolaus    Jacobus 

Aahland.     Lugduni  Batavoruni,  1829,  8vo. 

An  academical  dissertation  lijr  a  doctor's  degree  in  Theology, 
in  the  university  of  Leyden.  After  treating  on  the  author  of  the 
sublime  prayer,  contained  in  the  seventeenth  Chapter  of  St.  John's 
(iospel,  Dr.  Aarland  proceeds  to  give  an  exposition  of  it,  and  con- 
cludes Willi  a  practical  view  of  ihe  example  which  it  allords  to 
(.'hristians,  with  regard  to  the  things  tor  which  they  ought  to  pray, 
as  well  as  tho  words  and  temper  with  which  they  ought  to  o^r 
their  supplications. 

THE   ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

51.  Dissertatio  do  Lucte  u^nm<ni:t  in  conscribcndo  Actuum 
Apostolorum  Li!»ro.  Scripsit  Adrianus  Cornelius  de  Meijier. 
Hagffi  Comitum,  1827,  8vo. 

52.  An  Attempt  to  ascertain  the  Chronology  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  and  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  By  the  Jiev,  Edward 
BuKTON,  D.D.     London,  1830,  8vo. 

53.  The  Apostolical  History  of  Mr.  Cradock,  Dr.  Benson's 
History  of  the  first  planting  of  Christianity,  and  Mr.  Bevan's 
Life  of  Paul,  all  of  which  have  been  mentioned  in  p.  (i2- 
of  this  Appendix,  deserve  to  be  noticed  in  this  place,  among 
those  writers  who  have  materially  illustrated  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles. 

54.  Casparis  Sthesowis  Commentarius  Practicus  in  Acto- 
rum  Apostolorum,  per  Lucam  Evangeli.stam  descriptorum,  capita 
priora  sedecim.  Amstelodami,  1658,  4to.  Ejusdem,  Commen- 
tarius in  capita  duodccim  posteriora.  Amstelodami,  1659,  4to. 
Hafnia;,  1717,  4to. 

This  work  originated  in  the  author's  sermons  (in  Dutch)  on  the 
Acts  of  the  A|x>stle8:  they  were  afterwards  translated  into  Latin, 
and  so  arranged  as  lo  form  a  commentary  on  the  Acts  of  the 
A|iosiles.  Streso's  work  is  commended  by  Walchius  lor  its  learn- 
ing and  piety. 

55.  Caroli  Maria;  dt.  Veil  Acta  Sanctorum  Apostolorum  ad 
litteram  explicata.     Londini,  1684,  8vo. 

This  is  one  of  the  scarcest  of  Dr.  de  Veil's  expository  publi- 
cations:  it  was  translated  into  English,  and  entitled  A  Literal  Ex- 
jilanation  of  the  Acts  of  Ihe  Holy  Apostltx.  Written  in  Ijaline,  by 
C.  M.  du  Veil,  D.D.,  now  translated  into  English  out  of  a  copy 
carefully  reviewed  and  corrected  by  the  Author.  To  which  is  adaed 
a  learned  Dissertation  about  Baptism  for  the  Dead.  I  Cor.  xv.  29. 
Written  in  Latine,  by  the  famous  Fredericus  Spanhemius,  Fdiuf, 
London,  1685,  8vo. 

56.  Joannis  Peahsoxii  S.T.P.  Cestriensis  nuper  Episcopi 
Lectiones  in  Acta  Apostolorum.     Londini,  1688,  4to. 

These  lectures  are  prefixed  lo  Bishop  Pearson's  Opera  Chrono- 
logica  edited  by  Mr.  Dodwell,  Londini,  1C88,  4to.  They  extend 
from  the  first  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles; 
and  (as  may  be  expected)  contain  many  valuable  critical  and 
chronological  observations  for  the  elucidation  of  St.  Luke's  nar- 
rative. 

57.  The  History  of  the  Acts  of  the  Holy  Apostles  confirmed 
from  other  authors,  and  considered  as  full  evidence  of  the  Truth 
of  Christianity.  By  Richard  Biscoe,  D.D.  London,  1742,  2 
vols.  8vo.     Oxford,  1829,  in  one  volume,  8vo. 

This  learned  and  elalx)rate  work  contains  the  substance  of  Dr. 
Biscoe's  sermons  preadied  at  Mr.  Boyle's  lecture  between  the 
years  1736  and  1738.  Dr.  Doddridge  frequently  refers  to  it  as  a 
work  of  great  utility,  and  as  showing,  in  the  most  convincing 
manner,  how  inconlcstably  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  demonstrate 
the  truth  of  Christianity.  The  Oxford  reprint  is  beautifully  exe>- 
culed. 

58.  Acta  Apostolorum  Graece,  perpetua  annotafione  illlustrata 
a  Car.  Hen.  Heiniuciis.     Gottingse,  1809,  2  parts  or  vols.  8vo. 

This  forms  a  part  of  Koppe's  edition  of  the  New  Testament, 
with  notes,  mentioned  in  pp.  127,  12S.  of  this  .Appendix.  Some  of 
the  expositions  in  this  work  are  characterized  by  that  lax  system 
of  interpretation  which  is  adopted  h\  ^arae  modem  expositors  and 
critics  in  Germany,  and  against  which  the  student  cannot  be  too 
much  \x\wn  his  guard. 

59.  Actions  of  the  Apostles,  translated  from  the  original 
Greek,  by  the  Rev.  John  Willis,  B.D.     London,  1789,  8vo. 

This  work  "  is  divided  into  several  sections,  to  which  are  added 
notes,  styled  Proofs  and  Illustrations.  Some  of  the  author's  altera- 
tions, we  think,  are  real  improvements;  others,  the  contrary; 
some  are  very  fanciful ;  and  there  are  others  for  which  we  cannot 
at  all  account."     (Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  iii.  p.  154.) 

60.  Sam.  Frid.  Nathan.  Moki  Versio  et  Explicatio  Actunm 
Apostolicorum.  Edidit,  animadversiones  recentiorum  suasque 
adjccit,  Gottlob  Immanuel  Dindorf.     Lipsia;,  1794,  2  vols.  8vo. 

61.  nPAHElS  T.ON  An02T0.\nN.  Acta  Apostolorum.  Va- 
riorum Notis  turn  Dictionem  turn  Maferiam  illustrantibus  suas 
adjecit  Hastings  Robi>so.v,  M.A.     Cantabrigise,  1824,  8vo. 


134 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


This  beautifully  executed  edition  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
contains  the  text  of  Griesbach,  from  which  the  editor  has  very 
rarely  deviated;  and  beneath  it  are  placed  critical  and  philological 
Scholia.  "This  edition  is  well  calculated  to  illustrate  the  peculiar 
expressions  and  grammatical  construction  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Aposlles,  and  the  author"  [edilor]  "  has  judiciously  added  to  his 
own  remarks  those  of  the  best  critics  and  theologians.     Within  a 

small  compass  much  is  contained We  sliould  imagine  it  well 

adapted  to  the  purposes  of  college-lectures  and  of  public  schools, 
as  intended  by  the  writer; — and  it  is  a  book  which  the  more 
aavanced  critic  may  add  with  advantage  to  hi.-!  library."  (Universal 
Review,  vol.  ii.  p.  173.) 

62.  D.  Paulus  Apostolus  in  Mari,  quod  nunc  Venetus  Sinus 
dicitur,  Naufragus,  et  Melitie  Dalmatensis  InsuliE  post  naufra- 
gium  Hospes ;  sive  de  Genuine  Signilicatu  duorum  Locorum  in 
Actibus  Apostolicis,  cap.  XXVIL  27.  cap.  XXVIIL  1.-  In- 
spectiones  Anticritics.  Auctore  Ignatio  Gbohgio.  Vcnetiis, 
1730,  4to. 

The  author  of  this  learned  treatise  supports  the  notion,  which 
was  afterwards  maintained  by  Mr.  Bryant,  that  the  island  on  which 
St.  Paul  was  wrecked  was  not  Malta,  but  Melita  in  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  on  the  coast  of  Dalmatia. 

63.  M.  C.  G.  KucuLER  de  anno,  quo  Paulus  Apostolus  ad 
Sacra  Christiana  conversus  est,  Commentatio.  Lipsise,  1828,  8vo. 

64.  Arnoldi  Gulielmi  Haselaar  Dissertatio  Exegetica  de 
noiinullis  Actuum  Apostolorum  et  Epistolarum  Paulinarum  ad 
historiam  Pauli  pertinentibus  locis.  Lugduni  Batavorum,  1S06, 
8vo. 

65.  Specimen    Academicum   Inaugurale   de    Oratione  Pauli 

Apostoli  Athenis    habita,   quod publico    examini   submittit 

Janus  Adolphus  Anspach.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1829,  4to. 

%*  Many  valuable  philological  and  historical  illustrations  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  likewise  to  be  lound  in  Johannis  Ernesti 
Immanuelis  Walchii  Disserlationes  in  Acta  Apostolorum.  Jena, 
1756-59,  3  vols.  4to. 

COMMENTATOBS    ON    THE    WHOLE    OR    GREATER    PART    OF    THE 
EPISTLES.' 

66.  Joachimi  Langii  Commentatio  Historico-Hermeneutica 
de  Vita  et  Epistolis  apostoli  Pauli,  ita  adornata,  ut  isagogcn 
generalera  ct  specialem  historico-exegeticam  prsebeat  in  Acta 
Apostolorum  et  Pauli  Epistolas,  necnon  in  ipsam  Hermeneuti- 
cam  Sacram.     Halae,  1718,  4to. 

A  most  valuable  work,  which  is  not  of  common  occurrence ; 
both  Walchius  and  Michaelis  concur  in  stating  that  it  throws  great 
light  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  of  which  it  presents  very  copious  analy- 
ses. The  Appendix  contains  similar  analyses  of  the  epistles  of 
Peter,  James,  and  Jude;  and  also  numerous  aphorisms  on  the  In- 
terpretation of  Scripture,  and  particularly  of  the  phraseology  of 
St.  Paul's  Epistles.  The  latter  were  corrected,  enlarged,  and  re- 
printed at  Halle,  in  1733,  in  a  separate  volume,  the  title  of  which 
is  given  at  length  in  p.  93.    No.  24.  supra. 

67.  Jo.  Francisci  Bcddei  Ecclesia  Apostolica,  sive  de  Statu 
Ecclesise  Christianas  sub  Apostolis  Commentatio  Historico-Dog- 
matica;  quae  et  iniroductionis  loco  in  Epistolas  Pauli  csetero- 
rumque  apostolorum  esse  queat.     8vo.  JensB,  1729. 

Buddeus  has  briefly  treated  on  the  state  of  the  Christian  Church 
during  the  apostolic  age,  with  great  judgment,  and  has  referred  to 
a  great  variety  of  useful  writers. 

68.  Gulielmi  Estii  in  omnes  Pauli  et  aliorum  Apostolorum 
Epistolas  Commentarius.     Paris,  1679,  folio. 

The  best  edition  of  a  most  valuable  work,  which  Romanists  and 
Protestants  alike  concur  to  recommend  as  an  excellent  critical  help 
to  the  exposition  of  the  apostolic  Epistles.  The  Prefaces  of  Estius 
are  particularly  valuable.  A  very  useful  abridgment  of  this  work, 
as  well  as  of  the  Commentary  of  Cornelius  a  Lapide,  so  far  as  con- 
cerns St.  Paul's  Epislles,  was  published  by  John  Van  Gorcum,  at 
Antwerp,  in  1620,  8vo.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Loiivain,  enti- 
tled— Epitome  commentariorum  Gulielmi  Eslii  S.  Th.  Docloria,  et 
Corn.  a.  Lapide,  e  Soc.  Jesu  Theologi,  in  omnes  D.  Pauli  Epistolas, 
per  Joliamiem  d  Gorcum,  Preslii/terum,  coUccfa.  Editio  nova,  D. 
Pauli  texlu  et  G.  Estii  Prmfectionihus  aucta.     Lovanii,  1754,  Svo. 

«  Though  not  a  commentary,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  the  au- 
thor cannot  pass  in  silence  Bishop  Burgess's  Init.ia  Paulina,  sive  Intro- 
ductio  ad  Lectiunem  Pauli  Epistolarum.  Lomiini,  1804,  12mo.  This  little 
volume  contains,  1.  Pauli  Epistolaui  ad  Pliilipppnses  Grffice  et  Anylice, 
cum  brcvibus  notis  Kuttneri  ;  2.  Theophylacli  Procernia  Epistolarum; 
3.  Ejustlcin  Inlerpretationem  E|)istolee  ad  Philippenses;  4.  Roseniniilleri 
Scholia  ad  eaixlein.  (iuibus  praeeunt  Kuttneri  ()bservafa  de  Idiomatibus 
Novi  TcstauHMiti.  Though  not  specified  in  the  titlepaae,  there  are  added 
two  valuable  extracts  fioui  Henry  Stephens's  and  ourlearned  connlryinan 
Gataker's  Disserlationes  de  Stylo  NoviTestauienti ;  "thus  collecting  some 
of  the  most  valuable  illustrations  of  the  style  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  that  can 
be  offered  to  the  attention  of  the  student."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxv. 
p.  413.)  Thisvaluable  work  is  at  present  out  of  print,  and  extremely  scarce 
and  dear. 


69.  Explication  des  Epitres  de  Saint  Paul.  P::r  Bemardin 
de  PicauiGNT.  Paris,  1706,  3  tomes,  12mo.  1714,  4  tomes, 
Svo.     Troyes,  1826,  4  tomes,  12mo. 

This  is  an  abridgment  of  a  larger  work,  by  the  same  author, 
intituled  Epistolarum  Pauli  Apostoli  Triplex  Expositio.  Parisiis, 
1703,  folio.  Tlie  exposition  consists  of  three  parts,  viz.  1.  An  analy- 
sis, exhibiting  the  order  and  connection  of  the  text ;  2.  A  paraphrase, 
expressing  in  few  words  the  sentiment  of  the  apostle  ;  and,  3.  A 
commentary,  with  notes  on  obscure  or  difficult  passages.  (Walchii 
Bibliotheca  Theologica,  vol.  iv.  p.  678.)  To  each  epistle  is  prefixed 
a  prefiitory  account  of  its  occasion,  scope,  and  argument ;  and  each 
chapter  concludes  with  devotional  and  practical  inferences.  The 
reprint  at  Troyes,  in  1826,  is  very  neatly  executed. 

70.  A  New  Literal  Translation,  from  the  Original  Greek,  of 
all  the  Apostolical  Epistles ;  with  a  Commentary  and  Notes, 
philological,  critical,  explanatory,  and  practical.  To  which  is 
added,  a  History  of  the  Life  of  the  Apostle  Paul.  By  James 
Macknight,  D.D.  Edinburgh,  1795,  4to.  4  vols.  London, 
1806,  8vo.  -witli  the  Greek  Text,  6  vols.  2d  edition,  with  the 
Life  of  the  Author,  jy'itliout  the  Greek  Text,  in  3  vols.  4to.  and 
4  vols.  Svo. 

This  work,  together  with  the  harmony  noticed  in  p.  60.  of  this 
Appendix,  is  in  Bishop  Tomline's  list  of  books  for  clergymen.  A 
specimen  of  it,  containing  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  was 
published  in  4to.  in  1787 ;  and  the  work  itself,  we  are  informed  in 
Dr.  M.'s  Life  (vol.  i.  Svo.  p.  xv.),  was  the  unremitting  labour  of 
nearly  thirty  years,  during  which  period  seldom  less  than  eleven 
hours  a  day  were  employed  on  it.  "  We  apprehend  that  few  per- 
sons who  shall  peruse  this  work  with  competent  judgment  and  due 
respect  for  the  sacred  writings,  will  hesitate  to  acknowledge  that 
Dr.  M.  is  also  entitled  to  approbation  and  applause,  as  a  faithful 
translator,  a  learned  and  able  commentator,  and  a  pious  divine." 
(Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xviii.  p.  411.)  "  It  is  a  work  of  theo- 
logical labour  not  often  paralleled,  and  an  ample  sioreliouse  of 
observations  to  exercise  not  only  the  student,  but  the  adept  of 
divinity.  If  we  do  not  always  implicitly  coincide  with  the  author 
in  opinion  (which,  in  such  various  matter,  cannot  reasonably  be 
expected),  we  can  always  praise  his  diligence,  his  learning,  and  his 
piety;  qualities  wdiich  confer  no  trifling  rank  on  any  scriptural 
interpreter  or  commentator."' (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  vii.  Preface, 
p.  ii.) 

71.  A  Paraphrase  and  Annotations  upon  all  St.  Paul's  Epis- 
tles. Done  by  several  eminent  men  at  Oxford.  Corrected  and 
improved  by  the  late  Right  Rev.  and  learned  Dr.  Fell,  Bishop 
of  Oxford.     London,  1703,  3d  edition,  Svo. 

"Fell  on  the  Epislles  is  very  short ;  but  most  of  his  notes  are 
worthy  of  remark.  The  colleclion  of  parallel  Scriptures  is  judi- 
cious, and  the  translation  in  some  places  altered  for  the  better." 
(Dr.  Doddridge.) 

72.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to 
the  Galatians,  1  and  2  Corinthians,  Romans,  Ephesians.  To 
which  is  prefixed,  An  Essay  for  the  understanding  of  Saint 
Paul's  Epistles,  by  consulting  St.  Paul  himself.  By  John  Locke. 
London,  1783,  4to.  (Works,  vol.  iii.)  :  also  various  editions  in 
4to.  and  Svo. 

73.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to 
the  Colossians,  Philippians,  and  Hebrews,  after  the  manner  of 
Mr.  Locke.  To  which  are  annexed,  several  Critical  Disserta- 
tions on  Particular  Parts  of  Scripture,  <fec.  &c.  By  the  late 
reverend  and  learned  Mr.  James  Pierce,  of  Exon.  London, 
1 773,  second  edition,  4to. 

74.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to 
the  Thessalonians,  Timothy,  Philemon,  and  Titus ;  and  the 
Seven  Catholic  Epistles  by  James,  Peter,  Jude,  and  John,  &c. 
&c.  By  George  Benson,  D.D.  London,  1752,  1756,  best  edi- 
tions, 2  vols.  4to. 

"  Locke,  Pierce,  and  Benson  make  up  a  complete  commentary 
on  the  Epistles;  and  are  indeed  all  in  the  number  of  the  most 
ingenious  commentators  I  have  ever  read.  They  plainly  thought 
very  closely,  and  attended  much  to  connection,  which  they  have 
often  set  in  a  most  clear  view.  But  tliey  all  err  in  too  great  a 
fondness  for  new  interpretations,  and  in  supposing  the  design  of 
the  apostles  less  general  than  it  seems  to  have  been.  It  must  be 
allowed  that  Benson  illustrates  the  spirit  of  Paul  sometimes  in  an 
admiraljle  manner,  even  beyond  any  fbimer  writer.  See  especially 
his  Epistle  to  Pliilemon."     (Dr.  Doddridge.) 

75.  A  Practical  Paraphrase  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to 
the  Romans,  Galatians,  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  after  the 
manner  of  Dr.  Clarke's  Paraphrase  on  the  Four  Evangelists, 
London,  1744,  Svo. 

76.  The  Epistles  of  Paul  the  Apostle  translated,  with  an  Ej 
position  and  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Belsham.  Londoi 
1822,  2  vols.  4to.  also  in  4  vols.  Svo. 


S^CT  III.  §.  fi.]  COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


135 


Mr.  Bclsham  is  one  of  ihe  reputed  eililors  of  tlie  "  Improved 
Version"  of  the  New  Testament,  noticed  in  p  12'J.  supra.  ThiH 
exposition  of  St.  I'aul'H  Epistles  (whi(!h  ih  noticed  here  only  that 
Ihe  author  may  not  bo  charged  with  designedly  omitting  it)  is  exe- 
cuted on  the  same  princi|)les.  Able  critiques  on  it  may  be  seen  in 
the  Kdeciic  Review  fijr  May  and  June,  1H2U,  in  the  (burih  volume 
of  the  New  Kdinburgh  Review,  in  the  thirteenth  volume  of  the 
Quarterly  Review  (in  reply  lo  which  Mr.  Belsham  published  "  A 
Vindication,"  in  IB'^ii),  and,  lastly,  in  the  twenty-second  volume  of 
the  British  Review.  Some  very  acute  and  learned  observations, 
exposing  Mr.  Relsham's  erroneous  inler|)rctatii)n8,  will  bu  iiiund  in 
the  Christian  Remembrancer  lor  the  year  1827. 

77,  Gottlob  Christian!  Sroiiii,  Intcrprctatio  Epistolarum 
Pauli  ad  I'hilippensos,  ad  Colosscnses,  et  ad  rbilcmoncm,  ac 
ctiam  ill  Epistolaui  Jacohi.    8vo. 

These  valuai)le  philological  commentaries  on  the  above-mentioned 
Epistles  are  inserted  in  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  Dr.  Storr's 
Opuiu:idu  Acarlvmica  ad  IntiTprrtationcm  Lihrornm.  Sarronim  pcrti- 
nenlia,  8vo.  Tubingen,  17%,  1797.  Vol.  ii.  of  the  same  collection  also 
contains  some  valuable  hlstoriral  notices,  which  materially  contri- 
bute to  elucidate  Saint  Paul's  Kpisiles  to  the  Corinthians.  We  are 
further  indel)t(ul  to  the  same  learned  author  fi)r  a  similar  philologi- 
cjjI  comnu'iilary  on  the  Kpistio  to  the  (inlatians,  in  vol.  ii.  of  Vel- 
thusen's  and  KuiniJel's  collection  of  Commcnlationes  T/icologicee. 

78.  Versio  Latina  Epistolarum  Novi  Testamenti,  perpetua 
Annotalione  illustrata  a  liodofr.  Sigism.  Iaspis.  Lipsiae,  vol.  i. 
1793;  vol.  ii.  1797,  8vo. 

A  new  edition  of  this  work,  very  materially  enlarged  and  cor- 
rected, was  published  at  Leipsic,  in  1821. 

78*.  Cominentarius  Perpetuus  in  decern  Apo^toli  Pauli  quas 
vulgo  dicunt  Epistolas  Minorca.  Edidit  Joannes  Fridericus 
Wkisgart.     GothiE,  1816,  8vo. 

A  useful  and  unpretending  little  volume,  expressly  designed  for 
those  who  may  not  have  the  means  of"  procuring  larger  and  more 
expensive  commentaries.  The  author  professes  to  have  selected 
his  materials  from  the  best  commentators,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
with  whase  annotations  he  has  interwoven  his  own  remarks.  He 
acknowledges  his  obligations  to  the  previous  labours  of  Koppe  and 
Ro.senmiillcr :  and  references  are  introduced  to  those  authors  who 
have  particularly  illustrated  texts  of  more  than  ordinary  difficulty. 

79.  Annotations  on  the  Epistles,  being  a  continuation  of  Mr. 
Elsley's  Annotations  on  the  Gospels  and  Acts,  and  principally 
designed  for  the  use  of  Candidates  for  Holy  Orders.  By  the 
Rev.  James  Slade,  M.A.     London,  1816,  2  vols.  8vo, 

80.  A  Paraphrastic  Translation  of  the  Apostolic  Epistles,  with 
Notes.  By  Philip  Nicholas  Siiuttieworth,  D.D.  Oxford  and 
London,  1829,  8vo. 

This  admirably  executed  work  is  offered  by  its  learned  author 
expressly  lijr  the  use  of  inexperienced  biblical  students  and  of  ge- 
neral readers.  He  states  his  design  to  be  to  "  give  breadth  and 
prominence  to  those  minute  but  necessary  links  of  reasoning,  which 
are  often  so  cursorily  glanced  at  by  the  writers  as  to  escape  the 
observation  of  persons  not  in  the  habit  of  pursuing  an  elaborate 
argument  through  its  finest  details  ;  to  fill  up  those  lacunae  of  in- 
ference, the  implied  purport  of  which,  though  necessarily  suggested 
by  the  context  lo  the  experienced  dialectician,  does  not  always 
present  itself  to  others  less  exercised  in  this  species  of  elliptical 
composition  ;  and  to  supply  that  fluency  of  context,  by  which  even 
the  languid  and  desultory  reader,  when  indisposed  to  the  labour  of 
intense  thought,  may  be  enabled  to  take  a  comprehensive  view  of 
the  whole  chain  of  the  argument  and  of  the  object  of  the  writer." 
Pref  pp.  xvii.  xviii.  The  divisions  of  chapter  and  verse  are  very 
properly  thrown  into  the  margin  ;  and  numerous  notes  are  inserted, 
dlusiruting  the  scope  and  bearing  of  the  apostles'  reasoning;  which 
exhibit  in  a  comparatively  small  compass  the  substance  of  much 
learned  and  laborious  research. 

81.  H.  A.  SciioTT  et  J.  F.  Winzkr  Commentarii  in  Libros 
Epistolicos  Novi  Testamenti.  Vol.  I.  Epistolos  ad  Galatas  et 
Thessalonicenscs  contincns.     Lipsite,  1834,  8vo. 

This  work  is  executed  upon  the  same  plan  as  Kuinoel's  Com- 
mentary on  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament,  which  is 
noticed  in  p  I'M.  of  this  Appendix.  The  Greek  text  is  inserted  in 
tlie  commentary.  Vol.  I.,  which  is  all  that  ha.s  hitherto  appeared, 
contains  the  commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Galatiansand  Thes- 
salonians,  which  is  written  by  Dr.  Schott. 

82.  A  Harmony  of  the  Epistles  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  to  which 
is  added  a  Summary  of  the  Entire.  By  the  Rev.  Peter  Roberts, 
M.A.     Cambridge,  1800,  4to. 

Though  not  a  commentary  in  Ihe  strictest  sense  of  the  w-ord, 
this  work  affords  so  valual)le  a  help  towards  ascertaining  the  doc- 
trinal agreement  of  the  Epistles,  that  it  deserves  special  notice  in 
this  place.  See  a  farther  account  of  its  plan  and  execution  in  page 
62.   of  this  Appendix. 

83.  Essays  on  some  of  the  Difficulties  in  the  Writings  of  St. 
Paul.  By  Richard  Whatelt,  D.D.  [now  Archbishop  of  Dub- 
lin.]    London,  1828,  8vo. 

Vol.  IL— Arp.  4  K 


84.  Apostolical  Preaching  considered  in  an  examination  of 
•St.  Paul's  Epistles.  By  John  Bird  Sumneh,  M.A.  [now  D.D. 
and  Bishop  of  Chester.]  London,  1815,  8vo.  and  numerous 
subsequent  editions. 

85.  The  Life  of  Paul  the  Apostle,  with  Critical  and  Practical 
Remarks  on  his  Discourses  and  Writings.  By  Stephen  Addisg- 
To.v,  D.D.     London,  1784,  8vo. 

86.  General  Observations  on  the  Writings  of  St.  Paul.  By 
John  Her,  D.D.     Buckingham,  1811,  8vo. 

This  volume  was  not  printed  for  sale  :  it  contains  many  pleasing 
remarks  on  the  style  and  writings  of  the  Apostle  Paul. 


87.  Jo.  Jac.  RAMnAciiii  Introductio  Historico-Theoiogica  in 
Epistolam  Pauli  ad  Roinanos.  Adjectaest  Martini  Lutheri  aurca 
pra-fatio,  variis  observationibus  exegeticis  alque  apologeticis  illus- 
trata.    Hate,  1727,  8vo. 

Though  not  a  commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  thia 
introduction  may  very  advantageously  be  substituted  for  one.  Pro- 
fessor Tholuck  has  justly  characterized  it  as  Ijcing  "  written  with 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject"  (Introd.  to  his  Exposition 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  vol.  i.  p.  34.  Edinburgh,  1833.)  Not 
a  single  point  is  omitted  that  can  throw  any  light  on  the  author, 
time  and  place  of  writing,  the  external  and  internal  state  of  the 
Christian  church  at  Rome,  the  scope  and  style  and  the  canonical 
authority  of  this  admirable  epistle.  The  preface  of  Luther  truly 
deserves  the  epithet  of  golden :  it  illustrates  the  peculiar  phraseo- 
logy of  the  apostle,  and  his  arguments  of  the  chapters  are  singular- 
ly perspicuous.  In  our  analysis,  &C.  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  we  have  been  largely  indebted  to  Rambach's  publication. 

87*.  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  lo  the  Romans.  By  John 
Calvijt.  To  which  is  prefixed  his  Life  by  Theodore  Beza. 
Translated  by  Francis  Sibson,  A.B.     London,  1834,  small  8vo. 

88.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
to  which  is  prefixed  a  Key  to  the  Apostolic  Writings,  or  an 
Essay  to  explain  the  Gospel  Scheme  and  the  principal  Words 
and  Phrases  the  Apostles  have  used  in  describing  it.  By  J.  Tai- 
Lon,  D.D.     Second  and  best  edition,  1747,  4to. 

The  first  edition  of  this  celebrated  and  learned  work  appeared  in 
1745:  two  others  were  printed  in  the  years  1754  and  1769.  Arch- 
bishop Magee  pronounces  the  system  developed  in  this  key  to 
be  "  nothing  more  than  an  artificial  accommodation  of  Scripture 
phrases  to  notions  utterly  repugnant  to  Christian  doctrine."  Dr. 
Taylor's  scheme  (which  was  Arian)  is  examined  by  Archbp.  Ma- 
gee in  the  first  volume  of  his  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  pp. 
181—188.  199—201.  322—333.  Dr.  Taylor's  work  contains,  how- 
ever,  several  valuable  philological  illustrations  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  of  which  we  have  availed  ourselves  in  the  course  of 
this  Introduction. 

89.  Clavis  Apostolica :  or  a  Key  to  the  Apostolic  Writings , 
being  an  Attempt  to  explain  the  Scheme  of  the  Gospel,  and  the 
principal  Words  and  Phrases  used  by  the  Apostles  in  describing 
it.     By  the  Rev.  Joseph  Mendham,  A.M.     London,  1821,  12mo. 

This  small  volume  is  a  republication  of  a  series  of  papers  which 
originally  .appeared  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Christian  Observer, 
in  opposition  to  the  principles  of  Dr.  Taylor's  Key  to  the  Epistle  to 
the  llomans,  and  which  the  late  Archbp.  Magee  justly  pronounced 
to  be  "  a  series  of  valuable  letters."  (On  the  Atonement,  vol.  ii. 
p.  344.)  "  Mr.  Mendham's  work  is  well  entitled  to  out  approbation, 
not  less  for  the  temperate  and  judicious  manner  in  which  it  is  writ- 
ten, than  for  the  importance  of  the  subject  to  which  its  discussions 
relate."    (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxi.  p.  527.) 

90.  A  Paraphrase,  with  Critical  Annotations,  on  the  Epistles 
of  Saint  Paul  to  the  Romans  and  Galalians.  By  Timothy  Ed- 
wards, A.M.     London,  1752,  4to. 

We  notice  this  work,  which  is  judiciously  compiled  from  the  beat 
previous  commentaries  on  these  two  Epistles,  because  it  is  occa- 
sionally lo  be  purcliased  at  a  cheap  rate.  "  The  author  appears  to 
us  to  have  been  a  person  of  learning,  judgment,  and  canaour,  and 
well  acquainted  with  the  sacred  writings.  He  endeavours,  in  the 
first  place,  to  give  his  readers  a  distinct  view  of  the  whole  Epistle, 
to  discover  the  true  occasion  of  the  apostle's  writing  it,  the  main 
subject  of  it,  the  principal  branches  of  which  it  consists,  and  the 
subdivision  of  them  into  their  proper  sections,  paragraphs,  and 
periods ;  and  then  lo  clear  up  ihe  connection  of  these  several  par- 
ticulars, the  seeming  perplexity  of  the  arguments,  and  the  hidden 
force  of  the  reasonings,  in  order  to  set  forth  the  true  meaning  and 
coherence  of  the  wfiole  discourse  in  a  clear  light."  (Monthly  Re- 
view, O.  S.  vol.  vii.  p.  412.) 

91.  Jacobi  Welleri  Adnotationes  in  Epistolam  Pauli  ad 
Romanos.     Brunswick,  1754,  4to. 

92.  Jo.  Sal.  Semleri  Paraphrasis  Epistols  ad  Romanos,  cum 
Notis,  translatione  vetusta,  el  dissertationc  de  duplici  .\ppendice 
hujus  Epistolse,  in  cap.  xv.  xvi.     Halae,  1769,  small  8vo. 


136 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


Part  IL  Chap.  \ . 


Semler  also  published  similar  pamphraf^es  on  the  foUovving  Epis- 
tles •  viz.  1  <fe  2  Corinthians,  Haloe,  1770,  1776 ;  Galatians,  ihid.  1779 ; 
James,  ibid.  1781 ;  1  Peter,  ibid.  1783  ;  2  Peter  and  Jude  ./.(rf.  1  /84  ; 
Kevelation,  Neusladt,  1785,  and  1  John,  to  which  is  added  by  Pro- 
lessor  Noe«seli  a  Disquisition,  entitled  Narralio  de  Scmlero  ijiisque 
mentis  in  inlerpretatione  S.  S.  8vo.  Riga,  1792.  Semler  totally  re- 
jects those  doctrines  concerning  original  sin,  &c.  which  are  received 
as  orthodox  by  the  Protestant  churches.  His  works  are  all  scarce 
and  dear  in  this  country,— so  that  the  student  will  not  sustain  any 
loss  who  may  not  be  able  to  procure  them. 

93.  A  Paraphrase  on  the  Eleven  First  Chapters  of  Saint  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Romans.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Adam.  London, 
1771,  8vo. 

"  This  appears  to  be  the  performance  of  a  sensible  man,  who  de- 
sires to  deliver  the  true  sense  of  Scripture  as  far  as  he  can  attain 
it,  and  to  advance  the  cause  of  piety  among  men.  His  method  is, 
to  lay  a  small  number  of  verses  before  the  reader  at  one  view,  in 
which  are  inserted  a  few  words  to  illustrate  and  explain  them,  and 
then  he  adds  several  observations  upon  the  sense  of  the  passage, 
with  some  practical  remarks.  On  the  whole,  this  paraphrase,  not 
abounding  in  criticism,  as  some  might  expect,  appears  however  to  be 
a  candid,  well-meant,  practical,  and  useful  performance."  (Monthly 
Review,  O.  S.  vol.  xlv.  pp.  400,  401.)  What  further  recommends 
this  useful  work  is,  the  low  price  at  which  it  may  frequently  be 
procured,  it  having  been  Irequeiilly  reprinted. 

94.  Chr.  Frid.  ScHMinii  Annotationes  in  Epistolam  Pauli  ad 
Romanos.     Lipsise,  1777,  8vo. 

95.  Sam.  Frid.  Nath.  Mori  Prselectiones  in  Epistolam  Pauli  ad 
Romanos,  cum  cjusdcm  versione  Latina,  locorumque  quorundam 
Novi  Testament!  difficiliorum  inlerpretatione.  Edidit  J.  T.  T. 
Holtzapfel.     Lipsiae,  1794,  8vo. 

96.  Epistola  Pauli  ad  Romanos,  Grsece,  ex  recensione  novissi- 
ma  Griesbachii,  cum  commentario  perpetuo.  Edidit  Chr.  Fr. 
BoBHME.     Lipsiae,  1806,  8vo. 

97.  Pauli  Epistola  ad  Romanos.  Interprete  Em.  Godofr.  Adol- 
pho  BocKEL.     Gryphise,  1821,  8vo. 

98.  Horse  Romanae :  or  an  Attempt  to  elucidate  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  by  an  original  Translation,  Explanatory 
IVotes,  and  New  Divisions.  By  Robert  Cox,  M.A.  London, 
1824,  8vo. 

"While  possessing  merit  of  a  high  order,  it  is  entirely  free  from 
display.  The  simplicity  of  the  author's  plan,  and  the  extremely 
judicious  manner  in  which  he  has  executed  it,  entitle  him  to  a 
measure  of  our  praise  which  we  have  not  often  an  occasion  of 
awarding."  (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxiii.  p.  72.)  See  also  the 
Quarterly  Theological  Review,  vol.  ii.  pp.  72 — 76. 

99.  Notes  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  intended  to  assist 
Students  in  Theology,  and  others,  who  read  the  Scriptures  in 
the  Originals.  By  Samuel  H.  Turner,  D.D.  New  York, 
1824,  8vo. 

These  "  Notes"  are  strictly  exegetical,  not  polemical ;  and  are 
designed  to  explain  the  force  and  connection  of  St.  Paul's  argu- 
ments. This  object  is  completely  attained  by  Professor  Turner, 
who  has  made  considerable  use  of  the  labours  of  the  German 
biblical  critics,  against  whose  extravagant  interpretations  and  cri- 
tiques he  has,  very  properly,  cautioned  his  readers.  A  translation 
of  Koppe's  Latin  Introduction  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  pre- 
fixed ;  and  the  work  concludes  with  a  well-written  "  Essay  for  the 
consideration  of  Theological  Students." 

100.  The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Romans ;  with  an 
Introduction,  Paraphrase,  arid  Notes.  By  C.  H.  Terhot,  A.M. 
London,  1828,  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  publication  is,  to  bring  together  such  informa- 
tion as  may  assist  young  students  of  divinity  in  obtaining  a  right 
understanding  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  By  way  of  ap- 
paratus towards  an  examination  of  the  Epistle,  the  author  has  pre- 
fixed, 1.  A  Chronological  Table  of  the  Acts  of  that  Apostle,  abridged 
from  Bishop  Pearson's  Annales  Paulini ;  2.  A  brief  Exposition  of 
the  occasion,  date,  and  genuineness  of  the  Epistle ;  3.  An  Analysis 
of  its  contents;  4.  A  Critical  Inquiry  into  the  meaning  of  the  the- 
ological terms,  which  in  our  authorized  version  are  rendered  justify 
RU<.\  justifratioji,  faith,  law,  and  works  of  the  laii>,Jlesh,  and  impute; 
and,  5.  A  List  of  all  the  Passages  of  the  Old  Testament  quoted  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Tlie  Greek  text  f()llows,  according  to 
Dr.  Knappe's  third  edition  (Halce,  1824),  and  on  the  opposite  page 
is  given  the  author's  paraphra.se.  The  volume  concludes  with  a 
collection  of  notes,  in  the  composition  of  which  Mr.  Terrot  has 
availed  himself  of  the  previous  works  of  the  most  distinguished 
British  commentators  and  divines,  and  also  of  the  philological 
labours  of  the  most  eminent  continental  critics.  "This  work  de- 
rives its  chief  commendation,  not  so  much  for  what  it  has  accom- 
plished, as  for  the  plan  of  study  which  it  opens  up  to  the  young 
divine  ;  showing,  by  a  very  successful  example,  the  aid  which  may 
be  brought  to  theological  investigation  from  the  stores  of  general 
literature,  and  especially  from  those  other  sources  where  the  fruit 
of  the  tree  of  knowledge  is  not  altogether  unmixed."  (British 
Critic,  Aoril,  1829,  vol.  v.  p.  346.) 


101.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  with  a 
Translation  and  various  Excursus.  By  Moses  Stcart,  Profes- 
sor of  Sacred  Literature  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Andover. 
Andover  [Massachusetts],  1832.     London,  1833,  8vo. 


"  If  candour,  integrity  of  purpose,  and  apostolic  piety,  united  to 
deep  research,  persevering  industry,  and  varied  erudition,  could 
qualify  any  man  for  the  task  of  translating  and  expounding  critically 
the  most  diHicult  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  we  believe  that  Professor 
Stuart  possesses  these  endowments.  Whatever  be  the  errors  in  his 
work — and  our  author  is  the  last  man  to  claim  infallibility — they 
arise  from  the  general  infirmity  of  human  nature ;  they  are  not  in- 
troduce i  either  to  support  the  views  of  a  polemical  partisan,  or  to 
maintain  the  hypothesis  of  an  obstinate  disputant.  The  publica- 
tion before  us  is  eminently  distinguished  both  ihr  repeated  acknow- 
ledgment of  all  the  difficulties  attendant  upon  the  respective  inter- 
pretations of  the  '  vexati  loci,'  and  for  unwearied  patience  in 
disentangling  the  web  in  which  controversialists  have  loved  to 

involve  this  sublime  epistle." "  Mr.  Sluart  is  original  both  in 

his  translation  and  his  comments.  He  at  one  time  objects  to  Calvin, 
at  another  to  Arminius:  and  we  do  not  think  that  any  partisan  will 
have  reason  to  quarrel  with  the  Professor  for  a  blind  adherence  to 
any  '  set  of  opinions.'  "  (British  Critic,  for  October,  1833,  pp.  430, 
431.) 

"  The  Translation  is  couched  in  elegant  language,  and  divided 
with  great  care  into  sections,  each  of  which  has  an  appropriate,  if 
not  perfectly  correct,  title,  and  is  subdivided  into  paragraphs  as  the 
sense  requires.  A  great  deal  of  the  obscurity  of  the  epistle,  as  it 
stands  in  the  common  version,  is  removed  by  the  hypothesis  that 
in  chapter  iii.,  and  in  several  other  places.  Saint  Paul  quotes  and 
answers  a  supposed  objector.  The  queries  and  objections  thus 
quoted  and  answered,  Mr.  Stuart  has  distinguished  by  quotation 
marks,  which  render  the  epistle  at  once  more  interesting  and  more 
intelligible.  Mr.  Stuart  has  also  rendered  the  particles  so  skilfully, as 
to  give  the  whole  epistle  the  appearance,  not  of  a  parcel  oi  disjecta 
membra,  accidently  thrown  together,  but  of  a  connected  and  orderly 
treatise.  He  has  also  given  a  faithful  representation  of  the  origi- 
nal, as  regards  the  use  of  the  article.  The  Commentary  is  a  work 
of  great  labour.  The  author  seems  seldom  to  have  contented  him- 
self with  second-hand  observations,  but  to  have  consulted  for  him- 
self all  original  authorities,  and  to  have  faithfully  prepared  himself 
to  meet  any  probable  or  possible  objection  to  his  own  views." 
(American  Monthly  Review,  Nov.  1832,  vol.  ii.  p.  393.) 

This  Commentary  and  Excursus  are  filled  with  interesting  and 
valuable  information.  The  work  is  intended  for  young  students  m 
divinity,  and  therefore  we  meet  often  with  minute  criticisms,  which 
to  the  matured  scholar  and  theologian  may  appear  unnecessary,  but 
which  will  be  found  highly  useful  to  the  beginner,  as  they  will 
draw  his  attention  to  nice  points  of  theology,  and  so  tend  to  give 
him  accuracy  as  well  as  extent  of  knowledge. 

The  London  impression  of  1833  is  handsomely  and  very  correctly 
printed  under  the  editorial  care  of  the  Rev.  Drs.  J.  P.  Smith  and 
E.  Henderson. 

102.  Exposition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans;  with 
Extracts  from  the  Exegetical  Works  of  the  Fathers  and  Re- 
formers. Translated  from  the  original  German  of  Dr.  Fred. 
Aug.  Gottreu  Tholuck,  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  Royal 
University  of  Halle.  By  the  Rev.  Robert  Meszies.  Vol.  I. 
Edinburgh,  1833,  12mo. 

This  work  forms  part  of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet,  noticed 
in  p.  72.  No.  2.  supra.  The  learned  author.  Professor  "Tholuck, 
has  had  the  distinguished  honour  of  standing  foremost  among  the 
defenders  of  ancient  orthodoxy  against  the  modern  neologians  of 
Germany  :  and  "  the  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is 
the  most  important  work  which  has  hitherto  proceeded  from  his 
pen.  The  universal  approbation  it  has  received  from  the  friends 
of  evangelical  truth,  and  the  fierce  hostility  with  which  it  has 
been  assailed  by  the  rationalist  party  in  Germany"  (where,  not- 
withstanding it  has  passed  through  many  editions),  "  afford  the  most 
satisfactory  evidence  of  its  distinguished  worth."  (Translator's 
preface,  p.  xii.)  Professor  Stuart,  in  the  preface  (o  his  admirable 
work  on  the  epistle  to  the  Romans  (p.  vii.),  has  expressed  the 
highest  approbation  of  Dr.  Tholuck's  labours,  to  which  he  ac- 
knowledges himself  "  most  of  all  indebted."  The  purchaser  of 
Professor  Stuart's  work  with  find  it  desirable  to  study  Dr.  T.'s 
Exposition  in  connection  with  it.  The  translator  has  ably  per- 
formed his  difficult  task,  and  has  enriched  the  volume  with  an 
instructive  preface. 

103.  A  Critical  Exposition  of  the  Ninth  Chapter  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  as  far  as  is  supposed  to  relate  to  the 
Doctrine  of  Predestination.  By  J.  Fawcett.  London,  1752, 
8vo. 

104.  St.  Paul's  Wish  to  be  accursed  from  Christ  illustrated, 
and  vindicated  from  Misconstructions.  With  an  Appendix, 
containing  a  Collection  of  the  most  material  Observations  upon 
the  Text  by  ancient  and  modern  Writers.  By  Bartholomew 
Keelinr.     Oxford,  1766,  8vo. 

105.  De  Consecutione  Sententiarum  in  Pauli  ad  Romanos 
Epistola  Commentatio.  Auctore  Ernesto  Friderico  Hoepfneko 
Lipsiae,  1838,  8vo. 


SicT.  m.  §  6.]        COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


137 


1    ANM)    2   CORINTHIAVS. 

106.  Pniili  ad  Corinthios  Epistolje,  (jrinrR,  prrpctua  anno- 
titione  illuslrata;,  a  Fr.  Aug.  (iuil.  Kuaiihk,  vol.  i.  cunipliM^tens 
Kj)istolain  priorom.     Fraiicoturti,  1792,  Hvo. 

107.  A  Paiapiiiasc  of  Saint  J'aul's  First  Episllc  to  the  Co- 
riiilliians,  vvitli  Explanatory  Notes,  Uy  the  Uev.  J.  G.  Tollky, 
M.A.     London,  1825,  8vo. 

I  OS.  Commcntarius  in  priorem  Divi  I'auU  ad  Corinthios 
Epistolam.  Auctore  Aug.  Ludov.  Christ.  Hkydenreicu.  Mar- 
burgi,  1827-28,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  first  volume  rontains  the  first  eight  chapters  of  St.  Paul's 
Fir.sl  Epi.sllo  to  the  (^'orniililanH.  The  reiiiairiiiig  chaplers  are  illun- 
traled  in  the  second  volume.  In  the  |)rologotiieMa  the  author  lia.s 
given  a  concise  account  of  the  city  of  (^)ririlh,  the  introduction  of 
Chrislianily,  and  the  stale  of  the  Christian  church,  together  with 
tlio  occasion  and  argiimcut  of  the  epistle,  its  canonical  authority 
and  authenticity  ;  and  a  list  of  the  best  coinmcntators  on  this  par- 
ticular epistle.     The  commentary  is  princijiaily  philological. 

109.  Animadversioncs  ad  Cap.  III.  ct  XIII.  E{>istola;  Paul! 
I,  ad  Corinthios.  Scripsit  Dr.  Ant.  Georg.  Holmann.  Lipsise, 
1819,  8vo. 

This  tract  elucidates  certain  words  and  difTicult  passages  in  the 
third  and  ihirteenih  chapters  of  St.  Paul's  first  Epistle  to  the  Co- 
rinthians. 

110.  Observationes  ad  Versus  postremos  Capitis  XIII.  prioris 
Pauli  ad  Corinthios  Epistolis  recle  intelligendos.  Auctore  A. 
SciiOTT.    Jenoj,  1823,  4to. 

111.  Commcntatio  Critica  ct  Exegctica  in  PauIintE  Epistola; 
ad  Corinthios  caput  XIII.  Scripsit  Dr.  L.  G.  Pameau.  Trajecti 
ad  Rhenuni,  1828,  8vo. 

112.  A  Paraphrase  on  the  Fifteenth  Chapter  of  the  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  with  Critical  Notes  and  Observations, 
and  a  preliminary  Dissertation ;  a  Commentary,  with  Critical 
Remarks,  on  the  Sixth,  Seventh,  and  part  of  the  Eighth  Chapters 
of  the  Romans,  &c.    By  John  Alexanoer.  London,  1760,  4to. 

See  an  account  of  this  tract,  in  the  Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
xxxiv.  pp.  443 — 451. 

113.  Pauli  ad  Corinthios  Epistola  secunda,  perpetua  annota- 
tione  illustrata,  a  Jo.  Georg.  Frid.  Leun.  Lemgovia;,  1804,  8vo. 

114.  Epistola  Pauli  ad  Corinthios  posterior,  Gra;ce.  Pcrpetuo 
Commentario  illustravit  A.  G.  Emmeulino.   Lipsia;,  1823,  8vo. 

1 1 5.  Disputatio  de  altera  Pauli  ad  Corinthios  Epistola,  et 
observanda  in  ilia  Apostoli  indole  et  oratione,  quam  pro  summis 
in  theologia  honoribus  in  Academia  Rheno-Traject.,  publico 
cxamini  submittit  Herm.  Jo.  Rotaards.  Trajecti  ad  Rbenum, 
1818,  8vo. 

This  well  compiled  academical  dissertation  consists  of  three 
parts,  in  which  the  author  examines,  1.  The  second  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  ;  2.  The  character  of  Saint  Paul ;  and,  3.  The  language 
and  style  of  the  apostle.  The  second  division  is  particularly 
valuable. 

116.  C.  F.  A.  Fritsche,  De  nonnullis  Posterioris  Pauli 
ad  Corinthios  Epistols  Locis  Dissertationes  Dute.  Lipsis, 
1824,  8vo. 

117.  Alberti  Gerhardi  Becker,  Conjectanea  in  Locum  Pauli- 
num  2  Corinth.  XII.  7-9.     Magdeburgi,  1822,  8vo. 

RALATIAN8   AND   EPHESIANS. 

118.  Sam.  Frid.  Nath.  Mori  Acroases  in  Epistolas  Paulinas 
ad  Galatas  ct  Ephesios.     Lipsia),  1795,  8vo. 

119.  A  Commentary  on  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians, 
translated  from  the  Latin  of  Martin  Luther.  8vo.  and  2 
vols.  12mo. 

There  are  also  editions  extant  in  folio  and  4to.  of  this  valuable 
work,  which  completely  expose  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
works  alone.  We  may  apply  to  it  in  particular  what  Erasmus  is 
recorded  to  have  said  of  Luther's  commentaries  in  general : — 
"There  is  more  solid  divinity  contained  in  one  page  than  could  he 
found  in  many  prolix  treatises  of  schoolmen  and  such  kind  of 
authors."  (Middleton's  Biographia  Evangelica,  vol.  i.  p.  230.) 
Walchius  states  that  Protestants  and  Catholics  have  both  concurred 
in  Uieir  commendations  of  Luther's  work.  (Biblioth.  Theolog.  vol. 
iv.  p.  607.) 

120.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul 
to  the  Galatians  and  Ephesians,  with  Doctrinal  and  Practical 
Observations,  together  with  a  Critical  and  Practical  Commentary 
on  the  Two  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to  the  Thessalonians.  By 
the  late  learned  Samuel  Chaxdler,  D.D.    London,  1777, 4to. 

"  The  paraphrase  clearly  and  fully  expresses  the  meaning  of  the 
sacred  writer;  the  notes  are  enriched  bv  original  quotations  from 
Greek  and  Latin  authors,  in  order  to  illustrate  and  confirm  the 


learned  commentator's  own  criticisms,  and  many  doctrinal  and 
prar-lical  oh.scrvations  are  iiiI<>rs|)orsed,  with  a  View  of  farther 
explaining  the  tendency  of  the  apostle's  reasoning,  and  improving 
the  mural  teiniier  and  conduct  of  the  reader."  "  Tiie  connuciitary 
on  tlie  two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  is  mure  dilliisf:  the 
auilior  has  every  where  introduced  rcicrenccs  to  original  vxriler.", 
with  whom  none  wore  more  conversant,  and  oniitlcd  no  opjnir- 
tuiiily  of  subjoining  nraclicai  reflections,  adapted  to  the  various 
jiassages  which  he  had  previously  cx))laincd  by  Icnrncd  and  liberal 
criticism."     (Monthly  Review,  O.  .S.  vol.  Ivi.  jip.  ItJl,  102.) 

121.  Inter()retatio  Epistola;  Pauli  ad  CJalatas,  auctore  E.  A. 
BoROEH.     Lugfl.  Bat.  1807,  8vo. 

122.  Pauli  ad  Galatas  Epistola.  Latine  vcrtit,  ct  Commen- 
tario PcTpetuo  illustravit  Doctor  ct  Professor  G.  B.  Winkii. 
Lipsia;,  1.S21  ;  Editio  secunda,  aucta  et  einendata,  1827;  Euitio 
tcrlia,  aucta  ct  cmendata,  1829,  8vo. 

\Vhile  this  sheet  was  passing  through  the  press,  a  translation  of 
this  valualile  work  by  the  Uev.  VV.  Cunningham  was  announced 
as  forming  part  of  the  Edinburgh  Bibli(-al  Cabinet,  ('opious  illus- 
trations were  to  be  added  from  the  previous  commentaries  of 
Koppe,  Burger,  and  others. 

123.  Gottlob  Frid.  Gude  de  EcclcsitE  Ephesina;  Statu  impri- 
mis a;vo  apostolico,  Commcntatio  Historico-Excgctico-Critica. 
Acccdit  Vita  S.  Apostoli  Pauli  per  Georgium  Majorem  descripta. 
Lipsise,  1732,  8vo. 

124.  Joannis  Tarnovii  Commcntarius  in  Epistolas  Pauli  ad 
Ephesios,  ad  Philippenses,  ad  Colosscnses,  et  ad  Thessalonicen- 
scs.  4to.     Rostochii,  1636. 

PHILIPPIANS. 

125.  The  Church  at  Philippi,  or  the  Doctrines  and  Conduct 
of  the  early  Christians  illustrated  :  Intended  to  serve  as  an  His- 
torical Commentary  upon  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippiaiis. 
By  Henry  Samuel  Batxes.     London,  1834,  12mo. 

126.  Meinardi  Henrici  Schotani  Analysis  et  Commcntarius 
in  Epi-stolam  Paulli  ad  Philippenses.     Franeckene,  1737,  4to. 

127.  Antonii  Friderici  BuscHiJfGii  Introductio  Historico- 
Theologica  in  Epistolam  PauIIi  ad  Philippenses.  Halae,  1746, 
4lo. 

128.  Pauli  Apostoli  Epistola  ad  Philippenses,  Grsece  ex  Rc- 
censione  Griesbachiana  nova  Versione  Latina  et  Annotatione 
perpetua  illustrata,  a  J.  G.  Am-Ende.   8vo.     Vitebergae,  1798. 

129.  Specimen  Academicum  Inaugurale  de  Coetus  Christiano- 
rum  Philippensis  Conditione  prima;va,  ex  Epistola  iis  ab  Apos- 
tolo  Paulo  scripta  praecipue  dijudicanda  a  Johanne  Hogg.  Lug- 
duni  Batavorum,  1825,  8vo. 

The  origin  and  state  of  the  church  at  Philippi,  the  date,  place 
where  written,  scope  and  argument  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippi- 
ans,  are  discussed  in  this  academical  dissertation,  which  Itappily 
elucidates  many  passages  of  that  epistle. 

COLOSSIAItS. 

130.  Expositio  Epistolse  D.  Pauli  ad  Colosscnses,  per  rcveren- 
dum  in  Christo  Patrem,  Joannem  [Davesaxt]  Episcopum 
Sarisburiensem  jam  primum  edita :  olim  ab  eodem.  Dominie 
Margarets;  in  Academia  Cantabrigiensi  Professorc  Thcologico, 
dictata.     Cantabrigia;,  1627,  folio. 

131.  An  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Colos- 
sians,  by  the  Right  Rev.  John  Davenant,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Salis- 
bury. Translated  from  the  Original  Latin,  with  a  Life  of  the 
Author,  and  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Josiah  Allport.  London, 
1831-32,  2  vols.  8vo. 

As  Bishop  Davenant's  valuable  exposition  of  St.  Paul's  epistle  to 
the  Colo.'.sians  had  long  become  extremely  scarce,  Mr.  Alliwrt  has 
conferred  no  small  favour  on  biblical  students,  by  rendering  his 
work  accessible  to  English  readers.  "  The  translation  not  only 
possesses  the  more  ordinary  and  absolutely  indispensable  prerequi- 
sites of  general  accuracy  and  fidelity,  but  the  more  rare  recom- 
mendations of  considerable  care,  propriety, and  even  elegance."  .... 
"  A  very  valuable  feature  of  the  present  work  is,  that  the  Editor 
has  appended  (in  the  form  of  notes),  biographical  sketches  of  the 
Fathers  and  Schoolmen  whose  names  so  profusely  adorn  the  pages 
of  Davenant.". .  ."  His  notes  contain  a  great  deal  of  curious  and 
valuable  information.  The  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Davenant  de- 
serves the  highest  praise  :  it  is  the  onlu  attempt  that  has  ever  been 
made  to  give  any  thing  like  a  detailed  account  of  the  history  and 
writings  of  that  great  and  good  man."  (Eclectic  Review,  Febru- 
ary, 1833.) 

132.  An  Exposition  upon  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 
Wherein  not  only  the  text  is  methodically  analyzed,  but  the 
sense  of  the  words,  by  the  help  of  writers,  both  ancient  and 
modem,  is  explained.     By  N.  Btfield.     London,  1615,  folio. 


138 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IT.  Chap.  V, 


133.  The  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Colossians,  to  the  Thes- 
salonians,  to  Timothy,  and  to  Titus,  and  the  General  Epistle  of 
St.  James :  a  new  A'^ersion  from  the  Greek,  and  chiefly  from  the 
Text  of  Griesbach.  By  Philalethes.  [John  Jones,  LL.D.]  Lon- 
don, 1820,  12mo. 

Of  this  translation,  which  in  many  instance.s  is  made  to  support 
the  scheme  of  the  modern  Socinians,  the  reader  will  find  an  accounl 
in  the  Eclectic  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xiv.  pp.  277 — 283. 

134.  Isagoge  in  Epistolam  a  Paulo  Apostolo  ad  Colossenses 
datam  Theologica,  Historica,  Critica,  accesserunt  Enarratio  cap.  I. 
Coloss.  V.  1 — 14.  et  Excursus  epistolam  spectantes  tres.  Con- 
fecit  Gulielmus  Boeiimerus.     Berolini,  1829,  8vo. 

135.  Gulielmi  Boehmeri  Symbolse  Biblicae  ad  Dogmarticam 
Christianam  sive  Observationes  in  Sectionem  Apostolicam 
Coloss,  I,  v,  18 — 23,     Wratislavise,  1833,  8vo. 

I    AND   2  THESSALONIANS, 

136.  An  Exposition  upon  the  two  Epistles  of  the  Apostle 
Saint  Paul  to  the  Thessalonians.  By  the  Rev.  Father  John 
Jkwel,  late  Bishop  of  Sarisburie.  London,  1583,  12:no.  Re- 
printed in  1811,  Svo. 

This  valuable  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians 
is  printed  in  the  folio  edition  of  Bp.  Jewel's  works  (London,  1609), 
and  also  in  the  seventh  volume  of  the  compilation,  entitled  the 
"  Fathers  of  the  English  Church." 

137.  JoannisAlphonsi  TuRRETiNi  CommentariusTheoretico- 
practicus  in  Epistolas  Divi  Pauli  ad  Thessalonicenses.  Basileae, 
1739,  Svo.  also  in  the  second  volume  of  the  collective  edition  of 
Turretin's  Works,  in  4to. 

138.  The  Greek  of  the  Epistle  of  Saint  Paul  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians explained.     By  John  Phillips.     London,  1751,  4to. 

"This  work  contains  the  Greek  Text,  but  no  translation.  The 
notes  are  ven?  considerable.  They  are  philological,  critical,  and 
theological.  It  was  designed  as  a  specimen  of  a  work  upon  all  the 
Epistles,  but  which  was  never  completed.  It  is  exceedingly  scarce." 
(Orme's  Biblioth.  Bibl.  p.  349.) 

139.  Pauli  Epistolae  ad  Thessalonicenses.  Recensuit,  vete- 
rvim  recentiorumque  notas  selectas  congessit,  suasque  adjecit,  et 
tamquam  specimen  novae  editionis  Epistolarum  Pauli  edidit  F, 
ScHLEiEKMACHEH,     BcroUni,  1823,  8vo. 

140.  Specimen  Academicum  Inaugurale  de  Ccetus  Christi- 
anorum  Thessalonicensis  Ortu  Fatisque,  et  prioris  Pauli  iis 
scriptae  Epistolae  Consilio  atque  Argumento,  Auctore  Joanne 
Jacobo  BuKGEHHouDT,     Lugdunl  Batavorum,  1825,  Svo, 

This  Dissertation  may  be  considered  as  a  valuable  introduction 
to  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians :  every  topic  which  is 
necessary  to  the  correct  understanding  of  it,  is  satisfactorily  dis- 
cussed. 

141.  Epistolas  Pauli  ad  Thessalonicenses  commentario  et 
delectis  Patrum  Ecclesiasticorum  expositionibus,  margini  sub- 
jectis,  illustravit  Ludovicus  Pelt,     Gryphiswaldiae,  1830,  Svo, 

142.  J.  G,  Reiche  Authentiae  posterioris  ad  Thessalonicenses 
Epistolae  Vindicia.     Gottingae,  1830,  4to. 

1  AND  2  TIMOTHY,  TITUS,  AND  PHILEMON, 

1 43.  D,  Pauli  Epistolae  ad  Timotheum,  Titum  et  Philemonem, 
Observationibus  grammaticis,  historicis,  logicis,  theologicis  illus- 
tratac  ab  Abrahamo  Sculteto,     Francofurti,  1624,  4to, 

144.  S.  Pauli  Apostoli  Epistola  utraque  ad  Timotheum,  cum 
Commentario  Joannis  Cocceii.    Lugduni  Batavorum,  1667, 4to, 

145.  Beckhatjs  (Joach,  Frid,)  Specimen  Observationum 
Critico-Exegeticarum  de  Vocabulis  uttu^  KTyo/ufm;  et  rarioribus 
dicendi  Formulis  in  prima  ad  Timotheum  Epistola  Paulina 
obviis,  Authentiae  ejus  nihil  detrahentibus,     Lingae,  1810,  Svo. 

146.  A.  CuRTii  de  Epistolae  prioris  ad  Timotheum  authentia, 
cum  aliquo  vitae  Paulinas  tempore  concilianda  Commentatio. 
Berolini,  1828,  Svo. 

147.  Commentationes  de  Epistola  posteriori  Pauli  ad  Timo- 
theum.    Scripsit  Johannes  Brochneb.     Hafniae,  1829,  Svo. 

148.  Petri  von  Haven  Commentatio  Analytica  in  Epistolam 
Paulli  ad  Titum,     Hala;,  1742,  4to, 

149.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  of  Saint  Paul  written  to 
Titus.    By  Thomas  Taylor.    Cambridge,  1612, 4to.  1658,  folio. 

Walchius  speaks  very  highly  of  this  commentary,  both  in  a  phi- 
lological and  in  a  practical  point  of  view.  (Bibl.  Theol.  Select, 
vol.  iv.  p.  723.)  The  learned  author  was  a  frequent  preacher  before 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  King  James  I. 

150.  Henrici  Hcmmelii  Explanatio  Epistolae  Apostoli  Pauli 
ad  Philemonem.     Tiguri,  1670,  folio. 


151.  Pauli  ad  Philemonem  Epistola,  Grtece  et  Latine,  illus- 
trata  a  Lebr,  Gottl,  Schmidio,     Lipsiae,  1786,  Svo, 

HEBREWS, 

152.  An  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  with  pre- 
liminary Exercitations.  By  John  Owen,  D.D.  Folio,  4  vols. 
London,  1608-74,  Svo.  7  vols. 

This  work  is  particularly  valuable  for  its  illustration  of  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews  by  the  aid  of  Rabbinical  learning:  it  is  r  ;plele 
with  doctrinal  and  experimental  remarks.  A  well  executed  abridg- 
ment of  it  was  published  in  4  vols.  Svo.  1790,  by  the  late  Dr.  Ed- 
ward Williams,  of  which  a  new  edition  was  primed  in  1815,  4  vols. 
Svo. 

153.  Joannis  Braunii  Commentarius  in  Epistolam  ad  He- 
braeos,  cum  indicibus  locupletissimis  et  quibusdam  tabulis  aeneis 
elegantissimis.     Amstel.  1705,  4to. 

Professor  Braun  or  Braunius  is  well  known  for  several  valuable 
pieces  elucidating  sacred  antiquities.  His  commentary  on  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews,  in  the  0|)inion  of  J.  B.  Carpzov,  is  one  of  the 
best  ever  edited.  It  is  indeed  truly  valuable  for  its  illustrations 
by  the  aid  of  Rabbinical  learning :  and  the  author  is  particularly 
able  in  refuting  the  perverse  interpretations  of  the  celebrated  So- 
cinian  teacher,  Schlichlingius. 

154.  An  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  by  Mr. 
Robert  Duncan,  minister  of  the  Gospel.     Edinburgh,  1731,  Svo. 

A  useful  and  cheap  exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

155.  Joannis  Benedicti  Carpzovii  Exercitationes  in  Pauli 
Epistolam  ad  Hebraeos  ex  Philone  Alexandrino.  Helmstadt, 
1750,  Svo. 

A  work  of  singular  utility  in  explaining  the  phraseology  of  St. 
Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

156.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
By  the  late  Rev.  James  Peirce.  With  a  Paraphrase  and  Notes 
on  the  last  three  chapters  of  the  Hebrews  left  unfinished  by  Mr. 
Peirce,  and  an  Essay  to  discover  the  author  of  the  Epistle  and 
Language  in  which  it  was  originally  written.  By  Joseph  Hal- 
let,  jun,     London,  1733,  4to, 

This  forms  part  of  the  work  noticed  in  p.  134.  No.  72.  of  this  Ap- 
pendix. "  Some  of  the  sentiments,"  says  Professor  Stuart,  "  differ 
widely  from  those  of  Owen,  and  are  such  as  ought  to  be  examined 
with  great  caution  ;  but  the  work,  as  a  whole,  exceeds  any  Eng- 
lish commentary  which  I  have  read.  The  author  has  a  great  deal 
of  acuteness,  and  is  by  no  means  wanting  in  regard  to  a  tact  for 
criticism."  (Stuart  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  p.  286. 
American  edition,  or  p.  346.  London  edition.) 

157.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
To  which  is  prefixed  an  Inquiry  into  : — the  Author  of  this  Epis- 
tle ;  when  it  was  written  ;  the  manner  of  citing  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  and  the  method  of  reasoning  in  it,  &c.  By  Arthur  Ash- 
ley Sykes,  D.D,     London,  1755,  4to. 

158.  Joannis  Augusti  Ernesti  Lectiones  Academicae  in  Epis- 
tolam ad  Hebraeos  ab  ipso  revisae,  cum  ejusdem  excursibus  theo- 
logicis edidit ;  Commentarium,  in  quo  multa  ad  recentissimorura 
imprimis  interpretum  sententias  pertinentia  uberius  illustrantur, 
adjecit  Gotlib  Immanuel  Dindorf,     Lipsise,  1815,  royal  Svo. 

These  Academic  Lectures  of  Ernesti  were  delivered  by  that  emi- 
nent scholar  and  divine  while  he  was  professor  of  divinity  at  Leip- 
sic.  They  have  been  edited  from  his  corrected  copy,  with  various 
important  additions  by  Professor  Dindorf,  who  succeeded  him  in 
the  Hebrew  chair  at  Leipsic.  These  are  included  between  brack- 
ets, with  the  initial  letter  D.,  and  require  to  be  read  with  caution. 
Prof.  Dindorf 's  sentiments  on  the  person  of  Christ  not  being  the 
most  correct.  On  some  of  the  earlier  chapters  there  are  also  some 
marginal  observations  of  an  anonymous  pupil  of  Ernesti's,  which 
are  distinctly  marked.  Professor  Stuart  characterizes  it  as  "  a  book 
of  real  worth  in  a  critical  respect,  although  not  executed  with 
much  taste  as  to  form  and  matter."  (On  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, vol.  i.  p.  287.  American  edition  ;  or  p.  347.  London  edition.) 

159.  A  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.     By  Archibald  Maclean.    London,  1819,  2  vols.  Svo. 

160.  Epistola  ad  Hebraeos,  Latine  versa  et  largo  explicata 
commentario,  a  Chr.  Frid.  Boehme.     Lipsiae,  1823,  Svo. 

161.  Epitre  aux  H>-breux,  divisee  d'apres  les  matieres,  avec 
des  sommaires  indiquant  le  contenu  et  I'objet  de  chaque  division 
et  sous-division,  des  notes,  el  des  intercalations  explicatives  en- 
trem61es  au  texte.     Geneve,  1824,  Svo. 

161*.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  By 
Moses  Stuart,  Associate  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Andover,  United  States,  Andover, 
1827,  2  vols,  Svo,  Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  1833, 
in  1  volume,  Svo, 

This  masterly  work  originated  in  the  arduous  duties  incident  to 
the  office  which  Professor  Stuart  has  for  some  years  filled,  with 


Sect.  III.  §  6.]         COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


139 


equal  credit  to  himself,  and  l)etiefit  to  Iho  Tlienlouieal  Seminary 
at  Andover.  To  borrow  llie  just  eharncler  ^iven  oIIiim  lahoiirM  by 
ihe  Kiiglish  editor  (the  Rev.  l)r.  Henderson) : — "  II  was  iniposHihle 
lor  any  person  who  had  pfiruwed  the  linriier  works  of  our  author 
not  to  hail  with  high  anliciputioiiH  the  present  prodiiition  as  a  most 
valiiul)le  accession  to  hililieal  literature.  Intimately  ncijiiainted 
uith  the  nniiiilia'  of  Hebrew  grammar;  familiar  with  the  iliversi- 
fiod  Htyle  of  the  Hacred  writers;  trained  by  long  study  of  the  laws 
of  biblical  exegesis  to  a  refined  and  maluri^d  tact  in  seizing  (ho 
poini,  the  beariiig,  the  various  shades  and  ramifications  of  meaning 
eouehed  under  the  sacred  phraseology;  imbued  with  a  sincere 
love  of  divine  truth,  an<l  a  proliiund  reverence  lijr  its  dictates  ;  and, 
withal,  endowed  with  a  luiuily  and  richly  cidlivated  intellect,  he 
possesses  (jualifications  peculiarly  fitting  him  tiir  the  perl(>rmance 
of  a  work  replete  with  so  many  difliculties  lus  that  of  a  Translation 
and  Critical  Commentary  on  the  Kpistle  to  l\w  Hebrews.  The 
ordeal  to  whu'h  this  important  portion  of  Scripture  bus  been  sub- 
jected by  the  wild  and  extravagant  hypotheses  of  some  of  the 
muster-spirits  <d"  (Jcrman  theology,  rendered  it  a  matter  of  impe- 
rious necessity  that  some  champion,  compleKdy  accoutred  and  (lis- 
eiplined  to  the  battle,  should  step  li>rward  an<l  lake  up  the  gauntlet 
which  they  have  so  fearlessly  and  vauntingly  tiirovvn  down.  If 
we  mistake  not,  such  a  champion  has  here  entered  the  field,  and 
won  the  day.  Questions  respecting  style,  authorship,  and  interpre- 
tation, which  men  of  such  celebrity  as  Kichhorn,  Hcrtholdt,  Do 
Wette,  and  others,  were  considered  to  have  completely  set  at  rest, 
have  been  submitted  to  a  fre.sh  and  rigid  investigation  ;  and  in  most 
instances  triinnphanily,  in  all  more  or  less  satisliictorily,  the  very 
reverse  of  their  conclusions  has  been  shown  to  be  in  accordance 
with  the  real  facta  of  the  case."     (Preface  to  tlie  English  edition, 

p.  V.) 

The  topics  discussed  in  the  first  volumk,  in  forty  sections, 
ore — the  form  of  the  epistle ;  to  what  church  or  churcnes  it  was 
addressj'd  ;  its  anli(iuity  and  canonical  authority  ;  the  external  and 
internal  evidence  that  it  was  written  by  the  apostle  Paul,  who  is 
most  decisively  shown  to  have  been  its  author.  The  various  ob- 
jections of  Bertholdt,  Schulz,  Seyirarth,  De  Wette,  and  Boehme, 
are  discussed,  and  satisfa(;torily  refuted  :  to  them  succeeds  a  con- 
sideration of  the  style  of  the  epistle  and  of  the  hypotheses  advo- 
ealed  by  some  learned  men,  who  have  severally  ascrilied  it  to  Bar- 
nabas, Luke,  Clement  of  llome,  and  to  Ajiollos.  These  hypotheses 
are  shown  to  be  destitute  of  foundation.  The  volume  concludes 
with  a  brief  notice  of  the  "  Critical  and  Exegetical  Helps"  to  the 
Btudy  of  this  epistle.  The  secono  volumk  connnenccs  with  a  new 
translation  of  the  Epistle  to  the  IIehrov\s,  the  object  of  which  is 
to  give  a  more  exact  view  of  the  features  of  the  original  Greek 
than  is  presented  by  the  authorized  English  version.  This  transla- 
tion is  followed  by  an  admirable  continuous  commentary  upon  the 
whole  epistle.  When  difliculties  demanded  special  and  extended 
investigation,  he  has  thrown  the  result  of  such  investigation  into 
excursus  at  the  end,  after  the  method  pursued  by  Heinrichs,  Koppe, 
Dindorf,  and  other  German  philologers  and  critics ;  because  diffi- 
cult subjects  can  there  be  treated  and  studied  with  more  conve- 
nience, and  also  more  fully,  than  if  intermixed  with  the  usual 
series  of  exegetical  notes.  The  London  reprint  has  been  edited 
with  great  care  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hk.nderso.n. 

162.  A  literal  Translation  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, from  the  original  Greek,  with  copious  explanatory  notes. 
By  the  late  Rev.  George  Vaughan  Sampsox,  M.A.  Edited  by 
his  son,  the  Rev.  G.  V.  Sampson.     London,  1828,  8vo. 

163.  Chrisliani  Theophili  Kuinoel  Commcntarius  in  Epis- 
tolam  ad  Hebrteos.     Lipsiie,  1831,  8vo. 

"  With  the  idiom  and  spirit  of  Paul's  writings,  I  cannot  help 
thinking  him  to  be  but  very  moderately  acquainted.  On  questions 
of  higher  criticism  he  details  with  a  good  deal  of  brevity  and 
accuracy  what  others  have  said  ;  but  he  adds  notliing  to  the  stock 
of  thought  already  before  the  world."  (Prof  Stuart,  in  the  An- 
dover Biblical  Repository,  January,  1833,  vol.  iii.  p.  160.) 

164.  G.  M.  Amthor  Commentatio  Exegetico-Dogmatica  in 
tres  priores  versus  capitis  primi  Epistols  ad  Hebrsos  scriptse. 
Coburgi,  1828,  8vo, 

165.  De  EpistoliE,  quse  dicitur  ad  Hebraeos,  Indole  maxima 
pcculiari  Librum  composuit  Traugott  Augustus  Seiffarth. 
Lipsia;,  1821,  8vo. 

An  elaborate  investigation  of  the  style,  scope,  &c.  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews ;  the  main  object  of  which  is,  to  disprove  the 
Pauline  origin  of  this  epistle.  Dr.  Seyffarlh's  hypothesis  is  com- 
pletely refuted  by  Professor  Stuart  in  his  Commentary  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  $  28. 

165*.  Petri  Hoffttede  de  Groot  Disputatio  qua  Epistola  ad 
Hebrteos  cum  Paulinis  Epistolis  comparatur.  Trajecti  ad  Rhe- 
num,  1826,  8vo. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  here  collated  with  the  other 
writings  of  St  Paul :  at  the  end  there  is  an  index,  showing  under 
various  heads  the  coincidence  between  them.  It  is  a  very  valuable 
tract, 

166.  Essai  Critique  sur  I' Authenticity  de  TEpttre  aux  He- 
.  breux.     Par  Henry-Louis  Lahabpe.    Toulouse,  1832,  8vo. 


This  academical  disquisition,  which  was  publicly  defended 
before  the  Theological  Facully  at  Mnnlauban  for  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  in  Divinity,  is  partly  traiisluled  and  jiarlly  abriilged  with 
much  judgment  from  the  first  Volume  of  Professor  Stuart's  Com- 
mentary on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

107.  Viiidici."E  Originis  Paulintc  ad  Hebrteos  E])istola;,  nova 
rationc  tcntata  a  Frid.  Christ.  Geli-ke.  Lugduni  Butavoruin, 
1832,  8vo. 

The  object  of  this  disquisition  is  to  prove  the  Pauline  origin  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  from  the  coincidence  of  sentiments 
and  expri'ssions  which  the  author  coiu'oivcs  he  has  ihund  between 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  some  of  Seneca's  writings;  which 
coincidence,  he  is  of  opinion,  r-aniiot  be  ti>rtuilous.  but  is  solely  to 
be  derived  from  Paul's  intimate  ac-<|uainlancc  with  the  Roman 
Philosopher.  He  further  argues  in  fiivor  of  the  historical  tradition 
res|)ecting  Paul's  intimacy  with  Seneca,  and  endeavours  to  show, 
from  internal  criteria  of  time,  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Ht^brews  was 
written  during  the  continuance  of  that  intimacy.  The  hypolhesia 
is  maintained  with  great  ingenuity,  though  it  will  not  (v\'e  appre- 
hend) carry  conviction  to  the  mintis  of  its  readers. 

THE    SEVEV    CATHOLIC    EPISTLES.' 

168.  Gottlob  (y'hristiani  Stohr  opusculum  de  Cathoiicarum 
Epistolaruin  occasione  et  scopo.  (In  the  second  volume  of  his 
collected  Opuscula,  pp.  367 — 415.) 

169.  A  Practical  Paraphrase  on  the  Seven  Catholic  Ej)istles, 
after  the  manner  of  Dr.  Clarke's  Paraphr.ase  on  the  Four  Evan- 
gelists.    By  Samuel  Collet.     London,  1734,  Svo. 

170.  Epistolarum  Cathoiicarum  Septenarius,  Gra;cc,  cum  nova 
versionc  Latina,  ac  scholiis  grammaticis  atquc  criticis,  opera  Joh. 
Benedicti  Cahpzovii.     Hala;,  1790,  Svo. 

In  this  work,  the  received  Greek  text  of  the  Seven  Calholio 
Epistles  is  retained,  and  the  punctuation  is  corrected  where  the 
editor  deemed  correction  necessary.  The  now  Latin  version, 
which  is  printed  with  the  Greek  text,  is  very  close:  and  in  his 
scholia  or  notes  Professor  Carpzov  has  vindicated  his  rendering  of 
particular  passages,  or  discussed  various  readings  of  imprjrtaiice; 
and  has  aI.so  illustrated  the  peculiar  idioms  occurring  in  these 
epistles,  especially  those  of  St.  John. 

SAINT  JAMES,  AND    1    AXn   2   PETER. 

171.  Annotatio  ad  Epistolam  Jacobi  perpetua  cum  hrcvi  Trac- 
tationc  Isagogica.  Scripsit  Matth.  Schreckenburgkii.  Stutt- 
gardia;,  1832,  8vo. 

172.  Commcntarius  in  Epistolam  Jacobi.  Conscripsit  Car. 
Godofr.  Guil.  Tueile.     Lipsia;,  1833,  Svo. 

173.  A  Practical  Commentary,  or  an  Expoisition  with  Notes 
on  the  Epistle  of  James.  By  Thomas  Manton.  London, 
1653,  4to. 

173*.  Sam.  Frid.  Nathan.  Mori  Pra;lcctiones  in  Jacobi  et 
Petri  Epistolas.     Edidit  C.  A.  Donat.     Lipsia;,  1794,  Svo. 

174.  A  Commentary  on  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter,  by  Robert 
Leighton,  D.D.  Archbishop  of  Glasgow.  2  vols.  Svo.  Various 
editions. 

This  admirable  commentary,  which  fills  the  first  two  volumes 
of  Archbishop  Leighton's  works,  is  wholly  practical,  and  has  long 
been  admired  for  its  piety.  Dr.  Doddridge,  in  his  paraphrase  on 
this  Epistle,  has  acknow'ledged  himself  deeply  indebted  to  Arch- 
bishop Leighlon  for  many  important  hints. 

175.  Huberti  Philippi  de  Kanter  Commentatio  in  locum 
1  Petri  V.  1 — 4.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1823,  4to. 

1 76.  In  secundam  S.  Petri  Apostoli  Epistolam  Commcntarius. 
Auctore  Thoma  Smith,  S.T.P.  In  pp.  177 — 372.  of  his  Mis- 
cellanea.    Londini,  1690,  Svo. 

177.  A  Dissertation  on  2  Pet  i.  16—21.  in  which  the  Force 
of  the  Apostle's  reasoning  is  shown,  and  the  connection  of  the 
whole  passage  is  explained.  By  William  Puimatt.  London, 
1751,  Svo. 

178.  A  Dissertation  upon  the  controverted  passages  in  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Jude  concerning  the  .\ngels  that  sinned,  and  who 
kept  not  their  first  estate.  By  Samuel  Hex  let.  London, 
1778,  Svo. 

1,  2,  AXD  3  JOHX. 

179.  Epistolae  tres  Catholicse  S.  Joannis  Gnece,  notis  illustrats 
a  Leonhardo  Christophoro  Rchlio.    Amstelodami,  1739,  12mo. 

ISO.  Sam.  Frid.  Nath.  Mori  Pnelectiones  Exegeticae  in  tres 
Johannis  Epistolas,  cum  nova  earundem  paraphrasi  Latina. 
Cura  C.  A.  Hempel.     Lipsise,  1797,  Svo. 

This  work  contains  a  free  Latin  version  of  St.  John's  three 
Epistles,  as  it  was  dictated  by  the  late  celebrated  Professor  Morus 

'  The  Paraphrases  of  Dr.  Benson  on  these  Epistles  have  already  been 
noticed  in  No.  74,  p.l34.  of  this  Appendix. 


140 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


in  his  Divinity  Lccliires,  together  with  his  observations  on  it,  and 
two  critical  Excursus,  one  of  which  relates  to  the  disputed  pas- 
sage in  1  John  v.  7,  8. 

181.  A  Commentary  upon  the  First,  Second,  and  Third 
Epistles  of  Saint  Jolin.  By  Thomas  Havtkins.  London, 
1808,  8vo. 

182.  Joh.  Jac.  Rambojjnf.t,  Specimen  Academicum  de  Se- 
cunda  Epistola  Johannca.     Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1819,  8vo. 

183.  Versio  Latina  Epistolarum  et  Libri  Visorum  Joannis 
Novi  Testament!,  perpetua  adnotatione  illustrata  a  M.  Godofr. 
Sigismund.  Iaspis.  Editio  altera,  novis  curls  emendata  et  aucta. 
Lipsiae,  1821,  8vo. 

JCDE. 

184.  An  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  of  Jude.  By  William 
Jknktn.     London,  1652-54,  2  vols.  4to. 

185.  A  Practical  Commentary,  or  an  Exposition,  with  Notes, 
on  the  Epistle  of  Jude.  By  Thomas  Manton,  B.D.  London, 
1658,  4to. 

186.  Hermann!  Witsii  Commentarius  in  Epistolam  JudiB. 
Lug.  Bat.  1703,  4to. 

A  learned,  elegant,  and  perspicuous  illustration  of  the  Epistle  of 
Jude. 

187.  Epistola  Judse,  Graece,  commentario  critico  et  annotatione 
perpetua  illustrata,  a  Henr.  Carl.  Alex.  Haenlein.  Erlangae, 
1799,  8vo. 

188.  Collectanea,  sive  Notae  Criticse  et  Commentarius  in 
Epistolam  Judae.  Accedunt  de  fonte  Doctrinse,  et  Dictionis 
Judae  genere  et  colere,  Dissertationes  huae.  Auctore  M.  T. 
Laurmann.     GroningaB,  1818,  8vo. 

189.  A.  Jessien,  de  Aubivruu.  Epistolae  Judae  Commentatio 
Critica.     Lipsiae,  1820,  8vo. 

THE  REVELATION  OF   SAINT  JOHN. 

190.  In  the  second  tome  or  part  of  Mr.  Hugh  BROtrcHTON's 
works  (pp.  408 — 522.),  there  is  an  exposition  or  interpretation 
of  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John,  entitled  "  A  Revelation  of  the 
Holy  Apocalypse."  The  learned  writer  expounds  it  chiefly  of 
the  corruptions  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

191.  Clavis  Apocalyptica  ex  innatis  et  insitis  Visionum 
Characteribus  eruta  et  demonstrata  a  Josepho  Mede. — Ejusdem 
Commentarius  in  Apocalypsin,  et  Appendix  ad  Clavem  Apoca- 
lypticam. 

These  excellent  treatises  "  of  the  pious  and  profoundly  learned" 
Joseph  Mede  (as  he  is  justly  styled  in  the  title-page  to  the  collec- 
tive edition  of  his  works)  were  originally  published  in  4to.,  but  now 
form,  together  with  some  other  disquisitions  on  prophecy,  the  second 
volume  of  the  folio  edition  of  his  works.  Mede  is  universally  al- 
lowed to  have  led  the  way  to  a  correct  and  rational  interpretation 
of  the  Apocalypse.  The  examination  of  his  Clavis  occupies  the 
chief  part  of  Bishop  Kurd's  tenth  sermon  on  the  study  of  the  pro- 
phecies ;  and  that  eminent  prelate,  after  adverting  to  the  numerous 
and  abortive  attempts  to  explain  this  mysterious  book,  which  were 
made  soon  after  the  Reformation,  has  the  following  striking  remark 
concerning  Mede:  —  "The  issue  of  much  elaborate  inquiry  was, 
that  the  book  itself  was  disgraced  by  the  fruitless  efforts  of  its  com- 
mentators, and  on  the  point  of  being  given  up  as  utterly  impene- 
trable, when  a  sublime  genius  arose  in  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century,  and  surprised  the  learned  world  with  that  great  desidera- 
tum— a  key  to  the  Revelations."  (Works,  vol.  v.  p.  270.)  The  tenth 
of  Bishop  Kurd's  sermons  on  the  prophecies  discusses,  after  Mede, 
the  interpretation  of  the  Apocalypse. 

192.  Clavis  Apocalyptica,  or  the  Key  to  the  Apocalypse, 
educed  and  demonstrated  from  the  natural  and  internal  Charac- 
ters of  the  Visions ;  for  the  use  of  those  to  whom  God  hath 
imparted  the  love  and  desire  of  searching  into,  and  understanding 
that  wonderful  Prophecy.  By  Joseph  Mede,  B.D.  Translated 
by  a  Clergyman  of  the  Established  Church.  London,  1831, 
I2mo. 

193.  A  Translation  of  Mede's  Clavis  Apocalyptica.  By  R. 
Bransby  Cooper,  Esq.     London,  1833,  Svo. 

193*.  A  Commentary  on  the  Revelation  of  St.  John.  By  R. 
Bransby  Cooper,  Esq.     London,  1833,  Svo. 

"  The  first  of  these  publications  will  be  a  very  acceptable  present 
to  the  English  student  of  the  Bible ;  as,  in  having  Mede's  views 
set  before  him,  he  will  certainly  have  those  of  the  soundest  writer 
on  prophecy  unfulfilled.  The  second  work  is  also  valuable,  as  the 
commentary  is  nearly  founded  upon  Mede's  views,  and  Mr.  Cooper 
points  out  where  he  has  gone  beyond  them."  (British  Magazine, 
June,  1833,  p.  G92.) 

194.  Anacrisis  Apocalypseos  Joannis  Apostoli,  qua  in  veras 
interpretandae  ejus  hypotheses  diiigenter  inquiritur,  et  ex  iisdem 


ititerprctatio  f;icta,  certis  historiarum  monumcntis  confirmatur  et 
illustrator,  turn  quoque  quae  Mcldensis  Pracsul  Bossuetus  hujus 
libri  commentario  supposuil,  et  excgetico  Protestantium  systo- 
mati  in  visis  de  Bestia  ac  Babylone  Mystica  objccit,  scdulo 
examinantur.  Auctore  Campegio  Vitringa.  Anistelajdami, 
1719,  4to. 

195.  A  Perpetual  Commentary  on  the  Revelation  of  Saini 
John,  with  a  Preliminary  Discourse  concerning  the  Principles 
upon  which  the  said  Revelation  is  to  he  understood.  By  Charles 
Daubuz  M.A.  New  modelled,  abridged,  and  rendered  plain  to 
the  meanest  capacity,  by  Peter  Lancaster,  A.M.  London,  1730, 
4to. 

The  best  edition  of  an  elaborate  and  very  useful  work,  of  which 
later  writers  have  not  failed  to  avail  themselves.  Daubuz's  work 
was  first  printed  in  folio,  1720. 

196.  The  Scripture  Preservative  against  Popery  ;  being  a 
Paraphrase  with  Notes  on  the  Revelation  of  St.  John.  By 
Thomas  Ptle,  M.A.     London,  1735,  Svo.  1795,  2d  edition. 

This  volume  completes  the  Paraphrase  on  the  New  Testament, 
after  the  manner  of  Dr.  Clarke.  Mr.  Pyle's  Paraphrase  on  the  Acts 
and  Epistles  is  noticed  in  p.  131.  No.  2.  supra. 

197.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint 
John.  By  Moses  LowMAN.  2d  edit.  London,  1745,  4to.  Lon- 
don, 1807,  Svo.  4th  edition. 

Bishop  Tomline  includes  this  work  in  his  list  of  books  for  clergy- 
men and  biblical  students.  Dr.  Doddridge  has  said  of  it,  that  he 
"  has  received  more  satifaction  from  it,  with  respect  to  many  diffi- 
culties" in  the  book  of  Revelation,  than  he  "  ever  found  elsewhere, 
or  expected  to  have  found  at  all."  (Works,  vol.  ii.  Leeds  edit.  p.  37.) 
He  has  given  an  abstract  of  Mr  Lowman's  scheme  of  interpretation 
in  his  229th  lecture.  (Works,  vol.  v.  pp.  410 — 414.)  Lowman's 
scheme  of  the  seven  seals  is  also  approved  by  the  late  Rev.  David 
Simpson,  in  his  "  Key  to  the  Prophecies"  (p.  582.),  as  more  consistent 
with  history  than  that  of  Bishop  Newton,  printed  in  the  second 
volume  of  his  dissertations  on  the  prophecies. 

198.  BENfiELiTJs's  Introduction  to  his  Exposition  of  the  Apo- 
calypse ;  with  his  preface,  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  conclusion 
of  it ;  and  also  his  marginal  Notes  on  the  text,  which  are  a 
summary  of  the  whole  exposition.  Translated  from  the  high 
Dutch,  by  John  Robertson,  M.D.     London,  1757,  Svo. 

See  an  account  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
xviii.  pp  25 — 28.  The  substance  of  Bengel's  expository  writings 
on  the  Apocalypse  is  given  in  the  Rev.  John  Wesley's  notes  men- 
tioned in  p   131   No.  12.  of  this  Appendix. 

199.  The  Revelations  translated,  and  explained  throughout, 
with  keys,  illustrations,  notes,  and  comments ;  a  copious  intro- 
duction, argument,  and  conclusion.  By  W.  Cooke,  Greek  Pro- 
fessor at  Cambridge,  &c,     1789,  Svo. 

"A  writer  who  can  discover"  (as  Mr.  Cooke  has  done) "  the  Jewish 
church  in  the  Iliad,  and  Christianity  in  the  Odyssey,  may  certainly 
find  whatever  he  pleases  in  the  Book  of  Revelation ;  but  it  is  not 
equally  certain  that  he  is  qualified  to  detect  the  fallacies  of  Joseph 
Mede,  and  to  prove  him  mistaken,  false,  and  erroneous.  Though 
the  author  professes  to  '  have  lighted  the  taper  of  God's  truth  from 
the  kindled  incense  of  prayers,'  and  though  he  may  expect  that  it 
will  '  flame  like  a  fire-brand,  fling  and  bounce,  and  run,  singeing 
and  scorching  wherever  it  touches,'  we  have  been  so  unfortunate 
as  not  to  receive  from  this  flaming  taper  a  single  ray  to  guide  us 
through  this  region  of  darkness."  (Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  iii. 
p.  148.) 

200.  Commentarius  in  Apocalypsin  Joannis.  Scripsit  Jo. 
Gothofr.  EicHHORN.     Gottingae,  1792,  2  vols,  small  Svo. 

The  hypothesis  of  the  celebrated  Professor  Eichhorn  is,  that  the 
Revelation  of  Saint  John  is  a  prophetic  drama,  the  true  subject  of 
which  is  the  spiritual  victory  of  Christianity  over  Judaism  and 
Paganism.  As  this  Commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  is  not  of  very 
frequent  occurrence  in  this  country,  the  following  abstract  of  his 
scheme  may  be  not  unacceptable  to  the  reader.  Ke  divides  the 
Apocalypse  into  four  parts,  viz.  1.  The  Title ; — 2.  The  Prologue 
itself; — 3.  The  Drama  itself; — and  4.  The  Epilogue. 

1.  The  Title,  (i.  1—3.) 

2.  The  Prologue  (i.  4. — iii.  22.),  in  which  it  is  stated  that  the  argu- 
ment of  the  drama  belongs  to  the  Christians;  Epistles  to  the: 
churches  being  added,  which  in  the  symbolic  style  of  tlie  poem] 
are  represented  by  the  number  seven. 

3.  The  Drama  itself  (iv.  1. — xxii.  5.)  which  consists  of  a  prelude  j 
and  three  acts  ! ! ! 
In  the  Prelude  (iv.  1. — viii.  5.),  the  scenery  is  prepared  and ' 

adorned. 
Act  I.  Jerusalem   is  taken,  i.  e.  Judaism  is  conquered  by  the 

Christian  Religion,  (vii.  6. — xii.  17.) 
Act  II.  Rome  is  captured ;  i.  e.  Paganism  is  subdued  by  the 

Christian  Religion,  (xi.  18. — xx.  10.) 
Act  III.   The  New  Jerusalem  descends  from  heaven ;  or  the 

happiness  of  the  life  to  come,  which  is  to  endure  for  ever,  is 

described,  (xx.  11. — xxii.  5.) 
4  The  Epilogue,  (xxii.  6—21.; 


Sect.  IH.  §  6.]  COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

a.  Of  the  Angel,  (xxii.  G.) 

b.  Of  Jesus  Christ,  (xxii.  7 — 16.) 

c.  Of  Saint  John,  who  dpnounces  a  curse  against  those  who  shall 
adil  to  or  diminish  the  predictions  contained  in  this  bcwk  (xxii. 
U'l — 20.),  and  concludes  with  an  a|X)stolical  benediction.  (21.) 

The  hyiKJihesis  of  Eichhorn  (we  uiiderslaiid)  was  attacked  and 
refuted  by  M.  Lange,  in  his  (iernian  translation  of  the  Aiwcalypsc. 

201.  A  Commentary  on  the  Revelations.  Ry  Bryce  Joiin- 
BTONK,  D.D.     Edini)urgh,  1794,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  wo  have  not  had  an  op[Kjriuniiy  of  seeing:  it  is  stated 
by  Dr.  K.  Williams  to  be  "  w<^ll  calculated  lor  general  use,  being 
written  with  great  persiiicuity,  anil  in  a  popular  practical  strain." 
(Christian  Preacher,  Appendix,  j).  4H7.) 

202.  RcflcptionssurrApocalyp.se.  Par  E.  GinEBT,  Minister 
de  la  Chapdlc  Royalc,  ct  Rcclcur  de  St.  Andre  dans  I'lslc  de 
Guernsey.     Gucrii.scy,  1796,  Hvo. 

Plain,  pious,  and  practical.  The  learned  author  has  chiefly  fol- 
lowed tlie  cx|x)sition  given  by  Rishop  Newton  in  the  second  volume 
of  his  Dissertations  on  the  Pro|)hccies. 

20.3.  Practical  Observations  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John, 
written  in  the  year  1775.  By  the  laic  Mrs.  Bowulkh.  2d  edit. 
Bath,  1800,  12mo. 

This  work  is  expressly  designed  for  those  who  have  not  leisure 
or  inclination  to  oxaiViine  the  prophetical  meaning  of  the  Apocalypse. 
"  Many  such  readers  will  doubtless  be  Ibund  ;  and  whoever  takes 
up  the  Iwok  with  a  serious  mind,  will  be  edified  by  the  good  sense, 
|)iety,  and  modesty  of  the  writer."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xvi. 
p.  501.) 

204.  A  Commentary  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John,  accom- 
panied with  Historical  Testimony  of  its  accomplishment  to  the 
present  day.  By  the  Rev.  E.  W.  Whxtakeh.  London,  1802, 
8vo. 

The  present  work  is  an  enlarged  edition  of  a  small  w'ork  on  the 
prophecies,  originally  printed  in  1795.  The  author  "  has  the  pecu- 
liar merit  of  compelling  the  historian  Giblwu  to  give  testimony,  in 
almost  everj'  instance  that  falls  within  the  limits  of  his  chronology, 
to  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies."  The  points  insisted  on  by 
Mr.  VVhilaker,  he  "  has  succinctly  handled,  and  reasoned  upon  each 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  his  work,  if  not  decisive  u\wn  the 
subject,  yet  too  important  not  to  become  a  book  of  reference  and 
authority  to  future  commentators."  (British  Critic,  vol.  xxiii.  O.  S. 
Pref.  p.  iv.  and  p.  252.) 

205.  Brief  Commentaries  upon  such  parts  of  the  Revelation 
and  other  Prophecies  as  immediately  refer  to  the  present  times. 
By  Jo.seph  Galloway,  Esq.     London,  1802,  8vo. 

200.  The  Apocalypse,  or  Revelation  of  Saint  John,  translated, 
with  Notes  critical  and  explanatory.  To  which  is  prefixed  a 
Dissertation  on  the  divine  origin  of  the  book,  in  answer  to  the 
objections  of  the  late  Professor  Michaelis ;  with  a  biographical 
chart  of  writers  in  the  early  Christian  church  who  appear  to 
have  aflbrded  evidence  in  favour  of  the  Apocalypse.  By  John 
Chappel  WoonHousK,  D.D.     London,  1806,  royal  8vo. 

"This,"  said  the  late  Bishop  Hurd,  "  is  the  best  book  of  the  kind 
I  have  seen.  It  owes  its  superiority  to  two  things,  —  the  author's 
understanding,  for  the  most  part,  the  apocalyptic  symbols  in  a  spi- 
ritual, not  a  literal  sense  :  secondly,  to  the  care  he  has  taken  to  fix 
the  precise  iraiwrt  of  those  symbols,  from  the  use  made  of  them  by 
the  old  prophetical  and  other  writers  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment. Still  many  difficulties  remain,  and  will  remain  to  the  time 
of  the  end."  (Mnnuscript  note  of  the  late  Bishop  Hard,  on  a  blank 
leaf  of  a  presentation  copy  of  this  work,  in  the  librari/  of  Ilartlcburi/. 
See  Gentleman's  Magazine,  vol.  Ixxviii.  part  ii.  p.  702.)  After  siirh 
commendation,  any  further  observation  is  unnecessary.  The  text 
of  the  Apocalypse  is  handsomely  printed  in  three  columns,  contain- 
ing the  Greek  text  of  Griesbach's  second  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Dr.  W.'s  own  translation  from  it,  and  the  authorized  version, 
from  which  he  never  departs  but  when  the  sense  requires  it.  The 
reader  who  is  desirous  of  seeing  analyses  of  this  most  excellent 
work,  may  consult  the  British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxix.  pp.  190 — 200.; 
and  the  Kcleclic  Review,  O.  S,  vol.  ii.  part  ii.  pp.  214-— 222. 

207.  Annotations  on  the  Apocalypse,  intended  as  a  sequel  to 
those  of  Mr.  Elslcy  on  the  Gospels,  and  Mr.  Slade  on  the 
Epistles.  For  the  Use  of  Students  in  Prophetical  Scripture. 
By  John  Chappel  Wooduocse,  D,D.,  Dean  of  Litchfield.  Lon- 
don, 1828,  8vo. 

The  commendations  bestowed  by  the  late  Bishop  Hurd  upon  Dr. 
Wood  house's  larger  publication  (just  noticed)  are  equally  applicable 
to  his  present  work,  in  which  piety  and  philology  are  happily  united. 
The  notes  are  partly  abridged  from  his  former  translation  of  the 
Apocalypse,  and  are  partly  new  :  the  Greek  text  of  the  original, 
and   the   improved  vei-sion  of  Dr.  W.,  are  here  omitted  ;  and  the 


141 

ofl^'ers  his  volume  "as  a  sequel"  to  the  compilations  of  Messrs.  Els- 
ley  and  Slade  (noticed  in  p.  131.  No.  10.  and  p.  135.  No.  79.  supra), 
it  may  be  most  advantageously  couh'ultcd  and  studied  as  a  dislmct 
work  ;  being  sutliciently  critical  fur  the  use  of  the  scholar,  at  the 
same  time  that  its  perspicuity  renders  it  highly  valuable  to  ordinaiy 
readers. 

208.  England  Safe  and  Triumphant :  or  Researches  into  the 
Apocalyptic  Little  Book,  and  Projjhecies,  connected  and  synchro- 
nical.  By  the  Rev.  Francis  Tiiul'ston,  M.A.  Coventry  and 
London,  1812,  2  vols.  8vo. 

"  Among  many  interpretations  of  the  Divine  Book  of  the  Reve- 
lation, here  is  one  which  expressly  views  in  it  the  iiermaneney  of 
the  <-hurch  of  ICngliiiid,  and  lis  prevalence  over  all  oilier  denomina- 
tions ol'  the  Christian  world  I  Aluch  as  we  are  inclined  to  believe 
that  there  is  a  strong  (iiiiiidation  of  triilh  in  what  lliis  author  urges, 
in  conlbrniity  wilh  other  sounil  interpreters,  or  built  on  their  posi- 
tions, we  cannot  but  think  in  many  phices,  particularly  towards  the 
latter  end  of  his  work,  he  is  rather  lof)  rapid  in  Ibrming  his  deduc- 
tions and  conclusions;  in  some  of  which  wo  confess  ourselves 
unable  to  Ibllow  him."  (British  Critic,  O.S.  vol.  xxxiii.  pp.593.  595.) 

209.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Dragon,  Beast,  and  False  Pro])hct 
of  the  Apocalypse;  in  which  the  number  666  is  satisfactorily 
explained  :  and  al.so  a  full  illustration  of  Daniel's  Vision  of  the 
Ram  and  He-Goat.  By  James  Edward  Clauke.  London,  1814, 
8vo. 

"  We  cannot  agree  with  the  author  in  many  of  his  explanations  : 
yet  we  have  read  his  work  with  some  degree  of  salisliiciion,  and 
think  he  has  succeeded  in  throwing  additional  light  on  some  of 
the  obscure  subjects  which  he  undertakes  to  illustrate."  (Eclectic 
Review,  N.  S.  vol.  iv.  p.  289.) 

210.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Seals  and  Trumpets  of  the  Apo- 
calypse, and  the  Prophetical  Period  of  twelve  hundred  and  sixty 
years.  By  William  Ccmxghame,  Esq.  London,  1813.  'i'hird 
Edition,  1833,  8vo. 

For  a  copious  analysis  of  this  soberly  written  and  truly  valuable 
w'ork  (now  very  materially  improved),  see  the  Christian  Observer, 
lor  1814,  vol.  xiii.  pp.  10:j— 180.) 

210*.  On  the  Jubilean  Chronology  of  the  Seventh  Trumpet 
of  the  Apocalypse,  and  the  Judgment  of  the  Ancient  of  Days, 
Dan.  vii.  9. ;  with  a  brief  account  of  the  Discoveries  of  Mons.  do 
Chesaux  as  to  the  great  Astronomical  Cycles  of  2300  and  1260 
years,  and  their  dilFcrence,  1040  years.  By  William  Cumkg- 
hame,  Esq.     London  and  Edinburgh,  1834,  8vo. 

211.  The  Prophetic  History  of  the  Christian  Revelation  Ex- 
plained; or  a  Brief  Exposition  of  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John. 
By  the  Rev.  George  ScHMrcKKn,  Pastor  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church,  York  Town,  Pennsylvania.  Vol.  L  Baltimore, 
1817,  8vo.     [This  work  has  not  been  completed.] 

211*.  Apocalypsis  Grsece.  Perpetua  Annotatione  illustrata 
a  Joanne  Henrico  Heinricus.  Gottingse,  1821.  2  parts  or 
vols.  8vo. 

Though  published  as  a  detached  work,  this  commentary  on  the 
Apocalypse  forms  part  of  the  Novum  Testamentuin  Koppianiim 
(noticed  in  p.  127.  No.  16.  of  this  Appendix),  of  which  it  consti- 
tutes the  tenth  volume.  After  Eichlioni,  Grotius,  Hug,  and  other 
modern  continental  critics,  Dr.  Heinrichs  considere  the  Apocalypse 
as  a  sacred  |>oem  representing,  in  a  dramatic  form  (the  scenery  of 
w-hich  is  cliiefiy  borrowed  from  the  ancient  prophets),  the  final 
triumph  of  Christianity  over  Judaism  and  Paganism;  the  three 
cities  of  Sodom,  Babylon,  and  Jerusalem, — or  the  Alatron,  the 
Harlot,  and  tlie  Bride, — being  intended  to  represent  those  three 
systems.  Heinrichs  does  not  adhere  to  the  artificial  divisions  of 
Eichhorn,  of  which  we  have  given  an  abstract  in  page  140. 

212.  M.  T.  Laurmass  Prselectio  de  imaginum  sive  figunip 
rum  poeticarum  in  Apocalypsi  Joannea,  indole  atque  prctio. 
Groningfe,  1822,  8vo. 

213.  The  Chronology  of  the  Apocalypse,  investigated  and 
defended.     By  John  Oveutov.     London,  1822,  8vo. 

214.  A  concise  Exposition  of  the  Apocalypse,  so  far  as  the 
Prophecies  are  fulfilled ;  several  of  which  are  inteq)rcted  in  a 
dill'erent  way  from  that  adopted  by  other  Commentators.  By  J. 
R.  Pauk,  M.D.     London,  1823,  8vo. 

The  author  of  this  work  regards  the  Apocalypse  as  being  alto- 
gether a  spiritual  and  not  a  political  prophecy;  that  is,  as  relating 
exclusively  to  the  progress  of  true  religion,  and  not  to  the  history 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  This  general  principle  is  derived  from  the 
excellent  work  of  Dean  Woodhouse,  noticed  in  the  preceding 
column,  to  which  Dr.  Park  acknowledges  his  obligations,  and 
which  he  has  for  the  most  part  taken  as  his  guide.     "This  concise 


(Eclectic  Review, 


text  of  St.  John,  according  to  the  authorized  English  version  is  ex<K.silion  deserves  to  be  recommended  as  a  useful  outline  of  the 
divided  into  parts  and  sections,  with  a  view  to  a  more  complete 
arrangement  and  illustration  of  this  prophetic  book,  the  genuine- 
ness and  divine  inspiration  of  which  are  most  satisfactorily  vindi- 
cated from  the  objections  of  the  late  learned  Profes-sor,  Sir  J.  D. 
Michaelis,  in  a  preliminary  disquisition.     Although  Dr.  Woodhouse 


.\pocalvptic  Predictions  and  their  fullilment." 
N.  S.  vol.  xxii.  p.  341.) 

215.    Dissertations  introductory  to  the  Study  and  Right  Un- 
derstanding of  the  Language,  Structure,  and  Contents  of  the 


142 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  IL  Chap.  V. 


Apocalypse.     By  Alexander  Tilloch,  LL.D.     London,  1823, 
8vo. 

These  dissertations  are  seven  in  number.  In  the  first  two  Dr. 
Tillocli  has  very  ingeniously,  but  we  think  not  satisfaclorily, 
endeavoured  lo  show  that  the  Apocalyjise  was  one  of  the  earliest- 
written  books  of  the  New  Testament;  but  the  weight  of  historical 
evidence  we  have  shown  in  the  present  volume  of  this  work  (see 
pp.  381,  382.)  is  decidedly  in  iavour  of  the  late  date  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse. The  remaining  live  disser'alions  contain  many  ingenious 
observations  on  the  language  and  style  of  this  prophetic  book. 
"There  is  much  ingenuity  displayed  in  these  pages,  and  many 
remarks  occur  in  them  that  are  deserving  of  consideration  ;  but 
we  regret  lo  be  obliged  to  add,  that  the  learned  autlior  has  fre- 
quently ventured  assertions  wholly  gratuitous,  in  order  to  support 
a  favourite  hypoilicsis,  to  which  he  had  obviously  determined  that 
every  (iict  should  be  made  to  bend  ;  and  that  he  has  conducted 
many  of  the  discussions  in  the  volume  before  us  in  a  manner  that 
must  be  pronoimced,  by  every  impartial  reader,  not  only  unfair, 
but  in  some  instances  disingenuous."  The  author  "  may  liiirly  be 
represented  as  having  brought  under  the  notice  of  biblical  students 
some  very  interesting  topics,  and  he  has  furnished  many  ingenious 
and  curious  remarks  on  the  several  subjects  of  his  Dissertations, 
although,  in  but  too  many  cases,  he  has  exhibited  them  in  a  crude 
and  imsubstantial  form.  (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxiii.  pp. 
343.  360.) 

216.  An  Explanation  of  the  Apocalypse  or  Revelation  of  St. 
John.     By  Alexander  Ssitth.     Washington  City,  1825,  12mo. 

The  author  of  this  publication  (who  is  a  general  in  the  army  of 
the  United  States  of  America)  announced  it  in  a  pompous  adver- 
tisement, in  which  he  "  certified  on  honour  that  he  had  discovered 
the  meaning  of  the  Apocalypse,  which,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  passages  in  the  second  and  third  chapters,  has  never  been  ap- 
proached by  any  expositor."  The  pamphlet  (for  it  contains  only 
fifty-seven  loosely-printed  pages,  exclusive  of  the  title-page)  is 
published  as  the  result  of  twenty  years'  study ;  and,  as  it  is  utterly 
unknown  in  this  country,  the  following  concise  outline  of  its  con- 
tents may  perhaps  gratify  the  curiosity  of  the  reader.  Contrary  to 
all  historical  evidence,  he  affirms  that  the  Apocalypse  is  not  men- 
tioned by  any  of  the  Fathers  until  about  the  close  of  the  second 
century — that  the  several  passages  which  are  common  to  their 
writings  and  this  book,  are  quotations  from  the  former  by  the  author 
of  the  latter,  and  not  vice  versa,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  because 
the  Book  of  Revelation  is  a  much  more  masterly  and  perfect  pro- 
duction than  the  others,  and  the  world  is  in  a  state  of  progressive 
improvement,  as  the  rude  hut  precedes  the  splendid  palace  ;  (Gene- 
ral Smyth's  book  is  therefore  superior  to  all  the  productions  of  an- 
tiquity ! !) — that  "  the  fall  of  the  mystical  Babylon  is,  UNauESTiON- 
ADLY,  the  destruction  of  Byzantium  by  the  forces  of  Severus,  in 
the  year  195 ;  and  this  event  is  the  beacon  which  we  must  keep 
in  view,  while  searching  for  the  other  events,  enigmatically  related 
in  this  book," — that  Irenseus,  bishop  of  Lyons,  must  have  been  the 
author  of  the  Ajwcalypse,  because  he  wrote  several  books,  in  one 
of  which  he  mentioned  the  ancient  copies  of  the  Apocalypse,  and 
was  also  acquainted  with  several  persons  who  figured  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  destruction  of  Byzantium — that  it  is  a  compilation  from 
the  prophets,  the  theology  of  the  Rabbins,  the  Pastor  of  Hermas, 
and  the  more  ancient  Apocalypses,  applied  by  the  writer  to  the 
history  of  his  own  time — and  that  it  is  a  pious  forgery,  written  in 
the  spirit  of  insatiable  revenge .'  The  mystical  number  666  he 
finds  in  the  name  of  Decimus  Clodius  Alhinus,  although  the  Latin 
numerals  contained  in  that  name  amount  only  to  2318!  Such  is 
the  outline  of  this  author's  plan,  whose  fallacy,  ignorance,  and 
presumption  have  been  very  severely  and  deservedly  exposed  in 
the  Literary  Journals  of  North  America. 

217.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Apocalypse;  being 
an  Attempt  to  make  that  portion  of  God's  Word  profitable  to 
the  Generality  of  Readers.  To  which  is  added  a  Brief  Outline 
of  Prophetic  History,  from  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  selected  chiefly  from  the 
best  and  most  approved  Writers  on  the  Subject.  By  the  Rev. 
Richard  Murray.     Dublin,  1826,  Svo. 

218.  The  Apocalypse  of  St.  John,  or  Prophecy  of  the  Rise, 
Progress,  and  Fall  of  the  Church  of  Rome ;  the  Inquisition  ; 
the  Revolution  of  France ;  the  Universal  War ;  and  the  Final 
Triumph  of  Christianity.  Being  a  new  Interpretation  by  the 
Rev.  George  Cholt,  A.M.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

This  original  and  powerfully  written  volume  is  prefaced  by  a 
view  of  the  injurious  effects  of"  Popery,  and  the  benefits  conferred 
by  Protestantism  upon  the  British  empire,  in  the  successive  reigns 
from  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  interpretation  of  the 
Apocalypse,  which  follows,  adopts  a  plan  different  from  that  of  all 
its  predecessors.  The  author  considers  the  whole  as  a  fasciculus 
of  prophetic  visions  seen  at  intervals,  and  relating  to  distinct  por- 
tions of  providential  history.  The  first  three  chapters  are  exclu- 
sively addressed  to  the  Church  in  the  time  of  Saint  John.  The 
remainder  of  the  Apocalypse  contains  a  general  view  of  Christian 
History  from  the  reign  of  Constantino  to  the  Millennium  (chapters 
vi. — vii.) ;  a  detailed  prediction  of  the  penalties  inflicted  upon 
Europe  for  her  persecution  of  the  Reformed  Church  to  the  Millen- 
nium (chapters  viii — xi.,  xv.,  xvi.) ;  a  view  of  the  progress  of  the 


Romish  Church  from  power  to  persecution,  under  different  aspects 
(chapters  xii.— xiv.);  a  prediction  of  the  fall  of  the  papacy,  the  uni- 
versal war,  the  Millennium,  the  subsequent  brief  apostasy,  the  final 
judgment,  and  the  close  of  the  providential  history  of  the  world. 
The  ninth  chapter  of  the  Apocalypse,  which  has  hitherto  been 
conceived  to  be  a  view  of  Mohammedism,  Dr.  Croly  interprets  as 
a  prediction  of  the  fall  of  monarchy  in  France,  and  of  the  atheistic 
war,  in  171)3.  A  general  sketch  of  the  leading  events  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Christian  Church,  from  Constantino  to  the  present 
time,  completes  the  volume,  which  is  evidently  the  result  of  great 
labour  and  research,  and  which  abounds  with  most  important  his- 
torical information. 

219.  Alberti  Christ.  Van  Eldik  Thieme  Commentatio  de 
Septem  Epistolis  Apocalypticis.  Lugduni  Batavorum,  1S27,  4to. 

220.  Initium  Disputationis  de  Libri  Apocalypseos  Argumento, 

Sententia,  et  Auctore Publico  examini  submittit  Henricus 

Engelinus  Weyeks.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1828,  4to. 

The  first  part  only  of  an  academical  Dissertation  on  the  Apoca- 
lypse.-  it  discusses  the  hypotheses  of  Grotius,  Herder,  Eichhorn, 
and  Heinrichs,  respecting  the  author  and  argument  of  this  book. 

221.  Lectures,  Expository  and  Practical,  on  the  Book  of 
Revelation.  By  the  Rev.  Robert  Culbektson.  London,  1828, 
8vo. 

222.  Commentarius  in  Apocalypsin  Johannis,  Exegeticus  et 
Criticus.  Auctore  Georgio  Henrico  Augusto  Ewald  Lipsiae, 
1828,  Svo. 

222*.  A  Key  to  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine; 
being  an  Analysis  of  those  parts  of  that  wonderful  Book,  which 
relate  to  the  General  State  of  the  Christian  Church,  through  all 
the  times  since  it  was  written,  and  to  the  peculiar  Signs  of  those 
Times.     By  the  Rev.  Philip  Allwood,  B.D.     London,  1829, 

2  vols.  Svo. 

223.  The  Apocalypse  of  Jesus  Christ,  commonly  called  the 
Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  briefly,  yet  minutely.  Ex- 
plained and  Interpreted,  to  the  xixth  Chapter  inclusive ;  being 
the  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  until  the  Destruction  of 
the  Roman  Empire  at  the  Coming  of  our  Lord  with  all  his 
Saints.  Consisting  of  a  select  Compilation  from  the  most  ap- 
proved and  learned  Commentators,  both  ancient  and  modern. 
London,  1832,  Svo. 

224.  A  Treatise  on  the  Millennium ;  in  which  the  prevailing 
Theories  on  that  subject  are  carefully  examined,  and  the  true 
Scriptural  Doctrine  attempted  to  be  elicited  and  established. 
By  George  Bush,  A.M.     New  York,  1832,  12mo. 

The  opinion  advocated  by  the  author  of  this  treatise  is,  that  the 
Millennium  is  past ;  the  predictions  in  the  Apocalypse  having  been 
fulfilled  by  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over  Paganism,  in  the  con- 
version of  Constantino  to  the  Christian  faith. 

225.  An  Exposition  of  the  Apocalypse,  by  the  Rev,  Alexan- 
der Keith,  D.D.,  forms  the  chief  part  of  his  "Signs  of  the 
Times,"  noticed  in  No.  17,  p.  100.  supra,  and  another  Original 
Exposition  of  this  Book  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Lee  in  his  "  Six  Ser- 
mons on  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures."  No,  25,  p,  98. 
supra. 

226.  Explication  Raisonnee  de  I'Apocalypse,  d'apres  les  prin- 
cipes  de  sa  Composition.    Par  Philippe  Basset.    Paris,  1832—33, 

3  tomes,  Svo. 

227.  The  Book  of  the  Unveiling.     London,  1833,  12mo. 


§   7.    EXPOSITORY    lECTtTRES    AND    SERMONS    ON    THE    SCRIP- 
TURES,   ANn    ON    DETACHED     PORTIONS    THEREOF. 

1 ,  Horse  Homilcticse,  or  Discourses  (in  the  form  of  Skeletons) 
upon  the  Whole  Scriptures,  By  the  Rev,  Charles  Simeon, 
M.A.     London,  1833,  21  vols,  Svo, 

2,  A  Popular  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  in  a  Series  of  Ser- 
mons, following,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  Course  of  the  first 
Lessons  at  Morning  and  Evening  Service  on  Sundays.  Designed 
for  Parish  Churches,  or  for  reading  in  Private  Families.  By  the 
Rev,  James  Plumtre,  B.D,  London,  1827,  2  vols.  Svo,  [com- 
prising the  Old  Testament.    This  work  was  never  completed.] 

3,  Practical  Lectures  on  the  Historical  Books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. By  the  Rev.  Henry  Lindsay,  M.A.  London,  1828, 
Svo, 

4,  Sacred  Biography  ;  or,  the  History  of  the  Patriarchs  [and 
part  of  the  History  of  Jesus  Christ] :  being  a  Course  of  Lectures 
delivered  at  the  Scots  Church,  London  Wall,  By  Henry  Hunter, 
D.D.  London,  1783,  &c,  7  vols.  Svo,;  seventh  edition,  1814, 
5  vols.  Svo,;  also  1826,  2  vols,  Svo, 


Skct.  III.  ^  7.] 


EXPOSITORY  LECTUKES  AND  SERMONS  ON  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


143 


5.  Lectures  on  the  Four  last  Books  of  the  Pe.vtatkuch,  de- 
signed to  show  the  Divine  Origin  of  the  Jewish  Religion,  chiefly 
from  Internal  Evidence;  in  three  parts.  By  the  liuv.  Richard 
Ghavks,  U.D.,  Ucan  of  Ardagh.  London,  181.5,  2  vols.  8vo. 
Third  edition,  Dublin  and  London,  182U,  I  vol.  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  valuable  work  appeared  in  1807:  in  this 
imprcHsion  it  is  very  materially  improved,  and  is  indispensably 
necessary  to  the  biblical  student. 

6.  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch.  By  the  Rev.  William  Mabbh, 
M.A.     London,  1822,  8vo. 

7.  Expository  Discourses  on  the  Book  of  Genesis,  inter- 
spersed with  Practical  Reflections,  by  Andrew  Fulleu.  2  vols. 
8vo.     London,  1806. 

The  late  respected  author  of  this  work  has  long  been  known  by 
his  able  publications  on  the  absurdity  of  deism,  and  the  immoral 
tendency  of  Socinian  tenets.  These  "  Expository  Discourses,"  which 
are  short,  and  fifty-eight  in  number,  were  originally  delivered  as 
lectures  to  Mr.  Fuller's  congregation  at  Kettering.  "  The  author 
selects  a  paragraph  of  convenient  length,  and  furnishes  a  concise 
ex|H>sition  of  its  loading  circumstaniies,  accompanied  with  a  few 
practical  reflections,  and  occasionally  with  a  useful  criticism.  The 
paragraphs  are  not  ins('rt«d  at  length,  but  referred  to  by  the  initial 
and  final  verses.  Much  originality  of  critical  remark  must  not  be 
expected,  nor  must  the  reader  be  surpri-sed  if  he  often  meet  with  a 
trite  and  obvious  reflection  :  but  wo  will  venture  to  promise  him, 
much  more  frcijuontly,  a  manly,  jiidicidus,  and  useful  train  of 
olwervatioii,  expressed  in  simjjle  and  vigorous  language."  (Eclectic 
Review,  O.  S.  vol.  ii.  part  ii.  p.  8'JG.) 

8.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Genesis.  By  J.  Rudge,  D.D. 
London,  1823,  2  vols.  8vo. 

9.  Lectures  upon  some  Important  Passages  in  the  Book  of 
Genesis.  By  Henry  Thomas  Austen,  M.A.  London,  1820, 
8vo. 

10.  A  Scries  of  Sermons  illustrating  the  History  contained  in 
the  Book  of  Genesis.  By  the  Rev.  William  Bassett,  M.A. 
London,  1822,  2  vols.  12mo. 

11.  Ten  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Mosaic  Records 
of  the  Creation,  delivered  in  the  Chapel  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  By  James  Kenxedt,  B.D.,  Donellan  Lecturer  for  the 
Year  1824.     London  and  Dublin,  1827,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  design  of  these  elaborate  lectures  is,  "  to  connect  the  biblical 
records  of  the  creation,  as  closely  as  their  language  and  arrange- 
ment admit,  with  physical  scien(^e ;  and  to  estimate  the  degree  of 
evidence  which  arises  out  of  the  comparison,  of  the  inspiration  of 
their  author."  Many  important  geological  facts  are  adduced,  which 
concur  to  the  confirmation  and  illustration  of  the  Mosaic  history. 

12.  Eight  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Jacob.  By  the  Rev. 
Henry  Bluxt,  A.M.     London,  1828,  12mo. 

13.  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Joseph.  By  John  Davies. 
Bath,  1823,  12mo. 

14.  The  Book  of  Genesis  considered  and  illustrated  in  a 
Series  of  Historical  Discourses.  By  the  Rev.  Francis  Close, 
A.M.     London,  1826,  8vo. 

15.  The  Christian  Exonus:  or  the  Deliverance  of  the  Israel- 
ites from  Egypt  })ractically  considered,  in  a  Series  of  Discourses. 
By  the  Rev.R.  P.  Buduicom,  M.A.    London,  1826,  2  vols.  8vo. 

16.  Davidica.  Twelve  Practical  Sermons  on  the  Life  and 
Character  of  David,  King  of  Israel.  By  Henry  Thompsoit, 
M.A.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

17.  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Joseph.  By  George  Lawson, 
D.D.     Edinburgh  and  London,  1812,  2  vols.  12mo. 

18.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Ruth.  By  G.  Lawson,  D.D. 
Edinburgh  and  London,  180.5,  12mo. 

19.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Esther.  By  G.  Lawsox,  D.D. 
Edinburgh  and  London,  1809,  r2mo. 

20.  An  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  By  the  late 
George  Lawsox,  D.D.     Edinburgh,  1821,  2  vols.  12mo. 

"Those  works  were  chiefly  intended  for  the  instruction  of  Chris- 
tians in  the  ordinary  walks  of  life.  They  are  pious  and  sensible, 
full  of  sound  doctrine,  and  salutary  admonition  and  instruction. 
'I'here  is  rarely  any  thing  of  a  critical  nature  to  be  found  in  them, 
which  indeed  was  not  the  writer's  object;  but  they  every  where 
discover  a  minute  acquaintance  with  the  Bible  and  the  human 
heart,  and  a  deep  concern  to  profit  the  reader.  The  style  is  plain, 
and  the  illustrations  [are]  generally  very  brief"  (Orme's  Biblioth. 
Biblicu,  p.  287.) 

21.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Psalms.  By  the  Rev.  John 
EwAHT,  M.A.     London,  1822-26,  3  vols.  Svo. 

22.  An  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Psalms,  Explanatory,  Cri- 
tical, and  Devotional,  intended  chiefly  to  aid  private  Christians 

Vol.  II.— App.  4  L 


in  the  enlightened  perusal  of  Compositions,  In  which  the  national 
history  of  the  Jews  and  the  personal  experience  of  David  are 
often  blended  with  the  Spirit  of  Prophecy.  By  the  Rev.  John 
Mottisojf,  D.D.     London,  1832,  3  vols.  Svo. 

As  Bishop  Ilorsley's  pfjsihumous  work  on  the  Book  of  Psalms 
(which  has  been  noticed  in  page  120.  of  this  Appendix)  is  chiefly 
adapted  to  the  use  of  the  scholar  and  biblical  critic,  while  the 
well-known  and  splendid  commentary  of  Bisliop  Home  has  been 
thought  by  many  to  partake  too  much  of  tlie  sysienmtically  pro- 
phetic and  mystical  interpretation  ;  Dr.  Moris<jn  has  performed  a 
very  acceptable  service  to  private  Christians,  as  well  as  to  critical 
students  of  the  sacred  volume,  in  his  exposition  of  the  Book  of 
Psalms.  The  plan  which  he  has  adopted  is  in  every  respect  de- 
serving of  commendation.  Adhering  glricllij  to  the  literal  meaning 
of  the  text,  he  is  careful  at  the  same  time  not  to  overlook  either  its 


prophetical  or  typical  character.  The  authorized  version  is  pro- 
perly retained,  and  the  ex|K)silion  follows  each  successive  verse; 
while  the  critical  notes,  often  very  instructive,  are  eomrnodiously 


placed  at  the  fijot  of  the  page.  Dr.  Mori.son  is  advantageously 
known  as  the  author  of  a  volume  of  Lectures  on  the  Kec-iprocal 
Obligations  of  Life  ;  in  whit'h  some  important  to|iics  of  Christian 
Ethics,  not  commonly  discussed  from  the  pulpit,  are  concisely  ex- 
plained and  earnestly  enforced  on  Christian  principles  and  motives. 

23.  The  Portraiture  of  the  Christian  Penitent :  a  Course  of 
Sermons  on  the  Fifty-first  Psalm.  By  the  Rev.  C.  E.  De  Coet- 
LooAN,  M.A.     London,  1776,  2  vols.  8vo. 

24.  Sermons  on  the  Fifty-first  Psalm.  By  the  Rev.  J.  Butt. 
London,  1824,  Svo. 

25.  Sermons  on  the  Ninety-first  Psalm.     London,  1826,  8vo« 

26.  A  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Hundred  and  Nineteenth 
Psalm.     By  Thomas  Manton,  D.D.     London,  1681,  folio. 

27.  An  Exposition  of  Psalm  CXIX.  By  the  Rev.  Charles 
Bridges.     London,  1827,  12mo. 

28.  A  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Hundred  and  Thirtieth 
Psalm.  By  John  Owen,  D.D.  London,  1669,  4to.  and  various 
subsequent  editions. 

29.  Six  Lectures  on  the  Penitential  Psalms.  By  Edward 
Berens,  M.A.     Oxford,  1823,  12mo. 

30.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Ecclebiastes.  By  Ralph 
Wardlaw,  D.D.     Glassgow  and  London,  1821,  2  vols.  Svo. 

"  This  is  a  very  elegant  Commentary  on  an  exceedingly  diflicult 
portion  of  Scripture."    (Orme's  Biblioth.  Biblica,  p.  459.) 

31.  Lectures  on  the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah.  By  Robert  Mac- 
ccLLOcn,  D.D.     London,  1791-1805,  4  vols.  Svo. 

These  lectures  were  delivered  in  the  ordinary  course  of  his  pas- 
toral labours  by  Dr.  M.,  who  was  a  minister  in  the  church  of  Scot- 
land. "  They  contain  many  ingenious  elucidations  of  the  text, 
and  many  judicious  and  useful  reflections.  The  author  appears  to 
have  taken  much  pains  to  understand  the  phraseology  of  the  pro- 
phet, and  to  investigate  his  original  design  ;  he  marks  distinctly 
the  leading  divisions  of  the  prophecies,  and  explains,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  division,  its  peculiar  object."  (Monthly.Review,  IN.  S. 
vol.  XX.  p.  220.)  Dr.  Macculloch  has  made  great  use  of  Vitringa's 
elaborate  commentary  on  Isaiah. 

32.  Outlines  of  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Daniel.  By  F.  A. 
Cox,  LL.D.    London,  1833, 12mo.    Second  edition,  1834, 12mo. 

33.  An  Exposition  of  the  Prophet  Jonah,  in  Sermons.  By 
George  Abbot,  D.D.     London,  1613,  4to. 

34.  Lectures  upon  Jonas.  By  John  Kibtg,  D.D.,  Bisho^f 
London.     London,  1618,  4to. 

35.  Theological  Lectures  to  the  King's  Scholars  at  Westmin- 
ster Abbey,  with  an  Interpretation  of  the  New  Testament,  &c. 
&c.     By  John  Hetlin,  D.D.     London,  1749.  1761.  2  vols.  4to. 

The  first  part  of  this  work  contains  the  interpretation  of  the  four 
Gospels,  the  second  part  comprises  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and 
the  several  Epistles.  "This  interpretation,  though  fir  from  being 
elegant,  appears  to  us,  in  general,  to  be  accurate  and  judicious, 
and  shows  that  the  author  had  carefully  studied  the  original.  The 
whole  contains  evident  marks  of  solid  judgment,  critical  skill,  and 
considerable  learning.  In  several  parts  of  the  work,  indeed,  the 
reader  will  perceive  a  small  tincture  of  mysticism  ;  and  according- 
ly we  are  told,  in  the  preface  to  the  second  part,  that  the  author 
was  deeply  read  in  the  writings  of  the  mystic  divines,  and  was 
styled  by  some  the  mystic  doctor."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
XXV.  p.  33.) 

36.  Explanatory  Notes  and  Practical  Comments,  being  a 
Series  of  Short  Lectures  on  the  New  Testament.  By  a  Clergy- 
man.    Dublin  and  London,  1829-33,  2  vols.  Svo. 

37.  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Jesus  Christ.  By  James 
Bennett.  London,  1825,  3  vols.  Svo.  Another  edition  in  2 
vols.  Svo. 


144 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


38.  A  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthf.w, 
St.  Mauk,  and  St.  Luke,  in  the  form  of  Lectures,  intended  to 
assist  the  Practice  of  Domestic  Instruction  and  Devotion.  By 
John  Bird  Sumner,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Chester.  London,  1831-32, 
3  vols.  8vo. ;  also  in  4  vols.  12mo. 

"  The  intention  of  the  present  work  is  to  promote  and  to  assist 
family  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  by  llirnishing  a  book  containing 
such  explanations  and  reflections  as  might  naturally  occur  to  one 
well  acquainted  with  the  sacred  writings  and  the  practical  exposi- 
tors. Many  Bibles  and  Testaments  have  been  published  with  the 
same  object  in  view  as  that  proposed  by  the  Bisiiop  of  Chester. 
Most  of  these,  however,  from  the  length  of  the  reflections  have  in 
a  great  degree,  on  that  account,  become  unfit  for  reading  to  a  fa- 
mily, where  brevity  must,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  considered. 

Tiie  plan  of  Dr.  Sumner  is  free  from  this  blemish.  Great  skill  has 
been  shown  in  the  division  of  the  chapters,  which  are  of  so  conve- 
nient a  length  that  one  or  more  may  be  taken  at  a  reading,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances  ;  while  the  pauses  are  such  as  seem  natural 
to  the  reader's  train  of  thought."  (British  Critic,  April,  1832,  vol. 
xi.  pp.  366,  367.)  "  It  is  impossible  seriously  to  read  these  lectures 
without  becoming  acquainted  both  with  the  way  of  salvation,  and 
the  duties  and  privileges  of  the  Christian  life."  (Christian  Observer, 
June,  1831,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  352.) 

39.  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ;  with  a  Commentary  consisting  of  Short  Lectures  for 
the  daily  Use  of  Families.  By  the  Rev.  Charles  Girdlestcne, 
M.A.  Vol.  I.  [containing  the  Four  Gospels.]    London,  1833,  8vo. 

"  The  Gospels  are  divided  into  sections,  forming  with  the  com- 
mentary a  lesson  of  a  convenient  length  for  a  single  service.  The 
explanatory  matter  is  so  digested  as  to  complete,  together  with  the 
text,  exactly  two  pages ;  such  topics  being  selected  as  may  best 
serve  the  purpose  of  devotional  edification  at  the  hour  of  lamily 
worship.  All  controversial  doctrines,  all  abstruse  theories,  and  all 
learned  discussions  are  carefully  avoided  ;  while  the  capacities 
and  wants  of  an  ordinary  domestic  circle,  comprising  for  the  most 
part  the  relations  of  parent  and  child,  of  master  and  servant,  are 
kept  steadily  in  view."  (Christian  Remembrancer,  May,  1832,  vol. 
xiv.  p.  280.) 

40.  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  delivered  in  the 
parish  church  of  Saint  James,  Westminster,  in  the  years  1798, 
1799,  ISOO,  and  1801.  By  the  Right  Rev.  Beilby  Porteus, 
Bishop  of  London.  London,  1802,  2  vols.  8vo, ;  1823,  in  1  vol. 
8vo. 

The  multiplied  editions  of  these  admirable  lectures  sufficiently 
attest  how  highly  they  are  esteemed.  "  They  are"  indeed  "  calcu- 
lated alike  to  do  good  to  the  learned  and  the  unlearned  ;  the  aged 
as  well  as  the  inexperienced,  the  grave  and  the  reflecting,  the  gay 
and  the  thoughtless.  They  are  learned  without  ostentation,  pious 
without  any  tincture  of  enthusiasm,  argumentative  without  pedan- 
try, and  perspicuous  without  losing  sight  of  the  graces  of  style  and 
diction."     (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xx.  p.  306.) 

41.  Sermons  extracted  from  the  Lectures  of  Bishop  Porteus. 
By  Thomas  Baker,  M.A.     London,  1817,  8vo. 

42.  An  Exposition  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  with  suitable 
Lectures  and  Prayers.  By  the  Rev,  Thomas  Adam.  London, 
1805,  2  vols.  12mo.  ;   1822,  in  1  volume,  8vo, 

43.  Explanatory  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  Mat- 
thew.    By  the  Rev.  John  Penrose,  M.A.     London,  1832, 12mo. 

44.  Expositions  and  Sermons  upon  the  first  ten  Chapters  of 
the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  according  to  St,  Matthew.  By  Chris- 
topher Blackwood.     London,  1659,  4to, 

45.  The  Catechist's  Manual,  and  Family  Lecturer :  being  an 
Arrangement  and  Explanation  of  St.  Mark's  Gospel,  for  pur- 
poses of  Missionary  and  Domestic  Instruction.  By  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Hinds,  M.A.  [now  D.D.],  Oxford,  1829,  8vo. 

46.  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  as  bearing  Testimony 
to  the  Divinity  of  our  Saviour.  By  C,  J,  Blomfield,  D.D, 
[now  Bishop  of  London.]     London,  1823,  12mo. 

47.  Practical  Lectures  upon  the  ten  first  Chapters  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John.  By  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Pitmann,  M.A.  Lon- 
don, 1822,  8vo. 

48.  Eighteen  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  John. 
By  Charles  Abel  Moyset,  D.D.  Oxford  and  London,  1823,  8vo. 

49.  Contemplations  on  the  last  Discourses  of  our  Blessed 
Saviour  with  his  Disciples,  as  recorded  by  St.  John.  By  John 
Brewster.     London,  1822,  8vo. 

50.  The  Last  Days  of  our  Lord's  Ministry ;  a  course  of 
Lectures.  By  the  Rev.  Walter  Farquhar  Hook,  M.A.  London, 
1832,  8vo, 

51.  Nine  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Peter.  By  the  Rev. 
Henry  Blunt,  A.M.     London,  1829,  12mo. 

52.  Lectures  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  explanatory  and 


practical.    By  Richard  Stack,  D.D.  2d  edition.   London,  1805, 
8vo. 

53.  Lectures  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  delivered  in  the 
Parish  Church  of  Stockton-upon-Tees,  during  Lent,  in  the 
Years  1803,  1804,  1805,  and  1806.  Illustrated  with  maps.  By 
John  Brewster,  M.A.  London,  1807.  2  vols.  8vo.  Second 
edition.     London,  1831,  in  one  volume,  8vo. 

"Both  these  authors  profess  to  imitate  the  Bishop  of  London's 
(Porteus)  excellent  Lectures  on  St.  Malthew's  Gospel.  By  a  mere 
comparison  of  bulk,  it  is  evident  that  Dr.  Stack's  lectures  must  be 
more  slight  and  cursory  than  those  of  Mr.  Brewster;  the  one  being 
twice  the  extent  of  the  other."  Dr.  Stack's  lectures  "  contain 
little  more  than  a  recapitulation  of  the  subjects  of  the  chapters  in 
other  words.  Nor  have  we  been  able  to  discover  any  remarks  in 
his  book  but  what  are  so  extremely  plain  and  obvious,  that  they 
seem  to  be  hardly  worth  committing  to  paper,  much  less  to  the 
press.  Mr.  Brewster  proceeds  in  a  very  diflerent  style.  He  is  full 
of  illustrations  from  the  fathers  and  divines  of  various  ages;  and 
his  own  remarks  are  not  trite,  but  lively  as  well  as  just.  Mr.  B  "s 
lectures  may  be  justly  recommended,  as  approaching  much  more 
nearly  to  the  model  which  both  undertook  to  imitate,  and  as  not 
only  instructive,  but  pleasing  and  attractive."  (British  Critic,  O.  S 
vol.  XXX.  pp.  133,  134.  136.  See  also  Eclectic  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  ii. 
p.  408.) 

54.  Lectures  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  By  John  Dick, 
D.D.     Glasgow,  2d  edition,  1822,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  these  Lectures  was  in  two  volumes,  which 
were  published  at  different  times.  Dr.  Dick  is  advantageously 
known  as  the  author  of  a  sensible  and  well-written  essay  on  the 
inspiration  of  the  Scriptures.  Speaking  of  the  first  volume  of  the 
first  edition,  some  critics  have  remarked,  that  his  discussion  of  the 
principal  topics  related  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  "  is  fully  cal- 
culated to  establish  the  faith  of  Christians  in  their  holy  religion, 
and  furnishes  them  with  some  excellent  practical  rules  for  the 
regulation  of  their  moral  conduct.  Upon  the  whole,  we  cheerfully 
recommend  the  present  volume  to  the  attention  of  the  public." 
(Eclectic  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  ii.  pp.  4.38.  440.)  The  same  critics 
(vol.  V.  part  ii.  p.  834.),  speaking  of  the  two  volumes  collectively, 
observe,  that  they  contain  altogether  a  useful  illustration  of  many 
important  passages  of  the  Acts ;  they  are  full  of  good  sense  and 
orthodox  divinity,  conveyed  in  a  perspicuous  and  easy  style.  The 
second  edition  of  these  Lectures  has  been  carefully  revised. 

55.  Twelve  Lectures  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  By 
Charles  James  Blomfield,  D.D,,  Bishop  of  Chester  [now  of 
London].     London,  1829,  8vo. 

To  these  very  valuable  lectures  is  annexed  a  new  edition  of 
the  five  lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  (No.  46.) ;  and  in  an 
appendix  is  subjoined  Dr.  Tucker's  "  Brief  and  Dispassionate  View 
of  the  difficulties  attending  the  Trinitarian,  Arian,  and  Socinian 
Systems." 

56.  Discourses  on  Passages  selected  from  the  Book  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.     By  Henry  Thompson,  D.D.     London, 

1822,  8vo. 

The  object  of  these  expository  discourses  is,  from  select  passages 
in  the  first  seven  chapters  of  the  book  of  Acts,  to  mark  the  fulfil- 
ment of  prophecy  in  the  qualifications,  labours,  and  success  of  the 
first  propagators  of  Christianity:  and  this  design  the  author  has 
successfully  accomplished.  For  an  analysis  of  the  volume,  with  a 
well-merited  commendation  of  its  execution,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor,  for  June,  1823,  pp.  404 — 409. 

57.  Jo.  Alphonsi  Turretini  in  Paulli  Apostoli  ad  Romanos 
Epistoloe  capita  priora  undecim  Prselectiones  critic«,  theologicse, 
et  concionatorise.     Lausannse,  1741,  4to, 

These  lectures,  which  were  first  published  after  the  author's 
death,  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  second  volume  of  Turretin's 
collective  works,  printed  at  Leuwarden,  in  1775,  in  quarto.  They 
are  truly  excellent.  The  prolegomena  discuss,  with  great  ability, 
the  date  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  the  place  whence  it  was 
written,  the  state  of  the  Christians  at  Rome,  the  causes  of  the  dif- 
ficulty of  St.  Paul's  epistles  generally,  and  of  that  to  the  Romans 
in  particular;  the  controversies  agitated  at  that  time,  and  various 
other  topics  which  are  necessary  to  the  right  understanding  of  that 
epistle. 

58.  Lectures  on  the  Epi.stle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Romans,  ex- 
planatory and  practical.  By  Richard  Stack,  D.D.  Dublin, 
1806,  8vo. 

59.  Lectures,  explanatory  and  practical,  on  the  Epistle  of  St. 
Paul  to  the  Romans.  By  the  Rev.  Jobn  Fry,  A.B.  London, 
1816,  8vo, 

60.  Paulus  Parochialis ;  or,  a  Plain  and  Practical  View  of 
the  Object,  Arguments,  and  Connection  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to 
the  Romans :  in  a  Scries  of  Sermons,  adapted  to  Country  Con- 
gregations.  By  the  Rev.  Wm.  Lisle  Bowles.    Bath,  1826,  8vo. 

61.  Lectures  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  By  the 
Rev.  C.  A.  MorsEr,  D.D.     [Bath,]  1830,  8vo. 


Sect.  III.  §  7.] 


EXPOSITORY  LECTURES  AND  SERMONS  ON  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


145 


02.  Lectures,  Exi)lanatory  and  Practical,  on  the  doctrinal  part 
of  the  Ejiistle  of  I'uul  the  ApoKllo  to  the  Romans.  iJy  David 
RiTciii£,  D.D.     Edinhurgli  and  London,  lH31.     2  vols.  8vo. 

G3.  A  Practical  Exposition  of  St.  Paul's  Ejiistlc  to  the  Ro- 
mans, in  a  series  of  Lectures.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Pahky, 
M.A.,  Archdeacon  of  Antigua.     J^ondon,  1K32,  12mo. 

"The  ohjecl  of  this  volume  is,  to  fufilitate  the  undorHtandinfr 
of  the  E|)istlo    lo    llie    i{(iiu;Mis,  by  tracing   the   corniecliou  of  ii.t 

various  parts  in  all  easy  and  (itiiiiliar  oxito.sjtion iiiil  thuugh 

tlie  author  has  inaiidy  endeavoured  to  render  his  work  useful  und 
attractive  to  general  readers,  who  have  little  o|i)iorlunity  tor  con- 
sulting more  elaborate  expositions,  he  has  not  altogether  neglected 
the  wants  of  the  Hludcnt  or  tlie  candidate  liir  holy  ordera.  Headers 
of  this  class  will  find  considerable  inl()rniation  in  the  notes  attached 
to  each  successive  lecture;  and  the  analysis  of  the  epistle,  and 
remarks  on  eeriai/i  leading  i(>niis,  coniained  in  the  ajijiendix,  aflord 
ample  matter  lo  the  more  advanced  theologian."  (Christian  l{e- 
raemhraneer,  IVlay,  1832,  vol.  xiv.  p.  280.) 

64.  An  Exposition  of  the  Eighth  Ciiaptcr  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans.  Also,  five  Lectures  on  the  Tenth  Chapter  of  the 
same.  By  the  Rev.  C.  D.  Maitlanu,  B.A.  London,  1831,  8vo. 

65.  A  Practical  Exposition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans.    By  the  Rev.  Robert  Anukiison.     London,  1833,  12ino. 

"We  must  now  take  leave  of  Mr.  Anderson,  which  wedo  with 
the  conviction  that  we  have  been  conversing  with  one,  all  whose 
faculties  are  intensely  devoted  to  the  holy  work  of  the  ministry. 
It,  is  perhaj)s  too  much  to  expect  that  this  or  any  exposition  of  the 
Epistle  to   the   Romans   shoidd    meet   with    the   unqualified    and 

unanimous  assent  of  the  critical  or  theological  world Of 

the  work  before  us,  however,  we  can  honestly  say,  that  it  exem- 
plifies, in  almost  every  page,  that  holy  earnestness,  that  ardent 
desire  for  the  salvation  of  human  souls,  which  is  the  crown  and 

5 lory  of  all  pastoral  teaching  and  ministration."    (British  Critic  for 
anuary,  1831,  vol.  xv.  p.  '■M.) 

66.  Discourses,  Explanatory  and  Practical,  on  the  Ninth 
Chapter  of  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  By  J.  Jauuosi. 
Wisbech,  1827,  12mo. 

66*.  Lectures  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  ConiXTiiiAss. 
By  the  Rev.  William  Lothian.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

67.  Lectures  upon  the  whole  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the 
PiiiLippiANs.  By  Henry  Aiht,  D.D.,  Provost  of  Queen's 
College,  Oxford.     London,  1618,  4to. 

68.  Expository  Lectures  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philip- 
pians.     By  the  Rev.  John  Acastkr.     London,  1827,  Svo. 

68*.  Lectures,  Explanatory  and  Practical,  on  the  Epistle  of 
Saint  Paul  to  the  Philippians.  By  Manton  Eastbchn,  M.A. 
New  York,  1833,  8vo. 

69.  A  Familiar  Exposition  and  Application  of  the  Epistle  of 
Saint  Paul  to  the  Colossians,  in  a  course  of  Eight  Sermons; 
including  an  Examination  of  the  General  Nature  and  Use  of  the 
Epistles  of  the  New  Testament.  By  Thomas  Gisborne,  M.A. 
London,  1816,  Svo. 

For  an  analysis  of  this  very  useful  little  work  see  the  Christian 
Observer  for  1816,  vol.  xv.  pp.  524—534. 

70.  Discourses,  Practical  and  Experimental,  on  the  Epistle  to 
the  Colossians.     By  Thomas  Watsox.     London,  1834,  8vo. 

70*.  Four  Lectures  on  the  Epistle  of  Saint  Paul  to  the  He- 
BiiEws ;  shewing  the  Harmony  between  the  Mysteries,  Doctrines, 
and  Morality  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  By  the  Rev. 
William  Josks,  M.A.     Svo. 

These  valuable  lectures  form  part  of  the  fourth  volume  of  "The 
Theological,  Philosophical,  and  Miscellaneous  Works"  of  the  learn- 
ed and  venerable  Mr.  Jones,  of  Nayland. 

71.  Discourses  Explanatory  and  Practical,  on  the  Epistle  of 
St.  JuBE.     By  William  Mum,  D.D.     Glasgow,  1822,  8vo. 

72.  Expository  Discourses  on  the  Apocalypse,  interspersed 
with  Practical  Reflections.  By  the  late  Rev.  Andrew  Fclleb. 
London,  1815,  Svo. 

This  posthumous  publication,  consisting  of  thirty-one  discourses 
delivered  in  the  years  1809  and  1810,  after  undergoing  several  re- 
visions, was  finished  by  the  learned  author,  a  short  time  only  before 
his  decease.  "There  is  however  but  little  novelty  in  the  v,ork, 
but  little  to  gratify  the  anxious  curiosity  of  the  age,  or  to  elucidate 
the  unfulfilled  and  more  diUlcult  parts  of  the  Revelation.  The 
general  outline  of  the  prophetic  scheme  is  boldly  sketched,  and  its 
various  ramifications  are  marked  with  that  precision  which  was 
common  to  the  writer ;  but  in  general  there  is  an  extreme  of  modesty 
and  diffidence,  w  ith  scarcely  any  attempts  to  pass  the  usual  bounda- 
ries of  thought  on  these  subjects,  or  any  adventurous  flight  of  specu- 
lation." (Morris's  Memoirs  of  Mr.  Fuller,  p.  249.)  An  abstract  of 
Mr.  F.'s  scheme  of  the  Apocalypse  is  given  in  the  same  work.  (pp. 
.  230—260.) 


73.  An  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Revelation.  Being  the 
substance  of  forty-f  )ur  Discourses  preached  in  the  parish  church 
of  Olncy,  Bucks.     By  the  Rev.  Henry  GAL.vTLtTT.     London, 

1821,  Svo. 

This  work  "affords  amjjle  proofe  of  his"  [ihe  author's]  "piety, 
goiKJ  sense,  and  industry,  ills  intorprelatioiis  of  the  prophecies, 
whether  fulfilled  or  expected  to  be  so,  are  mostly  suppo.  ted  liy 
ven(!rable  authorities:  and  whore  ho  dillors  fr<nn  ilicm,  it  is  with 
due  modesty  and  candour."     (British  Ucview,  \ol.  XMii.  p.  39(').) 

74.  A  Paraphra.se  and  [Expository]  Comment  upon  the  Epis- 
tles and  (iospKLs  a()]>ointcd  to  be  used  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, on   all  Sundays  and  Holidays,  throughout  the  year.     By 
George  Stanhope,  D.D.,  Dean  of  Canterbury,     London,  1703— 
1708,  4  vols.  Svo.  and  numerous  subsequent  editions. 

75.  Expository  Discourses  on  the  Gosjiels  for  every  Sunday 
in  the  year,  and  the  I'rincipal  Festivals  of  the  United  Church 
of  England  and  Ireland.  By  John  Hall,  B.D.  London,  1832, 
2  vols.  Svo. 

76.  Practical  Di-scour.ses  upon  our  Saviour's  Sekmon  on  tub 
Mount.  By  Oll'spring  Black  all,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Exeter. 
London,  1717,  S  vols.  Svo. 

77.  Several  Sermons  upon  the  Fifth  of  St.  Matthew ;  being 
Part  of  Chri-st's  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  By  Anthony  Huuneck, 
D.D.     Third  Edition.     London,  1717,  2  vols.  Svo. 

These  discourses  were  published  after  the  author's  death  by  Dr. 
Kidder,  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  who  (>refixed  a  Memoir  ol'  Dr. 
llorneck.  The  bishop's  character  of  the  writings  published  by 
himself,  is  equally  applicable  to  his  Sermons  on  Matt.  V.  "  There 
is  a  great  vein  ol  piety  and  devotion  which  runs  through  them : 
they  savour  of  the  primitive  simplicity  and  zeal,  and  are  well 
fitted  to  make  men  better."     (Life,  p.  xxxix.) 

78.  Christian  Blessedness  ;  or.  Discourses  upon  the  Beatitudes 
of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  By  John  Noams.  Lon- 
don, 1690,  Svo. 

"  Norris  is  a  fine  writer  for  style  and  thought,  and  commonly 
just."     (Dr.  Waterland's  Advice  to  Students,  Works,  vol.  vi.  p.  320.) 

79.  Our  Saviour's  Divine  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  contained  in 
the  Vth,  Vlth,  and  Vllth  chapters  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  ex- 
plained :  and  the  Practice  of  it  recommended  in  diverse  Sermons 
and  Discourses.  To  which  is  prefixed  a  paraphrase  on  the  whole 
Sermon  on  the  Mount.  By  James  Blaiii,  M.A.  London,  1722, 
5  vols.  Svo. :  also  in  4  vols.  Svo.  London,  1740,  with  a  recom- 
mendatory Preface  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Waterland. 

"  His  Commentary  on  Matt.  v. — viii.  is  the  best  extant. — He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  person  of  the  utmost  candour,  and  has  soli- 
citously avoided  all  unkind  and  contemptuous  reflections  on  his 
brethren. — He  has  an  excellent  way  of  bringing  down  criticisms 
to  common  capacities,  and  has  discovered  a  vast  knowledge  of 
Scripture  in  the  application  of  them."  fDoddridge's  Works,  vol.  v^ 
p.  438.) 

80.  Sermons  sur  le  Discours  de  notre  Seigneur  Jesus  Christ 
sur  la  Montagne.  Par  feu  M.  Jean  Scipion  Vern edk.  Amster- 
dam, 1779,  4  tomes,  Svo. 

"  His  Sermons  on  the  Mount  are  recommended,  as  containing  an 
accurate  description  of  the  extent,  the  beauty,  and  sulilimity  of 
evangelical  morals,  and  the  force  of  the  motives  by  which  they  are 
produced.  "They  contain  many  useful  and  pious  observations." 
(Cobbin's  French  Preacher,  p.  560.) 

81.  Lectures  upon  our  Lord's  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  By 
James  Buewster.     Edinburgh  and  London,  1809,  Svo. 

This  volume  "  contains  a  statement  of  Christian  morality,  always 
clear,  generally  judicious,  and  sometimes  discriminating,  traced  up 
lo  Christian  principles,  and  followed  up  by  an  appeal  to  the  con- 
science, at  once  calculated  to  convict  the  reader  of  his  deficiencies, 
and  to  persuade  him  to  adopt  and  act  ujwn  the  author's  statement." 
(Christian  Observer  for  1809,  vol.  viii.  p.  780.) 

82.  Forty-five  Expository  and  Practical  Lectures  on  the  whole 
of  our  Lord's  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  By  the  Rev.  E.  Good. 
London,  1829,  Svo. 

S3.  The  Resurrection  of  Lazarcs.  A  Course  of  Sermons 
on  the  Eleventh  Chapter  of  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  John. 
From  the  French  of  Beausobre.     By  Henry  Cotes.     London, 

1822,  Svo. 

"  These  Discourses  are  a  paraphrase  rather  than  a  translation  of 
Ihe  third  and  fourth  volumes  ol  the  Sermons  of  M.  de  Beausobre. 
They  are  intended  for  the  use  of  those  who  have  jeisure  and  oppor- 
tunity to  compare  the  leading  evidences  of  Christianity  in  a  con- 
nected series  of  discourses  upon  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
our  Saviour's  miracles, — the  resurrection  of  Lazarus."  (.Author's 
Preface ) 

84.  Practical  Discourses  on  tlie  Nature,  Properties,  and  Ex- 
cellencies of  Charity,  above  all  the  gifta  and  graces  of  the  Holy 
Spirit ;  as  they  are  described  in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  the  first 


146 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY 
By  Matthew  Hole,  D.D. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthians 
Oxford,  1725,  8vo. 

Besides  this  volume,  Di-.IIole  also  wrote  six  volumes  of  Discourses 
on  the  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England  (which  are  very  rarely 
to  be  olituiiied  complete),  and  two  volumes  on  tlie  Catechism.  They 
are  all  characterized  by  good  sense  and  sober  piety. 

85.  A  Discourse  concerning  the  great  Duty  of  Charity  [an 
Exposition  of  1  Cor.  xiii.].  I3y  Richard  Cuossinge,  B.D.  Lon- 
don, 1732,  Svo. 

86.  Explication  des  Caracteres  de  la  Charite  selon  St.  Paul 
dans  sa  premiere  Epitre  aux  Corinthiens,  eh.  XIIL  [Par 
Jacques  Joseph  Duguet.]     Geneve,  1824,  8vo. 

A  new  edition,  with  a  few  trifling  verbal  corrections,  of  an  ad- 
mirable exposition  of  1  Cor.  XIII.  which  first  appeared  in  the  former 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  which  is  sometimes  erroneously 
ascribed  to  Fenelon,  Archbishop  of  Cambray.  An  English  transla- 
tion was  published  at  London,  intituled  "  The  Characters  and  Pro- 
phets of  True  Charity  displayed."     By  J.  B.  de  Trevals. 

87.  Practical  Discourses  upon  the  Parables  of  our  Blessed 
Saviour.  With  Prayers,  annexed  to  each  Discourse.  By  Francis 
Bkaggk,  B.D.     London,  1702-4,  2  vols.  8vo. 

88.  Practical  Observations  upon  the  Miracles  of  our  Blessed 
Saviour.  By  Francis  Bhagge,  B.D.  London,  1702-6,  2  vols. 
8vo. 

89.  Discourses  on  the  Miracles  and  Parables  of  our  Blessed 
Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  By  William  Dodd,  LL.D. 
London,  1757,  4  vols.  8vo.      Second  edition,  1809,  4  vols.  Svo. 

90.  Discourses  on  the  Parables  of  our  Blessed  Saviour,  and 
the  Miracles  of  his  Holy  Gospel.  With  occasional  Illustrations. 
By  Charles  Bulklet.     London,  1771,  4  vols.  8vo. 

91.  A  Delineation  of  the  Parables  of  our  Blessed  Saviour. 
To  which  is  prefixed  a  Dissertation  on  Parables  and  Allegorical 
Writings  in  general.  By  Andrew  Gray,  D.D.  London,  1777, 
Svo.     Second  edition,  1814,  Svo. 

This  "  Delineation  will  be  of  great  use  to  the  reader  in  the  study 
of  the  parables  of  Jesus,  and  will  enable  him  to  comprehend  their 
full  force  and  meaning.  The  author  has  explained  and  illustrated 
them  with  perspicuity,  and  pointed  out  the  several  important  in- 
structions that  may  fairly  be  deduced  from  them."  (Monthly  Re- 
view, O.  S.  vol.  Ivii.  p.  196.) 

32.  Lectures  on  Scripture  Miracles.  By  William  Bengo  Coll- 
TER,  D.D.     London,  1812,  Svo. 

93.  Lectures  on  Scripture  Parables.  By  William  Bengo  Coll- 
TER,  D.D.     London,  1815,  Svo. 

^4.  Sermons  on  the  Parables.  By  John  Farrer,  M.A.  Lon- 
don, 1809,  Svo. 

95.  Sermons  on  the  Parables  and  Miracles  of  Jesus  Christ. 
By  Edward  Grinfield,  M.A.     London,  1819,  Svo. 

96.  Lectures  on  Parables  selected  from  the  New  Testament. 
[By  Mary  Jane  M'Kenzie.]  Vol.  I.  London,  1822,  Svo.,  and 
numerous  subsequent  editions.     Vol.  II.  London,  1823,  Svo. 

97.  Lectures  on  Miracles  selected  from  the  New  Testament. 
[By  Mary  Jane  M'Kenzie.]     London,  1823,  Svo. 

9S.  An  Exposition  of  the  Parables  of  our  Lord,  showing  their 
Connection  with  his  Ministry,  their  Prophetic  Character,  and 
their  Gradual  Developement  of  the  Gospel  Dispensation.  With 
a  Preliminary  Dissertation  on  the  Parables.  By  the  Rev.  R. 
Bailey,  M.A.     London,  1S29,  Svo. 

99.  Discourses  on  the  Parables.  By  the  Rev.  James  Knight, 
M.A.     London,  1829,  Svo. 

100.  Discourses  on  the  principal  Miracles  of  our  Lord.  By 
the  Rev.  James  Knight,  M.A.     London,  1831,  Svo. 


§7. 


treatises    on    RECOSrCILINO    THE    CONTRADICTIONS 
ALLEGED    TO    EXIST    IN    THE    SCRIPTURES. 


1.  Michaelis  Waltheri  Harmonia  Biblica ;  sive  brevis  et 
plana  Conciliatio  locorum  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti,  adparen- 
ter  sibi  contradicentium.     Noriberga;,  1654,  4to. ;  1696,  folio. 

This  work  first  appeared  at  Strasburgh  (Argentorati)  in  1626, 
and  has  been  repeatedly  printed  in  Germany  :  the  edition  of  1696 
is  reputed  to  be  the  best  and  most  correct.  Walther's  Harmonia 
Biblica  is  a  work  of  considerable  le'ailliQg  and  industry,  which 
illustrates  many  difficult  passages  with  great  ability.  He  has, 
however,  unnecessarily  augmented  the  number  of  seemingly  con- 
tradictory passages;  a  defect  which  is  common  to  most  of  the 
writers  of  this  class. 

2.  Christiani  Matthias  Antilogia  Biblicae ;  sive  Concilia- 
tiones  Dictorum  Scripturae  Sacros,  in  speciem  inter  se  pugnan- 


tium,  secundum  scrirm  locorum  theologicorum  in  ordinem  re- 
dact®.    Hamburg!,  1500,  4to. 

3.  Symphonia  Prophetarum  et  Apostolorum  ;  in  qua,  ordine 
chronologico.  Loci  Sacrse  Scripturse  specie  ten  us  contradicentes 
conciliantur,  ut  et  ad  qua-stiones  diHiciliores  chronologicas  et  alias 
Veteris  Testamenti  respondetur,  in  duas  paries  divisa.  Auctore 
D.  M.  Johannes  Schakpio,  Scoto-Britanno,  Andreapolitano,  pas- 
tore.     Genevae,  1525,  4to. 

4.  The  Reconciler  of  the  Bible  :  wherein  above  two  thousand 
seeming  Contradictions  throughout  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
are  fully  and  plainly  reconciled.     By  J.  T.     London,  1656,  Svo. 

5.  The  Reconciler  of  the  Bible  enlarged,  wherein  above  three 
thousand  seeming  Contradictions  throughout  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  are  fully  and  plainly  reconciled.  By  J.  P.  and  T[ho- 
mas]  M[an].     London,  1662,  folio. 

6.  Johannis  Thadd^i  Conciliatorum  Biblicum.  Amsteloda- 
mi,  1648,  12mo.     Londini,  1662,  folio. 

The  last  is  reputed  to  be  the  best  edition,  and  professes  to  be 
considerably  enlarged.  This  work  follows  the  order  of  the  several 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testamenls.  The  remark  before  made, 
on  Walther's  Harmonia  Biblica,  is  equally  applicable  to  Mr.  Man's 
work,  to  the  Conciliatiorum  Bihlicum  of  Thaddseus,  and  also  to 

7.  The  Dividing  of  the  Hooff:  or  Seeming  Contradiction."? 
throughout  Sacred  Scriptures  distinguish'd,  resolv'd,  and  apply'd, 
for  the  strengthening  of  the  faith  of  the  feeble,  doubtfuU,  and 
weake,  in  wavering  times.  Also  to  bring  the  soul  (by  prayer 
and  spirituall  application)  into  more  familiar  acquaintance  with 
the  Lord  Jesus,  the  onely  David's-Key  to  unlock  the  cabinet  of 
Jacob's  God,  to  fetch  out  that  secret  why  he  should  lay  his  hands 
thus  crosse  when  he  gave  his  children  this  blessing.  Helpfull  to 
every  household  of  faith.  By  William  Streat,  M.A.  London, 
1 654, 4to. 

This  work  is  occasionally  found  in  booksellers'  catalogues,  where 
it  is  marked  as  both  rare  and  curious.  It  is  noticed  here  merely 
to  put  the  student  on  his  guard  ?iot  to  purchase  it.  The  critical 
information  it  contains  is  very  meagre  ;  and  the  quaint  title-page, 
which  we  have  copied,  sufficiently  indicates  the  enthusiastic  spirit 
of  the  author. 

8.  Joannis  Pontasii  Sacra  Scriptura  ubique  sibi  constans ; 
seu  Difficiliores  Sacrse  Scripturae  Loci,  in  Speciem  secum  pug- 
nantes,  juxta  sanctorum  ecclesiae  sanctje  patrum  celebcrrimorum- 
que  theologorum  sententiam  conciliati.     Parisiis,  1698,  4to. 

M.  Pontaa  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  casuistical 
theology.  His  design  in  this  publication  was  to  have  reconciled 
all  the  seeming  contradictions  of  the  Scriptures  ;  but  he  proceeded 
no  farther  than  through  the  Pentateuch.  It  is  a  work  of  consider- 
able learning  and  research. 

9.  The  Harmony  of  Scripture  ;  or  an  attempt  to  reconcile 
various  passages  apparently  contradictory.  By  the  late  Rev. 
Andrew  Fuller.     London,  1817,  Svo. 

This  posthumous  tract  contains  fifty-five  judicious  observations 
on  so  many  apparently  contradictory  texts  of  Sc^ripture.  They  w'ere 
originally  written  for  the  satisfaction  of  a  private  individual. 

10.  Lectures  on  the  Harmony  of  the  Scriptures,  designed  to 
reconcile  apparently  contradictory  Passages.  By  James  Hayter 
Cox.     London,  1823,  Svo. 


§  8.  PRINCIPAL  COLLECTIONS  OF  TAHIOUS  ESSAYS  AND  COK- 
MENTARIES  ON  DETACHED  PORTIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES, 
AND  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  SCHIPTURES,  CRITICAL,  PHILO- 
LOGICAL, AND    MISCELLANEOUS. 

[i.]    Collections  of  various  Essays  and   Commentaries  on  de- 
tached portions  of  the  Scriptures. 

1.    Bibliotheca   Historico-Philologico-Theologica.       Brems, 
1719-26.     Classes  VIII.  in  16  tomis,  Svo. 

2.  Museum  Historico-Philologico-Theologicum.  Bremse,  1 728 
-29,  2  tomis,  Svo. 

3.  Bibliotheca  Bremensis  Nova,  Historico-Philologico-Theolo- 
gica.     Bremse,  1760-66,  6  tomis,  Svo. 

4.  Bibliotheca,  Hagana,  Historico-Philologico-Theologica,  ad 
continuationem  Bibliothecae  Bremensis  Novae,  constructa  a  Nico» 
lao  Barkey.     Hagae,  1768-74,  5  tomis,  Svo. 

5.  Museum  Haganum.  Historico-Philologico-Theologicum, 
a  Nicolao  Barkey  editum.  Hagae  Comitum,  1774-80,  4  tomis, 
Svo. 

6.  Symbolae  Literarise  Haganie,  a  Nicolao  Barkey.  HagS^ 
Comitum,  1777-81.     Classes  II.  in  6  fasciculis,  Svo. 


Sect.  III.  4  B.] 


COLLECTIONS  OF  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


147 


7.  liililiotheca  Historico-Philologica-Theologica  [i  Theodore 
Hasffio  et  Fri'dcrico  Adol{)lio  Lampk,  edita],  AmsU-lodami,  1721- 
25,  8  tornis,  Hvo. 

8.  Misccllaiii-a  Duishuri^ciisia,  ad  iiicreincntuin  Uci  Litcrarijc, 
praicipuc  vero  Erudilioiiis  'i'lirologica;  piililicata  [cura  Daiiirlis 
Gkiii)i;sii].     Aiiistclodatiii  «;t  Duishurgi,  173o-;i0,  2  tonus,  Hvo. 

9.  Miscellanea  (jroiiiiigana  in  Miscellaneornin  Duisburgen- 
sium  (Joiitinuationein,  pulilicata  a  Daniele  (jicrdesio.  AniBteiu- 
danii,  Duishurgi,  et  (ironinga!,  K/SG-dib,  4  loniis,  8vo. 

10.  !Syinl)ola3  Literariie,  ex  Haganis  factn;  Uuisburgcnses 
curantc  Joanne  Petro  Deuo.  Hagaj  Coiwituni,  1783-8G,  2  toniis, 
8vo. 

1 1 .  Tempo  Helvetica,  Dissertationes  atque  Obscrvationes  The- 
ologicas,  Pbilologiciis,  Critieas,  IlUtoricas,  cxhibens.  Tiguri, 
17:3.5-40,  a  tomis,  Hvo. 

12.  Museum  Heivelieum,  nd  juvandas  Literas  in  publicos 
nsus  apertuni,  Tiguri,  174G-52.  Particula;  XA'IV.  in  7  toniis, 
8vo. 

13.  Commentationcs  Thcologicre,  edita)  a  Jo.  Casp.  Veltiiu- 
8F.N,  C  'i'heo|)li.  KuiNOKL,  et  Ueo.  Alex.  livi'Knri.  Li])sia;, 
1794-99,  G  toniis,  Hvo. 

The  first  volume  of  this  capital  eolleclion  of  critical  tracts  (in 
which  various  |)assagos  of  the  Old  Teslamcnt  arc  parlieularly  illus- 
Iralcd)  is  now  exceedingly  scarce  on  the  continenl.  A  supplcniont 
tn  it  was  published  by  Messieurs  Pott  and  Ku|>crti,  at  Ilclmsiadt, 
entitled,  Si/lluge  ComnienlaUonum  Theologicarum,  in  8  vols.  bvo. 
1800—1807. 

14.  Commcntationcs  Theologica;.  Edidorunt,  E.  F.  C.  Rosex- 
MiJLLKH,  G.  L.  H.  FuLDNEii,  ct  F.  V.  D.  Mauueu.  Lipsix, 
182.5-32,  2  tomis,  8vo. 

1.5.  Tile  Classical  Jouiixal,  8vo.  London,  1810-29,  40  vols. 
8vo.  with  Indexes. 

Though  principally  devoted  to  classical  literature,  biblical  criti- 
cism liMins  an  ini|ii>rlaMt  article  in  its  journal;  and  many  valuable 
elucidations  of  iJie  .'Scriptures  will  be  found  in  its  pages. 

16.  The  Biblical  Repertory  ;  or  a  Collection  of  Tracts  in  Bibli- 
cal Literature.  By  Charles  Hodge,  Professor  of  Oriental  and 
Biblical  Literature  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Princeton, 
New  Jersey.     Princeton  and  New  York,  1825-28,  4  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  consists  of  selections  from  the  writings  of  the  most 
disiiu;;uishod  Biblical  and  Oriental  scholars,  both  British  and  con- 
tinetital.  The  subje('ts  discussed  are — the  Criticism  of  the  Sacred 
Text,  Ancient  Versions,  Oitical  Editions,  the  Interpretation  and 
Literary  History  ol'  the  Holy  Scriptures,  Biblical  Anliouities,  Exe- 
getical  Treatises  on  important  passages  of  Scripture,  Biographical 
Notices  of  Biblical  Writers,  Accounts  of  the  most  important  Bibli- 
cal \Vori;s,  A:c. 

17.  The  Biblical  Repertory  and  Theological  Review,  edited 
by  an  Association  of  Gentlemen  in  Princeton  and  its  vicinity. 
Philadelphia,  1830-33,  Vols.  I.— V.  8vo.  [This  work  is  still  in 
progress.] 

18.  The  Biblical  Repertory,  conducted  by  Edward  Robixson, 
D.D.,  Professor  Extraordinary  in  the  Theological  Seminaiy  at 
Andover.     Andover,  1831-34,  Vols.  I.— IV.  8vo. 

This  truly  valuable  "Biblical  Repertory"  is  also  in  progress.  As 
Its  name  imiKirts,  it  is  a  collection  of  Essays  and  Tracts  of  perma- 
nent value,  original  and  translated  (especially  from  the  writings 
of  the  most  distinguished  German  critics);  which  relate  principally 
to  the  literature  of  the  Bible. 

19.  Essays  and  Dissertations  on  Biblical  Literature.  By  a 
Society  of  Clergymen  [of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  United  States  of  North  America].  Vol.  I.  New  York,  1829, 
8vo. 

This  work,  which  has  not  been  continued,  consists  chiefly  of 
translations  from  the  writings  of  German  critics;  against  the  neolo- 
gian  tenets  published  by  some  of  whom  the  translators  have  su{>- 
plied  their  readers  with  satisfactory  antidotes.  G.  Michaelis,  Storr 
the  elder,  Tittmann,  Eichhorn,  and  Gesenius,  are  the  authors  from 
whom  the  materials  of  this  volume  have  been  derived. 


[it.]    Obsei'vations  on  the  Scriptures,  Critical,  Philological, 
and  Miscellaneous, 

1.  Fr.  Lud.  .\BnEscH,  Animadversiones  ad  ^schylum  ;  acce- 
dunt  Adnotationes  ad  quajdam  Loca  Novi  Testamenti.  Medio- 
burgi,  1743,  2  vols.  8vo. 

2.  Cornelii  An  ami  Obscrvationes  Theologico-Philologicje : 
quibus  plurima  Sacri  Codicis  Novi  Testamenti  prsesertim,  Loca 
ex  moribus  et  ritibus  diversarum  gentium  illustrantur.  Gron- 
ingiB,  1710,  4to. 


3.  Cornelii  Atiami  Excrcitationes  Exegelica;  de  Israelis  in 
^^gypto  Multiplicatione  et  ()pi)rcssione ;  Nalivitate  et  In^titu- 
tione  Mosis  in  Sapicntia  -Egyiitioruin :  Conversionc  sancti  Pauli 
aliorunique  inagnoruni  pcccatoruin ;  malisque  Konis  pagansE  et 
hodicrniB  Moribus.  Accedunt  Scholia  ad  dcccm  loca  ex  Actis 
.\postolorum.     GrOningaj,  4to. 

Walchius  speaks  in  very  high  terms  of  the  erudition  of  both  these 
publications.     (Bibl.  Theol.  Select,  vol.  iv.  p.  330.) 

4.  Joannis  Aliiehti  Obscrvationes  Philologicte  in  SacrosNovi 
Fuideris  Libros.     Lugd.  Bat.  1725,  8vo. 

5.  Joannis  Alberti  Periculum  Criticum  :  in  quo  loca  qua;- 
darn  cum  Vetcris  ac  Novi  Fa-deris,  turn  Hesychii  et  aliorum, 
illustrantur,  vindicanlur,  emendantur.  Lugduiii  Batavorum, 
1737,  8vo. 

G.  (Jaroli  Ai'niviLi.ii  Dissertationes  ad  Sacras  Literas  et 
Philologiam  Orientalcin  Pentinentes.     Gottingen,  1790,  8vo. 

7.  Miscellanea  Sacra;  containing  an  .Abstract  of  the  Scripture 
History  of  the  Apostles  in  a  new  incthotl.  With  Four  Critical 
Essays — 1.  On  the  Witness  of  the  Holy  S]iirit :  2.  On  the  Dis- 
tinction between  .\j)0stle8,  Elders,  and  Brethren  :  3.  On  the  Time 
when  Paul  and  Barnabas  became  Apostles:  4.  On  the  Ajiostoli- 
cal  Decree,  &c.  <S:c.  [By  John  Shute,  Viscount  Bahiii.ncjto.v.] 
A  new  edition,  with  large  additions  and  corrections.  London, 
1770,  3  vols.  8vo.  Also  in  the  Rev.  G.  Townsend's  edition  of 
Viscount  Barrington's  Collective  Works.  London,  182H,  in  3 
vols.  8vo. 

The  merit  of  this  work  is  generally  allowed.  Dr.  Benson  ac- 
knowledged himself  much  indebted  to  it  in  his  history  of  the 
first  planting  of  Christianity,  and  in  some  other  of  his  works. 

8.  Jo.  Hermanni  Benser  Otia  Sacra,  de  Divinis  quibusdam 
Oraculis  occupata.     Gisste,  1736,  8vo. 

9.  The  Sacred  Classics  defended  and  illustrated,  by  Anthony 
Blackwall.     London,  1737,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  "gives  many  well-chosen  instances  of  passages  in  the 
cla.ssics,  which  may  jusiily  many  of  those  in  Scripture  that  have 
been  accounted  solecisms.  They  illustrate  the  beauty  of  many 
others,  and  contain  good  observations  on  the  divisions  of  chapters 
and  verses,  by  which  the  sense  of  Scripture  is  often  obscured." 
(Dr.  Doddridge.) 

10.  Zachariaj  Bon  ax  Homerus  'E2put^uv ;  sive  Comparatio 
Honieri  cum  Scriptoribus  Sacris,  quoad  normam  loquendi. 
Oxonii,  1658,  8vo. 

In  the  preface  to  this  learned  work  the  author  states  that  it  is  not 
his  intention  to  institute  any  comparison  between  the  sacred  wriiera 
and  their  opinions  and  Homer,  but  simply  between  their  idioms  and 
ways  of  speaking.  The  authoradded  to  his  book  llesiodius  E^^i.^'coi. ; 
in  which  he  shows  how  Hesiod  expresses  himself  nearly  after  the 
same  manner  as  Homer. 

11.  De  Constanti  ct  .^quabili  Jesu  Christi  Indole,  Doctrina, 
ac  Docendi  Ratione,  sive  Commcntationcs  de  Evangelio  Joannis 
cum  Matthsei,  Marci,  et  Lucae  EvangcUis  comparato.  Scripsit 
E.  A.  Bohgeb.     Lugd.  Bat.  1816,  8vo. 

A  work  of  deep  research.  Its  design  is  to  demonstrate  the  credi- 
bility of  the  four  evangelists  by  internal  arguments,  deduced  from 
the  mutual  comparison  of  their  writings. 

12.  Lamberti  Bos  Excrcitationes  Philologicje  in  quibus  Novi 
Foederis  loca  nonnulla  ex  auctoribusGriEcis  illustrantur,aIiorumque 
versiones  et  intcrpretationes  examinantur.  Franeq.  1710,  8vo. ; 
edit.  2.  1713,  8vo, 

13.  Lamlierti  Bos  Obscrvationes  Misccllanes  ad  loca  qusdam 
cum  Novi  Foederis,  turn  cxtcrorum  Scriptorum  Grjecorum. 
Fianequerac,  1707,  8vo. 

14.  Lamberti  Bos  Ellipses  Grscs,  edits  a  Scbaefer.  Lipsise, 
1808,  or  Glasgow,  1813,  8vo. 

1 5.  Critical  Conjectures  and  Observations  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, collected  from  various  .\uthors,  as  well  in  regard  to  Words 
as  Pointing,  with  the  reasons  on  which  both  are  founded.  By 
William  Bowyer,  F.S..\.,  Bishop  Barrington,  Mr.  Markland, 
Professor  Schultz,  Professor  Michaelis,  Dr.  Owen,  Dr.  Woide, 
Dr.  Gosset,  and  Mr.  Weston.  A  Series  of  Conjectures  from 
Michaelis,  and  a  Specimen  of  Notes  on  the  Old  Testament,  by 
Mr.  Weston,  are  added  in  an  Appendix.  4th  edit  London, 
1812,  4to. 

For  an  account  of  the  former  impressions  of  this  valuable  work, 
see  Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vols.  xlvi.  p.  555.  and  Ixvii.  p.  113.;  and 
for  an  account  of  the  present  edition,  see  the  British  Critic,  O.  S. 
vol.  il.  p.  507.  et  seq.  In  the  preface  to  which  journal  (p.  vi.)  it  is 
truly  observed  that  Mr.  Bowyer's  work  "  is  for  the  learned  only ; 
and  for  those  among  the  learned  who  can  discriminate  and  judge 


148 


SACRED  rillLOLOGY. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  V. 


for  themselves.  Conjoctiires  on  the  sacrod  text  are  at  best  ex- 
tremely hazardous;  hence  it  is  lliat  the  work,  though  valuable,  can 
deserve  only  a  partial  recommendation." 

16.  Observations  upon  the  Plagues  inflicted  upon  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  in  which  is  shown  the  peculiarity  of  those  judgments,  and 
their  correspondence  with  the  rites  and  idolatry  of  that  people, 
•Sec.  «&c.  By  Jacob  Biiyant.  London,  1794;  2d  edition,  1810, 
8vo. 

"  The  same  depth  of  thought,  the  same  brilliancy  of  fancy,  and 
the  same  extent  of  erudition,  are  proportionably  conspicuous  in  this 
smaller  production,  as  in  the  larger  work  of  the  Analysis"  of  An- 
'  cient  Mythology.     (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  iv.  p.  35.) 

17.  Observations  upon  some  Passages  of  Scripture  which  the 
Enemies  to  Religion  have  thought  most  obnoxious,  and  attended 
with  difficulties  not  to  be  surmounted.  By  Jacob  Bryant.  Lon- 
don, 1803,  4to. 

"  On  the  whole,  we  have  discovered  in  this  work  much  learning, 
much  ingenuity,  and  an  uniform  good  intention  ;  but  truth  compels 
us  to  add,  that  it  displays  a  defect  in  judgment,  and  a  too  evident 
propensity  to  support  a  favourite  hypothesis."  (British  Critic,  O.  S. 
vol.  XKV.  p.  68.) 

18.  Dav.  Renaldi  Bullerii  Dissertationum  Sacrarum  Sylloge. 
Amstelodami,  1750,  8vo. 

19.  Responses  Critiques  a  plusieurs  Difficultes  proposees  par 
les  Nouveaux  Incredules  sur  divers  Endroits  des  Livres  Saints. 
Par  M.  Bullet.     Besangon,  1819,  4  vols.  8vo.  and  12mo. 

These  %-olumes  were  published  at  different  times,  many  years 
since:  the  author  of  the  fourth  volume  is  not  known.  Many  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  which  were  the  subject  of  cavil  to  Voltaire  and 
the  infidels  of  the  last  century  are  here  elucidated  ;  and  their  skep- 
tical objections  are  shown  to  be  utterly  destitute  of  foundation. 

20.  Joannis  Buxtorfii  Dissertationes  Philologico-Theolo- 
gicae,  et  Abarbanelis  aliquot  Dissertationes.     Basil,  1662,  4to. 

21.  An  Examination  of  Scripture  Difficulties.  By  William 
Carpenter.     London,  1828,  8vo. 

22.  Commentatio  de  Felice,  Judfese  Procurator.  Auctore 
Joanne  Daniele  Claubio.     Jenae,  1737,  4to. 

23.  Pauli  CoLOMEsii  Observationes  Sacrse.  Londini,  1688, 
i2mo. 

24.  Four  Hundred  Texts  of  Holy  Scripture,  with  their  cor- 
responding Passages,  explained  to  the  understanding  of  common 
people,  and  arranged  under  the  following  heads : — 1.  Texts 
which  appear  contradictory.  2.  Not  to  be  understood  literally. 
3.  Improperly  translated.  4.  Better  translated  otherwise.  5.  Re- 
quiring explanation.  6.  Wrested  or  perverted.  7.  The  Para- 
bles.— The  whole  compiled  with  a  view  to  promote  religious 
knowledge,  and  facilitate  the  reading  of  the  Divine  Writings. 
By  Oliver  St.  John  Cooper,  A.M.     London,  1791,  small  8vo. 

25.  The  Practical  Expositor  of  the  more  difficult  Texts  that 
are  contained  in  the  Holy  Bible  :  wherein  the  dreams  in  Daniel, 
and  the  visions  of  all  the  Prophets,  and  the  two  mystical  Books 
of  the  Canticles  and  the  Revelation  are  all  clearly  opened.  By 
Richard  Coore,  D.D.     London,  1683,  8vo. 

26.  Salomonis  Detlingii  Observationes  Sacrse.  Lipsiae, 
1735,  5  vols.  4to. 

27.  Ambrosii  Dorhotjt,  Animadversiones  in  Loca  Selecta 
Veteris  Testament!.     Leovardise,  1766,  2  vols.  8vo. 

28.  Joannis  Doughtjbi  Analecta  Sacra,  et  Nortoni  Knatch- 
BuiLii  Animadversiones  in  Libros  Novi  Testamenti.  Amste- 
lodami, 1694,  8va. 

29.  Drusii  (Joannis)  Animadversionum  Libri  Duo.  Amste- 
lodami, 1634,  4to. 

30.  Tobioe  Eckhardi  Observationes  PhilologicsB  ex  Aristo- 
phanis  Pluto.  Dictioni  Novi  Foederis  illustrandae  inservientes. 
Accedit  ejusdem  generis  Dissertatio,  ex  Horaeri  Illiade.  Quedlin- 
burgi,  1733,  4to. 

31.  An  Inquiry  into  four  remarkable  Texts  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, which  contain  some  difficulty  in  them,  with  a  probable 
resolution  of  them.  By  John  Edwards,  D.D.  Cambridge, 
1692,  8vo. 

32.  Exercitations,  Critical,  Philosophical,  Historical,  Theo- 
logical, on  several  Important  Places  in  the  Writings  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament.  By  John  Edwards,  D.D.  London, 
1702,  8vo. 

33.  H.  F.  Eisiter  Paulus  Apostolus  et  Jesaias  Propheta  inter 
se  comparati.     Vratislaviae,  1821,  4to. 

34.  Jacobi  Elsner  Observationes  Sacraj  in  Novi  Foederis 
Libros,  quibus  plura  illorum  Librorum  ex  auctoribus  potissimum 


Grsecis,  et  Antiquitate,  exponuntur,  et  illustrantur.     Trajecti  ad 
Rhenum,  1720.  1728.     In  two  volumes,  8vo. 

35.  Jo.  Aug.  Ernesth  Opuscula  Thcologica.  8vo.  2d  edit. 
Iiip.sia;,  1792. 

36.  Synopsis  Solectiorum  e  Philologia  Sacra  Qusestioniim. 
Disputatio  I. — III.  quam  prses.  M.  Augusto  Pfeillero  publicffi 
<!-v^iiTii(7-u  sistit  Samuel  Fiscuer  (in  opp.  PfcilTeri).  Ultrajecti, 
1704,  4to. 

37.  Fleck  (F.  F.)  Dc  Regno  Christi  Liber,  Quatuor  Evan- 
gelistarum  Doctrinam  coniplecten.s.     Cum  excursibus  argumenti  I 
critici,  exegctici,  atque  historici.     Lipsia;,  1827,  &vo.  ' 

38.  Critical  Essays  on  Genesis,  Chap.  XX.,  and  on  Saint 
Matthew,  Chap.  II.  17,  18.:  with  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Charles 
FoRSTER,  B.D.     Dublin  and  London,  1827,  8vo. 

The  professed  aim  of  Mr.  Forster,  in  the  publication  of  these 
essays,  is  to  lower  the  modern  continental  system  of  biblical  inter- 
pretation. With  this  view,  in  the  first  essay,  he  examines,  and 
most  satisfactorily  refutes,  the  hypothesis  of  Father  Simon,  on  the 
supposed  translocation  of  the  twentieth  chapter  of  Genesis.  In  the 
second  essay,  the  learned  author  considers  the  connection  between 
the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  (xxxi.  15.)  with  respect  to  the  voice  of 
weeping  heard  in  Ramah,  and  the  account  given  by  Saint  Matthew 
(ii.)  of  the  slaughter  of  the  innocents  at  Bethlehem.  His  hypo- 
thesis is,  "  that  Jeremiah  diverted  from  its  proper  object  to  his  im- 
mediate purpose  the  prophetic  type,  Gen.  xxxv.  16 — 19.,  in  the  way 
of  accommodation ;  and  that  the  evangelist,  by  referring  the  pre- 
diction in  Jer.  xxxi.  15.  to  the  massacre  at  Bethlehem  for  its  true 
fulfilment,  has  accomplished  the  final  design  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
permitting  the  temporary  diversion  of  the  foregoing  place  of 
Genesis  by  the  prophet;  viz.  the  authoritative  reunion  of  this  pro- 
phetic type  with  its  real  antitype,  through  the  medium  of  a 
prophecy,  couched  in  terms  sufficiently  affecting  to  do  justice  to 
the  deeply  tragical  event,  to  which  it  was  meant  ultimately  to  be  J 
applied." — "  The  view,  taken  by  Mr.  Forster,"  of  the  connection  ;fl 
between  Jer.  xxxi.  15.  and  Matt,  ii.,  "  is,  we  believe,  original ;  and  " 
even  those,  who  find  difficulty  in  subscribing  to  this  interpretation 
of  Saint  Matthew's  allusion,  will  have  none  (we  think),  in  ad- 
mitting its  ingenuity,  or  the  ability  with  which  every  suggestion 
in  its  favour  is  brought  forward."  (British  Critic  and  Theological 
Review,  vol.  i.  p.  345.) 

39.  C.  F.  A.  Fbitsche  Conjectanea  in  Novum  Testamentum. 
Specimen  I.     Lipsise,  1825,  8vo. 

40.  Nicolai  Fclleri  Miscellaneorum  Sacrorum  Libri  Duo. 
Lugduni,  1625,  8vo. 

41.  D.  G.  Goetzii  Varise  Celebriorum  Mcdicorum,  Obser- 
vationes, quibus  multa  loca  Novi  Testamenti  docte  illustrantur. 
Altdorf,  1740,  8vo. 

Questions  of  considerable  difficulty  are  in  this  work  briefly  but 
judiciously  illustrated. 

42.  Jo.  Jacobi  Griesbachii  Opuscula  Academica.  Edidit 
Jo.  Philippus  Gabler.     Jenae,  1824-25.     2  vols.  8vo. 

43.  Biblical  Notes  and  Dissertations,  chiefly  intended  to  con-" 
firm  and  illustrate  the  Doctrine  of  the  Deity  of  Christ:  with 
some  Remarks  on  the  Practical  Importance  of  that  Doctrine. 
By  Joseph  John  Gurnet.     London,  1830,  8vo. 

44.  Theodorii  Hackspanii  Notae  Philologico-Theologicae  in 
varia  et  difficilia  Veteris  Testamenti.   Altdorf,  1664,  3  vols.  8vo. 

45.  A  free  and  impartial  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  re- 
commended ;  being  notes  on  some  particular  texts,  with  dis- 
courses and  observations  on  various  subjects.  By  Jos.  Hallet, 
junior.     London,  1729.  1732.  1736.     3  vols.  8vo. 

Many  important  topics  of  Scripture  criticism  and  interpretation 
are  discussed  in  these  volumes.  If  the  reader  is  not  always  con- 
vinced by  the  arguments  of  the  learned  author,  he  cannot  fail  of 
being  pleased  with  the  ingenuity  and  spirit  of  candour  and  piety 
which  pervade  them.  Those  discourses  which  treat  on  the  evi- 
dences of  Christianity  are  peculiarly  valuable,  for  the  lucid  and 
forcible  reasoning  displayed  in  them.  The  nature  of  personal 
identity,  in  particular,  with  its  application  to  the  resurrection  of 
Jesus  Christ,  is  admirably  illustrated  in  two  discourses  contained 
in  the  second  volume. 

46.  Jo.  Christ.  Hah  en  berg  Otia  Gandershemcnsia  Sacra, 
exponendis  Sacris  Litteris  et  Historice  Ecclesiasticae  dicatae.  Traj. 
ad  Rhen.  1740,  8vo. 

47.  Danielis  Heinsii  Exercitationes  Sacraa  ad  Novum  Testa- 
mentum.    Cantabrigiae,  1640,  4to. 

48.  Annotata  in  Loca  nonulla  Novi  Testamenti.  Edidit  I 
Wessel  Albertus  van  Hengel.     Amstelaedami,  1824,  8vo. 

The  author  of  this  erudite  volume  is  a  pastor  of  the  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church,  and  also  a  professor  at  Amsterdam.  The  passages 
which  are  the  subject  of  his  researches  are  seventeen  in  number, 
and  among  the  most  difficult  which  occur  in  the  New  Testament. 
M.  van  Hengel's  method  of  interpretation  is  very  severe  and 


Sect.  III.  §  8.] 


COLLECTIONS  OF  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


149 


rigorous.  IIo  first  examines  ea<:?i  word  in  every  verse;  he  then 
traces  it  in  classical  authors  and  parallel  passages;  discusses  its 
various  meanings ;  and  states  the  grounds  of  the  signification 
which  he  adopts  ;  and,  alter  having  thus  drawn  U|)  a  dictionary  of 
the  verse,  he  re-construes  it  with  scrupulous  fidelity.  The  result 
of  all  these  laborious  in(|uiries  is,  the  eliciting  of  a  clear  and  simple 
meaning  to  every  passage  which  he  has  undertaken  to  elucidate. 
(Revue  Prolestante,  torn.  i.  p.  254.) 

49.  A.  Th.  HoKFM\>jN  Obscrvationcs  in  Difllciliora  Vetcris 
Tcstamcnti  Loca,  Particula  prima.     Jena;,  1823,  4 to. 

50.  Scripture  Testimonies  to  the  Divinity  of  our  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  collected  and  illustrated  by  the  Rev. 
George  Huliikn,  M.A.     London,  1820,  8vo. 

51.  The  Scripture  Testimony  to  the  Messiah:  an  Inquiry, 
with  a  view  to  a  satisfactory  Uctormination  of  the  Doctrine 
taught  in  the  Holy  Scrij)tures  concerning  the  Person  of  Christ. 
By  John  Pye  S.mith,  D.D.  London,  1818-21.  2  vols,  in  3 
parts,  8vo.  Second  Edition,  much  improved  and  enlarged,  1829, 
3  vol.f.  8vo. 

52.  Discourses  and  Dis.sertations  on  the  Scriptural  Doctrines 
of  Atonement  and  Sacrifice.  By  William  Mawek,  D.D.,  [late] 
Archbishop  of  Dublin.  A  new  edition.  London,  1832,  3  vols. 
8vo. 

50-52. — F.aeh  of  those  truly  valuable  works  was  published  in 
defence  of  that  cardinal  doelrme  of  the  Christian  Revelation, — the 
supreme  Deity  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ:  but  they 
rluim  a  distinct  notice  in  this  place,  on  account  of  the  very  nume- 
rous philological  and  critical  explanations  of  important  passages 
of  Scripture  which  they  contain.  From  frequently  consulting 
them,  the  writer  of  these  pages  can  with  confidence  slate,  that 
they  are  works  of  which  the  student  will  never  regret  the  pur- 
chase :  each  contains  most  valuable  matter  peculiar  to  itself;  and, 
together,  they  form  the  most  elaborate  defence  and  proof  of  the 
Deity  of  Jesus  Christ  extant  in  our  language.  The  value  of  Arch- 
bishop Magee's  and  Dr.  Smith's  works  is  enhanced  by  their  learned 
vindications  of  many  important  passages  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
from  the  erroneous  interpretations  of  the  modern  Socinians,  as  well 
as  the  recent  neologian  commentators  of  Germany. 

53.  Joh.  Fridcrici  HoMnEnGK  Parerga  Sacra;  sive  Obscrva- 
tioncs qua;dam  ad  Novum  Testamentum.  Trajecti  ad  Rhenuni, 
1712,  4to. 

.54.  Specimen  Exercitationum  Criticarum  in  Versioncm  LXX. 
Interpretum,  ex  Philone.  Auctore  Claudio  Frees  Hohne- 
MAjrs. — Specimen  primum,  Gottinga;,  1773.  Specimen  secun- 
dum, Haunise,  1776.     Specimen  tertium,  Haunia;,  1778,  8vo. 

55.  Gerardi  Horrei  Animadversiones  Sacra;-Profanae  ad 
selecia  Novi  Foederis,  Scriptorumque  exterorum  Graecorum, 
Loca.     Harlinga;,  1749,  8vo. 

56.  Petri  Horrei  Miscellaneorum  Criticorum  Libri  duo: 
quorum  alter  ex  variis  Graecis,  Latinis,  varia  Sacroruin,  extero- 
rum Scriptorum  complectitur :  alter  vocabuli  <f «tv«  Originem, 
Usum,  apud  seniores  et  reliquos,  ubi  loci  plures  LXX.  &c.  illus- 
trantur,  emendantur,  vindicantur,  tractat.  Leovardiae  et  Har- 
linga;, 1738,  8vo. 

57.  Biblical  Critici.'^m  on  the  first  fourteen  Historical  Books 
of  the  Old  Testament ;  also  on  the  first  nine  Prophetical  Books. 
By  Samuel  Horslet,  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph.  London, 
1820,  4  vols.  8vo. 

Besides  the  critical  pieces  mentioned  in  the  title-page,  these 
volumes  (which  are  edited  by  the  author's  son,  the  Rev.  lleneage 
Horsley)  contain  three  valuable  disquisitions,  published  in  tlie 
bishops  lifetime,  viz.  1.  A  general  view  of  the  first  three  chap- 
ters of  Genesis,  together  with  an  inquiry  into  the  etymology  and 
import  of  the  l)ivine  Names  of  F.loah,  Klohim,  El,  Jehovah,  anil 
Jail ;  which  originally  appeared  in  the  British  Critic,  for  1802,  in 
a  review  of  the  late  Dr.  Geddos's  remarks  on  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
lures.  2.  A  Critical  Disquisition  on  the  Kighteenth  Ciiapler  of 
Isaiah;  and,  3.  The  Translation  of  the  Prophecy  of  Ilosea  (no- 
ticed p.  142.  siij)ni).  These  are  inserted  as  revised  by  their  author. 
At  the  end  of  the  fourth  volume  are  translations  of  several  Sacred 
Songs,  with  Critical  Notes  on  them,  and  on  a  few  other  Sacred 
Pieces,  of  which  the  bishop  has  not  given  versions. 

58.  Jo.  Jac.  Hottingerf,  Opuscula,  philologica,  critica,  atque 
hcrmeneulica.     Lipsia;,  1817,  8vo. 

59.  Conradi  Ikexh  Dissertationcs  Philologico-Theologica;  in 
diversa  Sacri  Codicis  utriusque  Testamcnti  loca.  Lugd.  Bat. 
1749,  1750,  2  vols.  4to. 

60.  Pauli  Ernestii  JAnT.o?rsKti  Opuscula,  quibus  Lingua  et 
Antiquitas  Egyptiorum,  difficilia  Librorum  Sacrorum  Loca,  et 
Historise  Ecclesiastics;  capita  illustrantur.  Edidit  atque  Animad- 
versiones adjccit  Jona  Guilielmus  Te  Water.  Lugduni  Batavo- 
rum,  1804-6-9-13,  4  tomis,  8vo. 

Besides  his  Pantheon  ./Egyptiacum,  M.  Jablonski  wrote  numerous 
dissertations  on   various  topics  of  sacred  and  oriental  literature. 


After  his  death  corrected  copies  of  these  (many  of  which  had  be- 
come extremely  scarce),  together  with  numerous  inedited  disijuisi- 
tions,  were  sent  to  prof.  Ruhnkciuus  at  Leyden ;  and  finally  were 
(•(lited  by  prof.  Te  Water,  with  numerous  valuable  notes  and  in- 
dexes. The  first  volume  contains  the  Egyptian  Glossary',  already 
noticed  in  p.  112.  The  second  volume  comprises  six  dir^quisitions 
on  Egyptian  Antiquities,  one  on  the  inifiort  of  the  word  i^irtjrif, 
and  three  illustrations  of  Job  xix.  20.,  Matt.  xii.  3(j.,  and  Mark  ix.49. 
The  third  volume  contains  several  dissertations  elucidating  difiicult 
passages  of  Scripture  ;  and  six,  on  subjects  of  ecclesiastical  anli- 
(|uity.  The  Ibiirth  volume  is  wholly  filled  with  dissertations  relating 
to  ecclesiastical  history  and  antiquity.  All  these  jtieces  are  replete 
with  proli^und  learning.  This  collection  of  Jabionski's  Opuscula 
IS  not  of  coiiiiiion  occurrence. 

61.  Car.  Aug.  Theoph.  Keilii  Opuscula  Academica  ad  N.  T. 
Interpretutioneni  Grammatico-historicam,  ctTheologia;  Christianae 
Origines,  pertinentia.     Edidit  J.  D.  Guldhorn.    LipsiiB,  1821, 8vo. 

62.  Remarks  on  Select  Passages  in  the  Old  Testament ;  to 
which  are  added  eight  scrmon.s.  By  the  late  Benjamin  Ke.\ni- 
coTT,  D.D.     London,  1777,  8vo. 

For  an  account  of  this  work,  see  Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
Ixxviii.  pp.  477 — 489. 

63.  Petri  Keuchexii  Annotata  in  Novum  Testamentum,  cum 
Prajfatione  Joannis  Albcrti.     Lugd.  Bat.  1775,  8vo.  best  edition. 

64.  Morsels  of  Criticism,  tending  to  illustrate  some  few  Pas- 
sages in  the  Holy  Scripture  upon  Philosophical  Principles,  and 
an  enlarged  View  of  Things.  By  Edward  Kiso,  Esq.  F.R.S. 
and  F.S.A.  4to.  London,  part  i.  1784,  part  ii.  1800;  also  a 
second  edition,  8vo.  in  3  vols.  London,  1800. 

"  Mr.  King's  particular  aim  is,  to  provide  answers  to  the  more 
subtile  opponents  of  Christianity,  and  to  trace  the  completion  of 
the  sacred  oracles."  "  We  cannot  take  our  leave  of  this  valuable 
work  without  expressing  our  admiraiion  of  the  singular  union  of 
ingenuity  and  piety  which  appears  in  every  page.  Few  readers 
perhaps  will  follow  llie  author's  steps  with  the  same  alacrity  with 
which  ho  proceeds  through  the  most  curious  and  subtile  intjuiries; 
but  all  must  readily  grant,  that  such  an  application  of  ingenuity, 
diligence,  learning,  and  philosophical  knowledge,  is  in  a  high 
degree  praiseworthy."  (British  Critic,  0.  S.  vol.  xvi.  preface,  p.  iv. 
and  p.  667.) 

65.  Geo.  Chr.  Knappii  Scripta  varii  Argumcnti,  maximam 
partem  exegeticam.  Hala;,  1805,  2  vols.  8vo.  Editio  altera, 
Halae,  1823,  2  vols.  8vo. 

66.  Jo.  Bern.  Koehleri  Observationes  philologicse  in  loca 
selccta  codicis  sacri.     Lugd.  Bat.  1766,  8vo. 

67.  Wilhclmi  Koolhaas  Observationes  Philolog^co-Exegeticae 
in  quinque  Mosis  Libros,  aliosque  Libros  Historicos  Vcleris 
Testamenti.      Amstclodami,  1751,  8vo. 

68.  Joannis  Guilielmi  Krafftii  Observationes  Sacra; :  quibus 
varia  Scriptura;  Loca  illustrantur.  Marpurgi,  1753-55,  2  parts, 
8vo. 

69.  Jo.  Tob.  Krebsii  de  Usu  et  Praestantia  Romanae  Historias 
in  Novi  Testamenti  Interpretatione  Libellus.    Lipsise,  1745,  8vo. 

70.  Car.  Frid.  Krumbholzii  Opera;  Subseciva; ;  scu  Animad- 
versiones Sacrae  in  Loca  quoidam  Novi  Foederis  Selecta.  Noriin- 
bcrga;,  1737,  8vo. 

71.  G.  C.  KiciiLER  De  Simplicitatc  Scriptorum  Sacrorum  in 
comrnentariis  de  Vita  Jesu  Christi.     Lipsiac,  1821,  8vo. 

72.  Christiani  Theophili  Kuisoel  Observationes  ad  Novum 
Testamentum  ex  Libris  Apocryphis  V.  Lipsiae,  1794,  8vo. 

73.  C.  G.  KiJTTJtERi  Hypomncmata  in  Novum  Testamentum. 
Lipsiffi,  1780,  8vo. 

74.  Geo.  Dav.  Ktpke  Observationes  Sacrae  in  Novi  Fcedetis 
Libros.      Vratislavia;,  1755,  2  vols.  8vo. 

75.  Jo.  Gothofr.  Lakemacheri  Obs'crvationes  Philologies; 
quibus  Varia  Antiquitatis  Hebraica;  atque  Graecae  capita  et  non- 
nulla  S.  Codicis  Loca  nova  luce  collustrantur.  Helmstadii,  1729 
-33,  10  parts,  forming  three  volumes,  8vo. 

76.  Fridcrici  Adolphi  Lampe  Di.ssertationum  Philologico- 
Theologicaruni,  tum  carum  quae  ad  ulteriorum  evangelii  Johan- 
nis  illustrationem  pertinent,  tum  reliquarum  varii  generis  et 
eruditionis  multifarix.  Syntagma  :  cum  Danielis  Gerdesii  praefa- 
tione.     Amstelodami,  1737,  4to. 

77.  Caroli  Henrici  Lanoii  Observationes  Sacrae,  quibus  varia 
N.  Test.  Loca,  ex  antiquitatibus  et  Philologia  Sacra  illustrantur. 
Lubecae,  1737,  8vo. 

78.  The  Complete  Works  of  Dr.  Lardxeh.  London,  1789, 
11  vols.  8vo.  London,  1817,  5  vols.  4to.  London,  1827,  10 
vols.  8vo. 

In  the  applause  of  Dr.  Lardner  all  parties  of  Christians  are  united, 
regarding  him  as  the  champion  of  their  common  and  holy  faith. 


150 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


Archbishop  Seeker,  Bishops  Porteus,  Watson,  and  Tomline,  and 
Doctors  Jortin,  Iley,  and  Paley,  of  the  Anglican  church:  Doctors 
Doddridge,  Kippis,  and  Priestley,  amongst  the  Dissenters;  and  all 
foreign  Proteslaril  biblical  critics,  have  rendered  public  homage  to 
his  learning,  his  fairness,  and  his  great  merits  as  a  Christian  apolo- 
gist. The  candid  of"  the  literati  of  the  Romish  communion  have 
extolled  his  labours:  and  even  Morgan  and  Gibbon,  professed  un- 
believers, have  awarded  to  him  the  meed  of  faithfulness  and  impar- 
tiality. With  his  name  is  associated  the  praise  of  deep  erudition, 
accurate  research,  sound  and  impartial  judgment,  and  unblemished 
candour.  The  publication  of  his  works  constituted  a  new  aera  in 
tlie  annals  of  Christianity :  for,  by  collecting  a  mass  of  scattered 
evidences  in  favour  of  the  authenticity  of  the  evangelical  history, 
he  established  a  bulwark  on  the  side  of  truth  which  infidelity  has 
never  presumed  to  attack.  His  "Credibility,"  and  his  "  Collection 
of  Jewish  and  Heathen  Testimonies,"  may  be  said  to  have  "given 
the  deistical  controversy  a  new  turn,  and  to  have  driven  the  assail- 
ants of  the  Gospel  from  the  field  of  Christian  antiquity,  in  which 
they  esteemed  themselves  securely  intrenched,  into  the  by-paths 
of  sarcasm  and  irony.  How  amply  we  are  indebted  to  the  elabo- 
rate researches  of  the  learned  and  accurate  Dr.  Lardner,  the  nu- 
merous references  to  his  writings  in  the  course  of  the  present  work 
will  sufficiently  attest.  The  quarto  edition  has  corrected  indexes. 
The  octavo  edition  of  1827  is  sold  at  a  very  reasonable  price,  and 
Its  typographical  execution  is  truly  beautiful.  Our  references  to 
Dr.  Lardner's  works  are  made  to  the  quarto  edition,  and  also  to  the 
octavo  edition  of  1789. 

79.  A  Common-Place-Book ;  or  Companion  to  the  New  Tes- 
tament ;  consisting  of  Illustrations  of  difficult  passages ;  apparent 
Contradictions  and  Inconsistencies  reconciled ;  and  the  Confor- 
mity of  some  Important  facts  mentioned  in  Scripture,  with  the 
Statements  of  Profane  Authors.  By  the  Rev.  S.  Longhchst, 
B.A.     Richmond  and  London,  1833,  8vo. 

This  compilation  contains  most  of  the  passages  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, which  have  arrested  the  attention  of  the  captious  opposer 
or  the  ingenuous  critic.  The  compiler  has  undertaken  it  "for  the 
English  reader,  and  for  those  who  may  have  but  little  acquaintance 
with  the  technicality  and  intricacies  of  biblical  criticism."  This 
Introduction  to  the  critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures has  been  laid  under  a  large  contribution.  The  remainder  of 
the  compiler's  materials  are  derived  from  Mr.  Burder's  Oriental 
Customs,  the  Commentaries  of  Ostervald,  Doddridge,  &c.  Mr.  Val- 
py's  very  valuable  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  and  the  works 
of  Josephus  ;  and  for  those  passages  which  are  quoted  in  the  New 
Testament  from  the  Old,  the  compiler  states  that  the  Greek  Septu- 
agirit  and  the  Hebrew  text  have  been  carefully  compared. 

80.  Joannis  Heniici  Maii  (filii)  Observationes  Sacrse ;  quibus 
diversa  utriusque  Testamenti  Loca  ex  linguarum  Indole,  et  Anti- 
quitatibus  potissimum  illustrantur.  Francofurti,  1713-15,  in  4 
books  or  parts,  8vo. 

81.  Critical  Notes  on  some  Passages  of  Scripture,  comparing 
them  with  the  most  ancient  Versions,  and  restoring  them  to  their 
original  reading  or  true  Sense.  [By  Nicholas  Mann.]  London, 
1747,  8vo. 

These  "  Notes"  are  not  numerous,  but  they  contain  some  good 
illustrations  of  confessedly  difficult  passages  of  Scripture :  they 
were  published  anonymously. 

82.  C.  B.  Meisneh  De  Nc^co  Paulino  Commentatio  Exegetico- 
Dogmatica.     Gratz,  1830,  8vo. 

83.  Jo.  Dav.  MicHAELis  Commentationes  in  Societate  Regia 
Scientiarum  Goettingensi  per  annos  1758 — 1762,  praelectae. 
Editio  Secunda.     Bremae,  1774,  4to. 

84.  Johannis  Georgii  Michaelis  Observationes  Sacrse,  in 
quibus  diversis  Sacrae  Scripturae  utriusque  Foederis  Locis  selecto- 
ribus,  ex  Linguae  EbrsEse  aliarumque  Orientalium  indole,  priscorum 
item  populorum  rilibus  et  institutis,  lux  adfunditur :  nonnulla 
etiam  Antiquitatum  Judaicarum  capita  ex  Lege  Mosaica  et 
Magistrorum  placitis  cxcutiuntur,  adque  Sensuiii  Spiritualem 
traducuntur.  Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1738,  8vo.  2da  editio.  Arn- 
hemii,  1752,  8vo. 

85.  Jo.  Georg.  Michaelis  Exercitationes  theologico-philolo- 
gictB.     Lugd.  Bat.  1757,  8vo. 

86.  De  iis,  quse  ad  cognoscendam,  Judsorem  Palsestinensium, 
qui  Jesu  tempore  vivebant,  Christologiam  Evangelia  nobis  exhi- 
bent,  deque  Locis  Messianis  in  illis  allegatis,  scripsit  Adamus 
MonAHT.     Gottingse,  1838,  8vo. 

87.  Observationes  Selects  invaria  loca  Novi  Testamenti :  sive 
liaur.  Ramiresii  de  PnADO  Pentecontarchus,  Alexandri  Mom  in 
Novum  Foedus  Notte,  et  Petri  Possini  Sociclatis  Jesu  Spicile- 
gium  Evangelicum  :  cum  praefatione  Jo.  Alberti  Fabricii  et  tab. 
aen.     Hamburgi,  1712,  8vo. 

One  of  the  rarest  little  books  of  sacred  criticism.  Dr.  Harwood 
calls  this  a  very  useful  collection,  containing  many  excellent  notes 
on  particular  passages  of  the  JNew  Toslamcnt. 


88.  Sam.  Frid.  Nathan  Mom  Dissertationes  Theologicffi  et 
Philologicae,  vol.  i.  Lipsiae,  1787;  vol.  ii.  ibid.  1794;  2d  edition, 
ibid.  1798,  8vo. 

89.  Miscellanea  Hafniensia  Theologici  et  Philologici  Argu- 
menti.  Edidit  FridericusMiJjsTER.  Tom.  I.  II.  Hafniaj,  1816-24, 

90.  Casp.  Frid.  Mcnthu  Observationes  philologies  in  Sacros 
Novi  Testamenti  Libros,  ex  Diodoro  Siculo  collectse.  Hafniae  et 
Lipsia),  1755,  8vo. 

91.  H.  MuNTiNGHE  Sylloge  Opusculorum  ad  doctrinem  sacram 
pertinentium.     Lugd.  Bat.  1791,  1794,  2  vols.  8vo. 

92.  Augusti  Hermanni  Niemeyehi  de  Evangelistarum  in 
narranda  Jesu  Christi  in  vitam  reditu  Dissensione,  variisque 
Vetcrum  Ecclesiae  Doctorum  in  ea  dijudicanda  et  coinponenda 
Studiis,  Prolusio.     Hala;,  1824,  8vo. 

93.  Jo:  Aug.  NoEssELTi  Opusculorum  ad  interprctatio- 
nem  sacrarum  Scripturarum,  Fasciculus  I.  8vo.  Halae,  1785  ; 
Fasciculus  II.  ibid.  1787. — Ejusdem,  Exercitationes  ad  Sacrae 
Scripturae  intcrpretationem.     Halae,  1808,  8vo. 

94.  Geo.  Lud.  CEdehi  Observationum  Sacrarum  Syntagma, 
8vo.  Weissenberg,  1729. — Ejusdem,  Conjecturarum  de  diffici- 
lioribus  SS.  locis  centuria,  8vo.  Lipsiae,  1738. — Ejusdem,  Ani- 
madversiones  sacrae.     Brunswigas,  1747,  8vo. 

95.  Eliae  Palairet  Observationes  Philologico-criticae  in  sacros 
Novi  Fcsderis  Libros.  Lugd.  Bat.  1752,  8vo. — Ejusdem  Speci- 
men Exercitationum  Philologico-criticarum  in  Sacros  Novi  Foe- 
deris Libros,  1775,  8vo. 

96.  Augusti  Pfeifferi  Opera  Omnia.  Amstelodami,  1704, 
2  vols.  8vo. 

The  first  volume  contains  his  Dubia  Vexeta  Scripturce,  400  notes 
on  difficult  passages  of  Scripture,  Ehraica  alqiie  Exotica  Novi  Tes- 
tamenti e  suis  fontibus  derivaia,  an  explanation  of  Hebrew  and  other 
foreign  words  occurring  in  the  New  Testament,  and  ten  disserta- 
tions on  passages  of  peculiar  difliculty  in  the  sacred  writings.  The 
second  volume  consists  of  treatises  on  the  criticism,  interpretation, 
antiquities,  &c.  of  the  Bible. 

97.  Remarks  on  several  Passages  of  Scripture,  rectifying  some 
errors  in  the  printed  Hebrew  Text,  pointing  out  several  mistakes 
in  the  versions,  &c.  By  Matthew  Pilicington,  LL.B.  Cam- 
bridge and  London,  1759,  4to. 

98.  Extracts  from  the  Pentateuch  compared  with  similar 
passages  from  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  with  notes.  By  Edward 
PopnAM,D.D.     Oxford,  1802,  8vo. 

Of  this  work  the  reader  will  find  an  analysis  in  the  British  Critie, 
O.  S.  vol.  XX.  pp.  289—294. 

99.  PoHscHBERGER  (Christiaui)  Theocritus  Scripturam  illus- 
trans  ;  sive  Sententiaj  ac  Phrases  e  Poetis  GraBcis  ad  illustranda 
Sacri  Codicis  Oracula.     Dresdae  et  Lipsiae,  1744,  8vo. 

100.  Georgii  Rapuaelii,  Ecclesiarum  Lunenburgensium  Su- 
perintendentis,  Annotationes  in  Sacram  Scripturam ;  Historicae 
in  Vetus,  Philologicae  in  Novum  Testamentum,  ex  Xenophonte, 
Polybio,  Arriano,  et  Herodoto  coUectae.  Lugduni  Batavorum, 
1747.     In  two  volumes,  8vo. 

101.  Reinecke  (C.  F.  C.)  De  Constanti  et  ^^quabili  Jesu 
Christi  Indole  et  Ingenio,  Doctrina  et  Docendi  Ratione  :  sive 
Commentatio  de  Evangelio  Johannis  cum  Matthaei,  Marci,  et 
Lucae  Evangeliis  conciliato.     Hannoverae,  1827,  8vo. 

102.  Fr.  V.  Reinhardi  Opuscula  Academica.  Lipsiae,  1808 
-9,  2  vols.  8vo. 

103.  An  Joannes  in  exhibenda  Jesu  Natura  reliquis  Canonicis 
libris  repugnet,  examinare  conatus  est  F.  W.  Rettbehg.  Got- 
tingae,  1826,  8vo. 

The  writer  states  the  doctrine  of  St.  John  relative  to  the  divine 
and  human  natures  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  then  compares  them  with 
the  writings  of  the  first  three  evangelists,  and  the  remaining  books 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  conclusion  to  which  the  author  ar- 
rives is,  that  the  evangelist  is  not  an  impostor,  and  consequently 
that  the  writings  bearing  his  name  are  his  genuine  productions. 

104.  Corrections  of  various  passages  in  the  English  Version 
of  the  Old  Testament,  upon  the  authority  of  ancient  manuscripts, 
and  ancient  versions,  by  the  late  W.  H.  Robkrts,  D.D.,  Provost 
of  Eton  College.  Published  by  his  son  W.  Roberts,  M.A.  Lon- 
don, 1794,  8vo. 

"The  biblical  scholar  will  infallibly  receive  with  pleasure  these 
remarks,  from  a  man  of  undoubted  learning  and  ingenuity.  Tho 
chief  intention  of  Dr.  Robprls  seems  to  have  been  that  of  lessening 
the  number  of  words  supplied  in  Italic  in  our  public  version,  as  not 
answering  literally  to  any  words  in  the  Hebrew,  by  showing  that 
in  some  cases  they  are  unnecessary,  and  that  in  some,  the  sense 
may  bo  tilled  uj)  by  other  moans.    'I'liere  are  also  many  remarks 


Sect.  III.  §  8.] 


COLLECTIONS  OF  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


of  a  more  general  kiiiil."  In  (hose  ulwcrvationH,  "  candour,  modesty, 
and  ingenuity  will  bo  found  adorning  learning."  Britiuh  Critic, 
O.  S.  vol.  iv.  p.  018.,  and  pref.  p.  vi. 

10-5.  Discours  Historinucs,  Crititjucs,  Thc^ologiques,  et  Moraux, 
sur  les  Evencmcns  les  plus  mcmorablcs  du  Vicux  et  duNouveau 
Testament.  Par  M.  Sackin.  Avec  des  planches.  A  la  Haye, 
1735—1739,  6  vols,  folio. 

Mr.  van  der  Marck  Ibrmed  a  design  of  representing  on  copper- 
plates the  most  nicMKiruble  evonls  in  Kacri'd  history  ;  and  he  en- 
gaged Mr.  Saurin  to  write  an  explanation  of  the  plates;  this  gave 
rise  to  the  discourses  here  |)ul)lisli<ul.  There  is  an  edition  of  them 
in  11  vols.  8vo.     They  are  deservedly  held  in  the  highest  esteem. 

106.  DLsscrtations,  Historical,  Critical,  Theological,  and  Moral, 
on  the  most  nicinorahlo  events  of  the  Old  and  New  Testatnent. 
Translated  from  the  French  of  M.  Saurin  by  John  Chambcrlayne. 
Vol.  L  [all  pui)lishcd]  London,  1732,  folio. 

107.  Dis.sertationes  Philologico-Exegeticffi  Everardi  Scueidii. 
Hardcrovici,  17fi'J,  1770,  8vo. 

108.  Biblical  Fragments.  By  M.  A.  Scuimmelpeitninck. 
London,  1821,  1822,  2  vols.  8vo. 

These  fragmenis  are  not  critical  elucidations  of  particular  texts; 
but  they  are  written  with  much  elegance,  and  tlio  authoress  has 
introduced  some  of  the  lincst  practical  and  devotional  thoughts  of 
the  Jansenist  writers,  particularly  the  accomplished  and  much  tra- 
duced recluses  of  Port  Royal.  But  her  critical  remarlis  on  the 
authorized  English  version  are  not  always  correct. 

109.  Joannis  Fridcrici  Schleusnehi  Opuscula  Critica  ad  Ver- 
eioncs  Gra;cas  Veteris  Testainenti  pertinentia.    LipsiiE,  1812,  8vo. 

The  Tracts  contained  in  this  volume  are,  1.  Ohservationes  non- 
nullcB  de  Patrum  Gracorum  Auctorilate  in  constituenda  Versionum 
GrcEcarum  Veleris  Teslamenli  Lectione  genuina :  the  object  of  which 
disquisition  is  to  prove  that,  in  citing  the  words  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  Fathers  were  in  many  respects  inaccurate,  partly  from 
their  using  (iiulty  MSS.,  and  partly  from  a  failure  of  memory,  which 
led  them  sometimes  to  substitute  not  only  one  word  for  another, 
but  even  to  change  w  hole  members  of  a  sentence  :  and,  2.  Si/iioge 
Observalioiiuin  ct  EineHdaliotium  Conjecl.  in  Verss.  Gr.  Veteris  Tesla- 
menli. 

110.  Dissertationes  Philologico-CriticaB.  Singulas  primum, 
nunc  cunctas,  edidit  Christianas  Friedcricus  Schnuiiueu. 
Gothee,  1790,  8vo. 

The  di.ssertations  collected  in  this  volume  were,  for  the  most 
part,  published  separately  between  the  years  1772,  1775,  1781,  are 
fifteen  in  number,  and  are  highly  valued  on  the  continent.  They 
comprise 'philologico-critical  observations  on  the  hymn  of  Deborali 
(Judg.  v.),  on  various  passages  of  the  Books  of  Psalms  and  Job,  on 
Isaiah  xxvii.,  Ezekiel  xxi.,  llabakkuk  iii.,  and  the  prophecy  of  Oba- 
diah  ;  besides  two  valuable  dissertations,  on  the  dilliculty  of  deter- 
mining the  age  of  Hebrew^  Manuscripts,  and  on  the  Arabic  Penta- 
teuch in  Bishop  Walton's  edition  of  the  Polyglott  Bible. 

111.  Opuscula  Exegetica,  Critica,  Dogmatica  Scripsit,  re- 
cognovit,  variisque  additamentis  locupletavit  H.  A.  Schott, 
Theol.  Doctor  et  Prof.  Ordin.  Academim  Jcncnsis.  JcniE,  1817, 
1818,  2  vols.  8vo. 

111*.  Albcrti  ScfiuLTEXs  Animadvcrsioncs  Philologica;  et 
Criticae  ad  varia  loca  Veteris  Testamenti :  in  quibus,  ope  pra;ci- 
pue  Lingua)  Arabica),  multa  ab  intcrpretibus  nondum  satis  intel- 
lecta  illustrantur,  quauiplurima  ctiam  nova  explicanda  modestc 
proponuntur.     Ani-stclodami,  1709,  8vo. 

This  treatise  was  reprinted,  together  with  other  pieces  of  Prof. 
Schulten's,  under  the  title  of  Opera  Minora,  Lugduni  Batavorum 
et  Leovardire,  17t')9,  4(o.  In  this  work  Schullens  has  made  great 
use  of  the  Arabic  language  to  dlustrate  Hebrew  words  and  phrases, 
although  he  generally  adduces  passages  from  the  grammarians  and 
pi-ose  writers.  The  philological  interpretations  which  he  thus  de- 
duces he  places  in  contradistinction  to  those  which  the  traditions  of 
the  rabbins  had  preserved. 

112.  Jo.  ScituLTHEssi,  De  Charismatibus  Spiritiis  Sancti. 
Pars  prima  Dc  vi  ct  na>«tra,  rationc  et  utilitate  Dotis  Linguarum, 
in  prinios  Discipulos  Christi  collatic,  atipie  in  posteros  omnes 
dcinccps  ad  finein  usque  sec.  percn.     Lipsia;,  1818,  8vo. 

113.  C.  Secaaii  Ohservationes  Philologica;  et  Thcologicaj  in 
\,\.\CK  XI.  Capita  i)riora.     Trajecti,  170fi,  8vo. 

ll-l.  Joliannis  Hcnrici  a  Skklen  Mcditationcs  Excgcticic, 
quibus  varia  utriuscjue  Testainenti  loca  cxpenduntur  et  illustran- 
tur.    Lubeca;,  1730-32-37,  3  parts,  8vo. 

115.  Gottlob  Christian!  Stour  Dissertationes  in  librorum 
Novi  'Pestamcnti  Historicoruin  aliquot  locos,  parts  i. — iii.  Tu- 
bingen, 1790-91-94,  4to. 

116.  Gottlob  Christian!  STonn  Opuscula  Academica  ad  intcr- 
pretationeni  Librorum  Sacrorutn  pertinentia.  Tubingen,  1796, 
1799,  1803,  3  vols.  8vo. 

Besides  various  critiral  disquisitions  of  great  merit,  this  work 
contains  several  commentaries  on  detached  books  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

Vol.  II.— Apr.  4  M 


151 

Lipsia;, 


117.  Car.  Chr.  TiTTMANNi   Opuscula  Theologica. 
1803,  8vo. 

Various  questions  of  sacred  criticism  are  illustrated  in  this  work 
with  singular  ability. 

118.  Dissertations  on  some  Parts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, which  have  been  supposed  unsuitable  to  the  Divine  At- 
tributes.    By  Richard  Twopenny,  M.A.     London,  1824,  8vo. 

119.  Dissertatio  Theologica  Judaeo-Christianismo,  ejusque  Vi 
ct  Eincacitale  ({uam  exseruit  in  Rem  Christianum  sa;culo  primo 
Quain. ..  .publico  examini  submittit  David  Van  Heyst.  Lug- 
duni Batavorum,  1828,  4to. 

120.  Joannis  Veiipoortemi  Fasciculus  Dissertationum  ad 
Thcologiain,  maximc  exegcticam,  et  Philologiara  Sacram.  Co- 
burgi,  1739,  8vo. 

121.  VKnscHuinii  (J.  H.)  Opuscula,  in  quibus  de  variis  S. 
Litt.  locis,  ct  argumcnlis  exinde  dcsumptis  critice  et  libere  dis- 
seritur.  Edidit  atquc  animadversiones  adjccit  J.  A.  Lotze.  Tra- 
jecti, 1810,  8vo. 

122.  Campegii  ViTniNO/T:,  patria,  Observationum  Sacranun 
Libri  iv.  Francqueroe,  1700.     Libri  v.  et  vi.  1708,  4to. 

123.  Campegii  VitiiixgjK,  Jilii,  Dissertationes  Sacrse,  cum 
animadvcrsionibus  Hermanni  Venemaj.     Franequeraj,  1731,  4vo, 

124.  Emonis  Lucii  Vuiemoet  Observationum  Misccllanea- 
rum,  argumenti  prrocipue  philologici  et  theologici,  quibus  multis 
locis  S.  Codicis  aut  nova  aut  ubcrior  lux  adfunditur,  Liber.  Leo- 
vardia;,  1740,  4vo. 

125.  Silva  Critica,  sive  in  Auctores  Sacros  Profanosque  Com- 
mcntarius  Philologus.  Concinnavit  Gilbcrtus  Wakefield,  A.B. 
Cantabrigian,  1789-1795,  5  parts,  8vo. 

The  design  of  Mr.  Wakefield,  in  the  plan  of  this  work,  was  the 
union  of  theological  and  classical  learning — the  illustration  of  the 
Scriptures  by  light  borrowed  from  the  philology  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  as  a  probable  method  of  recommending  ihe  books  of  revela- 
tion to  scholars.  How  ably  this  design  was  executed  the  reader 
may  see  in  the  different  critical  journals  of  that  time,  where  Mr. 
W.  s  peculiar  notions  on  some  points  are  considered.  (See  particu- 
larly the  Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  v.  p.  54.  et  seq.,  vol.  viii.  p. 
571.,  and  vol.  xvi.  p.  235.)  An  Examen  of  his  work  was  published 
by  II.  C.  A.  Haenlein,  in  four  small  tracts,  printed  at  Erlang,  in  4to. 
1^J8-1801. 

126.  Walchii  (Jo.  Geo.)  Ohservationes  in  Novi  Foederis 
Libros,  quarum  prima  pars  ea  continet  loca,  quae  ex  historia  phi- 
losophica  illustrantur.     Jena;,  1727,  8vo. 

127.  Vindicia;  Biblicffi  :  a  Series  of  Notices  and  Elucidations 
of  Pas.sages  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  which  have  been 
the  subject  of  attack  and  misrepresentation  by  deistical  writers. 
[By  David  Walther.]     London,  1832,  8vo. 

128.  Scripture  Vindicated .  in  answer  to  a  Book  entitled 
"  Christianity  as  old  as  the  Creation."  By  Daniel  Watehlaxb, 
D.D.  London,  1730-1734,  8vo.  also  in  the  sixth  volume  of  Bp. 
Vanmildert's  edition  of  his  works.     Oxford,  1823,  8vo. 

Though  published  in  reply  to  Tindal's  declamatory  libel  against 
revealed  religion,  this  publication  claims  a  distinct  notice  on  ac- 
count of  its  satisfactory  elucidation  and  vindication  of  many,  and 
some  of  them  difficult,  passages  in  the  Old  Testament.  They  are 
arranged,  not  in  the  desultory  way  in  which  Tindal  introduced 
them,  to  give  point  to  his  jests  and  sarcasms,  but  as  the  texts  stand 
in  holy  writ ;  so  as  to  form  a  regular  scries  of  expository  illustra- 
tions. Part  I.  comprises  the  book  of  Genesis;  Part  II.  carries  on 
the  examination  of  texts  from  the  book  of  Exodus  to  the  second 
book  of  Kings  ;  and  Part  111.  extends  through  the  remaining  books 
of  the  Old  Testament.  Various  passages  in  the  book  of  Job,  the 
Psalms,  and  the  Prophets,  charged  by  infidel  writers  with  incon- 
sistency, injustice,  or  absurdity,  are  here  examined  ;  and,  occa- 
sionally, some  collateral  topics  are  entered  into,  lending  to  their 
further  elucidation.  Bp.  Mant  and  Dr.  D'Oyly  have  made  considera- 
ble use  of  Watcrland's  labours.  For  an  account  of  the  controver- 
sies into  which  the  publication  of  "  Scripture  Vindicated"  com- 
pelled him  to  enter,  the  reailor  is  rolerred  to  pp.  153 — 173.  of  his 
Life  by  Bp.  Vanmildert,  forming  vol  i.  part  i.  of  his  edition  of  Dr. 
Walerlaiurs  Works. 

129.  Biblical  Gleanings;  or  a  Collcclion  of  Passages  of 
Scripture,  that  have  generally  been  considered  to  he  mistrans- 
lated in  the  received  English  W-rsion,  with  propo.sed  corrections; 
also  the  important  various  readings  in  both  Testaments,  and 
occasional  notes,  interspersed  with  a  view  to  the  illustration  of 
obscure  and  ambiguous  texts,  with  several  other  matters  tending 
to  the  general  elucidation  of  the  Sacred  W^ritings.  By  Thomas 
Wemyss.     York,  8vo. 

The  ample  title-page  of  this  work  sufficiently  indicates  the  de- 
sign of  the  industrious  compiler:  in  the  rompa.'is  of  little  more 
than  250  pages,  it  presents  a  variety  of  important  corrections  of  a 
miiltitude  ol  obscure  or  ambiguous  passages  in  the  sacred  writingt. 


153 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  VI. 


compiled  from  the  biblical  labours  of  upwards  of  fifty  of  the  most 
distinguished  critics,  both  British  and  fijreign.  In  the  event  of  a 
new  tninslation  or  revision  of  our  authorized  version  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  this  little  book  cannot  fail  of  being  eminently  useful. 
Its  value  would  have  been  enhanced  if  the  compiler  had  specified 
liie  sources  or  authors  of  each  emendation. 

130.  An  Illustration  of  the  Method  of  explaining  the  New 
Testament  by  the  early  opinion?  of  Jews  and  Christians  con- 
cerning Christ.  By  W.  Wilson,  B.D.  Cambridge,  at  the 
University  Press,  1797,  8vo. 

"  Though  not  expressly  presented  to  the  public  as  a  refutation 
of  Dr.  Priestley's  '  History  of  Early  Opinions,'  and  other  works 
concerning  the  person  of  Christ,  this  performance  is  unquestionably 
to  be  received  in  this  light.  The  author  constantly  keeps  io  view 
the  arguments  of  this  work  just  mentioned,  and  nearly  passes  .over 
the  same  ground,  in  order  to  prove  that  the  historical  fact,  relating 
to  the  opinions  of  the  first  Christians,  is  the  reverse  of  tliat  which 
the  doctor  has  represented,  and  consequently  that  the  inference 
respecting  the  true  meaning  of  the  New  Testament  is  directly 
contrary  to  that  of  ihe  unitarian  hypothesis. — It  would  be  injustice 
to  the  injrenious  writer  of  this  reply,"  to  Dr.  Priestley,  "not  to 
allow  him,  unequivocally,  the  praise  of  having  written,  in  a  per- 
spicuous and  correct  style,  a  learned  and  well-digested  tract,  and 
of  having  conducted  his  part  of  the  controversy  with  urbanity 
and  candour."    (Analytical  Review,  vol.  xxvi.  pp.  368.  372.) 

131.  Job.  Dieterici  Wixckleri  Disquisitiones  Philologicse, 
ScriptursB  Sacrse  qusedam  loca,  et  antiquitatis  tam  ecclesiasticEe 
quam  profanse  momenta,  illustrantes.  Hamburgi,  1741,  Svo. — 
Ejusdem,  Hypomnemata  philologica  et  critica  in  diversa  Scrip- 
ture Sacrse,  tam  Veteris  quara  Novi  Testamenti,  illustrantes. 
Hamburgi,  1745,  Svo. — Ejusdem,  Animadversiones  Philologicae 
et  Critics  ad  varia  Sacri  Codicis  utriusque  Foederis  loca.  Hilde- 
sice,  1750-52-53,  3  parts,  Svo. 

All  the  publications  of  Winckler  are  both  scarce  and  valuable : 
they  are  said,  by  Walchius,  to  illustrate  many  difficult  passages  of 
Holy  Writ  with  great  learning  and  industry.  (Bibl.  Theol.  Select, 
vol.  iv.  p.  812.) 

132.  Hermanni  Witsii  Miscellaneorum  Sacrorum  Libri 
Quatuor.     Lugd.  Bat.  1736,  2  vols.  4to. 

133.  Hermanni  WiTsii  Meletemata  Leidensia ;  quibus  con- 
tinentur  Prselectiones  do  Vita  et  Rebu.s  Gestis  Pauli  Apostoli, 
necnon  Dissertationum  Exegeticarum  Duodecas  ;  denique  Com- 
mentarius  in  Epistolam  Judse  Apostoli.     Basilese,  1739,  4to. 


134.  Hermanni  Witsu  .^gyptiaca  et  Aai4<f>uxov ;  sive  de 
.(Egyptiacorum  Sacrorum  comparatione  cum  Hebraicis  Libri 
tres,  et  de  decem  tribubus  Israelis  Liber  singularis.  Accesit 
Diatribe  de  Legione  Fulminatrice  Christianorum  sub  imperatore 
Marco  Aurelio  Antonio.     Basilea),  1739,  4to. 

135.  Martini  Caspari  Wolfburgi  Observationes  Sacr®  in 
Novum  Testamentum ;  seu  Adnotationes  Theologico-Criticse  in 
voces  plerasque  Novi  Testamenti,  ordine  alphabetico,  et  Dicta 
prsecipua  tam  Veteris  quam  Novi  Foederis.  Flensburgi,  1717, 
4to.     Hafniae,  1738,  4to. 

136.  An  Impartial  Enquiry  into  the  case  of  the  Gospel  De- 
moniacks.  By  William  WoiiTHijfGxojr,  D.D.  London,  1777, 
Svo. 

137.  Petri  Zornii  Opuscula  sacra;  hoc  est,  Programmata, 
Dissertationes,  Orationes,  Epistolae,  et  Schediasmata,  in  quibus 
praeter  selectissima  Historiae  Ecclesiasticae  et  Literariae  capita, 
etiam  plusquam  sexcenta  Scripturae  loca,  partim  ex  utriusque 
linguae  sanctioris  genio,  partim  ex  Antiquitatum  Hebraicarum 
Graecarum  et  Romanarum  apparatu,  illustrantur  ac  vindicantur. 
Altonaviae,  1731,  2  vols.  Svo. 

138.  The  Truth  of  Revelation,  demonstrated  by  an  Appeal 
to  existing  Monuments,  Sculptures,  Gems,  Coins,  and  Medals. 
London,  1S32,  12mo. 

"This  interesting  book  is  clearly  the  production  of  a  mind  pious 
and  cultivated,  enriched  by  science  and  enlarged  by  various  infor- 
mation ;  adapted  especially  to  guard  the  young  against  the  too 
welcome  theories  of  skepticism :  it  will  also  afford  to  the  general 
reader  both  gratification  and  improvement.  It  chiefly  consists  of 
striking  facts  deduced  from  the  labours  of  modern  inquiry,  of  allu- 
sions gleaned  from  literature,  of  memorials  of  past  events  scattered 
over  the  relics  of  by-gone  times,  in  sculptures,  gems,  and  medals; 
and  its  object  is,  to  apply  these  various  materials  to  the  illustration 
and  establishment  of  the  sacred  records ;  as  well  as  to  express  the 
conviction,  that  the  foundations  of  a  scriptural  hope  are  not  to  be 
shaken  by  advancing  knowledge,  nor  ultimately  injured  by  the 
rash  assaults  of  a  class  of  men,  who,  aspiring  to  be  deemed  the 
votaries  of  philosophy,  give  too  much  reason  for  the  suspicion, 
that  the  stimulus  by  which  their  industry  is  excited  is  the  vain 
expectation  of  some  discovery  adverse  to  the  Christian  religion, 
rather  than  zeal  for  the  promotion  of  science."  (Eclectic  Review, 
July,  1832,  vol.  viii.  N.  S.  p.  14.) 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CONCORDANCES  AND  DICTIONARIES,  COMMON-PLACE  BOOKS,  INDEXES,  AND  ANALYSES  OF  THE  BIBLE 

SECTION  L 

CONCORDANCES  TO  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


§    1.    CONCORDANCES    TO    THE    HEBREW    BIBLE. 


1.  Marib  de  Calasio  Concordantiae  Biblionim  Hebraicorum 
et  Latinorum.  Romse,  1621,  folio,  in  four  volumes — Londini, 
1747,  et  ann.  seqq.  Edente  Gulielmo  Romaine,  folio,  in  four 
volumes. 

The  original  of  this  work  was  a  Hebrew  concordance  of  Rabbi 
Nathan,  a  learned  Jew,  published  at  Venice  in  1523,  in  folio,  with 
great  faults  and  defects.  A  second  and  much  more  correct  edition 
of  Nathan's  work  was  printed  at  Basil  by  Froben.  The  third  edi- 
tion is  the  first  impression  of  Calasio's  Concordance,  who  has  ex- 
tended Nathan's  work  into  four  large  volumes,  by  adding,  1.  A 
Latin  Translation  of  the  Rabbi's  explanation  of  the  several  roots, 
with  additions  of  his  own  ;  2.  The  Rabbinical,  Chaldee,  Syriae, 
and  Arabic  words  derived  from,  or  agreeing  with,  the  Hebrew 
root  in  signification;  3.  A  literal  version  of  the  Hebrew  text; 
4.  The  variations  between  the  Vulgate  and  Septuagint  versions ; 
and,  5.  The  proper  names  of  men,  rivers,  mountains,  &c. — Buxtorf 's 
f'oncordance  (noticed  below)  was  properly  the  fourth  edition  of 
Nathan's  work,  as  Mr.  Romaine's  edition  is  the  fifth.  The  last  is 
a  splendid  and  useful  book. 

2.  Joannis  Buxtorfii  Concordantiae  Hebraicae  et  Chaldaicae. 
Ba.silea;,  1632,  folio. 

This  is  a  work  of  great  labour:  it  was  abridged  by  Christian 
R:ivius,  under  the  title  of  Fans  Zionis,  sive  Covcordantiarnm  Hc- 
briticarum,  el  Chaldaicanim.,  Jo.  Buxtorfti  Ep'dome.  Berolini,  1677, 
8vo. 

3.  Christiani  Nolbii  Concordantiae  Partlcularum  Ebraeo- 
Chaldaicarum,  in  quibus  partium  indcclinabilium,  quae  occurrunt 


in  fontibus  et  hactenus  non  expositae  sunt  in  Lexicis  aut  Con- 
cordantiis,  natura  et  sensuum  varietas  ostenditur.  Cum  anno- 
tationibus  J.  G.  Tympii  et  aliorum.  Jenae,  1734,  4to.  editio 
secunda. 

The  particles  of  all  languages,  and  especially  those  of  the  He- 
brew, are  not  only  of  great  importance,  but  very  difficult  to  be  fully 
understood.  The  Hebrew  particles,  indeed,  were  very  imperfectly 
known,  even  by  the  best  critics,  before  the  publication  of  Noldius's 
work.  His  Concordance  of  them  is  so  complete,  that  it  has  left 
scarcely  any  thing  unfinished  ;  and  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  every  biblical  student  and  critic.  The  first  impression  appeared 
in  1650.  The  second  is  the  best  edition;  and,  besides  the  valuable 
notes,  and  other  additions  of  J.  G.  and  S.  B.  Tympius,  it  contains, 
by  way  of  Appendix,  a  Lexicon  of  the  Hebrew  Particles,  compiled 
by  John  Michaelis  and  Christopher  Koerber.  (Bibliographical  Dic- 
tionaiy,  vol.  iii.  p.  45.) 

4.  The  Hebrew  Concordance  adapted  to  the  English  Bible ; 
disposed  after  the  method  of  Buxtorf.  By  John  Taylor  [D.D.] 
of  Norwich.     London,  1754-57.     In  two  volumes,  folio. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  laborious  and  most  useful  works  ever  pub- 
lished for  the  advancement  of  Hebrew  knowledge,  and  the  under- 
standing oi'  the  Old  Testament  in  its  original  language.  It  is,  in 
fact,  a  Grammar,  Lexicon,  and  Concordance,  founded  on  the  Con- 
cordance of  Buxtorf,  all  whose  errors  Dr.  Taylor  has  corrected.  He 
has  also  inserted  the  word  or  words  by  which  any  Hebrew  w'ord  is 
translated  in  the  English  Bible :  and  where  the  Hebrew  is  not 
literally  rendered,  a  literal  translation  is  added.    In  general,  all 


Sect  I.  §  5.] 


CONCORDANCES  TO  THE  GREEK,  LATIN,  AND  ENGLISH  BIBLES. 


153 


chanf^e  or  difForcnco  in  the  two  texts  is  diligpnlly  remnrkcd  :  ami 
Dr.  T.  Iiiifi  aildt'il  all  tlic  words  (ahoiilone  liimdred  and  twenty-one 
in  niiinUvt)  wiiicli  I'.nxlorChad  oniitlcd  ;  togutlicr  with  the  particles 
out  of"  jNoldids,  'J'liis  iiivniiiahio  work  was  pulilished  under  the 
palrr)na;;e  uf  all  the  ICnglish  and  Irish  bishops,  and  is  a  monument 
to  their  honour,  as  well  as  to  the  lenrniiit;  and  industry  of  its  author. 
'I'he  price  of  this  (Jo;icordance  varies  I'rum  nine  lo  twelve  guineas, 
according  lo  its  eonditiuii. 


§   2.    COXCOnnANCES    to    the    SEPTUAOINT    OnEKK    VEllSIOX. 

1.  Conradi  Kiiichehi  Concordantiaj  Veteris  Tcstnincnti  Grm- 
Cffi,  Ebrecis  vociliis  rcspondcntes,  Trt^juxtma-TU.  Simul  cniin  et 
Lexicon  Ebraico-Latinuin.     Fruncofurti,  1(507,  2  toinis,  4to. 

This  laborious  work,  which  is  a  Hebrew  Dictioiuiry  and  Con- 
cordance, is  slninu'ly  reconitncnded  by  Ihlber  Simon,  when  treating 
on  the  best  mclliods  to  be  ailojited  in  undertaking  any  new  trans- 
latiiui  of  the  Scriptures.  It  contains  all  the  Hebrew  words  in  the 
Old  Testament,  introduced  in  an  alphiibetical  order, an<l  underneath 
is  the  Greek  version  of  them  from  the  Septuagini,  followed  by  a 
<'olleetion  of  the  pa.ssages  of  Scripture  in  -which  these  words  arc 
diderently  intorpreteil.  Considered  as  a  first  essay,  Kircher's  Con- 
cordance possesses  considerable  merit.  It  is,  however,  now  super- 
Boded  by 

2.  Abraham!  Tuommii  ConcordantiiE  GraDcte  Vcrsionis  vulgo 
dictffi  Lxx.  Interprctum.  Amstclajdami  et  Trajccti  ad  Rhenum, 
1718,  2  vols,  folio. 

In  this  elalKirate  and  valuable  work,  the  order  of  the  Greek 
Alphabet  is  followed  ;  the  (Jreek  word  being  first  given,  to  which 
ore  subjoined  its  difTcrent  acceptations  in  Latin.  Then  follow  the 
different  Hebrew  words,  which  are  explained  by  the  Greek  word 
in  the  Septiiagint  version.  These  difrerent  Hebrew  w'ords  are 
arranged  under  the  Greek  in  their  alphabetical  order,  with  the 
passages  of  Scripture  where  Ihey  occur.  If  the  word  in  question 
occurs  in  Aquila,  Symmachus,  Theodotion,  or  any  of  the  other 
ancient  Greek  interpreters  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  places  where 
it  is  found  are  referred  to  at  the  conclusion  of  the  quotations  from 
the  Scriptures  ;  and  immediately  alter  these  all  the  passages  in  the 
Apocrypha  are  specified,  where  the  word  occurs.  The  work  is 
terminated  by  a  useful  Index,  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon,  a 
Greek  Lexicon  to  Origen's  Hexapla  (by  Montfaucon),  and  a  suc- 
cinct collation  (by  Lambert  Bos)  of  the  Frankfort  and  Roman  edi- 
tions of  the  Septuagint.  This  work  is  beautifully  printed.  (Biblio- 
graphical Dictionary,  vol.  iii.  p.  42.) 


§  3.  cohcobhances  to  the  greek  testament. 

1.  Concordantise  Gra:csB  Novi  Testamenti,  ab  Henrico  Ste- 
PHA>o.  Gcncvaj,  1594,  folio.  Et  cum  Supplemento,  Genesev, 
1600,  folio. 

This  Concordance  is  noticed  here,  to  put  the  student  an  his 
guard,  as  it  may  generally  be  purchased  at  a  low  price.  It  is  so 
carelessly  executed,  that  some  critics  suppose  Henry  Stephens  not 
to  have  been  the  editor  of  it:  and  that  he  lent  hts  name  to  the 
work  for  pecuniary  considerations. 

2.  Novi  Testamenti  Graeci  Jesu  Christi  Tameiox,  aliis  Con- 
cordantia; ;  ita  concinnatum,  ut  et  loca  reperiendi,  et  vocum  veras 
eignificationes,  et  significationum  diversitates  per  collationem 
investigandi,  ducis  instar  esse  possit.  Opera  Erastni  ScitMiDii, 
Gnec.  Lat.  et  Mathem.  Prof.  Accedit  nova  pra;fatio  Erncsti  Salo- 
monis  Cypriani.  Lipsia;,  1717,  folio.  Glasgua;  et  Londini,  1819, 
2  vols.  8vo.     Londini,  1830,  48mo. 

The  best  Greek  Concordance  to  the  New  Testament.  The  Glas- 
gow reprint  of  1819  is  beautifully  executed.  The  London  edition 
of  1830  was  printed  under  the  superintendence  of  the  late  Mr. 
William  Greenfield.  "  By  omitting  the  unimportant  proper  names, 
the  indeclinable  particles,  the  pronouns,  and  the  verb  substantive  ; 
— by  substituting  simple  references  for  citation  when  the  word 
occurs  only  four  or  five  times,  or  when  there  are  two  or  more  pa.s- 
sages strictly  parallel,  in  which  case  oneonlvis  given  and  the  others 
are  referred  to;  alterations  which  detract  nothing  from  the  usefulness 
of  the  edition;  the  ponderous  labours  of  Stephens  and  Schmidt  are 
here  screwed  into  something  less  than  a  pocket  volume  ;  and,  what 
is  more,  for  six  shillings  the  biblical  student  may  possess  himself  of 
a  work  at  one  time  scarce  and  dear,  in  a  form  that  will  take  up  no 
room  on  his  table,  and  which  ousrht  scarcely  ever  to  be  off  of  it." 
(Eclectic  Review,  February,  1832,  vol.  vii.  N.  S.  p.  159.)  This  edi- 
tion is  very  neatly  printed. 

3.  A  Concordance  lo  the  Greek  Testament,  with  the  EngHsh 
version  to  each  word  ;  the  principal  Hebrew  roots,  corresponding 
to  the  Greek  words  of  the  Septuagint ;  with  short  critical  Notes, 
and  an  Index.    By  John  Williams,  LL.D.  4to.   London,  1767. 

"The  lovers  of  sacred  literature  will  find  this  work  very  useful 
in  many  respects:  it  is  compiled  with  great  pains  and  accuracy." 
(Monthly  Rev.  O.  S.  vol.  ixxvi.  p.  400.) 


§  4.  coxcohdaxce  to  the   latin  vulgate. 


Sacrorum  Bibliorum  Vulgata)  editionis  Concordantia;,  Hugonk 
Cardinali  auctore,  ad  recogniiioncm  jussu  Sixti  V.  Pont.  Max. 
adhibitain,  recensitaj  at'jue  eincndataj  0]M'ra  et  studio  Francisci 
iaica;  Brut;ensis.  Antverpia;,  lliUO,  folio;  1G12,  1617,  4to. 
Venctiis,  l)il2,  4to.  Lugduni,  1615,  4to.  Geneva;  et  Franco- 
furti,  1625,  4to.  Parisiis,  1635,  163s,  1(46,  4to.  Coloniaa 
Agrippina;,  1684,  8vo.     Avignon,  1786,  2  toniis,  4to. 

The  first  attempt  towards  a  concordance  to  the  Latin  Bible  W'as 
made  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  by  Cardiniil  Hugo  de 
Sancto  Caro,  of  whose  invention  of  the  division  of  chapters  au 
account  is  given  in  Vol.  I.  Part  I.  Chap.  IV.  p.  213.  He  is  naid  to 
have  employed  five  hundred  monks  of  the  Domitn'can  order  in 
scdecting,  and  arranging  in  al|ihabeiical  order,  all  the  declinable 
words  of  the  Old  and  iS'ew  Testaments;  but  the  fact  of  so  many 
monks  being  ein|>loyed  is  questionable.  It  is  8up|Kjsed  that  the 
work  was  at  first  less  voluminous  than  it  afterwards  became,  and 
that  it  increased  by  f'reijuent  revisions  and  improvemenis.  (Town- 
ley's  Biblical  Illustrations,  vol.  i.  p.  483.)  Le  Ixnig  has  given  a  list 
of  several  Latin  Concordances  (Bibl.  Sacra,  torn.  i.  pp.  4.07,  45H.  lijlio 
edit.);  but  the  revision  of  Cardinal  Hugo's  work  by  Lucas  Briigen- 
sis  is  considered  to  be  the  best  of  the  numerous  editions  through 
which  it  has  pa.ssed.  That  printed  at  Cologne  is  reputed  lo  be  the 
most  beautiful ;  but  the  Avignon  edition  is  the  most  complete. 


§  5.    COJfCOIlDANCES    TO    THE    ENGLISH    BIBLE. 

1.  A  Concordtice,  that  is  to  saie,  a  Worke  wherein  by  tlic 
ordre  of  the  letters  of  the  A.  B.  C.  ye  maic  redely  finde  any 
worde  conteigned  in  the  whole  Bible,  so  often  as  it  is  there  ex- 
pressed or  mencioned.  By  Jhon  Mahueck.  London,  impryntcd 
by  Richard  Grafton,  m.  tl.  I.  folio. 

The  first  ('oncordance  lo  the  English  Bible :  an  account  of  it 
may  bo  seen  in  Dr.  Townley's  Biblical  Illustrations,  vol.  iii.  pp. 
118 — 120.  It  was  preceded  by  a  Concordance  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, compiled  and  printed  by  Thomas  Gibson,  about  the  year 
1536. 

2.  A  Complete  Concordance  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  or  a  Dictionary  and  Alphabetical 
Index  to  the  Bible.  In  two  parts.  By  Alexander  Chiiien, 
M.A.  London,  1763;  1810;  1824;  4to.  Also  various  edi- 
tions in  royal  8vo.     Philadelphia,  1830,  imperial  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  well-known  and  most  useful  Con- 
cordance appeared  at  London  in  1737.  The  edition  of  1763  is  the 
third  and  last  of  those  corrected  by  the  author,  and  is  usually  con- 
sidered as  the  best,  from  his  known  diligence  and  accuracy  in  cor- 
recting the  press.  The  value  of  Cruden's  Concordance  has  caused 
it  lo  be  repeatedly  printed,  but  not  always  with  due  regard  to  ac- 
curacy. The  London  edition  of  1810,  however,  is  an  honorable 
exception ;  every  word,  with  its  references,  having  been  most 
carefully  examined  by  Mr.  Deodatus  Bye  (formerly  a  respectable 
printer),  who  voluntarily  employed  some  years  in  this  arduous 
task ;  fbr  which  he  is  justly  entitled  lo  the  thanks  of  every  reader 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  London  edition  of  1824  is  a  reprint 
of  that  published  in  1810.  Another  very  accurate  edition  was 
printed  a  few  years  since  at  the  press  of  Messrs.  Nuttall  and  Co. 
of  Liverpool,  who  employed  a  person  to  collate  and  verify  every 
word  and  reference.  The  typography  of  the  reprint  at  Philadel- 
phia is  very  neatly  executed  ;  and  its  editor  professes  to  have  cor- 
rected more  than  ten  thousand  errors  in  the  references,  which  had 
escaped  the  eye  of  the  London  editors. 

3.  A  New  Concordance  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament ;  or  a  Dictionary  and  Alphabetical  Index 
to  the  Bible,  together  with  the  various  significations  of  the  prin- 
cipal words,  by  which  the  true  meaning  of  many  passages  is 
.shewn.  By  the  Rev.  John  Bcttebwobtu.  London,  1767; 
1785;   1816;  8vo. 

This  is  in  a  great  measure  a  judicious  and  valuable  abridgment 
of  Mr.  Cruden's  Concordance.  Singular  pains  were  bestowed  by 
its  compiler,  in  order  lo  insure  correctness,  by  collating  every 
word  and  reference  in  the  proof  sheets  with  the  several  lexis  of 
the  Bible.  The  second  edition  of  1785  is  considerably  improved. 
The  third  impression  of  1816  has  some  alterations  in  the  defini- 
tions, made  by  Dr.  A.  Clarke;  who  has  reprinted  the  original  of 
the  passages  so  altered.  Those  who  cannot  afford  to  purchase 
Cruden's  work  will  find  this  of  Mr.  Butterworlh  extremely  valu- 
able. 

4.  A  Concordance  of  Parallels  collected  from  Bibles  and 
Commentaries,  which  have  been  published  in  the  Hebrew,  Latin, 
French,  Spanish,  and  other  Languages,  with  the  Authorities  of 
each.     By  the  Rev.  C.  Cbctwell.  4to.     London,  1790. 

This  is  a  very  elaborate  work,  and  will  amply  repay  the  labour 
of  consulting ;  though  the  parallelisms  are  not  always  to  be  traced, 
and  are  sometimes  very  fanciful.  But  for  this  the  industrious 
author  is  not  to  be  censured,  as  he  every  where  cites  his  authori- 
ties, which  are  very  numerous. 


154 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  VI. 


5.  A  Concordance  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament.  By  the  Rev.  John  Biiowjy,  of  Haddington. 
London,  1808,  18mo.    Glasgow,  1825,  ISmo. 

There  are  several  edilions  of  this  Conrordance  extant,  which 
being  pritUed  wiili  diamond  (or  the  sniallosl)  type,  it  is  I'roni  this 
circumstance  commonly  termed  the  diamond  concordance.  Its 
portability  is  its  principal  recommendation ;  as  its  very  minute 
type  requires  no  common  strength  of  sight  to  read  with  pleasure. 
The  edition  of  1825  was  revised  by  the  Rev.  Wm.  Smith,  of  Glas- 
gow;  and  is  very  neatly  stereotyped  on  a  clear  and  legible  type  at 
the  Glasgow  university  press. 

6.  The  Scripture  Harmony ;  or  Concordance  of  Parallel  Pas- 
sages, being  a  Commentary  on  the  Bible  from  its  own  Re- 
sources; consisting  of  an  extensive  Collection  of  Rcfarences 
from  all  the  most  esteemed  Commentators,  &c.  &c.  4to.  royal 
8vo.  and  18mo.     London,  1818. 

The  contents  of  this  compilation  are  comprised  in  three  particu- 
lars :  viz.  1.  The  chronology,  in  which  Dr.  Blayney  is  followed, 
his  being  deemed  the  best  fitted  for  general  utility.  2.  The  various 
Readings,  in  the  giving  of  which  great  care  has  been  bestowed. 
The.se  various  readings  are  stated  to  be  "  printed  on  a  plan,  which 
to  the  unlearned  reader  will  be  more  clear  tlian  the  usual  method, 
and  which  the  narrow  limits  of  the  margin  of  a  Bible  could  not 
admit :  in  this  the  very  words  of  the  text  are  printed  at  length,  and 
the  various  readings  are  presented  in  a  ditferent  type  ;  so  that 
while  both  are  at  one  view  before  the  reader  for  his  choice,  as  the 
connection  and  analogy  of  faith  may  direct,  the  usefulness  of  the 
work  is  increased,  because  it  becomes  thereby  adapted  to  every 
edition  of  the  Bible;"  and,  3.  The  Scripture  References;  a  labo- 
rious compilation  of  half  a  million  of  Scripture  references,  chiefly 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  Dr.  Blayney,  Canne,  Brown,  Scott,  and 
other  valuable  writers,  who  have  devoted  their  services  to  this 
useful  mode  of  illustrating  the  Scriptures.  It  is  proper  to  remark, 
that  in  this  compilation  of  references  the  publisher  professes  only 
to  have  collected  a  mass  of  texts  from  various  authors  of  the 
highest  character  for  success  in  this  useful  and  pious  labour,  and 
then  to  have  arranged  their  varied  contributions  into  regular 
order;  the  verse  of  the  chapter  under  illustration  is  first  marked; 
then  follow  the  parallel  passages  in  the  book  itself  in  wliich  the 
chapter  stands ;  afterwards  the  references  are  placed  regularly  in 
the  order  of  the  books  of  Scripture.  The  remark  on  Mr.  Crutwell's 
Concordance  of  Parallels  may  be  extended  to  the  present  work. 

§  6.    CONCORDAlirCE  TO  THE  FRENCH  BIBLE, 

Concordance,  en  forme  de  Registre,  pour  trouver  facilement 
chaque  passage  du  Nouveau  Testament.  Premiere  Partie  ;  con- 
tenant  les  quatre  Evangiles  et  les  Actes  des  Apotres.  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1824,  8vo. 

This  concordance  was  announced  to  be  in  two  parts  or  volumes. 
The  first  part  only  has  been  published  :  it  is  a  concordance  to  the 
four  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  according  to  the  French 
version  of  De  Sacy.  The  second  part  is  to  comprise  a  concordance 
to  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  and  to  the  Catholic  Epistles. 


SECTION  IL 


DICTIONARIES  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


1.  DicTiOTfNAiRE  Hlstorlquc  Chronologlque,  Geographique, 
ct  Litteral  de  la  Bible.  Par  Augustin  Calmet.  Paris,  1730, 
4  tomes,  folio. 

A  translation  of  this  truly  valuable  work  (which  is  the  basis  of 
all  other  modern  dictionaries  of  the  Bible),  with  occasional  re- 
marks, was  published  in  1732,  in  three  folio  volumes ;  which 
having  become  extremely  scarce,  an  edition  was  published  in 
1801,  in  two  thick  4to.  volumes,  by  Mr.  Taylor,  with  a  volume  of 
additions  from  books  of  voyages  and  travels,  &c.  under  the  title 
of  "Fragments."  A  new  edition,  enlarged  and  greatly  improved, 
was  published  in  1823,  entitled, 

2.  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible,  Historical,  Critical, 
Geographical,  and  Etymological :  wherein  are  explained  the 
Proper  Names  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments ;  the  Natural 
Productions,  Animals,  Vegetables,  Minerals,  Stones,  Gems,  &c. ; 
the  Antiquities,  Habits,  Buildings,  and  other  Curiosities  of  the 
Jews ;  with  a  Chronological  History  of  the  Bible,  Jewish  Ca- 
lendar, Tables  of  the  Hebrew  Coins,  Weights,  Measures,  &c. 
&c.  Fourth  edition,  revised,  corrected,  and  augmented  with  an 
extensive  series  of  plates,  explanatory,  illustrative,  and  orna- 
mental, under  the  direction  of  C.  Taylor.  London,  1823. 
Fifth  edition,  1828-29,  5  vols.  4to. 

This  work  is  beautifully  printed.  Vols.  I.  and  II.  comprise  the 
Dictionary,  in  an  alphabetical  series,  the  supplements  of  former 
editions  being  incorporated  ;  Vols.  III.  and  IV.  contain  750  Frag- 
ments, with  the  Natural   History  of  the  Bible.    The  additions, 


made  under  the  title  of  "  Fragments,"  are  extracted  from  the  most 
rare  and  aulhetiiic  Voyages  and  Travels  (anr-iciit  and  modem)  into 
Judca  and  other  oriental  countries;  and  tlicy  comprehend  an  as- 
semblage of  the  most  curious  and  illustrative  de.scripiions,  explana- 
tory of  Scripture  incidents,  customs,  and  manner.s,  that  could  not 
possibly  be  explained  by  any  other  medium.  Ii  must  not,  however, 
ijc  ccmcealed  that  some  of  the  editor's  discupsions  in  the  Fragments 
are  prolix,  and  that  his  mythological  elucidations  are  sometimes 
more  ingenious  than  solid.  Bp.  Mant  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  D'Oyly 
have  made  great  use  of  Calmkt  in  the  Notes  to  the  Bible,  pub- 
lished by  the  venerable  Society  for  promoting  Christian  Know- 
ledge; and  in  their  list  of  books,  to  which  they  acknowledge  (heir 
obligations,  they  particularly  specify  the  "Fragmk.nts"  annexed 
to  this  Edition  of  Calmet. — Vol.  V.  contains  an  Atlas  of  Plates  and 
Maps,  with  their  corresponding  explanations,  in  alphabetical  order. 
These  engravings  are  very  neatly  executed,  and  many  of  them 
throw  great  light  upon  oriental  customs.  In  addition  to  the  various 
improvements  in  the  fourth  edition,  the  references  and  quotations 
in  the  fifth  edition  were  verified  and  corrected  ;  the  explanation 
of  the  plates,  which  had  hitherto  been  detached  from  the  body  of 
the  work,  were  incorporated  with  the  articles  of  which  they  form 
a  part ;  the  whole  of  the  text  was  revised :  and  several  new 
articles,  besides  occasional  additions,  were  introduced.  In  its 
present  improved  state,  Mr.  Taylor's  edition  of  Calmet's  Dictionary 
is  indispensably  necessary  to  every  biblical  student  who  can  afford 
to  purchase  it.  An  Index  of  Matters  and  of  Texts  cited  and  illus- 
trated in  the  fourth  edition  was  published  separately,  in  1827. 

3.  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  by  the  late  Mr.  Charles 
Taylor,  with  the  Fragments  incorporated.  The  whole  condensed 
and  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  with  numerous  additions. 
[By  Josiah  Condeb.]  London,  1831;  second  edition,  1832, 
royal  8vo. 

This  abridgment  comprises  under  one  alphabet  whatever  is  im- 
portant or  intrinsically  valuable  either  in  Calmet's  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible,  or  in  the  Fragments  collected  by  Mr.  Taylor.  The  editor 
of  the  abridgment  has  judiciously  omitted  all  those  articles  (and 
those  only)  which  were  not  directly  illustrative  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, and  also  many  of  the  prolix  and  trivial  discussions  of  the 
Fragments.  The  value  of  the  work  is  enhanced  by  the  insertion 
of  numerous  well  executed  wood-cuts  ;  so  that  each  article  includes 
its  appropriate  illustration  ;  an  improvement  which  cannot  but 
greatly  facilitate  the  perusal  of  this  cheap  and  beautifully  executed 
volume. 

3*.  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible American  Edition, 

revised,  with  large  additions,  by  Edward  Robinson,  D.D.,  Pro- 
fessor Extraordinary  of  Sacred  Literature  in  the  Theological 
Seminary,  Andover.  Illustrated  with  Maps  and  Engravings  on 
wood.    Boston  [Massachusetts]  and  New  York,  1832,  royal  8vo. 

In  preparing  this  work  for  publication  in  North  America,  Profes- 
sor Robinson  has  made  numerous  retrenchments  of  those  mytholo- 
gical and  etymological  discussions,  which  the  English  editor  could 
not  omit,  without  taking  greater  liberties  with  the  labours  of  his 
predecessor  than  might  have  been  justifiable.  In  place  of  these 
retrenchments.  Dr.  Robinson  has  made  very  numerous  and  import- 
ant additions,  condensed  with  singular  perspicuity  from  the  works 
of  modern  travellers  in  the  East,  and  especially  from  the  labours 
of  the  most  distinguished  German  critics  and  commentators,  which 
are  comparatively  little  known  to  American  readers.  The  volume 
is  beautifully  printed. 

3**,  A  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible,  for  the  Use  of  Schools 
and  Young  Persons.  By  Edward  Robinson,  D.D.  Illustrated 
with  Maps  and  Engraving  on  wood.  Boston  and  New  York, 
1833,  l?mo. 

Though  avowedly  designed  for  schools  and  yotmg  persons,  this 
neatly  executed  publication  may  be  very  advantageously  used  by 
all  who  may  be  unable  to  procure  larger  works.  To  a  considerable 
extent  it  is  an  abridgment  of  the  preceding  American  edition  of 
Calmet's  Dictionary  ;  but  not  a  few  articles  are  original,  and  com- 
posed from  the  best  accessible  sources.  In  the  Historical,  Biogra- 
phical, and  Geographical  Index,  annexed  to  the  second  volume  of 
this  work,  we  have  derived  many  valuable  hints  and  illustrations 
from  both  Dr.  Robinson's  Dictionaries  of  the  Bible. 

4.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible  ;  containing  an  Historical 
Account  of  the  Persons,  a  Geographical  Account  of  the  Places, 
and  Literal,  Critical,  and  Systematical  Descriptions  of  other  Ob- 
jects, mentioned  in  the  W^ritings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
or  in  those  called  Apocrypha.     London,  1759,  3  vols.  8vo. 

This  useful  compilation  is  principally  abridged  from  Calmet's 
great  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  In  chronology,  the  anonymous  edi- 
tor professes  to  have  followed  Archbishop  Usher;  in  geography, 
Eusebius,  Jerome,  Roland,  Maundrell,  Whitby,  and  Wells,  have 
been  consulted  ;  and  on  the  sacred  antiquities  of  the  Jews,  recourse 
has  been  had  to  Josephus,  the  Rabbins,  and  the  Fathers.  This 
work  may  sometimes  be  met  with  at  a  low  price. 

5.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible,  on  the  plan  of  Calmet, 
but  principally  adapted  to  common  readers :  containing  an  His- 
torical Account  of  the  Persons ;  a  Geographical  and  Historical 
Account  of  the  Places;  a  Literal,  Critical,  and  Systematical 


Sect.  III.] 


COMMON-PLACE  BOOKS  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


155 


Description  of  olhrr  Objects,  whother  naturnl,  artificial,  civil, 
religious,  or  iiiilit;iry  ;  and  tiie  ajiplicatiim  i)f  tlie  Apiicllativc 
Terms,  mcntioiii'il  in  the  Old  ami  Ps'cvv  'J'cstaini'nt.  IJy  tlic 
Rev.  John  Buown,  of  Haddington,  2  vols.  8vo.  various  editions. 
Also,  in  one  volume,  8vo. 

The  author  wa.s  n  ininisier  in  tlie  Secession-church  of  Scotland  ; 
and  in  his  tloclrinal  views  Calvinislict.  Allowance  being  made  lor 
W)ine  of  his  «oiiliinciits,  his  work  may  he  ad  vaiilngrously  Huhstiluled 
lor  the  preceding,  the  price  of  which  necessarily  places  it  ohovo 
the  reach  of  many  persons.  'I'he  (irst  edition  of  this  work  appi^ared 
in  170'J :  llio  hcst  edition  of  Mr.  Brown's  diclioiiary  is  said  to  he  the 
fifllt,  which  costs  about  cighlecn  shillings.  A  prolcsscd  abridgment 
o\'  this  work  was  published  in  1815,  in  two  small  volumes,  18mo. 
The  "('oiiipi'ii(lioii.i  Dlrfioimri/  (>/'  l/ie  Jliili/  Jlihle,"  lirst  published  by 
Mr.  William  Button,  in  17'JI),  and  since  reprinted  with  additions  and 
corr<?ci;ons,  in  Timo.,  is  a  judicious  abridgment  of  Brown's  Dic- 
tionary. "  By  means  of  a  very  small  but  clear  type,  a  vast  <|uanlily 
of  maiiiT  is  comprised  within  the  compass  ol  this  little  volume. 
The  bo'ik,  without  doubt,  may  be  serviceable  to  many."  (British 
Critic,  Old  Series,  vol.  x.  p.  201.) 

6.  DiclionnaireGcncalogiciuc,  Ilistorique,  el  Critiiiuodc  I'Ecri- 
ture  Saintc,  ou  soiit  rcfutces  plusicurs  fausscs  assertions  de  Vol- 
taire, et  autrcs  Philosophes  du  dix-huiticmc  siccle;  par  l'Ahh«* 
•••[Anloinc  Skhikvs],  revue,  corrige,  et  public  par  M.  I'Abbi; 
Sicard.     Paris,  1801,  8vo. 

Sacred  geography  and  anticjuities  form  no  part  of  this  work, 
vvliieh  is  specially  devoted  to  a  refutation  of  the  sophistries  and 
falsehoods  of  Voltaire  and  the  infidel  pseudo-philosophers  of  Franco, 
during  the  eighteenth  century.  The  author,  Anioine  Serieys  (ac- 
cording to  M.  .Sicard),  was  one  of  the  victims  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution in  the  beginning  of  Septeml)cr,  1792.  This  is  not  true. 
Serieys  was  a  voluminous  compiler  and  editor  of  various  works, 
principally  historical :  at  an  early  period  of  his  life  he  had  rendered 
some  services  to  the  Abbe  Sicard,  who,  being  unable  to  remunerate 
liiin,  allowed  him  to  make  use  of  his  name.  Serieys  lived  seven- 
teen years  after  the  i)ublicalion  of  this  dictionary,  and  died  at  Paris 
in  1819.     (Biograjihie  Universelle,  torn.  .xlii.  pp.  69,  70.) 

7.  Dictionnairc  Abrcgc  do  la  Bible  de  [Pierre]  CitoMPiiF.. 
Nouvelle  Edition,  revue  et  considcrablemciit  augincntcc  par  M. 
Petitot.     Paris,  1806,  12mo. 

M.  Chomprc  was  a  distinguished  classical  teacher  of  youth,  in 
the  former  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  at  Paris  ;  where  he  first 
piiblisiied  his  abridged  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  in  12mo.  The  new 
edition  by  M.  Peiilol  is  considerably  enlarged  and  improved  by  the 
addition  of  numerous  articles,  particularly  those  relating  to  the 
manners,  legislation,  and  sects  of  the  Hebrews,  and  a  Chronological 
Table. 

8.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible ;  Historical  and  Geographical, 
Theological,  Moral,  and  Ritual,  Philosophical,  and  Philological. 
By  Alexander  Macuean,  A.M.     London,  1779,  8vo. 

A  useful  book  in  its  day,  but  now  completely  superseded  by  later 
works;  it  may  frequently  be  procured  for  a  trifling  price. 

9.  A  Theological,  Biblical,  and  Ecclesiastical  Dictionary; 
serving  a-s  a  general  note-book  to  illustrate  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  as  a  guide  to  the  Practices  and  Opinions  of  all  Sects 
and  Religions,  and  as  a  Cyclopmdia  of  Religious  Knowledge. 
By  John  RoniNsojr,  D.D.     London,  1815,  8vo. 

This  work  is  very  clo.sely  printed,  and  presents  a  digest,  with 
references  to  authorities  at  the  end  of  each  article,  of  almost  all 
that  had  been  written  on  biblical  literature  previously  to  the  date 
of  its  publication.  "  It  is  clearly  the  work  of  a  man  of  much  in- 
dustry in  collecting,  and  of  much  judgment  in  arranging  his  matter. 
To  every  theological  student,  who  has  not  access  to  an  extensive 
library,  this  volume  will  prove  a  very  useful  subsidiary;  to  many, 
indeed,  who  have  neither  attainment  nor  abilities  for  research,  it 
will  become  necessary."  (Brit.  Crit.  N.  S.  vol.  vii.  p.  305.)  We 
cannot  however  help  expressing  our  regret  that,  on  some  topics, 
Dr.  R.  should  have  referred  to  writers  whose  publi('ations  (though 
useful  in  some  respects)  are  calculated  to  subvert  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  His  work  is  illustrated  by  several  neatly- 
engraved  maps.  It  may  be  proper  to  add  that  it  is  noticed  with 
merited  commendation  in  the  Evangelical  Magazine  for  1817,  vol. 
XXV.  p.  48G.,  and  in  the  Antijacobin  Review,  vol.  xlix.  pp.  1 — 15. 

10.  The  Biblical  CycloptBdia ;  or,  Dictionary  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  intended  to  facilitate  an  acquaintance  with  the  in- 
spired writings.     By  William  Jones.     1816,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  plan  of  this  liihlical  Ci/clopa-dia  is  less  extensive  than  that 
of  Dr.  Robinson's  Dictionary,  ie/bre  which  some  parts  of  it  appear- 
ed, though  it  bears  date  otie  year  laler  than  the  latter  work. 

11.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible.  Extracted  chiefly  from 
Brown,  Calmet,  &c.j  collated  with  otlier  works  of  the  like  kind, 
with  numerous  additions  from  various  Authors,  and  a  considerable 
quantity  of  original  matter.  By  the  Rev.  James  Wood.  Seventh 
Edition,  London  [1822],  2  vols.  8vo. 


12.  The  Pocket  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bilde;  selected  and 
arranged  from  Calmet,  Brown,  Newton,  Hiird,  and  other  Writers. 
By  W.  (iiiiNKV,  A.M.      London,  1820,  iHmo. 

13.  The  Scripture  Lexicon:  or  a  Dictionary  of  above  four 
thousand  Proper  Names  of  Persons  and  Places  mentioned  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament ;  divided  into  .syllables,  with  their  pro- 
per accents.     By  Peter  Olivku.     Oxford,  IwlO,  8vo. 

14.  A  Pocket  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible  :  containing  an 
Historical  and  CJeographical  Account  of  the  Persons  and  Places 
mentioned  in  the  Old  and  New  TestamenLs.  By  Archibald 
Alexaniiku,  D.D.     Philadelphia,  1830,  Ihino. 

15.  A  Biblical  and  Theological  Dictionary,  explanatory  of 
the  History,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  Jews,  and  neighbour- 
ing nations  :  with  an  account  of  the  most  remarkable  places  and 
jHTsons  mentioned  in  Sacred  Scripture,  &c.  By  the  Rev.  Ri- 
chard Watsox.     London,  1831,  royal  8vo. 

16.  Thesaurus  Ecclesiasticus,  e  Patribus  Grajcis,  ordinc  al- 
phahetico  exhibens  qua;cunque  Phrases,  Ritus,  Dogmata,  Hicrcses, 
et  hujusmodi  alia  hue  spectant,  a  Johanne  Casparo  Suiceho. 
Amstelodami,  1728,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  is  the  best  edition  of  a  most  valuable  work  ;  which,  though 
indispensably  necessary  for  understanding  the  writings  of  the 
Creek  fathers,  incidentally  contains  many  illustrations  of  .Scripture. 
It  is  said  to  have  cost  the  h^arned  author  twenty  years'  labour:  the 
first  edition  appeared  at  Amsterdam  in  1G82,  in  2  volumes,  folio. 


SECTION  III. 

COMMON-PLACE    BOOKS   TO   TIIE    BIBLE. 

1.  Chiiistiax  Institutes,  or  the  Sincere  Word  of  God  collected 
out  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  digested  under  proper 
heads,  and  delivered  in  the  very  words  of  Scripture.  By  Francis 
Gastrell,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Chester.  12mo. 

This  valuable  little  work,  which  may  perhaps  be  considered  as 
a  Concordance  of  parallel  passages  at  full  length,  w.as  first  published 
in  1707,  and  has  since  been  repeatedly  printed  in  12mo.  It  may  bo 
very  advantageously  substituted  ft»r  any  of  the  subsequent  larger 
and  more  expensive  works.  The  "  Economy  of  a  Christian  Lile," 
published  by  the  Rev.  W.  Bingley  in  1808,  in  2  vols.  12mo.  is  simi- 
lar in  design,  but  upon  the  whole  belter  arranged  than  Bp.  Gas- 
trell's  little  manual. 

2.  A  Common-Place  Book  to  the  Holy  Bible,  or  the  Scrip- 
tures' Sulliciency  practically  demonstrated :  wherein  the  sub- 
stance of  Scripture  respecting  doctrine,  worship,  and  manners 
is  reduced  to  its  proper  heads.  By  John  Locke,  Esq.  A  new 
edition,  revised  and  improved  by  the  Rev,  William  Doon,LL.D. 
4to.  London,  1805;  8vo.  London,  1824. 

Though  this  work  is  ascribed  to  the  celebrated  philosopher,  Mr. 
Locke,  we  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  whether  it  was  really 
compiled  by  him.  The  second  edition  of  it  bears  the  dale  of  1(>97: 
an  edition  was  published  by  the  unfortunate  Dr.  Dodd,  from  which 
the  present  iiBpression  was  made.  It  certainly  is  a  very  useful 
book. 

3.  A  System  of  Revealed  Religion,  digested  under  proper 
heads,  and  composed  in  the  express  words  of  Scripture  ;  con- 
taining all  that  the  Sacred  Records  reveal  with  respect  to  Doc- 
trine and  Duty.  By  John  Warden,  M.A.  London,  1769, 4to. 
1819,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  is  exceedingly  valuable  as  a  common-place  book,  or 
harmony  of  pa.ssages  of  Scripture.  It  was  recommended  by  Dr. 
Robertson  the  historian,  and  olher  eminent  divines  of  the  Scottish 
church.  In  this  work  the  author  has  collected  all  that  the  Scrip- 
tures contain  relating  to  any  one  article  of  faith  or  practice  under 
each  respective  head,  in  the  very  words  of  the  sacred  writers,  with 
the  occasional  insertion  of  a  brief  note  at  the  foot  of  a  page,  and  a 
remark  or  two  at  the  end  of  some  few  chapters.  The  texts  are  so 
arninged  tis  to  add  to  their  perspicuity,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
illustrate  the  subject ;  and  the  chapters  are  so  constructed  and  dis- 
posed that  each  may  form  a  regular  and  continued  discourse.  The 
work  is  executed  with  singular  ability  and  fidelity,  and  the  reprint 
of  it  is  truly  an  acquisition  to  biblical  students. 

4.  An  Analysis  of  the  Holy  Bible ;  containing  the  whole  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  collected  and  arranged  systemati- 
cally.    By  Matthew  Talbot.     Leeds  and  London,  1800,  4to. 

This  work  has  been  justly  characterized  as  "  a  book  of  good  ar- 
rangement and  convenient  reference,  and  calculated  to  augment, 
by  very  easy  application,  our  stores  of  sacred  knowledge."  (British 
Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xviii.  pp.  iii.  88,  89.)  It  is  divided  into  thirty  books, 
which  are  subdivided  into  285  chapters,  and  4144  sections.  This 
"Analysis"  is  of  great  rarity  and  high  price. 


156 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  VII. 


5.  Common-Place  Book ;  or  Companion  to  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments ;  being  a  Scripture  Account  of  the  Faith  and  Prac- 
tice of  Christians ;  consisting  of  an  ample  Collection  of  per- 
tinent Texts  on  the  sundry  Articles  of  Revealed  Religion. 
[Bv  the  Rev.  Hugh  Gastos.]  A  new  edition,  corrected,  com- 
pared, and  enlarged,  by  Joseph  Sthutt.  London,  1813  ;  1824, 
8vo. 

The  edition  of  1813  is  a  reprint,  with  numerous  corrections  and 
additions,  of  a  work  originally  printed  at  Dublin  in  the  year  17G3. 
The  arrangement,  though  not  efiually  good  with  tliat  of  some  of 
the  works  above  noticed,  is  clear  ;  the  selection  of  texts  is  sufTi- 
ciently  ample :  and  a  useful  index  enables  the  reader  to  find  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  arranged  on  almost  every  topic  he  can  desire. 
The  book  is  neatly  printed  :  and  as  it  is  of  easy  purchase,  it  may 
be  substituted  for  any  of  the  larger  common-place  books  already 
noticed.    The  edition  of  1824  is  considerably  improved. 


SECTION  IV. 

INDEXES  AND  ANALYSES  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

1.  An  Index  to  the  Bible :  in  which  the  various  subjects 
which  occur  in  the  Scriptures  are  alphabetically  arranged :  with 
Accurate  References  to  all  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament Designed  to  facilitate  the  Study  of  these  invaluable 
Records.     Stereotype  edition.     London,  1811. 

This  useful  index  is  printed  in  various  sizes  to  bind  up  with 
Bibles ;  it  is  said  (but  on  what  authority  we  know  not)  to  have 
been  drawn  up  by  the  late  Dr.  Priestley. 


2.  The  Analysis  of  all  the  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament, 
wherein  the  chiefe  things  of  every  particular  Chapter  are  re- 
duced to  heads,  for  hcipe  of  the  Memory  ;  gmd  many  hard  places 
are  explained  for  the  helpe  of  the  understanding.  By  John 
Dale,  M.A.     Oxford,  1652,  8vo. 

3.  The  Scripture  Student's  Assistant ;  being  a  Comjijefe  In- 
dex and  concise  Dictionary  to  the  Holy  Bible:  in  wliich  the 
various  Persons,  Places,  and  Subjects  mentioned  in  it,  are  accu- 
rately referred  to  ;  and  every  difficult  word  completely  explained. 
By  the  Rev.  John  Baru.  Glasgow  and  London,  1829,  12mo. 
or  demy  4to. 

4.  Mosis  P.  Flacheiii  Analysis  Typica  omnium  cum  Veteris 
ti^ira  Novi  Testamenti  Librorura  Historicorum,  ad  inteiligcndam 
rerum  seriem  et  memoriam  juvandam  accommodata.  Basileae, 
1587,  folio  ;   1621,  4to.     Londini,  1597,  4to. 

5.  Jacobi  Brandmyllekt  Analysis  Typica  Librorum  Veteris 
Testamenti  Poeticorum  et  Propheticarum.     Basiliae,  1622,  4to. 

6.  Salomonis  Van  Til  Opus  Analyticum,  comprehendcns 
Introductionem  in  Sacram  Scripturam,  ad  Joh.  Henrici  Heidcg- 
geri  Enchiridion  Biblicum  lEPOiMNHMONlKON  concinnatum. 
Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1720,  2  vols.  4to. 

A  most  minute  Analysis  of  every  Book  and  almost  of  every  Chap- 
ter in  the  Scriptures.  Heidegger's  Enchiridion  Biblicum,  on  which 
Van  Til's  work  is  a  commentary,  was  first  published  at  Zurich 
(Tigura)  in  1681,  and  was  frequently  reprinted  in  Germany  in  the 
course  of  the  last  century.  It  contains  prefaces  to  the  different 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  together  with  very  minute 
analyses  of  the  different  books.  Where  Heidegger's  statements 
were  correct.  Van  Til  has  corroborated  them  ;  where  he  was  in 
error,  the  latter  has  corrected  his  mistakes,  and  supplied  his  omis- 
sions. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

TREATISES  ON   BIBLICAL   ANTIQUITIES,  AND    ON    OTHER    HISTORICAL    CIRCUMSTANCES    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

SECTION  L 


GENERAL   TREATISES    ON    BIBLICAL    ANTIQUITIES. 


1.  Thesatjiics  Antiquitatum  Sacrarum,  complectens  selectis- 
sima  clarissimorum  virorum  Opuscula,  in  quibus  veterum  HebriE- 
orum  Mores,  Leges,  Instituta,  Ritus  sacri  et  civiles,  illustrantur ; 
auctore  Blasio  Ugolino.    Venetiis,  1744 — 1769,  34  tomis,  folio. 

An  Analysis  of  the  contents  of  this  great  Collection  of  Jewish 
Antiquities  is  given  in  Mr.  Harris's  Catalogue  of  the  Library  of  the 
Royal  Institution,  pp.  11 — 20.  2d  edition.  "  Many  other  books  treat- 
ing of  Jewish  antiquities  have  been  published  ;  but  those  who  have 
a  taste  for  such  sort  of  reading,  will  find  this  collection  far  more 
useful  to  them  than  any  other  of  the  kind."    (Bishop  Watson.) 

2.  Modem  Judaism :  or,  a  Brief  Account  of  the  Opinions, 
Traditions,  Rites,  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Jews  in  modern  times. 
By  John  Allex.  London,  1816.  Second  edition,  revised  and 
corrected.  1830,  8vo. 

The  various  traditions,  &c.  received  and  adopted  by  the  modern 
Jews  (that  is,  by  those  who  lived  during  and  subsequently  to  the 
time  of  Jesus  Christ),  are  fully  and  perspicuously  treated  in  this 
well-executed  volume,  which  illustrates  various  passages  in  the 
New  Testament  with  great  felicity. 

3.  The  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  carefully  compiled  from  au- 
thentic sources,  and  their  customs  illustrated  by  modern  Travels. 
By  W.  Brown,  D.D.     London,  1820,  2  vols.  8vo. 

4.  Christ.  Brunings  Compendium  Antiquitatum  Hebrffiorum. 
8vo.  Francofurti,  1766. 

5.  Compendium  Antiquitatum  Graecarum  e  profanis  sacrarum, 
coliegit,  naturali  ordine  disposuit,  ad  sacrarum  literarum  illustra- 
tionem  passim  accomraodavit  Christianus  Brijnings.  Franco- 
furti, 1759,  8vo. 

6.  Petri  CuNiEi  de  Republica  Hebraeorum  Libri  tres;  edita  k 
Jo,  Nicolai.  4to.     Lugd.  Bat.  1703. 

The  best  edition  of  a  very  learned  work,  which  till  lately  con- 
tinued to  be  a  text-book  whence  the  continental  professors  of  He- 
brew antiquities  lectured. 

7.  The  Manners  of  the  Ancient  Israelites,  containing  an 
account  of  their  peculiar  Customs,  Ceremonies,  Laws,  Polity, 


Religion,  Sects,  Arts,  and  Trades,  &c.  &c.    By  Claude  Flecrt. 
London,  1809,  8vo. 

For  this  third  and  best  edition,  the  public  are  indebted  to  Dr. 
Adam  Clarke,  who  has  enlarged  the  original  work  with  much 
valuable  information  from  the  principal  writers  on  Jewish  antiqui- 
ties. The  Abbe  Fleury's  work  was  translated  many  years  since  by 
Mr.  Farnworth.  The  late  excellent  Bishop  of  Norwich  (Dr.  Home) 
has  recommended  it  in  the  following  terms :  "  This  little  book  con- 
tains a  concise,  pleasing,  and  just  account  of  the  manners,  customs, 
laws,  policy,  and  religion  of  the  Israelites.  It  is  an  excellent  intro- 
duction to  the  reading  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  should  be  put 
into  the  hands  of  every  young  person." 

8.  Moses  and  Aaron :  or,  the  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  Rites 
used  by  the  Ancient  Hebrews.  By  Thomas  Godwin.  London, 
1634;  1641,  4to, 

This  compendium  of  Hebrew  antiquities  is  now  rather  scarce. 
It  was  formerly  in  great  request  as  a  text-book,  and  passed  through 
many  editions.  A  Latin  translation  of  it  was  published  at  Utrecht 
in  1690,  and  again  at  Franeker  in  1710,  in  12mo. 

9.  Apparatus  Historico-criticus  Antiquitatum  sacri  codicis  et 
gentis  Hebraeae.  Uberrimis  annotationibus  in  Thomae  Godwini 
Mosen  et  Aaronem  subministravit  Johannes  Gottlob  Carpzo- 
vius.  4to.     Francofurti,  1748. 

The  most  elaborate  system  of  Jewish  antiquities,  perhaps,  that  is 
extant:  besides  the  annotations  of  Carpzov,  it  contains  a  Latin 
translation  of  Godwin's  treatise. 

10.  Jewish  Antiquities,  or  a  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Three 
first  books  of  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron.  To  which  is  annexed 
a  Dissertation  on  the  Hebrew  Language.  By  David  Jennings, 
D.D.  8vo.  2  vols.  London,  1766  ;  Perth,  1808  ;  and  London, 
1823,  in  one  volume,  8vo, 

This  work  has  long  held  a  distinguished  character  for  its  accu- 
racy and  learning,  and  has  been  often  reprinted.  "  The  treatises  of 
Mr.  Lowman  on  the  Ritual  (8vo.  London,  1748),  and  on  the  Civil 
Government  of  the  Hebrews  (8vo.  London,  1740),  may  properly  ac- 
company this  work."     (Bishop  Watson.) 

11.  Antiqultates  Hebraicae  secundum  triplicem  Judaeorum 
statum,  ecclesiasticum,  politicum,  et  oeconomicum,  breviter  deli- 


Sect.  II.  §  1]  TREATISES  ON  PARTICULAR  SUBJECTS  IN  BIBLICAL  ANTIQUITIES. 


157 


neats  a  Conrado  Ikenio.  12mo.     Bremaj,  1741,  cditio  tertia; 
1764,  cditio  quarta. 

There  is  nodiflerence  between  thewe  two  editioriH,  excepting  that 
the  errors  of  the  press  in  the  third  edition  are  corrected  in  the 
fourth.  Tiie  first  edition  appeared  in  1737.  This  book  of  Ikenius 
18  valuable  <i)r  its  brevity,  iiielliod,  iind  perspicuity.  It  continues 
to  be  a  text-book  in  some  of  the  universities  of  Holland  (and  per- 
haps of  Gerniany).  In  1810  there  was  pul>lished  at  Utrecht  a  thick 
8vo.  volume  of  Professor  Schaclit's  olmcrvalions  on  this  work,  under 
Uie  title  of  Jo.  llrrm.  Srharhlii  'I'/icol.  el  I'litbiliiL.  Hardcrov.  Ani- 
vuidwrsioiifx  ud  Aulii/uilalts  Uihrtids  oinii  diliiicdias  a  Conrado 
Iknuo  Tlti:oL  llri/iuim.  I'alre  mortuo,  idiiHl  Gtxlfr.  Jo.  ScilACIIT. 
This  volume  only  discusses  the  first  of  Ikeniiis's  sections,  on  the 
ocelesiastical  state  of  the  Hebrews  ;  it  contains  many  valuable 
additions  and  corrections,  with  relercnces  to  other  writers.  Iiiile- 
peiidently  of  its  bein^  an  iiiip(!r(ect  work,  this  volume  is  too  bulky 
to  be  of  use  to  student.s  generally,  but  would  prove?  valiiabh!  in 
the  hands  of  any  one  who  should  compose  a  new  treatise  on  biblical 
anti(|uities. 

12.  Archicologia  Blblica  in  Epitomcn  redacta  a  Johanne  Jahit. 
Editio  secunda  emendata,  8vo.     Viennaj,  1814. 

An  elaborate  compendium  of  biblical  anticiuities,  abridged  from 
the  author's  larger  work  on  the  same  subject  in  the  German  lan- 
guage (in  five  large  8vo.  volumes),  and  arranged  under  the  three 
divisions  of  domestic,  |)olitical,  and  ecclesiastical  anti(|uitie8.  "  Al- 
though it  comes  short,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  of  the  excellence 
of  the  original  (German)  work,  for  extent  and  variety  of  learning, 
and  vividness  and  conciseness  of  statement,  it  i.s  a  book  which  is 
very  rarely  surpassed."  (North  Am.  lleview,  N.  S.  vol.  viii.  p.  130.) 
At  the  end  of  the  volume  are  upwards  of  sixty  pages  of  questions, 
framed  upon  the  preceding  part  of  the  work  ;  the  answers  to  which 
are  to  be  given  oy  students.  A  faithful  English  translation  of 
"Jahn's  Biblical  Archa!ology"  was  published  at  Andover  (IVIassa- 
chiisetts),  in  1823,  and  again  in  1832,  bv  Thomas  C.  Upham  (assist- 
ant teacher  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  in  tne  Theological  Seminary  at 
that  place),  with  valuable  additions  and  corrections,  partly  the 
result  of  a  collation  of  Jahn's  Latin  work  with  the  original  German 
treatise,  and  partly  derived  from  other  sources.  The  former  part 
of  the  present  volume  of  this  Introduction  (as  our  references  will 
show)  is  much  indebted  to  Jahn's  Archajologia  Biblica. 

13.  Archa;oIogia  Biblica  breviter  exposita  a  Four.  Ackek- 
MA:y?f.     Viennae,  1826. 

This  is  an  expurgated  edition  of  the  preceding  work,  executed  on 
the  same  principle  as  Professor  Ackermann's  edition  of  Jahn's  In- 
troduclio  ad  Libros  Veteris  Fccderis,  noticed  in  p.  87.  of  this  Appen- 
dix, and  with  renewed  declarations  of  the  editor's  profound  sub- 
mission to  the  Romish  church.  To  render  the  work  more  complete. 
Dr.  A.  has  subjoined  a  concise  sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Jewish 
Nation,  from  the  time  of  Abraham  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
by  the  Romans.  In  revising  the  former  part  of  this  volume  fiir  the 
press,  constant  reference  was  had  to  this  work. 

14.  Origines  Hcbrajje:  or,  the  Antiquities  of  the  Hebrew  Re- 
public.   By  Thomas  Lewis,  M.A.    London,  1724-5,  4  vols.  8vo. 

This  is  a  laborious  compilation  from  the  most  distinguished 
writers,  whether  Jews  or  Christians,  on  the  manners  and  laws  of 
the  Hebrews. 

1.5.  Mclchioris  LEYDEKKsni  dc  Republica  Hebrajorum  Libri 
xii.     Amstel.  1704—1710,  2  vols,  folio. 

16.  Johannis  Pareac  Antiquitas  Hebraica  breviter  dclineata. 
Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1817.     Edit,  secunda,  1824,  8vo. 

An  Appendix  and  Index  to  this  summary  of  Hebrew  Antiquities 
was  published  at  Utrecht  in  1825,  8vo. 

17.  Hadriani  Relais-pi  Antiquitates  Sacrae  vetcrutn  Hebrteo- 
rum  recensuit,  ct  animadversionibus  Ugolinianis-Ravianis  auxit, 
Georgius  Joannes  Ludovicus  Vogel.     8vo.  Hala;,  1769. 

The  best  edition  of  a  valuable  little  summary,  which  for  many 
years  continued  to  be  the  text-book  of  profes.sors. 

18.  The  History  and  Philosophy  of  Judaism  ;  or  a  Critical 
and  Philosophical  Analysis  of  the  Jewish  Religion.  By  Duncan 
Shaw,  D.D.     Edinburgh  and  London,  1788,  8vo. 

An  ingenious  treatise,  which  is  divided  into  four  parts :  1.  On  the 
Divine  origin  of  the  Law;  2.  Of  the  duration  of  the  Mosaic  eco- 
nomy ;  3.  That  the  Gospel  is  the  last  dispen.sation  of  God's  grace 
to  mankind  in  the  way  of  religious  discovery  ;  4.  Corollaries  arising 
from  the  subject  of  the  work  :  in  the  course  of  which  the  author 
takes  occasion  to  vindicate  the  genius,  divine  origin,  and  authority 
of  the  Jewish  religion,  and  its  connection  with  the  Christian, 
against  the  objections  and  misrepresentations  of  modern  infidels. 

19.  Caroli  Sigonii  de  Republica  HebrtEorum  Libri  vii. ;  edili 
a  Jo.  Nicolai.     Lug.  Bat.  1701,  4to. 

20.  Erncsti  Augusti  Schulzii  Thcologite  Doctori.s,  et  Profes- 
soris  quondam  in  Academia  Viadrina  celeberriini,  Compendium 
ArchsEologiiE  Hebraica;.  Cum  figuris  a;ri  incisis,  edidit.  cmen- 
davit,  addenda  adjecit,  notisque  locupletavit  Abr.  Phil.  Godefr. 
Schickcdanz.     Dresdae,  179.3,  8vo. 


This  is,  perhaps,  the  hesl  summary  of  Hebrew  antiquities  extant 
in  the  Latin  language;  but,  unlbriiiiiatcly,  it  is  incomplete,  the  au- 
thor huving  executed  only  two  books,  which  treat  of  the  |)olitical 
and  ecclesiastical  antiquities  of  the  Hebrews.  Professor  Schulze 
and  his  editor  have  diligently  availed  themselves  of  the  labours  of 
all  previous  writers  on  this  topic,  and  have  arranged  their  materials 
in  a  manner  eijually  concise  and  valiialile. 

21.  Fcrdinandi  Stosch  Coni|)endium  ArchteologiiE  Qicono- 
mica)  Novi  'I'estamenti,  ducentis  thcsibus  comprehcnsum,  et  aliia 
aliisve  notis  illustratum.     8vo.  Lipsia;,  1769. 

A  small  volume,  of  considerable  rarity  in  this  country  ;  it  treats 
of  the  private  life  and  manners  of  the  Jews,  as  m<'ntioneil  in  the 
iNevv  Testament,  and  may  serve  as  a  supplement  to  the  imperfect 
work  of  .Schulzc,  last  noticed. 

22.  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities:  delivered  at  Harvard 
University  in  Cambridge,  A.  D.  1802  and  180.3.  By  David 
Tapi'a.v,  D.D.,  late  HoUis  Professor  of  Divinity  in  that  yeminary. 
Boston  [Massachusetts],  1807,  8vo. 

The  nature  and  ilesign  of  the  Jewish  Consitution,  political  and 
religious,  are  discussed  in  these  lectures,  which  were  published 
after  the  author's  dt;cease.  The  tendency  of  the  Hebrew  Kitiial 
to  promote  the  glory  of  God  and  the  happiness  of  man  is  frequently 
illustrated  in  a  pleasing  and  devout  manner. 

23.  A.  G.  Waehxeih  Antiquitates  Hebraiorum  et  IsraeliticiB 
Gentis.     Gottingen,  1741,  2  tomis,  8vo. 

This  work  is  incomplete,  the  author  having  died  before  its  ptib- 
lication ;  it  contains  much  valuable  information  relative  to  the 
literature  of  the  Jews. 


SECTION  II. 

TREATISES  ON  PARTICULAR  SUBJECTS  IN  BIBLICAL  ANTIQUITIE.S. 

§  1.  scniPTunE  cEOGRAPnr. 

1.  Onomasticow  Urbium  et  Locorum  Sacra  ScripturE;  sea 
Liber  de  Locis  Hebraicis,  Grsece  primum  ab  Elsehio  Csesari- 
ensi,  deinde  Latine  scriptus  ab  Hieronymo,  in  commodiorem 
vero  ordincm  redactus,  variis  additamentis  auctus,  Notisque  et 
Tabula  Geographica  Juda;a;  illustratus,  opera  Jacobi  Bonfrcrii, 
recensuit  et  animadversionibus  suis  auxit  Joannes  Cleuicus. 
Acccssit  Brocardi  Descriptio  Terne  Sancta;.  Amstelodami,  1707, 
folio. 

2.  Samuelis  Bocharti  Geographia  Sacra;  cujus  Pars  prior, 
Phaieg,  de  Dispersione  Gentium,  et  Terrarum  Divisions  facta, 
in  a:dificatione  Turris  Babel :  Pars  posterior,  Chanaan,  de  Colo- 
niis  et  Sermonc  Phocnicum,  agit.  Cadonii  (Caen),  1646,  folio. 
Francofurti  ad  Mosnum,  1674,  1681,  4to.  Also  in  the  third 
volume  of  the  folio  edition  of  Bochart's  Collective  Works. 

3.  Johannes  Davidis  Michaelis  Spicilcgium  Geographite  He- 
braiorum extera)  post  Bochartum.  Paries  i.  ii.  Gottingen,  17G0, 
1780,  4to. 

Some  observations  on  the  first  part  of  this  learned  work,  which  is 
not  always  to  be  procured  complete,  were  published  by  John  Rein- 
hold  Forster,  entitled  Epislola  ad  J.  J).  Mir/iaelis,  hiijus  spirilrgiun 
Geogr.  Hebr.jam  conjirr/tanle.i,  jam  casligantes.  Goltingte,  1772,  4to. 
It  is  desirable  to  unite  this  with  the  work  of  Michaelis;  but  uaibr- 
tunately  both  works  are  extremely  rare  and  dear. 

4.  Friderici  Spaxhemii  Introducfio  ad  Geographiam  Sacram, 
Patriarchalem,  Israeliticam,  ct  Christianam.  Lugduni  Batavo- 
rum,  1679,  8vo.  Also  in  the  first  volume  of  Spanheim's  Col- 
lected Works. 

5.  Hadriani  Relandi  Palsstina  ex  monumcntis  vcteribus  et 
tabulis  adcuratis  illustrata.     Traject.  Batav.  1714,  2  tomis,  4  to. 

This  elaborate  work  is  also  to  be  found  in  the  sixth  volume  of 
Ugolini's  Thesaurus  .Aniiiiiiitatum  .Sacrarum. 

6.  An  Historical  Geography  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
By  Edward  Wells,  D.D.     4  vols.  8vo.  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  learned  work  was  originally  published  in  four  detached 
parts  or  volumes:  it  has  frequently  been  printed  at  the  Oxford 
press,  and  is  too  well  known  to  reiiuire  commendation  ;  a  new  edi- 
tion, revised  and  corrected  from  the  discoveries  of  Sir  William  Jones 
and  other  eminent  scholars,  was  published  by  the  English  editor  of 
Calmet's  Dictionary  in  4to.,  in  the  year  1804.  There  are  also  copies 
in  two  or  three  vols,  cmwn  8vo.  Dr.  Well's  Geosraphy  of  the  New 
Testament  was  translated  into  German  by  M.  Pari/er,  with  nume- 
rous additions  and  corrections,  in  two  vols.  8vo.    Nuremberg,  1764. 

7.  Sacred  Geography  :  or,  a  Gazetteer  of  the  Bible,  containing, 
in  alphabetical  order,  a  Geographical  Description  of  all  the 
Countries,  Kingdoms,  Nations,  and  Tribes  of  Men,  with  all  the 
Villages,  Towns,  Cities,    Provinces,  Hills,    Mountains,  Rivers, 


158 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  H.  Chap.  VH. 


Lakes,  Seas,  and  Islands,  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures  or 
Apocrypha.  By  Elijah  Paeish,  D.D.  Boston  [Massachusetts], 
1813,  8vo. 

This  eeographical  dictionary  of  the  Scriptures  is  chiefly  compiled 
from  the  Onomasticon  of  Kusebius  and  Jerome,  the  Historical  Geo- 
grapiiy  of  Wells,  the  great  dictionary  of  Father  Calmet,  and  the 
publications  of  various  modern  travellers.  The  book  is  very  neatly 
printed,  and  has  furnished  many  articles  to  our  Geographical  and 
Ilistorical  Index,  in  the  present  volume  of  this  work. 


8.  A  Scripture  Gazetteer  and  Geographical  and  Historical 
Dictionary.     By  J.  S.  Mansfoku.     London,  1829,  8vo. 

9.  Jo.  Matth.  Hash  Kcgni  Davidici  et  Salomonfei  Descriptio 
Geographica  et  Historica;  una  cum  Descriptione  Syriae  et 
-JiJgypti.     Noriinbergse,  1739,  folio. 

10.  Car.  Christ.  Sigism.  Bernhardi  Commentatio  de  Caussis, 
quibus  eflectum  sit,  ut  Rcgnum  Judae  diutius  persisteret,  quam 
Regnum  Israel.    Cum  Tabula  Geographica.    Lovanii,  1825,  4to. 

This  was  a  prize  dissertation,  composed  (as  the  author  states  in 
his  proemiumj  under  considerable  disadvantages,  and  with  no  other 
literary  aid  than  the  Scriptures  and  Havercamp's  edition  of  Jose- 
phiis.  It  is  a  very  interesting  publication,  to  which  the  first  chapter 
of  the  present  volume  is  indebted  for  some  valuable  observations. 

11.  Observationes  Philologicse  et  Geographicae :  sive  Geogra- 
phisE  Sacrae  Specimen  primum.  Quo  Urbes  ac  Regiones,  quarum 
in  SacrisLitteris  fit  mentio,  breviter  describuntur,  iisdemque  verus 
situs,  justaque  nomina  redduntur.     Amstelodami,  1747,  8vo. 

The  deficiencies  of  Calmet  and  some  other  writers  on  Geography, 
are  supplied  in  this  little  work,  which  treats  on  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  country  of  Elijah,  the  city  of  Hebron,  the  region  of 
Ophir,  the  country  of  Abraham,  the  city  of  Eglain,  and  a  few  other 
places. 

12.  The  History  of  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,  as  con- 
nected with  the  Scripture  Prophecies.  By  the  Rev.  George 
WiLKixs,  A.M.     Second  edition.     Nottingham,  1816,  8vo. 

13.  Hadriani  Relaxdi  de  Spoliis  Templi  Hierosolymitani 
Liber  singularis.  Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1716,  8vo.  edit,  secunda, 
177.5.  With  a  preliminary  Disquisition  and  Notes  by  Prof. 
Schulze. 

14.  Ferdinandi  Stosch  Syntagma  Dissertationum  Septem  de 
Nominibus  totidem  Urbium  Asia3 ;  ad  quas  D.  Joannes  in  Apo- 
calypsi  Filii  Dei  Epistolas  direxit.     Guelpherbyti,  1757,  8vo. 

15.  An  Historical  Map  of  Palestine  or  the  Holy  Land, 
exhibiting  the  peculiar  features  of  the  country,  and  of  all  places 
therein,  connected  with  Scripture  History ;  interspersed  with 
ninety-six  vignettes  illustrative  of  the  most  important  circum- 
stances recorded  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

The  size  of  this  beautifully-executed  map  is  40  inches  by  27^ 
The  vignettes  will  be  found  very  amusing  to  young  persons,  while 
they  serve  to  impress  on  the  mind  the  leading  points  of  sacred  his- 
tory and  geography.  The  map  is  accompanied  by  a  folio  sheet  of 
letter-press,  containing  explanatory  references  to  the  vignettes. 
The  design  of  the  latter  is  to  imbody  and  connect  with  the  names 
of  places  marked  upon  the  map,  the  principal  incidents  in  Jewish 
history — by  placing  the  texts  of  Scripture  in  which  such  incidents 
are  mentioned  close  to  the  name  of  the  place  where  the  transaction 
occurred.  The  sheet  of  letter-press  also  comprises  a  brief  outline 
of  the  history  of  Palestine  from  the  earliest  period — the  stations  of 
the  tribes — and  Buhle's  reconomical  calendar  of  the  country,  ex- 
hibiting the  state  of  the  weather  in  the  Holy  Land  tliroughout  the 
different  months  of  the  year,  and  containing  useful  remarks  on  the 
various  productions  of  the  soil. 

16.  A  New  Map  of  Palestine  and  the  Adjacent  Countries; 
constructed  from  Original  Authorities,  showing  their  Ancient 
and  Modern  Geography,  with  the  Routes  of  various  Travellers. 
By  Richard  Palmer.  London,  1828  :  on  a  large  sheet,  24 
inches  by  28. 

17.  A  Map,  illustrating  the  Ministerial  Journeys  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  constructed  from  the  design  of  the 
Rev.  J.  C.  GiiosTinvAiTE,  A.M.,  by  A.  Arrowsmith.  London, 
1830. 

18.  A  Map,  illustrating  the  Travels  of  St.  Paul,  constructed 
from  the  design  of  the  Rev.  J.  C.  Crostuwaitk,  A.M.,  by  A. 
Arrowsmith.     London,  1830. 

"These  two  maps  form  a  useful  supplement  to  the  At- 
lases to  the  Bible,  hitherto  published  ;  for  although  almost  all  of 
them  have  Maps  of  Judaea  adapted  to  the  evangelical  history,  yet 
in  no  one  of  tliese  do  we  recollect  to  have  seen  the  several  routes 
of  our  Saviour  and  of  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  so  clearly 
laid  down  as  in  Mr.  Crosthwaite's  maps.  The  addition  of  refer- 
ences to  the  various  passages  of  the  Gospels  in  which  the  ministe- 
rial journeys  of  Christ  are  narrated,  and  to  those  parts  of  the  Acts 
and  Epistles,  in  which  the  routes  of  St.  Paul  are  either  mentioned 


or  described,  greatly  enhances  the  value  of  these  maps."     (Chris- 
tian Remembrancer,  February,  1830,  vol.  xii.  p.  100.) 

19.  A  Map  of  Palestine  in  the  Time  of  our  Saviour,  illus- 
trative of  the  Books  of  the  Evangelists.  Designed  and  en- 
graved by  Thomas  Starling.  London,  1832.  Twenty-seven 
inches  in  length  by  twenty  in  width. 

20.  An  Historical  Map  of  Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land  de- 
lineated. By  John  Hunt.  [Twenty-eight  inches  in  length  by 
twenty-two  in  width.]  With  a  Companion  to  the  same,  con- 
sisting of  Historical  and  Geographical  Notices  of  the  Principal 
Towns,  &c.  of  that  Country.     London,  1832. 

21.  A  Pictorial,  Geographical,  Chronological,  and  Historical 
Chart,  being  a  Delineation  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
Evangelical  or  Christian  Dispensation,  from  the  Commencement 
of  the  Gospel  Narrative  to  the  Ascension  of  our  Lord.  Ar- 
ranged, according  to  the  "  Harmonia  Evangelica"  of  the  Rev. 
Edward  Greswell,  B.D.,  by  R.  Mimpriss,  and  accompanied  by 
a  Key.     London,  1832.     Sixty-eight  inches  by  thirty-six. 

This  admirably  contrived  as  well  as  beautifully  and  correctly 
executed  map  is  adapted  to  the  divisions  existing  at  the  time  of 
our  Saviour's  appearing  on  the  earth ;  showing  the  situation  of 
every  place  mentioned  in  the  Gospels,  with  representations  of  the 
journeys  of  our  Lord,  and  of  the  principal  circumstances  of  the 
Gospel  history,  drawn  upon  the  places  where  the  events  occurred, 
from  designs  of  the  old  masters  ;  with  the  vievk'  of  showing  the 
benevolent  tendency  of  our  Saviour's  miracles.  It  contains 
170  vignettes,  and  about  600  references  in  the  body  of  the  map, 
besides  50  large  subjects  in  outline,  in  the  margin ;  all  of  which 
are  exquisitely  engraved.  The  reference  being  subjoined  to  the 
depicted  events,  it  forms  a  most  valuable  auxiliary  in  the  lecture 
room,  and  a  useful  assistant  in  the  study  of  divinity. 

While  this  sheet  was  passing  through  the  press,  Mr.  Mimpriss 
announced  a  similar  Chart,  designed  to  illustrate  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  in  which  the  travels  of  the  different  apostles  will  t>e  di.s- 
tinctly  marked,  and  the  sites  of  the  several  places  will  be  accu- 
rately laid  down,  from  the  geographical  researches  of  the  most 
learned  modern  travellers. 


Most  of  the  general  treatises  on  sacred  geography  are  illustrated 
with  maps.  There  is  also  an  excellent  map  of  Palestine  in  D'An- 
ville's  Ancient  Atlas;  it  has  been  consulted  for  the  maps  accom- 
panying this  work,  which  have  been  drawn  with  great  care,  and 
corrected  from  the  researches  of  modern  geographers.  The  quarto 
Atlas,  published  by  the  late  Rev.  Thomas  Scott,  as  an  accompani- 
ment to  his  commentary  on  the  Bible,  possesses  the  double  merit 
of  being  correct  as  well  as  cheap.  The  Scripture  Atlas,  published 
by  Mr.  Leigh,  is  executed  in  a  superior  style,  and  has  had  a  very 
extensive  sale.  Mr.  Wyld's  Scripture  Atlas  is  a  neat  publication. 
Several  small  or  pocket  Atlases  of  the  Bible  have  been  published, 
which  indeed  can  only  be  used  by  those  who  have  young  eyes. 
Of  these,  Mr.  Thomas  Starling's  "Biblical  Cabinet  Atlas"  claims 
especially  to  be  noticed  for  the  beautiful  execution  of  the  maps, 
and  the  valuable  tabular  Geographical  Index  which  accompanies 
them.  "  The  Pocket  Bible  Atlas,"  containing  eight  neatly-executed 
maps,  which  was  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1832,  (as  its  name  im- 
plies) is  expressly  designed  to  be  bound  up  with  a  pocket  Bible. 

Various  Treatises  on  Sacred  Geography  will  be  foimd  in  the 
fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  volumes  of  Ugolini's  Thesaurus  Antiqui 
latum  Sacrarum. 

It  may  be  proper  to  add,  that  most  of  the  questions  relative  to 
the  history,  geography,  &c.  of  the  Bible  are  noticed  in  Schleusner's 
valuable  Lexicon  to  the  Sepiuagint  version,  and  also  in  his  Greek 
and  Latin,  and  in  Messrs.  Parkhurst's  and  Robinson's  Greek  and 
English  Lexicons  to  the  New  Testament ;  where  they  are  illus- 
trated with  equal  learning  and  accuracy 


§  2.  natural  history  of  the  niBLB. 

1.  Physica  Sacra:  hoc  est  Historia  Naturalis  Biblice  a  Joanne 
Jacobo  ScHEucHZERo  edita,  et  innumeris  inconibus  seneis  ele- 
gantissimis  adornata.  August.  Vindel.  1731 — 1735,  4  vols,  folio. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  useful  works  which  has 
appeared  on  the  natural  history  of  the  Bible  :  the  engravings,  750 
in  number,  were  executed  by  the  most  eminent  artists  of  that  day. 
A  German  translation  appeared  at  Augsburg,  at  the  same  time 
with  the  Latin  edition,  to  which  it  is  preferred,  on  account  of  its 
having  proof  impressions  of  the  plates.  The  French  translation, 
published  at  Amsterdam,  in  1732-— 1738,  in  4  vols,  folio,  is  inferior 
to  both  the  preceding  editions  as  it  respects  the  plates,  though  the 
text  and  typographical  execution  are  equally  valuable.  From  Iho 
costly  price  of  this  work,  it  is  chiefly  to  be  found  in  great  public 
libraries. 

2.  The  Natural  History  of  the  Bible  :  or  a  Description  of  all 
the  Quadrupeds,  Birds,  Fishes,  Reptiles,  and  Insects,  Trees, 
Plants,  Flowers,  Gums,  and  Precious  Stones,  mentioned  in  the 
Sacred  Scriptures.  Collected  from  the  best  Authorities,  and 
alphabetically   arranged   by  Thaddaus   Mason   Harris,   D.D. 


Sect.  II.  §  3.] 


POLITICAL  ANTIQUITIES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


159 


Boston  [Massachusetts],  1820,  Svo.  London,  1824,  8vo.  New 
edition,  greatly  improved  and  corrected.   1833,  crown  Svo. 

The  Natural  History  of"  foreign  countries  was  very  little  known 
at  the  time  when  the  authorized  version  of  the  Kiiglish  Bible  was 
executed  :  it  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  tlial  we  find  in  it  the  names 
of  animals,  &.C.  which  are  unknown  in  tiio  Kast.  Our  venerable 
translators,  indeed,  friinkly  acknowledge  in  their  preface  the  ob- 
scurity ex|)erienced  by  them  in  IIel)rew  words  occurring  but 
once,  and  also  in  the  names  of  certain  birds,  hen:<ts,  precious 
stones,  <kc.  These  difficulties  have  been  materially  diminished 
since  their  time,  and  especially  within  the  Inst  hundred  and  twenty 
years;  not  only  by  the  succcNstiil  researches  of  eminent  orien- 
talists, who  have  applied  their  knowledge  of  tlie  eastern  dialects 
to  the  elucidation  of  Scripture,  but  also  by  tho  siiccoKHf'iil  Inhniirs 
of  Bochart,  ('elsius,  Forsktil,  Scheuclizer,  and  otiicr  naturalists, 
historians  of  the  Bible,  as  well  as  those  of  Shaw,  Hassclquist, 
Russell,  Bruce,  and  other  distinguished  travellers.  To  all  these 
sources,  together  with  many  others  which  it  is  not  necessary  to 
enumerate.  Dr.  Harris  acknowledges  his  obligations.  Though  he 
claims  no  praise  but  that  of  having  brought  into  a  regular  form 
such  information  as  he  could  collect  from  the  best  and  most  un- 
exceptionable authorities  ;  yet  he  is  not  a  mere  compiler.  He  has 
enlivened  his  general  illustrations  with  many  instructive  and  use- 
ful facts,  observations,  and  reasonings:  and  in  the  course  of  his 
work  he  has  introduced  new  translations  of  a  great  many  detached 
passages  and  of  some  entire  chapters  of  Scripture.  Of  these,  future 
commentators  will  doubtless  avail  themselves,  especially  as  Dr.  H. 
has  accompanied  such  translations  with  remarks  and  illustrations, 
correcting  the  errors  which  were  the  consequence  of  their  being 
misunderstood,  and  pointing  out  the  precision  and  force,  the  em- 
phasis and  beauty,  which  they  derive  from  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  object  in  natural  history  to  which  they  originally  referred. 
A  Catalogue  is  subjoined  of  the  principal  authorities  quoted  in  his 
work,  which  is  accompanied  with  usefid  indexes  of  matters  and 
of  texts  illustrated,  and  particularly  with  an  Index  or  List  of  the 
several  articles,  according  to  the  Knglish  Translation,  followed  by 
the  original  Hebrew  names,  to  which  are  subjoined  the  Linnffian 
or  other  modern  scientific  appellations.  In  a  work  embracing  such 
a  variety  of  particulars,  some  articles  must  necessarily  be  found 
defective :  these,  however,  are  not  very  numerous.  In  conclusion, 
the  writer  of  these  pages  cheerfully  adopts  the  following  just 
critique  of  a  transatlantic  reviewer: — "Dr.  Harris  is  entitled  to 
the  thanks  of  the  public,  for  having  brought  within  a  reasonable 
compass  the  most  valuable  materials  on  the  subjects  of  which  he 
treats;  for  having  arranged  them  in  a  convenient  method,  and  in 
general  for  having  arrived  at  his  own  conclusions  on  the  best  evi- 
dence  which  the  subjects  admit." "On   the  whole,  we 

cheerfully  recommend  the  work  both  to  the  learned  and  the  un- 
learned reader,  as  containing  all  that  can  be  known  on  the  subjects 
which  successively  occur.  Alany  of  the  articles  will  be  read  with 
great  interest :  and  in  those  in  which  curiosity  is  most  concerned 
the  author,  in  a  form  as  much  abridged  as  their  nature  would 
admit,  has  exhausted  all  the  learning  of  naturalists  and  travel- 
lers :  and,  as  we  believe,  has  generally  come  to  the  right  re- 
sults." (North  American  Review,  vol.  x.  New  Series,  pp.  fl,  02.) 
The  London  reprints  are  beautifully  executed,  especially  the  edi- 
tion published  in  1833,  which  is  ornamented  with  neat  engravings 
on  wood.  A  German  translation  of  this  work  was  published  at 
Leipzig,  in  1825,  in  Svo. 

3.  Samuelis  Bochauti  Hierozoicon,  sive  de  Animalibus  Sa- 
crsB  Scripturae.  4th  edit,  folio,  Lug.  Bat.  1714  ;  also  in  3  vols. 
4to      LipsisB,  1793,  and  following  years. 

This  last  is  unquestionably  the  best  edition;  it  was  published 
by  Professor  Rosenmiiller,  to  whose  researches  biblical  students 
are  so  largely  indebted  ;  and  who  has  corrected  it  throughout,  as 
well  as  enlarged  it  with  numerous  facts  from  the  writings  of  mo- 
dern travellers,  &c. 

4.  Hierozoici  ex  Samuele  Bocharto,  Itinerariis  variis  aliisque 
Doctissimorum  Virorum  Commentariis  ac  Scriptiunculis,  ad  plu- 
rimorum  usus  compositi,  Specimina  Iria.  Auctore  Frid.  Jacobo 
ScHouER,  Tubing®,  1784-6,  Svo. 

5.  Jo.  Henr.  Uiisini  Arboretum  Biblicum,  in  quo  Arbores  et 
Frutices,  passim  in  S.  Litcris  occurrentes,  ut  et  Plantffi,  Herbae, 
et  Aromata,  notis  philologicis,  philosophicis,  theologicis,  expo- 
nuntur  et  illustrantur.     Norimbergae,  1 699,  2  tomis,  Svo. 

6.  Olavi  Celsii  Ilierobotanicon,  sive  de  Plantis  Sacrse  Scrip- 
turte  Dissertationes  Breves.  UpsaliB,  1745-47;  Amstclscdami, 
174S,  2  tomis,  Svo. 

7.  Hierophyticon,  sive  Commentarius  in  Loca  Scripturae  Sa- 
craB,  quae  Plantarum  faciunt  mentionem.  Auctore  Matthaeo 
HiLLEHO.     Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1725,  4to. 

8.  Petri  Forskal  Descriptioncs  Animalium,  Amphibiorum, 
Piscium,  Insectorum,  Vermium,  quae  in  Itinere  Oricntali  observa- 
vit  4to.  Hauniae  (Copenhagen),  1775. — Ejusdem  Flora  -lEgyp- 
tio-Arabica.  4to.  Haunise,  1775.  Ejusdem  Icones  Rerum  Natu- 
ralium,  quas  Itinere  Orientali  depingi  curavit.  4to.  Hauniae, 
1776. 

M.  Forskal  was  a  learned  Swedish  naturalist,  who  was  sent  in 
1761,  at  the  expense  of  his  Danish  majesty,  to  Investigate  the  na- 
Voi.  II.— Arr.  4  N 


tural  productions  of  the  East,  in  company  with  the  celebrated  tra- 
veller Niebuhr.  He  died  at  Jerim  in  Arabia,  in  17C3,  and  his 
unfinished  notes,  valuable  even  in  their  imperfect  state,  were  pub- 
lished by  his  colleague  in  the  three  works  just  noticed. 

9.  Scripture  illustrated  by  Engravings,  referring  to  Natural 
Science,  Cu.stoms,  Manners,  &c.  By  the  Editor  of  Calmet's 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible.    4to.  1802. 

Many  otherwise  obscure  passages  of  the  Bible  are  in  this  work 
happily  elucidated  from  natural  science,  <fee.  Though  it  does  not 
profess  to  bo  a  complete  natural  history  of  the  Scriptures,  yet  it 
illustrates  that  interesting  subject  in  very  many  instances.  Ii  has 
been  in<or|)orated  in  Mr.  Taylor's  editions  of  Calmet's  Dictionary, 
noticed  in  p.  341). 

10.  Scripture  Natural  History:  or  a  Descriptive  Account  of 
the  Zoology,  Botany,  and  Geology  of  the  Bible,  illustrated  by 
Engravings.     By  William  Caki-e.nteh.     London,  1828,  Svo. 

"  Without  that  pretence  to  originality  which,  in  the  present  day, 
is  as  much  distinguished  by  personal  vanity  as  it  is  at  variance 
with  truth,  Mr.  Carpenter  has,  we  think,  presented  to  the  public 
an  interesting  and  useful  work."  (Christian  licmembranccr,  April, 
1827,  p.  201.) 

11.  Remarks  on  the  Mustard  Tree  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament.     By  John  Frost.     London,  1827,  Svo. 

12.  Remarks  on  the  Phytolacca  Dodecandra,  or  Mustard  Tree 
of  the  Scriptures.  By  the  Rev.  P.  W.  Buckiiam.  London, 
1827,  Svo. 

As  the  common  mustard  tree  (Sinapis  ni^ra  of  Linnaeus)  is  an 
annual  plant,  which,  in  consequence  of  its  herbaceous  stem,  rarely 
attains  a  greater  height  than  three  feet,  cannot  with  propriety  be 
termed  a  tree,  commentators  have  been  much  perplexed  in  their 
attempts  to  explain  our  Lord's  Parable  of  the  mustard  tree.  The 
object  of  Mr.  Frost's  pamphlet  (which  is  an  enlargement  of  a  paper 
in  the  Journal  of  Science  and  the  Arts,  vol.  xx.  pp.  57 — 59.)  is  to 
show  that  the  plant  in  question  is  a  species  of  Phytolacca — proba- 
bly the  Phytolacca  dodecandra  of  Linnteus,  which,  though  it  has 
the  smallest  seed  of  any  tree  growing  in  Palestine,  yet  attains  as 
great  an  altitude  as  any  tree  which  flourishes  in  that  country,  and 
possesses  properties  analogous  to  those  of  the  sinapis  nigra.  Mr. 
Frost's  hypothesis  is  controverted  with  much  learning  and  inge- 
nuity by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Buckham,  w  ho  argues  that  the  tree  intended 
is  the  common  mustard  tree,  and  who  has  collected  numerous  pas- 
sages from  ancient  botanical  writers,  and  from  modem  travellers 
and  botanical  authors,  in  supjiort  of  his  argument. 

13.  Joh.  Gottlieb  Buhle  Calendarium  Palsstinffi  (Economi- 
cum.     Goettingjc,  1785,  4to. 

14.  Georgii  Fricderici  Walcuii  Calendarium  Pa!a;stinae  CEco- 
nomicum.     Pra;fatus  est  J.  D.  Michaelis.     Gocttinga;,  1785,  4to. 

In  tlie  year  1785  the  directors  of  the  University  of  Gottingen 
proposed,  as  a  prize-subject,  the  compilation  of  an  (Economic  Ca- 
lendar of  Palestine,  from  Itineraries,  with  a  view  to  the  better 
elucidation  of  the  Sacred  Writings.  The  prize  was  adjudged  to 
the  composition  of  M.  Buhle  ;  to  which,  in  Michaelis's  judgment, 
the  Calendar  of  Walch  was  next  in  point  of  merit.  Each  of  these 
publications  contains  much  valuable  matter  peculiar  to  itself;  and 
Doth  together  throw  much  light  on  the  physical  geography  of  Pa- 
lestine. 

A  translation  of  Buhle's  Calendar  is  inserted  in  the  Fragments 
annexed  to  Mr.  Taylor's  edition  of  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  Nos.  455— 4C8. 

15.  Henrici  Ehrenfridi  Warxzkros  Commentarius  de  Pa- 
laestinae  Fertilitate,  praecipuisquiE  ilhus  dotibus  cum  JEgypto 
comparatis. — In  the  14th  and  15th  volumes  of  the  Repertorium 
fiir  Biblische  und  Morgenlaendische  Litteratiir.  Svo. 

An  English  translation  of  this  valuable  disquisition  is  pnnted  in 
the  first  volume  of  Dr.  Hodge's  Biblical  Repertory,  published  at 
Princeton  (New  Jersey)  in  1825. 

16.  A  Comparative  Estimate  of  the  Mineral  and  Mosaical 
Geologies,  revised  and  enlarged  with  relation  to  the  latest  Publi- 
cations on  Geology.  By  Granville  Pesn,  Esq.  Second  edition, 
London,  1825,  2  vols.  Svo. 

The  first  edition  of  the  "Comparative  Estimate"  was  published 
in  1822,  and  a  "  Supplement"  to  it.  In  its  present  improved  state 
Mr.  Penn's  work  forms  a  most  powerful  proof  and  vindication  of  the 
harmony  subsisting  between  geological  discoveries  and  the  Mosaic 
History. 

17.  Scriptural  Geology,  or  Geological  Phenomena,  consistent 
only  with  the  Literal  Interpretation  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
upon  the  subjects  of  the  Creation  and  Deluge.  [By  the  Rev. 
George  Bugg,  B.A.]     London,  1827,  2  vols.  Svo. 


§  3.    political  AS^TiaCITIES  OF  THE  JEWS. 

Treatises  on  tlie  Laws,  Government,  Coins,  &c.  of  the  Jevt. 

1.    Rabbi  Mosis  Maimonidis  More  Nebochim ;  seu  Doctor 
Perplexorum,  ad  dubia  et  obscuriora  Scripturae  loca  rectius  in- 


160 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  Vlf. 


telligenda,  vcluti  Clavcm  continens.    liatine  convcrsus  a  Joanne 
Buxtorfio,  filio.     Basileaj,  1629,  4to. 

2.  The  Reasons  of  the  Laws  of  Moses,  from  the  "  More 
Nevochim"  of  Maimonides.  With  Notes,  Dissertations,  and  a 
Life  of  the  Author.  By  James  Townley,  D.D.  London, 
1S27,  8vo. 

The  More  Nevochim,  or  "  Insfuctor  of  the  Perplexed,"  is  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  most  valuable  produclions  of  the  learned 
Jewish  Rabbi,  Moses  ben  Maimon,  better  known  by  the  name  of 
Maimonides.  "It  is  a  critical,  philosophical,  and  theological  work, 
in  which  he  endeavours  to  explain  the  difficult  passages,  phrases, 
parables,  allegories,  and  ceremonies  of  llie  Old  Testament;  and 
is  rendered  particularly  important  by  'an  excellent  Exposition  of 
the  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the  Mosaic  Laws,'  to  which  many  of 
our  most  eminent  biblical  critics  and  commentators  have  been 
deeply  indebted."  It  was  originally  written  in  Arabic,  and  trans- 
lated into  Hebrew  by  Rabbi  Samuel  Aben  Tybbon.  The  Rev. 
Dr.  Townley  (to  whose  lile  of  Maimonides,  p.  17.,  we  are  indebted 
for  the  preceding  particulars)  has  given  an  account  of  the  various 
editions  of  the  original  work  of  Maimonides;  among  which  that 
of  1G29  is  usually  reputed  to  be  the  best. 

Dr.  T.  has  conferred  no  small  obligation  on  biblical  students  in 
presenting  this  treatise  of  Maimonides  to  them  in  an  English 
dress;  and  in  addition  to  a  memoir  of  the  original  Jewish  author, 
he  has  enriched  his  translation  with  upwards  of  one  hundred 
pages  of  valuable  notes,  together  with  nine  dissertations  on  the 
Talmudical  Writings,  and  on  various  other  topics  lending  to  elu- 
cidate the  "  Reasons  of  the  Laws  of  Moses." 

3.  Wilhelmi  Zeppehi  Legum  Mosaicarum  Forensium  Ex- 
planatio.     Hcrbornae  Nassoviorum,  1C04,  8vo. 

4.  Lex  Dei,  sive  Mosaicarum  et  Romanarum  Legum  Collatio. 
E  Codicibus  Manuscriptis  Vindobonensi  et  Vercellensi  nuper 
repertis  auctam  atque  emendatam  edidit,  notisque  et  indicibus 
iliustravit  Fridericus  Blume.     Bonna3,  1833,  8vo. 

From  the  first  chapter  of  the  elaborate  prolegomena  prefixed  by 
the  editor  to  this  curious  and  valuable  work,  we  learn  that  its 
anonymous  author  was  in  all  probability  a  clergyman  of  the  Latin 
or  Western  Church,  who  lived  in  the  former  half  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, and  who  compiled  this  work  with  the  express  design  of  ex- 
hibiting the  resemblances  between  the  Jewish  and  Roman  Laws, 
which  last  were  derived  from  the  Jewish  Laws,  and  further  to 
show  that  Christians  both  may  and  ought  to  make  use  o{  both  laws. 
The  second  and  third  chapters  of  the  prolegomena  contain  an 
account  of  the  MSS.  and  printed  editions  of  iHis  collection.  A 
copious  collection  of  various  readings,  from  MSS.  and  printed  edi- 
tions, is  placed  at  the  foot  of  each  page  of  the  collation,  which 
follows  the  prolegomena.     The  volume  concludes  with  indexes  of 


showing  that  they  were  worthy  of  their  Divine  Author,  being 
titled  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  most  important  purposes. 
By  Henry  Fergcs.     Dunfermline  and  London  [1811],  8vo. 

This  essay  is  detached  from  a  History  of  the  Hebrews,  on  which 
the  author  was  employed ;  but  which  has  not  yet  been  published. 
"  In  the  short  account  belbre  us,  Mr.  Fergus  lias  given  evidence 
of  his  having  studied  the  subject:  and  his  pamphlet  displays  in  a 
concise  yet  luminous  manner  the  several  topics  which  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  government  of  the  Hebrews  includes."  (Monthly 
Review,  N.  S.,  vol.  Ixvi.  p.  37.) 

11.  Levtssoun  (Davidis  Henrici)  Disputatio  de  Judteorum 
sub  (/SBsaribus  Conditione,  et  de  Legibus  cos  spectantibus.  Lug- 
duni  Batavorum,  1828,  4to. 

12.  Joannis  Seldeni  De  Syncdriis  et  Prtefecturis  Juridicis 
Veterum  Ebrajorum  Libri  HL      Amstelodami,  1679,  4to. 

13.  Petri  Wesskiixgii  Diatribe  de  Jud:eorum  Archontibus 
ad  Inscriptionem  Berenicenscm ;  et  Dis.sertatio  de  Evangeliis 
jussu  Imp.  Anastasii  non  emendatis  in  Victorem  Tununensem. 
Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1738,  8vo. 

14.  Thomse  Bahtholixi  de  Cruce  Christi  Hypomnemata 
IV.     Hafnite,  1651,  8vo.     Amstelodami,  1G70,  8vo. 

15.  Dissertatio  Philologica  de  Ritu  dimittendi  Reum  in  festo 
Paschatis  Judasorum  ;  conscripta  a  Joh.  Conrado  Hottingeho. 
Tiguri,  1718,  8vo. 

16.  Jacobi  Ltdii  Syntagma  Sacrum  de  Re  Militari.  Dor- 
draci,  1698,  4to. 

17.  Edwardi  Biiewewood  Liber  de  Ponderibus  et  Pretiis 
Veterum  Nummorum,  eorumque  cum  recentioribus  Collatione. 
Londini,  1614,  4to. :  also  in  the  first  Volume  of  Bp.  W^alton's 
Polyglott. 

18.  Adrian!  Relandi  De  Nummis  Veterum  Hebraeorum,  qui 
ah  inscriptarura  literarum  forma  Samaritanorum  appellantur, 
Dissertationes  V.    Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1709,  8vo. 

19.  Casparis  Waseri  De  Antiquis  Numis  Hebrseorum  et 
Syrorum,  quorum  S.  Biblia  et  Rabbinorum  Scripta  meminerunt, 
Libri  II.     Tiguri,  1605,  4to. 

20.  Casparis  Waseri  de  Antiquis  Mcnsuris  Hebraeorum, 
quarum  S.  Biblia  meminerunt,  Libri  III.  Heidelbergae,  1610,  4to. 

21.  An  Essay  towards  the  Recovery  of  the  Jewish  Measures 
and  Weights,  comprehending  their  Moneys ;  by  help  of  ancient 
standards  compared  with  ours  of  England.     By  Richard  Cum- 


matters,  persons,  and   places  occurring  in  the  work,  and  of  the  |  berland,  D.D.  [afterwards  Bishop  of  Peterborough.]    London, 

1686,  8vo. 


authors  who  are  cited  in  the  notes. 

5.  Joannis  SpExcEni  de  Legibus  Hebrseorum  Ritualibus  et 
earum  Rationibus  Libri  IV.  Accessit  Dissertatio  de  Phylacteriis 
Judaeorum.  Recensuit,  et  indices  adjecit  Leonardus  Chappelow, 
S.T.P.     Cantabrigiae,  1727,  2  vols,  folio,  best  edition. 

6.  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses.  By  the  late  Sir 
John  David  Michaelis,  K.P.S.  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Philoso- 
phy in  the  University  of  Grttingen;  translated  from  the  Ger- 
man by  Alexander  Smith,  D.D.     London,  1814,  4  vols.  8vo. 

The  spirit  of  the  political  and  ceremonial  law,  contained  in  the 
writings  of  Moses,  is  copiously  investigated  in  this  work.  Valuable 
as  these  "Commentaries"  of  Michaelis  are  in  many  respects,  it  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  they  are  not  free  from  that  licentious- 
ness of  conjecture  and  of  language,  as  well  as  tendency  to  skepti- 
cism, which  are  the  too  frequent  characteristics  of  some  distin- 
guished modern  biblical  critics  in  Germany.  Great  caution,  there- 
fore, will  be  necessary  in  consulting  this  work. 

7.  Legislation  des  Hebreux.  Par  M.  Le  Comte  de  Pasto- 
RET.  Forming  Volumes  III.  and  IV.  of  his  Histoire  de  la 
Legislation.     Paris,  1817,  8vo. 

8.  Histoire  des  Institutions  de  Moise  ct  du  Peuple  Hebreu. 
Par  J.  SALTAnoR.     Paris,  1828,  3  tomes,  8vo. 

The  avowed  design  of  this  work,  which  is  characterized  by  no 
small  degree  of  levity  on  the  part  of  its  Jewish  author,  is,  to  re- 
present Moses  as  an  enlightened  and  liberal  legislator:  at  the  same 
time  its  whole  tendency  is,  to  discredit  Christianity.  M.  Salvador 
devoted  a  portion  of  his  work  to  show  that  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
was  legally  condemned,  according  to  the  statements  of  the  evan- 
gelists themselves.  This  unblushing  attack  of  the  Jew  called 
forth  M.  Dupin  the  elder,  one  of  the  most  eminent  advocates  at 
the  French  bar,  who  triumphaiuly  repelled  the  profane  assertions 
of  Salvador  in  a  masterly  refutation,  intituled,  "  Jesus  devantCaiphe 
et  Pilate."     Paris,  1828,  8vo. 

9.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Civil  Government  of  the  Hebrews : 
in  which  the  true  Design  and  Nature  of  their  Government  are 
explained.  By  Moses  Lowmak.  London,  1740  ;  2d  edition, 
1745;  3d  edition,  1816,  8  vo. 

10.  A  Short  Account  of  the  Laws  and  In.slitutions  of  Moses; 


22.  Obeervationes  ex  Numis  Antiquis  Sacrae.  Auctore  Gottlob 
Sebastiano  Mahgraaf.     Viterabergae,  1745,  4to. 

23.  Petri  ZoBxii  Historia  Fisci  Judaici  sub  Imperio  Veterum 
Romanorum.     Altonae,  1734,  8vo. 

24.  Scripture  Weights,  Measures,  and  Money,  reduced  to  the 
Imperial  Standard  of  the  Weights  and  Measures,  and  the  Ster- 
ling Money  of  England.  By  Edmund  Vialls.  London,  1826, 
8vo.     [A  Pamphlet  of  19  pages.] 


§  4.    SACRED    ANTiaUITIES    OF    TIIE    JEWS. 

[i.]  Treatises  on  the  Ritual  and  Sacred  Ceremonies  of  the 
Jews. 

1.  A  Rationale  of  the  Ritual  of  the  Hebrew  Worship.  In 
which  the  wise  Designs  und  Usefulness  of  that  Ritual  are  ex- 
plained.    By  Moses  Lowman.     London,  1748,  8vo. 

2.  Jacobi  Ghonovii  Decrcta  Romana  et  Asiatica  pro  Judaeis, 
id  cultum  divinum  per  Asia;  Minoris  urbes  secure  obeundum,  ab 
Josepho  collecta  in  Libro  XIV.  Archaiologiffi.  Lugduni  Batavo- 
rum, 1712,  8vo. 

3.  Bernardi  Lamt  de  Tabernaculo  Foederis,  de  Sancta  Civitate 
Jerusalem  et  de  Templo  ejus,  Libri  Septem.    Parisiis,  1720,  folio. 

4.  Saiomonis  Van  Til  Commentarius  de  Tabernaculo  Mosis 
et  Zoologia  Sacra.     Dordraci,  1714,  4to. 

5.  Johannis  Buxtorfii  patris,  Synagoga  Judaica :  hoc  est 
Schola  Judaeorum,  in  qua  Nativitas,  Institutio,  Religio,  Vita, 
Mors,  Sepulturaque  ipsorum  graphice  descripta  est.  Hanovise, 
1604,  12mo.  ;  Basilete,  1680,  8vo. 

6.  Campegii  Vitrinra  de  Synagoga  Vetere  Libri  tres :  qui- 
bus  turn  de  Nominibus,  Structura,  Origine,  Praefectis,  Ministris, 
et  Sacris  Synagogarum  agitur :  turn  prtecipue  Formam  Regimi- 
nis  et  Ministerii  earum  in  Ecclesiam  Christianam  translatam  esse 
demonstratur  :  cum  Prolegomenis.     Franequerae,  1696,  4to. 


Skct.  II.  §  5.] 


DOMESTIC  ANTIQUITIES  AND  SCIENCES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


IGI 


7.  Mariani  Kaskhkh  AlArPA<I'H  Studii  ScripturiHtici  in  Syna- 
goga.     Purs  Prima.     Sa!i.sl)iir(ji,  1774,  4to. 

A  cornpihiiion  Croni  various  (icrinan  and  other  aiithnrx  who  Fiavo 
troaUid  on  Sacred  AiiliiiiiilieH  :  it  diM<Mi!(K(>s  lh(i  (.'atioii  of  the  Hililc 
received  hy  the  ilohrews,  iho  Taliiiiid, 'J'ur){iiiiiH,  Munorelic  Hookw. 
and  the  Cuhliala;  the  Schools  uiid  Sects  ol'  the  JevvH,  and  their 
Teachers  or  Doctors  and  Pupils. 

8.  ThcTein|)le  Service  as  it  stood  in  the  Days  of  our  Saviour. 
By  J<dui  lii(;ii  Tioiir,  IJ.IJ.  l^ondoii,  1049,  4to. ;  also  in  the 
folio  and  octavo  editions  of  Dr.  Liglitfoot's  Works. 

9.  'J'he  Temple  Mu.sick;  or,  an  Essay  concerning  the  metliod 
of  singing  the  Psalms  of  David  in  the  Temple,  heforc  the  Bahy- 
lonish  Captivity.     By  Arthur  BiiUFoiii).     London    1706,  8vo. 


[ii.]  Treatises  on  the  lieliffioxis  J\'olions  of  the  Jews,  on  the 
Corru/itions  of  Ji elision  amonff  them,  and  on  the  Sects  into 
ivhich  they  were  divided. 

1.  'J'hc  Main  Principles  of  the  Creed  and  Ethics  of  the  Jews, 
exhibited  in  Selections  from  the  Yad  Hachazakali  of  Maimonides, 
with  a  literal  English  Translation,  copious  Illustrations  from  the 
Talmud,  <fec.     By   Hermann  Hcdvvig  BiiuxAUD.      Cambridge, 

1832,  8vo. 

The  Yad  llaeliazakah  of  Maimonides  is  a  compendium  of  the 
decisions  of  the  Jewish  Doctors  taken  from  the  Talmud,  and  founded 
on  Scripture  iiitor|ireied  according  to  his  preconceived  notions.  The 
subjects  selected  by  Mr.  Bernard  treat  on  the  Deity,  on  angels,  pro- 
phecy, idolatry,  repentance,  sin,  tree  will,  predestination,  the  life 
nereafler,  rewards  and  punishments,  and  the  love  of  God.  The  He- 
brew text  is  beautifully  printed  without  points  ;  this  is  followed  by  a 
liiitlifid  Knglish  version  »  id  notes,  and  by  a  glossary  of  the  rabbini- 
cal Hebrew  words  occurring  in  the  te.\t,to  which  are  prefixed  a  well- 
written  sketch  of  the  life  of  Maimonides,  and  a  collection  of  the 
abbreviations  commonly  used  in  rabbinical  writings.  Besides  com- 
municating to  the  English  reader  the  sentiments,  traditions,  and 
sayings  of  the  ancient  rabbins  quoted  by  Maimonides,  this  volume 
wdl  materially  contribute  to  supi)ly  the  biblical  student  with  the 
means,  at  |>re»ent  scarcely  within  his  reach,  of  acquiring  an  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  rabbinical  Hebrew.  For  a  more  minute  analy- 
sis of  this  truly  valuable  work,  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred  to 
the  British  Critic  lor  April,  1833,  vol.  xiii.  pp.282 — 292.,  and  to  the 
Christian  Remembrancer  for  September,  October,  and  November, 
1832,  vol.  xiv.  pp.  517—525.  581—594.  C55— 664. 

2.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Religious  Knowledge  of  the  Ancient 
Jews  and  Patriarchs  concerning  a  Future  Stale.  [By  Stephen 
Addixotox,  D.D.]     London,  1757,  4to. 

3.  Christologia  Judaiorum  Jcsu  Apostolorumque  ^tate,  in 
Compendium  redacta,  Observationibusque  iliustrata  a  D.  Leon- 
hardo  Bertiiolut.     Erlanga;,  1811,8vo. 

4.  A  Dissertation  upon  the  Traditional  Knowledge  of  a  Pro- 
mised Redeemer,  which  subsisted  before  the  Advent  of  our  Saviour. 
By  Charles  James  Blomfikld,  B.D.  [now  D.D.  and  Bishop  of 
London.]     Cambridge,  1819,  8vo. 

5.  Capita  Thcologia;  Judsorum  Dogmaticre  e  Flavii  Joscphi 
Scriptis  collccta.  Acccssit  n-:!pi(iy^y  super  Josephi  dc  Jcsu  Christo 
tcstimonio.  Auctore  Carolo  Gottlieb  Buetscu.veideh.  Lipsia;, 
1812,  8vo. 

6.  Joannis  Jacobi  CnAMF.ni  Goi  I  Israel,  sive  Thcologia  Israe- 
lis :  qua  Go  lis  OHlciuin  ac  Mystorium,  ad  confirmandam  Jesu 
Christi  Deitatem  et  OHicium,  ex  Hebraicis  potissiniuin  Scriptis 
proponitur,  et  varia  alia  Philologica  ac  Thcologica  perlractantur. 
Franequeraj  et  Lipsia",  2  tomis,  4  to. 

7.  The  Traditions  of  the  Jews,  or  the  Doctrines  and  Exposi- 
tions contained  in  the  Talmud  and  other  Rabbinical  Writings : 
with  a  preliminary  Preface,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  Origin,  Pro- 
gress, Authority,  and  Usefulness  of  these  1'raditions;  vvhcrciii 
the  mystical  Sense  of  the  Allegories  in  the  Talmud,  &c.  is  ex- 
plained. [By  the  Rev.  Peter  SxtHEtix,  F.R.S.]  London,  1742. 
In  two  volumes,  8vo. 

This  is  a  work  of  extreme  rarity  and  curiosity ;  it  bears  a  very 
high  price,  which  necessarily  places  it  beyond  the  reach  of  biblical 
students.  But  most  of  the  information  \vhich  it  contains  will  be 
found  in 

8.  Miscellaneous  Discourses  relating  to  the  Traditions  and 
Usages  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  in  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ's 
time.  By  W.  Wottox,  D.D.  London,  1718.  In  two  volumes, 
8vo. 

This  IS  a  very  curious  work.  Volume  I.  contains  a  discourse 
concerning  the  nature,  authority,  and  usefulness  of  the  Misna  ;  a 
table  of  all  its  titles,  with  summaries  of  their  contents  ;  a  discourse 
on  the  recital  of  the  Shema  (that  is,  of  Deut.  vi.  4 — 9.,  so  called  from 
the  first  word,  i.  e.  hear),  on  the  Phylacteries  and  on  the  Mezuzolh 


or  .Schedules  fixed  on  gates  an<l  door-posLs ;  together  with  a  collec- 
tion of  texts  relative  to  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  taken  out 
of  the  Old  and  iS'ew  Testaments  and  Apocryphal  Books,  with  anno- 
lalions  thereon.  Volume  II.  eontaiiiM  two  irealiNCs  from  tlie  Misna, 
in  llibrew  and  KngliKh  ;  one  on  tlie  Sabballi,  entitled  Sliuhlxtlh  ; 
and  aiiollier,  entitled  AV//t(;i,  coiiceriiing  the  iiiixtures  practised  by 
llie  Jews  in  the  lime  of  Jesus  Clirihl  to  strengthen  the  ol>servation 
of  the  .Subbiith.  Dr.  Wotton  has  given  copious  iioies  to  both  these 
ircaliHcs,  which  illustrate  many  passages  of  Holy  Writ. 

9.  Joannis  Seldexi  de  Diis  Syris  Syntagmata  II.  cum  Addita- 
mcntis  Andreas  Beyeri.     Amstclodami,  1680,  8vo. 

The  best  edition  of  a  learned  treatise,  in  which  the  Syrian  idols 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  are  particularly  discussed.  This  work  is 
inserted  in  the  twenty-third  volume  ol  [Jgolim's  Thesaurus  Anti- 
qiiitatuiii  .Sacrariiin,  which  contains  nearly  thirty  other  treatises  on 
the  idols  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. 

10.  Trium  Scriptorum  illustrium  Syntagma  de  trihus  Judajo- 
rum  Scctis :  in  quo  Nic.  Scrarii,  Joannis  Drusii,  Jos,  Scaligeri, 
Opuscula,  qua;  eo  pertinent,  cum  aliis  junctim  exliibcntur.  Ac- 
ccdit  Jac.  'ruinLAXDii  Diatribcdc  Sccta  Kara:orum.  Delphis, 
1703,  2  tomis,  4to. 

11.  Ej)istola!  Samaritanffi  Sichcmitarum  ad  Jobum  Ludolphtim, 
cum  cjusdem  Latina  Versione  et  Annotationibus.  Acccdit  Ver- 
sio  Latina  pcrsimiliuin  Literarum  a  Sichemitis  ad  Anglos  datarum 
[a  Christophoro  Cellaiuo].     Ciza;,  1688,  4to. 

Both  the  preceding  publications  are  inserted  in  the  twenty-second 
volume  of  Ugolini's  Thesaurus,  in  which  are  printed  several  trea- 
tises on  the  Jewish  sects. 

12.  Mcmoire  sur  I'Etat  ActucI  dcs  Samaritains.  Par  M. 
Silvcstrc  de  Sact.     Paris,  1812,  8vo. 

13.  Jo.  Christ.  FaiEnnicii  Discussionum  de  Christologia  Sa- 
maritanorum  Liber.  Accedit  Appendicula  de  Coluinba,  DeJL 
Samaritanarum.     Lipsiae,  1821,  8vo. 

14.  Guilielmi  Gesexii  Commentatio  de  Samaritanorum  The- 
ologia,  ex  fontibus  incditis.     Halae,  1823,  4to. 


§5. 


domestic   AITTIQ.UITIES,  LITERAT0UE,  AXP    SCIEXCS8 
OF  TUE  JEWS. 


1.  Johannis  Bhauxii  de  Vestitu  Sacerdotum  Hebrsonim, 
Libri  II.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1680,  4to. 

2.  Commentarius  Philologico-Criticus  de  Vestitu  Mulierum 
Hchra;arum  ad  Jesai.  III.  vs.  16 — 24.  Quo  vocabulorum  abstru- 
sissimorum  tenebras  ad  faccm  dialcctorum  discutere  conatus  est 
Nicol.  Guil.  ScfiiioEnF.RUs.  Prtemissa  est  prsefatio  Alberti  Schcl- 
TExs.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1735,  4to. 

3.  Antonii  Byx;ei  de  Calceis  Hebra;orum  Libri  II.  Dordraci, 
1682,  12mo. ;   1695,  4to. 

4.  Joannis  NicoLAi  Disquisitio  de  Substratione  et  Pignoratione 
Vestium.     Giessa;,  1701,  12mo. 

5.  Joannis  Nicolai  Libri  IV.  de  Sepulchris  Hebrsorum.  Lug- 
duni Batavorum,  1706,  4to. 

G.  J.  G.  PuuMAXS  .\rcha;ologi{E  Georgic«  Specimen:  de  Re 
Rustica  H.  bra'orum.     Francofurti  ad  Misnum,  1786-87,  4to. 

7.  Jo.  Francisci  BrnnEi  Introductio  ad  Historiam  PhilosophisE 
EbrsEorum.  Accedit  Dissertalio  de  Haercsi  Valcntlniana.  Hala; 
Sax.  1702,  8vo. 

8.  Do  Excellentia  Musicae  Antiquo;  Hcbrreonim,  ct  eonun 
Musicis  Instrumentis,  Tractatus.  [Auctore  F.  P.  de  Bhetacxe.] 
Mimachii,  1718,  8vo, 

9.  Guilielmi  Anr.R  Enarrationcs  de  .Egrotis  et  Morbis  in 
Evangclio.  Tolosse,  1620,  8vo.  Also  in  the  6th  volume  of  the 
Critici  Sacri. 

10.  An  Historical  Essay  on  the  State  of  Physic  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  and  the  Apocryphal  Interval.  With  a  particular 
Account  of  the  Cases  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and  Observations 
upon  them.     By  Jonathan  Harle.     London,  1739,  8vo. 

1 1.  Ricardi  Mf.ad  Medica  Sacra  ;  sive  de  Morbis  insignioribus, 
qui  in  Bibliis  memorantur,  Commentarius.     Londini,  1749,  8vo. 

12.  Medica  Sacra:  or,  a  Commentary  on  the  most  remarkable 
Diseases  mentioned  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  By  Richard  Mead. 
Translated  from  the  Latin  by  Thomas  Stack,  M.D.     London, 

n?>f),  8vo. 

13.  A.J.  Waxhuch  Disquisitio  Medica  Cholerse,  cujus  mentio 
in  Sacris  Bibliis  occurrit.  (Num.  cap.  XI.)  Vindobonae,  183.3, 
4to. 


162 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  VIL 


§  6.  MISCELLANEOUS  ILLUSTllATIONS  OF  BIBLICAL  ANTiaUI- 
TIES,  FROM  VOYAGES  AND  TUAVKLS  IN  THE  EAST,  AND  FROM 
OTHEH    SOURCES, 

1.  Observations  on  Divers  Passages  of  Scripture,  placing  many 
of  them  in  a  light  altogether  new, by  means  of  circum- 
stances mentioned  in  books  of  voyages  and  travels  into  the  East. 
By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Haumeh.  London,  1816,  4  vols.  8vo.  best 
edition. 

As  books  of  voyages  and  travels  are  for  the  most  part  voluminous, 
the  late  reverend  and  learned  Thomas  Harmer  formed  the  design, 
•whicii  he  happily  executed,  of  perusing  the  works  of  Oriental  tra- 
vellers, with  the  view  of  extracting  trom  them  whatever  miglit 
illustrate  the  riles  and  customs  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  His 
researches  form  four  volumes  in  8vo.,  and  were  published  at  differ- 
ent times,  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century.  The  best  edition 
is  that  above  noticed,  and  is  edited  by  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  who  has 
newly  arranged  the  whole,  and  made  many  important  additions  and 
corrections.  In  this  work  numerous  passages  of  Scripture  are  placed 
in  a  light  altogether  new;  the  meanings  of  others,  which  are  not 
discoverable  by  the  methods  commonly  used  by  interpreters,  are 
satisfactorily  ascertained  ;  and  many  probable  conjectures  are  offer- 
ed to  the  biblical  student.  The  mode  of  illustrating  Scripture  from 
Oriental  voyages  and  travels,  first  applied  by  Mr.  Harmer,  has  been 
successfully  followed  by  the  laborious  editor  of  the  "  Fragments" 
annexed  to'  the  quarto  edition  of  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
and  also  by  Mr.  Vansitlart  in  his  "  Observations  on  Select  Places 
of  the  Old  Testament,  founded  on  a  Perusal  of  Parson's  Travels 
from  Aleppo  to  Bagdad."     Oxford  and  London,  1812,  8vo. 

2.  Oriental  Customs ;  or  an  Illustration  of  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, by  an  Explanatory  Application  of  the  Customs  and  Man- 
ners of  the  Eastern  Nations.  By  the  Rev.  S.  Bukdek,  A.M. 
6th  edition,  1822,  2  vols.  8vo, 

This  is  a  useful  abridgment  of  Harmer's  Observations,  with 
many  valuable  additions  from  recent  voyagers  and  travellers,  ar- 
ranged in  the  order  of  the  Books,  Chapters,  and  Verses  of  the  Bible. 
It  was  translated  into  German,  by  Dr.  E.  F.  C.  Rosenmiiller  (4  vols. 
8vo,  Leipzig,  1819),  with  material  corrections  and  much  new  matter. 
Such  of  these  as  were  additions  to  the  articles  contained  in  the 
"  Oriental  Customs,"  have  been  translated,  and  inserted,  in  the  sixth 
edition  above  noticed.  But  those  articles  which  are  entirely  new, 
being  founded  on  texts  not  before  brought  under  Mr.  Burder's  con- 
sideration, are  translated  and  inserted  in 

3.  Oriental  Literature,  applied  to  the  illustration  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures;  especially  with  reference  to  Antiquities,  Traditions, 
and  Manners,  collected  from  the  most  celebrated  writers  and 
travellers,  both  ancient  and  modern,  designed  as  a  Sequel  to 
Oriental  Customs.  By  the  Rev.  Samuel  Bukder,  A.M.  Lon- 
don, 1822,  2  vols.  8vo. 

4.  Oriental  Customs :  applied  to  the  Illustration  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures.     By  Samuel  Bcrder,  M.A.     London,  1831,  12mo. 

This  volume  is  designed  for  general  readers  and  for  young  per- 
sons, as  well  as  those  of  studious  habits.  It  consists,  partly  of  such 
selections  from  the  two  preceding  works  as  are  adapted  for  general 
perusal,  and  partly  of  original  illustrations  of  the  sacred  Scriptures, 
derived  from  recent  publications.  These  illustrations  are  methodi- 
cally arranged  under  heads,  but  they  follow  the  order  of  the  books 
and  chapters  under  each  head. 

5.  The  Eastern  Mirror ;  an  Illustration  of  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, in  which  the  Customs  of  Oriental  Nations  are  clearly 
developed  by  the  writings  of  the  most  celebrated  travellers.  By 
the  Rev.  W.  Fowler.     8vo.  Exeter,  1814. 

An  abridgment  of  Harmer's  Observations,  and  the  earlier  editions 
of  Burder's  Oriental  Customs,  with  a  few  unimportant  additions. 

6.  Oriental  Observations,  and  occasional  Criticisms,  more  or 
less  illustrating  several  hundred  Passages  of  Scripture.  By  John 
Callaway.     London,  1827,  12mo. 

The  author  of  this  volume  resided  about  ten  years  as  a  missionary 
at  Ceylon.  As  the  usages  of  the  Ceylonese  frequently  bear  a  re- 
semblance to  those  of  the  Jews,  he  has  applied  them  to  the  expla- 
nation of  the  Sacred  Writings.  He  has  also  introduced  many  hints 
from  the  fourth  edition  of  Calmet,  and  from  the  illustrations  of 
Scripture  contained  in  Mr.  Ward's  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos. 
"  The  Notes  are  for  the  most  part  brief;  and,  when  suggested  by 
the  author's  personal  observation,  interesting  and  to  the  purpose." 
(Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxix.  p.  265.) 

7.  Oriental  Fragments.  By  Maria  Hack.  London,  1828, 
12mo. 

8.  Illustrations  of  the  Holy  Scripture,  in  three  Parts.  By 
the  Rev.  George  Paxton.  Edinburgh,  1819,  2  vols,  8vo. ;  re- 
printed at  Philadelphia,  1821,  2  vols.  8vo.  Edinburgh,  1825, 
second  edition,  3  vols.  8vo, 

The  copious  volumes  of  Professor  Paxton  differ  in  their  plan  from 
those  of  Harmer  and  Burder,  and  exhibit  a  more  ample  range  of 
subjects.  Not  confining  his  details  and  remarks  to  the  several 
classes  of  objects  to  which  their  researches  were  directed,  he  has 


aimed  to  make  his  work  a  general  depository  of  knowledge,  illus- 
trative of  ihe  text  of  the  Bible  in  the  several  particulars  of  Geogra- 
phy, Natural  History,  Customs,  and  Manners ...."  These  copious 
volumes  comprise  a  very  ample  collection  of  materials  for  the 
illustration  of  the  Scriptures,  and  are  well  adapted  for  the  use  of 
those  who  are  engaged  in  the  work  of  public  religious  instruction  ; 
for  whose  benefit  tliey  are  chiefly  intended  by  the  author,  having 
been  originally  prepared  for  the  students  luider  his  care.  It  is, 
indeed,  a  work  which  must  interest  and  gratify  every  reader  who 
makes  the  intelligent  perusal  of  the  Scriptures  an  object  of  his 
attention."     (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xvi.  pp.  515.  521.) 

9,  The  Truth  of  Revelation  demonstrated  by  an  Appeal  to 
existing  Monuments,  Sculptures,  Gems,  Coins,  and  Medals,  By 
a  Fellow  of  several  Learned  Societies,     London,  1832,  8vo. 

"  This  interesting  book  is  clearly  the  production  of  a  mind  pious 
and  cultivated,  enriched  by  science,  and  enlarged  by  various  in- 
formation. Adapted  especially  to  guard  the  young  against  the  too 
welcome  theories  of  skepticism,  it  will  also  afford  to  the  general 
reader  both  gratification  and  improvement.  It  chiefly  consists  of 
striking  facts  deduced  from  the  labours  of  modern  inquiry,  of  allu 
sions  gleaned  from  literature,  of  memorials  of  past  events,  scattered 
over  the  relics  of  by-gone  times,  in  sculptures,  gems,  and  medals ; 
and  its  object  is  to  apply  these  various  materials  to  the  illustration 
and  establishment  of  the  sacred  records; — as  well  as  to  impress  the 
conviction  that  the  foundations  of  a  scriptural  hope  are  not  to  be 
shaken  by  advancing  knowledge,  nor  ultimately  injured  by  the 
rash  assaults  of  a  class  of  men  who,  aspiring  to  be  deemed  the 
votaries  of  philosophy,  give  too  much  reason  for  the  suspicion  that 
the  stimulus  by  which  their  industry  is  excited  is  the  vain  expecta- 
tion of  some  discovery  adverse  to  the  Christian  religion,  rather  than 

zeal  for  the  promotion  of  science." "It  is  full  of  interesting 

facts  and  observations  ;  and  one  which  we  can  cordially  recom- 
mend, as  adapted  not  less  to  please  than  to  convince."  (Eclectic 
Review,  third  series,  vol.  viii.  pp.  14.  32.) 

10,  Scripture  Costume  exhibited  in  ^  Series  of  Engravings, 
representing  the  principal  Personages  mentioned  in  the  Sacred 
Writings.  Drawn  under  the  Superintendence  of  the  late  Ben- 
jamin West,  Esq.  P.R.A.,  by  R,  Satchwell,  with  Biographical 
Sketches,  and  Historical  Remarks  on  the  Manners  and  Customs 
of  Eastern  Nations.     London,  1819,  elephant  4to. 

11.  Jewish,  Oriental,  and  Classical  Antiquities ;  containing 
Illustrations  of  the  Scriptures,  and  Classical  Records,  from  Orien- 
tal Sources.  By  the  Rev,  Daniel  Guilford  Wait,  LL.B,  [now 
LL.D.]     Cambridge,  1823,  8vo, 

The  object  of  this  work  is  to  illustrate  Biblical  and  Classical 
Antiquities  from  Oriental  writings.  This  volume  is  exclusively 
devoted  to  a  demonstration  of  the  coincidence  which  subsists  be- 
tween these  different  departments  of  study  :  and  that  coincidence 
the  author  has  satisfactorily  shown  by  various  examples. 

12.  Lettre  a  M.  Ch,  Coquerel  sur  le  Systeme  Hieroglyphique 
de  M,  Champollion,  considere  dans  ses  Rapports  avec  I'Ecriture 
Sainte,     Par  A.  L,  C,  CoauEREL,     Amsterdam,  1825,  8vo. 

13.  Essai  sur  le  Systeme  Hieroglyphique  de  M.  Champollion 
le  Jeune,  et  sur  les  Avantages,  qu'il  ofTre  a  la  Critique  Sacree. 
Par  J.  G,  H,  Giieppo,  vicaire-general  de  Bellay.  Paris,  1829, 
8vo, 

Many  of  the  recent  discoveries  in  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics  (the 
clue  to  which  was  first  struck  out  by  our  late  learned  archa;ologist, 
Dr.  Young)  arc  here  happily  applied  to  the  elucidation  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  In  our  first  volume,  pp.  88,  89.  we  have  given  a 
few  instances  which  corroborate  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. M.  Greppo  acknowledges  his  obligations  to  the  previous 
publication  of  M.  Coquerel ;  which  has,  in  fact,  furnished  him  with 
some  of  his  best  illustrations.  In  the  first  part  of  his  volume  Mr. 
G.  gives  an  outline  of  Champollion's  hieroglyphic  system  ;  and  in 
the  second  part  he  applies  it  to  the  elucidation  of^  various  passages 
of  the  Old  "Testament,  historical,  chronological,  and  geographical. 
An  English  translation  of  M.  Greppo's  Essay,  by  Mr.  Isaac  Stuart, 
was  published  at  Boston  [Massachusetts],  in  1830,  in  8vo.  Some 
valuable  notes  are  added  by  his  father,  the  Rev.  Professor  Stuart 
of  Andover. 

14,  Illustrations  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  collected  from  the 
Customs,  Manners,  Rites,  Superstitions,  Traditions,  Parabolical 
and  Proverbial  Forms  of  Speech,  Climate,  Works  of  Art,  and 
Literature  of  the  Hindoos,  during  a  Residence  in  the  East  of 
nearly  fourteen  years.  By  the  Rev.  Joseph  Roberts,  Corres- 
ponding Member  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.     London,  1834,  8vo. 

This  work  was  announced  for  publication  while  the  present 
sheet  was  passing  through  the  press.  From  the  specimens  com- 
municated to  the  writer  of  these  pages,  he  feels  justified  in  recom- 
mending Mr.  Roberts's  "  Illustrations,"  as  supplying  an  important 
desideratum  in  biblical  literature.  They  are  arranged  in  the  order 
of  the  books,  chapters,  and  verses  of  the  Bible,  and  furnish  to  yery 
many  difficult  or  obscure  passages  satisfactory  explanations,  which 
are  not  more  original  than  they  are  entertaining  and  instructive. 
The  work  is  brought  out  under  the  high  auspices  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 


Sect.  III.  §  8.] 


TREATISES  ON  SACRED  CHRONOLOGY. 


163 


SECTION  III. 


TREATISES    ON    THE    GENEALOGIES    MENTIONED  IN  THE    8CRIP- 
TUKES. 

1.  The  Genealogies  recorded  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  accord- 
ing to  every  Family  and  Tribe.  With  the  line  of  our  Saviour 
Christ  observed,  from  Adam  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  By 
J[ohn]  S[i'KKi)].     London,  1G15,  4to. 

These  Goncalogioal  Tables  were  first  published  anonymously  in 
1611,  when  ibey  vvi-ro  predxed  to  llie  lirsl  edition  of  our  authorized 
version  of  the  luiglisb  JJible.  Tiiey  are  here  ascribed  lo  the  indus- 
trious aiiii(|uary  John  Speed,  on  the  authority  of  the  Biographia 
Brilaniiira  (Art.  Speed). 

2.  Scripture  Genealogy  from  Adam  to  Christ;  exhibiting,  in 
a  Series  of  thirty-six  engraved  Tables,  a  distinct  View  of  the 
Nation,  Tribe,  Family,  Lineal  Descent  and  Posterity  of  every 
person  niontioncd  in  the  Bible,  so  far  as  they  can  be  traced  from 
Sacred  or  Profane  History.     London,  1817,  royal  4to. 

The  Tables  contained  in  this  elegantly  executed  volume  ore  an 
improvement  upon  those  of  Speed.  To  the  name  of  each  person 
nicuiioned  in  every  table  chronological  doles  are  athxcd,  on  the 
very  respectable  authorities  of  Usher  and  Blair;  and  likewise  re- 
ferences to  passages  of  Scripture  where  the  respective  names  are 
to  be  found.  Altogether,  this  is  a  very  useful  and  agreeable  com- 
panion to  the  biblical  student 

3.  Genealogia  Sacra  :  or  Scripture  Tables,  compiled  from  the 
Holy  Bible.     By  W^illiam  Behut.     London,  1819,  4to. 

These  Tables  are  neatly  stereotyped,  and  are  chiefly  confined  to 
the  patriarchs  and  descendants  of  our  first  parents,  with  relerences 
to  the  chapters  and  verses  of  the  several  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  where  the  names  are  mentioned.  The  chronological 
dates  are  taken  from  Blair,  Usher,  and  others.  An  alphabetical 
index  is  subjoined,  which  facilitates  reference  to  this  unassuming 
publication. 

4.  Jo.  Michaelis  Lajtgii  Disscrtationes  Theologicte  de  Genea- 
logia Christi  ex  palribus  secundum  carnem.  Noribergte,  1703, 
4to. 

.5.  The  Genealogies  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  as 
recorded  by  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke,  critically  examined,  ex- 
plained, defended,  and  reconciled  to  each  other,  and  to  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  Testament.  By  Edward  Yaudley,  B.D.  Lon- 
do.i,  1739,  8vo. 

6.  The  Genealogies  of  Jesus  Chri-st  in  Matthew  and  Luke 
explained,  and  the  Jewish  Objections  removed.  London,  1771, 
8vo. 

7.  A  newly-invented  Table  for  exhibiting  to  the  View,  and 
impressing  clearly  on  the  Memory,  the  Genealogy  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  as  given  by  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke : 
also  the  Difference  of  their  Accounts  explained :  with  Notes  on 
the  most  illustrious  persons  from  whom  our  Lord  descended,  and 
the  Objections  to  Matt.  i.  11,  12.  answered,  from  all  the  best 
Commentators.  By  Robert  Berkley  Greene.  London,  1822, 
8vo. 

This  Table  is  ingeniously  constructed  ;  the  notes  exhibit,  in  a 
small  compass,  the  result  of  much  laborious  research. 

8.  The  Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ,  recorded  by  Saint  Matthew 
and  Saint  Luke,  harmonized,  and  the  apparent  contradictions  re- 
conciled. By  Gervas  Watson.  Retford  and  London,  1833, 12rao. 


SECTION  IV. 

TREATISES  ON  SACRED  CHRONOLOGY. 

1.  LunoTico  Cappelli  Chronologia  Sacra  ab  orbe  condito 
ad  Christum.     4to.  Paris,  16.55. 

This  work  is  reprinted  by  Bishop  Walton,  in  the  prolegomena  to 
his  edition  of  the  Polyglott  Bible. 

2.  Gerhardi  Johannis  Vossn  Chronologiffi  Sacrs  Isagoge. 
Hag.  Com.  16.59,  4to. 

3.  Annales  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti,  ^  prima  mundi  engine 
deducta  ad  extremum  Reipublicje  Judaics  excidium,  a  Jacobo 
UssERio,  Archiepiscopo  Armachano.     Genevte,  1722,  folio. 

The  best  edition  of  a  most  valuable  work.  The  chronology  of 
Archbishop  Usher  is  followed  in  the  margins  of  all  our  large  Bibles. 
His  Annales  first  appeared  at  London,  in  1650-54,  in  two  vols,  folio  ; 
and  an  English  translation  of  them  was  published  in  1658,  in  one 
volume,  folio. 

4.  Joannis  Pearsonii  S.T.P.  Cestriensis  nuper  Episcopi 
Opera  Posthuma  Chronologica,  «&c.  viz.  De  Serie  et  Successione 


Primorum  Romse  Episcoporum  Dissertationes  Dute :  Quibus 
pra;figuntur  Annales  Paulini,  et  Lectiones  in  Acta  Apostolo- 
rum.  Singula  Pra-lo  tradidit,  edcnda  curavit,  et  Dissertationes 
novis  Additionibus  auxit  H.  Dodwcllus,  A.M.  Londini,  1688,  4to. 

5.  A  Translation  of  Bishop  Pearson's  Annals  of  Saint  Paul; 
to  which  are  addj-d  Geographical  and  Critical  Notes,  illustrative 
of  the  Life  and  Labours  of  that  Apostle,  taken  from  the  most 
aj)proved  Annotations.  By  J.  M.  Williams.  Cambridge,  1826, 
12  mo. 

Bp.  Pearson's  Annales  Paulini  have  long  been  held  in  high  esti- 
mation on  account  of  the  varied  and  profound  learning  of  their 
Author.  The  Knglish  translation  is  enriched  with  a  great  number 
of  aniiotations  selected  from  the  best  sources :  and  among  them  the 
translator  has  largely  Ixjrrowcd  from  the  present  work. 

6.  The  Scripture  Chronology  demonstrated  by  Astronomical 
Calculations.     By  Arthur  Btuionii.     London,  1730,  folio. 

7.  Chronologic  de  I'Histoire  Sainte.  Par  Alphonse  de  Vio- 
N0LLE8.     Berlin,  1738,  2  vols.  4to. 

8.  Chronological  Antiquities  ;  or  the  Antiquities  and  Chrono- 
logy of  the  most  ancient  kingdoms  from  the  creation  of  the  world. 
By  the  Rev.  John  Jackson.     London,  1752,  3  vols.  4to. 

9.  A  New  Analysis  of  Chronology,  in  which  an  attempt  is 
made  to  explain  the  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  primitive 
Nations  of  the  World,  and  the  prophecies  relating  to  them,  on 
jirinciplcs  tending  to  remove  the  imperfection  and  discordance 
of  preceding  systems.  By  the  Rev.  William  Hales,  D.D.  Lon- 
don, 1809 — 1812,  3  vols,  in  four  parts,  4to.  Second  Edition, 
revised  and  corrected,  1 830,  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

The  title  of  this  work  very  inadequately  describes  its  multifarious 
contents.  Not  only  is  it  the  most  elaborate  system  of  chronology 
extant  in  our  language ;  but  there  is  scarcely  a  diflicult  text  in  the 
sacred  writings  which  is  not  illustrated.  Dr.  Hides  follows  the 
chronology  of  Josephus,  whose  genuine  numbers  he  conceives  that 
be  has  restored  ;  and  that,  by  a  comparison  with  the  .Septuagint  and 
the  other  texts,  he  has  ascertained  the  true  series  of  primeval  rimes. 
The  longer  chronology,  established  by  Dr.  H.  with  great  success,  is 
unquestionably  preferable  to  that  founded  on  the  Masoretic  text,  as 
it  removes  many  of  those  difficulties  with  which  the  Scripture  his- 
tory is  encumbered  in  that  text.  His  "  New  Analysis"  ought  to 
have  a  place  in  the  library  of  every  biblical  student  who  can  pro- 
cure it. 

10.  A  Key  to  Scripture  Chronology,  made  by  comparing  Sa- 
cred History  with  Prophecy,  and  rendering  the  Bible  consistent 
with  itself;  illustrated  with  new  Tables  of  Chronology,  and 
various  notes.    By  James  Andrew,  LL.D.    London,  1822,  8vo. 

11.  The  Chronology  of  our  Saviour's  Life;  or  an  Inquiry 
into  the  True  Time  of  the  Birth,  Baptism,  and  Crucifixion  of 
Jesus  Christ.  By  C[hristopher]  Benson,  M.A.  Cambridge, 
1819,  8vo. 

12.  Select  Discourses,  I.  Of  the  Correspondence  of  the  He- 
brew Months  with  the  Julian,  from  the  Latin  of  J.  David  Micha- 
elis, Royal  Professor  of  Goettingen.  II.  Of  the  Sabbatical  Year. 
From  the  same.  III.  Of  the  Years  of  Jubilee,  from  an  Anony- 
mous Writer,  in  M.  Masson's  Histoire  Critique  de  la  Republique 
des  Lettres,  vol.  v.  Art.  II.  p.  Ix.  &c.     London,  1773,  12mo. 

These  discourses  were  translated  by  the  celebrated  printer, 
William  Bowvf.r.  (Nichol's  Lit.  Anccd.  of  the  18th  Century,  vol. 
iii.  p.  146.)  The  first  discourse  contains  an  ingenious  attempt,  by 
Professor  Michaelis,  to  reconcile  the  discrepancies  between  the 
Mosaic  Institutions  and  the  Jewish  Calendar;  the  writer  of  these 
pages  has  not  been  able  to  ascertain  where  it  first  appeared.  This 
discourse  has  been  reprinted  in  the  Calendarium  I'alestina;  (see  the 
next  article).  The  second  discourse,  which  treats  on  the  Sabbatical 
Year  (it  appears  from  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of 
Moses,  vol.  i.  p.  391.),  is  a  translation  of  the  ninth  of  his  Commen- 
taliones  Socictati  Regice  Goellingensi,  per  annos  1758 — 1765,  oblat<s. 
The  substance  of  tnis  discourse  is  inserted  in  his  Commentaries, 
vol.  i- pp.  387 — 416.,  with  some  additional  observations.  The  de- 
sign of^  the  third  discourse,  on  the  years  of  Jubilee,  is  to  show  that 
the  year  of  Jubilee  was  every  forty-ninth  year,  being  included  in 
the  seventh  Sabbatidal  year;  and  that  it  probably  began  in  the 
time  of  Seleucus  Nicator.  Mr.  Bowyer's  little  volume  is  uncom- 
monly scarce  :  a  copy  of  it  is  in  the  very  valuable  library  belonging 
to  the  President  and  Fellows  of  Queen's  College,  in  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  which  has  been  examined  for  the  present  article. 

13.  Calendarium  Palestinae:  exhibiting  a  Tabular  View  of 
the  principal  Events  in  Scripture  History ;  the  Jewish  Festivals 
and  Fasts,  with  the  Service  of  the  Synagogue  ;  the  Outlines  of 
a  Natural  History  of  Syria To  which  are  added  an  Ac- 
count of  the  different  modes  of  computing  time,  adopted  bv  the 
Hebrews,  and  a  Dissertation  on  the  Hebrew  Months,  from  the 
Latin  of  J.  D.  Michaelis.  By  William  Caepentek.  Lon^oa 
1825,  8vo, 


164 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  H,  Chap.  VIL 


This  publication  consists  of  two  parts:  —  1.  Tlie  Calendar  of 
Palestine,  which  presents  in  a  concise  Ibrm,  various  information  re- 
lative to  tlie  Jewish  year;  and  2.  "A  Dissertation  on  ihe  Hebrew 
Months  [from  tlie  Latin  of  J.  D.  MicifAKLis],"  which  is  reprinted 
from  the  preceding  small  volume  of  Mr.  Dowyer.  The  Calendar 
of  Palestine  is  also  nraiiy  primed  on  a  large  sheet,  to  be  hung  up 
in  Ihe  sludy  lor  perpetual  relereiice. 

14.  Historia;  Universa;  Tabula;  Ethnographico-Periodico-Syn- 
chroiiisticffi,  ab  rerum  primordiis  ad  nostram  diem,  post  doctissimo- 
rum  virorum  curas  iisque  ducibus  ad  pra;stantissima  temporis 
putandi  exempla  juxta  aerani  vulgarcm  disposila; ;  adjectis  claris- 
simarum  gentium  genealogiis  copiosoque  rerum  quarumlibct 
indice  :  prajmissa.  etiam  serarum  inter  se  comparata  dclineatione, 
item  totius  historise  adfiniumque  doctrinarum  notitia  literacia,  in 
usum  historiiB  amicorum  adornata)  studio  Francisci  Josephi  Dum- 
BECKii.     Berolini,  1821,  folio. 

These  chronological  tables  claim  a  place  in  the  student's  library, 
not  only  for  their  cheapness,  but  also  for  their  utility.  They  are 
noticed  here  on  account  of  the  clear  exhibition  which  they  con- 
tain of  sacred  chronology  and  the  afliiirs  of  those  nations  with 
whom  the  Jews  had  any  intercourse.  The  modern  events  are 
brought  down  to  the  year  1820. 

15.  Les  Fastes  Universels,  ou  Tabl,eaitx  Historiques,  Chrono- 
logiques,  et  Geographiqucs,  contenant,  siecle  par  siecle,  et  dans 
des  colonnes  distinctes,  depuis  les  tems  les  plus  recules  jusqu'a 
nos  jours  : — 

1.  L'origine,  les  progres,  la  gloire,  et  la  decadence  de  tous  les 

Seuples,  leurs  migrations,  leurs  colonies,  I'ordre  de  la  succession 
es  princes,  &c. 

2.  Le  precis  des  epoques  et  des  evenemens  politiques ; 

3.  L'histoire  generale  des  religions  etde  leurs  differentes  sectes  ; 

4.  Celle  de  la  philosophic  et  de  la  legislation  chez  tous  les  peuples 
anciens  et  modernes ; 

5.  Les  dccouvertes  et  les  progres  dans  les  sciences  et  dans  les 
arts; 

6.  Une  notice  sur  tous  les  hommes  celebres,  rappelant  leurs 
oeuvrages  ou  leurs  actions. 

Par  M.  Buret  de  Longchamps.     Paris,  1821,  atlas  4to. 

This  work  contains  the  most  copious  set  of  Chronological  Tables 
that  is  extant  in  any  language.  That  part  of  it  which  includes 
sacred  chronology  is  displayed  with  great  perspicuity. 


SECTION  V. 

CONNECTIONS    OF    SACRED    AND    PROFANE    HISTORY. — HISTORIES 
OF   THE    BIBLE,    AND    SCRIPTURE    BIOGRAPHY. 

%*  Much  valuable  information  relative  to  the  history  of  the 
Moabites,  Philistines,  Babylonians,  and  other  nations  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures,  is  exhibited  by  Vitringa,  in  his  Commentary  on 
Isaiah ;  by  Bishop  Newton,  in  his  Dissertations  on  the  Prophets ; 
and  by  Relaud,  in  his  Palastina ;  to  whom,  perhaps,  may  be  added 
Rollin,  in  his  Ancient  History  of  the  Greeks,  Assyrians,  &c.  8  vols. 
8vo. 


1.  The  Sacred  and  Profane  History  of  the  World  connected, 
from  the  Creation  of  the  World  to  the  Dissolution  of  the  Assy- 
rian Empire.  By  S.  Shuckford,  M.A.  8vo.  4  vols.  London, 
1743,  best  edition.  This  well-known  and  valuable  work  has 
been  several  times  reprinted. 

2.  The  Old  and  New  Testament  connected,  in  the  History 
of  the  Jews  and  neighbouring  Nations,  from  the  Declension  of 
the  Kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  to  the  time  of  Christ.  By 
Humphrey  Prideaux,  D.D.  8vo.  4  vols.  London,  1749,  10th 
edit,  reprinted  in  4  vols.  8vo,  1808. 

3.  The  Connection  of  Sacred  and  Profane  History,  from  the 
Death  of  Joshua  until  the  Decline  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Israel 
and  Judah.  Intended  to  complete  the  works  of  Shuckford  and 
Prideaux.  By  the  Rev.  M.  Russell,  LL.D.  London,  1827, 
Vols.  I.  and  II.  8vo. 

4.  Histoire  des  Juifs  depuis  Jesus  Christ.  Par  Jaques  Bas- 
NAGE.     A  la  Haye,  1716,  15  tomes,  8vo.  best  edition. 

5.  The  History  of  the  Jews  since  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ, 
translated  from  the  French  of  M.  Basnage.  London,  1708,  folio. 

"  The  learning  and  research  manifested  in  this  work  are  amazing ; 
and  on  the  subject,  nothing  belter,  nothing  more  accurate  and  satis- 
factory, can  well  be  expected."     (Dr.  A.  Clarke.) 

6.  The  History  of  the  Old  Testament  Methodized  :  to  which 
is  annexed  a  short  History  of  the  Jewish  Aflairs,  from  the  end 
of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  birth  of  our  Saviour.  By  Samuel 
Cbadock.    London,  1683  ;  1695,  folio. 


This  w-ork  was  translated  into  Latin,  and  published  at  Leyden, 
in  1685,  in  8vo.  Though  ?iou^  superseded  by  the  improved  edition 
of  .Stucklionse's  History  of  the  Bible,  which  is  noticed  in  the  pre- 
sent page,  it  may  yet  be  consulted  with  advantage  by  the  student 
wlio  may  not  have  access  to  that  work.  Mr.  Cradock's  volume 
may  frequently  be  procured  for  a  few  sliillings. 

7.  A  Comjileat  History  of  the  Holy  Bijjle,  in  which  are  in- 
serted the  Occurrences  that  happened  during  the  space  of  about 
four  hundred  years,  from  the  days  of  the  Prophet  Malachi  to  the 
birth  of  our  Blessed  Saviour.  The  whole  illustrated  with  Notes. 
By  Laurence  Howel,  M.A.  London,  1725,  3  vols.  8vo.  A 
new  edition,  London,  1800,  3  vols.  12mo. 

The  new  impression  of  this  compendious  History  of  the  Bible 
was  corrected  and  edited  by  tiie  Rev.  George  Border,  M.A.,  by 
whom  it  has  been  so  materially  corrected  and  improved  as  almost 
to  ibrm  a  new  work. 

8.  A  New  History  of  the  Holy  Bible,  from  the  Beginning  of 
the  World  to  the  Establishment  of  Christianity,  with  answers 
to  most  of  the  controverted  questions,  dissertations  upon  the 
most  remarkable  passages,  and  a  Connection  of  Profane  History 
all  along.  By  Thomas  Stackhol'se,  A.M.  London,  1752, 
2  vols,  folio. 

This  work  has  always  been  highly  esteemed  for  its  utility  and 
the  variety  of  valuable  illustration  which  tlie  author  has  brought 
together  Irom  every  accessible  source.  A  new  edition  of  it  was 
published  in  1817,  in  tliroe  volumes,  4!o.,  with  imiwrtant  cor- 
rections and  additions,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Gleig,  one  of  the  bishops 
of  the  Scottish  episcopal  church. 

9.  The  History  of  the  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  from  the 
earliest  times  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  A.D.  72;  trans- 
lated from  the  German  of  John  Jahn,  D.D.  With  a  continua- 
tion to  the  time  of  Adrian.    London,  1829,  2  vols.  8vo.  1/.  4.?. 

Though  not  so  staled  in  the  title-page,  this  is  a  reprint  of  ihe 
original  work  of  the  learned  Professor  Jahn,  translated  by  M. 
Calvin  E.  Stowe,  of  Andover  [Massachusetts],  and  published  at 
New  York  in  1829,  in  one  large  volume,  containing  692  pages.  In 
a  note,  however,  at  the  end  of  Professor  Stuart's  Preface,  it  is 
staled  that  the  whole  has  been  thoroughly  revised  ;  and  such  alter- 
ations made  as  seemed  requisite  to  render  the  author's  meaning 
clear  and  intelligible.  This  work  of  the  late  learned  Piofessor 
Jahn  contains  the  most  succinct  and  critically  arranged  history  of 
the  Jews  which  is  extant:  it  exhibits  throughout  manifest  im|,'res- 
sions  of  the  same  care,  diligence,  deep  research,  and  sound  judg- 
ment, which  characterizes  his  other  treatises.  The  continuation  is 
neatly  translated  fiom  Basnage's  History  of  the  Jews,  in  French, 
and  hlls  up  a  chasm  in  the  history  of  that  people,  whicii  it  is  de- 
sirable to  have  supplied.  Professor  Stuart,  of  Andover,  recom- 
mends every  theological  student  to  make  himself  familiar  with 
this  work  throughout.  "  It  is  impossible  that  he  shoidd  not  reap 
the  benefit  of  such  an  acquisition."     (Vol.  i.  Pref  p.  ix.) 

10.  Christ.  NoLDii  Historia  Idumrna,  seu  de  Vita  et  Gestis 
Herodum  Diatribe.     Franequerffi,  1660,  12mo. 

This  volume  contains  notices  of  eighty-three  persons  of  the 
Family  of  the  Herods;  and  the  learned  author  has  introduced 
many  valuable  notes  illustrating  the  works  of  the  Jewish  historian, 
and  occasionally  vindicating  him  from  the  censures  of  Baronius, 
Serrarius,  and  other  critics.  This  book  is  not  of  very  common 
occurrence. 

11.  Commentaries  on  the  Affairs  of  Christians  before  the 
time  of  Constantino  the  Great:  or  an  enlarged  View  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  first  three  centuries.  Translated 
from  the  Latin  of  Dr.  Mosheim,  by  R.  S.  Vidal,  Esq.  London, 
1813,  2  vols.  8vo. 

12.  Jo.  Franci.sci  Buddei  Historia  Ecclesiastica  Veteris  Tes- 
tamenti.     Editio  tertia,     Halae,  1726-29,  2  vols.  4to. 

13.  Jo.  Georgii  Walchii  Historia  Ecclesiastica  Novi  Testa- 
menti  variis  observationibus  illustrata.     Jense,  1734,  4to. 

14.  Ecclesiastical  Annals  from  the  Commencement  of  the 
Scripture  History  to  the  Sixteenth  Century  :  being  a  compressed 
Translation  (with  notes)  of  the  Iiitrodvctio  ad  Historiam  et 
Antiqriitates  Sacras  of  Professor  Spanheim,  of  Leyden  ;  and 
containing  a  succinct  notice  of  the  principal  events,  and  the 
state  of  the  Church  in  each  century.  To  which  arc  prefixedj 
the  Elements  of  Chronology,  Chronological  Tables,  and  thel 
Geography  of  Palestine.  By  the  Rev.  George  Weight.  Lon-j 
don,  1828,  8vo. 

Numerous  ecclesiastical  histories  of  the  Old  and  New  Tesfc 
ment  were  published  on  the  Continent  in  the  course  of  the  seven-J 
teenth  and  eighteenth  centuries ;  an  account  of  which  may  bd 
seen  in  Walchii  Bibliotheca  Theologica  Seiecta,  vol.  iii.  pp.  145 — ^1 
180.  Among  these.  Professor  Spanheim's  "  Introductio  ad  Histo- 
riam Sacram"  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  The  most  complete  edi- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  the  collection  of  his  works.  As  these,  from 
their  size  and  price,  are  not  accessible  to  ordinary  students,  Mr. 
Wright  has  conferred  a  favour  on  them  by  presenting  to  them  the 
substance  of  Spanheim's  learned  treatise  in  an  English  dress. 


Sbct.  v.] 


CONNECTIONS  OF  SACKED  AND  PROFANE  HISTORY,  &c. 


165 


15.  Scripture  Characters:  or,  a  Practical  Improvement  of  the 
Princij)al  Histories  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  By  'I'homas 
RoHiNsox,  M.A.  London,  4  vols.  iSvo.  and  12nio.  various  edi- 
tions. 

An  obridgmnnl  of  tliis  well-known  and  deservedly-esteemed 
work  was  piihlisliod  in  1817,  in  I'imo. 

16.  Female  Scrii)ture  Characters,  exemplifying  Female  Vir- 
tues.    By  Mrs.  KiN(i.     Tenth  edition.     London,  I82fi,  12mo. 

The  pious  and  nr-romplislied  authoress  of  this  excellent  work, 
which  was  first  iiuhliNlicil  in  IHll,  (ouiposed  it  expressly  (()r  the 
use  of  fcinalcs,  in  order  lo  supply  the  iiliseiicc  of  Felnalo  .Scripture 
Characters  in  Mr.  KohiusDn'H  volumes,  in  which  two  women  oidy 
are  introduced.  Mrs.  Kitin's  work  is  much  and  deservedly  used  in 
schools  as  well  as  in  private  iiiniilies. 

17.  Female  Scrijiturc  BioRraphy  ;  including  an  Essay  on  what 
Christianity  has  done  for  Women.  By  Francis  Augustus  Cox, 
M.A.     London,  1817,  2  vols.  8vo. 

18.  Scripture  Biography  ;  or.  Lives  and  Characters  of  the 
Principal  Personages  recorded  in  the  Old  and  N(!W  Testaments. 
By  John  Watki.vs,  LL.D.     London,   1809,  12mo. 

19.  Scripture  Portraits:  or.  Biographical  Memoirs  of  the  most 
Distinguished  Characters  recorded  in  the  OKI  Testament  and  in 
the  Evangelists.  By  Robert  Stevknsox.  London,  1817-20, 
4  vols.  12mo. 

20.  Biographic  Sacree,  par  A.  L.C.  CoauEREL.  Amsterdam, 
1825-26,  4  tomes,  8vo, 

These  volinnes,  which  are  neither  scientific  nor  elementary,  are 
designed  for  well-informed  but  not  learned  readers :  each  article, 
in  alphabetical  order,  contains  a  narrative  of  iiicts  drawn  from  the 
Bible,  ail  explanation  of  difliciiltios,  a  sketch  of  the  character,  and 
finally  a  short  summary  of  the  principal  texts  of  Scri))ture,  in  which 
the  person  is  mentioned,  besides  those  which  immediately  relate  to 
his  history.  The  work  is,  upon  the  whole,  executed  with  ability  : 
the  objections  of  infidels  are  fairly  met,  and  satisfactorily  answered, 
and  many  judicious  reflections  are  interspersed. 

21.  A  Critical  History  of  the  Life  of  David,  in  which  the 
principal  events  are  ranged  in  order  of  time:  the  chief  objections 
of  Mr.  Bayle  and  others  against  the  character  of  this  prince,  and 
the  Scripture  account  of  him,  and  the  occurrences  of  his  reign, 
are  examined  and  refuted  ;  and  the  Psalms  which  refer  to  him 
are  explained.  By  the  late  Rev.  Samuel  Chandler,  D.D.  Lon- 
don, 1766,  2  vols.  8vo. 

A  book  above  all  praise ;  it  was  occasioned  by  the  publication, 
in  1763,  of  a  vile  and  blasphemous  tract,  entitled  "The  History  of 
the  Man  after  God's  own  heart."  Dr.  Chandler  has  illustrated 
many  of  the  Psalms  in  an  admirable  manner. 

22.  An  Historical  Account  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  David 
King  of  Israel :  interspersed  with  various  Conjectures,  Digres- 
sions, and  Disquisitions.  In  which,  among  other  things,  Mr. 
Bayle's  criticisms  upon  the  conduct  and  character  of  that  Prince 
are  fully  considered.  [By  Patrick  Delany,  D.D. ]  London,  1741- 
42,  3  vols.  8vo. 

A  respectable  and  useful  work,  but  greatly  inferior  to  Dr.  Chand- 
ler's masterly  "  Critical  History  of  the  Life  of  David :"  it  was 
published  anonymously,  and  has  been  repeatedly  printed ;  and 
may  frequently  be  obtained  at  a  low  price. 

23.  The  Great  Exemplar  of  Sanctity  and  Holy  Life  according 
to  the  Christian  Institution  ;  described  in  the  History  of  the  Life 


and  Death  of  Jesus  Christ.  M'ith  Considerations  and  DiscouVses 
ujion  the  several  parts  of  the  story,  and  Prayers  fitted  to  the 
several  mysteries.  By  Jeremy  T.iyloii,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Down 
and  Connor,  folio  :  also  in  2  vols.  8vo.  various  editions. 

This  work  is  also  to  bo  found  in  the  second  and  third  volumes  or 
the  Collective  Works  of  Bishop  Taylor,  edited  by  the  Kov.  J.  R. 
Pitman,  with  a  memoir  of  the  bishop's  life  and  writings  by  the  late 
Bishop  Ilclicr;  who  has  given  an  able  and  iiit<>restiiig  analysis  of 
llio  '(Jreat  Kxcmplar,'  and  has  iioiiited  out  kiidc  iiii|)orlant  purticu- 
lars,  "  ill  winch  this  fjrciit  and  good  man  has  dc part <mI  from  the  usual 
sense  of  the  church,  and  the  general  analogy  of  Scripture."  (Bishop 
Taylor's  Works,  vol.  i.  |)p.  cxxix. — t-xxxix.)  An  abridgment  of  the 
'  (Jroal  KxempUr'  was  jiublished  by  the  Rev.  W.  Darnell,  London, 
1818,  8vo. 

24.  The  History  of  the  Life  of  Jesus  Christ,  taken  from  the 
New  Testament,  with  Observations  and  Rellections,  proper  to 
illustrate  the  Excellency  of  his  Character  and  the  Divinity  of 
his  Mission  and  Religion.  By  George  Benso.n,  D.D.  London, 
1764,  4to. 

25.  Observations  on  the  History  of  Jesus  Christ,  serving  to 
illustrate  the  Propriety  of  his  Conduct  and  the  Beauty  of  his 
Character.  By  David  Huxteu,  D.D.  Edinburgh,  1770,  2  vols. 
8vo. 

26.  The  Private  Character  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  con- 
sidered as  an  Example  to  all  his  Disciples,  ami  a  Demonstration 
of  his  Mission.     By  Thomas  Williams.     London,  1833,  12mo. 

Both  these  works  contain  many  ingenious  and  instructive  remarks 
on  the  character  and  conduct  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  are  either  not 
at  all  noticed,  or  but  imperfectly  considered  by  preceding  writers 
who  have  discussed  the  evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion. 


%*  In  the  present  as  well  as  in  the  preceding  sections  of  this 
Appendix,  the  Author  has  endeavoured  to  bring  forward  Ihe  prin- 
rip/U  CommciUalors  and  Biblical  Critics,  Ixjth  British  and  foreign. 
RIany  of  them,  indeed,  are  too  costly  to  be  purchased  by  ihe  gene- 
rality of  biblical  students;  but  a  considerable  portion,  if  not  the 
w  hole  of  them,  is  to  be  found  in  our  public  libraries,  and  it  is  de- 
sirable to  know  in  what  works  the  best  information  is  to  be  procured, 
even  though  we  may  not  in  every  instance  be  able  to  purchase  them, 
as  well  as  to  be  on  our  guard  lest  we  should  be  misled  in  buying 
cheap  books  which  are  of  comparatively  little  utility.  Ample  as 
these  lists  are,  they  might  have  easily  been  enlarged,  particularly 
with  reference  to  the  earlier  works  on  Sacred  Philology,  if  the 
limits  of  Ihe  present  volume  would  have  permitted  it.  The  reader, 
however,  who  is  curious  in  seeing  what  has  been  written  on  this 
subject,  may  (besides  the  authorities  already  referred  to  in  p.  113. 
of  this  Appendix)  consult  the  first  volume  of  the  classed  Catalogue 
of  the  Library  of  the  President  and  Fellows  of  Queen's  College, 
Cambridge  (London,  1827,  royal  8vo.),  pp.  22 — 91. ;  and  also  the 
Bibliotheca  Piersoniana,  or  Catalogue  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pierson's 
Library  (sold  by  auction  in  May,  1815).  The  Sale  Catalogues  of 
the  principal  theological  Booksellers  of  London,  which  are  fre- 
quently interspersed  with  useful  bibliographical  notices,  are  par- 
ticularly valuable,  for  the  numerous  commentaries  and  other  works 
on  sacred  criticism  which  they  contain,  both  British  and  foreign, 
especially  the  latter. 

On  the  choice  of  commentators,  it  would  be  presumptuous  in  the 
author  of  this  work  to  offer  an  opinion ;  the  student  will  doubtless 
be  regulated  in  his  selection  by  the  judgment  of  judicious  friends 
or  theological  tutors. 


No.  V. 


INDEX 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    APPENDIX. 


Aari-and  (N.  J.)  Do  cap.  xvii.  Jonnnis,  133. 
Aaron  the  Karaite,  Commentarips  of,  102. 
Aaron  Uen  Klihit  (Rabbi),  Conimcniaries  of,  102. 
Abarhenel  (Rabbi  Isaac),  Commentaries  of,  102,  103. 
Aihot  ((i.),  Kxposilion  of  Jonah,  1-13. 
Abenmiierh  (Solomon),  Commentaries  of,  102,  103. 
Aben  Ezra  (Abraham),  Commentaries  of,  102. 
Abichlii  (J.  G.),  Ars  legendi  et  inter|)rctancli  Script.  98. 
Abresch  IF.  L.),  Animadversiones  ad  Nov.  Test.  147. 
Abi/ssiman  Version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  56. 
Av'aster  (J.),  Lect.  on  Ep.  to  Philippians,  145. 
Ackermann  (F.),  Introd.  ad  Vet.  P'o-d.  71. 
Prophelie  Minores,  120. 

Archirologia  Hiblica,  157. 

Ada  Ajiosloloriim,  llearnii,  12. 

Adam  (T.),  Paraphra.se  on  the  Episllc  to  the  Romans,  136. 

Exposition  of  Matthew,  144. 

Adami  (Cornelii),  Obs.  Theol.  Philol.  147 

Exercit.  Exegelicie,  147. 

Addlnalon  (Steph.),  Knowledge  of  Jews  concerning  a  Futute  State, 
ItJl. 

Life  of  Panl,  135. 

Ader  (G.),  De  Morbis  Uil)licis,  161. 
Adlvr  (J.G.  C),  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  5. 

Nov.  Test.  Versiones  Syriacye,  &c.  82. 

AJfg/ian  Version  of  the  Bible,  49. 

African  Versions,  50. 

yl<r/er  (le  president),  sur  les  Propheties,  122. 

sur  les  Psamnes,  120. 

Prophetes,  avec  Notes,  122. 

Ainsworlh  (H.),  Annot.  on  ISencsis,  <fec.  115. 
Airy  (H.),  Lecinres  on  the  Philippians,  145. 
Alardi  (Nic),  Biblioiheca  Biblico-llarmonica,  58. 
Albanian  Version  of  the  Bible,  47. 
Alber  (Jo.  Ncp.),  Instit.  Ling.  Ilebr.  87. 

Hermeneut.  Sacr.  Vet.  Test.  98. 

Hermeneut  Sacr.  Nov.  Test.  98. 

Interpretatio  Scriplunc,  109. 

Annotatio  in  1  Jo.  v.  7.,  81. 

Alhtrli  (J.),  Observationes  ad  Nov.  Test.  147. 

(ilossarium  Gripcum,  92. 

Periculum  Criliciim,  147. 

Alciiin,  Commentaries  of,  106. 

Alexander  (J.),  Paraphrase  on  1  Cor.  xv.,  137. 

(A.)  On  the  Canon,  09. 

Diet,  of  the  Bible,  155. 

Allen  (John),  Modern  Judaism,  156. 
Allix  (Peter),  Book  of  Psalms.  118. 
Alt  (J.  C.(i.),  Grammalica  INov.  Test.  91. 
Allin<rii  (J.),  Fuiidanionla  Punctatioiiis,  85. 
Allwood  (P.),  on  the  Re\ elation,  142. 

On  Prophecy,  U'l. 

On  the  Numbers  in  Daniel,  125. 

Am-Endc  (J.  G.),  Versio  Epislolte  nd  Philippenses.  j37. 
Aineriiiin  (North),  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  56,  57. 

(South),  Versions,  57,  58. 

Amersfoordt  (J.).  De  Var.  Lect.  Holmesianis,  80. 
Amharir  Version  of  the  Bible,  56. 

Amner  (R.),  Essav  on  Daniel,  124. 

Amihnr  ({i.  M.),  Comment,  in  Heb.  L — III.  139. 

Ami/rfddi  (M.),  Paraphr.  in  Psalmos,  119. 

Anidi/ses  of  the  Bible,  notice  of,  135. 

Anderson  (R  ),  On  Epistle  to  Romans,  145. 

Andrew  (James),  Hebrew  Dictionary  and  Grammar,  89. 


-  Scripture  Chronology.  163. 
Anplo-Genevese  New  Testament,  36.  and  Bible,  36. 
Anglo- Rom  I  gh  Versions  of  the  Bible,  41.    Notice  of  unauthorized 

^  additions  to,  and  omissions  from,  the  text,  41,  42. 
Anglo-Saxon  Versions,  Editions  of,  29. 
Aitfpach  (J.  A),  De  Oratione  Pauli   134 
Vol.  IL— Arp.  4  O 


Ante-IIieronymian  Versions  of  the  Bible,  28. 
Apocalypse  explained,  142. 
Apocnjpluh  Essay  on,  69. 
ApH"''rp  (E.),  On  Prophecy,  201. 

A<piilino  (Alex,  i).  Pent.  Ilebr.  Samar.  Praestanlia,  72. 
Aquinas  (Thomas),  Catena  of,  106. 
Arabic  Versions  (Ancient)  of  the  Bible,  26. 
(Modern),  48. 


Arigler  (A.),  Hcrmeneutica  Biblica,  97. 
Aryda  (A.),  Grammatica  .'Vrabica,  96. 
Armenian  (Ancient),  Version  of  the  Bible,  27. 
(Modern),  of  New  Testament,  51. 


Arnald  (R.),  On  the  Apocrypha,  126. 
Asliton  (J.),  Christian  Ex[)Ositor,  129. 
Asiatic  (Northern),  Versions  of  the  Bible,  51. 
Assembly's  Annotations,  110. 
Avgusti  (J.  C.  G.),  Libri,  V.  T.  Apocryphi,  63. 
Augustine,  Commentaries  of,  104. 
Aurivillii  (C),  Dissertationcs  Philologicse,  147. 
Austen  (H.  T.),  Lect.  on  Genesis,  143. 


Badeh  (Rev.  H.  H.),  Edition  of  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  24. 

lltisot  (Bp.  L.),  on  Prophecy,  101. 

Hdhrdt  (C.  F.),  Comm.  in  Malachiam,  126. 

liiiiiri  (J.  W.),  Dissertatio  De  Var.  Lect.  Nov.  Test.  78. 

Jiaihi/  (R.),  Exposition  of  the  Parables,  146. 

liaki'r  (Tho.),  Sermons  on  St.  Matthew,  144. 

Baptist  Missionaries,  Biblical  Versions  by,  48.  et  scq.     Specimens 

thereof,  52 — 55. 
BarAcirffrts  (Greg.),  Scholia  in  Psalmos,  118. 
Darkey  (N.),  Bibliotheca  Ilagana,  146. 
Museum  Ilaganum,  146. 


Rarr  (John),  Scripture  Student's  Assistant,  156. 
liarrctt  (Johannis),  Codex  Rescriptus  Matthsei,  16. 
Harrington  (Viscount),  Miscellanea  Sacra,  147.    . 
Dartholini  (Tho.),  de  Cruce  Christi,  160. 
Bashmouric  Version,  26. 
Basnage  (J.),  Hist,  des  Juifs,  164. 
Basque  Version,  46. 

Bass  (J.  H.),  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  92. 
Basset  (P),  Explication  de  TAjwcalypse,  142. 
(\V.),  Sermons  on  Genesis,  143. 


Bate  (Julius),  Transl.  of  Pentateuch,  115. 
Bauer  (G.  L.),  Ilermcneulica  Sacra,  98. 

Scholia  in  Vetus  Testamentum,  106. 

Bauermeister  (J.  P.),  in  Sapientiam,  Salomonis,  126. 
Baxlcr  (R ),  Paraphrase  on  the  New  Testament,  128. 
llin/Ui/  (Com.),  Ilebr.  Grammar,  86. 
Ba'i/hi  (Anselm),  Hebrew  Grammar,  89. 
Bai/ncs  (H.  J),  Church  at  Philippi,  137. 

Beausobre  and  L Enfant  (MM),  Introduction  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 71. 

Le  Nouveau  Testament,  avec  des  Remarques,  127. 


Becker  (A.  G.),  Conjectanea  in  2  Cor.  xii.,  137 
Bcckhaus  (J.),  Observationes  Critico-Exegeticm,  138. 
Beckii  (C.  D.),  Monogrammata  Hermeneut.  Nov.  Foed.  98. 
Beda^  Expositio  Vet.  Test.  106. 
Bedell  (Bp.  W.),  Irish  Bible,  42. 
Bedford  (A.),  Scripture  Chronology,  163. 

Temple  Music,  161. 

Belgian  Versions  of  the  Bible,  45. 

BtUamii  (J.),  Translation  of  the  Bible,  114. 

Bellcrmann  (J.  J.),  Palarographia  Ilebraica,  77. 

Belsham  (Tho.),  Epistles  of  Paul  translated,  134. 

Bengalee  Version,  49. 

Bengelii  (J),  Gnomon  Nov.  Test.  127. 

^^ Apparatus  Criticus,  79. 

Introd.  to  Apocalypse,  140 


167 


168 

Benjoin  (G.),  Translation  of  Jonah,  126. 
Benner  (J.  H.).  Hermeneutica  Sacra,  98. 

Otia  Sacra,  147. 

Bennet  (Tho.),  Graramatica  Hebrasa,  87. 
Bennett  (J.),  Hist,  of  Jesus  Christ,  143. 
Benson  (G.),  History  of  Christ,  165. 

History  of  ine  First  Planting  of  Christianity,  62. 

Diss,  on  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Paraphrase,  &c.  on  the  Ep.'stles,  134. 

Benson  (C),  Chronology  of  our  Saviour's  Life,  163. 
Benson  (Jos.),  Comment,  on  Bible,  154. 

Berber  Version,  56. 

Berens  (E.),  on  Penitential  Psalms,  143. 

Bergman  (J.  T.),  Commentatio  in  Psalmum  CX.,  120- 

Berlin  (N.  M.),  Psalmi  Latine  Versi,  119. 

Bernard  (H.),  Main  Principles  of  the  Jews,  161. 

Bernhardi  (C.  C.  S.),  de  Regnis  Judffife  et  Israelis,  158. 

Bernstein  (G.  H.),  de  Versione  Syriaca,  N.  T.,  82. 

Berriman  (John),  Diss,  on  1  Tim.  iii.  16.,  79. 

Berry  (William),  Genealogia  Sacra,  163. 

Berlheau  (C),  De  II.  Libro  Maccabseorum,  69. 

Bertholdt  (L.),  Christologia  Judaeorum,  161. 

Bevan  (J.  G.),  Life  of  Paul,  62. 

Bevans  (John),  Vindication  of  Matthew  and  Luke,  76. 

Bez(B  (Theod.),  Nov.  Test.  Latine,  32. 

Annotationes  ad  Novum  Testamentum,  127. 

Bible,  scarcity  of,  in  the  dark  ages,  29. ;  and  attompts  to  communi- 
cate some  idea  of  its  contents  to  the  poor  and  illiterate,  29,  30. 

Bible,  Lat.  et  Fr.,  109. 

(English),  Bibliographical  Notice  of  the  authorized  Versions 

of,  36—39. 

Editions  of,  with  Parallel  References,  39 — 41. 

Brief  History  of  Romish  Versions  of,  41. 

Index  to,  156. 

Bibles  in  the  Languages  spoken  in  the  British  Isles,  32.  43. 

in  the  Languages  spoken  on  the  Continent,  43 — 48. 

in  the  Languages  of  Asia,  48 — 55. 

in  the  Languages  of  Africa,  56. 

in  the  Languages  of  America,  56 — 58. 

BiBLIA, 

Psalterium  Hebraicum,  1477.,  6. 
Biblia  Hebraica  cum  Punctis,  1488.,  6. 
Biblia  Hebraica,  1494.,  6. 
Biblia  Edit.  Bombergiana,  7. 
Biblia,  1547—1549.,  7. 
Biblia  Buxtorfii,  7. 
Biblia  Heb.  mtigna  Rabbinica,  7. 
Biblia  Polyglotta, 

Compluti,  19,  20. 

Antverpiffi,  20. 

. LutetiaB  Parisiorum,  20. 

Londoni  (Bishop  Walton),  20,  21. 

Reineccii,  21. 

. Londini  (Bagster),  21. 

Biblia  Triglotta,  21. 
Biblia  Diglotta, 

Pagnini  et  Montani,  22. 

De  Biel,  22. 

Bayley,  22. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Biblia  Hebraica, 


Biblia  Gr^ca, 


Munsteri,  7. 

■  Athise,  7. 

•  Jablonski,  7. 

•  Van  der  Hooght,  7. 

•  Michaelis,  7. 

■  Houbigant,  7. 

■  Kennicott,  7,  8. 
Doederlein  et  Meissner,  8. 
Jahn,  8. 

Boothroyd,  8. 

■  D'Allemand,  8, 9. 

■  Hahn,  9. 

■  Montani,  9. 

•  Reineccii,  9. 

•  Simonis,  9. 

■  Leusdenii,  9. 


Editionum  Synopsis,  23. 
Compluti,  23. 
Aldi,  23. 
Loniceri,  23. 

■  Hervagii,  23. 
Brylingeri,  23. 

•  Carafas,  23. 
Wechelii,  23. 

•  Danielis,  23. 

-  Cluveri,  23. 

■  Grabii,  23,  24. 

■  Bosii,  24. 

■  Breitingeri,  24. 

-  Reineccii,  24. 

-  Hate,  24. 

-  Holmesii,  et  Parsons,  24. 

-  Baber,  24. 

-  Oxonii  25. 


Biblia  Gr^eca,  Valpii,  25. 

Glasguee,  25. 

Von  Ess,  25. 

Nova  Versio  Grjeca,  25. 

Biblia  .(ETHioncA,  27. 

Biblia  Arabica,  26. 

Biblia  Armenica,  27. 

Biblia  Coptica,  Sahidica  et  Bashmourica,  26,  27. 

Biblia  Gothica,  28. 

Biblia  Latina,  27. 

Biblia  Syriaca,  25. 

Biblia  Ante-Hieronymiana,  27 

Flaminio  No^  'li,  27. 

Sabatier,  27. 

Blanchini,  27. 

Miinteri,  27. 

Hieronymi  Versio,  27. 

Biblia  Vulgata,  27. 

Sixti  v.,  28. 

Clementis  VIII.,  28. 

a  Didot,  28. 

Francofurti  edita,  28. 

Biblia  Sclavonica,  29. 

Biblia  Anglo-Saxonica,  29. 
Biblia  Pauperum,  29,  30. 
Biblical  Cabinet,  72. 

Repertory,  146. 


Bibliotheca  Sussexiana,  6. 

Bremensis,  146. 

Bremensis  Nova,  146. 

Hagana,  146. 


Bickerstefh  (E.),  Scripture  Help,  70. 

Biel  (J.  C),  Lexicon  in  Septuaginta,  93,  94. 

Binterim  (A.  J.),  Propemticum  ad  Problema  Criticum,  74. 

Biorn  (C.  A.),  Threni  Jeremiae,  124. 

Birch  (A.),  Varise  Lect.  ad  Nov.  Test.,  13,  14. 

Auctarium  Codicis  Apocryphi,  N.  T.,  67. 

Biscoe  (Dr.),  History  of  the  Acts  illustrated,  133. 

Black  (John),  Paloeo-romaica,  74,  75. 

BlacJcall  (Bp.  O.),  Sermons  on  Matt.  V.— VII.,  145. 

Blackwall  (A.),  Sacred  Classics  illustrated,  72.  147. 

Blackwood  (C),  Exposition  of  Matthew,  144. 

Blair  (A.),  on  the  Canon,  69. 

Blair  (J.),  on  Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  145. 

Blanchini,  Evangeliarium  Qiiadruplex,  27. 

Bla7id  (M.),  Annot.  on  New  Test.,  132. 

Blayney  (Benj.),  Pentateuchus  Heb.  Sam.,  9. 

Standard  Edition  of  English  Bible,  39,  40. 

Translation  of  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations,  123. 

Diss,  on  Daniel's  Seventy  Weeks,  124. 

Translation  of  Zechariah,  126. 


Bliss  (G.),  Notes  on  the  New  Test.,  130. 
Bloch  (A.),  Chronotaxis  Script.  Pauli,  72. 
Blomjield  (Bp.),  on  Traditional  Knowledge  of  a  Redeemer,  161. 

Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  144. 

on  the  Acts,  144. 


Bloomfield  (S.  T.),  Gr.  Test,  with  Notes,  19. 

Recensio  Synoptica  Annot.  Sacrse,  130. 


Blume  (F.),  Lex.  Dei,  160. 
Blunt  (H.),  History  of  Jacob,  143. 
History  of  Peter,  144. 


Blunt  (J.  J.),  Veracity  of  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  68. 

of  the  Historical  Books  of  the  O.  T.,  68. 

of  the  Gospels  and  Acts,  68. 

on  understanding  the  Mosaic  Writings,  115. 

Bocharti  (S.),  Geographia  Sacra,  157. 
Hierozoicon,  159. 


B'ockel  (E.  G.  A.),  Clavis  in  Grcecos  Interpretes  Veteris  Testamenti, 
&c.,  94. 

Epistola  ad  Romanos,  136. 


Bode  (C.  A.),  Pseudo-Critica  Millio-Bengeliana,  79. 
Boehme  (C.  F.),  in  Epist.  ad  Romanos,  136. 
Epist.  ad  Hebrseos,  138. 


Boehmerus  (G.),  Isagoge  in  Epist.  ad  Coloss.  138. 
Symbote  BiblicsE,  138. 


Boeltcher  (J.  F.),  Paronomasia  Paulina,  72. 
Began  (Z.),  Homerus  'Efipai'^wi/,  147. 
Bohemian  Bible,  47. 

Bois  (Job.),  Collatio  Veteris  Interpretis  cum  Beza,  82. 
Book  of  the  Unveiling,  142. 
Boothroyd  (B.),  Translation  of  the  Bible,  114. 
-  Biblia  Hebraica,  8. 


Borger  (E.  A.),  Interpretatio  Epist.  ad  Galalas,  137. 
De  Jesu  Christi  Doctrina,  &c.,  147. 


Bornemann  (F.  A.),  Scholia  in  Lucas  Evangeliiim,  132. 
Borrenstein  ( — ),  Easy  Method  of  acquiring  Hebrew,  86. 
Bos  (L.),  Exercitationes  Philologicre,  147. 

Observationes  ad  Nov.  Test.,  147. 

Ellipses  Grtecse,  147. 

Buttcher  (J.  F.),  de  Paronomasia  Pauli,  72. 

BoulUer  (D.  R.),  Observ.  in  Job,  117. 

Bowlder  (Mrs.),  Observations  on  the  Revelation,  141. 

Boides  (W.  L.),  Paulus  Parochialis,  144. 

Bowyer  (W.),  Critical  Conjectures  on  the  New  Testament,  147. 

Select  Discourses,  163. 


liIBLIOGRArHI(;AL  INDEX 


Boyx  (T.),  Tactira  Sacra,  TB. 
— '—  Koy  lo  I'.sulnis,  120. 

Kxposilioii  of  New  Test.,  130. 

BraggK  (Fr.).  On  I'urablos,  11(5. 

On  Mimclcs,  I'K). 

Brandinijllr.ri  (J.),  Aii;il)^sis  Vet.  Test.,    56. 
Uraunii  (J.),  Coniiiieiii.  in  Kpist.  ad  Ucbncus,  138. . 

De  Vcwtitu  IIel)rii:oriim,  lOl. 

Dree  (W.  ']'.),  Help  to  the  Study  of  Scripture,  113. 
Jtreiliiigeri  (J.  J.),  de  aiili(|ii<i  MS.  PMulinuriiiii,  77. 
Brerewood  (K.),  De  I'oiideribus  Veleriiin,  KiO. 
Bretapne  (F.  P.  de).  Do  Miisica  Hebrujoruin,  Ifil. 
Hrelschiiei'lcr  (C  G.),  Lexicon  in  Nov.  TcBt.,  93. 

. Liber  Jesu  Sirachidos,  03 

St)ieil«(giiim  ad  Lexicon  ad  LXX.,  94. 

I'robabilia  do  JOvang.  Joannin,  132. 

Capiia  Tlieologia;  Jiidieoruin,  101. 

Jlicit  (Tho.),  Letter  on  Fnglinb  Bibles,  81. 
lircwsler  (Ja.),  Loctiirea  on  Matt.  V.  VI.  VII.,  145. 

(Jo.),  Contem|(lalioiis  on  Christ's  last  Discourse,  144. 

Lectures  on  Acts,  144. 

Jirei/l/wr  (C.  A.),  Diss,  do  Quatuor  Evangoliis,  82. 

Driild  (J.  L.),  Le  Livre  do  Job,  118. 

Bridgis  (C),  Kxposilion  oi'Psul.  CXIX.,  144. 

Brij-Uhassa  Version,  50. 

Bruihner  (J.),  Idea  Lexicographiffi  N.T.,  92. 

Do  2  l"2p.  ad  Tiinotheum,  138. 

BrouglitoH  (Hugh),  Annot.  <tc.  on  Job,  117. 

'■ Lamcntalions  of  Jeremiah,  123. 

Daniel,  124. 

Apocalypse,  1 10. 

Brouwer  (G.  A.),  de  I'arabolis,  100. 

Brown  (John),  Dictionary  of  Bible,  154,  155. 

Scripture  Metaphors,  99. 

Concordance,  154. 

Brown  (W.),  Antiquities  of  (he  Jews,  156. 
Brugensii  (Luca;),  Commentarius  in  IV.  Evangelia,  127. 
Brunati  (J.),  De  Vulgata  Versione  Dissertatio,  82. 
Bruniiigx  (C.),  Antiquit.  Ilebrajorum,  156. 

Antiquitales  Graecaj,  150. 

Brunton  (Dr.),  Hebrew  Extracts  from  the  Old  Testament,  88. 
Bryant  (J.),  Observations  on  the  Plagues  of  Egypt,  148. 

Observations  on  Scripture,  148. 

Bucheri  (S.  F.),  Antiquitates  Biblicfe,  131. 
Buckham  (P.  W.),  On  tlie  Phytolacca,  159. 
Buddeus  (G.  F.),  Hist.  Ecdes.  Vet.  Test.,  164. 

Hist.  Philosoph.  Ilebr.,  161. 

Ecclesia  Apostolica,  134. 

Bitddicoin  (P.),  Christian  Exodus,  143. 
Bugg  (G.),  Scriptural  Geology,  159. 

Biihle  (J.  G.),  Calendarium  Palsestinee,  159. 

Bulgarian  Bible,  47. 

Bulkley  (Charles),  Notes  on  the  Bible,  112. 

^^^—  Disc,  on  Parables,  &c.,  140. 

Bull  (J.),  Sermons  on  51st  Psalm,  143. 

Bullerii  (D.  R.),  Dissertationes  Sacrae,  148. 

Bullet  (M.),  Reponses  Critiques,  148. 

Bulloin  Version,  50. 

Bulocha  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  49. 

Burder  (Samuel),  Oriental  Expositor,  113. 

Oriental  Customs,  102. 

Oriental  Literature,  162. 

Barges  (Sir  J.  B.),  on  New  Translation  of  Bible,  84. 

Burgess   (Tho.   Bishop   of   Salisbury),   on   New   Translation    of 

Bible,  84. 
Aiinotationes  Millii  et  aliorum  in  1  John  v.  7.,  80. 


—  Selection  of  Tracts  on  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 

—  Vindication  of  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

—  Letter  lo  the  Clergy  of  St.  David's,  82. 

—  Letter  to  Beynon,  S2. 

—  Introduction  to  the  Controversy  on  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 

—  Hebrew  Primer,  and  Elements,  88. 
Initia  Paulina,  134.  note. 


Burgherhondi  (J.  J.),  de  Coetus  Christ.  Thessalonicensis  Orlu,  138. 
Burkii  (P.  D.),  Gnomon  Psalraorum,  119. 

in  XII.  Prophelas  Minores,  125. 

Burkitt  (W.),  Notes  on  New  Test.,  128. 

Burman  New  Testament,  51. 

Burroiighes  (Jer.),  On  Hosea,  125. 

Burton  (Dr.  E.),  Chronology  of  the  Acts,  133. 

Buschingii,  (A.  F.),  Introd.  in  Epist.  ad  Philippenses,  137. 

Bush  (G.),  On  the  Millennium,  142. 

Buslav  (J.  T.),  do  Lingua  Evang.  Matth.,  72. 

Butler  (Charles),  Hor®  BiblicoB,  72. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Butterworlh  (J.),  Concordance,  153. 

Buxtorfii  (Joh),   Patris,   Concordantiae   llebraica;   et  Chaldaicse, 
152. 

Dissertationes,  148. 

Grammatica  Hebraica,  87. 

Lexicon  Hebraicum,  89. 

Lexicon  Chaldaicum,  89. 

Tiberias,  85. 

Synagoga  Judaica,  160. 

(Joh.)  Filii,  Anti-Critica,78. 


nylhniri  (V.),  Lyra  Davidis,  9. 

ll'nliilil  (N.),  Ex|x>sition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  137. 

liijuaus,  (A.),  De  Calccis  Ilebncorum,  101. 


Cajetani  (Cardinalis),  Vet.  Test.  Latine,  31. 
Calnmij  (B.),  Vindication  of  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 
Culutio  (M.  D.),  Concordantiaj  Bibliuruni,  llebraicoruni  et  Latino- 

rurn,  l.W. 
Cnliili  ((i.),  Schola  Phroiihotica,  124. 
('(illiiwnii  (John),  Oriental  Oljservations,  161. 
('iilmlxrg  (A.  T.),  Teslimonia  pro  Evan.  Joan,  avficvrcta,  133. 
(Jalmet  (Aug.),  Bibliolheca  Saera,  5. 
., Diss,  sur  1  Jean  v.  7.,  81. 

Dictioimaire  do  la  Bible,  154. 

Dictionary,  by  C.  Taylor,  154. 

by  J.  Condor,  1.04. 

by  E.  Robin.son,  154. 


Di.ssertJitions  sur  la  Bible,  09. 

Conimentaire  Lilleral,  108. 

('alvin  (John),  Commentaries  of,  107, 

On  the  Ep.  to  the  Romans,  135. 


Campliell  (G.),  Translation  of  the  Gospels,  131. 
Capelli  (Lud.),  Patris,  Critica  Sacra,  "78. 

Chronologia  Sacra,  163. 

(Lud.),  Filii,  Arcanum  Punctationis,  85. 


('ardwell  (Dr.  E.),  Curtis's  Misrepresentations  exposed,  84. 
Caret/  (J.),  Lexicon  Gr.  Lat.  in   Nov.  Tost.,  92. 
Carpenter  (W.),  Calendarium  Palostintc,  163,  164. 

Lectures  on  Biblical  Criticism,  72. 

Scripture  Difliculties,  148. 

Scripture  Nat  Hist.,  159. 


Carpzovii  (J.  B.),  Primes  Lineaj  HermeneuticnB,  97. 

Exercitationes   in   Epistolam   ad  Ilebrseos  ex  Philone, 


103.  138. 

Striclurse  in  Epistolam  ad  Romanes,  203. 

Collegium  Rabbino-Biblicum  in  Ruth,  103. 

Notffi,  &c.  in  Septem  Epist.  Calhol.  139. 


Carpzovii  (J.  G.),  Apparatus  Antiq.  Hebr.,  156. 

Critica  Sacra  Vet.  Test.,  72. 

Introductio  ad  Libros  Canonicos  Veteris  Tcstamenti,  70. 

Comment.  Crit.  ad  Libros  Novi  Testamenti,  71. 


Cartwright  (€.),  Mellificiura  Hebraicum,  103. 
Cartwright  (T.),  Comment,  in  Proverbia,  120. 

Confutation  of  Rhenish  Testament,  41. 


Caryl  (J.),  Exposition  of  Job,  117. 
Case  (J.  R.),  Comment,  on  Proverbs,  121. 
Caslalionis  (Seb.),  Biblia  Latina,  31. 
CasleUi  (Edmundi),  Lexicon  Heptaglotton,  94,  95. 
Caslilliontpi  (C.  O.),  Ulphilse  Gothica  Versio,  28. 
Catena:  of  various  Greek  Writers,  Editions  of,  105. 
Cellarii  (Christ.),  Horse  Samaritanse,  9. 
Epistote  SamaritanK,  161. 


CelUrier  (J.  E.),  Grammaire  Hebrai'que,  87. 

Introduction  a  lecture  des  Livres  Saints,  71. 

Introduction  au  Nouv.  Test,  71. 


Celsii,  (O.),  Hierobotanicon,  159. 
Ceylonese  Bible,  50. 
Chais  (Charles),  La  Sainte  Bible,  109. 
Chaldee  Paraphrases,  22. 

Version  of  New  Test,  48. 


Chambers  (John),  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,  61. 
Chandler  (Dr.  S.),  Critical  History  of  David,  16.5. 

Paraphrase  on  Joel,  126. 

Paraphrase  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  &c.,  137. 


Clmppelow  (L.),  Comment,  on  Job,  117. 

Chanti,  Characteres  de  la,  146. 

Chemnitii  (M.),  Harmonia  IV.  Evangelionim,  59.  127. 

Cheneviere  (J.  J.),  Introduction  au  Nouv.  Test,  71. 

Chevallier  (T.),  On  Historical  Types,  99. 

Chinese  Bible,  50,  51. 

Chippeusiy  Version,  57. 

Chladenii'iM.),  Instilutiones  Exegetic«e,  97. 

Chnmpri  (P.),  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  155. 

Chrysostom  (John),  Commentaries  of,  104. 

Cingalese  Bible,  50. 

Clapham  (S.),  Pentateuch  illustrated,  115i. 

Clarisse  (T.  A.),  Psalmi  Quindecim  illustrati,  120. 

Clarisse  (Jo.),  De  xuSi>tiix  Joan.  Evan.,  132. 

Clarke  (Samuel),  Annot.  on  the  Bible,  110. 

Clarke  (Dr.  S.),  Paraphr.  on  Evangelists,  131. 

Clarke  (Dr.  Adam).  Comment,  on  the  Bible,  113. 

Succession  of  Sacred  Literature,  5. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Collection  of  Various  Readings,  80. 


Clarke  (J.  E.),  Dissertation  on  the  Dragon,  Beast,  &c.  of  the  Reve- 
lation, 141. 
Classical  Journal,  147. 
Claudii  (J.  D.),  Commentatio  de  Felice,  148. 
Clausen  (H.  N.),  IV  Evang.  Tab.  Synopticae,  61. 
Clerici  (J),  Translatio  et  Commentarius  Vet  et  Nov.  Test,  108. 

Ars  Critica,  78. 

Harmonia  Evangelica,  59. 


Clemence  (M.),  Caracterea  du  Messie,  101. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


170 

Close  (Fr.),  Genesis  illustrated,  143. 

Cocceii  (Joannis),  Commentarii,  108. 

Comment,  in  Ep.  ad  Tim.  138. 

Coelln  (D.),  Observationes  ad  Zephaniaiti,  126 

Coghlan  (C.  L.),  Script.  Comm.  on  Genesis  and  Matthew,  41. 

Cole  (J.  W.),  On  the  Prophecies,  122. 

Collelt  (S.),  Paraphrase  on  the  Catholic  Epistles,  139. 

CoLltjtr  (David),  Sacred  Interpreter,  70. 

Collyer  (W.  B.),  On  Scripture  Prophecy,  100. 

Lect.  on  Miracles  and  Parables,  146. 

Colomesii  (P.),  Observat.  Sacra;,  148. 

Colonia  (D.),  Religion  Chrelienne,authorizee  par  Auteurs  Paiens,68. 

Compendium  Gramm.  Heb.,  88. 

Comprehensive  Bible,  114. 

Concordance  de  IV.  Evangelistes,  61. 

du  INouveau  Testament,  154. 

Conyheare  (J.  J.),  On  Spiritual  Interp.  of  Scripture,  99. 

Cook  (John),  Inquiry  into  New  Test.,  72. 

Cooke  (VV.),  Trans,  of  Revelation,  140. 

Cooper  (R.  B.),  Translation  of  Mede's  Clavis  Apoc,  140 

On  the  Revelation,  140. 

Cooper  (O.  St.  John),  P'our  Hundred  Texts  of  Swripture  explained, 
148. 

Coore  (R.),  Practical  Expositor,  148. 

Coptic  Version  of  the  Bible,  26. 

Coquerel  (A.  L.  C),  Biographic  Sacree,  165. 

Sur  le  Systeme  Hieroglyphique,  162. 

Cosin  (Bp.),  Scholiastical  Hist,  of  Canon,  68. 

Costard  (C),  Observations  on  Job,  117. 

Cotes  (H.),  Sermons  on  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,  145. 

Cotton  (H.),  List  of  Editions  of  the  Bible,  84. 

Five  Books  of  Maccabees,  63. 

On  a  French  Translation  of  the  New  Test.,  85. 

Coverdale  (Myles),  Bible,  34. 

Cox  (F.  A.),  Female  Scripture  Biography,  165. 

Lectures  on  Daniel,  143. 

Cox  (J.  H.),  On  Harmony  of  Scripture,  146. 

Cox  (R.),  Horse  Romanse,  136. 

Cradock  (S.),  Harmony  of  the  Evangelists,  59. ;  and  of  the  Aposto- 
lical Histoi-y,  62. 

Old  Testament  methodized,  164. 

Cranmeri  (J.  J.),  Theologia  Israelis,  161. 

Cranmer  (Abp.  Tho.),  Great  Bible,  34,  35. 

Cranfield  (Thomas),  Harmony  of  the  Resurrection,  62. 

Credner  (C.  A.),  De  Versione  Syriaca  Prophet.,  82. 

Creolcse  Version,  57. 

Critici  Sacri,  108. 

Croat  Version,  46. 

Crocker  (J.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  86,  87. 

Croli/  (G.),  Apocalypse  of  St.  John,  142. 

Crombie  (John),  On  Types,  99. 

Crossinge  (R.),  On  Charity,  146. 

Croslhwaite  (J.  C),  Maps,  158. 

Cruden  (Ale.\-.),  Concordance,  153. 

Cruden  (Rev.  Mr.),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  111. 

Crusius  (C.  A.),  Theologia  Prophetica,  100. 

Crutwell  (C),  Concordance  of  Parallels,  153. 

Culhertson  (R.),  Lectures  on  the  Revelation,  142. 

Cumberland  (Bp.  R.),  Jewish  Weights  and  Measures,  160. 

Cummings  (J.  A.),  New  Test,  with  Notes,  130. 

CuncBus  (P.),  De  Republica  Hebroeorum,  156. 

Cuninghame  (W.),  On  the  Seals,  &c.  of  the  Apocalypse,  141. 

. Jubitean  Chronology,  141. 

Curdish  Version,  52. 

Curtii  (A.),  De  Aulhentia  1  Ep.  ad  Tim.,  138. 

Curtis  (Tho.),  On  alleged  existing  Monopoly  of  the  Scriptures,  84. 


Dahl  (J.  C),  Observationes  ad  Minores  Prophetas,  125. 
Balder  (J.  G.),  De  Paralipomenorum  Auctoritate,  117. 

Jeremie,  avec  des  Notes,  124. 

Dale  (John),  Analysis  of  the  Epistles,  156. 
JDancBi  (L.),  Comm.  in  Joelem,  &c.,  125. 
Danhaueri  (J.  C),  Hermeneutica  Sacra,  97. 
Daniel,  secundum  Septuaginta,  25. 
Danish  Bible,  43. 

Danz  (T.  L.),  De  Infanticidio  Herod  iano,  132. 
Dathii  (J.  A.),  Libri  Vet.  Test.,  32.  109. 

Opuscula,  72. 

Daubuz  (C.),  Comment,  on  Revelation,  140. 
Davenant  (J.),  Expositio  Epist.  ad  Colossenses,  1.37. 

■ Translation  of,  by  Allport,  137. 

Davidson  (David),  Pocket  Comm.  on  New  Test.,  131 

Davidson  (W.),  Examination  of  Solomon's  Song,  122, 

Davies  (J.),  Lectures  on  History  of  Joseph,  143. 

Davison  (J.),  On  Prophecy,  101. 

Dawney  (B.),  Remarks  on  the  Epistles,  80. 

Dawson  (A.),  Genesis  translated,  116. 

Dawson  (J.),  Greek-English  Lexicon  to  New  Test..  93. 

Deane  (J.  B.),  On  Worship  of  the  Serpent,  116. 

De  Coetlogon  (C.  E.),  Sermons  on  51st  Psalm,  143. 

Delany  (P.),  Hist,  of  David,  165. 

Delaware  Indian  Version,  56,  57. 

Delrii  (Mi  Adagialia  V.  et  N.  T.,  100. 


De  Rossi  (J.  B.),  Varioe  Lectiones  Veteris  Testament!,  et  Scholia 

Crilica,  79. 
Specimen   Hexaplaris  Bibliorum  Versionis  Syro-Estran- 

gelie,  26. 

Inirod.  alia  Scritlnra,  70. 

Krmeneutica  Sacra,  97. 

Compendio  di  Critica  Sacra,  72. 

Dermoiit  (J.),  Collect.  Crit.  in  Nov.  Test.,  80. 

De  Veil  (C.  M.),  Explicatio  Caniici  Canticorum,  121. 

Expositio  XII  Prophetarum,  125. 

Explicatio  Matthaji  et  Marci,  132. 

Acta  Apostolorum  Explicata,  133. 


Des  Voeux  (A.  V.),  on  Ecclesiastes,  121. 
Dei/lingii  (S.),  Observationes  Sacrae,  148. 
Dick  (J.),  Lectures  on  the  Acts,  144. 
Dickinson  (R.),  New  Testament,  130,  131. 
Dickson  (D.),  Explication  of  Psalms,  118. 
Dictionaries  of  the  Bible,  notice  of,  154,  155. 
Dieu  (Ludovici  de),  Critica  Sacra,  107,  108. 

Rudimenta  Linguse  PersicoB,  97. 

Dimock  (H.),  Notes  on  Genesis,  &c.,  116. 

Notes  on  Psalms  and  Proverbs,  119 


Dindorf{i.),  Novum  Lexicon  Linguae  Hebraico-Chaldaicae,  90. 

Diodati  (J.),  Annotations  on  the  Bible,  106. 

Dobrowsky  (Josephi),  De  Aitiquis  Hebraeorum  Characteribus  Di»- 

sertatio,  85. 
Dodd  (W.),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  111 

Disc,  on  Miracles,  &c.,  146. 

Common-place  Book  to  the  Bible,  155. 

Doddridge  (Dr.),  Family  Expositor,  129. 

Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  60. 

Doederlein  (J.  C),  Scholia  in  Libros  V.  T.  poelicos,  117. 
Esaias  Latine,  123. 


Dombay  (F.  de),  Grammat'ca  Linguae  Persicae,  97. 

Dorhout  (Ambr.),  Animadversiones  in  Vet.  Test.,  148. 

Dorn  (J.  A.),  de  Psalterio  .(Ethiopico,  82. 

Dorschei  (J.  G.),  Biblia  Numerata,  97 

Doughtcsi  (J.),  Analecta  Sacra,  148. 

Doway  Bible,  41. 

D'Oi/ly  (G.),  and  Mant  (R.),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  113. 

Drach  (M.),  Bible  de  Vence,  108,  109. 

Driessenii  (A.),  Divina  Auctoritas  N.  T.,  78, 

Drusii  (J.)  Commentarius  in  Prophetas  Minores,  125. 

Historia  Ruth,  116. 

Adagia,  110. 

Animadversiones,  148. 

Prasterita,  103. 

Parallela  Sacra,  76. 

Duguet  (J.  J.),  Explication  du  1  Cor.  XIII.,  146. 
Du  Hamel  (J.  B.),  Biblia  cum  Annot.,  108. 
Dumbeck  (F.J),  Historiae  Universae  Tabulae,  164. 
Duncan  (R.),  Exposition  of  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  138. 
Du  Fin  (L.  E.),  Prolegomenes  sur  la  Bible,  68. 
Hist,  of  the  Canon,  68. 


Dwell  (D.),  Translation  of  the  Prophecies  of  Jacob  and  Moses,  115 
Remarks  on  Job,  &c.,  117. 


Dutch  Version  of  the  Bible,  44,  45. 


Eastburn  (M.),  Lect.  on  Ep.  to  Philippians,  145. 
Eckermann  (J.  C.  R.),  in  Librum  Job,  117. 
Eckhardi  (T.),  Observationes  Philologicae,  148. 
Edwards  (John),  Exerciiations,  148. 
Inquiry  into  IV  Texts,  148. 


Edwards  (Tho.),  Translation  of  Psalms,  119. 
Dissertationes  duae,  72. 


Edwards  (Tim.),  Paraphrase  on  Romans  and  Galatians,  135. 

Egyptian  Versions  of  tlie  Bible,  26. 

Eichhorn  (J.  G.),  Commentarius  in  Apocalypsin,  140. 

Introduction  to  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  to  the 


Apocryphal  Books,  71. 

De  Prophetica  Poesi,  76. 


Eliot  (J.),  Virginian  Bible,  56. 
Elsley  (J.),  Annotations  on  the  Four  Gospels  and  Acts.  131,  132. 
Elsneri  (J.),  Comm.  ad  Matth.  et  Marc,  132. 
Observationes  ad  Nov.  Test.,  148. 


Elsneri  (H.  F.),  Paulus  el  Jesaias  comparatus,  148. 
Elswich  (J.  H.),  Dissertatio  De  Nov.  Feed.  Critice,  78, 
Emlyn  (Tho.),  Inquiry  concerning  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Answer  to  Martin,  81. 

Reply  to  Martin,  81 


Emmerling  (A.  G.),  Ep.  ad  Corinth,  cum  Notis,  137. 

Engelbreth  (W.  F.),  Fragmenta  Basmurico-Coptica  Vet.  et  Nov. 

Test.,  26,  27. 
Ens  (J.),  Bibl.  Sacra,  68. 
Erasmi  (D.),  Nov.  Test.,  9,  10.  32. 

Paraphrasis  in  Nov.  Test.,  127. 


Erdmann  (F.),  Curae  in  Jeremiam,  124. 

Ernesti  (J.  A.),  Lectiones  in  Epist.  ad  Hebrseos,  138. 

Opuscula  Theologica,  146. 

Inslitutio  Interpretis  Novi  Testamenti,  97,  98. 

Glossae  Sacra;,  92. 


Erpenii  (T.),  Grammatica  et  Rudimenta  Arabica,  95 
Esquimaux  Version,  57. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


171 


Etmy  on  Apor-ryphn,  C9. 

Ess(i'i/s  on  IJildiiiil  Literature,  147. 

Estu(G.),  Coiiiinoiit.  in  Kpislolas,  131. 

Ethionic  Version  of  llie  Bible,  5J7. 

Eusebii  Ononiastifon  Scripliiru;,  157. 

Eulhymii  ("oininenlarii,  lUf). 

Ewald  {('•.  H.  A.),  (iranuiiatik  Hobraischer,  88. 

Com.  in  Apocalypsin,  112. 

Ewart  (J.),  Lcctnri^s  on  the  IValnis,  113. 
Ewinff  (Gr),  (Jret'k  Grammar  and  Li'xifon,  94 
Eyre  (George),  and  Stru/iun's  (Andrew),  Edition  of  ihe   Engli.sh 
Bible,  3'J,  40. 


Fader  (G.  S.),  IIoriB  Mosnicte,  115. 

Diss,  on  Seventy  Weeks,  125. 

Dissert,  on  Prophecies,  100. 

Sacred  Calendar  ol'  Propheey,  100. 

Fahricii  (J.  A.),  Codex  Apoc.  Vet.  Test.,  6G. 

Codex  Apoc.  Nov.  Test.,  07. 

Fahricy  (Pere).  Des  Titres  Primitives  dc  Revelation,  72. 
Fulsificalion.i  of  the  Scriptures: — in  the  Anglo-Komish  Bibles,  41, 

42.;  and  the  Romish-French  Version,  at  Bordeaux,  45.  notes. 
Fannin  (J.),  Harmony  of  Christ's  Projihecy,  GL 
Farrer  (J.),  On  the  Parables,  146. 
Fawcelt  (Dr.  J.),  Comment,  on  the  Bible,  113. 
Fawccll  (J.),  F.xposit.  of  Rom.  IX.,  130. 
Ftathcrstune  (C),  llaggciis  the  Prophet,  12(). 
Fell  (Bp.),  Paraphrase,  Arc.  on  Saint  Paul's  Epistles,  134. 
Fenwick  (Ci.),  Version  of  the  Psalms,  119. 
Ferenczxf  (J.),  De  Proditione  Juda;,  i;!2. 
Fergus  (H.),  Institutions  of  Moses,  IGO. 
Finnish  Bible,  44. 

Fischer  (S.),  Synopsis  Qusestionum,  148. 
Fischeri  (J.  F.),  De  Versionibus  Griceis  Vetcris  Tcstamenii,  83 

dc  Vitiis  Lexicoriim,  92. 

Fitzgerald  (Gerald),  Hebrew  (irammar,  86. 

Flachrri  .'Viialvsis  V.  et  Nov.  Test.,  15G. 

Flacius  (M.),  Ciavis  Scriptiira;,  98. 

Fleck  (F.  F.),  De  Regno  Christi,  148. 

Fleming  (R.),  Fulfilling  of  Scriptures,  100. 

Fletirtj  (C),  Manners  of  Israelites,  156. 

Formosan  Version  of  Gospels,  51 

Forskiil  (P.),  Opera,  159. 

Forsler  (Cha.),  Critical  Essays,  148. 

Fowler  (W.),  Eastern  Mirror,  1G2. 

Fox  (F.),  The  New  Testament  with  Parallel  References  at  length, 

40. 
Frayicis  (A.),  Transl.  of  Song  of  Solomon,  122. 
Fraiickii  (A.  H.),  Prasleciiones  Ilermeneutica;,  98. 

ftlaniiductio  ad  Script.  Sacr.,  68. 

Commentatio  de  Scopo  Vet.  Test.,  98. 

Introduciio  ad  Lectionem  Prophetarum,  100. 

Christus  S.  Script.  Nucleus,  98. 

Franks  (J.),  Remarks  on  Genesis,  IIG. 

Framil  (W.),  De  Interpretatione  Sacrarum  Literarum,  98. 

French  Versions  of  the  Bible,  44,  45. 

French  (VV.),  and  Skinner  (Geo.),  Version  of  the  Psalms,  120. 

On  the  Proverbs,  121. 

Fret/  (J.  S.  C.  F.),  Hebr.  Grammar,  86. 

^  Hebr.  Lat.  and  Engl.  Diet.,  90. 

Frey(i.  L.),  Commentarius  de  Var.  Lect.  Nov.  Test.,  78. 
Friedrichii  (C.  G.),  Symbolsc  ad  Psalinum  Centesimum,  120. 

Christologia  Samaritanorum,  161. 

Frilsche  (C.  F.  A.),  Evangelia  Quatuor,  132. 

in  2  Cor.  Dissertatio,  137. 

Conject.  in  Nov.  Test.,  148. 

Frost  (J.),  on  Mustard  Tree  of  New  Test.,  159. 
Fry  (J.),  Translation  of  Job,  118. 

Lyra  Davidis,  120. 

Canticles,  122. 

Lectures  on  Epist.  to  Romans,  144. 

Fulke  (W.),  On  the  New  Testament,  41 

Fuller  (A.),  Expository  Discourses  on  Genesis,  143. 

On  the  Ajwcalypse,  145. 

Harmony  of  Sciripturc,  146. 

Fuller  (T.),  Comment,  on  Ruth,  IIG. 
Fulleri  (Nich.),  Mis.  Sac,  72.  148. 


Gaelic  Bible,  43. 

Galloway  (J.),  Commentaries  on  the  Revelation,  141. 
Garden  (Cha.),  Translation  of  Job,  117. 
Garnetl  (Bp.  J.),  Dissertation  on  Job,  117. 

Gaston  (Hugh),  Common-place  Book  to  Old  and  New  Test.,  156 
Gastrell  (Bp.  F.),  Christian  Institutes,  155. 
Gauntlett  (Henry),  Exposition  of  the  Revelation,  145. 
Geddes  (Dr.),  Translation  of  the  Historical  Books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, 115. 

Translation  of  the  Psalms,  119,  120. 

Geier  (M.),  Commentarius  in  Psalmos,  118. 

Commentarius  in  Proverbia,  120. 

Commentarius  in  Ecclesiasten,  12L 


Ctier  (M.),  Proilectiones  in  Danielera,  124 

(nil  'Philip),  on  Hebrew  Idiom,  HO. 

(Jiljjke  (F.  C),  VindiciieOriginis  Paulina;  Ep.  ad  Ilebiteos,  139 

Genealogies,  Treatises  on,  103. 

Genesis,  Essay  on,  116. 

-  Bricl  Observations  upon,  116. 


deorgi  (A.  A.),  Fragmentum  Johannis  Coptico-Thebaicum,  26. 
Georgian  Version,  51. 
Giiirgii  (Ign.),  Paulus  Naufragus,  134. 
Gerard  (Alex.),  Iiislilulcs  of  Biblical  Criticism,  72,  73. 
Gerdesii  (D.),  Miscellanea  Duisburgensia,  et  Groningana,  147. 
German  Bibles,  43,  44. 

Gershom  (Levi  Ben.),  Commentaries  on  Scripture,  102. 
Gesenii  (G.),  Lexicon  HcbnL-o-Latinum,  90. 
■  Lexicon  Heb.  Lat.  Manualc,  90. 

Lexicon  by  Leo,  90. 

Rudimenta  Orienialia,  94. 

Comment,  dc  Sarnaritani.s,  161. 

Do  Pcntateuchi  Samaritan!  origine,  73. 

.'Xnccdola  Oxoriiensia,  73. 


Gibbs  (J.  W.),  Hebrew  and  luiglish  I^cxicon,  90. 

Manual  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon,  90,  91. 

Gibert  (E.),  Reflections  sur  I'Apocalypse,  141. 
Gijford  ( — ),  Diss,  on  Song  of  Sol.,  122. 

Giggcii  (A.),  Thesaurus  Lingnrc  Arabicoj,  96. 
(V(7f( Dr.),  Comment,  on  the  Bibh-,  111. 

Ex|K)sit.  of  Solomon's  S<mg,  121. 

(lil/jin  (VV.),  Exposit.  of  New  Test.,  129. 
Giriird  (J.),  Moyse  Devoile,  99. 
Girdleslone  (W.),  Obs.  on  Daniel,  124. 

(C),  Comment,  on  New  Testament,  144. 


GIsborne  (T.),  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  145 
Glaire  (J.  B.),  Grammaire  Hebraique,  88. 
Lexicon  Heb.  et  Chald.,  91. 


Glascr  (A.  F.  G.  M.),  Dissert,  de  Johanna  Apostolo,  133. 

Gliissii  (Sal.),  Philologia  Sacra,  73.  98. 

lln(i,/by  ( — ),  Illustration  of  the  Bible,  111. 

(loi/irin  (Tho.),  Moses  and  Aaron,  156. 

Goelzii  (G.),  Obscrvat.  ad  Nov.  Test.,  148. 

Golii  (J.  G.),  Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum,  96. 

Good  (E.),  On  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  145. 

Good  (J.  M.),  Translation  of  Job,  118. 

Transl.  of  Solomon's  Song,  122. 

Goode  (W.),  Version  of  Psalms,  120. 
Gorcum  (Jo.  a).  Epitome  Commentariorum  Estii,  134. 
Gorham  (G.  C),  On  Apocryphal  Books,  69. 
Reply  to  L.  Van  Ess,  69. 


Gothic  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  Editions  of,  28. 
Gower  (J.  A.),  Explanation  of  the  Psalms,  120. 
Grabe  (J.  E.),  Collatio  Codicis  Cottoniani,  79. 

Epistola  de  LXX  Versioiie,  82. 

Dissertatio  de  Vitiis  LXX,  83. 

Grambcrg  (C.  P.  W.),  Libri  Geneseos  Adumbratio,  116. 

Graves  (R.),  Lect.  on  Pentateuch,  143. 

Grawitz  (C),  sur  la  Langue  Orig.  de  Matthieu,  73. 

Gray  (A.),  Delineation  of  Parables,  146. 

Gray  (Bp.),  Key  to  the  Old  Testament,  71. 

Connection  of  Sacred  and  Heathen  Literature,  &c.,  73. 

Josiah  and  Cyrus,  73. 

Greek  Grammars  and  Lexicons,  91 — 94. 

Versions  of  the  Old  Testament  (anonymous).  Editions  of,  25. 

(Modern)  Version  of  the  Bible,  47. 

(Ancient).     See  Biblia  Graca. 

Green  (W.),  Translation  of  Psalms,  119. 

Parts  of  Old  Testament,  1 17. 

Greenawuy  (S.),  Ecclesiastes,  121. 
Greene  (R.  B.),  Genealogy  of  Christ,  163. 
Greenfield  (W.),  Polymicrian  Lexicon,  17. 
Comprehensive  Bible,  114. 


Greenhill  (G.),  On  Ezekiel,  124. 
Greenlandish  Version,  57. 

Gregory  (G.),  Translation  of  Lowth's  Lectures,  76. 
Grcppo  (J.G.  II.),  Systcme  Ilicroglyphique,  1G2. 
Greswcll  (E.),  Harmonia  Evangelica,  61. 
Dissertations,  61. 


Grey  (Rich.),  Last  Words  of  David,  117. 

— -  Libri  Jobi,  117. 

Grier  (R.),  Answer  to  Ward's  Errata,  84. 

Griesbachii  (J.  J.),  Cune  in  Hist.  Textus  Epist.  Pauli,  15. 

Symbolffi  Criticse,  79. 

Comment.  Criiicus  in  Textum  Nov.  Test.,  15 

Novum  Testamentum,  14, 15. 

Synopsis  Evangeliorum,  60. 

in  1  Joh.  V.  7.,  77. 

Opuscula  Academica,  148. 


Grinficld  (E.),  Serm.  on  Parables,  146. 
Gronovii  (J.),  Decreta  Romana,  160. 
Groot  (P.  H.  de),  de  Epist.  ad  Hebrseos,  139. 
Grossmann  (G.  L.  C),  in  Luc.  XVI.  Commentatio,  132. 
Quffistiones  Philoneae.  102. 


Grotii  (H.),  Annotationes  ad  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.,  106. 
Gryneus  (J.  J.),  Commentary  on  Haggai,  126. 
Giiadagnoli  (P.),  Grammatica  Arabica,  95. 
Guarini  (P.),  Lexicon  Hcbraicum,  89. 
Gude  (G.T.),  Ed  Eccles.  Ephes.  Statu,  137." 


172 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Gurney  (W),  Dictionary  of  Bible,  155. 

Gurnet/  (J.  J.),  Biblical  Notes,  1 18. 

Gutbirii  (A.),  Lexicon  Syriacum  Novi  Testamenti,  95. 

Guyse  (Dr.),  Practical  Expositor,  128. 

Gyles  (J.  F.),  Elements  of  Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 


Hack  (Maria),  Oriental  Fragments,  162. 

HackKfanii  (T.),  Not«?  ad  Vel.  Test..  148. 

Haenlein  (H.  C.  A.).  Symbolre  Crilicae  in  Habacucum,  126. 

Epistola  JuuiB,  140. 

Hales  (Dr.  W.),  Analysis  of  Chronology,  163. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Hall  (Bishop),  Contemplations,  and  Paraphrastic  Exposition  of  the 
Bible,  109. 

Hall  (J.).  Discourses  on  the  Gospels,  145. 

Hallet  (J.),  Notes  on  Scripture,  148. 

Index  Librorum  MSS.  Nov.  Feed.,  11 

Hallifax  (Bp.  S.),  On  Prophecy,  101. 

Hamuker  (H.  A.),  De  Vita  Prophetarum,  122. 

Hamilton  (Geo.),  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures, 70. 

Codex  Criticus,  79. 

Observations  on  Rom.  Oath.  English  Bible,  84. 

Letter  to  Dr.  Murray,  84,  85. 

Hammond  (H.),  Annot.  on  the  Psalms,  118. 

Paraphr.  on  New  Test.,  128. 

Handscke  (J.  C.  L.),  De  Aulhentia  Joh.  c.  XXI.,  133. 

Hardy  ( — ),  Nov.  Test,  cum  Scholiis,  127. 

Harenherg  (J.  C.)>  Amos  expositus,  126. 

Otia  Sacra,  148. 

Harle  (Jon.),  Hist,  of  Physic  in  Old  and  New  Test.,  161. 

Harmer  (T.),  Observations  on  Dirers  Passages  of  Scripture,  162. 

Outlines  of  a  new  Commentary  on  Solomon's  Song,  122. 

Harmonia,  IV  Evangeliorum,  59. 

Harris  (T.  M.),  Nat.  Hist,  of  Bible,  158,  159. 

Harris  (W.),  Elements  of  the  Chaldee  Language,  89. 

Harris  (S.),  Comm.  on  Isa.  LIII.,  123. 

Hartmann  (A.  W.),  Thesaur.  Ling.  Hebr.,  91. 

Harwood  (Dr.  E.),  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  72. 

(T.),  Annot.  on  Genesis,  116. 

Haselaar  (A.  G.),  Diss,  de  Act.  Apost.,  134. 

Hasii  (J.  M.),  Regnum  Davidicum,  158. 

Hassler  (C.  D.),  De  Psalmis  Maccabeis,  120. 

Haven  (P.  von),  Comm.  in  Ep.  ad  Titum,  138. 

Haweis  (Dr.),  Comment,  on  Bible,  111. 

Hawkins  (T.),  Comment,  on  1,  2,  3  John,  140. 

Hearnii  (Tho.),  Acta  Apostolorum,  12. 

Heath  (E.),  Version  of  Job,  117. 

HehraiccB  Lingua  Liters,  &c.,  88. 

Hebreiix,  Epitre  aux,  138. 

Hebrew  Aids,  87. 

Hebrew  Version  of  New  Test.,  48. 

Heinrichs  (C.  H.),  Acta  Apostolorum  illustrata,  134. 

Apocalypsis  illustrata,  141. 

Heinsii  (D.),  Exercitat.  ad  Nov.  Test.,  148. 

Henderson  (Dr.  E.),  Diss,  on  Danish  New  Test.,  85. 

Diss,  on  1  Tim.  iii.  16.,  80. 

Biblical  Researches,  85. 

Edition  of  Stuart's  Elem.  of  Interpretation,  98. 

Henke  (H.  P.  C),  Codicis  Uffenbachiani  Recensus  Criticus,  77. 

He7ikii  (G.  J.),  Introd.  ad  Lib.  Apoc.  V.  T.,  71. 

De  Lib.  Apocr.,  103. 

Libri  Apocryphi,  63. 

Henley  (Sam.),  Dissert,  on  Peter,  &c.,  139. 

Henry  (M.),  Comment,  on  the  Bible,  110,  111. 

Hens)iall  (S.),  Gothic  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  28. 

Herder  (J.  G.),  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  76. 

Herwerden  (C.  H.),  De  Libro  Josuae,  116. 

Hesychii  Glossse  Sacrse,  ab  Ernesti,  92. 

Heupelii  (G.),  Comment,  ad  Marcum.,  132. 

Hewlett  (John),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  113. 

Hey  (Dr.  J.),  on  St.  Paul's  Writings,  135. 

on  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Heydenreich  (A.  L.  C),  Comm.  in  1  Ep.  ad  Corinthios,  137. 

Heylin  (Dr.),  Lectures  on  the  New  Testament,  143. 

Hezel  (G.  F.),  Nov.  Feed.  Illustr.,  128. 

Hieronymi  Commentarii,  104. 

Hilary,  Commentaries  of,  104. 

Hildrop  (J.),  On  Psalm  II.,  120. 

Hilleri  (Mat.),  Hierophyticon,  159. 

Hincks'  (Edw.)  Hebrew  Grammar,  87. 

Hindoostanee  Version  of  Bible,  49. 

Hinds  (S.\  Explanation  of  St.  Mark,  144. 

Hirgelius  (L.),  De  Chaldaismo  Biblico,  89. 

Hirzel  (L.),  De  Pentateucho  Syriaco,  83. 

Hobarl  (Bp.),  Edition  of  D'Oyly's  and  Mant's  Commentary  on  the 
Bible,  113. 

Hodge  (C),  Biblical  Repertory,  147. 

Hodges  (W.),  Inquiry  into  Job,  117. 

Hodgson  (B.),  Translation  of  Proverbs,  121. 

Translation  of  Ecclesiastes,  121. 

. Translation  of  Solomon's  Song,  122. 

Hody  (H.),  De  Bibliorum  Textibus  et  Versionibus  Grsecis,  73. 


Hoepfnerus  (E.  F.),  in  Pauli  Epist.  ad  Romanos,  136. 
Hojmanni  (A.  T.),  Oii*ervationes  in  Vet.  Test.,  149. 

Grammatic.T  Syriaca,  95. 

(Immanuelis^  Denionstralio  Evangelica,  77. 


Holden  (G.),  Christian  Exjiositor,  114.  130. 

Transl.  of  Proverbs,  121. 

Transl.  of  Ecclesiastes,  121. 

Dissert,  on  Fall  of  Man,  116. 

Script.  Testimony  to  Divinity  of  Christ,  149 


Holden  (L.),  Paraphrase  on  Job,  &lc.,  117. 

Hole  (M.),  Discourses  on  1  Cor.  XIII.,  145,  146. 

Hollybushe  (Johan),  Nevve  Testament,  34. 

Hol/itann  (A.  G.),  In  Epist.  ad  Coriiilhios,  137. 

Hombergk  (J.  F.),  Parerga  Sacra,  149. 

Hone  (W.),  Apocryphal  New  Test.,  67. 

Hoog  (J.),  De  Coitus  Christian.  Philippensium  Conditione,  137. 

Hook  (VV.  F.),  Last  Days  of  Our  Lord's  Ministry,  144. 

Hopki7is,  (W.),  Translat.  of  Exodus,  116. 

Home  (Bp.  Geo.),  on  the  Psalms,  119. 

Home  (T.  H.),  Compendious  Introd.  to  Bible,  70. 

Horneck  (A.),  Serm.  on  Malt.  V.,  145. 

Hornemann  (H.),  De  Canone,  69. 

Exercitationes  ex  Philone,  149. 


Horrei  (P.),  Animadversiones  in  Nov.  Test.,  149. 
Miscellanea  Critica,  149. 


Horsley  (Bp.),  Translation  of  the  Psalms,  120. 

Disquisitions  on  Isaiah,  123. 

Translation  of  Hosea,  126. 

Biblical  Criticism,  149. 


Hottingeri  (J.  C),   de  Ritu  dimittendi  Reum,  160. 
Hotlingeri  (J.  J.),  Opuscula,  149. 
Hottingeri  (J.  H.),  Exercit.  Anti-Morin.,  78. 
Gram.  IV.  Ling.,  94. 


Houbigant  (C.  F.),  Biblia  Latine,  31. 

Prolegom.  ad  Scripturam,  70. 

Notas  Criticae,  109. 


Howard  (Luke),  Book  of  the  Chuich,  63. 

Howel  (Laur.),  Hist,  of  Bible,  164. 

Hug  (J.  L.),  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.,  71. 

de  Antiq.  Vaticani  Codicis,  77. 

Hughes  (George),  Exposil.  of  Genesis,  115. 
Hugonis  (Cardinalis),  Concordantise,  153. 
Hummelii  (H.),  in  Epist.  ad  Philemonem,  138. 
Hungarian  Bible,  46. 
Hunt  (Geo.),  Transl.  of  Job,  118. 

(John),  Map  of  Palestine,  158. 

(Tho.),  Observations  on  Proverbs,  121. 

De  Usu  Dialectorum,  98. 


Hunter  (David),  History  of  Jesus  Christ,  165. 
Hunter  (H.),  Sacred  Biography,  142. 
Hurd  (Bp.  R.),  On  Prophecy,  101. 
Hurwitz  (Hyman),  Hebrew  Grammar,  87. 
-  Vindiciee  Hebraicoe,  84. 


Hutcheson  (Geo.),  Exposit.  of  John,  133. 

Huydecoper  (T.  P.  C),  De  J.  C.  introita  in  Hierosolymam,  1^ 

Huyshe  (Francis),  on  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 
Hwiid  (H.  C),  De  MS.  Vindobonensi,  77. 


Iaspis  (G.  S.),  Versio  Epistolarum,  32.  140. 

Icelandic  Bible,  43. 

Ihre  (Joh.),  Fragm.  Vers.  Goth  ,  28 

Scripta  ad  Vers.  Goth.,  28. 

Ikenii  (C.)  Antiquitates  Hebraicee,  156,  157. 

Dissertationes,  149. 

Ilgen  (C.  D.),  Jobi  Carminis  Natura,  117. 

Hive  (J.),  Book  of  Jasher,  63 — 66. 

Improved  Version  of  New  Test,  129. 

Index  to  the  Bible,  156. 

Irish  Bible,  42. 

Italian  Versions  of  the  Bible,  45. 


Jablonskii  (P.  E.),  Explicatio  Vocum  .^gypt,  96. 
Opuscula,  149. 


Jackson  (John),  Chronofogical  Antiquities,  163. 

Jaeger  (J.  G.),  Observationes  in  Proverbia  Salomonis,  121. 

Jahn  (J.),  Grammatica  Hebraica,  87. 

Elementa  Aramaic®  Linguae,  95. 

Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum,  96. 

Introductio  ad  Vetus  Fcedus,  71. 

Translated  by  Turner,  71. 

Hermeneutica  Sacra,  98. 

Appendix  ad  Hermeneuticam  Sacram,  98. 

Heb.  Commonwealth,  164. 

ArchiEologia  Biblica,  157. 

James  I.'s  (King),  or  the  authorized  English  version  of  the  Bible 
History  of,  36,  37.  Testimonies  of  eminent  authors  to  its  value 
37':— 39.    Editions  of  it,  with  parallel  References,  39 — 41. 

James  (Tho.),  Bellum  Papale,  83. 

Jameson  ( — ),  Exposit.  of  Pentateuch,  71. 

Jansenii  (Cornelii),  Concordia  Evangelica,  59. 

Janssens  (J.  H.),  Hermeneutique  Sacree,  "70. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Jarchi  (Rabbi  Solomon),  Commentaries  on  the  Bible,  102, 103. 

Jarrimi  (J.),  DiHcoiirses  on  Kom.  ix.  115. 

Jashvr,  forged  iKwk  of,  G3 — CO. 

Jt'M  (Hi-shop),  Sacred  Literature,  76. 

Jcniiiir  {.\.),  Isaiah  translated,  123. 

Jenki/n  (W.),  Kxposition  of  Jude,  140. 

Jkhhjh^'s  (Dr.),  Jewish  Antiquities,  156. 

Jerome,  Commentaries  of,  104. 

Latin  Version  of,  27. 

Jessie.n  (A.),  do  au^LVTcia  Kpist.  Judin,  140. 

Jewell  {Up.),  Kxposition  of  1  and  2  Thussalonians,  138. 

Joh,  Boolt  of,  in  Knglisli,  118. 

Johnson  (A.),  On  Kngl.  Transl.  of  Bible,  84. 

Joknslnne.  (11.),  Cominoiitary  on  the  Uevelalions,  141. 

Jonatlumis  Targnni,  22. 

Jones  (G.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 

Jones  (Jer.),  New  and  Full  Method  of  settling  the  Canon  of  the 

New  Testament,  68. 
Jones  (John),  Isaiah  translated,  123. 
Jones  (Dr.  John),  Epistles  to  Colossians,  &c.,  138. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 

Jones  (Ric.),  Collatio  Textus  Syriaci,  25. 

tones  (Rev.  VV.),  On  Figurative  Lang,  of  Scripture,  99. 

Key  to  Prophecy,  100. 

Left,  on  Kpist.  to  Hebrews,  145. 

Jones  (.Sir  W.),  Persian  Grammar,  1)7. 
Jones  (VV.),  Biblical  Cyclopedia,  155. 
Joseph  (Angeli  a  S.),  Gazophylacitim  LingUfc  Persanim,  97. 

(Cherubini  k  S.),  Bibliotheca  Criticie,  Sacne,  73. 

Josephi  (Flavii),  0|)era,  102. 
Josephi  (Rabbi),  Targuui,  22. 
Jowell  (Dr.  J.),  On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 
Jubb  (G.),  de  Ling.  Heb.  Studio,  85. 
Jiinii  et  Tremellii  Biblia  Latina,  31,  32. 
Jiislinifini  (A.),  Psallcrium  Pentaglotton,  19. 
JuynboU  fT.  G.  J.),  De  Amoso,  126. 


Kaiser  (C),  Comment,  de  Ling.  Aramaica,  73.  95. 

de  Evang.  Joannis  Authentia,  133. 

Comment,  in  Genesin,  116. 

Kalinskij,  (R.  T.  G.),  Vatieinia  Chabacuci  illustrata,  125 

Kals  (G.  J.),  Grammatica  Hebrseo-Harmonica,  87. 

Kama  (H.  P.),  On  1  Pet.  v.  1—4.,  139. 

Kaserer  (M.),  ^layp-npr]  Studii  Scripturistici,  161. 

Keach  (B.),  Key  to  Scripture  Metaphors,  99. 

Keale  (W.),  On  the  109lh  Psalm,  120. 

Keeling  (B.),  On  Saint  Paul's  Wish,  136. 

Keilii  (C.  A.  T.),  Elemenla  Hermeneutices  Novi  Testamenti,  98. 

Opuscula  Academica,  149. 

Keith  (A.),  Evidence  from  Prophecy,  200. 

Signs  of  the  Times,  200. 

Kennedy  (J.),  On  Mosaic  Records  of  Creation,  143. 
Kennicott  (Dr.),  Remarks  on  the  Old  Testament,  149. 

Biblia  Ilebraica,  78. 

' —  On  the  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testament,  73. 

Diss.  Generalis,  73. 

Diss,  on  Tree  of  Life,  &c.,  116. 

Ker  (J.),  Cant.  Sal.  Paraphrasis,  121. 
Kerkherdere  (G.),  Prodromus  Danielicus,  124. 
Kelt  (11.),  On  Prophecy,  100. 

Keuchenii  (P.),  Annotata  in  Nov.  Test.,  149. 
Keijworth  (T.),  and  Jones  (D.),  Principia  Hebraica,  89. 

— ^ Analytical  Part  of  Princip.  Hebr.,  89. 

Pocket  Expositor  of  New  Test.,  131. 

Khassee  Version  of  Gospels,  51. 

Kidder  (Bp.  R.),  Comment,  on  Pentateuch,  115. 

Kilburn  (VV.),  Dangerous  Errors  in  Bibles,  84. 

Kimchi  (Rabbi),  Commentaries  of,  102,  103. 

King  (Bp.  J.),  Lectures  on  Jonas,  143. 

King  (E.),  Morsels  of  Criticism,  149. 

King  (Mrs.),  Female  Script.  Characters,  165. 

Kijding  (Tho.),  Codex  Bezae,  14. 

Kireheri  (Conradi),  Concordantia;  Veteris  Testamenti,  153 

Kisleinaker  (J.  H.),  Canticum  Canticorum  illustratura,  122. 

Klemm  (J.  C),  Critica  Sacra  Nov.  Test.,  78. 

Klinckhardt{C.  G.),  in  Luc.  XVI.  19—31.,  132. 

Kliiit  (A.),  Explicatio  Danielis,  124. 

Knappii  (G.  C),  Scripta  varia,  149. 

Knight  (J.),  On  the  Parables  and  Miracles,  146. 

Kniltel  (F.  A.),  Ulphilce  Fragmeuta,  28. 

On  1  John  V.  7.,  82. 

KnoUii  (J.),  Vocabularium  Nov.  Test.,  92. 

Koegler  (J.),  De  Bibliis  Judieorum  Sinensium,  73. 

Koehleri  (J.  B.),  Ohservationes  in  Nov.  Test.,  149. 

Koesler  (F.  B.),  Meletematii  ad  Zechariam,  126. 

Kqfod  (B.  P.),  Chabacuci  Vaticinium,  126. 

Koolhaas  (\V.),  Ohservationes  in  V^et.  Test.,  149. 

Koppe  (G.  B.),  Annotaiiones  ad  Novum  Teslamentum,  127,  128. 

Krafftii  (J.  G.),  Ohservationes  Sacne,  149. 

Krause  (F.  A.G.),  Not®  in  1  Cor.,  137. 

Krebsii  (J.  T.),  Obs.  in  Nov.  Test.,  103. 

De  Usu  Rom.  Hist,  in  Nov.  Test.,  149. 


173 


Kiirhler  (G.  C),  De  Simplicitate  Script.  Sacr.,  149. 

De  Anno  Pauli  Conversionis,  13-1. 

Kiihnii  CA.  F.),  Spicilegiurn  Obscrvationum  e  Philone,  103. 

Kitiniiti  (C.  F.),  Hoseas  Illusiratus,  126. 

Ohservationes  ad  Nov.  Test,  ex  Libris  Apocryphis,  103.  149 
PericojME  Evangelicte,  et  Comment,  in  Libros  Nov.  Test 


Historicos,  131. 

Comm.  in  Ep.  ad  Hebrseos,  139. 

Comment.  Theologies,  147. 


h'ullner  ((^  G.),  llypomncmata  in  Novum  Testamentum,  127.  149. 
Kjfpe  (G.  D.),  Ohservationes  in  Nov.  Test.,  149. 


La  Crozf  (M.  v.).  Lexicon  jf^gyptico-Latinum,  96. 

Jai  llarpe  (H.  L.),  E.ssai  sur  I'Epitre  aux  Hcbreux,  1.39. 

iMing  (11.),  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  93 

I/ikemaeheri  (J.  G.),  Ohservationes  Philologicce,  149. 

L'Alouetle  (F.  P.),  Hierolexicon,  98. 

Ijimpe  (F.  A.),  Comment,  in  Evang.  Johannis,  133. 

Bibliotheca  Hist.  Theol.,  147. 

Dissertationes,  149. 


Ijimxj  (B.),  Apparatus  Biblicus,  70. 

De  Tabernaculo,  160. 

Concordia  Evangelistarum,  et  Commentarius,  59. 

iMngii  (C.  H.),  Ohservationes  Sacrce,  149. 
Langii  (J.),  Comment,  de  Vita  et  Epistolis  Pauli,  134. 
Hermeneutica  Sacra,  98. 


iMngii  (J.  M.),  Genealogia  Christi,  163. 

Jjunigan  (J.),  Institutiones  Biblica;,  73. 

Larduer  (Dr.),  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History,  68. 

Supplement  to  his  Credibility,  68. 

Works,  149,  150. 


lAitiu  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  Editions  of,  27,  28.  31,  32. 
Ldiirence  (Abp.),  On  Griesbach's  Classification  of  MSS.,  79. 

Book  of  Enoch,  66. 

Ascensio  Isaiw,  67. 

Ezra;  Liber,  67. 


Laurmann  (M.  T.),  Nota;  in  Epistolam  Jud»,  140. 
Pra;lectio  de  Apocalypsi  Joannea,  141. 


Lavington  (Bp.  G.),  Nature,  <fec.,  of  a  Type,  99. 
Liiwson  (G.),  Lectures  on  Hist  of  Josopti,  Ruth,  and  Esther,  143. 
-  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  143. 


Krumbholz  (C.  T.),  Opera  Subseciva,  149. 


Lectures  on  Miracles  and  Parables,  146. 
Lee  (Edw.),  Disc,  on  Books  of  Ezra,  69. 
Lee  (Sam.),  Sylloge  Librorum  Orientalium,  97. 

Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 

Prolegomena  in  Biblia  Polyglotta,  21 

Nov.  Test.  Syriace,  25. 

On  the  Study  of  Scripture,  98. 

Leichner  (E.),  De  Magis,  132. 
Leigh  (Edward),  Critica  Sacra,  92. 
Leighton  (Archbp.),  Comment,  on  1  Peter,  139. 
Le  Long  (J.),  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  5. 
Disc,  sur  les  Polygloties,  5. 


Lengerke  (C),  Comm.  de  Ephraemo  Syro,  83. 

Leo  (C),  Translation  of  Gesenius's  Hebrew  Lexicon,  90. 

Leonis  Judce,  Biblia  Latina,  31. 

German-Swiss  Bible,  44. 


Leopold  (E.  F.),  Lexicon  Heb.  et  Chald.,  91. 
Lettish  Bible,  44. 

Leun  (J.  G.  F.),  Notae  ad  2  Cor.,  137. 
JLiensdenii  (J.),  Clavis  Hebraico  Vet.  Test.,  91. 

Philologus,  Ebraeus,  Ebraeo-Mixtus,  et  Ebrso-Graecus,  73. 

Do  Dialectis  Novi  Testamenti,  74. 

Joel  et  Obadiah,  cum  Paraphar.  Chald.,  103. 

et  Sranf  (C),  Nov.  Test.  Syriac,  25. 


Leiisdenii  (L.),  Libri  .\pocryphi,  63. 

Levavasseiir  (B.  M.  F.),  Livre  de  Job,  118. 

Levi  Ben  Gershom  (Rabbi),  Commentaries  of,  102. 

Jjevijssohn  (D.  H.),  De  Juda-orum  Conditione,  ICO. 

Lewis  (John),  History  of  English  Translations  of  the  Bible,  84. 

(Thomas),  Origines  Ilebrase,  157. 

Ijeijdfkker  (M.),  de  Re|iubl.  Hebr.,  157. 
Lidiiriistein  (.\.  A.  II.),  Paralipomena  Critica,  74. 
Lighifoot  (Dr.),  Hone  Hebraica>,  103. 

Observations  on  Genesis,  115. 

Chronicle  of  the  Old  Testament,  58. 

Harmony  of  the  New  Testament,  59. 

Works,  103. 

Temple  Service,  161. 


Lilienthal  (T.  C),  Comm.  Crit.  de  MS.  Hebr.,  77. 

Lindherg  (J.  C),  Chrestomathia  Hebraica,  88. 

Linde  (J.  G.),  Sapientia  Jesu  filii  Sirachi,  63. 

Lindsay  (H.),  Lectures  on  Hist.  Books,  142. 

Lipsius  (C.  H.  A.),  De  Modorum  I'su,  91. 

IJewellyn  (Thomas),  Account  of  Welsh  Versions  of  the  Bible,  85 

Locke  (John),  Common-place  Book  to  the  Bible,  155. 

Paraphrase.  &c.  on  the  Epistles,  134. 

Loeschcr  (V.  A.),  Breviarium  Theologiee  Exegeticae,  98. 
J^oesneri  (C  J.),  Ohservationes  in  Nov.  Test,  e  Philone,  103. 
Longchamps  (B.  de),  Fastis  Universels,  164. 
Juonghurst  (S.),  Common-place  Book  to  New  Test-,  150. 
Lothian  (W),  \^c\.  on  Ep.  to  Corinthians.  145 
Lower  Saxon  Bible,  43. 


174 

Lowman  (M.),  Paraphrase  on  ihe  Revelation,  140. 

Civil  Government  of  Hebrews,  160. 

Ritual  of  Hebrew  Worship,  100. 

Lowth  (Bishop),  Translation  of  Isaiah,  122,  123. 

■ De  Sacra  Poesi  Ilebncorum,  76. 

On  Heljrew  Poetry,  translated  by  Gregory  and  Stowe,  76. 

Luderi  (C),  Disscrlatio  de  Variis  Lectionibus,  78. 

Ludoiphi  (J.),  Grammatica  et  Le.ticon  Linguae  Amharicse  vel  .^thi- 

opicse,  97. 
Lvmsden  (M.),  Persian  Grammar,  97. 
Luther  (Martin),  Bible,  43. 

Commentaries,  107. 

On  the  Psalms  of  Degrees,  107. 

On  the  Efiisile  to  the  Galatians,  137. 

Lydii  (J.),  Syntagma  de  Re  Mililari,  160. 
iSye  (Ed.),  Versio  Golhica  Evangeliorum, 28. 
Lyons  (Israel),  Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 
Lysoiis  {S.),  Conjeciures  on  Job,  118. 
Lyra  (Nicolai  de),  Commentarii,  105. 


Macbeax  (A.),  Diet,  of  Bible,  15.5. 

Mac  Cnrkle  (\V.  and  others).  Collateral  Bible,  40 

Macculloch  (R.),  Lectures  on  Isaiali,  143. 

Mac  Ewen  (W.),  on  the  Types,  99. 

M'Kcnzic  (M.  J.),  Lectures  on  Parables  and  Miracles,  146. 

Macknight  (J.),  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  60.  131. 

Translation  of  the  Epistles,  134. 

Maclean  (4.),  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  138. 

M'Rae  (D.),  Revised  Translation  of  the  Bible,  112. 

Maestric/U  (G.  van),  Comm.  de  Canone,  68. 

Magee  (Archhp.  W.),  Discourses  on  Atonement,  149. 

Mahralta  Version  of  the  Bible,  49. 

Mali  (Aug.),  Ulphilffi  Part.  Inedit.,  28. 

Maii  (J.  H.),  Observationes  Sacrae,  150. 

Maimonides  (Rabbi  Moses),  Works,  1C2. 

More  Nebochim,  161. 

Maitland  (C.  D.),  Exposition  of  Romans  VIII.,  145. 

Major  (J.  R.),  Gospel  of  Luke,  with  Notes,  132. 

Malagassi  Version,  56. 

Maylay  Bible,  50. 

Malaijnlim  Bible,  50. 

Maldivian  Gospels,  50 

Maldonati  (J.),  Commentarii  in  IV  Evang.,  127. 

Maltese  Version  of  the  Bible,  48. 

MalvendcB  (Tho.),  Comm.  in  Script.,  31. 

Man  (Thoma.s),  Reconciler  of  Bible,  146 

Mangeri  (S.  H.),  Comm.  in  Hoseam,  126. 

Manks  Bible,  42. 

Mann  (N.),  Critical  Notes,  150. 

Mansford  (J.S.),  Scripture  Gazetteer,  158. 

Mant  (R.),  and  D'Oyley  (G.),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  113. 

Version  of  Psalms,  120. 

Manton  (Tho.),  Comment,  on  James,  139. 

(Tho.),  Comment  on  Jude,  140. 

On  Psalm  CXIX.,  143. 

Marheck  (John),  Concordance,  153. 
Marchant  (J.),  Exposit.  of  Old  Test.,  115. 

• Exposit.  of  New  Test.,  128. 

Marckii  (J.),  Comm.  in  Pentateuch,  115. 
Comm.  in  Cant.  Schelomonis,  121. 

— — ^  Commentarius  in  Prophetas  Minores,  125. 
Margraaf  (G.  S.),  Observationes  SacriB,  160. 
Mariana  (J.),  Scholia  in  V.  et  N.  Test.,  106. 
Marini  (M.),  Comm.  in  Psalmos,  118. 
Marks  (R.),  Devotional  Testament,  130. 
Marlorati  (A.),  N.  T.  Expositio,  127. 
Marsh  (Bp.),  Lectures  in  Divinity,  5. 

Translation  of  Michaelis,  71. 

Hist,  of  Transl.  of  Bible,  84. 

Lectures  on  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of  the  Bible,  5. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Letters  to  Travis,  81. 

Marsh  (W.),  On  the  Pentateuch,  143. 
Morlianay  (J.)  Traite  du  Canon,  68. 

sur  la  Version  Italique  de  S.  Matthieu,  83. 

Martin  (David),  La  Sainte  Bible,  108. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 

Diss,  on  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Examination  of  Emiyn,  81. 

Genuineness  of  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Masch  (A.  G.),  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  5. 
Masclef  (F.),  Grammatica  Hebrrea,  88. 
Masins  (A.),  Joshua  iliustralus,  116. 
Massachusetts  Version.  57. 

Mather  (S.),  On  Types,  99. 

Matthai  Evangelinm,  a  Barrett,  16. 

Matthai  (C.  F.),  Codex  Boernerianus,  14. 

Matthew  (Tho.),  Byble,  34. 

MatthicB  (C),  Antilogiffi  Biblicaj,  146. 

Maarer  (J.  F.  I).),  Comment,  in  Vet.  Test.,  109. 

Maxioell  (A.),  Ancient  Principles  of  Philosophy,  116. 

Mayer  ^J.),  Comment,  on  the  Bible,  109. 

Mead  (Ric),  Medica  Sacra,  161. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Mcde  (J.),  Clavis  Apocalyptica,  and  translations  thereof,  140. 

Meijier  (A.  C),  De  Luca;  d^ioirioTta,  133. 
Meisner  (C.  P.),  De  No;jm  Paulino,  150. 
Meisner  (J.  H.),  Vet.  Test.  Clavis,  91. 
Mendham  (Jos.),  Clavis  Aposlolica,  135. 
Merceri  (J.),  Comment,  in  (Jenesin,  115. 

Comment,  in  Quinque  Vates  Priores,  103. 

Commentarii  in  Quinque  Minores  Prophetas,  125. 


Merrell  (S.),  Harmony  of  the  Kings  and  Prophets,  59. 

Merrick  (J.),  Annot.  on  the  Psalms,  119. 

Meuschenius  (J.  G.),  Novum  Testamentum  exTalmude  illustratura 

103. 
Mexican  and  Mixlecan  Version,  57. 
Michaelis  (C.  B.),  Tractatio  de  Var.  Lect.  Nov.  Test,  78. 
Syriasmus,  95. 


Michaelis  (J.  D.),  Curae  in  Vers.  Syriac.  Act.  Apost.,  25.  83. 

Spicilegium  Geographiae  Ilebrasorum,  157. 

Harmony  of  the  Resurrection,  62. 

Diss,  on  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  71. 

Comment,  on  the  Law  of  Moses,  160. 

Observat.  in  Jeromise  Vaticinia,  123,  124. 

Commentationes,  150. 

Epistolse  de  LXX.  Hebdomadibus  Danielis,  124. 

Grammatica  Chaldaica,  89. 

Grammatica  Syriaca,  95. 

(J.  G.),  Observationes  Sacra?,  150. 

Exercitationes,  150. 

(J.  H.  and  C.  B.),  Notaj  in  Hagiographa,  116,  117. 

Middledorpf  {H.),  CuraB  in  Jobum,  25.  118. 

Codex  Syriaco-Hexaplaris,  26. 


Middleton  (T.  F.),  On  the  Greek  Article,  92. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Mimpriss  (R.),  Harmony  of  Gospels,  61. 
Pictorial  Chart,  158. 


Mingarelli  (J.  A.),  .^Egyptiorum  Codicum  Reliquiae.     See  Part  L, 

105. 
Mischna,  102. 
Mohawk  Version,  57. 
Mohegan  Version,  57. 
Moldenhawer  (J.  H.  D.),  Introductio  in  Libros  Canonicos  Vet.  et  Nov. 

Foederis,  70. 
Molkenbuhr  (M.  E.),  Problema  Criticum,  74. 
Moncrieff  {i .),  on  Heb.  Vowel  Points,  85. 

Monsperger  (Jos.  Jul.),  Institutiones  Hermeneuticse  Vet.  Test.,  98. 
Montaldi  (J.),  Lexicon  Hebraicum,  89. 
Montani  (B.  A.),  Biblia  Latina,  31. 
Moraht  (A.),  De  Judoeorum  Christologia,  150. 
Mori  (S.  F.  N.),  Praelectiones  in  Lucse  Evangelium,  132. 

In  Evangelium  Joannis,  133. 

Versio,  &c.  Act.  Aposlolorum,  133. 

Praelect.  in  Epist.  ad  Romanos,  136. 

Acroases  in  Epist.  ad  Gal.  et  Ephes.,  137. 

Praelect.  in  Jacobi  et  Petri  Epist.,  139. 

Praelect.  in  tres  Joannis  Epist.,  139 

Acroases,  97. 

Dissertationes  Theologicse,  150. 

Morini  (J.),  Exercitationes,  Biblics,  74. 

Exercitationes  Ecclesiastic®,  74. 


Morini  (Steph.),  Oratio  Inauguralis,  94. 
Morison  (J.),  Exposition  of  Psalms,  143. 
Moser  (P.  U.),  Lexicon  Hebraicum,  90. 

Mosheim  (Dr.),  Commentaries  on  the  Affairs  of  Christians,  164. 
Moulinie  (C.  E.  F.),  Notice  sur  les  Livres  Apocryphes,  71. 
Moysey  (C.  A.),  Lectures  on  John,  144. 
On  the  Romans,  144. 


Mudge  (T.),  Version  of  the  Psalms,  118. 

Miiecke  (S.  T.),  De  Origine  Versionis  LXX.  Interpretum,  Si 

Muir  (W.),  Disc,  on  Epist.  of  Jude,  145. 

Muis  (S.  de),  Assertio  Veritatis  Hebr.,  74. 

Mutter  (J.),  Hebr.  Ling.  Elementa,  88. 

Munsteri  (Sol.),  Biblia  Latina,  31. 

Munter  (Frid.),  De  Indole  Vers.  N.  T.  Sahidicffi,  26.  83. 

Fragmenta  Versionis  Ante-Hieronymianae,  27. 

Nolitia  Codicis  Evang.  Johannis,  77. 

Symbolae  ad  Interpretat.  Joannis,  133. 

Miscell.  Hafniensia,  150. 


Munthii  (C.  F.),  Observationes  Philologicae,  150. 
Muntinghe  (H.)  Sylloge  Opusculorum,  150. 
Expositio  Critices  Vet.  Feed.,  74. 


Murray  (R.),  Introd.  to  Apocalypse,  142. 

Museum  Helveticum,  147. 

Historico-Theologicum,  146. 


Nares  (Robert),  Veracity  of  the  Evangelists,  74. 
On  Prophecy,  101. 


Nary  (C),  New  Testament,  42. 

Neale  (James),  Hosea,  126. 

Negro-English  Version,  57. 

Newcome  (Archbp.),  Version  of  Ezekiel,  124. 

Version  of  Minor  Prophets,  125. 

Translation  of  the  New  Testament,  129. 

History  of  English  Biblical  Translations,  84. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Newcome  (Archbp.),  Greek  Hnrmony  ni  tlio  Gospelti,  CO. 

EiiglJHh  Harmony,  GO. 

Neiuman  (S.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  87. 

Newlon  (B|).),  On  Prophecy,  100. 

Newton  (Sir  I.),  Observations  on  Daniel,  &c.,  124. 

Two  Letters  to  Le  Clerc,  80,  81. 

New'oti  (J.  VV.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  88. 
Niclwlson  (Bp.),  David's  Harp,  117. 
Nicolai  (Jo.),  De  Subslratione  Veslium,  IGl. 
Memeyeri  (A.  H.),  De  Evangelisiarum  Diusensione,  &c.,  150 
Noble  (J.),  Itudimenis  ol"  Hebrew,  8'J. 
Nixlier  (C),  Bibliothcquc  Sacree,  C. 
Noesstlli  (J.),  OpiiHfula,  150. 

Nolan  (F.),  liKiuirv  into  the  Integrity  of  the  Greek  Vulgate,  and 
Siip|>lenieii(,  /4. 

Oil  1  John  V.  7.,  81. 

Hebrew  Grammar,  89. 

Chaldee  Grammar,  89. 

Syriac  Grammar,  1)5. 

Noldii  (Chr.),  Concordantiie    Particularum   Ebneo-Chaldaicarum, 
153. 

Hist.  Idiimsa,  1G4. 

Nonni,  Metaphrasis  Evang.  Johannei,  104. 
Norris  (J.),  Disc,  on  Beatitudes,  145. 
Nourse  (J.),  New  Test,  translated,  130. 
Novum  Testamentum  GR^ctJM. 

Edilionum  Synopsis,  9. 

Era.smi,  9,  10. 

Cumpluli,  10. 

Coliiiaji,  10. 

^  Slephani,  10. 

Bczffi,  10. 

Elzevirii,  10,  11. 

— r^—  Curcellsei,  11. 

Waltoni,  11. 

Felli,  11. 

Millii,  11. 

Wells,  II. 

Maestricht,  11,  12. 

Mace,  12. 

Bengelii,  12. 

Wetslenii,  12 

GoKlhagen,  12. 

Schoettgenii,  12. 

Bowyer,  12. 

Mallhasi,  13. 

Harwood,  13 

Woidii,  13. 

Alteri,  13. 

Birchii,  13,  14. 

Griesbachii,  14,  15. 

Griesbachii  et  Schulzn,  15. 

ex  Griesbachii  Recensioiie,  15. 

Knappii,  16. 

Reeves,  16. 

Schotti,  16. 

White,  16. 

Dakins,  16. 

Aitton,  16. 

Upsalte,  16. 

Titmanni,  16. 

Hardy,  127. 

Koppe,  127,  128. 

Manuale,  16. 

Vater,  16,  17. 

Boissonnade,  17 

Graiz,  16. 

Basiles,  17. 

Van  Ess,  17 

Lloydii,  17. 

Leulsch,  17. 

Pickering,  17. 

Greenfield,  17. 

Duncan,  17. 

Scholzii,  18. 

Lachmanni,  18. 

Valpy,  18. 

Burton,  18,  19. 

Bloomlield,  19. 

Jauniunn,  19. 

Goescheo,  19. 

Novi  Testamenti  Biblia  Triglolla,  21,  22. 

Evangeliorum  Synopsis,  GO. 

Novi  Testamenti  Versiones  Latince. 

Erasmi,  32. 

Bezffi,  32. 

laspis,  32. 

Reichardi,  32. 

Sebasliani,  32. 

Thalemanni,  32. 

Noi/es  (G.  R.),  Version  of  Job,  118. 

of  the  Psalms,  120. 

of  the  Prophets,  122. 

Nugce  Hebraicae,  86. 

Vol.  II.— Atp.  4  P 


175 


OnsERVATioNES  Philologicw,  1,58. 

Ockleii  (Sirn.),  Introd.  ad  Ling.  Orientales,  94. 

Oecumenii  Commentaria,  1U5. 

Oeder  (G.  L.),  Observationes  Sacra?,  150. 

Olearii  (G.),  Observat.  od  Malthamm,  132. 

Oliver  (P.),  Scripture  Lexicon,  155. 

Ollivant  (A.),  Analysis  ol  the  Hist,  of  Joseph,  86. 

Onkeli  vel  Onkelosi  Paraphrasis  ('haldaica,  22. 

Oriental   Verfiong,  .Specimens  of,  52 — 55. 

Orifrenis  llnupla,  a  Moullaucon,  25. 

a  Bahnli,  25. 

Daniel  ex  Tetrapiis  Origenis,  25. 

Comment,  iti  Scripturas,  104. 

Orinsa  Version  of  the  Bible,  49. 
Orme  (VV.),  Bibliotheca  Bil)lica,  6. 

On  the  Controversy  resnocting  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 

Orton  (Job),  Exi^jsiiion  of  Old  Test.,  115. 
Osiandri  (Andrcffi),  Harmoniw  Evangelica;,  59. 

7^ —  ^"iCo^'^'  ^™''*'  <"  Disputatio  de  Vanis  Lectionibus  Nov 

Test.,  /8. 
Ostervald  (M.),  La  Sainte  Bible,  108 
Olli  (J.  B.),  Spicilcgium,  103. 
Outlines  of  Persian  Grammar,  97. 
Overton  (John),  On  Book  of  Enoch,  69. 

Chronology  of  Apocalyji.'^c,  111. 

Owen  (Dr.  Henry),  Modes  of  (iuoUilion,  77. 

Present  State  ol'the  Scptuugint  Version,  83. 

Brief  Account  of  the  Septuagint,  83. 

Critica  Sacra,  74. 

Collatio  Codicis  Cottoniani,  79. 

Owen  (Dr.  John),  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  138. 

On  Psalm  CXXX.,  143. 

Oxlee  (J.),  Letters  to  Nolan,  81. 
Letters  to  Bp.  Burgess,  82. 


Paonini  (S.),  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test  Lat.,  31. 

PalcBorpmaica,  74,  75. 

Palairet  (E.),  Observationes  Philologico-chticas  in  Nov.  Test.,  150. 

Palestine,  Historical  Map  of,  1.58. 

Palei)  (W.),  Horn;  PauliniB,  68. 

Pal/reij  (J.  G.),  New  Test,  conformed  to  Griesbach's  Gr.  Text    15 

Palmer  (R.),  Map  of  Palestine,  158. 

P(ippel/)(ium  (G.  G.),  De  Cod.  Ravian.,  77. 

Pappelbanm  (G.  T.),  De  Cod.  MSS.  Berolin.,  78. 

Pareau  (J.  H.),  Threni  Jeremia;,  124. 

—  Antiquitas  Hebraica,  156. 

'—  Inst.  Interp.  Vet.  Test.,  98. 

Do  Mythica  Interpr.,  98. 

Comment,  de  Jobi  Libro,  117. 

Comm.  in  1  Cor.  XIII.,  13' 


Parish  (Elijah),  Sacred  Geography,  157,  158. 
Park  (J.  R.),  Exposition  of  the  Apocalypse,  141. 

Controversy  with  a  Jewish  Rabbi,  126. 

Parker  (Abp.  Matthew),  Anglo-Saxon  Gospels,  29. 
Holio  Bible,  36. 


lark/iurst  (Rev.  John),  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Grammar,  88,  89. 

Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon,  91. 

Greek  Grammar  to  New  Test.,  91. 

— —  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament.  93. 

Parry  (R.),  Harmony  of  Gospels,  Gl. 

Parry  (T),  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  145. 

Partridge  (S.),  On  the  109th  Psalm,  120. 

Passages  cited  from  the  Old  Testament,  77. 

Fastoret  (Conte  de).  Legislation  des  Hebreux,  160. 

Patrick  (Bishop),  Lovvth,  &c.  Commentary  on  the  Bible   110 

Patton  (VV.),  Village  Testament,  131. 

Paul  (St.),  Ep.  to  Romans,  6ic.,  Paraphrase  on,  134. 

Pauli,  Epistolae  XIII  a  Mattha;i,  14. 

Paulas  (II.  E.  G.),  Specimina  Vers.  Arab.,  26. 

Paxton  (G.),  Illustrations  of  Scripture,  162. 

Pearce  (Bishop),  Commentary  on  the  Four  Evangelisia,  &c.,  131. 

Pearson  (E.),  On  Prophecy,  101. 

Pearson  (Bp.  J.),  Opera  Chronologica,  163. 

Annals  of  St.  Paul,  163. 

Lectiones  in  Act.  Apost.,  133. 

Peers  (John),  On  Typical  Instruction,  99. 
Pelt  (L.),  In  Epist.  ad  Tiiess..  138. 

Penn  (Gr.),  On  Mineral  and  Mosaic  Geologies,  159 
Penrose  (J.),  Lectures  on  Matthew,  144. 
Pf.ntateuchus  Uebrao-Samaritanus,  9. 
Percy  (Bp.  Tho.),  Translation  of  Sol.  Song,  122. 

Key  to  the  New  Test.,  72. 

Persian  Grammar,  Outlines  of  97. 

Version  (Modern),  of  the  Bible,  48.  49. 


Persic  Version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  26. 

Peters  (C),  Dissertation  on  Job,  117. 

Petit  (Peter),  Hebrew  Guide,  88. 

Pettiffrew  (T.  J.),  Bibliotheca  Sussexiana,  6. 

P/aJii  (C.  M.),  Dissertatio  de  Lectioaibus  Nov.  Test,  78. 

P/eifferi  (Aug.),  Critica  Sacra,  75. 

Ilermeneuiica  Sacra,  98. 

Pnelecliones  in  Juiiam,  126. 


176 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Pfeifcri  (Aug.),  Opera  Omnia,  100. 

rfelfferi  (J.  E.),  Iii.slitutiones  Ilcrmeneuticse  SacrsB,  98. 

Pjlarheri  (M.  P.),  Analysis  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.,  156. 

Fliariz  (J.),  On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

rhtlalet/ics.  Translation  of  certain  Epistles  by,  120. 

I'hiUmis  (VV.  T.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  87. 

Phillips  (J.),  On  the  Episile  to  the  Thessalonians,  138. 

Philonis  Jutlcei  Opera,  101,  102. 

PhildxeniaiiStjriac  Version,  26. 

Pick  (A.),  Translation  of  the  Minor  Prophets,  125. 

Picqnifiny  (B.  de),  E.xplitation  des  Epitres,  134. 

Pierce  (,)!),  Paraphr.  on  Colossians,  &c.,  134. 

Pilkiiigtou  (Matthew),  Evangelical  History,  60. 

^ —  Remarks  on  Scripture,  150. 

Pilkiiiglon  (James),  On  Haggai,  126. 

Pigcaior  (J.),  Svvis:i  Bible,  44. 

Pitman  (J.  R.),  Lectures  on  John,  144. 

Planck  (H.),  Vera  Natura  Nov.  Test.,  &c.,  91. 

Platl  (T.  P.),  Catalogue  of  Eihiopic  Biblical  MSS.,  78. 

Evangelia  .^thiopice,  27. 

On  Literal  Interp.  of  Scripture,  98. 

Plaits  (John),  Self-interpreting  Test.,  40. 
Phimpire  (J.),  Comment,  on  Bible,  142. 

PlUschke  (J.  T.),  De  Radicum  Linguae  Hebraicoe  Natura,  87. 
Pococke  (Dr.),  Comment,  on  Joel,  &c.,  125. 
Puli  (Matth;Bi),  Synopsis  Cril.  Sacr.,  108. 
Polish  B;ble,  46. 

Poljlglotts.     See  Biblia  Polyglotta. 
Pomeranian  Bible,  43. 

Ponlasii  (Joannis),  Sacra  Soriptura  ubique  sibi  constans,  146. 
Poole  (M.),  Annolalions  on  Bible,  110. 
Popltam  (E.),  Illustrations  of  the  Pentateuch,  150. 
Pores  (J.  C),  Comm.  in  Matlhajum,  132. 
Porschberger  (C),  Theocritus  Scripturam  illustrans,  150. 
Porson  (R.),  Letters'  to  Travis,  81. 
Porleus  (Bp.),  Lect.  on  St.  Matthew,  144. 
Portuguese  Versions  of  the  Bible,  47. 
Polken  (J.),  Psalmi  ^thiopice,  27. 
Pott  (D.  J.),  Sylloge  Commentationum,  147. 

Pradi  (H.),  et  Villalpandi,  (J.  B.),  Explanationes  in  Ezechielem,  124. 
Prado  (R.  de),  et  aliorum  Observationes  ad  Nov.  Test.,  150. 
Priccei  (J.),  Comment,  in  Nov.  Test.,  127. 

Prideaux  (Dr.\  Connection  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  164. 
Priestley  (Dr.  Jos.),  Greek  and  English  Harmony  of  the  Evange- 
lists, 60. 

Notes  on  the  Scriptures,  112,  113. 

Primatt  (W.),  Diss,  on  2  Pet.  i.,  139. 

Prilii  (G.),  Introductio  ad  Lectionem  Novi  Testamenti,  71. 

Prunelle  (M.),  Propheties  d'Isaie,  123. 

Psalms,  Book  of,  with  Arguments,  118. 

Literal  Translation  of,  120. 

Practical  Illustration  of;  120. 

XCI.,  Sermons  on,  143. 

Pseudo-Jonallianis  Targum,  22. 

Purmann  (J.  J.),  Archseologia  Georgica,  161. 

Purver  (A.),  Translation  of  Bible,  111. 

Pushtoo  Version  of  Bible,  49. 

Pyle  (T.),  Paraphrase  on  Old  Test.,  115. 

Paraphrase  on  the  Acts,  &e.,  131. 

Paraphrase  on  Revelation,  140. 


Rainoldi  (J.),  Censura  Apocr.  Librorum,  69. 
Ramhachii  (J.  J.),  Notae  in  Hagiographa,  116,  117. 

Introductio  in  Epist.  ad  Romanos,  135. 

Institutiones  Ilermeneuticse  Sacne,  99 

De  Sensu  Mystico,  99. 

Ramhonnet  (J.  J.),  De  2  Johan.  Epist.,  140. 

Randolph  (Thomas),  The  Prophecies  cited  in  the  New  Testament, 

77.  _ 
Raphelii  (G.),  Annotationes  in  Scripturam  Sacram,  150. 
Ravii  (S.  E.),  Exercitationes  in  Hubigantii  Prolegomena,  70. 
Reay  (S.),  Narratio  de  Josepho,  88. 

Rechenbergii  (Adami),  De  Variantibus  Nov.  Test.  Lectionibus  78. 
Reeves  (John),  Editions  of  the  Bible,  107. 
Reformer's  Bible,  109. 

Reichardi  (II.  G.),  Novum  Teslamentum  Latine,  32. 
Reiche  (J.  G.),  De  Authentia  Ep.  ad  Thess.,  138. 
Reineccii  (Christ.),  Janua  Hebrceae  Linguoe,  87. 

Lexicon  Heb.Chakl.,  91. 

Reinecke  (C.  F.  C),  De  Christi  Indole,  150. 
Reinhardi  (F.  V.),  De  Versione  Alexandrina,  83. 

Opuscula  Academica,  1.50. 

Reiske  (J.  J.),  Conjecturae  in  Jobum,  &c.,  117.  121. 
Relandi  (II.),  Antiquit.  Hebr»orum,  157. 

Palsestina,  157. 

De  Spoliis  Templi  Hierosol.,  158. 

De  Nummis  Vet.  Hebr.,  160. 

Rfllbetg  (F.  W.),  De  Seriptis  Johannis,  150. 

Reynolds  (Bp.  Ed.),  On  Ecclesiastes,  121. 

Rhemish  Testament,  41. 

Richards  (G.),  On  Prophecy,  100. 

Richardson  (Bp.  J.),  Observations  on  the  Old  Testament,  114. 

Richardson  (John),  Arabic  Grammar,  95. 


Richardson  (John),  Persian,  Arabic,  and  English  Dictionary,  97. 
Richler  (J.  G.),  De  Critica  Scripturae  Interprete,  78. 
Ridley  (Glouc),  De  Syriacarum  Nov.  Test.  Versionum  Indole,  83. 
Riggs  (E.),  Manual  of  the  Chaldee  Language,  89. 
RUlet  (A.),  Sur  le  Texte  Grec  des  Evangelisles,  75. 
Rink  (G.  F.),  Lucubratio  critica,  80. 
Ritchie  (D.),  Lectures  on  Romans,  145. 
Rittershiisii  (C),  As  Fatidicus,  125. 
Roberts  (F.),  Clavis  Bibliorum,  70. 
Roberts  (J.),  Illustr.  of  Scripture,  162. 
Roberts  (P.),  Harmony  of  the  Epistles,  62.  135. 
Manual  of  Prophecy,  100. 


Roberts  (W.  H.),  Corrections  of  the  English  Version  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, 70.  150. 
Robertson  (J.),  Clavis  Pentateuchi,  91. 

Grammatica  Hebraea,  87. 

Translation  of  Bengel  on  the  Apocalypse,  140 


Robinson  (H.),  Acta  Apostolorum,  133,  134. 

Robinson  (Dr.),  Theological  and  Biblical  Dictionary,  155. 

Robinson  (Tho.),  Script.  Characters,  165. 

Robinson  (E.),  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  New  Testament,  93. 

Dictionaries  of  the  Bible,  154. 

Biblical  Repertory,  147. 


Rodd  (Thos.),  Defence  of  Moses,  116. 
Roediger  (JEsn.),  Synopsis  Evangeliorum,  61. 

De  Versione  Arabica,  83. 

Rolloci  (R.),  Comm.  in  Daniel,  124. 
Romaic  Version  of  the  Bible,  47. 
Romanese  Version  of  the  Bible,  47. 
Rondel  (L.  E.),  Bible,  avec  des  Notes,  108. 
Roorda  (T.),  Comm.  in  Jeremiam,  124. 
Grammatica  Hebnea,  88. 


Rosellini  (J.),  Fionda  di  David,  74, 

Rosenmiilleri  (E.  F.  C),  Vocabularium  Vet.  Test.  90. 

Institutiones  Linguae  Arabicse,  96. 

Scholia  in  Vetus  Testamentum,  106. 

Scholia  in  Compendium  dacta,  106,  107. 

Commentationes  Theologicae,  147. 

De  Versione  Pentateuchi  Persica,  83. 


Rosenmiilleri  (J.  G.),  Scholia  in  Novum  Testamentum,  107. 
Hist.  Interpretationes,  97. 


Rossi.     Vide  De  Rossi. 

Royaards  (H.  J.),  Disputatio  de  altera  Pauli  Epistola  ad  Corinthios, 

137. 
Rudelbach  (S.),  de  Typis,  99. 
Rudge  (J.),  Lectures  on  Genesis,  143. 
Ruhlii  (C),  Epist.  tres  Joannis,  139. 
Rus  (J.  R.),  Harmonia,  59,  60. 

Russell  (Alex.),  Connection  of  Sacred  and  Profane  History,  164. 
Russian  Versions  of  the  Bible,  46. 
Ryan  (R.),  Analysis  of  Ward's  Errata,  84. 


Sabatier  (P.),  Versiones  Antiquae  Latinse,  27. 
Sacy  (S.  de),  Grammaire  Arabe,  95,  96. 

Mem.  sur  les  Samaritains,  161. 

Sahidic  Version  of  the  Bible,  26. 
Salgues  (J.  B.),  Litterature  des  Hebreux,  74. 
Salthenii  (D.),  Hist.  Canonis,  69. 
Salvador  (J.),  Institutiones  de  Moyse,  160. 
Sampson  (G.  V.),  Translation  of  Ep.  to  the  Hebrews,  139. 
Sanscrit  Version  of  Bible,  49. 
Sanftl  (P.  C),  De  MS.  Evangeliorum,  78. 
Sarchi  (P.),  On  Hebrew  Poetry,  76. 
Grammaire  Hebraique, 


Sauberti  (J.),  Var.  Lect.  Evang.  Matthaei,  79. 
Saurin  (M.),  Discours  Historiques,  151. 
Discourses  translated,  151. 


Saxon  Version  oi'  the  Bible,  43. 
Scarlzlt  (N.),  New  Test,  translated,  129. 
Schaaf  (C-),  Opus  Aramaeum,  95. 
Lexicon  Syriacum,  95. 


Schachtii  (J.  H.),  Animadversiones  ad  fkenii  Antiq.  Hebr.,  157. 
Schafer  (J.  N.),  Institutiones  Scripturisticae,  75. 
Schaifenberg  (J.  G.),  Animadversiones  in  Fragmenta  Vers. Graec, 25 
Animadversiones  de  Versionibus  Grsecis,  83 


Scharpii  (Joannis),  Symphonia  Prophetarum,  146. 
Schefer  (G.),  De  Usu  Philonis,  98. 
Scheibel  (J.  E.),  Codex  Rehdigerianus,  27. 
Scheidii  (E.),  Lexicon  Hebraicum,  90. 
Dissert.  Philol.,  151. 


Scheidii  (J.),  Glossarium  Arab.  Lat.,  96. 
Diss,  ad  Esaiam,  123. 


SchelUng  (J.  F.),  Salomonis  quae  supersunt,  120. 

Animadversiones  in  Esaiam,  123. 

Descriplio  Codicis  Hebraici,  78. 


Scheuchzer  (J.),  Physica  Sacra,  158. 
Schimmelpenninck  (M.  A.),  Biblical  Fragments,  161. 
On  the  Psalms,  120, 


Schindleri  (V.),  Lexicon  Pentaglotton,  95. 
Schirmer  (A.  G.  F.),  Observat.  in  Esdram,  117. 
Schleiermacher  {¥.),  Essay  on  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  132. 

Pauli  Epist.  ad  Thess.,  138. 

Schleusner  (J.  F.),  Novum  Lexicon  in  N.  T.,  92. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  h\DEX. 


177 


Schleumer  (J.  F),  Lexici  Compend.  a  Jo.  Carey,  92. 

Lexici  ill  Iiilorp.  (.irmc.  Spicilej^iuiii,  94. 

Lcxifoii  ill  Vfiiis  TcHiiimeiiiuiii  Gra;cuin,  94. 

Opu.sculii  (Jrilica,  K3.  151. 

Comiiicnt.  in  I'roverb.  htulomnniR,  121. 

Srhmdltr  (J.  A.),  VtTNio  Fraiicicu  Mullhu;i,  28. 

Sc/tmidii  (C.  i'".),  Hisioriii  oi  ViiidiciUiu  Caiuiius  IS'ovi  Tcstnmenii,  69. 

Aimut.  ill  FpiHl.  ad  KoirianoK,  130. 

Srhmidii  (KraKini),  (-'oiiconlaiiliie  (inpcic  Novi  Tcstamenli,  153. 
Scltinidii  (L.  (i.),  I'aiili  I'lpislola  ad  Pliilcinuii,  137. 
Sclimidii  (Sulmstiani),  ('oriiiiioiilarii,  108. 

Bihiiu   Sarra,  32. 

Srhmiicker  Hi.),  Uovi'lalioii  pxplaiiiod,  111. 

Sr/iniirrer  (C.  F.),  Di.-Hscrl.  I'liilol.,  151. 

Srhddvr  (F.  J.),  Ilicro/oici  .S|>c(:iinina,  159. 

Hclioftgenii  (('.),  Horn;  llohr.  el  'ruimiid.  in  Nov.  Test.,  103. 

Lexicon  Gr.  Lat.  in  Noviua  're.slnmenlum,  92. 

Sclwlcfidd  (James),  An  improved  Translation  of  the  New  Test.,  84. 

Scholictt  (VV.)  do  l'aral)olis,  100. 

tScholIz  ((.'lirist.),  Grunnnaiica  .^gyptiaca  et  Lexicon  /Egyptiaco- 

Latiniim,  9(3. 
Scholz  (J.  M.  A.),  Curaj  Criticaj  in  Historiam  Tcxtus  Evangelio- 

runi,  78. 

■ Bil)lischo  Krilische  ReiBe,  78. 

Novum  Tesiamentum,  18. 

Scholani  (M.  II.),  Comm.  in  Kpist.  ad  Philippenses,  137. 
Schott  (11.  A.),  Lihri  Sacri  Vet.  Fepd.  Latinc  traiislali,  32.  109. 

Isagogo  ad  Novum  Foedus,  72. 

C'oininenl.  in  Kpistolas,  135. 

De  .\ullientia  Kvung.  Joannis,  133. 

Observationcs  in  1  Cor.  Xlll.,  137. 

Opuscula  Fxpgetica,  151. 

Novum  Tesiamentum,  16. 

Scholli  (A.),  Adagialia  Sacrn,  100. 
Schreckenhnrger  (M.),  Auriot.  ad  Ep.  Jacobi,  139. 
Schroeder  (N.  G.),  Insliiutiones  Linguaj  Ilebrsete,  87. 

Do  Vestitu  Mill.  Heb.,  123. 

Schidlens  (A.),  Commenlarius  in  Jobum,  117. 

Proverbia  Salomonia,  120. 

Institutionos  Lingua;  Ilebrsea;,  87. 

Animadversiones  ad  Vet.  Test.,  151. 

Schullhessii  (J.),  De  Charismalibus  Spiritus  Sancti,  151. 
Schultze  (A.  H.  A.),  De  Parabolis,  100. 

Schtttz  (D.),  De  Cod.  IV.  Evangeliorum,  78. 

Schulzii  (E.  A.),  Arcliaiologia  Hebraica,  157. 

Schulzii  (J.  C.  F.),  Scholia  in  Vet.  Test.,  106. 

■  Lexicon  Ilebraicura,  89. 

Scienlia  BMica,  40. 

Sclater  (W.),  Comment,  on  Malachi,  126. 

Sclavonic  Version  of  the  Bible,  29. 

ScoU  (D.),  Version  of  Matthew's  Gospel,  132. 

Scott  (T.),  Translation  of  Job,  117. 

Scott  (Tho.),  Collation  of  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament,  77. 

Commentary  on  the  Bible,  111,  112. 

Scripture  Atlas,  158. 

Scripture  Costume,  162. 

Scripture  Genealogy,  163. 

Scripture  Harmony,  154. 

Scripture  illustrated  by  Nat.  Science,  159. 

Scriptures,  on  the  Circulation  of,  29. 

Scutteti  (Abr.),  in  Epiai.  ad  Timotheum,  &c.,  138. 

Seager  (C.),  Hebrew  Lexicon,  90. 

Sebastiaid  (L.),  Novum  Test.,  32. 

Seelcii  (J.  H.),  Meditationes  Exegeticse,  151. 

Seemiller  (S.),  De  MS.  IV.  Evang.,  78. 

Hermeneutica  Sacra,  99. 

Scgaar  (C),  Observationcs  in  Lucam,  151. 
Seder  (G.  F.),  Sacred  Hermoneutics,  99. 
Selxas  (J.).  Hebrew  Grammar,  87. 
Sddeni  (Jo.),  De  Synedriis  Vet.  Ebr.,  160. 
De  Diis  Syris,  161. 

Scmleri  (J.  S.),  Paraphrasis  Evangelii  Joannis,  133. 

Paraphr.  Epist.  ad  Romanos,  135,  136. 

Apparatus  ad  Interpretationein  Veteris  Teslamenti.  99 

Apparatus  ad  Inlerpretationem  Novi  Testamenli   99. 

Vindicia;  Var.  Lect.  Nov.  Test.,  81. 

Septiingliil  Version,  editions  of     See  Biblia  GR.f.CA. 

Serbian  Bible,  47. 

Seriri/s  (Ant.),  Diet,  de  I'Ecriture,  155. 

Serrarii  (Nic.  et  aliorum),  Syntagma  de  Judipomm  Sectis,  161. 

Sei/ffarth  (F.  A.),  De  Episiola;  ad  Hebrwos  Indole,  139. 

Sfiarp  (Granville),  On  Hebrew  Syntax,  89. 

On  the  Greek  Article,  91. 

Shaw  (D.),  Philosophy  of  Judaism,  157. 
Shepherd  (R.),  Notes  on  the  Gospel  of  John,  133. 
Sherife  (Mrs.).  On  the  Psalms,  110. 

Sherlock  (Bp.  Tho.),  Use  of  Prophecy,  100. 

Scuckford  (Dr.),  Connection  of  Sacred  and  Profane  History,  164. 
Shuttletvorth  (Dr.  P.  N.),  Transl.  of  Apostolical  Epistles,  135. 
Sigonii  (C),  Republica  Ilebrasorum,  157. 
Simcoe  (H.  A.),  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  &c.,  41. 
Simeon  (C),  Hor®  Homileticae,  142. 

Simon  (Pere),  Histoire  Critique  du  Vieux  et  Nouveau  Testament,  75. 
'  Histoire  Critique  du  Teste  et  des  Versions  du  Nouveau 

Testament,  75. 


.Simon  (Pore),  Himoire  Critique  des  Principaux  Commeniaires  du 

Nouveau  Tcstamoni,  97. 

Oitiqiie  do  1  Jean  V.  7.,  80. 

Dissertations  sur  le  Texte  et  Versions  du  Nouveau  Teslu- 

moni,  75. 
Simonig  (i.).  Lexicon  Hcbraicum,  90. 

AnalyHis  Lectioniirii  MaHoreihicarum,  75. 


SimpHim  (D.),  Key  to  Prophecy,  100. 

Sisli  V.  Biblia  Latiiia,  28. 

Stiide  (J.),  Ex|j|aiiatiun  of  PHalnis,  120. 

AiiiioiationN  on  the  EpiHilct,  135. 

Slor;i  (J.),  Doctrine  of  the  Triniry,  81. 
Smidleij  (Ed.),  On  GeneHis,  115,  110. 
Smith  ("MisH  E.),  Translation  ol'  Job,  118. 
Smith  (Dr.  J.),  View  ol  the  ProjiheU),  122. 

Smith  (Mr.  J.  P.),  Scripture  Tcsiiiiioiiy  ol'  the  Messiah.  149. 
Smith  (Tho.),  Diss,  de  1  Jo   v.  7..  oi  Defensio  cjusdem,  81. 

In  2  Pet.  (Jommoniariu.M,  139. 

Smijlh  (A.),  Explanation  of  A()ocaly|>se,  142. 
Soriitiiin  Version  of  the  New  Test.,  129. 
SjHinhemii  (Fr.),  Geographia  Sacra,  157. 
Eccrlesiatitical  Annals,  104. 

llisioria  Jobi,  117. 


Spanish  Versions  of  llie  Bible,  45,  46. 
Speed  (John),  Script.  Genealogies,  163. 
Spelman  (Joh.),  Psalterium  Laiino-Saxoniciim,  29. 
Spenceri  (J.),  de  Legibus  llebneoriim,  100. 
Spilzner  (A.  B.),  Vindicia;  Punitoriim  Vocalium,  75.  85. 
Comment,  do  Parenthesi 


Spohn  (G.  G.),  Jeremias  Vales  illustratiis,  124. 
Spohn  (F.  A.  G.),  Do  Lingua  .^tgyptiaca,  96. 
Spurstowe  (W.),  On  the  Promises  of  Scripture,  KXJ 
Slack  (Dr.),  Lectures  on  the  Acts,  144. 

On  the  Romans,  144. 

(T.),  Medica  Sacra,  161. 

Slackhniise  (Thomas),  History  of  the  Bible,  164. 
SindLer  (J.  E.),  Lexicon  Heb.  Lai.,  91. 
Slahelin  (J.  J.),  In  Gen.  XLIX..  116. 
Stange  (J.  F.),  Anticriiica  in  Psalmos.  119. 
Stanhope  (G.),  On  the  Epistles  and  Gospels,  145 
Starrkii  (J.  F.),  Comm.  in  Ezechielem,  124. 
Stark  (J.  A.),  Davidis  Carminum  Libri  Quinque,  119. 
Starling  (T.),  Map  of  Palestine,  158. 
Stchclin  (Peter),  Traditions  of  Jews,  161. 
Stein  (C.  G.),  Authcntia  Evang.  Joannis,  132. 
Stephani  (Henrici)  Concordantite  Novi  Testamenli,  153. 
(Roberti),  Novum  Testaraentum,  10. 


Stevens  (Mrs.),  Devotional  Comments,  114. 
Stevenson  (R.),  Scripture  Portraits,  165. 
Stickel  (J.  G.,)  Comm.  in  Job.  XIX.,  118. 
Interpretatio  Hebacuci,  126. 


Stock  (Bishop),  Translation  of  Job,  117. 

Translation  of  Isaiah,  123. 

Slock  (R),  Comment,  on  Malachi,  126. 
Stockii  (C.),  Clavis  Lingua;  Sanctte  Veteris  Testamenli,  89. 
Stokes  (George),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  114. 
Stokes  (D.),  On  the  Minor  Prophets,  125. 
Slonard  (J.),  Diss,  on  Seventy  Weeks,  125. 
Comm.  on  Zechariah,  126. 


Storr  (G.  C),  Observationcs  ad  Ling.  Hebr.,  87. 

Interpr.  Epistolarum  Pauli,  135. 

De  Caiholicis  Epistolis,  139. 

Dissertaiiones  ad  Nov.  Test.,  151. 

Opuscula  Academica,  151. 

Stosch  (E.  n.  D.),  De  Canone  Novi  Testamenti,  09. 
Stosch  (F.),  De  Epistolis  Aposiolorum,  69. 

De  Canone  Novi  Testamenli,  09. 

Archipologia  Nov.  Test.,  158. 

Dissert,  de  Septem  Astite  Ecclesiis,  158. 


76. 


Stowe  (C.  E.),  Translation  of  Lowlh  on  Hebrew  Poelry, 
Siraho,  DT  Sirabus  (Walafr.),  Glossa  Ordinariu,  105. 
Slreal  (Win.),  Dividing  of  the  HooH;  140. 
Street  (S.),  Version  of  Psalms,  119. 
Sircsonis  (C),  Comm.  in  Act.  Apost.,  133. 

Strigiiii  (Victorini),  Argumenta  et  Scholia  in  XII  Minores  Prophe- 
tas,  125. 

'XvofivniinTa  in  Nov.  Test.,  127. 


Sironck  (C.  W.),  De  Doctrina  Johannis,  132. 

Slritlt  (Joseph),  Common-place  Book  lo  the  Bible,  156. 

Stuart  (Moses),  Hebrew  Grammor,  86. 

Heb.  Chrestomaihy  and  Course  of  Hebrew  Study,  86. 

Comment,  on  Ep.  to  Romans,  136. 

Comment,  on  En.  to  Hebrews,  138.  139. 

Dissertations  on  the   best  Mode  of  studying  the  Original 


Languages  of  the  Bible,  85. 

Elements  of  Interpretation,  98. 


Stuck  (M.  C.  J.),  Hoseas  Propheta,  126. 
Suicrri  (J.  C),  Thesaurus  Ecclesiasticus,  155. 
Suid<B  et  Phavorini  Glossae  Sacrae,  ab  Emesti.  92. 
Suviner  (Bp.  J.),  On  Apostolical  Preaching,  135. 

Lectures  on  Matthew,  Mark,  ana  Luke,  144 


Surenhusii  (Guil.),  Bi/?Xof  KaraXAajfif,  76. 
Michna,  102. 


Surigar  (F.  G.  N.).  In  Matt  XXII.  37—40.,  132. 
Siisoo  Version,  56. 


178 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Svanhorg  (A.),  Joel,  Latine  versus,  126. 

Swedish  Bible,  44. 

Sykes  (Dr.),  Paraphrase,  &c.  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  138. 

Symonds  (Dr.),  Observations  on  revising  the  English  Version  of  the 

Four  Gospels  and  Epistles,  84. 
Synge  ( — ),  Introd.  to  Hebrew  Language,  87. 
Syriac  Versions  of  the  Bible,  25,  26. 


Tahitan  Version  of  the  Bible,  51,  52. 

Talbot  (M.),  Analysis  of  the  Bible,  155. 

Talmud,  102. 

Tarmtl  Version  of  the  Bible,  50. 

Tappan  (D.),  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities,  157. 

Targums,  22. 

TarnovU  (J.),  Comm.  in  Prophetas  Minores,  125. 

Comm.  in  JVIicham,  126. 

. Comm.  ad  Ephesios,  137. 

Tatar  Versions  of  the  Bible,  51. 

Tattam  (H.),  Egyptian  Grammar,  96. 

Taverncr  (R.),  Bible,  35. 

Tavos  (Jae.),  Pentaleuchus,  Persice,  26. 

Taylor  (C),  Edition  of  Calmet's  Diet.,  154. 

Taylor  (Bp.  Jer.),  Life  of  Christ,  165. 

Taylor  (John),  Hebr.  Concordance,  152,  153. 

Paraphr.  on  Epist.  to  Romans,  135. 

Taylor  (Tho.),  On  the  Types,  99. 

— - —  Commentary  on  Titus,  138. 

Taylor  (W.  C),  Greek-English  Lexicon  to  N.  T.,  93. 

Telinga  Version  of  the  Bible,  50. 

Tempe  Helvetica,  147. 

Terrot  (C.  H.),  On  Epistle  to  Romans,  136. 

Testament  (New),  Improved  Version  of,  129. 

. Explanatory  Comments  on,  143. 

Testamentum  Novum.     Vide  Novum  Testamentum. 
Testamentum  Vetus.     Vide  Biblia  Hebraica  et  GrjECA. 
Testamenti  Veteris  Versiones  Latins  : — 

Paginini,  31.      , 

Montani,  31. 

Malvendee,  31. 

Cajetani,  31. 

Houbigantii,  31. 

Munsteri,  31. 

Leonis  Judis,  31. 

Castalionis,  31. 

Junii  et  Tremellii,  31,  32. 

Sehmidtii,  32. 

Dathii,  32. 

Schotti  et  W^inzeri,  32. 

Vulgatffi  Versionis,  Editiones  variae,  27,  28. 
Teuheri  (C.  A.),  De  Utilitate  Ling.  Anglic,  85. 
Thaddai  (J.),  Conciliatorium  Biblicum,  14(5. 
Thalemanni  (C.  G.),   Versio  IV  Evangeliorum  et  Act.   Apostolo- 

rum,  32. 
Tlieile  (C.  G.  G.),  Commentarius  in  Epist.  Jacobi,  139. 
Theiner  (G.  A.),  Descriptio  Codicis  Pentateuchi  Arabici,  78. 
Theodoreti  Commentarii,  104. 
Theophylacti  Commentarii,  105. 
Thilo  (J.  C),  Acta  S.  Thomae,  67. 

Codex  Apocryphus  N.  T.,  67. 

Tholuck  (F.  A.  G.),  Exposition  of  the  Ep.  to  the  Romans,  136. 
Thompson  (J.  S.),  Monotessaron,  61. 
Thompson  (H.),  Davidica,  143. 

Lectures  on  Acts,  144. 

Thomson  (Charles),  Translation  of  the  Bible,  113,  114. 

Synopsis  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  61. 

Thomson  (Robert),  Diatessaron,  61. 

Thomson  (W.),  New  Testament  translated,  130. 

Thomson  (W.),  and  Orme  (W.),  Hist,  of  Translation  of  Scriptures,  84. 

Thomson  (Mrs.),  Illustration  of  the  Psalms,  120. 

Thruston  (F.),  England  Safe  and  Triumphant,  141. 

Thuani  (J.  A.),  As  Fatidicus,  125. 

Thwaitcs  (Ed.),  Heptateuchus,  &c.  Anglo-Sax.,  29. 

Tigri  Version,  56. 

Tilloch  (A.),  Dissertations  on  the  Apocalypse,  141,  142. 

Tindal  (N.),  Dissertations,  69. 

Tindal  (W.),  Translations  of  the  Scriptures,  33,  34. 

Tittmanni  (C.),  Meletemata  Sacra  in  Evang.  Joannis,  133. 

—  Opuscula  Theologica,  151. 

. Novum  Testamentum,  16. 

Tittmanni  (J.  A.  H.),  De  Synonymis  Nov.  Test.,  92. 

—  Translated  by  Craig,  92. 

Todd  (H.  J.),  Vindication  of  Authorized  English  Version  of  the 

Bible,  84. 
Toepler  (T.  E.),  De  Versione  Alexandr.  Pentateuchi,  83. 
Toinardi  (Nicolai),  Harmonia,  59. 
Tolley  (J.  G.),  Paraphr.  on  1  Cor.,  137. 
Torshell  (Samuel),  Design  for  a  Harmony  of  the  Bible,  58. 
Townley  (James),  Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,  5. 

Literary  History  of  the  Bible,  5. 

Reasons  of  the  Laws  of  Moses,  160. 

Townsend  (George),  Harmony  of  the  Old  Testament,  58,  59. 

Harmony  of  the  New  Testament,  59 

Bible  in  chronological  Order,  59. 


Townsend  (J.),  On  the  Character  of  Moses,  115. 
Townson  (Dr.),  Discourse  on  the  Evangelical  History,  61,  62. 
Trapp  (J.),  Comment,  on  New  Test.,  129. 
Notes  on  the  Four  Gospels,  131. 


Travell  (T.),  Paraphr.  on  Psalms,  119. 

Travis  (G.),  Letters  to  Gibbon,  81. 

Triglandii  (J.),  Diatribe,  161. 

Trimmer  (Mrs.),  Help  to  the  Study  of  the  Bible,  113. 

Trommii  (Abr.),  Concordantise  Grcecse  Versionis  LXX,  150. 

Troslii  (Martini),  Lexicon  Syriacum,  95. 

Truth  of  Revelation  demonstrated,  152.  162. 

Turkish  Version  of  the  Bible,  47. 

Turner  (S.  H.),  Notes  on  Ep.  to  Romans,  136 

Turretini  (J.  A.),  De  Scripturse  Interpretatione,  99. 

Commentarius  in  Epist.  ad  Thessalonicenses,  138. 

Epist.  ad  Romanos  Expositio,  144. 


Turton  (Dr.),  Review  of  Bp.  Burgess  on  1  John  v.  7.,  81,  83. 

Vindication  of  Prof.  Porson,  82. 

Remarks  on  Evanson,  82. 

Text  of  English  Bible  considered,  84. 


Twopenny  (R.),  Dissert,  on  Old  Test.,  151. 

Tychsen  (O.  G.),  De  variis  Codicum  Hebraeorum  Generibus,  77. 


Ugolini  (B.),  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Sacrarum,  156. 
Uhlemann  (M.  F.),  Canticum  Canticorum,  122. 
Unger  (A.  F.),  De  Parabolarum  Natura,  100. 
Unterkircher  (C),  Hermeneutica  Biblica,  99. 
UphilcB  Versionis  Gothicse  Editiones  Varise,  128. 
Uri  (J.),  LXX  Hebdomadum  Danielis  Computatio,  124,  125. 
Ursini  (J.  H.),  Arboretum  Biblicum,  159. 

Usserii  (J.,  Armachensis  Archiepiseopi),  De  LXX  Interpretibus,  83 
Annales  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.,  163. 


Usterii  (L.),  Comment,  de  Genuin.  Joannis  Evangelio,  133. 


Valckenarii  (L.  C),  Selecta  e  Scholiis  in  Novum  Testamentum, 

128. 
VallcB  (Laur.),  Annot.  in  Nov.  Test ,  127. 
Valpy  (E.),  Novum  Testamentum,  128. 

Greek  Testament,  18.  128. 

Van-der-Boon-Mesch  (A.  L.),  Specimen  Hermeneulicura,  132. 
Van  Hengel  (W.  A.),  Annotata  in  Nov.  Test.,  148,  149. 
Van  Heyst  (D.),  Diss.  Theol.,  151. 

Vanmildert  (Bp.),  Principles  of  Scripture  Interpretation,  99. 
Vansittart  (Mr.),  Observations  on  the  Old  Testament,  162. 
Van  Til  (S.),  Malachias  Illustratus,  126. 

Opus  Analyticum,  156. 

De  Tabernaculo,  160. 


Van  Voorst  (J),  De  Usu  Verborum,  92. 
Vatabli  (F.),  Annot.  in  Psalmos,  119. 
Vater  (J.  S.),  Oracula  Amosi,  126. 

Novum  Testamentum,  16,  17.  128. 

Vavassoris  (F.),  Comment,  in  Jobum,  117. 

Velthusen  (J.  C),  Et  aliorum  Commentation es  Theologicee,  147. 

Venae  (Abbe),  Bible,  108,  109. 

Venema  (H.),  De  Methodo  Prophetira,  100 

Dissert,  in  Genesin,  116. 

Comment,  ad  Psalmos,  119. 

Commentarius  ad  Jeremiam,  123. 

Lectiones  ad  Ezechielem,  124. 

Dissert,  ad  Vaticinia  Danielis,  124. 

Comment,  ad  Zephan.,  126. 

Comment,  ad  Malachiam,  126. 


Verhoeven  (H.  P.  T.),  132. 

Vernede  (J.  S.),  Sermons  sur  Matt.  V. — VIL,  145. 

Verpoortenii  (J.),  Dissertationes,  151. 

Verschuirii  (J.  H.),  Opuscula,  151. 

Vialls  (E.),  Scripture  Weights,  160. 

Vig7iolles  (A.),  Chronologic  de  I'Histoire  Sainte,  163. 

Virginian  Indian  Version,  56. 

Vitringa  (C),  Commentarius  in  Jesaiam,  122. 

Typus  Doctrinse  Propheticse,  100. 

Anacrisis  Apocalypseos,  140. 

Observationes  Sacrae,  151. 

Dissertationes  Sacrae,  151. 

De  Synagoga,  160. 


Vogel  (G.  J.  L.),  De  Dialecto  Poetica  Vet.  Test.,  76. 

Comment,  in  Job.,  117. 

Von  Haven  (P.),  Comment,  in  Ep.  ad   Titum,  138. 
Vorstii  (J.),  De  Hebraismis  Novi  Testamenti,  75. 
De  Adagiis  Nov.  Test.,  100. 


Vorstman  (G.),  Comment,  in  Psal.  XVI.,  120. 
Vossius  (J.  G.),  Chronologia  Sacra,  163. 
Vrimoet  (E.  L.),  Observationes  Miscell.,  151. 
Vulgate  Latin  Version,  Editions  of,  27,  28. 
Vullers  (J.  A.),  Grammatica  Arabica,  96. 


Waehner  (A.  G.),  Antiquit.  Hebr.,  157. 
Wahl  (C.  A.),  Clavis  Philol.  Nov.  Test.,  93. 

Clavis  Minor,  93. 

Comment,  de  Particula  et  et  Prsepositione  ttt,  92. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Wait 


(D.  G.).  Jewish,  Oriental,  and  Classical  Antiquities,  162. 
•  Translation  of"  Hug's  Intnjd.  to  New  Test.,  71. 
Wake  (W.),  Version  of  tlic  i'salnis,  119. 
WakeficUl  (G.),  Translation  of  New  Test,  129. 

Silva  Critica,  151. 

Walmi  (B.),  Mov.  Test.  Libri  Hist.,  131. 
Walchii  (J.  G.),  Hist.  Keel.  Nov.  Test.,  1G4. 

Observalioiics  in  Nov.  Test.,  151. 

Hibliotliec.i  Tlieologica,  5. 

Walchii  (F.  (>.),  Calcnclurium  Palestina;,  159. 
Walchii  (J.  K.),  Coninientarius  in  Act.  A|)08t.,  134. 
Walker  (S.  V,.),  Inlroii.  to  Hebrew,  87. 
Wallachian  Bible,  47. 
Walter  (H.),  Letter  to  Bp.  Marsh,  84. 
Wallhvr  (\).),  Vinilicia;  Biblitie,  51. 
Waliheri  (^ii<•h.),  Haniioiiia  Biblica,  14G. 
Waltheri  ((.'.  T.),  Kllin.se.s  Ilebraica?,  87. 
Walloni  (Hriani),  Prolegomena,  75,70. 

Ihtrud.  ad  Lingiias  Orienlalos,  94. 

Oissert.  de  Linguis  Orientalibus,  94. 

Wanriich  (A.  J.),  Disquisitio  Cholene,  161. 

Warburlonian  J^ctiircs  on  Prophecy,  101. 

Ward  (Tho.),  Krrata  of  Protestant  Bible,  84. 

Warden  (J.),  System  of  Revealed  Religion,  155. 

Wardlaw  {II.),  Lect.  on  JOcclesiastcs,  143. 

Warnckros  (J.  1).),  De  Palestinu;  Fcrtilitate,  159. 

Warner  (Robert),  Chronological  History  of  Jesus  Christ,  61. 

Psalter,  120. 

Waseri  (C),  De  Numis  Ilebrteorum,  160. 
De  Mensuris  Hebncorum,  160. 


179 


Walerland  (Dr.  D.),  Scripture  Vindicated,  151. 

Walkius  John),  Scripture  Biography,  165. 

Wataon  (G.).  Genealogy  of  C:hrist,  163. 

Walson  (R.),  Kx|iosiiion  of  Mallliew  and  Mark,  132. 

Watson  (T.),  On  Kpisile  to  (.'olossians,  145. 

Weber  (M.),  Aulhentia  cap.  ult.  Evan.  Johannis,  133. 

Webster  (T.),  Edition  of  Reformer's  Bible,  109. 

Wcingart  (J.  F.),  Comment,  in  Epistolas  Pauli,  135 

'Welleri  (J.),  Annot.  in  Ep.  ad  Romanos,  135. 

Wells  (Dr.),  Sacred  Geography,  157. 

Help  for  Understanding  tho  Scripture,  110. 

Welsh  Version  of  the  Bible,  42. 

Wemyss  (T.),  Biblical  Gleanings,  151,  152. 

Wernsdorf  (G.),  Comment,  de  Lib.  Mace,  69. 

Wfdey  (J.),  Notes  on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  111. 

Wesley  (S.),  Dissert  in  Lib.  Jobi,  117. 

Wesselimrii  (P.),  De  Judaeorum  Archontibus,  160. 

West  (Gilbert),  On  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,  61. 

Westoti  (Steph.),  Conjectures  on  New  Test.,  128. 

Welham  (R),  New  Testament,  42. 

Wetstenii  (J.  J.),  Libelli  ad  Crisin  Novi  Testamenti,  78,  79. 

Prolegomena  ad  Novum  Testamentum,  76 

Novum  Testamentum,  12.  127- 

Wefsteyiii  (J.  R.),  De  Hist.  Susannte,  69. 

Wette  (G.  M.  L.),  et  Lucke  (F.),  Synopsis  Evangeliorum,  60. 
Whaiely  (Dr.  R.),  Essays  on  St.  Paul,  135. 
Whislon  (VV.),  Primitive  New  Test.,  128,  129. 
Wlutaker  (E.  W.),  Commentary  on  the  Revelation,  141. 
Whitby  (Dr.),  Paraphrase,  &e.  on  the  New  Testament,  129. 

Di.ssert.  de  Script.  Interpret.,  99. 

Examen  Variarum  Lectionum,  79,  80. 

White  (Jos.),  Nov.  Test.  Versio  Syriaca  Philoxeniana,  26. 

Synopsis  Criseos  GriesbachianiB,  79. 

Diatessaron,  60,  61. 

White  (S),  Comm.  on  Isaiah,  122. 

Whitley  (J.),  Scheme  of  Prophecy,  100,  101. 

Whittdker  (J.  W.),  Inquiry  into  the  Interpretation  of  the  Hebrew 

Scriptures,  84. 
Wickliffe  (John),  New  Testament,  32,  33. 
Widmanstadii  (Alb.),  Nov.  Test.  Syriace,  25. 
Wildii  (A.),  Meditat.  in  Nahum,  126. 
Wilken  (F.),  Institutiones  Linguoe  Persarum,  97. 
Wilkiiis  (Dav.),  Pentateuchus,  Coptice,  26 

Nov.  Test.  Copticum,  26. 


Wilkins  (G.),  Hist,  of  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,  158. 
Willan  (R.  &  M.),  United  Gospel,  61. 
Willett  (Andrew),  Comm.  on  Genesis,  115. 

On  Exodus,  116. 

On  Daniel,  124. 


Williiims  (John),  Concordance  to  the  Greek  Testament,  153. 
Williiims  (J   M.),  Tratislalion  of  Bp.  Pearson's  Aimul.  Taulin.,  163. 
Wdliums  (Tho.),  Cottage  Bible,  114. 

Translation  of  Solomon's  Song,  122. 

Private  Character  of  Christ,  165. 


Willis  (J.),  Translation  of  the  Acts,  133. 

Wilson  (Bp.  Tho.),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  111. 

Wilson  (C),  Element*  of  Hebrew  Grammar,  88. 

Wilson  (Caroline),  Gospel  of  the  Old  Test.,  99. 

Wilson  (Cha.),  B<x>ks  of  tho  Ayocryjiha,  63. 

Wilson  (John),  On  Scripture  Types,  99. 

Wilson  (Jos.),  Hone  Prophetica;,  124. 

Wilson  (J.  P.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  89. 

Wilson  (VV.),  Illustration  of  the  Now  Testament,  152. 

Wincklcri  (J.  D.),  Disquisitiones  Philologies,  1.52. 

Winer  ((i.  B.),  Epist.  ad  Galatas,  cum  notis,  137. 

Do  Onkeloso  ejuscjue  Paraphrasi  Chaldaica,  83. 

Oratio  de  Interpr.  N.  T.,  99. 

Grammatik  Neutest.  Idioms,  91. 

Greek  Gram,  of  New  Test.,  91. 


Wintle  (T.),  Version  of  Daniel,  124. 
Wiseman  (N.),  Horse  Syriacae,  83. 
Witsii  (H.),  Comm.  in  Epist.  Judoe,  140, 

Miscellanea  Sacra,  152. 

Meletemata,  152. 

yEgyptiaca,  152. 


Witt  (C.  de),  Di.ssert.  de  Proverb.  Salomon.,  121. 
Witty  (J.),  On  Hist,  of  Fall,  116. 
Woide  (Dr.),  Codex  Aloxandrinus,  13. 

Appendix  ad  Codicem  Alexandrinum,  25. 

Notilia  Codicis  Alexandrini,  77. 

Lexicon  et  Grammatica  yEgypt,  96. 

Wdfburgi  (M.  C),  Observationes  Sacrse,  152. 
Wolfii  (J.  C),  Bibliotheca  Ilebnca,  5. 

Curse  Philol.  in  Nov.  Test.,  127. 


Wood  (James),  Diet,  of  Bible,  155. 

Treatise  on  Types,  99. 

Wood  (Thos.),  Mosaic  Hist  illustrated,  116. 

Wood/all's  (G.)  elegant  and  correct  Editions  of  the  English  Bible. 

39,  40. 
Woodhouse  (J.  C),  Translation,  &c.  of  the  Apocalypse,  141. 
Annot.  on  Apocalypse,  141. 


Wordsworth  (Chr.),  On  Greek  Article,  91 
Worsley  (J.),  New  Test  translated,  129. 
Worlhington  (W.),  On  the  Fall,  116. 
On  the  Demoniacks,  152. 


WotUm  (Dr.),  Discourses  on  the  Traditions,  &c.  of  the  Pharisees, 
161. 

Wrangham  (Fr.),  Waltoni  Prolegomena,  cum  Notis,  &c.,  75,  76i 
Wright  (G.),  Ecclesiastical  Annals,  164. 
W^inne  (R.),  New  Test  with  Notes,  129. 
Wyssii  (Casp.),  Dialectologia  Sacrse,  76. 


Yardley  (E),  Genealogies  of  Christ,  163, 
Yeates  (T.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 

Syriac  Grammar,  95. 

Collation  of  an  Indian  Copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  79. 


Yonge  (J.),  Comnientary  on  the  Bible,  111. 


Zahn  (J.  C),  Ulphilas  Gothische  Bibel-Uebersetzung,  28. 
Zanciini  (A.),  Lexicon  Syriacum,  95. 
Zepperi  (W.),  Legum  Mosaic.  Explanatio,  160. 
Zornii  (P.),  Opuscula  Sacra,  152. 
Hist  Fisci  Judaici,  160. 


ZuMi  (N.  H.  T.),  De  Hymno  Maria;,  132. 


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